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THE
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
FIRST edit
ion, published in three volumes, 1768 — 1771.
SECOND ,
, ,, ten ,
1777— 1784.
THIRD ,
, „ eighteen ,
1788— 1797,
FOURTH ,
, „ twenty ,
, 1801 — 1810.
FIFTH
, „ twenty ,
, 1815— 1817.
SIXTH
, „ twenty ,
, 1823— 1824.
SEVENTH ,
, „ twenty-one ,
, 1830— 1842.
EIGHTH ,
, ., twenty-two ,
1853—1860.
NINTH ,
, „ twenty-five ,
1875— 1889.
TENTH ,
, ninth edition and eleven
supplementary volumes.
1902— 1003.
ELEVENTH
, published in twenty-nine volume
js, 1910 — 1911.
COPYRIGHT
in all countries subscribing to the
Bern Convention
by
THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS
of the
UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE
All rights reserved
THE
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
A
DICTIONARY
OF
ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL
INFORMATION
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME XII
GICHTEL to HARMONIUM
Cambridge, England:
at the University Press
New York, 35 West 32nd Street
1910
AE
5
£36
G99902
v.t2
Copy 2
Copyright, in the United States of America, 1910,
by
The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company
INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XII. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL
CONTRIBUTORS, 1 WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE
ARTICLES IN THE VOLUME SO SIGNED.
A. A. R.*
A. C. Se.
A. F. P.
A. Go.*
A. G. B.*
A. H.-S.
A. He.
A. H. S.
A. J. G.
■{'
Arthur Alcock Rambaut, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.
Radcliffe Observer, Oxford. Professoi of 'Astronomy in the University of Dublin -\ Grant, Robert.
and Royal Astronomer of Ireland, 1 892-1 897.
Albert Charles Seward, M.A., F.R.S. [
Professor of Botany in the University of Cambridge. Hon. Fellow of Emmanuel 1 Gynuiosperms.
College, Cambridge. President of the Yorkshire Naturalists' Union, 19 10. I
Albert Frederick Pollard, M.A., F.R.Hist.S. f
Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford. Professor of English History in the University J ft-fnj-i
of London. Assistant Editor of the Dictionary of National Biography, 1 803-1 901. ] urmaw -
Author of England under the Protector Somerset; Life of Thomas Cranmer; «c. . I
Rev. Alexander Gordon, M.A. fGrynaous, Simon;
Lecturer on Church History in the University of Manchester. I Haetzer.
Hon. Archibald Graeme Bell, M.Inst.CE. f
Director of Public Works and Inspector of Mines, Trinidad. Member of Executive i Guiana.
and Legislative Councils, Inst.C.E. I
Sir A. Houtum-Schindler, CLE. / Gflan; w^m^ttii,
General in the Persian Army. Author of Eastern Persian Irak, I
Arthur Hervey. f
Formerly Musical Critic to Morning Post and Vanity Fair. Author of Masters 1 Gounod.
of French Music; French Music in the XIX. Century. [
Rev. A. H. Sayce, D.D. / Grammar; Gyges.
See the biographical article, Sayce, A. H. \ w »" uu * r > «/*<»•
Rev. Alexander James Grieve, M.A., B.D. f
Professor of New Testament and Church History at the United Independent College, J Waggai | / . A flr /\
Bradford. Sometime Registrar of Madras University and Member of Mysore! n **»* 1 ^ n r a )•
Educational Service. I
Harmonium {in part).
A. J. H. Alfred James Hepkins.
Formerly Member of Council and Hon. Curator of Royal College of Music. Member
of Committee of the Inventions and Music Exhibition, 1885; of the Vienna
Exhibition, 1892 ; and of the Paris Exhibition, 1900. Author of Musical Instruments ;
A Description and History of the Pianoforte; 8cc.
A.L. Andrew Lang. JGurney, Edmund.
See the biographical article, Lang, Andrew. L .'
A.M.C. Agnes Mary Clerke. -[Halley Hansen.
See the biographical article, Clerke, A. M. I
Goatsucker; Godwit;
Golden-eye;
Goldfinch; Goose;
Gos-Hawk; Graokle;
Grebe; Greenfinch;
Greenshank; Grosbeak;
Grouse; Guacharo; Guan;
Guillemot; Guinea-Fowl;
Gull; Hammer-Kop.
A. Me. Alexander Nesbitt, F.S.A. f rlM _. «■ . " „ f
Author of the Introduction to A Descriptive Catalogue of the Glass Vessels in South J UJ T7 # Mt$tar y °J
Kensington Museum. [ Manufacture (m part).
A. S. C. Alan Summerly Cole, C.B. r
Assistant Secretary for Art, Board of Education, 1900-1908. Author of Ancient < Gold and Silver Thread.
Needle Point and Pillow Lace ; Embroidery and Lace ; Ornament in European Silks ; &c. [
A.Sy. Arthur Symons. pGoncourt, De;
See the biographical article, Symons, A. \ Hardy, Thomas.
1 A complete list, snowing all individual contributors, appears in the final volume.
A. H. Alfred Newton, F.R.S. •
See the biographical article, Newton, Alfred.
VI
A.W.
H.*
A.W.
R.
A.W.
W.
C.F. i
\.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
CGr.
C.H.*
C. H. G.
C. H. Ha.
C.J.L.
C. L.*
C. La K.
C. M.
cm.
c. m. w.
C.Pf.
C. R. B.
C. We.
G. W. E.
D. C. To.
D. F. *.
D. G. H.
D.H.
Arthur William Holland.
Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford.
Bacon Scholar of Gray's Inn, 1900.
Editor of Encyclopaedia of the
Alexander Wood Renton, M.A., LL.B.
Puisne Judge of the Supreme Court of Ceylon,
Laws of England.
Adolphus William Ward, LL.D., Litt.D.
See the biographical article, Ward. A. W.
Charles Francis Atkinson.
Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, 1st City of London (Royal
Fusiliers). Author of The Wilderness and Cpfy Harbour. . r
Charles Gross, A.M., Ph.D., LL.D. (1857-1909).
Professor of History at Harvard University, 1 888-1909.
Merchant; Sources and Literature of English History] &c.
Sir C. Holroyd. * '.♦..■• ' •
See the biographical article, Holroyd, Sir C.
Charles H. Coote.
Formerly of Map Department, British Museum.
Carlton Huntley Hayes, A.M., Ph.D.
- Assistant Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City,
of the American Historical Association.
/Godfrey of Viterbo;
1 Golden Bull; Habsburg.
f Ground Rent;
\ Handwriting.
\ Greene, Robert.
[Grand Alliance, War of the;
Grant, Ulysses 5. (in part);
Grcbt BflfWPfta.
Author of The GOdl Gfldft.
Member
Sir Charles James Lyall, K.C.S.I., C.I.E., LL.D (Edin.)
Secretary, Judicial and Public Department, India Office. Fellow of King's Collegie,
London. Secretary to Government of India in Home Department, 1889-1894. *
Chief Commissioner, Central Provinces, India, 1895-1898. Author of Translations
of Ancient Arabic Poetry; &c.
Charles Lapworth, M.Sc, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.
Professor of Geology and Physiography in the University of Birmingham. Editor -
of Monograph on British Graptolites, Palaeontographical Society, 1900-1908.
Charles Lethbridge Kingsford, M.A., F.R.Hist.S., F.S.A.
Assistant Secretary to the Board of Education. Author of Life of Henry V. .
Editor of Chronicles of London, and Stow's Survey of London. '
Carl Theodor Mirbt, D.Th.
Professor of Church History in the University of Marburg. Author of Publitistik -
itn Zeitalter Gregor VII.; Quellen zur Geschichte des Pdpstthums; &c.
Chedomille Mijatovich.
Senator of the Kingdom of Servia. Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Pleni-
potentiary of the King of Servia to the Court of St James', 1.895-1900 and 1902-
1903.
Sir Charles Moore Watson, K.C.M.G., C.B.
Colonel, Royal Engineers. Deputy- Inspector-General of Fortifications, 1896*1902.
Served under General Gordon in the Soudan, 1874-1875.
Haden, Sir F. G.
Hakluyt (in part).
Gregory! Popes, VIII. to
XII.; Guibert.
Hamba.
Graptolites.
Gtendower, Owen;
Gloucester, Humphrey,
Duke of;
Hallam, Bishop;
Hardyng, John.
Gregory VII.
Barrister-at-Law.
Christian Pfister, D.-es-L.
Professor at the Sor bonne, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author
of Etudes sur le regne de Robert le Pieux.
Charles Raymond Beazley, M.A., D.Litt., F.R.G.S., F.R.Hist.S.
Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow
of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography.
Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1889. Lowell Lecturer, Boston,- 1908. Author of
Henry the Navigator; The Dawn of Modern Geography; &c.
Cecil Weatherly.
Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford.
Charles William Eliot.
See the biographical article, Eliot, C. W.
4
Rev. Duncan Crookes Tovey, M.A.
Editor of The Letters of Thomas Gray; &c.
Donald Francis Tovey.
Author of Essays in Musical Analysis: comprising The Classical Concerto, The
Goldberg Variations, and analysis of many other classical works.
David George Hogarth, M.A.
Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford.
Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naucratis, 1899 and
1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905; Assiut, 1906-1907; Director, British School at Athens,
1 897-1 900; Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899.
J Gundulioh.
-j Gordon, General
f Gregory, St, of Tours;
1 Gunther of Schwarzburg.
Gomez; Hakluyt
(in part).
I Graffito.
j Gray, Asa.
j Gray, Thomas.
Gluck; Handel.
HaUcarnassus.
David Hannay.
Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona.
1 217-1688; Life of Emilio Castelar; &c.
Author of Short History of Royal Navy^
Gondomar, Count;
Grand Alliance, War of
th8: Naval Operations:
Guichen; Hamilton, Emma.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
Yll
D. LLT.
D.Hiu
D. M. W.
E.A.F.
E. A. J.
E. B.*
E.Br.
E. C. B.
E. C. Sp.
E. F. G.
E. F. S. D,
E.6.
E. H. P.
E. J. P.
Ed. M.
E. M. W«
E.O.*
B.Pr.
E.R.
E. S. 6*
F« C. G*
F» G. M. B.
Daniel Lletjfer Thomas.
Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn.
Rhondda.
Stipendiary Magistrate at Pontypridd andi Glamorganshire; Gower,
{•
{
Glas, John;
Glasites.
Giers; Gorehakov.
J Goths (in part).
Rev. Dugald Macpadyen, M.A.
Minister of South Grove Congregational Church, Highgate. Author of Constructive
Congregational Ideals; &c.
Six Donald Mackenzie Wallace, K.C.I.E., K.C.V.O.
Extra Groom-in- Waiting to H.M. King George V. Director of the Foreign Depart'
ment of The Times, 1 891-1899. Member of Institut de Droit International and *
Officier de 1' Instruction Pubfique of France. Joint-editor of new volumes (10th
edition) of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. Author of Russia; Egypt and the Egyptian
Question; The Web of Empire; &c.
Edward Augustus Freeman, LL.D.
See the biographical article, Freeman, E. A.
E. Alfred Jones.
Author of Old English Gold Plate; Old Church Plate of the Isle of Man; Old Silver
Sacramental Vessels of Foreign Protestant Churches in England; Illustrated Catalogue i Golden Rose (in pari).
of Leopold de Rothschild's Collection of Old Plate; A Private Catalogue of The Royal
Plate at Windsor Castle; &c.
Ernest Charles Francois Babelon.
Professor at the College de France. Keeper of the department of Medals and
Antiquities at the Bibliotheque Nationale. Member of the Acad6mie des Inscrip- J Hadrumetum
tions et Belles Lettres, Pans. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of^ ^^*
Descriptions historiques des monnaies de la rSpublique romaine; Traitis des monnaies
grecques et romaines; Catalogue des camUs de la bibliotheque nationale,
Ernest Barker, M.A. < f
Fellow and Lecturer in Modern History at St John's College, Oxford. Formerly 4 Godfrey of Bouillon.
Fellow and Tutor of Merton College. Craven Scholar, 1 895. [
M.A., D.Litt. (Dublin).
1 The Lausaic History of Palladius "
Gilbert of Sempringham,
St;
. Grandmontines; Groot
Grey, 2nd Earl
Gotarzes.
Rt. Rev. Edward Cuthbert Butler, O.S.B.,
Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. Author of
in Cambridge Texts and Studies, vol. vi.
Rev. Edward Clarke Spicer, M.A.
New College, Oxford. Geographical Scholar, 1900.
Edwin Francis Gay, Ph.D.
Professor of Economics and Dean of the Graduate School of Business Administration,
Harvard University.
Lady Dilke.
See the biographical article, Dilkb, Sir C. W., Bart.
Edmund Gosse, LL.D.
See the biographical article, Gosse, E.
Edward Henry Palmer, M.A.
See the biographical article, Palmer, E. H.
Edward John Payne, M.A. (1844-1904).
Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford. Editor of the Select Works of
Burke. Author of History of European Colonies; History of the New World called "
America; The Colonies, in the " British Citizen " Series; &c.
Eduard Meyer, Ph.D., D.Litt. (Oxon). LL.D. (Chicago).
Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin. Author of Geschichte
des Alterthums ; Geschichte des alien Aegyptens ; Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstamme.
Rev. Edward Mewburn Walker, M.A.
Fellow, Senior Tutor and Librarian of Queen's College, Oxford.
Edmund Owen, M.B., F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc.
Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children's Hospital,
Great Ormond Street, London. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Late
Examiner in Surgery at the Universities of Cambridge, London and Durham. Author
of A Manual of Anatomy for Senior Students.
Edgar Prestage.
Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature in the University of Manchester.
Examiner in Portuguese in the Universities of London, Manchester, &c. Commen- ,
dador, Portuguese Order of S. Thiago. Corresponding Member of Lisbon Royal "*
' Academy of Sciences, Lisbon Geographical Society, &c. Editor of Letters of a
Portuguese Nun; Azurara's Chronicle of Guinea; &c.
Lord Lochee of Gowrie (Edmund Robertson), P.C., LL.D., K.C. f
Civil Lord of the Admiralty, 1892-1895. Secretary to the Admiralty, 1905-1908. < Hallam, Henry.
M.P. for Dundee, 1885-1908. Fellow of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. I
Edwin Stephen Goodrich, M.A., F.R.S. f
Fellow and Librarian of Merton College, Oxford. Aldrichian Demonstrator of-< Haplodrili.
Comparative Anatomy, University Museum, Oxford. [
Frederick Cornwallis Conybeare, M.A., D.Th. (Giessen). r
Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford. J Gregory the Illuminator.
f Greece: History , Ancient,
\ to 146 B.C.
146
Goitre; Haemorrhoids.
Goes, DamlSo De;
Gonzaga.
Author of The Ancient Armenian Texts of Aristotle; Myth, Magic and Morals; &c.
Frederick George Meeson Beck, M.A.
Fellow and Lecturer in Classics, Clare College, Cambridge.
/Goths (in part).
viii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
F. 6. S. F. G. Stephens. f
Formerly Art Critic of the Athenaeum. Author of Artists at Home; George Cruik- J /mik««* «*. t^Iim
shank; Memorials of W. Mulrcady; French and Flemish Pictures; Sir E. Landseer; | UUTOr H sur * olu *-
T. C.Hook f RA.;&c. I
F. H. D, Rev. Frederick Homes Dudden, D.D. f
Fellow, Tutor and Lecturer in Theology, Lincoln College, Oxford. Author of "j Gregory L
Gregory the Great, his Place in History ana Thought; Sec. I
Franklin Henry Hooper. / wmuuu* wi«h*m c^**
Assistant Editor of the Century Dictionary. \ Hancock, WInfleld Scott
Francis Tohn Haverfield, M.A., LL.D., F.S.A.
Camden Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. Fellow of J Graham's Dyke*
Brasenose College. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of Monographs on '
Roman History, especially Roman Britain; &c.
Fridtjof Nansen.
See the biographical article, Nansen, Fridtjof.
Frank R. Cana.
Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union.
Francis Samuel Philbrick, A.M., Ph.D.
Formerly Scholar and Resident Fellow of Harvard University. Member of -{ Hamilton. AlAratiftar
American Historical Association. ' n * ulll * uu » ™ uuuw *
Frederick William Rudler, I.S.O., F.G.S.
Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, 1879-1902. -\ Gypsum; Haematite.
President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889.
F* H» xk»
F. J. H.
P.M.
F. R.C.
F.8.P.
F. W. R.*
G. A. Or.
George Abraham Grierson, C.I.E., Ph.D., D.Litt. (Dublin).
Member of the Indian Civil Service, 1873-1903. In charge of Linguistic Survey of
India, 1898-1902. Gold Medallist, Royal Asiatic Society, 1909. Vice-President
of the Royal Asiatic Society. Formerly Fellow of Calcutta University. Author
of The Languages of India; &c.
Gujaratf and Rajasthani.
Gyroscope and Gyrostat.
G.C.HL George Campbell Macatjlay, M.A. f
Lecturer in English in the University of Cambridge. Formerly Professor of English J Gower John.
Language and Literature in the University of Wales. Editor of the Works of John ] '
Gower; &c. I.
G. C. W. George Charles Williamson, Litt.D. f
Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of Portrait Miniatures; Life of Richard J Greeo, EL
Cosway, R.A.; George Entfeheart; Portrait Drawings; &c. Editor of new edition of ]
Bryan's Dictionary of Painters and Engravers. v-
G. F. Z. George Frederick Zimmer, A.M.Inst.C.E. f 0-^*-^.
Author of Mechanical Handling of Material. \ u ™ 1 *™*'
G. G. Sir Alfred George Greenhill, M.A., F.R.S.
Formerly Professor of Mathematics in the Ordnance College, Woolwich. Examiner
in the University of Wales. Member of the Aeronautical Committee. Author
of Notes on Dynamics; Hydrostatics; Differential and Integral Calculus, with Applica-
tions; &c.
G. SiL Grant Showerman, A.M., Ph.D. r
Professor of Latin in the University of Wisconsin. Member of the Archaeological I Great Mother of the Gods.
Institute of America. Member of American Philological Association. Author of ]
With the Professor ; The Great Mother of the Gods ; 8cc. I
G, S. C. Sir George Sydenham Clarke, G.C.M.G., G.C.I.E., F.R.S. (
Governor of Bombay. Author of Imperial Defence; Russia 1 s Great Sea Power ;\ Greco-Turkish War, 1897.
The Last Great Naval War; &c. I
G. W. E. It Rt. Hon. George William Erskine Russell, P.C., M.A., LL.D. f
Under-Secretary of State for the Home Department, 1894- 1895; for India, 1892- J Gladstone. W. E.
1894. M.P. for Aylesbury, 1 880-1885; for North Beds., 1892-1895. Author of
Life of W. E. Gladstone; Collections ana Recollections; &c. I
G. W. T. Rev. Griffiths Wheeler Thatcher, M.A., B.D. \ J?**? 1 ? 5 Km" * **" 1 ?
Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew and Old 1 Handani; Hammad
Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford. [ ar-R&Wiya; Hariri.
H. A. de C. Henry Anselm de Colyar, K.C. f n„.r»ntA«
Author of The Law of Guarantees and of Principal and Surety; &c. \ l*"*™" 00 -
H. B. Wo. Horace Boungbroke Woodward, F.R.S., F.G.S. f
Formerly Assistant Director of the Geological Survey of England and Wales. Presi- -J Halalnger, W. K.
dent, Geologists' Association, 1893-1894. Wollaston Medallist, 1908. t
f Goschen, 1st Viscount;
H. CIl Hugh Chisholm, MA. Granville, 2nd Earl;
Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Editor of the nth edition of J Hamilton, Alexander
the Encyclopaedia Britannica; co-editor of the *oth edition. (^ n A^rf);
Hareourt, Sir William.
H. De. Hippolyte Delehaye, S. J. f
Assistant in the compilation of the Bollandist publications: Analecta Bollandiana 1 QUes, St; Hagiology.
and Acta sanctorum. [
H. G. H. Horatio Gordon Hutchinson. [
Amateur Golf Champion, 1886-1887. Author of Hints on Golf; Golf (Badminton * Golf.
Library) ; Book of Golf and Golfers ; &c I
H.L.H.
II* M. C*
H.M. Wo.
H.B.
H. Sw.
H. S.-K.
H. W. C. D.
Harmonic Analysis.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES ix
H. J, P. Harry James Powell, F.C.S.
Of Messrs James Powell & Sons, Whitefriars Glass Works, London. Member of
Committee of six appointed by Board of Education to prepare the scheme for the re- i Glass.
arrangement of the Art Collection of the Victoria and Albert Museum. Author
of Glass Making ; &c.
H. Lb. Horace Lamb, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc, F.R.S.
Professor of Mathematics, University of Manchester. Formerly Fellow and
Assistant Tutor of Trinity College, Cambridge. Member of Council of Royal 4
Society, 1 894-1 896. Royal Medallist, 1902. President oi London Mathematical
Society, 1 902-1904. Author of Hydrodynamics; &c.
Harriet L. Hennessy, L.R.C.S.I., L.R.C.P.I., M.D. (Brux.) Gynaecology.
Hector Munro Chadwicx, M.A. J/wu.. n ,i.- r
Librarian and Fellow of Clare College, Cambridge. Author of Studies on Anglo- 1 GoUls * UotHlc ^nguage.
Saxon Institutions. *■
Harold Mellor Woodcock, D.Sc. f
Assistant to the Professor of Proto-Zoology, London University. Fellow of J nromrinac* Haam/keiuwidia
University College, London Author of Haemoflagellates in Sir E. Ray Lankes- ] ^^P 1 ™ 88 ' naemosponoia.
ter's Treatise of Zoology t and of various scientific papers. I
Henry Reeve, D.C.L. f Gnl - ot ( in ^ r/ x
See the biographical article, Reeve, Henry. \ GWXo; Ktn *° r ^
Henry Sweet, M.A., Ph.D., LL.D. f
University Reader in Phonetics, Oxford. Member of the Academies of Munich, I Grimm, J. L. C;
Berlin, Copenhagen and Helsingifors. Author of A History of English Sounds since 1 Grimm, Wilhelm Carl.
the Earliest Period ; A Handbook of Phonetics ; &c. I
Sir Henry Seton-Karr, C.M.G., M.A. /Gun
M.P. for St. Helen's, 1885-1906. Author of My Sporting Holidays; &c. \
Henry William Carless Davis, M.A. f Gilbert, Pollot;
Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford, -J Gloucester, Robert, Earl of;
1 895-1 902. Author of England under the Normans and Angevins; Charlemagne. [ Grosseteste.
H. W. R.* Rev. Henry Wheeler Robinson, M.A. f
Professor of Church History in Rawdon College, Leeds. Senior Kennicott Scholar, J rj-u-viniV
Oxford University, 1901. Author of Hebrew Psychology in Relation to Pauline | t *» D * KKUK «
Anthropology (in Mansfield College Essays); &c. I
L A. Israel Abrahams, M.A. f Graetz; Habdala;
Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature, University of Cambridge. President, J Halakha* Halevi*
Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of A Short History of Jewish Litera- \ u mwt A m ' ty a .i.i *
ture; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages. I Haptara, HarlzL
J. A. P. M. John Alexander Fuller Maitland, M.A., F.S.A. f
Musical Critic of The Times. Author of Life of Schumann; The Musician's Pilgrim- j t % WM ^ ca _ «- .-^
age; Masters of German Music; English Mustc in the Nineteenth Century; The Age ( urove » sir wOrge.
of Bach and Handel. Editor of new edition of Grove's Dictionary of Music; &c. I
J. A. H. John Allen Howe, B.Sc. f (y^ioi period*
Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London. Author <** < •
-{:
The Geology of Building Stones. ' [ Greensand.
J. A. S. John Addington Symonds, LL.D. J
See the biographical article, Symonds, J. A. \ Guarilll.
J. BL James Blyth, M.A., LL.D. f
Formerly Professor of Natural Philosophy, Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical 1 Graduation.
College. Editor of Ferguson's Electricity. I
J. Bt James Bartlett. f
Lecturer on Construction, Architecture, Sanitation, Quantities, &c, King's College, J Glazing.
London. Member of Society of Architects, Institute of Junior Engineers, Quantity |
Surveyors' Association. Author of Quantities. I
J. D. B. James David Bourchier, M.A., F.R.G.S. f Greece: Geography and
King's College, Cambridge. Correspondent of The Times in South-Eastern Europe. J History: Modern;
Commander of the Orders of Prince Danilo of Montenegro and of the Saviour of 1 Greek literature: III.
Greece, and Officer of the Order of St Alexander of Bulgaria. t Modern.
J. E. S.* John Edwin Sandys, M.A., Litt.D., LL.D. f
Public Orator in the University of Cambridge. Fellow of St John's College, Cam- J Greek Law.
bridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of History of Classical Scholar- 1
ship; &c. I
See the biographical article, Fiske, J. I ijwes
J. G. C. A. John George Clark Anderson, M.A. f
Censor and Tutor of Christ Church, Oxford. Formerly Fellow of Lincoln College, i Gordium.
Craven Fellow (Oxford), 1896. Conington Prizeman, 1893. I
J. G. R. John George Robertson, M.A., Ph.D. r
Professor of German Language and Literature, University of London. Author of J r A a«i%a> rriiinoiMrAi*
History of German Literature; Schiller after a Century; &c. Editor of the Modern 1 uoeine > ^nnparaer.
Language Journal. I
J. H. P. John Henry Freese. M. A. f Gracchus; Gratian;
Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. \ Hadrian (in part).
x INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF< ARTICLES
J. H. H. John Henry Hessels, M.A. f fl . , «w«ii*«r
Author of Gutenberg: an Historical Investigation. \ OW8S » GUtenDerg.
J. H. P. John Henry Poynting, D.Sc, F.R.S. f
Professor of Physics and Dean of the Faculty of Science in the University of Bir- J Gravitation (in part).
mingham. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Joint-author of Text- | r
Book of Physics. L
J. HI. R. John Holland Rose, M~A., LitxD. f .
Lecturer on Modern History to the Cambridge University Local Lectures Syndicate. J fs^m—and Karon
Author of Life of Napoleon I. ; Napoleonic Studies ; The Development of the European ] WU1 6» WU > «"««•
Nations ; The Life of Pitt ; &c. L
J. L. W. Miss Jessie Laidlay Weston. S Grail, The Holy;
Author of Arthurian Romances unrepresented in Malory. \ Guenevere.
J. M. M. John Malcolm Mitchell. f Grote;
Sometime Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Lecturer in Classics, East London < Hamilton, Sir William,
College (University of London). Joint-editor of Grate's History of Greece. I Bart, (in part); Harem.
J. S.F. John Smith Flett, D.Sc., F.G.S. f Glauconite; Gneiss;
Petrographer to the Geological Survey. Formerly Lecturer on Petrology in Edin- J rr*n\i*' rramilita*
burgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Bigsby ] Jj ra ,' U , ^.* _^w
Medallist of the Geological Society of London. I Gravel; Greisen; Grey waefce.
J. T. Be. John T. Bealby. f
Joint author of Stanford's Europe. Formerly Editor of the Scottish Geographical 1 Gobi.
Magazine. Translator of Sven Hedin's Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet; &c. I
(Golden Rose (in p&rl);
Goliad;
Guizot' (in tart)
K. G. J. Kingsley Garland Jayne. \
Sometime Scholar of Wadham College, Oxford. Matthew Arnold Prizeman, 1903. "j Goa.
Author of Vasco da Gama and his Successors. I
K. Kp. Karl Krumbacher. J Greek Literature:
See the biographical article, Krumbacher, Carl. \ U. Byzantine.
K. S. Miss Kathleen Schlesinger.
Editor of the Portfolio of Musical Archaeology. Author of The Instruments of the
Orchestra; &c.
Goniometer; Gdthite;
Graphite (in part);
Greenock! te.
Glockenspiel; Gong;
Guitar; Guitar Fiddle;
Gusia; Harmonica;
Harmonichord;
.Harmonium (in part).
L. D.* Louis Duchesne. r ¥ _
See the biographical article, Duchesne, L. M. O. | Gregory: Popes, IIwVI.
L. F. D. , Lewis Foreman Day, F.S.A. (1845-1909). f
Formerly Vice-President of the Society of Arts* Past Master qf the Art Workers' ^ Glass, Stained.
Gild. Author of Windows, a book about Stained Glass; &c. [
L. F. V.-IL Leveson Francis Vernon-Harcourt, M.A., M.Inst.C.E. (1830-1907). f
Formerly Professor of Civil Engineering at University College, London. Author J Harbour.
of Rivers and Canals ; Harbours and Docks ; Civil Engineering as applied in Con- 1
struction; &c. I
L. J. S. Leonard James Spencer, M.A.
Assistant in the Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. Formerly Scholar „
of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. Editor of the
Mineralogical Magazine.
L. R. F. Lewis Richard Farnell, M.A., Litt.D. f
Fellow and Senior Tutor of Exeter College, Oxford ; University Lecturer in Classical J Greek Religion.
Archaeology; Wilde Lecturer in Comparative Religion. Author of Cults of the\
Greek States ; Evolution of Religion. I
M. . Lord Macaulay. roAMcmith. oiimr
See the biographical article, Macaulay, T. B. M., Baron. \ uoiusnuic, uiiyw,
ML G. Moses Gaster, Ph.D.
Chief Rabbi of the Sephardic Communities of England. Vice-President, Zionist
Congress, 1898, 1899, 1900. Ilchester Lecturer at Oxford on Slavonic and Byzantine -
Literature, 1 886 and 1 89 1. President, Folk-lore Society of England. Vice-President,
Anglo- Jewish Association. Author of History of Rumanian Popular Literature; &c.
M. H. S. Marion H. Spielmann, F.S.A.
Formerly Editor of the Magazine of Art. Member of Fine Art Committee of Inter-
< national Exhibitions of Brussels, Paris, Buenos Aires, Rome and the Franco-
British Exhibition, London. Author of History of "Punch"; British Portrait'
Painting to the opening of the Nineteenth Century; Works of G. F. Watts, R.A.
British Sculpture and Sculptors of To-day; Henriette Ronner; &c.
M. Ja. Morris Jastrow, Jun., Ph.D. f Gn« ameS K ed!c f .
Professor of Semitic Languages, University of Pennsylvania, U.S.A. Author of i ""Bames"* F v >
Religion of the Babylonians and Assyrians; &c [ Gula.
M. M. Max Arthur Macaulltfe. r
Formerly Divisional Judge in the Punjab. Author of The Sikh Religion, its Gurus, J Q ra nft| #
Sacred Writings and Authors; &c. Editor of Life of Guru Nanak, in the Punjabi j
language. I
Gipsies.
Gilbert, Alfred;
Greenaway, Kate
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES xi
H* 0* B. C*
M.P.
M.P.*
O.Ba.
P. A.
P. A. A.
P. G. T.
P. La.
P.MeC.
&. A. Wa
R. A* S* H«
R. C.J.
•{•
vald Barron, F.S.A. f
Editor of The Ancestor, 1902-1905. Hon. Genealogist to Standing Council of the i Girdle.
Honourable Society of the Baronetage. I
M. M. T. Marcus Niebuhr Tod, M.A.
Fellow and Tutor of Oriel College, Oxford. University Lecturer in Epigraphy, "j GytMum.
Joint-author of Catalogue of the Sparta Museum.
(Greece: History:
146 B.C. 1800 AM.;
Hamiloar Barca*
Hannibal. '
Mark Pattison. Jftrotiiis
See the biographical article, Pattison, Mark. \ «*««•».
Leon Jacques Maxime Prinet. f
Formerly Archivist to the French National Archives. Auxiliary of the Institute i wOUffler; Harcourt.
of France (Academy of Moral and Political Sciences). I
Oswald Barron, F.S.A.
Editor of The Ancesto\ . ,
Honourable Society of the Baronetage.
Paul Daniel Alphand£ry. f
Professor of the History of Dogma, ficole Pratique des Hautes fitudes, Sorbonne, -j GonzalO de Bereeo.
Paris. Author of Les lakes morales chez les hStSrodoxeslatinesaudibutduXIIIesikcle. I
Philip A. Ashworth, M.A., Doc. Juris. f
New College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Translator of H. R. von Gneist's History i Gnelst.
of the English Constitution. I
P. C. Y. Philip Chesney Yorke, M.A. J £™P° wd ? r 4 P i° t;
Magdalen College, Oxford. 1 Halifax, 1st Marquess of ;
I Hamilton, 1st Duke of.
P. G. Percy Gardner, M.A. f q^^ £&
See the biographical article, Gardner, Percy. \
P. GL Peter Giles, M.A., LL.D., Litt.D. f
Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and University J Greek Language;
Reader in Comparative Philology. Formerly Secretary of the Cambridge Philo- | H.
logical Society. Author. of Manual of Comparative Philology. I
P. G. K. Paul George Konody. [
Art Critic of the Observer and the Daily Mail. Formerly Editor of The Artist. < Hals, Frans.
Author of The Art of Walter Crane; Velasquez, Life and Work; &c. I
Peter Guthrie Tait, LL.D. J Hamilton, Sir William
See the biographical article, Tait, Peter Guthrie. ^ Rowan.
Philip Lake, M.A., F.G.S. r
Lecturer on Physical and Regional Geography in Cambridge University. Formerly J rMMn , rw™,
of the Geological Survey ot India. Author of Monograph of British Cambrian 1 ureeoe - irtoiogy.
Trilobites. Translator and Editor of Kayseir's Comparative Geology. {,
Primrose McConnell, F.G.S. f -, A n , A
. Member of the Royal Agricultural Society. Author of Diary of a Working Farmer ; &c. j Grass * M GrMSiaM »
Colonel Robert Alexander Wahab, C.B., C.M.G., CLE. f
Formerly H. M. Commissioner, Aden Boundary Delimitation. Served with Tirah J uj^y-mij*
Expeditionary Force, 1897-1898, and on the Anglo-Russian Boundary Commission, | *»**K»mui.
Pamirs, 1895. * I
Robert Alexander Stewart Macalister, M.A., F.S.A. f Gilead* Gilgal*
St John's College, Cambridge. Director of Excavations for the Palestine Explora- i ^^u ' '
tionFund. j^ Goshen.
Sir Richard Claverhouse Jebb, L.L.D., D.C.L. /Greek Literature:
See the biographical article, Jebb, SirR. C. "| I Ancient
"Gowrie, 3rd Earl of;
Gratton, Henry;
Green Ribbon Club;
Gymnastics;
Harcourt, 1st Viscount;
Hardwicke, 1st Earl of.
R. L.* Richard Lydekker, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S. f Giraffe* Glutton;
Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882. Author of J n\*m+Jirtr*- r M /.
Catalogues of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in British Museum; The Deer of\ „***„ „' UO f ' „
all Lands; The Game Animals of Africa; &c. [ Gorilla; Hamster; Hare.
Golitsuin, Boris, Dmitry,
and Vastly;
Golovln, Count;
Golovkin, Count;
Gortz, Baron von;
Griffenfeldt, Count;
Gustavus I., and IV.
Gyllenstjerna;
Hall, C. C.
R. J. ML Ronald John McNeill, M.A.
Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Formerly Editor of the St James's
Gazette, London.
R. H. B. Robert Nisbet Bain (d. 1900).
Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia, the
Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, if 13-1 900 ; The First Romanovs,
1613-172$ ; Slavonic Europe, the Political History of Poland and Russia from 1469
to 1769; &c.
R. S. T. Ralph Stockman Tarr,
ph Stockman Tarr. « /Grand Canyon.
Professor of Physical Geography. Cornell University. \
Xll
R. We.
S.A.C.
S.BL
S. C.
St. a
S.N.
T. As.
T.A.J.
T.Ba.
T.E.H.
T. P. C.
T. H. HL*
T.Se.
V. H. S.
W. A. B. C.
W. A, P.
W. Bo.
W. Bu.
w. p. a
W. G. ML
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
Editor of The Elegies
Richard Webster, A.M. (Princeton).
Formerly Fellow in Classics, Princeton University.
Maximianus ; &c.
Stanley Arthur Cook, M.A.
Editor for Palestine Exploration Fund. Lecturer in Hebrew and Svriac, and
formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Examiner in Hebrew and
Aramaic, London University, 1 904-1908. Author of Glossary of Aramaic Inscrip-
tions; The Laws of Moses ana the Code of Hammurabi; Critical Notes on Old Testament
History; Religion of Ancient Palestine; &c
Sigfus Bl6ndal.
Librarian of the University of Copenhagen.
Sidney Colvin, LL.D.
See the biographical article, Colvin, Sidney.
Viscount St. Cyres.
See the biographical article, Iddesleigh, ist Earl OF.
Simon Newcomb, LL.D., D.Sc.
See the biographical article, Newcomb, Simon.
Thomas Ashby, M.A., DXitt., F.S.A.
Director of the British School of Archaeology at Rome. Corresponding Member
of the Imperial German Archaeological Institute. Formerly Scholar of Christ
Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, Oxford, 1897. Author of The Classical Topo-
graphy of the Roman Campagna ; &c.
o/JGl
Great Awakening-
Gideon.
j HaUgrimsson.
•f Giorgione; Giotto.
/ Guy on,
/Gravitation (in part).
Girgenti; Gnatfa;
Grottaferrata;
Grumentum; Gubbio;
Hadrla; Halaesa.
■{■
Thomas Athol Joyce, M.A.
Assistant in Department of Ethnography, British Museum. Hon. Sec, Royal -j Hamitio Races (I.).
Anthropological Institute.
Sir Thomas Barclay, M.P. (
Member of the Institute of International Law. Member of the Supreme Council J t%nmmm j mm
of the Conjgo Free State. Officer of the Legion of Honour. Author of Problems | l*™*™ 1 *-
of International Practice and Diplomacy; &c. M.P. for Blackburn, 1910. I
Thomas Erskine Holland, K.C., D.C.L., LL.D.
Fellow of the British Academy. Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford. Professor
of International Law in the University of Oxford, 1874-19 10. Bencher of Lincoln's „
Inn. Author of Studies in International Law; The Elements of Jurisprudence;
Alberici Gentilis dejure belli ; The Laws of War on Land ; Neutral Duties in a Maritime
War; &c.
Hall, William E.
{Gregory: Popes,
XIIL— XV.
*
I Hadrian (in part).
Theodore Freylinghuysen Collier, Ph.D.
Assistant Professor of History, Williams College, Williamstown, Mass., U.S.A.
Sir Thomas Hungerpord Holdich, K.C.M.G., K.C.I.E., D.Sc, F.R.G.S. .
Colonel in the Roval Engineers. Superintendent Frontier Surveys, India, 1892- J Gugit;
1898. Gold Medallist, R.G.S. (London), 1887. H.M. Commissioner for the Persa- | Hari-Rud.
Beluch Boundary, 1896. Author of The Indian Borderland; The Gates of India; &c.
Thomas Kirkdp, M.A., LL.D.
Author of An Inquiry into Socialism; Primer of Socialism; &c.
Thomas Seccombe, M.A.
Lecturer in History, East London and Birkbeck Colleges, University of London.
Stanhope Prizeman, Oxford, 1887. Formerly Assistant Editor of Dictionary of*
National Biography, 1891-1901. Author of The Age of Johnson; &c. ; Joint-author
of The Bookman History of English Literature.
Rev. Vincent Henry Stanton, M.A., D.D
Ely Professor of Divinity in the University of Cambridge. Canon of Ely and Fellow j gum^i
of Trinity College, Cambridge. Author of The Gospels as Historical Documents; | WW * W1 *
The Jewish and the Christian Messiahs; &c. L
Rev. William Augustus Brevoort Coolidge, M.A., F.R.G.S., Ph.D. (Bern), f Glarus; Goldast Ab
Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David's
College, Lampeter, 1 880-1 881. Author of Guide du Haul DauphinS; The Range of
the Tddi; Guide to Grindelwald; Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in Nature and in
History; &c. Editor of The Alpine Journal, 1880-1889; &c.
Gilbert, Sir W. S.
■1,
Halminsfeld;
Grasse; Grenoble;
Grindelwald; Grisona;
Gruner, G. S.; Gruyere.
Walter Alison Phillips, M.A. f Girondists; Goethe:
Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College, < Descendants of;
Oxford. Author of Modern Europe; &c. [ Greek Independence, War Of.
WlLHELM BOUSSET, D.Th.
Professor of New Testament Exegesis in the University of Gottingen. Author <
Das Wesen der Religion; The Antichrist Legend; &c.
William Burnside, M.A., D.Sc, LL.D., F.R.S.
Professor of Mathematics, Royal Naval College, Greenwich. Hon. Fellow
Pembroke College, Cambridge. Author of The Theory of Groups of Finite Order*
William Feilden Craies, M.A. r
Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Lecturer on Criminal Law, King's College, J Habeas Corpus;
London. Author of Craies on Statute Law. Editor of Archbold's Criminal Pleading j Hanging.
(23rd edition). I
Walter George McMillan, F.C.S., M.I.M.E. (d. 1904). j y Jr—AH. (s~ j»~a
Formerly Secretary of the Institute of Electrical Engineers and Lecturer on Metal- S urapnue Ktn pari).
lurgy, Mason College, Birmingham. Author of A Treatise on Electro- Metallurgy. (
ofi
' of{
Gnosticism.
Groups, Theory of.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
xin
W.Hu.
W. H. Be.
W. H. F.*
W. J. F.
W. McD.
W.M.M.
Wf • JR. MM*
W.P.A.
W.P.R.
W.R.
W.RL
W. Rn.
W. R. D.
^v • ft. Eto \m»
W. R.S.
W. JR. 5* H.
W. W. IL*
Green, J. R.
Gomer; Ham.
Rev. William Hunt, M.A., Litt.D. f
President of Royal Historical Society. 1 905-1 009. Author of History of English J
Church, 597-1906; The Church of England tn the Middle Ages; Political History of]
England 1760-1801. I
William Henry Bennett, M.A., D.D., D.Litt. (Cantab.). f
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis in New and Hackney Colleges, London.
Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. Lecturer in Hebrew at Firth
College, Sheffield. Author of Religion of the Post-Exilic Prophets ; &c I
William Henry Fatrbrother, M.A., ' f
Formerly Fellow and Lecturer, Lincoln College, Oxford. Author of Philosophy] Green, Thomas HUL
of Thomas Hill Green. I
William Justice Ford (d. 1004). f
Formerly Scholar of St John s College, Cambridge. Headmaster of Leamington < Grace, W. G.
College. t
William McDougall, M.A. f
Reader in Mental Philosophy in the University of Oxford. Author of A Primer < Hallucination.
of Physiological Psychology; An Introduction to Social Psychology; &c. [
W. Max MttLLER, Ph.D.
Professor of Exegesis in the R.E. Seminary, Philadelphia. Author of Asien und -
Europe nach den Aegptischen Denkm&lern ; &c.
William Michael Rossetti.
See the biographical article, Rossetti, Dante G.
LlEUT.-COLONEL WlLLIAM PATRICK ANDERSON, M.InST.C.E., F.R.G.S.
Chief Engineer, Department of Marine and Fisheries of Canada. Member of the '
Geographic Board of Canada. Past President of Canadian Society of Civil Engineers.
Hon. William Pember Reeves.
Director of London School of Economics. Agent-General and High Commissioner
for New Zealand, 1896- 1009. Minister of Education, Labour and Justice, New '
Zealand, 1 891-1896. Author of The Long White Cloud: a History of New Zealand;
&c.
Whitelaw Reid, LL.D.
See the biographical article, Reid, Whitblaw.
William Ridgeway, M.A., D.Sc
Professor of Archaeology, Cambridge University, and Brereton Reader in Classics.
Fellow of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. -
President of Royal Anthropological Institute, 1908. President of Anthropological
Section, British Association, 1908. Author of The Early Age of Greece; &c.
W. ROSENHATN, D.Sc.
Superintendent of the Metallurgical Department, National Physical Laboratory.
Wyndham Rowland Dunstan, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. f
Director of the Imperial Institute. President of the International Association of Tropical -(
Agriculture. Member of the Advisory Committee for Tropical Agriculture, Colonial Office. [
William Richard Eaton Hodgkinson, Ph.D., F.R.S. (Edin.), F.C.S.
Professor of Chemistry and Physics, Ordnance College, Woolwich. Formerly.,
Professor of Chemistry and Physics, R.M.A., Woolwich. Part-author of Valentin-
Hodgkinson's Practical Chemistry; &c.
William Robertson Smith, LL.D.
See the biographical article, Smith, William Robertson.
William Ralston Shedden-Ralston, M.A.
Assistant in the Department of Printed Books, British Museum.
Folk Tales; &&
Hamitie Races:
II. Languages.
Glulio Romano; Gozioli;
Guido RenL
Great Lakes.
{
Author of Russian -
William Walker Rockwell, D.Ph. f
Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York. \
Grey, Sir George.
Greeley, Horace.
Hallstatt.
Glass (in part).
Gutta-percha.
Gun Cotton;
Gunpowder.
Haggal (in pari).
GogoL
Gregory XVL
PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES
Gliding.
Goat.
Griqualand East and
Gwalior.
Ginger.
Gold.
West
Haddingtonshire*
Glronde.
GoMbeating.
Guanches.
Hair.
Gladiators.
Gotland.
Guards.
Haiti.
Glasgow.
Gourd.
Guatemala.
Halo.
Glastonbury.
Government.
Guelphs and GhlbeDines.
Hamburg.
Gloucestershire.
Grain Trade.
Guiacum.
Hamlet.
Glove.
Granada.
Guillotine.
Hampshire.
Glucose.
Grasses.
Guise, House of
Hampton Roads.
Glue.
Great Salt Lake.
Gum.
Hanover.
Glycerin.
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME XII
GICHTEL, JOHANN GEORG (1638-1710), German mystic,
was born at Regensburg, where his father was a member of
senate, on the 14th of March 1638. Having acquired at school
an acquaintance with Greek, Hebrew, Syriac and even Arabic,
he proceeded to Strassburg to study theology; but finding
the theological prelections of J. S. Schmidt and P. J. Spener
distasteful, he entered the faculty of law. He was admitted
an advocate, first at Spires, and then at Regensburg; but
having become acquainted with the baron Justinianus von
WelU (1621-1668), a Hungarian nobleman who cherished
schemes for the reunion of Christendom and the conversion
of the world, and having himself become acquainted with
another world in dreams and visions, he abandoned all interest
in his profession, and became an energetic promoter of the
" Ckristerbatdiche Jesusgesettschaft" or Christian Edification
Society of Jesus. The movement in its beginnings provoked at
least no active hostility; but when Gichtel began to attack the
teaching of the Lutheran clergy and church, especially upon the
fundamental doctrine of justification by faith, he exposed him-
self to a prosecution which resulted in sentence of banishment
and confiscation (1665). After many months of wandering and
occasionally romantic adventure, he reached Holland in January
1667, and settled at Zwolle, where he co-operated with Friedrich
Breckling (1629-1711), who shared his views and aspirations.
Having become involved in the troubles of this friend, Gichtel,
after a period of imprisonment, was banished for a term of years
from Zwolle, but finally in 1668 found a home in Amsterdam,
where he made the acquaintance of Antoinette Bourignon
(1616-1680), and in a state of poverty (which, however, never
became destitution) lived out his strange life of visions and
day-dreams, of prophecy and prayer. He became an ardent
disciple of Jakob Boehme, whose works he published in 1682
(Amsterdam, 2 vols.) ; but before the time of his death, on the
2 1st of January 17 10, he had attracted to himself a small band
of followers known as Gichtelians or Brethren of the Angels, who
propagated certain views at which he had arrived independently
of Boehme. Seeking ever to hear the authoritative voice of
God within them, and endeavouring to attain to a life altogether
free frorn carnal desires, like that of " the angels in heaven, who
neither marry nor are given in marriage," they claimed to
exercise a priesthood " after the order of Melchizedek," appeasing
the wrath of God, and ransoming the souls of the lost by sufferings
endured vicariously after the example of Christ. While, however,
Boehme " desired to remain a faithful son of the Church," the
Gichtelians became Separatists (cf. J. A. Dorner, History of
Protestant Theology, ii. p. 185).
Gichtel's correspondence was published without his knowledge
by Gottfried Arnold, a disciple, in 1701 (2 vols.), and again in 1708
(3 vols.). It has been frequently reprinted under the title Theosophia
practica. The seventh volume of the Berlin edition (1768) contains
a notice of Gichtel's life. See also G. C. A. von Harless, Jakob
Bohme und die Alchimisten (1870, 2nd ed. 1882); article in AIL
gemeinc deutsche Biograpkie.
GIDDINGS, JOSHUA REED (1795-1864), American statesman,
prominent in the anti-slavery conflict, was born at Tioga Point,
now Athens, Bradford county, Pennsylvania, on the 6th of
October 1795. ? n x 8°6 bis parents removed to Ashtabula
county, Ohio, then sparsely settled and almost a wilderness.
The son worked on his father's farm, and, though he received
no systematic education, devoted much time to study and
reading. For several years after 18 14 he was a school teacher,
but in February 182 1 he was admitted to the Ohio bar and soon
obtained a large practice, particularly in criminal cases. From
183 1 to 1837 he was in partnership with Benjamin F. Wade.
He served in the lower house of the state legislature in 1826-1828,
and from December 1838 until March 1859 was a member of
the national House of Representatives, first as a Whig, then
as a Free-soiler, and finally as a Republican. Recognizing that
slavery was a state institution, with which the Federal govern-
ment had no authority to interfere, he contended that slavery
could only exist by a specific state enactment, that therefore
slavery in the District of Columbia and in the Territories was un-
lawful and should be abolished, that the coastwise slave-trade in
vessels flying the national flag, like the international slave-trade,
should be rigidly suppressed, and that Congress had no power to
pass any act which in any way could be construed as a recognition
of slavery as a national institution. His attitude in the so-called
" Creole Case " attracted particular attention. In 1841 some
slaves who were being carried in the brig " Creole " from
Hampton Roads, Virginia, to New Orleans, revolted, killed the
captain, gained possession of the vessel, and soon afterwards
entered the British port of Nassau. Thereupon, according to
British law, they became free. The minority who had taken an
active part in the revolt were arrested on a charge of murder,
and the others were liberated. Efforts were made by the United
States government to recover the slaves, Daniel Webster, then
secretary of state, asserting that on an American ship they were
under the jurisdiction of the United States and that they were
legally property. On the 21st of March 1842, before the case
xn. 1
GIDEON— GIERS
was settled, Giddings introduced in the House of Representatives
a series of resolutions, in which he asserted that " in resuming
their natural rights of personal liberty " the slaves ' ' violated no law
of the United States." For offering these resolutions Giddings
was attacked with rancour, and was formally censured by the
House. Thereupon he resigned, appealed to his constituents,
and was immediately re-elected by a large majority. In
1859 ne was not renominated, and retired from Congress after
a continuous service of more than twenty years. From 1861
until his death, at Montreal, on the 27th of May 1864, he
was U.S. consul-general in Canada. Giddings published a series
of political essays signed " Pacificus " (1843); Speeches in
Congress (1853); The Exiles of Florida (1858); and a History
of the Rebellion: Its. Authors and. Causes (1804).
See The Life of Joshua Jt. GiddmgS; .(Chicago, 189*),. by his son-in*
law, George Washington Julia* (1317-1399)". a Free-soil leader and a
representative in Congress in 1849-1851,3 Republican representative
in Congress in 1861-1871, a Liberal Republican in the campaign of
1872, and afterwards a Democrat.
GIDEON (in Hebrew, perhaps "hewer " or ' * waj-rio}: "),
liberator, reformer and " judge " of Israel, wai the son of jdash,
of the Manassite clan of Abiezer, and had his home at Ophrah
near Shechem. His name occurs in Heb. xi. 32, in a list of those
who became heroes by faith; but, except in Judges yi.-viii^
is not to be met with elsewhere in the Old Testament. He lived'
at a time when the nomad tribes of the south and east made
inroads upon Israel, destroying all that they could not carry
away. Two accounts of his deeds are preserved (see Judges).
According to one (Judges vi. 11-24) Yahweh appeared under
the holy tree which was in the possession of Joash and summoned
Gideon to undertake, in dependence on supernatural direction
and help, the work of liberating his country from its long oppres-
sion, and, in token that he accepted the mission, he erected in
Ophrah an altar which he called u Yahweh-Shalom " (Yahweh
is peace). According to another account (vi. 55-32) Gideon was
a great reformer who was commanded by Yahweh to destroy
the altar of Baal belonging to his father and the asherah or
sacred post by its side. The townsmen discovered the sacrilege
and demanded his death. His father, who, as guardian of the
sacred place, was priest of Baal, enjoined the men not to take
up Baal's quarrel, for " if Baal be a god, let him contend (rib) for
himself." Hence Gideon received the name Jerubbaal. 1 From
this latter name appearing regularly in the older narrative
(cf. ix.), and from the varying usage in vi.-viii., it has been held
that stories of two distinct heroes (Gideon and Jerubbaal) have
been fused in the complicated account which follows. 2
The great gathering of the Midianites and their allies on the
north side of the plain of Jezreel; the general muster first of
Abiezer, then of all Manasseh, and lastly of the neighbouring
tribes of Asher, Zebulun and Naphtali; the signs by which the
wavering faith of Gideon was steadied; the methods by which
an unwieldy mob was reduced to a small but trusty band of
energetic and determined men; and the stratagem by which
the vast army of Midian was surprised and routed by the handful
of Israelites descending from " above Endor," are indicated
fully in the narratives, and need not be detailed here. The
difficulties in the account of the subsequent flight of the Midian-
ites appear to have arisen from the composite character of
the narratives, and there are signs that in one of them Gideon
was accompanied only by his own clansmen, (vi. 34). So, when
the Midianites are put to flight, according to one representation,
the Ephraimites are called out to intercept them, and the two
chiefs, 0*eb (" raven ") and ZeSb (" wolf "), in making for the
fords of the Jordan, are slain at " the raven's rock" and " the
wolf's press " respectively. As the sequel of this we are told
that the Ephraimites quarrelled with Gideon because their
assistance had not been invoked earlier, and their anger was
1 " Baal contends " (or Jeru-baal, " Baal founds," cf. Jeru-el),
but artificially explained in the narrative to mean " let Baal contend
against him, ' or " let Baal contend for himself," v. 31. In 2 Sam.
xi. 21 he is called Jerubbesheth, iri accordance with the custom
explained in the article Baal.
*See, on this, Cheyne, Ency. 2ft&. col. 1719 seq.; Ed- Meyer, Die
Israeliten, pp f 482 seq. . ,
only appeased by his tactful reply (viii. 1-3; contrast xii. 1-6).
The other narrative speaks of the pursuit of the Midianite chiefs
Zebah and Zalmunna 8 across the northern end of Jordan, past
Succoth and Penuel to the unidentified place ^ar^or. Having
taken relentless vengeance on the men of Penuel and Succoth,
who had shown a timid neutrality when the patriotic struggle
was at its crisis, Gideon puts the two chiefs to death to avenge
his brothers whom they had killed at Tabor. 4 The overthrow
of Midian (cf. Is. ix. 4, x. 26; Ps. lxxxiii. 9-12) induced " Israel"
to offer Gideon the kingdom. It was refused — out of religious
scruples (viii. 22 seq.; cf. 1 Sam. viii. 7, x. 19, xii. 12, 17, 19), and
the ephod idol which he set up at Ophrah in commemoration
of the victory was regarded by a later editor (v. 27) as a cause
of apostasy to the people and a snare tQ pideoja and his house;
see, however, Ephod. Gideon's achievements jfsould fiaturally
give him a more than merely local autnority/arid after his death
the attempt was made by one of his sons to set himself up as
chief (see Abimelech).
i See further Jews, section 1 ; and the literature to the book of
Judges. (S.A.C.)
GIEBEL, CHRISTOPH GOTTFRIED ANDREAS (1820-1881),
German zoologist and palaeontologist, was born on the 13 th of
September . 1820 at Quedlinburg in Saxony, and educated at
the university of Halle, where he graduated Ph. D. in 1845. I&
1858 he became professor of zoology and director of the museum
in the university of Halle. He died at Halle on the 14th of
November 1881. His chief publications were Palaozoologie
(1846); Fauna der Vorwelt (1847-1856); Deutschlands Petre-
facten (1852); Odontograpkie (3$&)r L&rlmk der Zwfagie
(1857) ; Thesaurus ornithologiae (1872-1877).
GIEN, a town of central France, capital of an arrondissement
in the department of Loiret, situated on the. right bank of the
Loire, 39 m. E.S*E. of Orleans by rail, JPpp* (1906) G325* Gien
is a picturesque and interesting town and has many curious old
houses. The Loire is here crossed by a stone bridge of twelve
arches, built by Anne de Beaujeu, daughter of Louis XI., about
the end of the 15th century. N$ar it stands, a statue of Ver-
cingetorix. The principal building is« the old castle used as a
law-court, constructed of brick and stone arranged in geometrical
patterns, and built in 1494 by Anne de Beaujeu. The church
of St Pierre possesses a square tower dating from the end of the
15th century. Porcelain is manufactured.
GIERS, NICHOLAS KARLOVICH DE (18 20- 1895), Russian
statesman, was born on the 21st of May 1820. Like his pre-
decessor, Prince Gorchakov, he was educated at the lyceum of
Tsarskoye Selo, near St Petersburg, but his career was much less
rapid, because he had no influential protectors, and was hanqUr
capped by being a Protestant of Teutonic origin. At the age
of eighteen he entered the service of the Eastern department
of the ministry of foreign affairs, and spent more than twenty
years in subordinate posts, chiefly in south-eastern Europe,
until he was promoted in 1863 to the post of minister pleni-
potentiary in Persia. Here, he remained for six years, and,
after serving as a minister in Switzerland and Sweden, he was
appointed in 1875 director of the Eastern department and
assistant minister for foreign affairs under Prince Gorchakov,
whose niece he had married. No sooner had he entered on his
new duties than his great capacity for arduous work was put
to a severe test. Besides events in central Asia, to which he
had to devote much attention, the Hexzegovinian insurrection
had broken out, and he could perceive from secret official papers
that, the incident had far-reaching ramifications unknown to
the general public. Soon this became apparent to all the world.
While the Austrian officials in Dalmatia, with hardly a pretence
of concealment, were assisting the insurgents, Russian volunteers
were flocking to Servia with the connivance of the Russian and
Austrian governments, and General Ignatiev, as ambassador in
* The names are vocalized to suggest the fanciful interpretations
" victim " and " protection withheld.".
4 As the account of this has been lost and the narrative is concerned
not with the plain of Jezreel but rather with Shechem, it has been
inferred that the episode implies the existence of a distinct story
wherein Gideon's pursuit is such an apt, of vengeance. „
GlESE&RECttlF-^GlESBLER
Constantinople, was urging his government to take advantage
of the palpable weakness of Turkey for bringing about a radical
solution of the Eastern question. Prince Gorchakov did not want
a radical solution involving a great European war, but he was too
fond of ephemeral popularity to stem the current of popular
excitement. Alexander II., personally averse from tfar, was
not insensible to the patriotic enthusiasm, and halted between
two opinions. M. de Giers was one of the few who gauged the
situation accurately. As an official and a man of non-Russian
extraction he had to be extremely reticent, but to his intimate
friends he condemned severely the ignorance and fight-hearted
recklessness of those around him. The event justified his sombre
previsions, but did not cure the recklessness of the so-called
patriots. They wished to defy Europe in order to maintain
intact the treaty of San Stefano, and again M. de Giers found
himself in an unpopular minority. He had to remain in the back-
ground, but all the influence he possessed was thrown into the
scale of peace. His views, energetically supported by Count
Shuvalov, finally prevailed, and the European congress assembled
at Berlin. He was not present at the congress, and consequently
escaped the popular odiuin for the concessions which Russia
had to make to Great Britain and Austria. From that time he
was practically minister of foreign affairs, for Prince Gorchakov
was no longer capable of continued intellectual exertion, and
lived mostly abroad. On the death of Alexander H. in 1881 it
was generally expected that M. de Giers would be dismissed
as deficient in Russian nationalist feeling, for Alexander III:
was credited with strong anti-German Slavophil tendencies
In reality the young tsar had no intention of embarking on wild
political adventures, and Was fully determined not to let his hand
be forced by men less cautious than himself. What he wanted
was a minister of foreign affairs who would be at once vigilant
and prudent, active and obedient, and who would relieve him
from the trouble and worry of routine work while allowing him
to control the main nneS, and occasionally the details, of the
national policy. M. de Giers was exactly what he wanted,
and accordingly the tsar not only appointed him minister of
foreign affairs on the retirement of Prince Gorchakov in 1882,
but retained tiirii to the end of his reign in 1894. In accordance
with the desire of his august master, M. de Giers followed system-
atically a pacific policy. Accepting as &fait accompli the existence
of the triple alliance, created by Bismarck for the purpose of
resisting any aggressive action on the part of Russia and France,
he sought to establfeh more friendly relations with the cabinets
of Berlin, Vienna arid Rome. To the advances of the French
government he at first turned a deaf ear, but when the rapproche-
ment between the two countries was effected with little or no
co-operation on his part, he utilized it for restraining France and
promoting Russian interests. He died on the 26th of January
1895, soon after the accession of Nicholas II. (D. M. W.)
GIBSBBRECHT, WILHBLM YON (18 14-1889), German
historian, was a son of Karl Giesebrecht (d. 1832), and a nephew
of the poet Ludwig Giesebrecht (1792-1873). Born in Berlin
on the 5th of March 1814, he studied under Leopold von Ranke,
and his first important work, Geschichie Ottos 1 /., was contributed
to Rankers Jakrbiicher des deutschen Reichs unter dem s&chsischen
Hause (Berlin, 1837-1840). In 1841 he published his Jakrbiicher
des Klosters Altaick, a reconstruction of the lost Annates Alta-
henses, a medieval source of which fragments only were known
to be extant, and these were obscured in other chronicles. The
brilliance of this performance was shown in 1867, when a copy
of the original chronicle was found, and it was seen that Giese-
brecht's text was substantially correct. In the meantime he had
been appointed Oberlekrer in the Joachimsthaler Gymnasium
in Berlin; had paid a visit to Italy, and as a result of his re-
searches there had published De litterarum studiis apud Italos
prints medii aevi seculis (Berhn, 1845), a study upon the survival
of culture in Italian 1 cities during the middle ages, and also
several critical essays upon the sources for the early history of
the popes. In 185 1 appeared his translation of the Historiae
of Gregory 6f Tours, which is the standard German translation.
Four years later appeared the first volume of his great work,
Geschichie der deutschen Kaiserzeit] the fifth volume of which
was published hi 1888. This work was the first in which the
results of the scientific methods of research were thrown open to
the world at large. Largeness of style and brilliance of portrayal
were joined to an absolute mastery of the sources in a way
hitherto unachieved by any German historian. Yet later
German historians have severely criticized his glorification of
the imperial era with its Italian entanglements, in which the
interests of Germany were sacrificed for idle glory. Giesebrecht's
history, however, appeared when the new German empire was
in the making, and became popular owing both to its patriotic
tone and its intrinsic merits. In 1857 he went to Konigsberg as
professor ordinarius, and in 1862 succeeded H. von Sybel as
professor of history in the university of Munich. The Bavarian
government honoured him in various ways, and he died at Munich
on the 17th of December 1889. In addition to the works already
mentioned, Giesebrecht published a good monograph on Arnold
of Brescia (Munich, 1873), a collection of essays under the title
Deutsche Reden (Munich, 1871), and was an active member
of the group of scholars who took over the direction of the
Monumenta Getmomae historica in 1875. In 1895 B. von
Simson added a sixth volume to the Geschichte der deutschen
Kaiserteit, thu9 bringing the work down to the death of the
emperor Frederick I. in 1190.
See S. Riefcler, Geddchtnisrede auf WitheUn von Giesebrecht (Munich,
1 891); and Lord Acton in the English Historical Review, vol. v.
(London, 1890).
GIBSELER, JOHANN KARL LUDWIG (1792-1854), German
writer on church history, was born on the 3rd of March 1792 at
Petershagen, near Minden, where his father, Georg Christof
Friedrichi was preadher. In his tenth year he entered the
orphanage at Halle, whence he duly passed to the university,
his studies being interrupted, however, from October 1813 till
the peace of 181 5 by a period of military service, during which
he was enrolled as a volunteer in a regiment of chasseurs. On
the conclusion of peace (181 5) he returned to Halle, and, having
in 1817 taken: his, degree in philosophy, he in the same year
became assistant head master {Conrector) in the Miiiden gym-
nasium, and in 1818 was appointed director of tha gymnasium
at Cleves. Here he published his earliest work (Historisck-
kritischer Versucfi ilber die Entstehung u* die jriikesten Schicksak
der sckriftiicken Evangdien), a. treatise which had considerable
influence on subsequent investigations as to the origin of the
gospels.. In 181 9. Gieseler was appointed a professor ordinarius
in theology in the newly founded university of Bonn, where,
besides lecturing on church history, he made important con-
tributions to the literature of that subject in Ernst RosenmuMler's
Rjepertorium, JiL F. Staudlin and H. G. Tschirner's Archiv,
and in various university " programs." The first part of the
first volume of his well-known Church History appeared in 1824.
In 1 813 1 he accepted a call to Gbttingen as successor to J. G.
Planet He lectured on church history, the history of dogma, and
dogmatic theology. In 1837 he was appointed a Consistorial-
rath, and shortly afterwards was created a knight of the Guelphic
order. He died on the 8th of July 1854. The fourth and fifth
volumes of the Kirchengeschichte, embracing the period sub-
sequent to 1814, were published posthumously in 1855 by E. R.
Redepenning (1810-1883); and they were followed in 1856 by
a Dogmengeschichte, which is sometimes reckoned as the sixth
volume of the Church History. Among church historians
Gieseler continues to hold a high place. Less vivid and pictur-
esque in style than Karl Hase, conspicuously deficient in
Neander's deep and sympathetic insight into the more spiritual
forces by which church life is pervaded, he excels these and all
other contemporaries in the fulness and accuracy of his informa-
tion. His Lekrbuch der Kirchengeschichte, with its copious
references to original authorities, is of great value to the student:
" Gieseler wished that each age should speak for itself, since
only by this means can the peculiarity of its ideas be fully
appreciated " (Otto Pfleiderer, Development of Theology, p. 284).
The work, which has passed through several editions in Germany,
has partially appeared also in two English translations. That
GIESSEN— GIPFORD, R. S.
published in New York (Text Book of Ecclesiastical History,
5 vols.) brings the work down to the peace of Westphalia, while
that published in " Clark's Theological Library " {Compendium
of Ecclesiastical History, Edinburgh, 5 vols.) closes with the
beginning of the Reformation. Gieseler was not only a devoted
student but also an energetic man of business. He frequently
held the office of pro-rector of the university, and did much
useful work as a member of several of its committees.
GIESSEN, a town of Germany, capital of the province of
Upper Hesse, in the grand-duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt, is situated
in a beautiful and fruitful valley at the confluence of the Wieseck
with the Latin, 41 m. N.N.W. of Frankfort-on-Main on the
railway to Cassel, and at the junction of important lines to
Cologne and Cobienz. Pop. (1885) 18,836; (1005) 29,149. In
the old part of the town the streets are narrow and irregular.
Besides the university, the principal buildings are the Stadt-
kirche, the provincial government offices, comprising a portion
of the old castle dating from the 12th century, the arsenal (now
barracks) and the town-hall (containing an historical collection).
The university, founded in 1607 by Louis V., landgrave of Hesse,
has a large and valuable library, a botanic garden, an observatory,
medical schools, a museum of natural history, a chemical
laboratory which was directed by Justus von Liebig, professor
here from 1824 to 1852, and an agricultural college. The
industries include the manufacture of woollen and cotton cloth
of various kinds, machines, leather, candles, tobacco and beer.
Giessen, the name of which is probably derived from the streams
which pour (giessen) their waters here into the Lahn, was formed
in the 12th century out of the villages Selters, Aster and
Kxoppach, for whose protection Count William of Gleiberg built
the castle of Giessen. Through marriage the town came, in 1 203,
into the possession of the count palatine, Rudolph of Tubingen,
who sold it in 1265 to the landgrave Henry of Hesse. It was
surrounded with fortifications in 1530, which were demolished
in 1547, but rebuilt in 1560. In 1805 they were finally pulled
down, and their site converted into promenades.
See O. Buchner, Fuhrer fOr Giessen und das Lahntal (189 1); and
Aus Giessens Vcrgangenheit (1885).
GIFFARD, GODFREY (c. 1235-1302), chancellor of England
and bishop of Worcester, was a son of Hugh Giffard of Boyton,
Wiltshire. Having entered the church he speedily obtained
valuable preferments owing to the influence of his brother
Walter, who became chancellor of England in 1265. I& I2 ^
Godfrey became chancellor of the exchequer, succeeding Walter
as chancellor of England when, in the same year, the latter was
made archbishop of York. In 1268 he was chosen bishop of
Worcester, resigning the chancellorship shortly afterwards;
and both before and after 1279, when he inherited the valuable
property of his brother the archbishop, he was employed on
public business by Edward I. His main energies, however,
were devoted to the affairs of his see. He had one long dispute
with the monks of Worcester, another with the abbot of West-
minster, and was vigilant in guarding his material interests.
The bishop died on the 26th of January 1302, and was buried
in his cathedral. Giffard, although inclined to nepotism, was
a benefactor to his cathedral, and completed and fortified the
episcopal castle at Hartlebury.
See W. Thomas, Survey of Worcester Cathedral; Episcopal Registers ;
Register of Bishop Godfrey Giffard, edited by J. W. Willis-Bund
(Oxford, 1 898-1 899); and the Annals of Worcester in the Annates
monastics, vol. iv. t edited by H. R. Luard (London, 1869).
GIFFARD, WALTER (d. 1279), chancellor of England and
archbishop of York, was a son of Hugh Giffard of Boyton,
Wiltshire, and after serving as canon and archdeacon of Wells,
was chosen bishop of Bath and Wells in May 1264. 1° August
1265 Henry III. appointed him chancellor of England, and he
was one of the arbitrators who drew up the dictum de Kenilworth
in 1266. Later in this year Pope Clement IV. named him arch-
bishop of York, and having resigned the chancellorship he was
an able and diligent ruler of his see, although in spite of his
great wealth he was frequently in pecuniary difficulties. When
Henry III. died in November 1272 the archbishopric of Canter-
bury was vacant, and consequently the great seal was delivered
to the archbishop of York, who was the chief of the three regents
who successfully governed the kingdom until the return of
Edward I. in August 1274. Having again acted in this capacity
during the king's absence in 1275, Giffard died in April 1279,
and was buried in his cathedral
See Fasti Eboracenses, edited by J. Raine (London, 1863). Giffard's
Register from 1266 to 1279 h* 3 been edited for the Surtees Society by
W. Brown.
GIFFARD, WILLIAM (d. 1129), bishop of Winchester, was
chancellor of William II. and received his see, in succession to
Bishop Walkelin, from Henry I. (1 100). He was one of the bishops
elect whom Anselm refused to consecrate (1101) as having been
nominated and invested by the lay power. During the investi-
tures dispute Giffard was on friendly terms with Anselm, and
drew upon himself a sentence of banishment through declining
to accept consecration from the archbishop of York (1 103) . He
was, however, one of the bishops who pressed Anselm, in 1106,
to give way to the king. He was consecrated after the settle-
ment of 1 107. He became a close friend of Anselm, aided the
first Cistercians to settle in England, and restored Winchester
cathedral with great magnificence.
See Eadmer, Historia novorum, edited by M. Rule (London,
1884) ; and S. H. Cass, Bishops of Winchester (London, 1827).
GIFFEN, SIR ROBERT (1837-1910), British statistician and
economist, was born at Strathaven, Lanarkshire. He entered
a solicitor's office in Glasgow, and while in that city attended
courses at the university. He drifted into journalism, and after
working for the Stirling Journal he went to London in 1862 and
joined thestaff of the Globe. He also assisted Mr John (afterwards
Lord) Morley, when the latter edited the Fortnightly Review.
In 1868 he became Walter Bagehot's assistant-editor on the
Economist; and his services were also secured in 1873 as city-
editor of the Daily News, and later of The Times. His high
reputation as a financial journalist and statistician, gained in
these years, led to his appointment in 1876 as head of the
statistical department in the Board of Trade, and subsequently
he became assistant secretary (1882) and finally controller-
general (1892), retiring in 1897. In connexion with his position
as chief statistical adviser to the government, he was constantly
employed in drawing up reports, giving evidence before commis-
sions of inquiry, and acting as a government auditor, besides
publishing a number of important essays on financial subjects.
His principal publications were Essays on Finance (1879 and
1884), The Progress of the Working Classes (1884), The Growth
of Capital (1800), The Case against Bimetallism (1892), and
Economic Inquiries and Studies (1904). He was president of the
Statistical Society (1882-1884); and after being made a C.B.
in 189 1 was created K.CJB. in 1895. I& l &9* ne w2iS elected a
Fellow of the Royal Society. Sir Robert Giffcn continued in
later years to take a leading part in all public controversies
connected with finance and taxation, and his high authority
and practical experience were universally recognized. He died
somewhat suddenly in Scotland on the 12th of April 1910.
GIFFORD, ROBERT SWAIN (1840- 1905), American marine
and landscape painter, was born on Naushon Island, Massa*
chusetts, on the 23rd of December 1840. He studied art with
the Dutch marine painter Albert van Beest, who had a studio
in New Bedford, and in 1864 he opened a studio for himself in
Boston, subsequently settling in New York, where he was elected
an associate of the National Academy of Design in 1867 and an
academician in 1878. He was also a charter member of the
American Water Color Society and the Society of American
Artists. From 1878 until 1896 he was teacher of painting
and chief master of the Woman's Art School of Cooper
Union, New York, and from 1896 until his death he was director*
Gifford painted longshore views, sand dunes and landscapes
generally, with charm and poetry. He was an etcher of consider-
able reputation, a member of the Society of American Etchers,
and an honorary member of the Society of Painter-Etchers of
London. He died in New York on the 13th of January 1905.
GIFFORD, S. R.-^GIGLIO
5
GIFFORD, SANDFORD ROBINSON (1823-1880), American
landscape painter, was born at Greenfield, New York, on the 10th
of July 1823. He studied (1842-1845) at Brown University, then
went to New York, and entered the art schools of the National
Academy of Design,, of which organization he was elected an
associate in 1851, and an academician in 1854. Subsequently
he studied in Paris and Rome, He was one of the best known
of the Hudson River school group, though it was at Lake George
that he found most of his themes. In his day he enjoyed an
enormous popularity, and his canvases are in many well-known
American collections. He died in New York City on the 29th of
August 1880.
GIFFORD, WILUAM (17 56-1 826), English publicist and man
of letters, was bom at Ashburton, Devon, in April 1756. His
father was a glazier of indifferent character, and before he
was thirteen William had lost both parents. The business was
seized by his godfather, on whom William and his brother, a
child of two, became entirely dependent* For about three
months William was allowed to remain at the free school of the
town. He was then put to follow the plough, but after a day's
trial he proved unequal to the task, and was sent to sea with the
Brixham fishermen. After a year at sea his godfather, driven
by the opinion of the townsfolk, put the boy to school once more.
He made rapid progress, especially in mathematics, and began
to assist the master. In 1 77 2 he was apprenticed to a shoemaker,
and when he wished to pursue his mathematical studies, he was
obliged to work his problems with an awl on beaten leather.
By the kindness of an Ashburton surgeon, William Cooksley,
a subscription was raised to enable him to return to school.
Ultimately he proceeded in his twenty-third year to Oxford,
where he was appointed a Bible clerk in Exeter College. Leaving
the university shortly after graduation in 1 782, he found a generous
patron in the first Earl Grosvenor, who undertook to provide
for him, and sent him on two prolonged continental tours in the
capacity of tutor to his son, Lord Belgrave. Settling in London,
Gifford published in 1794 his first work, a clever satirical piece,
after Persius, entitled the Baviad, aimed at a coterie of second-
rate writers at Florence, then popularly known as the Delia
Cruscans, of which Mrs Piozzi was the leader. A second satire
of a similar description, the Maeviad, directed against the corrup-
tions of the drama, appeared in 1795. About this time Gifford
became acquainted with Canning, with whose help he in August
1797 originated a weekly newspaper of Conservative politics
entitled the Anti-Jacobin, which, however, in the following
year ceased to be published. An English version , of Juvenal,
on which he had been fox many years engaged, appeared in 1802;
to this an autobiographical notice of the translator, reproduced
in Nichol's Illustrations of Literature, was prefixed. Two years
afterwards Gifford published an annotated edition of the plays
of Massinger; and in 1809, when the Quarterly Review was
projected, he was made editor. The success which attended the
Quarterly from the outset was due in no small degree to the
ability and tact with which Gifford discharged his editorial
duties. He took, however, considerable liberties with the
articles he inserted, and Southey, who was one of his regular
contributors, said that Gifford looked on authors as Izaak
Walton did on worms. His bitter opposition to Radicals and
his onslaughts on new writers, conspicuous among which was
the article on Keats's Endymion, called forth Hazlitt's Letter
to W. Gifford in 1 819. His connexion with the Review continued
until within about two years of his death, which took place in
London on the 31st of December 1826. Besides numerous
contributions to the Quarterly during the last fifteen years of his
life, he wrote a metrical translation of Persius, which appeared
in 1821. Gifford also edited the dramas of Ben Jonson in 1816,
and his edition of Ford appeared posthumously in 1827. His
notes on Shirley were incorporated in Dyce's edition in 1833.
His political services were acknowledged by the appointments
of commissioner of the lottery and paymaster of the gentle-
man pensioners. He left a considerable fortune, the bulk
of which went to the son of his first benefactor, William
Cooksley.
GIFT (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger, die Gift, gift, das
Gift, poison, formed from the Teut. stem gab-, to give, cf . Dutch
geven, Ger. geben; in O. Eng. the word appears with initial y,
the guttural of later English is due to Scandinavian influence), a
general English term for a present or thing bestowed, i.e. an
alienation of property otherwise than for a legal consideration,
although in law it is often used to signify alienation with or
without consideration. By analogy the terms "gift" and
" gifted " are also used to signify the natural endowment of
some special ability, or a miraculous power, in a person, as being
not acquired in the ordinary way. The legal effect of a gratuit-
ous gift only need be considered here. Formerly in English
law property in land could be conveyed by one person to another
by a verbal gift of the estate accompanied by delivery of posses-
sion. The Statute of Frauds required all such conveyances to
be in writing, and a later statute (8 & 9 Vict; c. 106) requires
them to be by deed. Personal property may be effectually
transferred from one person to another by a simple verbal gift
accompanied by delivery. If A delivers a chattel to B, saying
or signifying that he does so by way of gift, the property passes,
and the chattel belongs to B. But unless the actual thing is
bodily handed over to the donee, the mere verbal expression pf
the donor's desire or intention has no legal effect whatever.
The persons are in the position of parties to an agreement which
is void as being without consideration. When the nature of
the thing is such that it cannot be bodily handed over, it will
be sufficient to put the donee in such a position as to enable him
to deal with it as the owner. For example, when goods are in a
warehouse, the delivery of the key will make a verbal gift of
them effectual; but it seems that part delivery of goods which
are capable of actual delivery will not validate a verbal gift of
the part undelivered. So when goods are in the possession of a
warehouseman, the handing over of a delivery order might, by
special custom (but not otherwise, it appears), be sufficient to
pass the property in the goods, although delivery of a bill of
lading for goods at sea is equivalent to an actual delivery of the
goods themselves.
GIFU (ImaIzumi), a city of Japan, capital of the ken (govern-
ment) of Central Nippon, which comprises the two. provinces
of Mino and Hida. Pop. about 41,000. It lies E. by N. of Lake
Biwa, on the Central railway, on a tributary of the river Kiso,
which flows to the Bay of Miya Uro. Manufactures of silk and
paper goods are carried on. The ken has an area of about
4000 sq. m. and is thickly peopled, the population exceeding
1 ,000,000. The whole district is subject to frequent earthquakes.
GIG r apparently an onomatopoeic word for any light whirling
object, and so used of a top, as in Shakespeare's Love's Labour's
Lost, v. i. 70 (" Goe whip thy gigge "), or of a revolving lure
made of feathers for snaring birds. The word is now chiefly
used of a light two-wheeled cart or carriage for one horse, and
of a narrow, light, ship's boat for oars or sails, and also of a
clinker-built rowing-boat used for rowing on the Thames.
" Gig " is further applied, in mining, to a wooden chamber or
box divided in the centre and used to draw miners up and down
a pit or shaft, and to a textile machine, the " gig-mill " or
" gigging machine," which raises the nap on cloth by means
of teazels. A " gig " or " fish-gig " (properly " fiz-gig," possibly
an adaptation of Span, fisga, harpoon) is an instrument
used for spearing fish.
GIGLIO (anc. Igilium), an island of Italy, off the S.W. coast
of Italy, in the province of Grosseto, n m. to the W. of Monte
Argentario, the nearest point on the coast. It measures about
5 m. by 3 and its highest point is 1634 ft. above sea-level. Pop.
(1901) 2062. It is partly composed of granite, which was
quarried here by the Romans, and is still used; the island is
fertile, and produces wine and fruit, the cultivation of which has
taken the place of the forests of which Rutilius spoke (Itin. I
325, " eminus Igilii silvosa cacumina miror "). Julius Caesar
mentions its sailors in the fleet of Domitius Ahenobarbus. In
Rutilius's time it served as a place of refuge from the barbarian
invaders. Charlemagne gave it to the abbey of Tre Fontane at
Rome. In the 14th century it belonged to Pisa, then to Florence,
gij<5n— gilbart
then, after being seised by the Spanish fleet, it was ceded to
Antonio Piecolomini, nephew of Pius II. In 1558 it was
•old to the wife of Cosimo L of Florence.
See Archduke Ludwig Salvator, Die Insel GigHo (Prague, 1900).
GIJ6N. a seaport of northern Spain, in the province of Oviedo;
on the Bay of Biscay, and at the terminus of railways from
Avil6s, Oviedo and Langreo. Pop. (1000) 47,544- The older
parts of Gij6n, which are partly enclosed by ancient walls,
occupy the upper slopes of a peninsular headland, Santa Catalina
Point ; while its more modern suburbs extend along the shore
to Cape Torres, on the west, and Cape San Lorenzo, on the east.
These suburbs contain the town-hall, theatre, markets, and a
bull-ring with seats for 1 9,000 spectators. Few of the buildings
of GiJ6n are noteworthy for any architectural merit, except
perhaps the 15th-century parish church of San Pedro, which
has a triple row of aisles on each side, the palace of the mar-
quesses of Rcvillajigedo (or Revilla Gigedo), and the Asturian
Institute or Jovellanos Institute. The last named has a very
fine collection of drawings by Spanish and other artists, a good
library and classes for instruction in seamanship, mathematics
and languages. It was founded in 1707 by the poet and states-
man Gaspar Melchor dt Jovellanos (1744-1811). Jovellanos,
a native of Gijon, is buried in San Pedro.
The Bay of Gij6n is the most important roadstead on the
Spanish coast between Ferrol and Santander. Its first quay
was constructed by means of a grant from Charles V. in 1552-
1554; and its arsenal, added in the reign of Philip II. (1556-
1508), was used in 1588 as a repairing station for the surviving
ships of the Invincible Armada. A new quay was built in
1706-1768, and extended in 1850; the harbour was further
improved in 1804, and after 1802, when the Musel harbour of
refuge was created at the extremity of the bay. It was, how-
ever, the establishment of railway communication in 1884 which
brought the town its modern prosperity, by rendering it the chief
port of shipment for the products of Langreo and other mining
centres in (>viedo. A rapid commercial development followed.
Besides large tobacco, glass and porcelain factories, Gijon
(tossesscs iron foundries and petroleum refineries; while its
minor industries include fisheries, and the manufacture of pre-
served foods, soap, chocolate, candles and liqueurs. In 1003
the harbour accommodated .it So vessels of 358.375 tons. In
the same year the imports, consisting chiefly of machinery, iron,
wood and food-stufts. were valued at £ooo,SSo; while the
exports, comprising sine, copper, iron and other minerals, with
fish, nuts and farm produce, were valued at £ 1 00,04 1.
Gijon is usually identified with the Gigia of the Romans, which,
however, occupied the site of the adjoining suburb of Cima
de Villa. Rariy in the Sth century Gijon was captured and
strengthened by the Moors, who used the stones of the Roman
city tor their tot ificat tans, but were expelled by King Pelayo
p x*-\o\ In $44 Gijon successfully resisted a Xorman raid; in
1305 it was burned down; but thenceforward it gradually rose
to comwiefcial importance
QlLiK vGmi v\\ GvuakV one of the three small but important
Caspian provinces of rersia. lying along the south-western shore
of the Caspian Sea between 4$* 50* and 50* 30' E* with a breadth
varying from 15 to 50 wu It has an area of about 5000
sq. m. and a imputation of about £50.000* It is separated from
Russia by the li::le river Astanu whkh flows into the Caspian,
and Knifed \\\ by Aaert*$iR. $. by Kaivin and E. by Masan-
daran, Vhv greater pocv.oe. of the province is a lowland region
e\?endi:\g fcvand tram the «* ;o the base of the mountains of the
K'.bur* r»njee ar*i thoqph ;he Set5d Rod (White river), which is
ttu*.<\i K*V.i Vttia :» :ts epper course and has its principal
soutves :a the h:l& of FVr&tst Runhstan. is the only river of any
swe. the rr\>vsr*f » aN:>iar.:Ly watered by many streams
and an eJKvf^KvaCy $?*»: rainfall vin some years 50 in.V
TV vejKUtvc b wry rrtoch like that of southern Europe,
but in <\>ctaft?aefiot of the great humidity and the rr.iid climate
afoft** trop^ai:> harrria:*:. and the forests :t\me the shore of
the sea t^ :o a* ah ~ude of r*\tT*y 5000 ft. oa the mountain "
sH^s Uc*.r^ ;be set& are as der.s* as an Incisn jungle. The *
prevailing types of trees are the oak, maple, hornbeam, beech,
ash and elm. The box tree comes to rare perfection, but in
consequence of indiscriminate cutting for export during many
years, is now becoming scarce. Of fruit trees the apple, pear,
plum, cherry, medlar, pomegranate, fig, quince, as well as two
kinds of vine, grow wild; oranges, sweet and bitter, and other
Aurantiaceae thrive well in gardens and plantations. The fauna
also is well represented, but tigers which once were frequently
seen are now very scarce; panther, hyena, jackal, wild boar,
deer (Cenms moral) are common; pheasant, woodcock, ducks,
teal, geese and various waterfowl abound; the fisheries are very
productive and are leased to a Russian firm. The ordinary
cattle of the province is the small humped MrUi,.Jfcr indkus,
and forms an article of export to Russia? the humps, smoked,
being much in demand as a delicacy. Rice of a kind not much
appreciated in Persia, but much esteemed in Gilan and Russia,
is largely cultivated and a quantity valued at about £120,000
was exported to Russia during 1004-1005. Tea plantations,
with seeds and plants from Assam, Ceylon and the Himalayas,
were started in the early part of 1000 on the slopes of the hills
south of Resht at an altitude of about 1000 ft. The results were
excellent and very good tea was produced in 1004 and 1005,
but the Persian government gave no support and the enterprise
was neglected. The olive thrives well at Rudbai and Manjfl
in the Seffd Rtid valley and the oil extracted from it by a Pro-
vencal for some years until 1896, when he was murdered, was of
very good quality and found a ready market at Baku. Since
then the oil has been, as before, only used for the manufacture of
soap. Tobacco from Turkish seed, cultivated since 1875, grows'
well, and a considerable quantity of it is exported. The most
valuable produce of the province is silk. In i860 it was valued
at £743,000 and about two-thirds of it was exported. The silk-
worm disease appeared in 1864 and the crops decreased in con-
sequence until 1893 when the value of the silk exported was no
more than £6500. Since then there has been a steady improve-
ment, and in 1005-1906 the value of the produce was estimated
at £300,000 and that of the quantity exported at £200,000.
The eggs of the silk- worms, formerly obtained from Japan, are
now imported principally from Brusa by Greeks under French
protection and from France.
There is only one good road in the province, that from Enseli
to Kazvin by way of Resht; in other parts communication is
by narrow and frequently impassable lanes through the thick
forest, or by intricate pathways through the dense undergrowth.
The province is divided into the following administrative
districts: Resht (with the capital and its immediate neighbour-
hood), Fnmen (with Tularn and Mesnla, where are iron mines),
Gesker, Talish (with Shandarman, Kerganrud, Asalim, G0-
Dulab, Talish-Dulab). Enseti (the port of Resht), Sheft, Manjfl
(with Rahmetabad and Amariu), Lahijan (with Langarud,
Rudsar and Ranehknh), Oilman and I«ashtnisha. The revenue
derived from taxes and customs is about £80,000. The crown
lands have been much neglected and the revenue from them
amounts to hardly £3000 per annum. The value of the exports
and imports from and into Gflan, much of them in transit, as
dose upon £2,000.000.
Gilan was an independent khanate until 1567 when Khan
Ahmed, the last of the Kargia dynasty, which had reigned
905 years, was deposed by Tahmasp I., the second Safawid shah
of Persia (1524-1576^. It was occupied by a Russian force in
the early part of 1723: and Tahmasp HI., the tenth Safawid shah
(1 7 22-1 73 1 \ then without a throne and his country occupied
by the Afghans, ceded it. together with Mazandaran and Astara-
bad. to Peter the Great by a treaty of the 12th of September of
the same year. Russian troops remained in Gdan until 1734.
when they were compelled to evacuate it.
The derivation of the name Gilan from the modern Persian
word g& meaning mud 1 hence ** land of mud ' n is incorrect.
I: probably means ~ land of the Gil." an ancient tribe which
classes! writers mention as the Gelae. fA-H--S.>
GILBAKT, JAMBS WILLIAM • : -04-186 ;\ English writer on
h*r:k:r.g. was born in London on :he ns: of March 1704. From
GILBERT/. ALEKED^GaSEKT, SIR H.
s8i3<to .18*5 he was derkdnjk> London bank. - 'Affer-ri twtagrearGr'
residence inBian$Lngham, he wais: appointed manager -of the
Kilkenny -branchrof the Provincial Rapk of Ireland, and in 1S29
he was promoted to the. Waterjord branchi In 1834 he became
manager of the London and Westminster Bank; and be did much .
to develop' the system' of joint-stock banking. On more thaln
one occasion he Tendered valuable services to the joint-stock
hanks by his evidence before committees of the House of
Commons; and, on the renewal of the bank charter in 1844,
he procured the insertion, of a clause granting: to joint-stock
banks the power of suing by their pubhc officer, and also the
right of accepting balls at less than six months' date. In 1 846 he
was elected a fellow of the Royal Society. He died in London on
the &th of August 1863. The Gilbart .lectures on banking at
King's College are called after him.
The following, are his principal works on banking, most of which
have parsed through more than one edition : Practical Treatise on
Banking (i$27)- ffo History and Principles of Banking (1854);
The History of Banking in America (1837); Lectures an the History
and Principles of Ancient Commerce (1847) ; Logic for the Million
{iS$i)%wiJ^&f of Banking (t&S7h .
GILBSR'rV ALFRED (1854- , ),. British sculptor and
goldsmith, boxM in London, was the son of Alfred Gilbert,'
musician,' He* received his education mainly in Paris (ficole
des Beaux-Aorta, under rCaveher), and studied in Rome and
Florence where the significance of the Renaissance < made a
lasting impression upon him and his art. He also worked in
the studio of Sir J. Edgar Boehm, RjV. His first work of
importance was the charming group of the f * Mother and Child,"
then "• The Kiss of Victory," followed by " Perseus Arming "
(1883), produced directiy/uride^th^h^Biehce^'the Florentine
masterpieces he had studied Its success was great, and Lord
Leighton forthwith commissioned " Icarus," which was ex-
hibited at the Royal Academy in 1884, along with a remarkable
" Study* of a Head,") and was received with general applause.
Then followed *' The Enchanted Chair," which, along with many
other works: deemed by the artist incomplete or unworthy of
his powers, Was ultimately broken by the sculptor's own hand.
The next year Mr Gilbert was occupied with the Shaftesbury
Memorial Fountain, in Piccadilly, London, a work of great
originality and beauty, yet shorn of sonde of the intended effect
through restrictions put upon the artist. In 1888 was produced
the statue of H.M. Queen Victoria, set up at Winchester, in its
main design and in the details of its ornamentation the most
remarkable work of its kind produced in Great Britain, and
perhaps, it may be added, in any other country in modern times.
Other statues of great' beauty, at once novel' in treatment and
fine in design, are those set up to Lord Reay in Bombay, and
John Howard at Bedford (1898), the highly original pedestal
of which did much to direct into a better channel what are
apt to be the eccentricities of what is called the " New Art "
School. The sculptor rose to the full height of his powers in his
" Memorial to the Duke of Clarence," and his fast developing
fancy and imagination, which are the main characteristics of all
his work, are seen in his "Memorial Candelabrum to Lord Arthur
Russell " and " Memorial Font to the son of the 4th Marquess of
Bath. ' ' Gilbert's sense of decoration is paramount in* all he does,
and although in addition to the work already cited he pro-
duced busts of extraordinary excellence of Cyril Flower, John
R. Clayton (since broken up by the artist — the fate of much of
his admirable work), G. F. Watts, Sir Henry Tate, Sir George
Birdwood, Sir Richard Owen, Sir George Grove and various
others, it is on his goldsmithery that the artist would rest his
reputation;. on his mayoual chain for Preston, the epergne for
Queen Victoria, the figurines of " Victory " (a statuette designed
for the orb in the hand of the Winchester statue), " St Michael "
and "St George," as well' as smaller objects such as seals, keys
and the like. Mr Gilbert was chosen associate of the Royal
Academy in 1887, full member in 1892 (resigned 1009), and
professor of sculpture (afterwards resigned) in 1900. In 1889 he
won the Grand Prix at the Paris International Exhibition. He
was created a member of the Victorian Order in 1897. (See
Sculpture.;)
-,, Sf&Fhe&ifeand; Wnk tiAVyt Wberfy^^M,V>Q^C^.ky
Josepj^rjatton (Art Journal. Office, 1903). , , $C,.rt *§.)/
GIUJtERT, ANN (1821-1904), American actress,. was born at
Rochdale, Lancashire, on the 21st of October 18 21, her maiden
najne being Hartley. : At fifteen she was a pupil at the
ballet school connected with the Haymarket theatre, conducted
by Paul Taglioni, and became a dancer on the stage. In 1846
she married George H. Gilbert (d. 1866), a performer in the
company of which she was a member. Together they filled
many engagements in English theatres, moving to America in
1849. Mrs Gilbert's first success in a speaking part was in 1857
as Wichavenda in Brougham's Pocahontas. In 1869 she joined
Daly's company, playing for rnany years wives to James Lewis's
husbands, and old women's parts, in which she had no equal.
Mrs. Gilbert held a unique position on the American stage., on
account of the admiration, esteem and affection which she
enjoyed both in front and behind the footlights. She died at
Chicago on the 2nd of December 1904.
See Mrs Gilbert's Stage Reminiscences (1901).
GILBERT, GROVE KARL (1843- , ), American geologist,
was born at Rochester, N.Y., on the 6th of May 1843. In 1869
he was attached to the Geological Survey of Ohio and in
1879 he became a member of the United States Geological
Survey, being engaged on parts of the Rocky Mountains, in
Nevada, Utah, California and Arizona. He is distinguished
for his researches on mountain-structure and on the Great Lakes,
as well as on glacial phenomena, recent earth movements, and
on topographic features generally. His report on the Geology
of the Henry Mountains (1877), in which the volcanic structure
kn6wn 'as a laccolite was first described; his History of the
Niagara River (1800) and Lake Bonneville (1.891 — the first of
the Monographs issued by the United States Geological Survey)
are specially important. He was awarded the Wollaston medal
by the Geological Society of London in 1900.
GILBERT, SIR HUMPHREY {c. 1539-1583), English soldier,
navigator and pioneer colonist in America, was the second son of
Otho Gilbert, of Compton, near Dartmouth, Devon, and step-
brother of Sir Walter Raleigh. He was educated at Eton and
Oxford; intended for the law; introduced at court by Raleigh's
aunt, Catherine Ashley, and appointed (July 1566) captain in
the army of Ireland under Sir Henry Sidney. In April 1566
he had already joined with Antony Jenkinson. in a petition
to Elizabeth for the discovery of the North-East > Passage; in
November following he presented an independent petition for
the " discovering of a passage by the north to go to Cataia." In
October 1569 he became governor of Munster; on the 1st of
January 1570 he was knighted; in 1571 he was returned M.P.
for Plymouth; in 1572 he campaigned in the Netherlands
against Spain without much success; from 1573 to 1578 he
lived in retirement at Limehouse, devoting himself especially
to the advocacy of a North- West Passage (his famous Discourse
on this subject was published in 1576). Gilbert's arguments,
widely circulated even before 1575, were apparently of weight
in promoting the Frobisher enterprises of 1 576-1 578. On the
nth of June 1578, Sir Humphrey obtained his Jong-coveted
charter for North- Western discovery and colonization, authoriz-
ing him, his heirs and assigns, to discover, occupy and possess
such remote " heathen lands not actually possessed of any
Christian prince or people, as should seem good to him or them."
Disposing not only of his patrimony but also of the estates in
Kent which he had through his wife, daughter of John Aucher
of Ollerden, he fitted out an expedition which left Dartmouth
on the 23rd of September 1578, and returned in May 1579,
having accomplished nothing. In 1579 Gilbert aided the
government in Ireland; and in 1583, after many struggles —
illustrated by his appeal to Walsingham on the nth of July
1582, for the payment of moneys due to him from government,
and by his agreement with the Southampton venturers — he
succeeded in equipping another fleet for " Western Planting."
Oh the nth of June 1583, he sailed from Plymouth with five
ships and the queen's blessing; on the 13th of July the " Ark
Raleigh," built and manned at his brother's expense, deserted
«
GILBERT, J.— GILBERT, MARIE
the fleet; on the 30th of July he was off the north coast of
Newfoundland; on the 3rd of August he arrived off the present
St John's, and selected this site as the centre of his operations;
on the 5th of August he began the plantation of the first English
colony in North America. Proceeding southwards with three
vessels, exploring and prospecting, he lost the largest near Cape
Breton (29th of August); immediately after (31st of August)
he started to return to England with the " Golden Hind " and
the " Squirrel," of forty and ten tons respectively. Obstinately
refusing to leave the " frigate " and sail in his " great ship,"
he shared the former's fate in a tempest off the Azores. " Monday
the 9th of September," reports Hayes, the captain of the " Hind,"
" the frigate was near cast away, . . . .yet at that time recovered;
and, giving forth signs of joy, the general, sitting abaft with a
book in his hand, cried out unto us in the * Hind/ ' We are as near
to heaven by sea as by land.'. . . . The same Monday night, about
twelve, the frigate being ahead of us in the ' Golden Hind,'
suddenly her lights were out, .... in that moment the frigate
was devoured and swallowed up of the sea."
See Hakluyt, Principal Navigations (1599), vol. iii. pp. 135-181 ;
Gilbert's Discourse of a Discovery for a New Passage to Cataia, pub-
lished by George Gascoigne in 1576, with additions, probably
without Gilberts* authority; Hooker's Supplement to Holinsheds
Irish Chronicle; Roger Williams, The Actions of the Low Countries
(1618); State Papers, Domestic (1577-1583); Wood's Athenae
Oxonienses; North British Review, No. 45; Fox Bourne's English
Seamen under the Tudors; Carlos Slafter, Sir H. Gylberte and his
Enterprise (Boston, 1903), with all important documents. Gilbert's
interesting writings on the need of a university for London, anticipat-
ing in many ways not only the modern London University but also
the British Museum library and its compulsory sustenance through
the provisions of the Copyright Act, have been printed by Furnivall
(Queen Elizabeth's Achaaemy) in the Early English Text Society
Publications, extra series, No. viii.
• GILBERT, JOHN (1810-1889), American actor, whose real
name was Gibbs, was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on the
27th of February 1810, and made his first appearance there
as Jamer in Venice Preserved. He soon found that his true vein
was in comedy, particularly in old-men parts. When in London
in 1847 he was well received both by press and public, and played
with Macready. He was the leading actor at Wallack's from
1861-1888. He died on the 17th of June 1889.
See William Winter's Life of John Gilbert (New York, 1890).
GILBERT, SIR JOHN (1817-1897), English painter and
illustrator, one of the eight children of George Felix Gilbert,
a member of a Derbyshire family, was born at Blackheath on
the 21st of July 181 7. He went to school there, and even in
childhood displayed an extraordinary fondness for drawing and
painting. Nevertheless, his father's lack of means compelled
him to accept employment for the boy in the office of Messrs
Dickson & Bell, estate agents, in Charlotte Row, London.
Yielding, however, to his natural bent, his parents agreed that
he should take up art in his own way, which included but little
advice from others, his only teacher being Haydon's pupil, George
Lance, the fruit painter. This artist gave him brief instructions
in the use of colour. In 1836 Gilbert appeared in public for
the first time. This was at the gallery of the Society of British
Artists, where he sent drawings, the subjects of which were
characteristic, being " The Arrest of Lord Hastings/* from
Shakespeare, and "Abbot Boniface," from The Monastery of
Scott. " Inez de Castro " was in the same gallery in the next
year; it was the first of a long series of works in the same
medium, representing similar themes, and was accompanied,
from 1837, by a still greater number of works in oil which were
exhibited at the British Institution. These included "Don
Quixote giving advice to Sancho Panza," 1841; "Brunette
and Phillis," from The Spectator, 1844; "The King's Artillery
at Marston Moor," i860; and " Don Quixote comes back for
the last time to his Home and Family," 1867. In that year the
Institution was finally closed. Gilbert exhibited at the Royal
Academy from 1838, beginning with the " Portrait of a Gentle-
man," and continuing, except between 1851 and 1867, till his
death to exhibit there many of his best and more ambitious
works. These included such capital instances as "Holbein
painting the Portrait of Anne Boleyn," " Don Quixote^ tot
Interview with the Duke and Duchess," 1842, " Charlemagne
visiting the Schools," 1846. "Touchstone and the Shepherd/*
and " Rembrandt," a very fine piece, were both there in 1867;
and in 1873 " Naseby," one of his finest and most picturesque
designs, was also at the Royal Academy. Gilbert was elected
A.R.A. 29th January 1872, and R.A. 29th June 1876. Besides
these mostly large and powerful works, the artist's true arena
of display was undoubtedly the gallery of the Old Water Colour
Society, to which from 1852, when he was elected an Associate
exhibitor, till he died forty-five years later, he contributed not
fewer than 270 drawings, most of them admirable because of the
largeness of their style, massive coloration, broad chiaroscuro,
and the surpassing vigour of their designs. These qualities
induced the leading critics to claim for him opportunities for
painting mural pictures of great historic themes as decorations of
national buildings. " The Trumpeter,"" The Standard-Bearer,"
" Richard II. resigning his Crown " (now at Liverpool), " The
Drug Bazaar at Constantinople," " The Merchant of Venice "
and " The Turkish Water-Carrier " are but examples of that
wealth of art which added to the attractions of the gallery in
Pall Mall. There Gilbert was elected a full Member in 1855,
and president of the Society in 187 1, shortly after which he was
knighted. As an illustrator of books, magazines and periodicals
of every kind he was most prolific To the success of the
Illustrated London News his designs lent powerful aid, and he
was eminently serviceable in illustrating the Shakespeare of Mr
Howard Staunton. He died on the 6th of October 1897.
(F.G.S.)
GILBERT, SIR JOSEPH HENRY (1817-1001), English
chemist, was born at Hull on the ist of August 1817. He
studied chemistry first at Glasgow under Thomas Thomson;
then at University College, London, in the laboratory of A. T.
Thomson (177&-1840), the professor of medical jurisprudence,
also attending Thomas Graham's lectures; and finally at Giessen
under Liebig. On his return to England from Germany he
acted for a year or so as assistant to his old master A. T. Thomson
at University College, and in 1843, after spending a short time in
the study of calico dyeing and printing near Manchester, accepted
the directorship of the chemical laboratory at the famous
experimental station established by Sir J. B. Lawes at
Rothamsted, near St Albans, for the systematic and scientific
study of agriculture. This position he held for fifty-eight years,
until his death on the 23rd of December 1001. The work which
he carried out during that long period in collaboration with
Lawes was of a most comprehensive character, involving the
application of many branches of science, such as chemistry,
meteorology, botany, animal and vegetable physiology, and
geology; and its influence in improving the methods of practical
agriculture extended all over the civilized world. Gilbert was
chosen a fellow of the Royal Society in i860, and in 1867 was
awarded a royal medal jointly with Lawes. In 1880 he presided
over the Chemical Section of the British Association at its
meeting at Swansea, and in 1882 he was president of the London
Chemical Society, of which he had been a member almost from
its foundation in 184 1. For six years from 1884 he filled the
Sibthorpian chair of rural economy at Oxford, and he was also
an honorary professor at the Royal Agricultural College, Ciren-
cester. He was knighted in 1893, the year in which the jubilee
of the Rothamsted experiments was celebrated.
GILBERT, MARIE DOLORES ELIZA ROSANNA ["Lola
Montez "J (1818-1861), dancer and adventuress, the daughter
of a British army officer, was born at Limerick, Ireland, in 181 8.
Her father dying in India when she was seven years old, and her
mother marrying again, the child was sent to Europe to be
educated, subsequently joining her mother at Bath. In 1837
she made a runaway match with a Captain James of the Indian
army, and accompanied him to India. In 1842 she returned
to England, and shortly afterwards her husband obtained a
decree nisi for divorce. She then studied dancing, making an
unsuccessful first appearance at Her Majesty's theatre, London,
in 1843, billed as " Lola Montez, Spanish dancer." Subsequently
GILBERT, N; J, L.^GILBEET, SIR W. S.
sift appeared with considerable success in Germany, Poland and
Russia. Thence she went /to Paris, and in 1847 appeared at
Munich, where she became the mistress of the old king of Bavaria,
Ludwig I.; she was naturalized, created comtesse de Landsfetd,
and given an income of £2000 a year. She soon proved herself
the real ruler of Bavaria, adopting a liberal and anti- Jesuit
policy. Her political opponents proved, however, too strong
for her, and in 1848 she was banished. In 1849 she came to
England, and in the- saime year was married to George Heald, a
young officer id the Guards, Her husband's guardian instituted
a prosecution for bigamy against her on the ground that her
divorce from Captain James had not been made absolute, and
she fled with Heald to Spain. In 1853, she appeared at the
Broadway theatre, New York, and in the following yew at
the Walnut Street theatre, Philadelphia. In 1853 Heald was
drowned at Lisbon, and in the same year she married the
proprietor of a San Francisco newspaper, but did not live long
with him. Subsequently she appeared in Australia, but returned,
in 1857, to act in America, and to lecture on gallantry. Her
health having broken down, she devoted the rest of her life to
visiting the outcasts of her own sex in New York, where,
stricken with paralysis, she died on the 17th of January 1861.
See E, B. D'Auvergne, Lola Montez (New York, 1909),
GILBERT, NICOLAS JOSEPH LAURENT (1751-1780), French
poet, was born at Fontenay-le-Chateau in Lorraine in 17 51.
Having completed his education at the college of Dole, he
devoted himself for a time to a half-scholastic, half-literary life
at Nancy, but in 1774 he found his way to the capital. As an
opponent of the Encyclopaedists and a panegyrist of Louis
XV., he received considerable pensions. He died in Paris on
the 1 2th of November 1780 from the results of a fall from his
horse. The satiric force of one or two of his pieces, as M on
Apologie (1778) and Le Dix-huiiihme Steele (1775), would alone
be sufficient to preserve his reputation, which has been further
increased by modern writers, who, like Alfred de Vigny in his
Stello (chaps. 7-13), considered him a victim to the spite of his
philosophic opponents. His best-known verses are the Ode
imtie* de phisieurs psaumes, usually entitled Adiem & la vie.
Among his other works may be mentioned Les Families de Darius
ei d'Ertdame, Jiistoire per sane (1770), Le Carnaval des auteurs
(i773)» Odes nouvelles et patriotiques (1775). Gilbert's CEuvres
completes were first published in 1788, and they have since been
edited by Mastrella (Paris, 1823), by Charles Nodier (1817 or 1825),
and by M. de Lescure (1882)4
GILBERT (or Gylberde), WILLIAM (1544-1603), the most
distinguished man of science in England during the reign of
Queen Elizabeth,- and the father of electric and magnetic science,
was a member of an ancient Suffolk family, long resident in
Clare, and was born on the 24th of May 1544 at Colchester,
where his father, Hierome Gilbert, became recorder. Educated
at Colchester school, he entered St John'«s College, Cambridge,
in 1558, and after taking the degrees of B. A. and M.A. in due
course, graduated M.D. in 1569, in which year he was elected
a senior fellow of his college. Soon afterwards he left Cambridge,
and alter spending three years in Italy and other parts of Europe,
settled hi 1573 in London, where he practised as a physician with
" great success and applause." He was admitted to the College
of Physicians probably about 1576, and from 1581 to 1500 was
one of the censors. In 1587 he became treasurer, holding the
office till 1592, and in 1589 he was one of the committee appointed
to superintend the preparation of the Pharmacopoeia Londinensis
which the college in that year decided to issue, but which did not
actually appear till 1618. In 1597 he was again chosen treasurer,
becoming at the same time consiliarius, and in 1599 he succeeded
to the presidency. Two years later he was appointed physician
to Queen Elizabeth, with the usual emolument of £100 a year.
After this time he seems to have removed to the court, vacating
his residence, Wingfield House, which was on Peter's Hill,
between Upper Thames Street and little Knightrider Street,
and close to the house of the College of Physicians. On the death
of the queen in 1603 he was reappointed by her successor; but
he did not long enjoy the honour, for he died, probably of the
plague, on jthe 30th of November (10th of December, N.S-)
1603, either in London or in Colchester. He was buried in the
latter town, in the chancel of Holy Trinity church, where a
monument, was erected to his memory. To the College of
Physicians he left his books, globes, instruments and minerals,
but they were destroyed in the great fire of London.
Gilbert's, principal work is his treatise on magnetism, entitled
De magnete, magneticisque corporibus, et de magno magnete
tellure (London, 1600; later editions— Stettin, 1628, 1633;
Frankfort, 1029, 1638). This work, which embodied the results
of many, years' research, was distinguished by its strict adherence
to the scientific method of investigation by experiment, and by
the originality of its matter, containing, as it does, an account
of the author's experiments on magnets and magnetic*! bodies
and on electrical attractions, and also his great conception that
the earth is nothing but a large magnet, and that it is this which
explains, not only the direction of the magnetic needle north and
south, but also the variation and dipping or inclination of the
needle. Gilbert's is therefore not merely the first, but the most
important, systematic contribution to the sciences of electricity
and magnetism. A posthumous work of Gilbert's was edited
by his brother, also called William, from two MSS. in the posses-
sion of Sir William Boswell; its title is De mundo nostro
sublunari philosophia nova (Amsterdam, 1651). He is the
reputed inventor besides of two instruments to enable sailors
" to find out the latitude without seeing of sun, moon or stars,"
an account of which is given in Thomas Blondeville's Theoriques
of the Planets (London, 1602). He was also the first advocate
of Copernican views in England, and he concluded that the fixed
stars are not all at the same distance from the earth.
It is a matter of great regret for the historian of chemistry
that Gilbert left nothing on that branch of science, to which he
was deeply devoted," attaining to great exactness therein." So
at least says Thomas Fuller, who in his Worthies of England pro-
phesied truly how he would be afterwards known: " Mahomet's
tomb at Mecca," he says, "is said strangely to hang up,
attracted by some invisible loadstone; but the memory of this
doctor will never fall to the ground, which his incomparable
book De magnete will support to eternity."
An English translation of the De magnete was published by P. F.
Mottelay in i8j>3» and another, with notes by S. r. Thompson, was
issued by the Gilbert Club of London in 1900.
GILBERT, SIR WILLIAM SCHWBNK (1836- ), English
playwright and humorist, son of William Gilbert (a descendant
of Sir Humphrey Gilbert), was born in London on the 18th of
November 1 836. His father was the author of a number of novels,
the best-known of which were Shirley Hall Asylum (1863) and
Dr Austin's Guests (1866). Several of these novels — which were
characterized by a singular acuteness and lucidity of style, by
a dry, subacid humour, by a fund of humanitarian feeling and by
a considerable medical knowledge, especially in regard to the
psychology of lunatics and monomaniacs — were illustrated by
his son, who developed a talent for whimsical draughtsmanship;
W. S. Gilbert was educated at Boulogne, at Ealing and at King's
College, graduating B.A. from the university of London in 1856,
The termination of the Crimean War was fatal to his project of
competing for a commission in the Royal Artillery, but he
obtained a post in the education department of the privy council
office (1857-X861). Disliking the routine work, he left the Civil
Service, entered the Inner Temple, was called to the bar in
November 1864, and joined the northern circuit. His practice
was inconsiderable, and his military and legal ambitions were
eventually satisfied by a captaincy in the volunteers and appoint-
ment as a magistrate for Middlesex (June 1891). In 186 1 the.
comic journal Fun was started by H. J. Byron, and Gilbert
became from the first a valued contributor. Failing to obtain an
entrle to Punchy he continued sending excellent comic verse
to Fun, with humorous illustrations, the work of his own pen,
over the signature of " Bab." A collection of these lyrics, in
which deft craftsmanship unites a titillating satire on the
deceptiveness of appearances with the irrepressible nonsense
of a Lewis Carroll, was issued separately in 1869 under tjie title
of Bab Ballads, and was followed by More Bab Ballads. The
xn. 1 a
10
y ■>' i&ILBERTlUE) LAJ PORREE < : U i )
two cottertionsfand Songs of a Savoyard were united iuafvohuhe
issued in 1898, with many new illustrations. The best of the
old cuts, such as> those depicting the "Bishop of Rum-riiFoo"
and the " Discontented Sugar Broker/' were preserved intact.
While remaining a staunch supporter of Fun, Gilbert was soon
imniersed in other journalistic work, and Ms position as dramatic
critic to the Illustrated Times turned his attention to the stage.
He had not to wait long for an opportunity. Early in December
i£66 T. W. Robertson was asked by Miss Herbert, lessee of the St
James's theatre, to find some one who could turn out a bright
Christmas piece in a fortnight, and suggested Gilbert; the latter
promptly produced Dulcamara, a burlesque of VElisire d' amort,
written in ten days, rehearsed in a week, and duly performed at
Christmas. He sold the piece outright for £30, a piece of rashness
which he had cause to regret, for it turned out a commercial
success. In 1870 he was commissioned by Buckstone to write a
blank verse fairy comedy, based upon Le Palais de la veriti,
the novel by Madame de Genlis. The result was The Palace
of Truth v a fairy drama, poor in structure but clever in workman-
ship, which served the purpose of Mr and Mrs Kendal in 1870
at the Haymarket. This was followed in 187 1 by Pygmalion
and Galatea, another three-act " mythological comedy," a clever
and effective but artificial piece. Another fairy comedy, The
Wicked World, written for Buckstone and the Kendals, was
followed in March 1873 by a burlesque version, in collaboration
with Gilbert A Beckett, entitled The Happy Land. Gilbert's
next dramatic ventures inclined more to the conventional
pattern, combining sentiment and a cynical humour in a manner
strongly reminiscent of his father's style. Of these pieces,
Sweethearts was given at the Prince of Wales's theatre, 7th
November 1874; Tom Cobb at the St James's, 24th April
1875; Broken Hearts at the Court, 9th December 1875; Dan'l
Druce (a drama in darker vein, suggested to some extent by
SUas Marner) at the Haymarket, nth September 1876; and
Engaged 2X the Haymarket, 3rd October 1877. The first and
last of these proved decidedly popular. Gretchen, a verse draitia
in four acts, appeared in 1879. A one-act piece, called Comedy
and Tragedy, was produced at the Lyceum, 26th January, 1884.
ISvo dramatic trifles of later date were Foggerty's Fairy and
Rozenkrantz and Guildenstem, a travesty of Hamlet, performed
at the Vaudeville in June 1891. Several of these dramas were
based upon short stories by Gilbert, a number of which had
appeared from tirne to time in the Christmas numbers of various
periodicals. The best of them have been collected in the volume
entitled Foggerty's Fairy, and other Stories. In the autumn of
1 87 1 Gilbert commenced his memorable collaboration (which
lasted over twenty years) with Sir Arthur Sullivan. The first
two comic operas, Thespis; of The Gods grown Old (26th
September 187 1) and Trial by Jury (Royalty, 25th March 1875)
were merely essays. Like one or two of their successors, they
were, as regards plot, little more than extended " Bab Ballads."
Later (especially in the Yeomen of the Guard), much more elabora-
tion Was attempted. The next piece was produced at the Opera
Comique (17th November 1877) as The Sorcerer. At the same
theatre were successfully given HM.S. Pinafore (25 th May
1878), The Pirates of Penzance; or The Slave of Duty (3rd April
1880), and Patience; or Bunthorrvfs Bride (23rd Aprii 1881). In
October 1881 the successful Patience was removed to a new
theatre, the Savoy, specially built for the Gilbert and Sullivan
operas by Richard D'Oyly Carte. Patience was followed, on
25th November 1882, by Iolanlhe; or The Peer and the Peri;
and then came, on 5th January 1884, Princess Ida; or
Castle Adamant, a re-cast of a charming and witty fantasia
which Gilbert had written some years previously, and had then
described as a " respectful perversion of Mr. Tennyson's exquisite
poem." The impulse reached its fullest development in the
operas that (Followed next in order — The Mikado; or The Town
of Titipu (14th March 1885); Ruddigore (22nd January 1887);
The Yeomen of the Guard (3rd October 1888); and The Gondoliers
(7th December 1889). After the appearance of The Gondoliers
a coolness occurred between the composer and librettist, owing
to Gilberts considering' that Sullivan had not supported nim in
a business disagreement with D'Oyly Carte, But the estrange-
ment was only temporary. Gilbert wrote several mare libretto* 1 ,
and of these Utopia Limited (1893V and the exceptionally witty
Gfand> Duke (1896) were written in conjunction with SullivaxU
As a master of metre Gilbert had *hown himself consummate,
as a dealer in quips ami paradoxes and ludicrous dilemma*,
unrivalled* Even for the music of the opJeras he deserves jsbme
credit, for the rhythms were frequently fate own (as mf c I haJve<a
Song to Sing, O ■"), and the inetre* were io- many cases invented
by himself. One or two of his librettos, 'such as that of Patience*.
are virtually flawless. Enthusiasts are divided only as to the
comparative merit of the operas. Princess Ida and Patience
are in some respects the daintiest. There is a genuine vein of
poetry in The Yeomen of the Guard. Some of the drollest songs
are in Pinafore and Ruddigore. The Gondoliers shows the most
charming lightness of touch, while with the general public The
Mikado proved the favourite. The enduring popularity of the
Gilbert and Sullivan operas was! abundantly proved by later
revivals. Among the birthday honours in June 1907 Gilbert was
given a knighthood. In 1909 his Fallen Fairies (music by
Edward German) was produced at the 'Savoy. (T. Sb.)
GILBERT DE LA PORKER, frequently known as Gilbertus
Porretanus or Pictaviensis (1070-1154), scholastic logician and
theologian, was bora at Poitiers. He Was educated under
Bernard of Chartres and Anselm of Laon. After teaching for
about twenty years in Chartres, he lectured on dialectics and
theology in Paris (from 1137) and in ri'41 returned to Poitiers,
being elected bishop in the following year. His heterodox
opinions regarding the doctrine of the Trinity drew upon his
works the condemnation of the church. The synod of Reims
in 1 148 procured papal sanction for four propositions opposed
to certain of Gilbert's tenets, and his works were condemned
until they should be corrected in accordance with the principles
of the church. Gilbert seems to have submitted quietly to this
judgment; he yielded assent to the four propositions, and
remained on friendly terms with his antagonists till his death
on the 4th of September 1154. Gilbert is almost the only
logician of the 12th century who is quoted by the greater
scholastics of the succeeding age. His chief logical work, the
treatise De sex principiis, was regarded with a reverence almost
equal to that paid to Aristotle, and furnished matter for numerous
commentators, amongst them Albertus Magnus* Owing to the
fame of this work, he is mentioned by Dante as the Magister
sex principiorum. The treatise itself is a discussion of the
Aristotelian categories, specially of the six subordinate modes.
Gilbert distinguishes in the ten categories two ^classes, one
essential, the other derivative. Essential x>r inhering (format
inhaerentes) in the objects themselves are only substance, quantity,
quality and relation in the stricter sense of that term. The
remaining six, when, where, action, passion, position and habit,
are relative and subordinate (format assistentes). This suggestion
has some interest, but is of no great value; either in logic or in
the theory of knowledge. More' important in' the* 'history of
scholasticism are the theological consequences to winch Gilbert's
realism led bfm. In the commentary on the treatise De Trinitate
(erroneously attributed to BoStius) he proceeds from the
metaphysical notion that pure or abstract being is prior in nature
to that which is. This pure being is God, and must be distin-
guished from the triune God as known to us. God is incompre-
hensible, and the categories cannot be applied to determine his
existence. In God there is no distinction or difference, whereas
in all substances ot things there is duality, arising: from the
element of matter. Between pure being and substances stand
the ideas or forms* which subsist, though they are not substances.
These forms, when materialized, are called formae substantiates
or formae nativae; they are the essences t>f things, and in them-
selves have* no relation to the accidents of things* Things are
temporal, the ideas perpetual, God eternal. The pure form
of existence^ that by which God is God, must be distin-
guished from the three persons who are God by participation
in this form. The form or esseflc*' is one, the persons or
substances threei It was this distinction between Deitas of
GILBERT OF SEMPRINGHAM— GILBE Y
ii
Divinitaa and Deu^ that led to the condemnation of Gilbert's
doctrine. .
De sex principOs and commentary on the De Trinitate in Migne,
Patrologia Latina, lxiv. 1255 and clxxxviii. 1257; see also Abbe
Berthaud, Gilbert de la Porrte (Foitiers, 1892); B. Haureau,
De la philosophic scolastique, pp. 204-318; R. SchmidV article
44 Gilbert Porretanus" in Herzog-Hauck, Realettcyk. f. pretest
Theol. (vol. 6, 1809); Prantl, Geschichte d. Logik, ii. 215; Bach,
Dogmengeschichte, ii. 133 ; article Scholasticism.
GILBERT OF SEMPRINGHAJI, ST, founder of the Gilbertines,
the only religious order of English origin, was born at Sempring-
ham in Lincolnshire, & 1083-1089* He was educated in France,
and ordained in 1123, being presented by his father to the living
of Sempringham. About 113 5 he established there a convent for
nuns; and to perform the heavy work and cultivate the fields
he formed a number of labourers into a society of lay brothers
attached to the convent. Similar establishments were founded
elsewhere, and in 1x47 Gilbert tried to get them incorporated in
the Cistercian order. Failing in this, he proceeded to form
communities of priests and clerics i to perform the spiritual
ministrations needed by the nuns. The women lived according
to the Benedictine rule as Interpreted by the Cistercians; the
men according to the rule of St Augustine, and were canons
regular. The special constitutions of the order were largely
taken from those of the Premonstratensian canons and of the
Cistercians. Like Fontevrault (q.v.) it was a double order, the
communities of men and women living side by side; but, though
the property all belonged to the nuns, the superior of the canons
was the head of the whole establishment, and the general superior
was a canon, called " Master of Sempringham." The general
chapter was a mixed assembly composed of two canons and two
nuns from each house; the nuns had to travel to the chapter
in closed carts. The office was celebrated together in the church,
a high stone screen separating the two choirs of canons and nuns.
The order received papal approbation in n 48. By Gilbert's
death (1189) there were nine double monasteries and four of
canons only, containing about 700 canons and 5 1000 nuns in all.
At the dissolution there were some 25 monasteries, whereof 4
ranked among the greater monasteries (see list in F. A. Gasquet's
English Monastic Life) . The order never spread beyond England,
The habit of the Gilbertines was black, with a white cloak.
See Bollandist9' Acta Sanctorum (4th of Feb.) ; William Dugdale,
Manas tic on (1846);, Helybt, Hist, des ordres religteux (1714),
ii. c. 29. The best modern account is St Gilbert of Setnpringkam t
and (he Gilbertines, by Rose Graham (1901). The art. in Dictionary
of National Biography gives abundant information on St Gilbert,
but is unsatisfactory on the order, as it might easily convey the
impression that the canons and nuns lived together, whereas they
were most carefully separated ; and altogether undue prominence is
given to a single scandal . M ies Graham declares that the reputation
of the order waa good until the end. (E. C. B.)
GILBERT FOUOT (d. . 1187), bishop of Hereford, and of
London, is first mentioned as a monk of Cluny, whence he was
called in 1 136, to plead the cause of the empress Matilda against
Stephen at the Roman court. Shortly afterwards he became
prior of Cluny; then prior of Abbeville, a house dependent upon
Cluny. In 1*39 he was elected abbot of Gloucester. The
appointment was confirmed by Stephen, and from the ecclesi*
astical point of view was unexceptionable. But the new abbot
proved himself a valuable ally of the empress* and her, ablest
controversialist. Gilbert's reputation grew rapidly. He was
respected at Rome; and he acted as the representative of the
primate, Theobald, in the supervision of the Welsh church* In
1148, on being nominated by the pope to the see of Hereford,
Gilbert with characteristic wariness sought confirmation both
from Henry of Anjou and from Stephen. But he was an
Angevin at heart, and after 1x54 was treated by Henry II. with
every mark of consideration.; He was Becket's rival for the
primacy, and the only bishop who protested against the. king's
choice. Becket, with rare forbearance, endeavoured to win his.
friendship by procuring for him the. see of Lqndon (1163). But
Gilbert evaded the customary profession of obedience to the
primate, and apparently aspired to make his see independent
of Canterbury,. On the questions raised by the Constitutions
of Clarendon he sided with the king, whose confessor he had now
become. He urged Becket to yield, and, when this advice was
rejected, encouraged his fellow-bishops to repudiate the authority
of the archbishop. In the years of controversy which followed
Becket's flight the king depended much upon the bishop's
skill as a disputant and diplomatist. Gilbert was twice ex-
communicated by Becket, but both on these and on other occasions
he showed great dexterity in detaching the pope from the cause
of the exile. To him it was chiefly due that Henry avoided an
open conflict with Rome of the kind which John afterwards
provoked. Gilbert was one of the bishops whose excommunica-.
tion in 1x70 provoked the king's knights to murder Becket;
but he cannot be reproached with any share in the crime. His
later years were uneventful, though he enjoyed great influence
with the king and among his fellow-bishops. Scholarly, dignified,
ascetic in his private life, devoted to the service of the Church,
he was nevertheless more respected than loved. His nature was
cold; he made few friends; and the taint of a calculating
ambition runs through his whole career. He died in the spring
of 1 187. • -.
See Gilbert's Letters, ed. J. A. Giles (Oxford, 1845); Materials
for the History of Thomas Becket, ed. J. C. Robertson (Rolls series,
1 875-1 885); and Miss K. Norgate's England under the Angevin
Kings (1887). . ~(H. W. C. D.) ,
GILBERT (KiNGSimx) ISLANDS, an extensive archipelago
belonging to Great Britain in the mid-western Pacific Ocean,,
lying N. and S. of the equator, and between 170 and 180 E*
There are sixteen islands, all coral reefs or atolls, extending in
crescent form over about five degrees of latitude. The principal
is Taputenea or Drummond Island. The soil, mostly of coral
.sand, is productive of little else than the coco-nut palm, and the
chief source of food supply is the sea, The population of these
islands presents a remarkable phenomenon; in spite of adverse
conditions of environment and complete barbarism it is exceed-
ingly dense, in strong contradistinction to that of many other
more favoured islands. The land area of the group is only 166 m.,
yet the population is about 30,000. The Gilbert islanders are
a dark and coarse type of the Polynesian race, and show signs
of much crossing. They are tall and stout, with an average height
of 5 ft. 8 in., and are of a vigorous, energetic temperament.
They are nearly always naked, but wear a conical hat of pandanus
leaf* In war they have an armour of plaited coco-nut fibres.
They are fierce fighters, their chief weapon being a sword armed
with sharks' teeth. Their canoes are well made of coco-nut wood
boards sewn neatly together and fastened on frames. British
and American missionary work has been prosecuted with some
success. The large population led to the introduction of natives
from these islands into Hawaii as labourers in 187 8-1 884, but
they were not found satisfactory. The islands were discovered
by John Byron in 1765 (one of them bearing his name) ; Captains
Gilbert and Marshall visited them in 1788; and they were
annexed by Great Britain in 1892.
GILBEY, SIR WALTER, 1ST Bart. (1831- ), English
wine-merchant, was bom at Bishop Stortford, Hertfordshire,
in 1 83 1. His father, the owner and frequently the driver of the
daily coach between Bishop Stortford and London, died when
he was eleven years old, and young Gilbey was shortly afterwards
placed in the office of an estate agent at Tring, subsequently
obtaining a clerkship in a firm of parliamentary agents in London.
On the outbreak of the Crimean War, Walter Gilbey and his
younger brother, Alfred, volunteered for civilian service at the
front, and were employed at a convalescent hospital on the
Dardanelles. Returning to London on the declaration of peace,
Walter and Alfred Gilbey, on the advice of their eldest brother,
Henry Gilbey, a wholesale wine-merchant, started in the retail
wine and spirit trade. The heavy duty then levied by the
British government on French, Portuguese and Spanish wines
was prohibitive of a sale among the English middle classes, and
: especially lower middle classes, whose usual alcoholic beverage
was accordingly beer. Henry Gilbey was of opinion that these
classes would gladly drink wine if they could get it at a moderate
price, and by his advice Walter and Alfred determined to push
the sales of colonial, and particularly of Cape, wines, on which
12
GILDAS— -GILDERSLEEVE
the duty was comparatively light. Backed by capital obtained
through Henry Gilbey, they accordingly opened in 1857 a small
retail business in a basement in Oxford Street, London. The
Cape wines proved popular, and within three years the brothers
had 20,000 customers on their books. The creation of the
off-licence system by Mr Gladstone, then chancellor of the
exchequer, in i860, followed by the large reduction in the duty
on French wines effected by the commercial treaty between
England and France in 1861, revolutionized their trade and
laid the foundation of their fortunes. Three provincial grocers,
who had been granted the new off-licence, applied to be appointed
the Gilbeys' agents in their respective districts, and many
similar applications followed. These were granted, and before
very long a leading local grocer was acting as the firm's agents
in every district in England. The grocer who dealt in the
Gilbeys' wines and spirits was not allowed to sell those of any
other firm, and the Gilbeys in return handed over to him all
their existing customers in his district. This arrangement was
of mutual advantage, and the Gilbeys' business increased so
rapidly that in 1864 Henry Gilbey abandoned his own under-
taking to join his brothers. In 1867 the three brothers secured
the old Pantheon theatre and concert hall in Oxford Street for
their headquarters. In 1875 the firm purchased a large claret-
producing estate in M6d6c, on the banks of the Gironde, and
became also the proprietors of two large whisky-distilleries in
Scotland. In 1893 the business was concerted, for family
reasons, into a private limited liability company, of which Walter
Gilbey, who in the same year was created a baronet, was chair-
man. Sir Walter Gilbey also became well known as a breeder
of shire horses, and he did much to improve the breed of English
horses (other than race-horses) generally, and wrote extensively
on the subject. He became president of the Shire Horse Society,
of the Hackney Horse Society, and of the Hunters' Improve-
ment Society, and he was the founder and chairman of the
London Cart Horse Parade Society. He was also a practical
agriculturist, and president of the Royal Agricultural Society.
GILDAS, or Gildus (c. 516-570), the earliest of British
historians (see Celt: Literature, " Welsh"), surnamed by some
Sapiens, and by others Badonicus, seems to have been born in
the year 516. Regarding him little certain is known, beyond
some isolated particulars that may be gathered from hints
dropped in the course of his work. Two short treatises exist,
purporting to be lives of Gildas, and ascribed respectively to the
nth and 12th centuries; but the writers of both are believed to
have confounded two, if not more, persons that had borne the
name. It is from an incidental remark of his own, namely, that
the year of the siege of Mount Badon — one of the battles fought
between the Saxons and the Britons — was also the year of his
own nativity, that the date of his birth has been derived; tho
place, however, is not mentioned. His assertion that he was
moved to undertake his task mainly by "zeal for God's house and
for His holy law," and the very free use he has made of quotations
from the Bible, leave scarcely a doubt that he was an ecclesiastic
of some order or other. In addition, we learn that he went
abroad, probably to France, in his thirty-fourth year, where,
after 10 years of hesitation and preparation, he composed, about
560, the work bearing his name. His materials, he tells us,
were collected from foreign rather than native sources, the
latter of which had been put beyond his reach by circumstances.
The Cambrian Annals give 570 as the year of his death.
The writings of Gildas have come down to us under the title
of Gildae SapietUis de excidio Britanniae liber querulus. Though
at first written consecutively, the work is now usually divided
into three portions, — a preface, the history proper, and ah
epistle, — the last, which is largely made up of passages and
texts of Scripture brought together for the purpose of condemning
the vices of his countrymen and their rulers, being the least
important, though by far the longest of the three. In the second
he passes in brief review the history of Britain from its invasion
by the Romans till his own times. Among other matters refer-
ence is made to the introduction of Christianity in the reign of
Tiberius; the persecution under Diocletian; the spread of the
Arian heresy; the election of Maximus as emperor by the legions
in Britain, and his subsequent death at Aquileia; the incursions
of the Picts and Scots into the southern part of the island; the
temporary assistance rendered to the harassed Britons by the
Romans; the final abandonment of the island by the latter;
the coming of the Saxons and their reception by Guortigern
(Vortigern); and, finally, the conflicts between the Britons, led
by a noble Roman, Ambrosius Aurelianus, and the new invaders.
Unfortunately, on almost every point on which he touches, the
statements of Gildas are vague and obscure. With one excep-
tion already alluded to, no dates are given, and events are not
always taken up in the order of their occurrence. These faults
are of less importance during the period when Greek and Roman
writers notice the affairs of Britain; but they become more
serious when, as is the case from nearly the beginning of the- 5th
century to the date of his death, Gildas's brief narrative is our
only authority for most of what passes current as the history of
our island during those years. Thus it is on his sole, though in
this instance perhaps trustworthy, testimony that the famous
letter rests, said to have been sent to Rome in 446 by the despair-
ing Britons, commencing: — " To AgLtius (Aetius), consul for
the third time, the groans of the Britons."
Gildas's treatise was first published in 1525 by Polydore Vergil,
but with many avowed alterations and omissions. In ij>68 John
Josseline, secretary to Archbishop Parker, issued a new edition of it
more in conformity with manuscript authority; and in 1691 a
still more carefully revised edition appeared at Oxford by Thomas
Gale. It was frequently reprinted on the Continent during the
1 6th century, and once or twice since. The next English edition,
described by Potthast as editio pessima, was that published by the
English Historical Society in 1838, and edited by the Rev. J. Steven-
son. The text of Gildas founded on Gale's edition collated with
two other MSS., with elaborate introductions* is included in the
Monumenta historica Britannica t edited by Petrie and Sharpe
(London, 1848). Another edition is in A. W. Haddan and W.
Stubbs, Councils and Eccles. Documents relating to Great Britain
(Oxford, 1869); the latest edition is that by Theodor Mommsen in
Monum. Germ. hist. auct. antiq. xiii. (Chronica min. iii.), 1894.
GILDER, RICHARD WATSON (1844-1009), American editor
and poet, was born in Bordentown, New Jersey, on the 8th of
February 1844, a brother of William Henry Gilder (183 8-1 900),
the Arctic explorer. He was educated at Bellevue Seminary,
an institution conducted by his father, the Rev. William Henry
Gilder (181 2-1864), in Flushing, Long Island. After three years
(1865-1868) on the Newark, New Jersey, Daily Advertiser, he
founded, with Newton Crane, the Newark Morning Register. In
1869 he became editor of Hours at Homey and in 1870 assistant
editor of Scribner f s Monthly (eleven years later re-named The
Century Magazine), of which he became editor in 188 1. He was
one of the founders of the Free Art League, of the International
Copyright League, and of the Authors 1 Club; was chairman of
the New York Tenement House Commission in i8t)4; and wad a
prominent member of the National Institute of Arts and Letters,
of the Council of the National Civil Service Reform League, and
of the executive committee of the Citizens' Union of New York
City. His poems, which are essentially lyrical, have been collected
in various volumes, including Five Books of Song (1894), In
Palestine and other Poems (1898), Poems and Inscriptions(igoi),
and In the Heights (1005). A complete edition of his poems was
published in 1908. He also edited "Sonnets from the Portuguese "
and other Poems by Elizabeth } Barrett Browning; "One Word
More" and other Poems by Robert Browning (1905). He died in
New York on the 18th of November * 909. His wife, Helena
de Kay, a grand-daughter of Joseph Rodman Drake; assisted,
with Saint Gaudens and others, in founding the Society of
American Artists, now merged in the National Academy,
and the Art Students' League of New York. She translated
Sensier's biography of Millet, and painted, before her marriage
in 1874, studies in flowers and ideal heads, much admired for
their feeling and delicate colouring.
GILDERSLEEVE, BASIL LANNEAU (1831- ), American
classical scholar, was born in Charleston, South Carolina, on thd
23rd of October 1831, son of Benjamin Gildersleeve(i 791-1875,)
a Presbyterian evangelist, and editor of the Charleston Christian
Observer in 1826-1845, of the Richmond (Va.) Watchman and
GILDING
1 3
Observer in 1845-1856, and of The Central Presbyterian m 1856-
i860. The son graduated at Princeton in 1849, studied under
Franz in Berlin, under Friedrich Ritschl at Bonn and under
Sdmeidewin at Gottingen, where he received his doctor's degree
in 1853. From 1856 to 1876 he was professor of Greek in the
University of Virginia, holding the chair of Latin also in 1861-
1866; and in 1876 he became professor of Greek in the newly
founded Johns Hopkins University. In 1880 The American
Journal of Philology, a quarterly published by the Johns Hopkins
University, was established under his editorial charge, and his
strong personality was expressed in the department of the Journal
headed " Brief Report " or " Lanx Saturn," and in the earliest
years of its publication every petty detail was in his hands.
His style in it, as elsewhere, is in striking contrast to that of the
typical classical scholar, and accords with his conviction that the
true aim of scholarship is " that which is." He published a
Latin Grammar (1867; revised with the co-operation of Gonzalez
B. Lodge, 1894 and 1899) and a Latin Series for use in secondary
schools (1875), hot* 1 marked by lucidity of order and mastery of
grammatical theory and methods. His edition of Persius (1875)
is of great value. But his bent was rather toward Greek than
Latin. His special interest in Christian Greek was partly the
cause of his editing in 1877 The Apologies of Justin Martyr,
" which " (to use his own words) " I used unblushingly as a
repository for my syntactical formulae." Gildersleeve's studies
under Franz had no doubt quickened his interest in Greek
syntax, and his logic, untrammelled by previous categories, and
his marvellous sympathy with the language were displayed in
this most unlikely of places. His Syntax of Classic Greek (Part I.,
1900, with C. W. E. Miller) collects these formulae. Gildersleeve
edited in 1885 The Olympian and Pythian Odes of Pindar, with
a brilliant and valuable introduction. His views on the function
of grammar were summarized in a paper on The Spiritual Rights
of Minute Research delivered at Bryn Mawr on the 16th of June
1 89 5 . His collected contributions to literary periodicals appeared
in 1890 under the title Essays and Studies Educational and
Literary.
GILDING, the art of spreading gold, either by mechanical
or by chemical means, over the surface of a body for the purpose
of ornament. The art of gilding was known to the ancients.
According to Herodotus, the Egyptians were accustomed to gild
wood and metals ; and gilding by means of gold plates is frequently
mentioned in the Old Testament. Pliny informs us that the first
gilding seen at Rome was after the destruction of Carthage, under
the censorship of Lucius Mummius, when the Romans began to
gild the ceilings of their temples and palaces, the Capitol being the
first place on which this enrichment was bestowed. But he adds
that luxury advanced on them so rapidly that in a little time you
might see all, even private and poor persons, gild the walls, vaults,
and other parts of their dwellings. Owing to the comparative
thickness of the gold-leaf used in ancient gilding, the traces of it
which yet remain are remarkably brilliant and solid. Gilding
has in all times occupied an important place in the ornamental
arts of Oriental countries; and the native processes pursued in
India at the present day may be taken as typical of the arts as
practised from the earliest periods. For the gilding of copper,
employed in the decoration of temple domes and other large
works, the following is an outline of the processes employed.
The metal surface is thoroughly scraped, cleaned and polished, and
next heated in a fire sufficiently to remove any traces of grease or
other impurity which may remain from the operation of polishing.
It is then dipped in an acid solution prepared from dried unripe
apricots, and rubbed with pumice or brick powder. Next, the
surface is rubbed over with mercury which forms a superficial
amalgam with the copper, after which it is left some hours in clean
water, again washed with the acid solution, and dried. It is
now ready for receiving the gold, which is laid on in leaf, and, on
adhering, assumes a grey appearance from combining with the
mercury, but on the Application of heat the latter metal volatilizes,
leaving the gold a dull greyish hue. The colour is brought up
by means of rubbing with agate burnishers. The weight of
mercury used in this process is double that of the gold laid on,
and the thickness of the gilding is regulated by the circumstances
or necessities of the case. For the gilding of iron or steel, the
surface is first scratched over with chequered lines, then washed
in a hot solution of green apricots, dried and heated just short
of red-heat. The gold-leaf is then laid on, and rubbed in with
agate burnishers, when it adheres by catching into the prepared
scratched surface.
Modern gilding is applied to numerous and diverse surfaces
and by various distinct processes, so that the art is prosecuted
in many ways, and is part of widely different ornamental and
useful arts. It forms an important and essential part of frame-
making (see Carving and Gelding); it is largely employed
in connexion with cabinet-work, decorative painting and house
ornamentation; and it also bulks largely in bookbinding and
ornamental leather work. Further, gilding is much employed
for coating baser metals, as in button-making, in the gilt toy trade,
in electro-gilt reproductions and in electro-plating; and it is
also a characteristic feature in the decoration of pottery, porcelain
and glass. The various processes fall under one or other of two
heads — mechanical gilding and gilding by chemical agency.
Mechanical Gilding embraces all the operations by which gold-
leaf is prepared (see GoldBeating), and the several processes
by which it is mechanically attached to the surfaces it is intended
to cover. It thus embraces the burnish or water-gilding and the
oil-gilding of the carver and gilder, and the gilding operations of
the house decorator, the sign-painter, the bookbinder, the paper-
stainer and several others. Polished iron, steel and other metals
are gilt mechanically by applying gold-leaf to the metallic surface
at a temperature just under red-heat, pressing the leaf on with a
burnisher and reheating, when additional leaf may be laid on.
The process is completed by cold burnishing.
Chemical Gilding embraces those processes in which the sold
used is at some stage in a state of chemical combination. Of these
the following are the principal : —
Cold Gildtng.^-ln this process the gold is obtained in a state of
extremely fine division, and applied by mechanical means. Cold
gilding on silver is performed by a solution of gold in aqua-regia.
applied by dipping a linen rag into the solution, burning it, and
rubbing the black and heavy ashes on the silver with the finger
or a piece of leather or cork. Wet gilding is effected by means of
a dilute solution of chloride of gold with twice its quantity of ether.
The liquids are agitated and allowed to rest, when the ether separates
and floats on the surface of the acid. The whole mixture is then
poured into a funnel with a small aperture, and allowed to rest
for some time, when the acid is run off and the ether separated.
The ether will be found to have taken up all the gold from the acid,
and may be used for gilding iron or steel, for which purpose the
metal is polished with the finest emery and spirits of wine. The
ether is then applied with a small brush, and as it evaporates it
deposits the gold, which can now be heated and polished. For
small delicate figures a pen or a fine brush may be used for laying
on the ether solution. Fire-gilding or Wash-gilding is a process by
which an amalgam of gold is applied to metallic surfaces, the mercury
being subsequently volatilized, leaving a film of gold or an amalgam
containing from 13 to 16% of mercury. In the preparation of the
amalgam the gold must first be reduced to thin plates or grains,
which are heated red hot, and thrown into mercury previously heated,
till it begins to smoke. Upon stirring the mercury with an iron
rod, the gold totally disappears. The proportion of mercury to
gold is generally as six or eight to one. When the amalgam is
cold it is squeezed through chamois leather for the purpose of
separating the superfluous mercury; the gold, with about twice
its weight of mercury, remains behind, forming a yellowish silvery
mass of the consistence of butter. When the metal to be gilt is
wrought or chased, it ought to be covered with mercury before
the amalgam is applied, that this may be more easily spread; but
when the surface of the metal is plain, the amalgam may be applied
to it direct. When no such preparation is applied, the surface to be
gilded is simply bitten and cleaned with nitric acid. A deposit of
mercury is obtained on a metallic surface by means of " quicksilver
water, a solution of nitrate of mercury, — the nitric acid attacking
the metal to which it is applied, and thus leaving a film of free
metallic mercury. The amalgam being equally spread over the
prepared surface of the metal, the mercury is then sublimed by a
heat just sufficient for that purpose; for, if it is too great, part of
the gold may be driven off, or it may run together and leave some
of the surface of the metal bare. When the mercury has evaporated,
which is known by the surface having entirely become of a dull
yellow colour, the metal must undergo other operations, by which the
fine gold colour is given to it. First, the gilded surface is rubbed
with a scratch brush of brass wire, until its surface be smooth ; then
it is covered over with a composition called " gilding wax," and
again exposed to the fire until the wax is burnt off. This wax is
composed of beeswax mixed with some of the following substances,
I*
GILD8
viz. red ochre, verdigris, copper scales, alum, vitriol, borax. By
this operation the colour of the gilding' is heightened; and the
effect seems to be produced by a perfect dissipation of some mercury
remaining after the former operation. Toe dissipation is well
effected by this equable application of heat. The gilt surface is then
covered over with nitre, alum or other salts, ground together, and
mixed up into a paste with water or weak ammonia. The piece of
metal thus covered is exposed to a certain degree of heat, and then
quenched in water. By this method its colour is further improved
and brought nearer to that of gold, probably by removing any
particles of copper that may have been on the gilt surface. This
process, when skilfully carried out, produces gilding of great solidity
and beauty; but owing to the exposure of the workmen to mercurial
fumes, it is very unhealthy, and further there is much loss of mercury.
Numerous contrivances have been introduced to obviate these serious
evils. Gilt brass buttons used for uniforms are gilt by this process,
and there is an act of . parliament (1796) yet unrepealed which pre-
scribes 5 grains of gold as the smallest quantity that may be used
for the gilding of 12 dozen of buttons 1 in. in diameter.
Gilding of Pottery and Porcelain. — The quantity of gold consumed
for these purposes is very large. The gold used is dissolved in aqua-
regia, and the acid is driven off by heat, or the gold may be precipi-
tated by means of sulphate of iron. In this pulverulent state the
gold is mixed with Ath of its weight of oxide of bismuth, together
with a small quantity of borax and gum water. The mixture is
applied to the articles with a camel's hair pencil, and after passing
through the fire the gold is of a dingy colour, but the lustre is brought
out by burnishing with agate and bloodstone, and afterwards
cleaning with vinegar or white-lead.
GILDS, or Guilds. Medieval gilds were voluntary associations
formed for the mutual aid and protection of their members.
Among the gildsmen there was a strong spirit of fraternal co-
operation or Christian brotherhood, with a mixture of worldly
and religious ideals — the support of the body and the salvation of
the soul. Early meanings of the root gild or geld were expiation,
penalty, sacrifice or worship, feast or banquet, and contribution
or payment; it is difficult to determine which is the earliest
meaning, and we are not certain whether the gildsmen were
originally those who contributed to a common fund or those who
worshipped or feasted together. Their fraternities or societies
may be divided into three classes: religious or benevolent,
merchant and craft gilds. The last two categories, which do not
become prominent anywhere in Europe until the 12th century,
had, like all gilds, a religious tinge, but their aims were primarily
worldly, and their functions were mainly of an economic character.
1. Origin. — Various theories have been advanced concerning
the origin of gilds. Some writers regard them as a continuation of
the Roman collegia and sodalitates, but there is little evidence to
prove the unbroken continuity of existence of the Roman and
Germanic fraternities. A more widely accepted theory derives
gilds wholly or in part from the early Germanic or Scandinavian
sacrificial banquets. Much influence is ascribed to this heathen
element by Lujo Brentano, Karl Hegel, W. E. Wilda and other
writers. This view does not seem to be tenable, for the old
sacrificial carousals lack two of the essential elements of the gilds,
namely corporative solidarity or permanent association and the
spirit of Christian brotherhood. Dr Max Pappenheim has
ascribed the origin of Germanic gilds to the northern " foster-
brotherhood " or " sworn-brotherhood," which was an artificial
bond of union between two or more persons. After intermingling
their blood in the earth and performing other peculiar ceremonies,
the two contracting parties with grasped hands swore to avenge
any injury done to either of them. The objections to this
theory are fully stated by Hegel (Sttidtc und Gilden, i. 250-253).
The foster-brotherhood seems to have been unknown to the
Franks and the Anglo-Saxons, the nations in which medieval
gilds first appear; and hence Dr Pappenheim's conclusions,
if tenable at all, apply only to Denmark or Scandinavia.
No theory on this subject can be satisfactory which wholly
ignores the influence of the Christian church. Imbued with the
idea of the brotherhood of man, the church naturally fostered
the early growth of gilds and tried to make. them displace the
old heathen banquets. The work of the church was, however,
directive rather than creative. Gilds were a natural manifesta-
tion of the associative spirit which is inherent in mankind. The
same needs produce in different ages associations which have
striking resemblances, but those of each age have peculiarities
which indicate a spontaneous growth.. It is not necessary to
seek the germ of gilds in any antecedent age or institution.
When the old kin-bond or maegth was beginning to weaken or
dissolve, and the state did not yet afford adequate protection to
its citizens, individuals naturally united for mutual help.
Gilds are first mentioned in the. Carolingian capitularies of
779 and 789, and in the enactments ina4e by the synod of Nantes
early in the 9th century, the text of which has been preserved,
in the ecclesiastical ordinances of Hincmar of Rheims (A.D.852).
The capitularies of 805 and 821 also contain vague references
to sworn unions of some sort, and a capitulary of 884 prohibits
villeins from forming associations " vulgarly called gilds "
against those who have despoiled them. The Carolingians
evidently regarded such " conjurations " as "conspirations ",
dangerous to the state. The gilds of Norway, Denmark and
Sweden are first mentioned in the nth, 12th and 14th centuries
respectively; those of France and the Netherlands in the
nth.
Many writers believe that the earliest references to gilds come
from England. The laws of Ine speak of gegildan who help each
other pay the wergeld, but it is not entirely certain that they
were members of gild fraternities in the later sense. These are
more clearly referred to in England in the second half of the
9th century,, though we have little information concerning
them before the nth century. To the first half of that century
belong the statutes of the fraternities of Cambridge, Abbotsbury
and Exeter. They are important because they form the oldest
body of gild ordinances extant in Europe. The thanes' gild at
Cambridge afforded help in blood-feuds, and provided for the
payment of the wergeld in case a member killed any one. The
religious element was more prominent in Orcy's gild at Abbots-
bury and in the fraternity at Exeter; their ordinances exhibit
much solicitude for the salvation of the brethren's souls. The
Exeter gild also gave assistance when property was destroyed
by fire. Prayers for the dead, attendance at funerals of gildsmen,
periodical banquets, the solemn entrance oath, fines for neglect
of duty and for improper conduct, contributions to a common
purse, mutual assistance in distress, periodical meetings in the
gildhall, — ;in short, all the characteristic features of the later
gilds already appear in the statutes of these Anglo-Saxon
fraternities. Some continental writers, in dealing with the
origin of municipal government throughout western Europe,
have, however, ascribed too much importance to the Anglo-Saxon
gilds, exaggerating their prevalence and contending that they
form the germ of medieval municipal government. This view
rests almost entirely on conjecture; there is no good evidence
to show that there was any organic connexion between gilds
and municipal government in England before the coming of the
Normans. It should also be noted that there is no trace of the
existence of either craft or merchant gilds in England before'
the Norman Conquest. Commerce and industry were not yet
sufficiently developed to call for the creation of such associations.
2. Religious Gilds after the Norman Conquest. — Though we
have not much information concerning the religious gilds in
the 1 2th century, they doubtless flourished under the Anglo-
Norman kings, and we know that they were numerous, especially
in the boroughs, from the 13th century onward. In 1388
parliament ordered that every sheriff in England should call
upon the masters and wardens of all gilds and brotherhoods
to send to the king's council in Chancery, before the 2nd of
■ February 1389, full returns regarding their foundation, ordin-
ances and property. Many of these returns were edited by
J. Toulmin Smith (18 16-1869), and they throw much light on the
functions of the gilds. Their ordinances are similar to those of
the above-mentioned Anglo-Saxon fraternities. Each member
took an oath of admission, paid ah entrance-fee, and made a
small annual contribution to the common fund. The brethren
* were aided in old age, sickness and poverty, often also in cases
of loss by robbery, shipwreck and conflagration; for example,
any member of the gild of St Catherine, Aldersgate, was to be
assisted if he " fall into poverty or be injured through age, or
through fire of water, thieves or sickness.*' Alms were often ;
&&m
**
given even to r nbn^Jfl{fstn'eni lignts were supporteil at certain
altars; feasts and ; prbcessions were held periodically; the
funerals of brethren were 'attended; and Masses for the dead
were provided from the common purse or from special contribu-
tions made by the 1 gildsnien. Some of -\ the religious gilds
supported schools, or helped to maintain roads, bridges and
town-walls, or even came, in course of time, to be closely con-
nected w!th the government of the borough; but, as a rule,
they were simply private societies with a limited sphere of
activity. They are important because they played a prominent
r61e in the social life of England, especially as eleemosynary
institutions, .down to the time of their suppression in 1547.
Religious gilds, closely resembling those of England, also
flourished on. the continent during the middle ages.
3. The Gild Merchant. — The merchant and craft fraternities
are particularly interesting to students of economic and municipal
history. The gild merchant came into existence in England
soon after the Norman Conquest, as a result of the increasing
importance of trade, and it may have been transplanted from
Normandy. Until clearer evidence of foreign influence is found,
it may, however, be safer to regard it simply as a new application
of the old gild principle, though this new application may have
been stimulated by continental example. The evidence seems
to indicate the pre-existence of the gild merchant in Normandy,
but it is not mentioned anywhere on the continent before the
nth century. It spread rapidly in England, and from the
reign of John onward we have evidence of its existence in many
English boroughs. But in some prominent towns, notably
London, Colchester, Norwich and the Cinque Ports, it seems
never to have been adopted. In fact it played a more conspicuous
r61e in the small boroughs than in the large ones. It was regarded
by the townsmen as one of their most important privileges.
Its chief function was to regulate the trade monopoly conveyed
to the borough by the royal grant of gilda mercatoria. A grant
of this sort implied that the gildsmen had the right to trade
freely in the town, and to impose payments and restrictions
upon others who desired to exercise that privilege. The ordin-
ances of a gild merchant thus aim to protect the brethren from
the commercial competition of strangers or non-gildsmen.
More freedom of trade was allowed at all times in the selling of
wares by wholesale, and also in retail dealings during the time
of markets and fairs. The ordinances were enforced by an
alderman with the assistance" of two or more deputies, or by one
or two masters, wardens or keepers. The Morwenspeches were
periodical meetings at which the 1 brethren feasted, revised their
ordinances, admitted hew members, elected officers and trans-
acted other business.
It has often been asserted that the gild merchant and the
borough were identical, and' that the former was the basis of the
whole municipal constitution. But recent research has dis-
credited this theory both in England' and on the continent.
Much evidence has been producedto show that gild and borough,
gildsmen arid burgesses, were originally ^distinct Conceptions,
and that they continued to be discriminated in most towns
throughout the middle ages. Admission to the gQd wa(s not
restricted to burgesses; nor did the brethren form an aristocratic
body having control over the whole municipal polity. No good
evidence has, moreover, been advanced to prove that this or
any other kind of gild was the germ of the municipal constitution.
On the other hand, the gild merchant was certainly an official
organ or department of the borough administration, and it
exerted considerable influence upon the economic and corporative
growth of the English municipalities.
Historians have expressed divergent views regarding the
early relations of the craftsmen and their fraternities to the gild
merchant. One of the main questions in dispute is whether
artisans were excluded from the gild merchant. Many of them
seem to have been admitted to membership. They were regarded
as merchants, for they bought raw material and sold the manu-
factured comrifodity; no sharp line of demarcation was drawn
between the two classes in the 1 2th and 13th centuries. Separate
societies of craftsmen Were formed in England soon after the
gild lierelianf ; caTrie'int6 existence^ Suit at irst : they were few
in ntimbet. The gHtL merchant did not give birth to craft
fraternities or have anything to do with their brigin; nor die!
it delegate its authority to them. In fact, there seems to have
been little or ho organic connexion between the two classes of
gilds. As has* already been intimated, however; many artisans
probably belonged both ta their own craft fraternity and to the gild
merchant, and the latter, owing to its great power in the town,
may have exercised some sort of supervision oyer the craftsmen
and their societies. When the king bestowed upon the tanners
or weavers or any other body of artisans the right to have a
gild, they secured the monopoly of working and trading in their
branch of industry. Thus with every creation of a craft fraternity
the gild merchant was weakened and its sphere of activity was
diminished, though the new bodies were subsidiary to the older
and larger fraternity. The greater the commercial and industrial
prosperity of a town, the more rapid was the multiplication of
craft gilds, which was a natural result of the ever-increasing
division of labour. The old gild merchant remained longest
intact and powerful in the smaller boroughs, in which, owing
to the predominance of agriculture, few or no craft gilds were
formed. In some of the larger towns the crafts Were prominent
already in the 13th century, but they became much more pro-
minent in the first half of the 14th century. Their increase in
number and power was particularly rapid in the time of Edward
III., whose reign marks an era of industrial progress. Many
master craftsmen now became wealthy employers of labour,
dealing extensively in the wares which they produced. TTie class
of dealers or merchants, as distinguished from trading artisans,
also greatly increased and established separate fraternities.
When these various unions of dealers and of craftsmen embraced
all the trades and branches of production in the town, little or
no vitality remained in the old gild merchant; it ceased to have
an independent sphere of activity. The tendency was for the
single organization, with a general monopoly of trade, to be
replaced by a number of separate organizations representing
the various trades- and handicrafts. In short, the function of
guarding and supervising the trade monopoly split up into
various fragments, the aggregate of the crafts superseding the
old general gild merchant. This transference of the authority
of the latter to a number of distinct bodies and the consequent
disintegration of the old organization was a gradual spontaneous
movement, — a process of slow displacement, or natural growth
and decay, due to the play of economic f orces,-*-which, generally
speaking, may be assigned to the 14th and 15th centuries, the
very period in which the craft gilds attained the zenith of their
power. While in' tnost towns the name and the old Organization 1
of the gild merchant thus disappeared arid the institution wafe
displaced by the aggregate of the crafts towards the close of thte
middle ages, in some places it survived long after the 15 th
century either as a religious fraternity, shorn of its old functions,'
or as a periodical feast, or as a vague term applied to the whole
municipal corporation.
Oh the continent of Europe the medieval gild merchant played
a less important r6ie than in England. In Germany, Frante
arid the Netherlands it occupies a less prominent place in the
town charters and in the municipal polity, and often corresponds"
to the later fraternities of English dealers established either td
carry on foreign commerce or to regulate a particular part of the
local trade monopoly. l
4. Craft Gilds.— A craft gild usually comprised all the artisans
in a singje branch of industry in a particular town. Such a
fraternity was commonly called a " mistery " or " company M
in the 15th and 16th centuries, though the old term "gild**
was not yet obsolete. "Gild" was also a common designation
in north Germany, while the correspbnding term in south
Germany was Zunft, and in France mitier. These societies are
not clearly visible in England or oh the continent before the early
part of the 12th century. With the expansion of trade and
industry the number of artisans increased, and they banded
together for mutual protection: S6me German writers have
maintained that these craft organizations emanated from
i6
GILDS
manorial groups of workmen, but strong arguments have been
advanced against the validity of this theory (notably by F.
Keutgen). It is unnecessary to elaborate any profound theory
regarding the origin of the craft gilds. The union of men of the
same occupation was a natural tendency of the age. In the
13th century the trade of England continued to expand and
the number of craft gilds increased. In the 14th century they
were fully developed and in a flourishing condition; by that time
each branch of industry in every large town had its gild. The
development of these societies was even more rapid on the con-
tinent than in England.
Their organization and aims were in general the same through-
out western Europe. Officers, commonly called wardens in
England, were .elected by the members, and their chief function
was to supervise the quality of the wares produced, so as to
secure good and honest workmanship. Therefore, ordinances
were made regulating the hours of labour and the terms of
admission to the gild, including apprenticeship. Other ordin-
ances required members to make periodical payments to a
common fund, and to participate in certain common religious
observances, festivities and pageants. But the regulation of
industry was always paramount to social and religious aims;
the chief object of the craft gild was to supervise the processes
of manufacture and to control the monopoly of working and
dealing in a particular branch of industry.
We have already called attention to the gradual displacement
of the gild merchant by the craft organizations. The relations
of the former to the latter must now be considered more in
detail. There was at no time a general struggle in England
between the gild merchant and the craft gilds, though in a few
towns there seems to have been some friction between merchants
and artisans. There is no exact parallel in England to the conflict
between these two classes in Scotland in the 16th century, or to
the great continental revolution of the 13th and 14th centuries,
by which the crafts threw off the yoke of patrician government
and secured more independence in the management of their own
affairs and more participation in the civic administration. The
main causes of these conflicts on the continent were the monopoly
of power by the patricians, acts of violence committed by them,
their bad management of the .finances and their partisan admini-
stration of justice. In some towns the victory of the artisans
in the 14th century was so complete that the whole civic con-
stitution was remodelled with the craft fraternities as a basis.
A widespread movement of this sort would scarcely be found in
England, where trade and industry were less developed than on
the continent, and where the motives of a class conflict between
merchants and craftsmen were less potent Moreover, borough
government in England seems to have been mainly democratic
until the 14th or 15th century; there was no oligarchy to be
depressed or suppressed. Even if there had been motives for
uprisings of artisans such as took place in Germany and the
Netherlands, the English kings would probably have intervened.
True, there were popular uprisings in England, but they were
usually conflicts between the poor and the rich; the crafts as
such seldom took part in these tumults. While many continental
municipalities were becoming more democratic in the 14th
century, those of England were drifting towards oligarchy,
towards government by a close 4 * select body." As a rule the
craft gilds secured no dominant influence in the boroughs of
England, but remained subordinate to the town government.
Whatever power they did secure, whether as potent subsidiary
organs of the municipal polity for the regulation of trade, or as
the chief or sole medium for the acquisition of citizenship, or as
integral parts of the common council,, was, generally speaking,
the logical sequence of a gradual economic development, and
not the outgrowth of a revolutionary movement by which
oppressed craftsmen endeavoured to throw off the yoke of an
arrogant patrician gild merchant.
Two new kinds of craft fraternities appear in the 14th century
and become more prominent in the 15th, namely, the merchants'
and the journeymen s companies. The misteries or companies
of merchants traded in one or more kinds of wares. They were
pre-eminently dealers, who sold what others produced. Hence
they should not be confused with the old gild merchant, which
originally comprised both merchants and artisans, and had the
whole monopoly of the trade of the town. In most cases, the
company of merchants was merely one of the craft organizations
which superseded the gild merchant.
In the 14th century the journeymen or yeomen began to set
up fraternities in defence of their rights. The formation of these
societies marks a cleft within the ranks of some particular class
of artisans — a conflict between employers, or master artisans,
and workmen. The journeymen combined to protect their
special interests, notably as regards hours of work and rates of
wages, and they fought with the masters over the labour question
in all its aspects. The resulting struggle of organized bodies
of masters and journeymen was widespread throughout western
Europe, but it was more prominent in Germany than in France or
England. This conflict was indeed one of the main features of
German industrial life in the 15th century. In England the
fraternities of journeymen, after struggling a while for complete
independence, seem to have fallen under the supervision and
control of the masters' gilds; in other words, they became
subsidiary or affiliated organs of the older craft fraternities.
An interesting phenomenon in connexion with the organiza-
tion of crafts is their tendency to amalgamate, which is occasion*
ally visible in England in the 15th century, and more frequently
in ;the 16th and 17th. A similar tendency is visible in the
Netherlands and in some other parts of the continent already
in the 14th century. Several fraternities — old gilds or new
companies, with their respective cognate or heterogeneous
branches of industry and trade — were fused into one body. In
some towns all the crafts were thus consolidated into a single
fraternity; in this case a body was reproduced which regulated
the whole trade monopoly of the borough, and hence bore some
resemblance to the old gild merchant.
In dealing briefly with the modern history of craft gilds, we may
confine our attention to England. In the Tudor period the
policy of the crown was to bring them under public or national
control. Laws were passed, for example in 1503, requiring that
new ordinances of " fellowships of crafts or misteries " should be
approved by the royal justices or by other crown officers; and
the authority of the companies to fix the price of wares was thus
restricted. The statute of 5 Elizabeth, c. 4, also curtailed their
jurisdiction over journeymen and apprentices (see Apprentice-
ship).
The craft fraternities were not suppressed by the statute of
1547 (i Edward VI.). They were indeed expressly exempted
from its general operation. Such portions of their revenues as
were devoted to definite religious observances were, however,
appropriated by the crown. The revenues confiscated were those
used for " the finding, maintaining or sustentation of any priest
or of any anniversary, or obit, lamp, light or other such things."
This has been aptly called " the disendowment of the religion
of the misteries." Edward VI.'s statute marks no break of
continuity in the life of the craft organizations. Even before the
Reformation, however, signs of decay had already begun to
appear, and these multiplied in the 16th and 17th centuries. The.
old gild system was breaking down under the action of new
economic forces. Its dissolution was due especially to the
introduction of new industries, organized on a more modern
basis, and to the extension of the domestic system of manufacture.
Thus the companies gradually lost control over the regulation of
industry, though they still retained their old monopoly in the
17th century, and in many cases even in the 18th. In fact, many
craft fraternities still survived in the second half of the 18th
century, but their usefulness had disappeared. The medieval
form of association was incompatible with the new ideas of in-
dividual liberty and free competition, with the greater separation
of capital and industry, employers and workmen, and with the
introduction of the factory system. Intent only on promoting
their own interests and disregarding the welfare of the community,
the old companies had become an unmitigated evfl. Attempts
have been made to find in them the progenitors of the trades
. GJLE AP—GDLES, ST^
)
n
unions, but there, seems to be up immjediate connexion between
the latter and the craft gilds. The privileges of the old frater-
nities, were not formally abolished until 1835; and the sub-
stantial remains or spectral forms of some are still visible in othe^
towns besides London.
Bibliography.— W. E. Wilda, Das Gildenwesen im MitUlalter
(Halle, 1 831); E. Levasseur, Bistoire des classes ouvrieres en Prance
(2 vols.. Paris, 1859, new ed. 1900); Gustav von Schonberg, ** Zur
wirthscaaftlichen bedeutung des deutschen Zunftwesens im Mittel-
alter," in JahrbxUher far Nationaldkonontie una 1 Statistic ed. B.
Hildebrand, vol. ix. pp. 1-72, 97-169 (Jena, 1867); Joshua Toulmin
Smith, English Gilds, with Lujo Brentano's introductory essay on
the History and Development of Gilds (London, 1870) ; Max Pappen-
heim, Die altd&nischen Schutsgilden (Breslau, 1885); W. J. Ashley,
Introduction to English Economic History (2 vols., London, 1888-
1893; 3rd ed. of vol. i„ 1894); C. Gross, The. Gild Merchant (2 vols.,
Oxford, 1890); Karl Hegel, Stadte und Gilden der germanischen
V biker (2 vols., Leipzig, 1 891); J. Malet Lambert, Two Thousand
Years of Gild Life (Hull, 1891); Alfred Doren, Untersuchungen zur
Geschichte der Kaufmannsgilden (Leipzig, 1893) ; H. Vander Linden,
Les Gildes marchandes dans les Pays-Bas au moyen dge (Ghent,
1896); E. Martin Saint-Leon, Hisioire des corporations de metiers
(Paris, 1897) ; C. Nyrop, Danmarki Gilde- og Lavsskraaer fra middel-
alderen (2 vols., Copenhagen, 1 899-1 904) ; F. Keutgen, Amter und
Z&nfte (Jena, 1903) ; George Unwin, Industrial Organization in the
Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries (Oxford, 1004). For biblio-
graphies of gilds, see H. Blanc, Bibliographic des corporations
ouvrieres (Pans, 1885); G. Gonetta, Bibhografia delle corpordiioni
& arti e mestieri (Rome, 1891); C. Gross, Bibliography of British
Municipal History, including Gilds (New York, 1897); W. Stieda,
in Handwdrterbuch der Staatswissenschaften, ed. J. Conrad (2nd ed.,
Jena, 1901, under " Zunftwesen "). (C. Gr.)
GILEAD {i.e. " hard " or " rugged/' a name sometimes used,
both in earlier and in later writers, to denote the whole of the
territory occupied by the Israelites eastward of Jordan, extending
from the Arnon to the southern base of Hermon (Deut. xxxiv. 1;
Judg. xx. 1; Jos. AnU xii. 8. 3, 4). More precisely, however,
it was the usual name of that picturesque hUl country which is
bounded on the N by the Hieromax (Yarmuk), on the W. by
the Jordan, on the §. by the Arnon, and on the £. by a line which
may be said to follow the meridian of Amman (Philadelphia or
Rabbath-Ammon). It thus lies wholly within 31° 25' and 32
42' N. lat. and 35 34' and 36 E. long., and is cut in two by the
Jabbok. Excluding the narrow strip of low-lying plain along
the Jordan, it has an average elevation of 2500 ft. above the
Mediterranean; but, as seen from the west,, the relative height
is very much increased by the depression of the Jordan valley.
The range from the same point of view presents a singularly uni-
form outline, having the appearance of an unbroken wall; in
reality, however, it is traversed by a number of deep ravines
(wadis), of which the most important are the Yabis, the Ajlun,
the Rajib, the Zerka (Jabbok), the Hesban, and the Zerka Ma'In.
The &:eat mass of the Gilead range is fprmed of Jura limestone,
the base slopes being sandstone partly covered by white marls.
The eastern slopes are comparatively bare of trees; but the
western are well supplied with oak, terebinth and pine* The
pastures are everywhere luxuriant, and the wooded heights and
winding glens, in which the tangled shrubbery is here and there
broken up by open glades and flat meadows of green turf, exhibit
a beauty of vegetation such as is hardly to be seen. in any other
district of Palestine.
The. first biblical j mention , of "Mount Gilead" occurs in
connexion with the reconcilement of Jaopb and Laban (Genesis
xxxi.). The composite nature of the story makes an identifica-
tion of the exact site difficult, but one of the narrators (E) seems
to have in «nind the ridge of what is now known as Jebel Ajlun,
probably not far from Mabneh (Mahanaim)i, near the head of the
wadi Yabis. Some investigators incline to Suf, or to the Jebel
Kafkafa. At the period of the Israelite conquest the portion of
Gilead northward qi the Jabbpk (Zerfca) belonged to the dominions
of Og, king of Bashan, while the southern half was ruled by Sihon,
king of the Amorites, having been at an earlier date wrested from
Moab (Numb. xxi r , 24; Deut. iii. 12-16).. These two sections
were allotted respectively to Manasseh and to Reuben and Gad,
both districts being peculiarly suited to the pastoral and nomadic
character of these tribes. A somewhat wild Bedouin disposition,
fostered by their surroundings, was retained by the Israelite in-
habitants of Gilead to a late period of their history, and seems
to be to some extent discernible in what we read alike of Jephthah,
of David's Gadites, and of the prophet. Elijah. As the eastern
frontier of Palestine, Gilead bore the first brunt of, Syrian and
Assyrian attacks.
After the close of the 6ld Testament history the word Gilead
seldom occurs. It seems to have soon passed out of use as a
precise geographical designation; for though occasionally
mentioned by Apocryphal writers, by Josephus, and by Eusebrus,
the allusions are all vague, and show that those who made them
had no definite knowledge of Gilead proper. In Josephus and
the New Testament the name Peraea or repay rov \lopbb\vov is
most frequently used; and the. country is sometimes spoken
of by Josephus as divided into small provinces called after the
capitals in which Greek colonists had established themselves
during the reign of the Seleucidae. At present Gilead south of
the Jabbok alone is known by the .name of Jebel Jilad (Mount
Gilead), the northern portion between the Jabbok and the
Yarmuk being called Jebel Ajlun. Jebel Jilad includes Jebel
Osha, and has for its capital the town of Es-Salt. The
cities of Gilead expressly mentioned in ithe Old Testament are
Ramoth, Jabesh and Jazer. The first of these has been, variously
identified with Es-Salt, with, Reimun, with Jerash or Gerasa,'
with er-Remtha, and with Salbad. Opinions are also 'divided,
on the question of its identity with Mizpeh-Gilead (see Encyc.
Biblica, art. " Ramoth-Gilead "). Jabesh is perhaps to be
found at Meriamin, less probably at ed-Deir; Jazer, at Yajuz.
near Jogbehah, rather than at Sar. The city named Gilead (Judg.
x. 17, xii. 7; Hos. vi. 8, xii. n) has hardly been satisfactorily
explained; perhaps the text has suffered.
The " balm " (Heb. sori) for which Gilead was so noted
(Gen. xlvii. 11; Jer. viii. 22, xlvi. n; Ezek. xxvii. 17), is probably
to be identified with mastic (Gen. xxxvii. 25, R.V. marg.) i.e.
the resin yielded by the Pistachia LenHscus. The modern
" balm of Gilead " or " Mecca balsam," an aromatic gum
produced by the Balsamodendron opobalsamum, is more likely
the Hebrew tndr, which the English Bible wrongly renders
" myrrh."
See G. A. Smith* Hist. Geog. xxiv. foil. (R. A. S. M.)
GILES (Gil, Gilles), ST, the name given to an abbot whose
festival is celebrated on the 1st of September, According to
the legend, he was an Athenian (Alyi&ux, Aegidius) of royal
descent. After the death of his parents he distributed his
possessions among the poor, took ship, and landed at Marseilles.
Thence he went to Aries, where he remained for two years with
St Caesarius. He then retired into a neighbouring desert,
where be lived upon herbs and upon the milk of a hind which
came to him at stated hours. He was discovered there one day.
by Flavins, the king of the Goths, who built a monastery on the
place, of which he was the first abbot. Scholars are very much
divided as to the date of his life, some holding that he lived in
the 6th century, others in the 7th or 8th. It may be regarded
as certain that St Giles was buried in the hermitage which he
had founded in a spot which was afterwards the town of St-
Gilles (diocese of Nimes, department of Gard). His reputation
for sanctity attracted many pilgrims. Important gifts were
made to the church which contained his body, and a monastery
grew up hard by. It is probable that the Visigothic princes who
were in possession of the country protected and enriched this'
monastery, and that it was destroyed by the Saracens at the
time of their invasion in 721. But there are no authentic data
before the oth century concerning his history. In 808 Charle-
magne took the abbey of St-Gilles under his protection, and
it is mentioned among the monasteries from which only prayers
for the prince and the state were due. In the 12th century the
pilgrimages to St-Gilles are cited as among the most celebrated
of the time. The cult of the saint, who came to be regarded as
the special patron of lepers, beggars and cripples, spread very
extensively over Europe, especially in England, Scotland,
France, Belgium, and Germany. The church of St Giles,
Gripplegate, London, was built about 1090, while the hospital for
lepers at St Giles-in-the-Fields (near New Oxford Street) was
f8
GILMli?A^<3&GMJgSH
?
foun&tA by Qiij&ti M&k f in ; Tc5fi7J« r In "Efitfand aldnethere
are about' 150 churches dedicated (6 this saint. In Edinburgh
the church of St Giles could boast the possession 6f an arm-feorie
of its patron!' ftekresentations of St Giles are very frequently
met with in early French and German art, but ate touch less
common fa Itafy and Spam.*' '"' -' , : v ' "'
See Acta Sancfofitm(&pttm\yer),i. ^$4-^99; Devic atod Vaissete, :
Histoire g&ttirak<Se Languedbc, pp. 514-52*2 (Toulouse, i8?6)';
E. Rembry, Sdint. GiMs\ m \ne\ $*s retinues, son culle en Belgique et.
dans le nord dc la France (Bruges, 18&1) ; p. Arnold-Forster, Studies
in Church , Dedications, or England's Patron Saints, ii. 46-51, iii. 15,
£3-365 (1899); A. Jameson, Satred and Legendary Art, 768-770
1896) ; A. Bell, Libes and Legends of the English Bishops and Kings,
Medieval Monks* and; other, later Saints, pp. 61, 70, 74-78, 84, 197
(190*). ( H - v**)
GILFILLAN, GEORGE (1813-1878), Scottish author, was
born on the 30th of January 181 3, at Cbmrie, Perthshire, where
his rather, the ReV„ Samuel Gilfillan, the author of some theo-
logical works, was for many years minister of a Secession con-
gregation. After ah education at Glasgow University, in March
1836 he was ordained pastor of a Secession congregation in J
Dundee. He published a volume of his discourses in 1839,
and shortly afterwards another sermon on "Hades," which
brought* him under ! the' scrutiny 'of his co-presbyters, and was
ultimately withdrawn from circulation. Gilfillan next contri-'
buted a "Series of sketches of celebrated contemporary authors
to the Dumfries Herald, then edited by Thomas Aird; and these,
with several new ones, formed his first Gallery of Literary Portraits,
which appeared in 1846, and had a wide circulation. It waS
quickly followed by a Second and'a Third Gallery. In 1851 his
most successful work, the Bards of the Bible, appeared. His
aim was that it should be " a poem on the Bible "; and it was
far more rhapsodical than critical. His Martyrs and Heroes of
the ScotHsh Covenant appeared in 183*2, and in 1856 he produced
a partly autobiographical, partly fabulous, History of a Man,
For thirty years he was engaged upon a long poem, on Night,
which was published in 1867, but its theme was too vast, vague
and unmanageable, and the result was a failure. He also
edited an edition of the British Poets. As a lecturer and as a
preacher he drew large crowds, but his literary reputation has
not proved permanent. He died on the 13 th of August 1S78.
He had just finished a new life of Burns designed to accompany
a new edition of the works of that poet.
GILGAL (Heb. for "circle" of sacred stones), the name of
several places in 1 Palestine, mentioned in the Old Testament.
The name is not found east of the Jordan.
1. The first and most important was situated "in the east
border of Jericho'" (Josh, iV; i#), on the bbrder between
Judah and" fienjamin (Josh, xvl' 7). Josephus {Ant. v. 1. 4)
places it 50 stadia from Jordan and 10 from Jericho (the
New'Testamentsfte).' Jerome (Onvmasticon, s.V. " Galgal ")
places Gilgal ^ Rdman* miles from Jericho, and speaks of it
as a deserted place held in wonderful veneration (" miro cultu " )
by the natives: This site, which in the middle ages appears to
have been lost— Gilgal being shown farther north 1 — was in
1 86^' recovered by a German traveller (Hermann Zschokke),
and' fixed 1 by the English survey party, though not beyond
dispute. : It is about 2 m. east of the site of Byzantine
Jericho, and 1 m. from modern er-Riha. A fine tamarisk,
traces of a Church (which is mentioned in the 8th century), and
a large reserv6ir, now filled up with mud, remain. The place is
called JiljQlieh, and its position north of the valley of Achor
(Wacfif Kelt) and east of Jericho agrees well with the biblical
indications above mentioned. A tradition connected with the
fall of Jericho is attached to the site (see C. R. Conder, Tent
Work, 203 ff.). This sanctuary and camp of Israel held a high
place in the national regard, and is often mentioned in Judges
and Samuel. But whether this is the Gilgal spoken of by Amos
and Hosea in connexion with Bethel is by no means certain
[see (3) below}.
2. Gilgal, mentioned in Josh, xli; 23 in connexion with Dor,
appears to have been situated 'in the maritime plain. Jerome'
(Onoikastkon; s.v;'* Gelgel") speaks of a toWn of the name
6' TlbmW 1 ^ [Ttis W
apparently the thoderi ' Katltflia, blit about 4 m. north 6fAnti-|
patris is a farge Village called 'Jiljtilieh, which is more probably
the bibhcal town: ' ; ; ' ' ' ' ! ! ' • ! ■ -
3. The third Gilgal (2 Kings iv f< 38) Was in the mountaW
(compare 1 Sarn. Vii. itoV 2 i ;'^ng4 , iL l,, i,- ( 3)_ near Bethel. Jeroftm
mentions this place also (QnatnMiicQn v sLv. " Galgala '% , l Ju
appears to be the present village of Jiljilia, about 7 Enghsh-
miles north of Beitin (Bethel): It may have absorbed the olft
shrine of Shiloh aiid been the sanctuary famous in the days o£
Amos and Hosea,, . - « »• •• » , . . ( ' '^
4. Deut. xi. 30 seems to imply a Gilgal near Gerizim, and there
is still a place called Juleijil on the plain of Makhna, 2* m.S. E.
of Shechem. this may have been Amos's Gilgal and was
alpaost certainly that of 1 Mace!, ix. 2. . .'/\
5. The Gilgal described in Josh. xv. ;7 is the same as the
Beth-Gilgal of Neh. xii. 29; its site is not known. (R. A. S. M.)
GILGAMESH, EPIC GF, the title given to one of the most
important literary products of Babylonia, from the name of the
chief personage in the series of tales of which it is composed.
Though the Gilgamesh Epic is khown to us chiefly from the
fragments 'fouiid in the royal collection of tablets made by
! Assur-bani-pal, the king of Assyria (668-626 n/c.) for his palace
: at Nineveh, internal evidence points to the high antiquity of at
least some portions of it, and the discover^ of a fragment of the
epic in the 1 older form of the Babylonian script, which can be
dated as 2000 B.C., confirms this view. Equally certain is a 1
second observation of a general character that the epic originating
as the greater portion of the literature in Assur-bani-paPs collec-
tion in Babylonia is a composite product, that is to say, it consists
of a number of independent stories or myths originating at
different times, and united to form a continuous narrative with
Gilgamesh as the central figure. This view, naturally raises the
question whether the independent stories Were all told 6f
Gilgamesh or, as almost always happens in t he 1 cage of ancient
tales, were transferred to Gilgamesh as a favourite popular,
hero. Internal evidence again comes to our aid to lend its 1
1 Weight to the latter theory. *
While the existence of such a personage as Gilgamesh may
be' admitted, he belongs t6 an age that could only have preserved
a dim recollection of his achievements and adventures through
! oral traditi6ns. The name 1 is not Babylonian, and wha.t !
evidence as to his origin there is points to his having come from 1
Elam, to the east of Babylonia. ' He ma^ have belonged to the
people known as the Kassites who at the beginning of the i 8th
century B.C. entered Babylonia from Elam, and obtained control
of the Euphrates valley. Why arid how he came to bt a popular \
hero in Babylonia cannot with our present 1 material be deter-
mined, but' the epic indicates that he came as a Conqueror ani
established himself at £rech. :: In so far we have embodied- m
the first rjart of the epic dim' recollections rif actual events, but"
we soon leave the solid ground of fact and fmd ourselves soaring :
to 1 the heights of genuine myth. Gilgamesh becomes a god, arid,
in certain portions 6f the epic clearly plays the part of the sun- :
god of the spring-time, taking the place apparently of TammUs/
or Adonis, the youthful sun-god, though the story shows traits
that differentiate it from the I, 6rdiriat l y* Taim4iu£ myths'.' 'A
separate stratum in the Gilgamesh epic isfbrmed by the story of *
Eabani — introduced as the friend of Gi%arnesh, who joins him'
in his adventures. There cafa be no doubt that Eabani, who |
symbolizes primeval man, was a figure originally entirely fn(le- '
pendent of Gilgamesh, but his story was incorporated into the*
epic by that natural process to be observed in the national efjics
of other peoples, which tends to corinect the favourite hero With''
all kinds of tales that for one reason or the other become etii-
bedded in the popular mfrid. Another stratum is represented
by the story of a favourite of the gods known as TJt-Napishtmv'
who is saved from a destructive storiri and flood that destroys
1 The name of the hero, written always, ideograpbically. Was foil a :
long, time provisionally read Izdu^bar; but a, tablet discovered by
T^ &. Pinches gave the* equivalent Gilgamesh (s$eJ3istroy{, Religion. of '
Babylonia and Assyria, p. 468). " ' '
GILGIT
19
his fellow-citizens of Shurippak, Qilgarnesh ,ja< artificially
brought into contact with Ut-Napishtim, to whom he pay? a
visit for the purpose of learning the secret of immortal life and
perpetual youth which he enjoys. During the visit Ut-Napishtim
tells Gilgamesh the /story of the flood, and pf his miraculous
escape. Nature myths have been entwined with other episodes
in the epic and finally the theologians took up the combined
stories and made them {he medium for illustrating the truth
and force of certain doctrines of the Babylonian religion. In
its final form, the outcome of an extended and complicated
literary process, the Gilgamesh Epic covered twelve tablets,
each tablet devoted to one adventure in which the hero plays
a direct or indirect part, and- the whole covering' according to the
most plausible estimate about 3000 lines. Of all twelve tablets
portions have been found among the remains of Assur-bani-paTs
library, but some of the tablets are so incomplete as to leave
even thek general contents in some doubt. The fragments do
not all belong to one copy. Of some tablets portions of two,
and of some tablets portions of as many as four, copies have
turned up, pointing therefore to the great popularity of the
production. The best preserved are Tablets VI. and XI., and
of the? total about 1506, lines are now known, wholly or in part,
while of those partially preserved quite a number can be restored.
A brief summary of the contents of the twelve may be. indicated
as follows:
In the rst tablet, after a general survey of the adventures of
Gilgamesh, his rule at Erech is described, where he enlists the
services of all the young able-bodied men in the building of the
great wall of the city. The people sigh under the burden im-
posed, and call upon the goddess Arum to create a being who
might act as a rival to Gilgamesh, curb his strength, and dispute
his tyrannous control. The goddess consents, and creates
Eabani, who is described as a wild man, living with the gazelles
and the beasts of the field. Eabani, whose name, signifying
" Ea creates," points to the tradition which made Ea (q,v.) the
creator of humanity, symbolizes primeval man.. Through a
hunter, Eabani and Gilgamesh are brought together, but
instead of becoming rivals, they are joined in friendship. Eabani
is induced by the snares of a maiden to abandon his life with the
animals and to proceed to Erech, where Gilgamesh, who ha*
been told in several dreams of the coming of Eabani, awaits him.
Together they proceed upon several adventures, which are
related in the following four tablets. At first, .indeed, Eabani
curses the fate which led him away from his former life, and
Gilgamesh is represented as bewailing Eabani's dissatisfaction.
The 1 sum-god Shamash calls upon Eabani to remain with Gilga-
mesh, who pays him aU honours in his palace at Erech. With
the decision of the two friends to proceed to the forest of cedars
in which the goddess Irnina-r^a form of Ishtar— dwells, and
which is guarded by Khumbaba, the 2nd tablet ends. In the
3rd tablet, very imperfectly preserved, Gilgamesh appeals
through a Shamash priestess Rimat-Belit to the sun-god Shamash
for his aid in the proposed undertaking. The 4th tablet contains
a description of the formidable Khumbaba, the guardian of
the cedar forest. In the 5th tablet Gilgamesh and Eabani reach
the forest. Encouraged by dreams, they proceed against
Khumbaba, and despatch him near a specially high cedar over
which he held guard. This adventure against Khumbaba belongs
to the Eabani stratum 1 of the epic, into which Gilgamesh is
artificially introduced. The basisof the 6th tablet is. the familiar
nature-myth of the change of; seasons, in which Gilgamesh
plays the part of the youthful sqjatf god of the springtime, who
is wooed by the goddess of fertility, Ishtar. Gilgamesh, recalling
to the goddess the sad fate of t^ose who fall a victim to her
charms, rejects the offer. In the course of his recital snatches
of other myths are referred to, including the famous Tammua-
Adonis tale, in which Tammuz, the youthful bridegroom, is
slain by his consort Ishtar. TJie goddess, enraged at the insult,
ask* her father Anu to avenge her. A divine bull is sent to wage
^contest against Gilgamesh, who is assisted by his friend Eabani.''
This scene of the fight with the buff is often depicted on seal
cv^o!^/ .The two, friends- jby ]thqr J ,unite4 for.ce. succeed, in
kilting the bull,, and then alter .performing certain votive and
purification rites return to Erech, where they are hailed with joy.
In this adventure it is dearly Eabani who is artificially intro-
duced in order to maintain the association with Gilgamesh.
The. 7th tablet continues the Eabani stratum. The hero is
smitten with sore disease, but the fragmentary condition of
this, and the succeeding tablet is such as to envelop in doubt the
accompanying circumstances, including the cause and nature
of his disease. The 8th tablet records the death of Eabani.
The 9th and 10th tablets, exclusively devoted to Gilgamesh,
describe his wanderings in quest of Ut-Napishtim, from whom
he hopes to learn how he may escape the fate that has overtaken
his friend Eabani. He goes through mountain passes and
encounters lions* At the entrance to the mountain Mashu,
scorpion-men stand guard, from one of whom he receives advice
as to how to pass through the Mashu district. He succeeds in
doing, so, and finds himself, in a wonderful park, which lies along
the sea coast. In the 10th tablet the goddess Sabitu, who, as
guardian of the sea, first bolts her gate against Gilgamesh, after.
Learning of his quest, helps him to pass in a ship across the sea
to the "waters of death." The ferry-man of Ut-Napishtim
brings him safely through these waters, despite the difficulties
and dangers of the voyage, and at last the hero finds himself
face to face with Ut-Napishtim. In the 1 1 th tablet, Ut-Napish-
tira tells the famous story of the Babylonian flood, which is
so patently attached to Gilgamesh in a most artificial manner.
Ut-Napishtim and his wife are anxious to help Gilgamesh to new
life. He is sent to a place where he washes himself clean from
imparity. He is told of a weed which restores youth to the one
grown old. Scarcely has he obtained the weed whenit is snatched
away from him, and the tablet closes somewhat obscurely with
the prediction of the destruction of Erech, In the nth tablet
Gilgamesh succeeds in obtaining a view of Eabani's shade, and
learn* through him. of the sad fate endured by the dead. With
this description, in which care of the dead is inculcated as the
only mean* of. making their existence in Axalu, where the dead
axe gathered, bearable, the epic, so far as we have it, closes.
The reason why the flood episode and the interview with the
dead Eabani are introduced is quite cleat. Both are intended/
as illustrations of doctrines taught in the schools of Babylonia,"
the former .to explain that only the favourites of the gods can
hope under exceptional circumstances to enjoy life everlasting;
\ the latter , to. emphasize the impossibility for ordinary mortals
to escape from the inactive shadowy existence led by the dead,
and to inculcate the duty of proper care for the dead. That the
;astro-theqlogical system is also introduced into the epic is clear
from the division into twelve tablets, which correspond to the*
yearly course of the sun, while throughout there are indications
that all the adventures of Gilgamesh and Eabani, including
those, which have an historical background, have been submitted
to the influence of this system and projected on to the heavens.
This interpretation of the popular tales, according to which the
career of the hero can be followed in its entirety and in detail
in the movements in the heavens, in time, with the growing
predominance of the astral-mythological system, overshadowed
the other factors involved, and it is in this form, as an astral
myth, that it passes through the ancient world and leaves its
traces in the folk-tales and myths of Hebrews, Phoenicians,
Syrians, Greeks and Romans throughout AsJa Minor and even
in India.
Bibliography.— The complete edition of the Gilgamesh Epic by '
Paul Haupt under the tide Das babyionische Ndmrodipos (Leipzig,
,1884-1891), with the 12th tablet in the Beitra& sur Assyriologte,
!i. 48-79; German translation by Peter Jensen in vol vi. of
! Schroder's KeilinschrifUiche Bibliothek (Berlin, 1900), pp. 116-273.
! See also the same author's comprehensive work, Das Gilgamesch-
\ Epos in iter WeUHtorMu* (vol. i. 1906, . vol. h; to -follow). An
'English translation of the chief portions in Jastrow, Religion of
'Babylonia and Assyria (Boston, 1898), ch. xxiii. (M. Ja.)
GIUHT, an outlying province in the extreme. north-west of
! India, over .which. Kashmir has reasserted her sovereignty.
; Only a part of the basin of the river Gilgit b included within
jita political boundaries. . There is an intervening width of
%2
GILLES DB ROYE-^GILLIE
one-fourt)i of a pint. The word comes through the 0. Ft* gelle,,
from Low Lat. gello or gillo, a measure fox wine. It is thus con-
nected with " gallon." The g is soft. (3) An abbreviation of the
feminine name Gillian, also often spelled Jill, as it is pronounced.
Like Jack for a boy, with which it is often coupled, as in the
nursery rhyme, it is used as a homely generic:, name for a girl.
GILLES DE ROYE, or Egidius de Rqya (d. 1478), Flemish
chronicler, was born probably at Montdidier, and became a
Cistercian monk. He was afterwards professor of theology in
Paris and abbot of the monastery of Royaumont at Asnieres-
sur-Oise, retiring about 1458 to the convent of Notre Dame des
Dunes, near Furnes, and devoting his time to study. Gilles
wrote the Chronicon Dunense or Annales Belgici, a resume" and
continuation of the work of another monk, Jean Brandon (d.
1428), which deals with the history of Flanders, and also with
events in Germany, Italy and England from 792 to 1478.
The Chronicle was published by F. R. Sweert in the Rerum Bel&-
carum annales (Frankfort, 1620) ; and the earlier part of it by C. B.
Keryyn de Lettenhove in the Chroniques relatives b Vkistoire de la
Belgique (Brussels, 1870).
GILLES LI MUISIS, or lb Muiset (c. 1272-1352), French
chronicler, was born probably at Tournai, and in 1289 entered
the Benedictine abbey of St Martin in his native city, becoming
prior of this house in 1327, and abbot four years later. He only
secured the latter position after a contest with a competitor,
but he appears to have been a wise ruler of the abbey. Gilles
wrote two Latin chronicles, Chronicon majus and Chronicon
minus, dealing with the history of the world from the creation
until 1349. This work, which was continued by another writer
to 1352, is valuable for the history of northern France, and
Flanders during the first half of the 14th century. It is published
by J. J. de Senet in the Corpus chronicorutn Flandriae, tome ii.
(Brussels, 1841). . Gilles also wrote some French poems, and
these Patsies de Gilles li Muisis have been published by Baron
Kervyn de Lettenhove (Louvain, 1882).
See A. Molinier, Les Sources de rhistoire de France, tomeiii. (Paris,
1903).
GILLESPIE, GEORGE (1613-1648), Scottish divine, was born
at Kirkcaldy, where his father, John Gillespie, was parish
minister, on the 21st of January 161 3, and entered the university
of St Andrews* as a " presbytery bursar " in 1629. On the
completion of a brilliant student career, he became domestic
chaplain to John Gordon, 1st Viscount Kenmure (d. 1634),
and afterwards to John Kennedy, earl of Cassillis, his conscience
not permitting him to accept the episcopal ordination which
was at that time in Scotland an indispensable condition of
induction to a parish. While with the earl of Cassillis he wrote
his first work, A Dispute against the English Popish Ceremonies
obtruded upon the Church, of Scotland, which, opportunely pub-
lished shortly after the " Jenny Geddes " incident (but without
the author's name) in the summer of 1637; attracted considerable
attention, and within a few months had been found by the
privy council to be so damaging that by their orders all available
copies were called in and burnt. In April 1638, soon after the
authority of the bishops had been set aside by the nation,
Gillespie was ordained minister of Wemyss (Fife) by the
presbytery of Kirkcaldy, and in the same year was a member
of the famous Glasgow Assembly, before which he preached
(November 21st) a sermon against royal interference in matters
ecclesiastical so pronounced, as to call for some remonstrance
on the part of Argyll, the lord high commissioner. In 1642
Gillespie was translated to Edinburgh; but the brief remainder
of his life was chiefly spent in the conduct of public business
in London. Already, in 1640, he had accompanied the commis-
sioners of the peace to England as one of their chaplains; and
in 1643 he was appointed by the Scottish Church one of the four
commissioners to the Westmins er Assembly. Here, though,
the youngest member of tJde Assembly, he took a prominent
part in almost all the protracted discussions on hurch govern-
ment, discipline and worship, supporting Presbyterianism by ;
numerous controversial writings, as well as by an unusual
fluency and readiness in, debate. Tradition long. preserved and
probably enhanced. the record of his victories in debate, , and
especially of his encounter, with John Selden on Matt, zviii.
15-17. In 1645 he returned to Scotland, and is said to have
drawn the act of assembly sanctioning the directory of public
worship. On his return to London he had a hand in drafting
the Westminster confession of faith, especially chap, L . Gillespie
was elected moderator of the Assembly in 1648, but the laborious
duties of that office (the court continued to sit from the 12th
of July to the 12th of August) told fatally on an overtaxed
constitution; he fell into consumption, and, after many weeks
of great weakness, he died at Kirkcaldy on the 17th of December
1648. In acknowledgment of his great public services, a sum
of £1000 Scots was voted, though destined never to be paid, to
his widow and children by the committee of estates. A simple
tombstone, which had been erected to his memory in Kirkcaldy
parish church, was in 166 1 publicly broken at the cross by the
hand of the common hangman, but was restored in 1746.
His principal publications were controversial and chiefly against
Erastianism : Three sermons against Thomas Coleman; A Sermon
before the House of Lords (August 27th), on Matt. iii. 2, Nihil Re-
spondent and Male Audis; Aaron's Rod Blossoming, or the Divine
Ordinance of Church-government vindicated (1646X which is de-
servedly regarded as a really able statement of the case for an
exclusive spiritual jurisdiction in the church; One Hundred and
Eleven Propositions concerning the Ministry and Government of the
Church (Edinburgh, 1647). The following were posthumously
published by his brother: A Treatise of Miscellany Questions (1649) ;
The Ark of the New Testament (2 vols., 1661-1667); Notes of Debates
and Proceedings of the Assembly of Divines at Westminster t from
February 1644 to January 1645. See Works, with memoir, published
by Hetherington (Edinburgh, 1 843-1 846).
GILLESPIE, THOMAS (1708-1774), Scottish divine, was born
at Clearburn, in the parish of Duddingston, Midlothian, in
1708. He was educated at the university of Edinburgh, and
studied divinity first at a small theological seminary at Perth,
and afterwards for a brief period under Philip Doddridge at
Northampton, where he received ordination in January 1741.
In September of the same year he was admitted minister of the
parish of Carnock, Fife, the presbytery of Dunfermline agreeing
not only to sustain as valid the ordination he had received in
England, but also to allow a qualification of his subscription
to the church's doctrinal symbol, so far as it had reference to the
sphere of the civil magistrate in matters of religion. Having
on conscientious grounds persistently absented himself from the
meetings of presbytery held for the purpose of ordaining one
Andrew Richardson, an unacceptable presentee, as minister of
Inverkeithing, he was, after an unobtrusive but useful ministry
often years, deposed by the Assembly of 1752 for maintaining
that the refusal of the local presbytery to act in this case was
justified. He continued, however, to preach, first at Carnock,
and afterwards in Dunfermline, where a large congregation
gathered round him. His conduct under the sentence of deposi-
tion produced a reaction in his favour, and an effort was made
to have him reinstated; this he declined unless the policy of the
church were reversed. In 1761, in conjunction with Thomas
Boston of Jedburgh and Collier of Colinshorgh, he formed a dis-
tinct communion under the name of " The Presbytery of Relief ,"
— relief, that is to say, " from the yoke of patronage and the
tyranny of the church courts." The Relief Church eventually
became one of the communions combining to form the United
Presbyterian Church. He died on the 10th of January; 1774,
His only literary efforts were an Essay on the Continuation of
Immediate Revelations in the Church, and a. Practical Treatise on
Temptation. Both works appeared posthumously (1774). In
the former he argues that immediate revelations are no longer
vouchsafed to the church, in the latter he traces temptation to
the work of a personal devil.
See Lindsay's Life and Times of the Rev. Thomas Gillespie;
Smithers's History of the Relief Church; for the Relief Church see
United Presbyterian Church.
GILLIE (from the Gael. giUe, Irish gille or giolla, a servant
or boy), an attendant on a Gaelic chieftain; in this sense its use,
save historically, is rare. The name js,now applied in the
Highlands of Scotland to the man-servant who attends a sports-
man in shooting or fishing. A gillie-wetfoot, a term now obsolete
(a translation of giUit-casfiiuch, from the Gaelic cas 9 foot, and
MA^iiJLt^m^^iiftXfno
flinch, wet), was "ttie gillie fthose dutVj it ^was to c,a^y,Jbis, maitier
over ^r^'ajns^ h ft. became a ,t$rrn ^f jqqnt^mpt.^mpng . ther-XWo
landers • for . the .' ' tail ' ' t (as his ' -attendants. - wier* • called) of a
Highland chief . ^-' • ■; •" ■ ' - f V - ■•' ' v ■••". ' '••'
GILLIES, JQHH $.747-193$) ,! Scottish . W^toHan and /classic? t
scholar, was born*#i B^chiii, in, Forfarshire, on tfee ^Stfc <&
January 1 747. . He ftfaa educated at Glasgow University, where^
at the age of twenty, he acted fctf a short time as substitute lor
the professor of Qreek: In 1^4 he completed his, ttislor^ of
Ancient Greece, Us, .Colonies' and Conquests (publisneii 17,86)!
This work> valuable, at a time when the study of Greek history
was in its infancy, and translated' into > French and German,
was written from a strong Whijg bias, and is now entirely super-
seded (see Greece: Ancient History, "Authorities "), On the
death of William Robertson (1721-1793)! Gillies was appointed
historiographer^royal for. Scotland. In his old age he retired to
Clapham, where he died on the 15th of February 1836.
Of his 6t!her works', none of which are much read, the principal
are: View of' the Reign of Preieric II. of Prussia, with a ParcUlel
between that Prince and Philip II. of Macedon (1789), rather a pane-
gyric than .-.-«•- • ....... -,
(1823) an<f
Lysiasand
to Augustus (1807), which, 'although deficient in style, was com
mended for its learning and
GILLINGHAM, a market town in the northern parliamentary
division of Dorsetshire, England, 105 m. W.S.W. from London
by the London & South-Western railway. Pop. (1001) 3386.
The church of St Mary the Virgin has a Decorated chancel.
There is a large 'agricultural trade, and manufactures of bricks
and tiles, cord, sacking and silk, brewing and tracon-curing are
carried on. The rich undulating district in which Gillingham
is situated was a forest preserved by King John and his successors,
and the site of their lodge is traceable near the town.
GILLIN6HAM, a municipal borough of Kent, England, in
the parliamentary borough of Chatham and the mid-division
of the county, on the Medwdy immediately east of Chatham,
on the South-Eastern & Chatham railway. Fop. (1891) 27,809;
(1901) 42,5304 Its population is largely industrial, employed
in the Chatham dockyards, and in cenient and brick works in the
neighbourhood. The church ctf St Mary Magdalene ranges in date
from Early English to Perpendicular, retaining also traces of
Norman work and some* early brasses. A great battle between
Edmund Ironside and Canute, c. 1016, is placed here; and there
was forme* fy a palace of the archbishops of Canterbury, Gilling-.
ham was incorporated in 1903, and is governed by a mayor, 6
aldermen and 1$ councillors. The borough-includes the populous
districts of Brotnpton and New BrotaptOti. Area, 4355 acres 5 .'
* Of LLOT r > CLAUDE (16:73-1722), French painter, best known
as the master of Watteau and Lancfet; was born at Langres.
His sportive mythological, landscape-pieces, with such titles
as " Feast of Pan " and "Feast of Bacchus," opened the Academy
of Painting »*i>Pa*fc t& Mm in 1715; and 1 he' then adapted hw
art to thq fashkttable tastes of the day, and' introduced the
decorative/^ay chmipkr'esifa which he-was afterwards surpassed-
by his pu^ila He was alsb closely connected with the opera
and theatre as a designer of scenery and costfemes: '
GILLOTT, JOSEPH (1700-1873}, English' peri-maker, wasborri
at Sheffield on the rrth of October 1799; :: ^ or some time he was
a working cutler there, but in* 182 1 removed to Birmingham,
where he found employment in the "steel toy ^ trade, the
technical name for the manufacture of steel buckles^ cliains and
light ornamental steel- work generally. About 1830 he turned
his attention to the manufacture of steel pens by machinery,
and in 183 1 patented a process for placing elongated points oil
the nibs of pens. Subsequently he invented other improvements,
getting rid of the hardness and lack of flexibility, which had been
a serious defect in nibs, by cutting, in addition to the centTe slit,
side slits, and cross grinding the points. By 1S59 he had built up
a -very large business. Gillott was a liberal art-patron, and
one of the first to recognize the merits of J. M. Vt. Turner. He
died iat Birmingham on the = 5th of January 1873: His collection
of pictures; sold after his de*at*h>, realized f^^odo.*'
*§
GILLOW, ROBERT (d. ffft), 'the ftuntfer at' tancastef
of a distinguished firm of English rabinetj-naajters and furniture
desigrieys whose' books Begin 1 m 173 i. He wafs succeeded by his
eldest 1 s^h *^ictar^ (x'73i4-:iirf), Who after being educated at the
feornan Catholic seminary at JDbuaj was, taken into partnership
about rV^r^efi 'trie nhri : became Gillow!& Barton, and his 1
lounge* sonslfebert and Thomas, and tihe business was continued
by his grandson Richard (1778-1866). In 4 iti earty days the firm
of GiUptftyere architects as well as; cabihet-rnakers, and the first,
Richard Gilltfw designed thie classical Cust'om House at Lancaster.
In the ihidtBe of the 1 8th century the business was e*tendecl to
London, and about 1 761 premises were opened in Oxford Street
dn a site whicli was continuously occupied Until 1906.' ifor.a
lortg period the Gillbws were the best-known makers of foiglisn
furniture-^Sheraton and Heppelwhite both designed for them,
and replicas are still made of pieces from the drawings of Robert
Adam. Between 1760 and 1770 they 1 invented the original
form' of ' the bilKard-table; ' they were the patentees (about
1806) of the telescopic dining-table which has long been universal
in English houses; for a Captain Davenport they made, if they
did not invent, the first writing-table of that name. Their vogue
is indicated fey references t0 them in the works of Jane Austen,
Thacikeray and. the first %ord Lyttoif; and more recently in one
of Gilbert arid Sullivan's cornib operas. ' :
GILLRAY, JAMES (1757-1815), English caricaturist, was born
at Chelsea in 1757. His father, a native of Lanark, ,had served
as a soldier, losing an anri at Fbntenoy, arid was adiiitted first
as an inmate, and afterwards as an outdoor pensioner, at Chelsea
hospital. Gillray commenced life by learning letter-engraving,'
in which he soon became an adept. This employment, however,
proving irksome, he wandered about for a time with a company
of strolling players. After a very checkered experience he
returned to London, arid was admitted a student in the Royal
Academy, supporting himself by engraving, and probably issuing
a considerable number of caricatures ' linder fictitious names.
Hogarth's works were the delight and study of his early years.:
" Paddy pn Horseback*" which appeared in 1779, is the first
caricature which is certainly his. Two caricatures on Rodney^s
naval victory, issued in 1782, were among the first of the rriemorf 1
able series of >is political sketches. The name of Gillray's.
publisher and prifltseller, Jtfiss Humphrey— whose shop* was first'
at 227 Strand* then in New Bond Street, then in Old Bond Street,
and finally in St Jattiesjs Street — is inextricably associated with'
that of the caricaturist. Gillary. lived with Miss (often called
Mrs) Humphrey during all: thei period of his fome. Itis believed
thatihe several times, thought 1 of marrying ber, and 1 that tin. one
occasion the pafr were on their way to the church, whela Gillfayj
said: "This is. a foolish afi^r./iriethinksy Miss \3jumt>hrey r ;
We f l}Ye very n comfortably tpgetW.;:we had tetfieffilct we}l.
alDne^ ' There is no evidence^ however, to • support 'the ^storiesi
I w^ich scandalhiongers invented ar^out tjierr irelatiohi. ' Gill^ay's';
plktes- were' exposed in rjuinplprey's sliop window, .where eager
crowds examined tbejn. . A number of jhis roost trenchant aatires :
are directed against George III., whoy after examiifing some of 1
Gillray's sketches, said, with characteristic ignoratfteund blind-, 1
riess to merit, "1 don't understand these caricatures." . Gillray :
revenged himself for this utterance by has splendid caricature'
entitled, ." A -Connoisseur Examining a Cooper^ which he is
doing by means of i candle ori a " save-all ") so tln\t the sketch '
satirizes at price the king's pretensions. to. knowledge of art and'
his miserly, habits- ;
The excesaea of the French Revolution made Gillray conserva-
tive; and he issued caricature after caricature, ridiculing the
French and Napoleon,' and glorifying John fiulL Bte is not,,
however, to bethought of as a keep political- adherent of either
the Whig or tJae Tory .party; he dealt his blows pretty freely
all round. , Hfer last work, ' from : a design by ' Buriburyi ' is
entitled " Interiot 1 of a Barber's Sbpri iri Assize t'im'e/' and.
isdatepl 1811- While he w^ls .engaged : on it he became
mad, although he had occasional intervals of sanity, which he'
employed- onjhis/ last, work. The approach of mfaducss must
have'lfeeTl liasteried by his intfemperate'liabits: ' Gillray died on
2+
GILLyifLQWER-^ILMAN
the ist of June 1815, and was buried in St James's churchyard,
Piccadilly,
The times in which Gillray lived were peculiarly favourable
to the growth of a great school of caricature. Party warfare was
carried on with great vigour and not a little bitterness; and
personalities were freely indulged in on both sides. Gillray's
incomparable wit and humour, knowledge of life, fertility of
resource, keen sense of the ludicrous, and beauty of execution,
at once gave him the first place among caricaturists. He is
honourably distinguished in the history of caricature by the fact
that his sketches are real works of art. The ideas embodied in
some of them are sublime and poetically magnificent in their
intensity of meaning; while the coarseness by which others are
disfigured is to be explained by the general freedom of treatment
common in all intellectual departments in the 18th century.
The historical value of Gillray's work has been recognized by
accurate students of history. As has been well remarked:
" Lord Stanhope has turned Gillray to account as a veracious
reporter of speeches, as well as a suggestive illustrator of events."
His contemporary political influence is borne witness to in a letter
from Lord Bateman, dated November 3, 1798. " The Opposi-
tion," he writes to Gillray, " are as low as we can wish them.
You have been of infinite service in lowering them, and making
them ridiculous." Gillray's extraordinary industry may be
inferred from the fact that nearly 1000 caricatures have been
attributed to him; while some consider him the aufhor of 1600
or 1700. He is invaluable- to the student of English manners
as well as to the political student. He attacks the social follies
of the time with scathing satire; and nothing escapes his notice,
not even a trifling change of fashion in dress. The great tact
Gillray displays in hitting on the ludicrous side of any subject
is only equalled by the exquisite finish of his sketches — the finest
of which reach an epic grandeur and Miltonic sublimity of con-
ception.
Gillray's caricatures are divided into two classes, the political
series and the social. The political caricatures form really the best
history extant of the latter part of the reign of George III. They
were circulated not only over Britain but throughout Europe,
and exerted a powerful influence. In this series, George III., the
queen, the prince of Wales, Fox, Pitt, Burke and Napoleon are the
most prominent figures. In 1788 appeared two fine caricatures by
Gillray. 4< Blood on Thunder foramg the Red Sea " represents
Lord Thurlow carrying Warren Hastings through a sea of gore:
Hastings looks very comfortable, and is carrying two large bags of
money. " Market-Day " pictures the ministerialists of the time as
horned cattle for sale. Among Gillray's best satires on the king
are: " Farmer George and his Wife," two companion plates, iu one of
which the king is toasting muffins for breakfast, and in the other
the queen is frying sprats; " The Anti-Saccharites," where the royal
_ Dying a frugal Meal"; " Koyal Attabiiity '
Apple Dumplings " ; and " The Pigs Possessed. Among his other
political caricatures may be mentioned: " Britannia between Scylla
and Charybdis,' r a picture in which Pitt, so often Gillray's butt,
figures in a favourable light; " The Bridal Night "; " The Apothe-
osis of Hoche," which concentrates the excesses of the French
Revolution in one view; " The Nursery with Britannia reposing in
Peace " ; " The First Kiss these Ten Years " (1803), another satire
on the peace, which is said to have greatly amused Napoleon ; " The
Handwriting upon the Wall"; "The Confederated Coalition," a
fling at the coalition which superseded the Addington ministry;
"Uncorking Old Sherry"; "The Plum-Pudding in Danger'*;
11 Making Decent," i.e. " Broad-bottomites getting into the Grand
Costume " ; " Comforts of a Bed of Roses " ; View of the Hustings
in Covent Garden " ; " Phaethon Alarmed " ; and " Pandora
opening her Box. ' ' The miscellaneous series of caricatures, although
they have scarcely the historical importance of the political series,
are more readily intelligible, and are even more amusing. Among
the finest are: 4< Shakespeare Sacrificed "; " Flemish Characters
(two plates); "Twopenny Whist"; "Oh! that this too solid
flesh would melt " ; " Sandwich Carrots " ; " The Gout " ; " Comfort
to the Corns "; " Begone Dull Care "; " The Cow-Pock," which
gives humorous expression to the popular dread of vaccination;
Dilletanti Theatricals"; and "Harmony before Matrimony"
and " Matrimonial Harmonics " — two exceedingly good sketches in
violent contrast to each other.
A selection of Gillray's works appeared in parts in 181 8; but
the first good edition was Thomas M'Lean's, which was published,
with a key, in 1830. A somewhat bitter attack, not only on Gillray's
character, but even on his genius, appeared in the Athenaeum tor
October I, 1831, which was successfully refuted by J. Landseer
in the Athenaeum a fortnight later. In 1851 Henry G. Bohn put
out an edition, from the original plates, in a handsome folio, the
coarser sketches being published in a separate volume. For this
edition Thomas Wright and R. H. Evans wrote a valuable com*
mentary, which is a good history of the times embraced by the
caricatures. The next edition, entitled The Works of James GUlrav,
the Caricaturist: with the Story of his Life and Times (Chatto &
Windus, 1874), was the work of Thomas Wright, and, by its popular
exposition and narrative, introduced Gillray to a very large circle
formerly ignorant of him. This edition, which is complete in one
volume, contains two portraits of Gillray, and upwards of 400
illustrations. Mr J. J. Cartwright, in a letter to the Academy (Feb.
28, 1874), drew attention to the existence of a MS. volume, in the
British Museum, containing letters to and from Gillray, and other
illustrative documents. The extracts he gave were used in a valuable
article in the Quarterly Review for April 1874. See also the Academy
for Feb. 21 and May 16, 1874.
There is a good account of Gillray in Wright's History of Cari-
cature and Grotesque in Literature and Art (1865)* See also the
article Caricature.
, GILLYFLOWER, a popular name applied to various flowers,
but principally to the clove, DiatUhus CaryophyUus, of which
the carnation is a cultivated variety, and to the stock, MaUhiola
incana, a well-known garden favourite. The word is sometimes
written gilliflower or gilloflower, and is reputedly a corruption
of July-flower, " so called from the month they blow in." Henry
Phillips (1775-1838), in his Flora historica, remarks that Turner
(1568) " calls it gelouer, to which he adds the word stock, as
we would say geiouers that grow on a stem or stock, to distin-
guish them from the clove-gelouers and the wall-gelouers. Gerard,
who succeeded Turner, and after him Parkinson, calls it gillo-
flower, and thus it travelled from its original orthography until
it was called July-flower by those who knew not whence it was
derived." Dr Prior, in his useful volume on the Popular Names
of British Plants, very distinctly shows the origin of the name.
He remarks that it was " formerly spelt gyllofer and gilofre
with the long, from the French giroflie, Italian garofalo (M. Lat.
gariofilum), corrupted from the Latin Caryopkyllum, and referring
to the spicy odour of the flower, which seems to have been used
in flavouring wine and other liquors to replace the more costly
clove of India. The name was originally given in Italy to plants
of the pink tribe, especially the carnation, but has in England
been transferred of late years to several cruciferous plants."
The gillyflower of Chaucer and Spenser and Shakespeare was,
as in Italy, Dianthus Caryopkyllus; that of later writers and of
gardeners, Matthiola, Much of the confusion in the names of
plants has doubtless arisen from the vague use of the French
terms girojUe^ teillet and violette, which were all applied to
flowers of the pink tribe, but in England were subsequently
extended and finally restricted to very different plants. The
use made of the flowers to impart a spicy flavour to ale and wine
is alluded to by Chaucer, who writes:
" And many a clove gilofre
To put in ale";
also by Spenser, who refers to them by the name of sops in wine,
which was applied in consequence of their being steeped in the
liquor. In both these cases, however, it is the clove-gillyflower
which is intended, as it is also in the passage from Gerard, in
which he states that the conserve made of the flowers with sugar
" is exceeding cordiall, and wonderfully above measure doth
comfort the heart, being eaten now and then." The principal
other plants which bear the name are the wallflower, Cheirantkus
Cheiri, called wall-gillyflower in old books; the dame's violet,
Hesperis matronalis, called variously the queen's, the rogue's
and the winter gillyflower; the r&gged-iobin, Lychnis Flos-cuculi,
called marsh-gillyflower and cuckoo-gillyflower; the water-
violet, Hottonia palustris, called water-gillyflower; and the
thrift, Artneria vulgaris, called sea-gillyflower. As a separate
designation it is nowadays usually applied to the wallflower.
OILMAN, DANIEL COIT (1831-1008), American education-
ist, was born in Norwich, Connecticut, on the 6th of July 1831.
He graduated at Yale in. 1852, studied in Berlin, was assistant
librarian of Yale in 1856-1858 and librarian in 1858-1865, and
was professor of physical and political geography in the Sheffield
Scientific School of Yale University and a member of the
1
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GILMORE— GILPIN
25
Governing Board of this School in 1S63-1872. From 1856 to
i860 he was a member of the school board of New Haven, and
from August 1865 to January 1867 secretary of the Connecticut
Board of Education. In 1872 he became president of the
University of California at Berkeley. On the 30th of December
1874 he was elected first president of Johns Hopkins University
(9.9.) at Baltimore. He entered upon his duties on the 1st of
May 1875, and was formally inaugurated on the 2 2nd of February
1876. This post he filled until 1901. From 1001 to 1904 he
was the first president of the Carnegie Institution at Washington,
D.C. He died at Norwich, Conn., on the 13th of October 1008.
He received the honorary degree of LL.D. from Harvard, St
John's, Columbia, Yale, North Carolina, Princeton, Toronto,
Wisconsin and Clark Universities, and William and Mary College.
His influence upon higher education in America was great,
especially at Johns Hopkins, where many wise details of ad-
ministration, the plan of bringing to the university as lecturers
for a part of the year scholars from other colleges, the choice of
a singularly brilliant and able faculty, and the marked willing-
ness to recognize workers in new branches of science were all
largely due to him. To the organization of the Johns Hopkins
hospital, of which he was made director in 1889, he contributed
greatly. He was a singularly good judge of men and an able
administrator, and under him Johns Hopkins had an immense
influence, especially in the promotion of original and productive
research. He was always deeply interested in the researches
of the professors at Johns Hopkins, and it has been said of him
that his attention as president was turned inside and not outside
the university. He was instrumental in determining the policy
of the Sheffield Scientific School of Yale University while he
was a member of its governing board; on the 28th of October
1897 he delivered at New Haven a semi-centennial discourse
on the school, which appears in his University Problems, He was
a prominent member of the American Archaeological Society
and of the American Oriental Society; was one of the original
trustees of the John F. Slater Fund (for a time he was secretary,
and from 1893 until his death was president of the board);
from 1 89 1 until his death was a trustee of the Peabody Educa-
tional Fund (being the vice-president of the board); and was
an original member of the General Education Board (1902)
and a trustee of the Russell Sage Foundation for Social Better-
ment (1907). In 1 896-1 897 he served on the Venezuela Boundary
Commission appointed by President Cleveland. In 1901 he
succeeded Carl Schurz as president of the National Civil Service
Reform League and served until 1907. Some of his papers
and addresses are collected in a volume entitled University
Problems in the United States (1888). He wrote, besides, James
Monroe (1883), in the American Statesmen Series; a Life of
James D. Dana, the geologist (1899); Science and Letters at
Yale (1901), and The Launching of a University (1906), an
account of the early years of Johns Hopkins.
GILMORE, PATRICK SARSFIBLD (1820-1892), American
bandmaster, was born in Ireland, and settled in America about
1850. He had been in the band of an Irish regiment, and he had
great success as leader of a military band at Salem, Massachu-
setts, and subsequently (1859) in Boston. He increased his
reputation during the Civil War, particularly by organizing a
monster orchestra of massed bands for a festival at New Orleans
in 1864; and at Boston in 1869 and 1872 he gave similar per-
formances. He was enormously popular as a bandmaster, and
composed or arranged a large variety of pieces for orchestra.
He died at St Louis on the 24th of September 1892
GILPIN, BERNARD (1517-1583), the " Apostle of the North,"
was descended from a Westmorland family, and wa$ born at
Kentmere in 1517. He was educated at Queen's College,
Oxford, graduating B.A. in 1540, M.A. in 1542 and B.D. in 1549.
He was elected fellow of Queen's and ordained in 1542; subse-
quently he was elected student of Christ Church. At Oxford he
first adhered to the conservative side, and defended the doctrines
of the church against Hooper; but his confidence was somewhat
shaken by another public disputation which he had with Peter
Martyr. In 1552 he preached before King Edward VI. a sermon
on sacrilege, which was duly published, and displays the high
ideal which even then he had formed of the clerical office; and
about the same time he was presented to the vicarage of Norton,
in the diocese of Durham, and obtained a licence, through
William Cecil, as a general preacher throughout the kingdom
as long as the king lived. On Mary's accession he went abroad
to pursue his theological investigations at Louvain, Antwerp
and Paris; and from a letter of his own, dated Louvain, 1554,
we get a glimpse of the quiet student rejoicing in an " excellent
library belonging to a monastery of Minorites." Returning to
England towards the close of Queen Mary's reign, he was invested
by his mother's uncle, Tunstall, bishop of Durham, with the
archdeaconry of Durham, to which the rectory of Easington
was annexed. The freedom of his attacks on the vices, and
especially the clerical vices, of his times excited hostility against
him, and he was formally brought before the bishop on a charge
consisting of thirteen articles. Tunstall, however, not only
dismissed the case, but presented the offender with the rich
living of Houghton-le-Spring; and when the accusation was
again brought forward, he again protected him. Enraged at
this defeat, Gilpin's enemies laid their complaint before Bonner,
bishop of London, who secured a royal warrant for his apprehen-
sion. Upon this Gilpin prepared for martyrdom; and, having
ordered his house-steward to provide him with a long garment,
that he might " goe the more comely to the stake," he set out
for London. Fortunately, however, for him, he broke his leg
on the journey, and his arrival was thus delayed till the news
of Queen Mary's death freed him from further danger. He at
once returned to Houghton, and there he continued to labour
till his death on the 4th of March 1583. When the Roman
Catholic bishops were deprived he was offered the see of Carlisle;
but he declined this honour and also the provostship of Queen's,
which was offered him in 1560. At Houghton his course of life
was a ceaseless round of benevolent activity. In June 1560 he
entertained Cecil and Dr Nicholas Wotton on their way to
Edinburgh. His hospitable manner of living was the admiration
of all. His living was a comparatively rich one, his house was
better than many bishops' palaces, and his position was that
of a clerical magnate. In his household he spent " every
fortnight 40 bushels of corn, 20 bushels of malt and an ox,
besides a proportional quantity of other kinds of provisions."
Strangers and travellers found a ready reception; and even
their horses were treated with so much care that it was humor-
ously said that, if one were turned loose in any part of the country,
it would immediately make its way to the rector of Houghton.
Every Sunday from Michaelmas till Easter was a public day
with Gilpin. For the reception of his parishioners he had three
tables well covered — one for gentlemen, the second for husband-
men, the third for day-labourers; and this piece of hospitality
he never omitted, even when losses or scarcity made its continu-
ance difficult. He built and endowed a grammar-school at a
cost of upwards of £500, educated and maintained a large number
of poor children at his own charge, and provided the more
promising pupils with means of studying at the universities.
So many young people, indeed, flocked to his school that there
was not accommodation for them in Houghton, and he had to fit
up part of his house as a boarding establishment. Grieved at
the ignorance and superstition which the remissness of the clergy
permitted to flourish in the neighbouring parishes, he used
every year to visit the most neglected parts of Northumberland,
Yorkshire, Cheshire, Westmorland and Cumberland; and that
his own flock might not suffer, he was at the expense of a constant
assistant. Among his parishioners he was looked up to as a
judge, and did great service in preventing law-suits amongst
them. If an industrious man suffered a loss, he delighted to
make it good; if the harvest was bad, he was liberal in the
remission of tithes. The boldness which he could display at
need is well illustrated by his action in regard to duelling. Find-
ing one day a challenge-glove stuck up on the door of a church
where he was to preach, he took it down with his own hand, and
proceeded to the pulpit to inveigh against the unchristian
custom. His theological position was not in accord with any of
26
;^^$ONITiEt^jGm;
,th*?; re^giou^parties^of Jus «ag$, ancj Gladstone, thought that
•the catholfci^ of tfre Anglican Chuxcfc was better exemplified
Ui hi^ career thaji pi those of more prominent ecclesiastics
{pref^to A. W. Hutton's edition of S. JJL ^Jaitland's Essays
on the Reformatio*). He was not satisfied with the Elizabethan
settlement* had great respect for s the Fathers, a^<J was with
difficulty inoluced, to subscribe. Archbishop Sandys' views on
the Eucharist horrified him; but on the other band he main :
tained friendly relations with Bishop Pilkington and Thomas
Lever, and the Puritans had some hope of his support.
A life of Bernard Gilpin, written by George Carleton, bishop of
Chichester, who had been a pupil of Gilpin's at Houghton, will be
found in Bates's Vitae selectorum aliquot virorum, &c. (London,
168:1). A translation of this sketch by William Freake, minister,
was published at London, 1629; and in 1852 it was reprinted in
Glasgow, with an introductory essay by Edward Irving. It forms
one of the lives in Christopher Wordsworth's Ecclesiastical Biography
(vol. iii., 4th ed.), having been compared with Carleton 's Latin
text. Another biography of Gilpin, which, however, adds little to
Bishopi Carleton's, was written by William Gilpin, MA, prebendary
of An>bu*y (London, I75$,and 1854). See also Diet., ifo*. Biog.
., GILS0N1TE (so named after S. H. Gilson of Salt J-ake City),
or Uintahjte, or Uintaite, a description of asphalt occurring in
masses several inches, in diameter in the Uinta (or Uintah)
valley, near Fort Duchesne, Utah. It is of black colour; its
fracture is conchoidal, and it has a lustrous surface. When
warmed it becomes pjastic,.and on further heating fuses perfectly.
It hap a specific gravity of 1-065 to 1-079. It dissolves freely
in hot, oil of turpentine^ The output amounted to 10,916 short
tons, for the year 1905, and the value was $4-31 per ton.
GILYAKS, a hybrid people, originally widespread, throughout
the Lower Amur district, Jmt now confined to the Amur delta
and the north of Sakhalin. They have been affiliated by some
authorities to the Ainu of Sakhalin and Yezo; but they are more
probably a mongrel people, and Dr A. Anuchin states, that
there are two types, a Mongoloid with sparse beard, high cheek-
bones and flat face, and, a Caucasic with bushy beard and more
regular features. The Chinese call them Yupitatse, " Fish-skin-
clad people," from their wearing a peculiar dress made from
salmon skin.
See E. G. Ravenstein, The Russians on the Amur (1861); Dr A.
Anuchin, Mem. Imp. Soc. Nat. Sc. xx., Supplement (Moscow, 1877) ;
H. von Siebold, Vber die Aino (Berlin, 1881); J. Deniker in Revue
d'ethnographie (Paris, 1884); L. Schrenck, Die Volher des Amur-
landes (St Petersburg, 1891).
GIMBAL, a mechanical device for hanging some object so
that it should keep a horizontal and constant position, while
the body from which it is suspended is in free motion, so that
the motion of the supporting body is not communicated to it.
It is thus used particularly for the suspension of compasses or
chronometers and lamps at sea, and usually consists of a ring
freely moving on an axis, within which the object swings on an
axis at right angles to the ring.
The word is derived from the 0. Fr. gemel, from Lat. gemellus,
diminutive of gepiinus, a twin,. and appears also in gimmel or
jimbel and as gemel, especially as a term for a ring formed of two
hoops linked together and capable of separation, used in the
16th and 17th centuries as betrothal and keepsake rings. They
sometimes were made of three or more hoops linked together.
GIMLET (from the 0. Fr. guimbelet, probably a diminutive
of the O.E. wimble, and the Scandinavian wammle, to bore or
twist; .the modern French is gibelet), a tool used for boring small
holes.. It is made of steel, with a shaft having a hollow side,
and a screw at the $nd for boring the wood; the handle of wood
is fixed transversely to the shaft. A gimlet is always a small
tool. A similar tool of large size is called an " auger " (see
Tool).
CfclMU, in Scandinavian mythology, the great hall of heaven
whither the righteous will go to spend eternity.
GIMP* or Gymp. (i), (Of somewhat doubtful origin, but prob-
ably a nasal form of the Fr. guipure, from guiper, %o cover or
" whip " a cord over with silk), a stiff trimming made of silk
or cotton woven, around a firm cord,, of ten further ornamented
by a> metal cord running through it. It is also sometimes
covered with bugles, beads or other glistening ornaments. The '
trimming, employed by upjiojstsrjers, to,e^ r cijr^*3, <^ape#e«,
the seats of cbpirs, &c., is also called, gunp^.and in lace work •
it is the firmer or coarser thread whici outlines the pattern and
strengthens the material, (2) A sbortenecj form of' gimple (the
0,E, wimple), the kerchief worn. by $ nun around her throat,
sometimes also applied to a nun's stomacher.
GIN, an aromatized or compounded potable spirit,, the char-
acteristic flavour pi which is derived, frorn. the juniper berry.
The word " gin " is an abbreviation of Geneva, both being
primarily derived from the Fr. genievre (Juniper), The use of
the juniper for flavouring alcoholic beverages may be traced to
the invention, or perfecting, by Count de JVJprret, son of Henry
IV- of France, of juniper wine. It was the custom in the early
days of the spirit industry, in distilling spirit from fermented
liquors, to add in the working some aromatic ingredients, such
as ginger, grains of paradise, &c, f to take off the. nauseous,
flavpur of the crude spirits then made. • The invention of juniper
wine, no doubt, led some one. Xp try the juniper berry for this
purpose, and as this flavouring agent was found, not only to
yield an agreeable beverage, but also to impart a valuable
medicinal quality to the spirit, it was generally made use. of by
makers of aromatized^ spirits thereafter. It is probable that the
use of grains of. paradise, pepper and so on, in the early days of
spirit manufacture, i^r, the object mentioned, above, indirectly
gave rise to the statements which are still found in current text-
books and works of reference as to the use of Cayenne pepper,
cooculus indicus, sulphuric acid and so on, for the purpose of
adulterating spirits, jt is quite certain that such materials are
not used nowadays, and it would indeed, in view of modern
conditions, of manufacture and of public taste, be hard to find a
reason for their use* The same applies to the suggestions that
such, substances as acetate of lead, alum or sulphate of zinc are
employed for the fining of gin.
, There are two distinct types of gin, namely, the Dutch geneva
or Hollands and the British gin. Each of these types exists in
the shape of numerous sub-varjeties. Broadly speaking, British
gin is prepared with a highly rectified spirit, whereas in the
manufacture of Dutch gin a preliminary rectification is not an
integral part of the process. The old-fashioned Hollands is
prepared much after the following fashion. , A mash consisting
of about one-third of malted barley or here and two-thirds rye-
meal is prepared, and infused at a somewhat high temperature.
After cooling, the whole is set to ferment with a small quantity
of yeast. After two to three days the attenuation is complete,
and the wash so obtained is distilled, and the resulting distillate
(the low wines) is redistilled, with the addition of the flavouring
matter (juniper berries, &c.) and a little salt. Originally the
juniper berries were ground with the malt, but this practice no
longer obtains, but some distillers, it is belfeved, still mix the
juniper berries with the wort and subject the whole to fermenta-
tion. When the redistillation over juniper is repeated, the
product is termed double (geneva, &c). There are numerous
variations in the process described, wheat being frequently
employed in lieu of rye. In the manufacture of British gin, 1
a highly rectified spirit (see Spirits) is redistilled in the presence
of the flavouring matter (principally juniper and coriander),
and frequently this operation is repeated several times. The
product so obtained constitutes the " dry " gin of commerce.
Sweetened or cordialized gin is obtained by adding sugar and
1 The precise origin of the term " Old Tom," as applied to un-
sweetened gin, appears to be somewhat obscure. In the English
case of Boord & Son v* Huddart (1903), in which the plaintiff s estab-
lished their right tp the " Cat Brand " trade-mark, it was proved
before Mr Justice Swinfen Eady that this firm had first adopted
about 1840 the punning association of the picture of a Tom cat
on a barrel with the name of " Old Tom " ; and it was at one time
supposed that this was due to a tradition that a cat had fallen into
one of the vats, the gin from which was highly esteemed. But the
term " Old Tom " had been known before that, and Messrs Boord &
Son inform us that previously " Old Tom " had been a man, namely
11 old Thomas Chamberlain of Hodge's distillery"; an old label
book in their possession (1909) shows a- label and bill-head with a
picture of " Old Tom " the man on it, and another label shows a
picture of a sailor lad on shipboard described as " Young Tom."
GINDELY— GINGER
#7
flavouring matter (juniper, coriander, angelica, &c.) to the dry
variety. Inferior qualities of gin are made by simply adding
essential oils to plain spirit, the distillation process being omitted.
The essential oil of juniper is a powerful diuretic, and gin is
frequently prescribed in affections of the urinary organs.
GINDELY, ANTON (1820-189 2), German historian, was the
son of a German father and a Slavonic mother, and was born at
Prague on the 3rd of September 1829. He studied at Prague
and at Olmtitz, and, after travelling extensively in search of
historical material, became professor of history at the university
of Prague and archivist for Bohemia in 1862. He died at
Prague on the 24th of October 1892. Gindely's chief work is
his Geschickte des dreissigj&krigen Krieees (Prague, 1869-1880),
which has been translated into English (New York, 1884);
and his historical work is mainly concerned with the period of the
Thirty Years' War. Perhaps the most important of his numerous
other works are: Geschickte der bokmischen Briider (Prague,
1857-1858); Rudolf II. und seine Zeit (1862-1868), and a criti-
cism of Wallenstein, Waldstein wdhrend seines erslen Generalats
(1886). He wrote a history of Bethlen Gabor in Hungarian,
and edited the Monument a historiae Bokemica. Gindely's
posthumous work, Geschickte der Gegenreformation in Bdhmen,
was edited by T. Tupetz (1894).
See the AUgemeine aeulsche Biograpliie, Band 49 (Leipzig, 1904).
GINGALL, or JinCai (Hindostani janjat), a gun used by the
natives throughout the East, usually a light piece mounted on
a swivel; it sometimes takes the form of a heavy musket fired
from a rest.
GINGER (Fr. gingembre, Ger. Ingiver), the rhizome or under-
ground stem of Zingiber officinale (nat. ord. Zingiberaceae), a
perennial reed-like plant growing from 3 to 4 ft. high. The
flowers and leaves are borne on separate, stems, those of the
former being shorter than those of the latter, and averaging from
6 to 12 in. The flowers themselves are borne at the apex of the
stems in dense ovate-oblong cone-like spikes from 2 to 3 in. long,
composed of obtuse strongly-imbricated bracts with membranous
margins, each bract enclosing a single small sessile flower. The
leaves are alternate and arranged in two rows, bright green,,
smooth, tapering at both ends, with very short stalks and long
sheaths which stand away from the stem and end in two small
rounded auricles. The plant rarely flowers and the fruit is
unknown. Though not found in a wild state, it is considered
with very good reason to be a native of the warmer parts of Asia,
over which it has been cultivated from an early period and the
rhizome imported into England. From Asia the plant has^pread
into the West Indies, South America, western tropical Ainca,
and Australia. It is commonly grown in botanic gardens in
Britain.
The use of ginger as a spice has been known from very early
times; it was supposed by the Greeks and Romans to be a
product of southern Arabia, and was received by them by way
of the Red Sea; in India it has also been known from a very
remote period, the Greek and Latin names being derived from
the Sanskrit. Fluckiger and Hanbury, in, their Pharmacographia,
give the following notes on the history of ginger. On the
authority of Vincent's Commerce and Navigation of the Ancients ,
it is stated that in the list of imports from the Red Sea into
Alexandria, whicji in the second century of our era were there
liable to the Roman fiscal duty, ginger occurs among other
Indian spices. So frequent is the mention of ginger in similar
lists during the middle ages, that it evidently constituted an
important item in the commerce between Europe and the East.
It thus appears in the tariff of duties levied at Acre in Palestine
about 1 1 73, in that of Barcelona in 1221, Marseilles in 1228
and Paris in 1296. Ginger seems to have been well known in
England even before the Norman Conquest, being often referred
to in the Anglo-Saxon leech-books of the nth century. It was
very common in the 13th and 14th centuries, ranking, next in
value to pepper, which was then the commonest of all spices,
and costing on an average about is. yd. per lb. Three kinds of
ginger were known among the merchants of Italy about the
middle of the 14th century: (1) Bettedi or Baladi, an Arabic
name, which, as applied 'to ginger, would signify country or
Wild, and denotes common ginger* {2) Colombino, which refers
to Columbian, Kolam or Quilon, a 1 port in Travancore, fre-
quently mentioned in the middle ages; and (3) Micchinb, a
name which denoted that the spice had been brought from or
by way of Mecca. Marco Polo seems to have seen the ginger
plant both in India and China between 1280 and 1200. John of
Montecorvino, a missionary friar wlio visited India about 1292,
gives a description of the plant, and refers to the fact of the root
being dug up and transported. Nicolo 61 Conto, ' a Venetian
merchant in the* early part of the 15th century, also describes
the plant and the collection of the root, as seen by him in India.
Though the Venetians received ginger by way of Egypt, s6me of
the superior kinds were taken from India overland by the Black
Sea. The spice is said to have been introduced into America
From Bentley & Trimen's Medicinal Plants, by permission of J.& A. Churphfll. *
Ginger (Zingiber officinale), half nat. size, with leafy and flowering
stem; the former cut off short.
1. Flower. /, Labellum, representing two
2. Flower in vertical section, barren stamens.
3. Fmile stamen, enveloping the st, Fertile stamen,
style which projects above it. y, Staminode.
4. Piece of leafy stem. 1-3 x t Tip of style bearing the
enlarged. srigma.
s, Sepals. ".< 2, Style.
p, Petals. gt, Honey-secreting glands.,
by Francisco de Mencioca, who took it from the East Indies to
New Spain. It seems to have been shipped for commercial pur-
poses from San Domingo as early as 1585, and from Barbados
in 1654; so early as 1547 considerable quantities were sent from
the West Indies to Spain.
Ginger is known in commerce in two distinct forms, termed
respectively coated and uncoated ginger, as having or wanting
the epidermis. For the first, the pieces, which are called " races "
or " hands," from their irregular palmate form, are washed and
simply dried in the sun. In this form ginger presents a brown,
more or less irregularly wrinkled or striated surface, and when
broken shows a dark brownish fracture, hard, and sometimes
horny and resinous. To produce uncoated ginger the rhizomes
are washed, scraped and sun-dried, and are often subjected
to a system of bleaching, either from the fumes of burning
sulphur or by immersion for a short time in a solution of chlorin-
ated limo. The whitewashed appearance that much of the
ginger has, as seen in the shops, is due to the fact of its being
washed in whiting and water, or even coated with sulphate of
*3
GINGHAM— GINKEL
Jime. This artificial coating is supposed by some to give the
ginger a better appearance; it often, however, covers an inferior
quality, and can readily be detected by the ease with which it
rubs off, or by its leaving a white powdery substance at the bottom
of the jar in which it is contained. Uncoated ginger, as seen
in trade, varies from single joints an inch or less in length to
flattish irregularly branched pieces of several joints, the " races "
or " hands," and from 3 to 4 in. long; each branch has a depres-
sion at its summit showing the former attachment of a leafy
stem. , The colour, when not whitewashed, is a pale buff; it is
somewhat rough or fibrous, breaking with a short mealy fracture,
and presenting on the surfaces of the broken parts numerous short
bristly fibres.
The principal constituents of ginger are starch, volatile oil (to
which the characteristic odour of the spice is due) and resin (to
which is attributed its pungency). Its chief use is as a condiment
or spice, but as an aromatic and stomachic medicine it is also used
internally. " The stimulant, aromatic and carminative properties
render it of much value in atonic dyspepsia, especially if accom-
panied with much flatulence, and as an adjunct to purgative medi-
cines to correct griping." Externally applied as a rubefacient, it
has been found to relieve headache and toothache. The rhizomes,
collected in a young green state, washed, scraped and preserved in
syrup, form a delicious preserve, which is largely exported both
from the West Indies and from China. Cut up into pieces like
lozenges and preserved in sugar, ginger also forms a very agreeable
sweetmeat.
GINGHAM, a cotton or linen cloth, for the name of which
several origins are suggested. It is said to have been made at
Guingamp, a town in Brittany; the New English Dictionary
derives the word from Malay ging-gang, meaning " striped."
The cloth is now of a light or medium weight, and woven of dyed
or white yarns either in a single colour or different colours, and
in stripes, checks or. plaids. It is made in Lancashire and
in Glasgow, and also to a large extent in the United States.
Imitations of it are obtained by calico-printing. It is used for
dresses, &c.
GINGI, or Gingee, a rock fortress of southern India, in the
South Arcot district of Madras. It consists of three hills, con-
nected by walls enclosing an area of 7 sq. m., and practically
impregnable to assault. The origin of the fortress is shrouded
in legend. When occupied by the Mahrattas at the end of the
1 7th century, it withstood a siege of eight years against the armies
of Aurangzeb. In 1750 it was captured by the French, who held
it with a strong force for eleven years. It surrendered to the
English in 1761, in the words of Orme, " terminated the long
hostilities between the two rival European powers in Coromandel,
and left not a single ensign of the French nation avowed by the
authority of its government in any part of India."
GINGUEN& PIERRE LOUIS (1748-1815), French author,
was born on the 27th of April 1748 at Rennes, in Brittany. He
was educated at a Jesuit college in his native town, and came
to Paris in 1772. He wrote criticisms for the Mercure de France,
and composed a comic opera, Pomponin (1777). The Satire des
satires (1778) and the Confession de Zulmt (1779) followed.
The Confession was claimed by six or seven different authors, and
though the value of the piece is not very great, it obtained great
success. His defence of Piccini against the partisans of Gluck
made him still more widely known. He hailed the first symptoms
of the Revolution, joined Giuseppe Cerutti, the author of the
Mlmoire pour le peuple franqais (1788), and others in producing
the Feuille villageoise, a weekly paper addressed to the villages
of France. He also celebrated in an indifferent ode the opening
of the states-general. In his Lettres sur les confessions de J. -J.
Rousseau (1791) he defended the life and principles of his author.
He was imprisoned during the Terror, and only escaped with
life by the downfall of Robespierre. Some time after his release
he assisted, as director-general of the " commission ex6cutive
de Tinstruction publique," in reorganizing the system of public
instruction, and he was an original member of the Institute of
France. In 1797 the directory appointed him minister pleni-
potentiary to the king of Sardinia. After fulfilling his duties
for seven months, very little to the satisfaction of his employers,
Ginguen6 retired for a time to his country house of St Prix, in
the valley of Montmorency. He was appointed a member of
the tribunate, but Napoleon, finding that he was not sufficiently
tractable, had him expelled at the first " purge," and Ginguen£
returned to his literary pursuits. He was one of the commission
charged to continue the Histoire litteraire de la France, and he
contributed to the volumes of this series which appeared in 1814,
18 1 7 and 1820. Ginguene's most important work is the Histoire
litteraire d 9 Italie (14 vols., 1811-1835). He was putting the
finishing touches to the eighth and ninth volumes when he died
on the nth of November 1815, The last five volumes were
written by Francesco Salfi and revised by Pierre Daunou.
In the composition of his history of Italian literature he was
guided for the most part by the great work of Girolamo Tiraboschi,
but he avoids the prejudices and party views of his model.
^ Ginguene" edited the Decade philosophique, politique et littiraire
till it was suppressed by Napoleon in 1807. He contributed largely
to the Biographic universetle, the Mercure de France and the] En-
cyclopedic mithodique; and he edited the works of Chamfort and of
Lebrun. Among his minor productions are an opera, Pomponin
ou le tuteur mystijtt (1777); La Satire des satires (1778); De
VautoriU de Rabelais dans la revolution brtsente (1791); De M.
Neckar (179$); Fables nouvelles (1810); Fables inidites (1814). See
" Eloge de Ginguene" " by Dacier, in the Menurires de Vtnstitut, torn,
vii.; Discours " by M. Daunou, prefixed to the 2nd ed. of the
Hist. lilt, d'ltalie; |D. J. Garat, Notice sur la vie et les ouvrages de
P. L. Guingeni, prefixed to a catalogue of his library (Paris, 181 7).
GIKKEL, GODART VAN (1630-1703), 1st earl of Athlone,
Dutch general in the service of England, was born at Utrecht
in 1630. He came of a noble family, and bore the title of Baron
van Reede, being the eldest son of Godart Adrian van Reede,
Baron Ginkel. In his youth he entered the Dutch army, and in
1688 he followed William, prince of Orange, in his expedition to
England. In the following year he distinguished himself by
a memorable exploit — the pursuit, defeat and capture of a Scottish
regiment which had mutinied at Ipswich, and was marching
northward across the fens. It was the alarm excited by this
mutiny that facilitated the passing of the first Mutiny Act. In
1690 Ginkel accompanied William III. to Ireland, and com-
manded a body of Dutch cavalry at the battle of the Boyne.
On the king's return to England General Ginkel was entrusted
with the conduct of the war. He took the field in the spring of
1 691, and established his headquarters at Mullingar. Among
those who held a command under him was the marquis of
Ruvigny, the recognized chief of the Huguenot refugees. Early in
June Ginkel took the fortress of Ballymore, capturing the whole
garrison of 1000 men. The English lost only 8 men. After
reconstructing the fortifications of Ballymore the army marched
to Athlone, then one of the most important of the fortified towns
of Ireland. The Irish defenders of the place were commanded
by a distinguished French general, Saint-Ruth. The firing
began on June 19th, and on the 30th the town was stormed,
the Irish army retreating towards Galway, and taking up their
position at Aughrim. Having strengthened the fortifications
of Athlone and left a garrison there, Ginkel led the English,
on July 12th, to Aughrim. An immediate attack was resolved
on, and, after a severe and at one time doubtful contest, the
crisis was precipitated by the fall of Saint- Ruth, and the
disorganized Irish were defeated and fled. A horrible slaughter
of the Irish followed the struggle, and 4000 corpses were left
unburied on the field, besides a multitude of others that lay
along the line of the retreat. Galway next capitulated, its
garrison being permitted to retire to Limerick. There tlje viceroy
Tyrconnel was in command of a large force, but his sudden death
early in August left the command in the hands of General Sars-
field and the Frenchman D'Usson. The English came in sight of
the town on the day of Tyrconners death, and the bombardment
was immediately begun. Ginkel, by a bold device, crossed the
Shannon and captured the camp of the Irish cavalry. A few days
later he stormed the fort on Thomond Bridge, and after difficult
negotiations a capitulation was signed, the terms of which were
divided into a civil and a military treaty. Thus was completed
the conquest or pacification of Ireland, and the services of the
Dutch general were amply recognized and rewarded. He re-
ceived the formal thanks of the House of Commons, and was
, GiNSBURG— GIOBERTI
29
created by the king xst earl of Athlone and baron of Aughrim,
The immense forfeited estates of the earl of Limerick were given
to him, but the grant was a few years later revoked by the English
parliament. The earl continued to serve in the English army,
and accompanied the king to the continent in 1693. He fought
at the sieges of Namur and the battle of Neerwinden, and
assisted m destroying the French magazine at Givet. In 1702,
waiving his own, claims to the position of commander-in-chief,
he commanded the Dutch serving under the duke of Marlborough.
He died at Utrecht on the iith of February 1703, and was
succeeded by his son the 2nd edrl (1668-1719), a distinguished
soldier in the reigns of William III. and Anne. On the death
of the 9th earl without issue in 1844, the title became extinct.
GINSBURG, CHRISTIAN DAVID (1831- ), Hebrew scholar,
was born at Warsaw on the 05 th of December 183 1 . Coming to
England shortly after the completion of his education in the
Rabbinic College at Warsaw, Dr Ginsburg continued his study
of the Hebrew Scriptures, with special attention to the Megilloth.
The first result of these studies was a translation of the Song
of Songs, with a commentary historical and critical, published
in 1857. A similar translation . of Ecclesiastes, followed by
treatises on the Karaites, on the Essenes and on the Kabbala,
kept the author prominently before biblical students while he
was preparing the first sections of his magnum opus, the critical
study of the Massorah.. Beginning in 1867 with the publication
of Jacob ben Cbajim's Introduction to the Rabbinic Bible,
Hebrew and English, with notices, and the Massoreth Ha-
Massoreth of Elias Levita, in Hebrew, with translation and
commentary, Dr tiinsburg took rank as an eminent Hebrew
scholar. In 1870 he was appointed one of the first members
of the committee for the revision of the English version of the
Old Testament. His life-work culminated in the publication
of the Massorah, in three volumes folio (1 880-1886), followed
by the Masoretico-critical edition of the Hebrew Bible (1894),
and the elaborate introduction to it (1897). Dr Ginsburg had
one predecessor in the field, the learned Jacob ben Chajim, who
in 1524-1525 published the second Rabbinic Bible, containing
what has ever since been known as the Massorah; but neither
were the materials available nor was criticism sufficiently
advanced for a complete edition. Dr Ginsburg took up the
subject almost where it was left by those early pioneers, and
collected portions of the Massorah from the countless MSS.
scattered throughout Europe and the East. More recently
Dr Ginsburg has published Facsimiles of Manuscripts of the
Hebrew Bible (1897 and 1898), and The Text of the Hebrew Bible
in Abbreviations (1903), in addition to a critical treatise " on the
relationship of the so-called Codex Babylonicus of a.d. 916 to
the Eastern Recension of the Hebrew Text " (1899, for private
circulation). In the last-mentioned work he seeks to prove that
the St Petersburg Codex, for so many years accepted as the
genuine text of the Babylonian school, is in reality a Palestinian
text carefully altered so as to render it conformable to the
Babylonian recension. He subsequently undertook the prepara-
tion of a new edition of the Hebrew Bible for the British and
Foreign Bible Society. He also contributed many articles to
J. Kitto's Encyclopaedia, W. Smith's Dictionary of Christian
Biography and the { Encyclopaedia Britannica.
GINSENG, the root of a species of Panax (P. Ginseng), native of
Manchuria and Korea, belonging to the natural order Araliaceae,
used in China as a medicine. Other roots are substituted for it,
notably that of Panax quinquefotium, distinguished as American
ginseng, and imported from the United States. At one time
the ginseng obtained from Manchuria was considered to be the
finest quality, and in consequence became so scarce that an
imperial edict was issued prohibiting its collection. That
prepared in Korea is now the most esteemed variety. The root of
the wild plant is preferred to that of cultivated ginseng, and the
older the plant the better is the quality of the root considered to
be. Great care is taken in the preparation of the drug. The
account given by Koempfer of the preparation of nindsin, the
root of Sium ninsi, in Korea, will give a good idea of the prepara-
tion of ginseng, ninsi being a similar drug of supposed weaker
virtue, obtained from a different plant, and often confounded
with ginseng. " In the beginning of winter nearly all th$
population of Sjansai turn out to collect the root, and make
preparations for sleeping in the fields. The root, when collected*
is macerated for three days in fresh water, or water in which
rice has been boiled twice; it is then suspended in a closed
vessel over the fire, and afterwards dried, until from the base to
the middle it assumes a hard, resinous and translucent appear-
ance, which is considered a proof of its good quality."
Ginseng of good quality generally occurs in hard, rather
brittle, translucent pieces, about the size of the little finger,
and varying in length from 2 to 4 in. The taste is mucilaginous,
sweetish and slightly bitter and aromatic. The root is frequently
forked, and it is probably owing to this circumstance that
medicinal properties were in the first place attributed to it,
its resemblance to the body of a man being supposed to indicate
that it could restore virile power to the aged and impotent.
In price it varies from 6 or 1 2 dollars to the enormous sum of
300 or 400 dollars an ounce.
Lockhart gives a graphic description of a visit to a ginseng mer-
chant. Opening the outer box, the merchant removed several paper
parcels which appeared to fill the box, but under them was a second
box, or perhaps two small boxes, which, when taken out, showed
the bottom of the large box and all the intervening space filled with
more paper parcels. These parcels, he said, " contained quicklime,
for the purpose of absorbing any moisture and keeping the boxes
quite dry, the lime being packed in paper for the sake of cleanliness.
The smaller box, which held the ginseng, was lined with sheet-lead ;
the ginseng further enclosed in silk wrappers was kept in little silken-
covered boxes. Taking up a piece, he would request his visitor not
to breathe upon it, nor handle it; he would dilate upon the many
merits of the drug and the cures it had effected. The cover of the
root, according to its quality, was silk, either embroidered or plain;
cotton cloth or paper." In China the ginseng is often sent to
friends as a valuable present; in such cases, " accompanying the
medicine is usually given a small, beautifully-finished double kettle,
in which the ginseng is prepared as follows. The inner kettle is
made of silver, and between this and the outside vessel, which is a
copper jacket, is a small space for holding water. The silver kettle,
which fits on a ring near the toi> of the outer covering, has a cup-like
cover in which rice is placed with a little water; the ginseng is put
in the inner vessel with water, a cover is placed over the whole, and
the apparatus is put on the fire. When the rice in the Cover is suffi-
ciently cooked, the medicine is ready, and is then eaten by the
patient, who drinks the ginseng tea at the same time." The dose
of the root is from 60 to 90 grains. During the use of the drug tea-
drinking is forbidden for at least a month, but no other change is*
made in the diet. It is taken in the morning before breakfast, from
three to eight days together, and sometimes it is taken in the evening
before going to bed.
The action of the drug appears to be entirely psychic, and com-
parable to that of the mandrake of the Hebrews. There is no
evidence that it possesses any pharmacological or therapeutic
properties.
See Porter Smith, Chinese Materia Medica, p. 103; Reports on
Trade at the Treaty Ports of China (1868), p. 63; Lockhart, Med.
Missionary in China (2nd ed.), p. 107; Bill, de la SociitS Imperiale
de Nat. de Moscou (1865), No. 1, pp. 70-76; Pharmaceutical Journal
(2), vol. iii. pp. 197, 333, (2), vol. ix. p. 77; Lewis, Materia Medica t
p. 324; Geoffrey, Tract, de maHere meuicale, t. ii. p. 112; Kaempfer,
Amoenitates exoticae, p. 824. ,
GIOBERTI, VINCENZO (1801-1852), Italian philosopher,
publicist and politician, was born in Turin on the 5th of April
r8oi. He was educated by the fathers of the Oratory with a
view to the priesthood and ordained in 1825. At first he led a
very retired life; but gradually took more and more interest
in the affairs of his country and the new political ideas as well
as in the literature of the day. Partly under the influence of
Mazzini, the freedom of Italy became his ruling motive in life, —
its emancipation, not only from foreign masters, but from modes
of thought alien to its genius, and detrimental to its European
authority. This authority was in his mind connected with
papal supremacy, though in a way quite novel — intellectual
rather than political. This must be remembered in considering
nearly all his writings, and also in estimating his position, both
in relation to the ruling clerical party — the Jesuits — and also
to the politics of the court of Piedmont after the accession of
Charles Albert in 183 1. He was now noticed by the king and
made one of his chaplains. His popularity and private influence,
however, were reasons enough for the court party to mark him
3©
for exile; he wjii not one of them, and could not be depended on.
Knowing thin, he resigned hi* office in 1833, but wa* suddenly
arreted on a charge of conspiracy, and, after an imprisonment of
four months, was banished without a trial. Gioberti first went
to Paris, and, a year later, to Hrussels, where he remained till
1H45, teaching philosophy, and assisting a friend In the work
of a private school. He nevertheless found time to write many
works of philosophical Importance, with special reference to his
country ami its position. An amnesty having been declared
by Charles Albert In 1846, Gioberti (who was again in Paris)
was at liberty to return to Italy, but refused to do so till the end
of 1847, On his entrance Into Turin on the 39th of April 1848
he was received with the greatest enthusiasm. Fie refused the
dignity of senator offered him by Charles Albert, preferring to
represent his native town in the Chamber of Deputies, of which
he was soon elected president. At the close of the same year,
a new ministry was formed, headed by Gioberti; but with the
accession of Victor Kmmanuel in March 1840, his active life
came to an end. For a short time indeed he held a seat in the
cabinet 1 though without a portfolio; but an irreconcilable
disagreement soon followed, and his removal from Turin was
accomplished by his appointment on a mission to Paris, whence
he never returned, There, refusing the pension which had been
offered him ami all ecclesiastical preferment, he lived frugally,
and spent his days and nights as at Brussels in literary labour.
He died suddenly, of apoplexy, on the 26th of October 185a.
GloberUV writing* aw more Important than his political career*
In the atmoial hUuuv of luurooosn philosophy they atand apart. As
t)\« spocuUtUma of Ro*miui»Scrbati» aguinnt which he wrote, have
Iveen called \\w Uurt link added to medieval thought 90 the system of
(UoUhUi known as " Ontolotiism," more especially in his greater
and earlfor works, Is unrelated to other modem «chools of thought.
It *huw* a harmony with the Roman Catholic faith which caused
Cou*iu to devluiv that "Italian philo*ophy was still in the bond* of
theology*" and that l%lot>orti was no philosopher. Method is with
him a *ynthetict subjevtiv? ami i*ycnolo£ical instrument. He re-
c\m»trueu. as he declare*, ontology* and begins with the " ideal
fcmmiUi" the K*$ create* *v nihil* the existent." God is the only
hrina (fWW all othvr thing* are merely exigences* God is the
origin ot all human kiuwtalge iwlled /VJW. thought)* which is one
and *o to *ay Identical with C»od himself. It is directly beheld
linuuicAO bv re**on> but in order to be of use it ha* to lie reflected
on, ami thi* bv mean* of language* A knowledge of being and
exUteuvW <wncrete» ttot abstract) and their mutual relations, is
nvveKKU v a* the tagxmrin* of phihvmphy. Gioberti is in some
re«iHVU a rUtoni*t« He idetttitW* reUgiou with ctvtluatton, and in
hU t\\Mti*e /VJ f**m#to mwU # cfruV dt$fi Itnlitmi arrives at the
cwtchnastn that the church is the <oi* on which the ?rcll~beiag of
tiunuin Ute rvvolw** In it he athrm* the idea of the supremacy of
Ul\ » lu\Hight about bv the re*t\M^tkvn of the papacy a* a moral
\Ivm\\\uhm\ n founded o« religion and public opinion. In hi* later works,
the K««<MVvt«i*«K» ami the fVwW*«a % he i* thought by some to have
thittvd hi* gixHitnl umler the iuuuenee of event** Hi* nrst work,
vt titter when he \\a* tfcirtv Steven* had a personal reason for its
«svU*vnv\\ A >\>ung v MUn>^e\iW and friend* l\*ol* F&llia, having
nv*w\ vKhUh* ami inWgtvii^^ a* to the reality of revelation am) a
(uunv Wtvs v^oWut at wv* **t to work with La JVt*rioa «W ww»«
•k»;*»Ni; v \ whWh wa* hi* t\r*t tmhhcattou v»*\V>\ After this* phtkt-
*^hiwd tie*tv«e* followed in ra$>id *ucve*sivMU The rrcrua wa*
toiWod bv i*MN/f ****** a£v» $**ahf 4V&1 *i^w<a in three volumes
V*\*v> t*C|o\ In thi* work he *tate* hi* reasom for requiring a new
mc*ho%l aavl «ew te*«itnok>£\\ Mere he httug* out the doctrine
that ivltgiott i* the duvet e\^^v^ku\ v>f ^he was in thi* life* and k
ouv wuh ttue ci\4*x*ativMX in hWtotx* Civtiisatkxi i* a cooditknied
ws\tute teusknw to eetffvtk*n, to which cehgkxi t* the £nal com*
|vKhkhi it vwt Wd out J it ** the end of the second evete tatprtwed by
the ^>\xftKt tomuW the Kn» rcdoeuft* exwtence^ l£ss*y$ i*ot |Xilv>
UxVd »,,a \^ s |0' x v>tt the Ugh tec anvl tuvxv |v^n;Ur subjects fW\irV
a^ *\k >w*^\ K^t^wwl tV T<*viiitM^i^. Z\fi frt»w.V mjnzi* r
,*i ..V jst*' * -nCww atKt the ^VMf^»»r%i to the *swe. and wa after*
want* hk> cuu^-hvAttt ex|>o*ure oi the ,!***&** iV t^wwAi w m 4 i *w *
no \KmaU haatewvl the t^»>ter of ruV trean viencal tv^ ci\il ksnd*.
It w«*» tbtc iv^ttUiux s>t ti&st* $ettu^vxlx:val wv>rk^ itvrea^evl by
v s Vh v\ym v u, ;v»- , iv % at jt?^vk^ a^» \** Xt.«%mn«rwx> ^^fr-W' i'^'Ju-V*^
tKi^ v \u '^\* v-KWt^ tv* be wehvcttexi w*th *«ch ettthit^i**m or hit*
reu*m k- Sis* t\iti\e cxHMHrx. AU the*e wx>rk* were perfectiv *3«-
thvskxv aiKi ax*{vl >w v^^^tt^ tW t^oerat ckc$y iacc» ;Sf w&k>xxe«*ew
w>x^ h*^ ix^ ,v\; ^swv his. rljase ia ;V u-v.5cack*tt v^ Ualv. Vbe
Jc*^ ^>» W*\ v \v« . s\v<\ : . :w x ; :V vvN.>r ^nyv a:*^*\ A fc :er V.s re<urtt
tv^ KsV»v Av
aw^r-l aa« *ei»*m ^^*k t^>^ r>f reutrai xvt o* >^> %ocss*, est>evt»
a .> .^ *w«^hi ***** Kcw-^cmr x v ; v rV^^ytf. i*>^ >»??«*;^re
dlblOSA-lIONICA— GfOjA
views on many point*. The Entire writings of Gidbe-rti/ indodiihg
those left in manuscript, have been edited by Giuasppe Massan
(Turin. 1 $56-1 $6 1 ). ,
Sec MassarL Vita de V. Gioberti (Florence, 1848) ; A. f Rosmini-
Serbati, V. Gioberti 6 # panteismo (Milan, 1848); C.V. Smyth,
Christian Metaphysics (1851); B. Spavehta, La FUosofib di Gioberti
(Naples* 1854;); A. Mauri, Delia vita e dstie open di V. Gioberti
sit iiancmscnc \rnuosopnte aes rp. imnmun&enx, u- V1005; ; appenoix
o Uoberweg'e Hist, of Philosophy {EngMtrJ^art- in Brqwu&on's
Quarterly Review (Boston, Mas*!), xxi,f K* Mariano, La Pbilosophie
ontemporatne en Italic 1 (1866); K. Seydel's exhaustive article in
* k ■, V ^*v* v :< vnX v «*T'> w?\:t*$* ^xrre *Sjfccev* ort the
de la philosophte en Italic ail XIX* sAkde (Paris, 1869) ; C. Werner,
Die italienische Philosophic des fy. \Jahrkunfort*% it- (1885)^ appendix
to Uoberweg'e Hist.
C?« ;." ' '~
contemporaxne ......... , , ,. .
Ersch and Gruber's AUzemeirie UncyclopHdie. The centenary of
Gioberti called forth several morogrsiphfc-ln Italy; ' t
GIOIOSA-IONICA, a town of Calabria 1 , 'Italy, in the province
of Reggio Calabria, from which it is 65 in. N.E. by rail, and 38 m,.
direct, 492 ft. above sea-level. Pop, (1961) town, 907 2 ; commune,
11,200. Near the station, which is on the E. coast of Calabria
3 m. below the town to the SJE'., the remains of a theatre
belonging to the Roman period were discovered in 1883; the
orchesta was 46 ft. in diameter (Notizie degli scavi, 1883, p. 423).
The ruins of an ancient building called' the Naviglio, the nature
of which does not seem clear, are described' (#." 1884, p. 252).
GIOJA, MELCHIORRE (1 767-1829), Italian Writer on phito-
sophy and political economy, was born at Piacenza, on the 20th
of September 1 767. Originally intended for the church, he todk
orders, but renounced them in 1796 and went to Milan, where be
devoted himself to the study of political economy. Having
obtained the prize for an essay on " the kind of free government
best adapted to Italy '* he decided upon the career of a publicist.
The arrival of Napoleon in Italy drew him into public life.
He advocated a republic under the dominion of the French in
a pamphlet J Tedeschi, i Frances*, cd i Russi in Lombardia t and
under the Cisalpine Republic he was named historiographer
and director of statistics. He was several times imprisoned,
once for eight months in 1820 on a charge of being implicated
in a conspiracy with the Carbonari. After the fall of Napoleon
he retired into private life, and does not appear to have held
office again. He died on the 2nd of January 1829. Gioja's
fundamental idea is the value of statistics or the collection of
facts. Philosophy itself is with him classification and consideration
of ideas. Logic he regarded as a practical art, and his Esercizsoni
logic* has the further title, Art of deriving benefit from ill-con-
strueted books. In ethics Gioja follows Bentham generally, and
his large treatise Del merito e delle recompense (1 Si 8) is a clear
and systematic view of social ethics from the utilitarian principle.
In political economy this avidity for facts produced better fruits.
The. .Ymw Prospetlo delle sciense economic he (1815-1S17),
although long to excess, and overburdened with classifications
and tables, contains much valuable material. Hie author
prefers large properties and large commercial undertakings to
small ones, and strongly favours association as a means of pro-
duction. He defends a restrictive policy and insists on the
necessity of the action of the state as a regulating power in the
industrial world. He was an opponent of ecclesiastical domina-
tion. He must be credited with the finest and most original
treatment of division of labour since the Wealth of X^Jicn*.
Much of what Babbage taught later on the subject of combined
work is anticipated by Gieja. His theory of production is a5so
deserving of attention from the fact that it takes into accocni
and gives due prominence to immaterial goods. Ttrocg^wt
t he wvrk there is cone inuous opposition t o Adam Smith- Gfc ;jl S
latest work Fw^w J*£<2 steiisf&rj r 2 voIs_ 1S26: 4 vo?s>. iSrc-
1$^ contains in brief compass the essence of his ideas en hnmas
life* and arorvis the clearest insight into hb aim and metbed ~i
phikeopity both theoretical and practical.
See tssxw^raphs bv G^ D. RjfWTxxa .iS^o\ R Fa!co t^6c^:
in Ersch jlto GmVer's A-gt+wte Excyc ir f a i ae z Scr GacntV redb-
aoe^<\ L. Ferri. £*» saeVteanfcr «r U pkic ja+ue cm Jtalm mm
XiX* s*xi*
arcecclx aL ; A. R>
..sv^ctAi^b^ aa attack
Vt^QQ': leoprwe^*
^c ^st;*a *
fcr ais pc i irrj t
GIOLITTfe<39SiP IONE
economy, list of works in J. Conrad's Handrpdrterbuch der Stoats-
wisntocteflen (ifeo)?!* Gdssav T ^awrfi'lo'F»/^E»>fl: f '(Erig: tra«s„ 1
P-4*S)4 : G&ja's-^qmpteta works wei^ publidbfch at L*gft&od8$fc-
1849),. He was. one of tlje founders of \be>finna^i^niucrsalj,di
sfaiislica. ' . , ", "
QIOLrfn^CttOVANril (1842- ' ;) r Italian 'statesman, was
born at Mbndbvf on the 27th of October 1842. After a rapid
career in the financial administration he was, in 1882^ appointed
councillor of state and elected to parliament. )' As deputy he
chiefly' acquired 'prominence by attacks on' Magiiani, treasury
minister in the Depretis cabinet, and on the 9th of March 1889
was himself selected as treasury minister by Crispi. On the faU
of the RudinI cabinet in May 1892, Giolitti, with the help of a
court clique, succeeded to the premiership. His term of office
was marked by misfortune and misgovernment. The building
crisis and the commercial rupture with France had impaired the
situation of the state banks, of which one, the Banca Romana,
had been further undermined by maladministration. A bank
law, passed by Giolitti failed to effect an improvement. More-
over, he irritated public opinion by raising to senatorial rank the
director-general' or the Banca Romana, Signor Tanlongo, whose
irregular practices had become a byword. The senate declined
to admit Tanlongo, whom Giolitti, in consequence of an inter-
pellation in parliament upon the condition of the. Banca Romana,
was obliged to arrest and prosecyte. During' the prosecution
Giolitti abused his position as premier to abstract documents
bearing on the case. Simultaneously a parliamentary commission
of inquiry investigated the condition of thq state banks. Its
report, though, acquitting Giolitti of personal dishonesty, proved
disastrous to bis political position, and obliged him to resign.
His fail left the finances of the state disorganized,, the pensions
fund depleted, diplomatic relations with France strained in
consequence of the. massacre of Italian workmen at Aigues-
Mortes, and Sicily and the Lunigiana in a state of revolt, which
he had proved impotent to suppress. After his resignation he
was impeached for abuse of power as minister, but the supreme
court quashed the impeachment by denying the competence of
the ordinary tribunals to judge ministerial acts. For several
years he was compelled to play a passive part, having lost all
credit. But by keeping in the background and giving public
opinion time to forget his past, as well as by parliamentary
intrigue, he gradually regained much of his former influence,
He made capital of the Socialist agitation and of the repression
to which other statesmen resorted, and gave the agitators to
understand that were he premier they would be allowed a free
hand. Thus he gained their favour, and on the fall of the
Pelloux cabinet he became minister of the Interior in Zanardelli's
administration, of which he was the real head. His policy of
never interfering in strikes and leaving even violent demonstra-
tions undisturbed at first proved successful, but indiscipline
and disorder grew to such a pitch that Zanardelli, already in
bad health, resigned, and Giolitti succeeded him as prime minister
(November 1903). But during his tenure of office he, too, had to
resort to strong measures in repressing some serious disorders in
various parts of Italy, and thus he lost the favour of the Socialists.
In March 1905, feeling himself no longer secure, he resigned,
indicating Fortis as his successor. When Sonnino became
premier in February 1906, Giolitti did not openly oppose him,
but his followers did, and Sonnino was defeated in May, Giolitti
becoming prime minister once more.
GIORDANO, LUCA (163 2-1 705), Italian painter, was born in
Naples, son of a very indifferent painter, Antonio, who imparted
to him the first rudiments of drawing. Nature predestined him
for the art, and at the age of eight he painted a cherub into one
of his father's pictures, a feat which was at once noised abroad,
and induced the viceroy of Naples to recommerid the child to
Ribera, His father afterwards took him to Rome f to study under
Pietro da Cortona. . He acquired the nickname of Luca Fa-presto
(Luke Work-fast). One might suppose this nickname to be
derived merely from the almost miraculous celerity with which
from an early age and throughout his life he handled the brush";
but it is said to have had a more express origin. The father,
we are told, poverty-stricken and greedy of gain, was perpetually
3.*
urging hiSj boy, to exertion with, the phrase^ ,." £uca., fa ({ preeto."
The youth pbeyeoVhis parent to the tetter;, an4 would actually
not .so much as pause to snatch a hasty inpal, but received into
his inouth, while he still worked on., the food which Ins father's
hand supplied. He copied nearly twenty times the," Battle o£
Constantine" by Julio Romano, and with proportionate frequency
several of the grea,t works of Ijtaphael and Michelangelo. His
rapidity, which belonged as much to invention as to mere handi-
work, and his versatility, which enabled him to imitate other
painters deceptively, earned for him two other epithets, " The
Thunderbolt " (Fulmine) , and " The Proteus," of Painting. He
shortly visited all the main seats of the Italian school of art,
and formed for himself a style combining in a certain measure
the ornamental pomp of Paul Veronese and the contrastingcom-
positions and large schemes of chiaroscuro of Pietro da Cortona.
He was noted also for lively and showy colour. Returning to
Naples, and accepting every sort of commission by which money
was to be made, he practised his art with so much applause that
Charles II. of gpain towards ; i687 invited him over to Madrid,
where he remained thirteen years. Giordano was very popular
at the Spanish court, being a sprightly talker along with his other
marvellously facile gifts, and the king created, him a cavaliere.
One anecdote of his rapidity of work is that' the queen of Spain
having one day made some inquiry a,bout his. wife, he at once
showed Her Majesty what the lady was like by painting her
portrait into the picture on which he was engaged. Soon after
the death of Charles in 1700 Giordano, gprged with wealth,
returned to Naples. He spent large sums in acts of munificence j
and was particularly liberal to his poorer brethren .of J.he art* He
again visited various parts of It<aly, ^ncl, dieel in Naples on the
12th of January 1705, his last words being " O I^apoli, sospiro
mio " (0 Naples, my heart's love!). One of his maxims was that
the good painter is the one whom the public like, and that the
public are attracted more by colour than by design.
Giordano had an astonishing readiness and facility, in spite
of the general commonness and superficiality of h^ performances.
He left many works in Rome, and far more in Naples. Of the
latter one of the most renowned is " Christ expellijng the Traders
from the Temple," in the church of the Padri Girolamini, a
colossal work, full of expressive lazzaroni; also the frescoes
of S. Martino, and those in the Tesoro della Certosa, including
the subject of " Moses and the Brazen Serpent " ; and the cupola-
paintings in the Church of S. Brigida, which contains the artist's
own tomb. In Spain he executed a surprising number of works*
— continuing in the Escorial the series commenced by Carobiasi,
and painting frescoes of the " Triumphs of the Church," the
" Genealogy and Life of the Madonna," the stories of Moses*
Gideon, David and Solomon, and, the " Celebrated Women of
Scripture," all works of large dimensions. His pupils, Aniello
Rossi and Matteo Pacelli, assisted him in Spain. In Madrid hie
worked more in oil-colour, a Nativity there being one of his best
productions. Other superior examples are the " Judgment of
Paris " in the Berlin Museum, and " Christ with the Doctors in
the Temple," in the Corsini Gallery of Rome. In Florence, in
his closing days, he painted the Cappella Corsini, the Galleria
Riccardi and other works. In youth he etched with considerable
skill some of his own paintings, such as the " Slaughter of the
Priests of Baal." He also painted much on the crystal borderings
of looking-glasses, cabinets, &c, seen in many Italian palaces, and
was, in this form of art, the master of Pietro Garofolo. His best
pupil, in painting of the ordinary kind, was Paolo de Matteis.
Bellori, in his Vite de 1 pittori moderni, is a leading authority
regarding Luca Giordano, r. Benvenuto (1882) has written a work
on the Riccardi paintings.
GIORGIONB (1477-1510), Italian painter, was born at Castel-
franco in $47 7. In contemporary documents he is always calle4
(according to the Venetian manner of pronunciation and spelling)
Zorzi, Zorzo or Zorzon of Castelfranco. A tradition, having
its origin in the 17 th century, represented him as the natural
son of some member of the great local family of. the Barbarelli,
by a peasant girl of the neighbouring village of Vedelago;
consequently he is commonly referred to jn histories . ant}
32
GIORGIONE
catalogues under the name of Giorgio Barbarelli or Barbarella.
This tradition has, however, on close examination been proved
baseless. On the other hand mention has been found in a
contemporary document of an earlier Zorzon, a native of
Vedelago, living in Castelfranco in 1460. Vasari, who wrote
before the Barbarella legend had sprung up, says that Giorgione
was of very humble origin. It seems probable that he was
simply the son or grandson of the afore-mentioned Zorzon the
elder; that the after-claim of the Barbarelli to kindred with him
was a mere piece of family vanity, very likely suggested by the
analogous case of Leonardo da Vinci; and that, this claim once
put abroad, the peasant-mother of Vedelago was invented on
the ground of some dim knowledge that his real progenitors
came from that village.
Of the facts of his life we are almost as meagrely informed as
of the circumstances of his birth. The little city, or large
fortified village, for it is scarcely more, of Castelfranco in the
Trevisan stands in the midst of a rich and broken plain at some
distance from the last spurs of the Venetian Alps. From the
natural surroundings of Giorgione's childhood was no doubt
derived his ideal of pastoral scenery, the country of pleasant
copses, glades, brooks and hills amid which his personages love
to wander or recline with lute and pipe. How early in boyhood
he went to Venice we do not know, but internal evidence
supports the statement of Ridolfi that he served his apprentice-
ship there under Giovanni Bellini; and there he made his fame
and had his home. That his gifts were early recognized we
know from the facts, recorded in contemporary documents,
that in 1500, when he was only twenty-three (that is if Vasari
gives rightly the age at which he died), he was chosen to paint
portraits of the Doge Agostino Barberigo and the condottiere
Consalvo Ferrante; that in 1504 he was commissioned to paint
an altarpiece in memory of Matteo Costanzo in the cathedral
of his native town, Castelfranco; that in 1507 he received at the
order of the Council of Ten part payment for a picture (subject
not mentioned) on which he was engaged for the Hall of the
Audience in the ducal palace; and that in 1 507-1 508 he was
employed, with other artists of his own generation, to decorate
with frescoes the exterior of the newly rebuilt Fondaco dei
Tedeschi or German merchants' hall at Venice, having already
done similar work on the exterior of the Casa Soranzo, the Casa
Grimani alii Servi and other Venetian palaces. Vasari gives
also as an important event in Giorgione's life, and one which had
influence on his work, his meeting with Leonardo da Vinci on
the occasion of the Tuscan master's visit to Venice in 1500. In
September or October 15 10 he died of the plague then raging
in the city, and within a few days of his death we find the great
art-patroness and amateur, Isabella d'Este, writing from Mantua
and trying in vain to secure for her collection a night-piece by
his hand of which the fame had reached her.
All accounts agree in representing Giorgione as a personage
of distinguished and romantic charm, a great lover, a great
musician, made to enjoy in life and to express in art to the
uttermost the delight, the splendour, the sensuous and imaginative
grace and fulness, not untinged with poetic melancholy, of the
Venetian existence of his time. They represent him further as
having made in Venetian painting an advance analogous to that
made in Tuscan painting by Leonardo more than twenty years
before; that is as having released the art from the last shackles
of archaic rigidity and placed it in possession of full freedom
and the full mastery of its means. He also introduced a new
range of subjects. Besides altarpieces and portraits he painted
pictures that told no story, whether biblical or classical, or if
they professed to tell such, neglected the action and simply
embodied in form and colour moods of lyrical or romantic
feeling, much as a musician might embody them in sounds.
Innovating with the courage and felicity of genius, he had for
a time an overwhelming influence on his contemporaries and
immediate successors in the Venetian school, including Titian,
Sebastian del Piombo, the elder Palma, Cariani and the two
Campagnolas, and not a little even on seniors of long-standing
fame such as Giovanni Bellini. His name and work have
exercised, and continue to exercise, no less a spell on posterity.
But to identify and define, among the relics of his age and school,
precisely what that work is, and to distinguish it from the
kindred work of other men whom his influence inspired, is a
very difficult matter. There are inclusive critics who still
claim for Giorgione nearly every painting of the time that at
all resembles his manner, and there are exclusive critics who pare
down to some ten or a dozen the list of extant pictures which
they will admit to be actually his.
To name first those which are either certain or command
the most general acceptance, placing them in something like
an approximate and probable order of date. In the Uffizi at
Florence are two companion pieces of the " Trial of Moses "
and the " Judgment of Solomon," the latter the finer and
better preserved of the two, which pass, no doubt justly, as
typical works of Giorgione's youth, and exhibit, though not yet
ripely, his special qualities of colour-richness and landscape
romance, the peculiar facial types of his predilection, with the
pure form of forehead, fine oval of cheek, and somewhat close-set
eyes and eyebrows, and the intensity of that still and brooding
sentiment with which, rather than with dramatic life and
movement, he instinctively invests his figures. Probably the
earliest of the portraits by common consent called his is the
beautiful one of a young man at Berlin. His earliest devotional
picture would seem to be the highly finished " Christ bearing
his Cross " (the head and shoulders only, with a peculiarly
serene and high-bred cast of features) formerly at Vicenza and
now in the collection of Mrs Gardner at Boston. Other versions
of this picture exist, and it has been claimed that one in private
possession at Vienna is the true original: erroneously in the
judgment of the present writer. Another " Christ bearing the
Cross," with a Jew dragging at the rope round his neck, in the
church of San Rocco at Venice, is a ruined but genuine work,
quoted by Vasari and Ridolfi, and copied with the name of
Giorgione appended, by Van Dyck in that master's Chatsworth
sketch-book. (Vasari gives it to Giorgione in his first and to
Titian in his second edition.) The composition of a lost early
picture of the birth of Paris is preserved in an engraving of the
" Teniers Gallery " series, and an old copy of part of the same
picture is at Budapest. In the Giovanelli Palace at Venice
is that fascinating and enigmatical mythology or allegory,
known to the Anonimo Moreliiano, who saw it in 1 530 in the house
of Gabriel Vendramin, simply as " the small landscape with
the storm, the gipsy woman and the soldier "; the picture is
conjecturally interpreted by modern authorities as illustrating
a passage in Statius which describes the meeting of Adrastus
with Hypsipyle when she was serving as nurse with the king of
Nemea. Still belonging to the earlier part of the painter's
brief career is a beautiful, virginally pensive Judith at St Peters-
burg, which passed under various alien names, as Raphael,
Moretto, &c, until its kindred with the unquestioned work of
Giorgione was in late years firmly established. The great
Castelfranco altarpiece, still, in spite of many restorations,
one of the most classically pure and radiantly impressive works
of Renaissance painting, may be taken as closing the earlier
phase of the young master's work (1504). It shows the Virgin
loftily enthroned on a plain, sparely draped stone structure with
St Francis and a warrior saint (St Liberate) standing in attitudes
of great simplicity on either side of the foot of the throne, a
high parapet behind them, and a beautiful landscape of the
master's usual type seen above it. Nearly akin to this master-
piece, not in shape or composition but by the type of the Virgin
and the very Bellinesque St Francis, is the altarpiece of the
Madonna with St Francis and St Roch at Madrid. Of the
master's fully ripened time is the fine and again enigmatical
picture formerly in the house of Taddeo Contarini at Venice,
described by contemporary witnesses as the "Three Philosophers,"
and now, on slender enough grounds, supposed to represent
Evander showing Aeneas the site of Troy as narrated in the
eighth Aeneid. The portrait of a knight of Malta in the Uffizi at
Florence has more power and authority, if less sentiment, than
the earlier example at Berlin, and may be taken to be of the
GIOTTINO
33
master's middle time. Most entirely central and typical of all
Giorgione's extant works is the Sleeping Venus at Dresden,
first recognized by Morelli, and now universally accepted, as
being the same as the picture seen by the Anonimo and later
by Ridolfi in the Casa Marcello at Venice. An exquisitely pure
and severe rhythm of line and contour chastens the sensuous
richness of the presentment: the sweep of white drapery on
which the goddess lies, and of glowing landscape that fills the
space behind her, most harmoniously frame her divinity. It is
recorded that the master left this piece unfinished and that
the landscape, with a Cupid which subsequent restoration has
removed, were completed after his death by Titian. The picture
is the prototype of Titian's own Venus at the Uffizi and of many
more by other painters of the school; but none of them attained
the quality of the first exemplar. Of such small scenes of mixed
classical mythology and landscape as early writers attribute in
considerable number to Giorgione, there have survived at least
two which bear strong evidences of his handiwork, though the
action is in both of unwonted liveliness, namely the Apollo and
Daphne of the Seminario at Venice and the Orpheus and Eurydice
of Bergamo. The portrait of Antonio Grocardo at Budapest
represents his fullest and most penetrating power in that branch
of art. In his last years the purity and relative slenderness of
form which mark his earlier female nudes, including the Dresden
Venus, gave way to ideals of ampler mould, more nearly approach-
ing those of Titian and his successors in Venetian art; as is
proved by those last remaining fragments of the frescoes on the
Grand Canal front of the Fondaco dei Tedeschi which were seen
and engraved by Zanetti in 1760, but have now totally dis-
appeared. Such change of ideal is apparent enough in the
famous " Concert " or " Pastoral Symphony " of the Louvre,
probably the latest, and certainly one of the most characteristic
and harmoniously splendid, of Giorgione's creations that has
come down to us, and has caused some critics too hastily to
doubt its authenticity.
We pass now to pictures for which some affirm and others
deny the right to bear Giorgione's name. As youthful in style
as the two early pictures in the Uffizi, and closely allied to them
in feeling, though less so in colour, is an unexplained subject
in the National Gallery, sometimes called for want of a better
title the " Golden Age "; this is officially and by many critics
given only to the " school of " Giorgione, but may not unreasonably
be claimed for his own work (No .1173). There is also in England
a group of three paintings which are certainly by one hand,
and that a hand very closely related to Giorgione if not actually
his own, namely the small oblong " Adoration of the Magi "
in the National Gallery (No. n 60), the "Adoration of the
Shepherds " belonging to Lord Allendale (with its somewhat
inferior but still attractive replica at Vienna), and the small
" Holy Family " in the collection of Mr R. H. Benson. The
type of the Madonna in all these three pieces is different from
that customary with the master, but there seems no reason why
he should not at some particular moment have changed his
model. THe sentiment and gestures of the figures, the cast of
draperies, the technical handling, and especially, in Lord Allen-
dale's picture, the romantic richness of the landscape, all incline
us to accept the group as original, notwithstanding the deviation
of type already mentioned and certain weaknesses of drawing
and proportion which we should have hardly looked for. Better
known to European students in general are the two fine pictures
commonly given to the master at the Pitti gallery in Florence,
namely the " Three Ages " and the " Concert." Both are very
Giorgionesque, the " Three Ages " leaning rather towards the
early manner of Lorenzo Lotto, to whom by some critics it is
actually given. The " Concert " is held on technical grounds
by some of the best judges rather to bear the character of Titian
at the moment when the inspiration of Giorgione was strongest
on him, at least so far as concerns the extremely beautiful and
expressive central figure of the monk playing on the clavichord
with reverted head, a very incarnation of musical rapture and
yearning — the other figures are too much injured to judge.
There are at least two famous single portraits as to which
critics will probably never agree whether they are among the
later works of Giorgione or among the earliest of Titian under
his influence: these are the jovial and splendid half-length of
Catherine Cornaro (or a stout lady much resembling her) with
a bas-relief, in the collection of Signor Crespi at Milan, and the
so-called " Ariosto " from Lord Darnley's collection acquired
for the National Gallery in 1904. Ancient and half-effaced
inscriptions, of which there is no cause to doubt the genuineness,
ascribe them both to Titian; both, to the mind of the present
writer at least, are more nearly akin to such undoubted early
Titians as the " Man with the Book " at Hampton Court and
the " Man with the Glove " at the Louvre than to any authen-
ticated work of Giorgione. At the same time it should be
remembered that Giorgione is known to have actually enjoyed
the patronage of Catherine Cornaro and to have painted her
portrait. The Giorgionesque influence and feeling, to a degree
almost of sentimental exaggeration, encounter us again in another
beautiful Venetian portrait at the National Gallery which has
sometimes been claimed for him, that of a man in crimson velvet
with white pleated shirt and a background of bays, long attributed
to the elder Palma (No. 636). The same qualities are present
with more virility in a very striking portrait of a young man
at Temple Newsam, which stands indeed nearer than any other
extant example to the Brocardo portrait at Budapest. The
full-face portrait of a woman in the Borghese gallery at Rome
has the marks of the master's design and inspiration, but in its
present sadly damaged condition can hardly be claimed for his
handiwork. The head of a boy with a pipe at Hampton Court,
a little over life size, has been enthusiastically claimed as Gior-
gione's workmanship, but is surely too slack and soft in handling
to be anything more than an early copy of a lost work, analogous
to, though better than, the similar copy at Vienna of a young
man with an arrow, a subject he is known to have painted.
The early records prove indeed that not a few such copies of
Giorgione's more admired works were produced in his own time
or shortly afterwards. One of the most interesting and un-
mistakable such copies still extant is the picture formerly in the
Manfrin collection at Venice, afterwards in that of Mr, Barker in
London, and now at Dresden, which is commonly called " The
Horoscope," and represents a woman seated near a classic ruin
with a young child at her feet, an armed youth standing looking
down at them, and a turbaned sage seated near with compasses,
disk and book. Of important subject pictures belonging to the
debatable borderland between Giorgione and his imitators are the
large and interesting unfinished " Judgment of Solomon " at
Kingston Lacy, which must certainly be the same that Ridolfi
saw and attributed to him in the Casa Grimani at Venice, but
has weaknesses of design and drawing sufficiently baffling to
criticism; and the " Woman taken in Adultery " in the public
gallery at Glasgow, a picture truly Giorgionesque in richness of
colour, but betraying in its awkward composition, the relative
coarseness of its types and the insincere, mechanical animation
of its movements, the hand of some lesser master of the school,
almost certainly (by comparison with his existing engravings
and woodcuts) that of Domenico Campagnola. It seems un-
necessary to refer, in the present notice, to any of the numerous
other and inferior works which have been claimed for Giorgione
by a criticism unable to distinguish between a living voice and its
echoes.
Bibliography. — Morelli, Notizie, &c. (ed. Frizzoni, 1884) ; Vasari
(ed. Milanesi), vol. iv.; Ridolfi, he Maraviglie delV arte, vol. i. ;
Zanetti, VariePitture (1760) ; Crowe-Cavalcaselie, History of Painting
in North Italy, Morelli, Kunstkritische Studien; Gronau, Zorzon da
Castelfranco, la sua origine, &c. (1894); Herbert Cook, Giorgione (in
" Great Masters " series, 1900) ; Ugo Monneret de Villard, Giorgione
da Castelfranco (1905). The two last-named works are critically
far too inclusive, but useful as going over the whole ground of
discussion, with full references to earlier authorities, &c. (S. C.)
GIOTTINO (1324-1357), an early Florentine painter. Vasari
is the principal authority in regard to this artist; but it is not by
any means easy to bring the details of his narrative into harmony
with such facts as can now be verified. It would appear that there
was a painter of the name of Tommaso (or Maso) di Stefano.
xn. 2
34
GIOTTO
termed Giottino; and the Giottino of Vasari is said to have been
born in 1,324, and to have died early, of consumption, in 1357, —
dates which must be regarded as open to considerable doubt.
Slefano, the father of Tommaso, was himself a celebrated painter
in the early revival of art; his naturalism was indeed so highly
appreciated by contemporaries as to earn him the appellation of
" Seimia della Natura " (ape of nature). He, it seems, instructed
his son, who, however, applied himself with greater predilection
to studying the works of the great Giotto, formed his style on
theac, and hence was called Giottino. It is even said that
(iiottino was really the son (others say the great-grandson) of
Giotto. To this statement little or no importance can be attached.
To Muho di Slefano, or Giottino, Vasari and Ghiberti attribute
the frescoes in the chapel of S. Silvestro (or of the Bardi family)
In the Florentine church of S. Crocc; these represent the miracles
of Pope S. Silvestro as narrated in the " Golden Legend," one
conspicuous subject being the sealing of the lips of a malignant
dragon. These works are animated and firm in drawing, with
naturalism carried further than by Giotto. From the evidence
of style, some modern connoisseurs assign to the same hand the
paintings in the funeral vault of the Strozzi family, below the
Cappella degli Spagnuoli in the church of S. Maria Novella,
representing the crucifixion and other subjects. Vasari ascribes
also to his Giottino the frescoes of the life of St Nicholas in the
lower church of Assisi. This series, however, is not really in that
part of the church which Vasari designates, but is in the chapel of
the Sacrament; and the works in that chapel are understood
to be by Giotto di Stefano, who worked in the second half of
the 14th century -very excellent productions of their period.
They are much damaged, and the style is hardly similar to that of
the Sylvester frescoes. It might hence be inferred that two
different men produced the works which are unitedly fathered
upon the half-legendary " Giottino/' the consumptive youth,
solitary and melancholic, but passionately devoted to his art.
A large number of other works have been attributed to the same
hand; we need only mention an " Apparition of the Virgin to
St Bernard," in the Florentine Academy; a lost painting, very
popular in its day, commemorating the expulsion, which took
place in U43, of the duke of Athens from Florence; and a
marble statue erected on the Florentine campanile. Vasari
particularly praises Giottino for well-blended chiaroscuro.'
GIOTTO [Giotto 01 Bondonr 1 ] (1267 ?-i337), Italian painter,
was born at Ycspignano in the Mugello, a few miles north of
Florence, according to one account in 1276, and according to
another, which from the few known circumstances of his life seems
more likely to be correct , in 1 2t>b or 1 267. His father was a land-
owner at Colle in the commune of Ycspignano, described in a
contemporary document as vir prwhirus, but by biographers
both early and late as a poor peasant; probably therefore a
peasant proprietor of no large possessions but of reputable stock
and descent. It is impossible to tell whether there is any truth
In the legend of Giotto's boyhood which relates how he first
showed his disposition for art, and attracted the attention of
Cimabue, by being found drawing one of his father's sheep with
a sharp stone on the face of a smooth stone or slate. With his
father's consent, the story goes on, Cimabue carried off the boy
to be his apprentice, and it was under Cimabue's tuition that
Giotto look his first steps in the art of which he was afterwards
to be the great emancipator and renovator. The place where
these early steps can still, according to tradition, be traced, is
in the first and second, reckoning downwards, of the three
courses of frescoes which adorn the walls of the nave in the Upper
Church of St Francis at Assisi, These frescoes represent subjects
of the tMd and New Testament, and great labour, too probably
futile, has been spent in trying to pick out those in which the
youthful handiwork of Giotto can be discerned, as it is imagined,
among that of Cimabue and his other pupils. But the truth
is that the figureof Cimabue himself, in spite of Dante's testimony
to his having lwn the foremost painter of Italy until Giotto
arose, has under the search-light of modern criticism melted into
1 Not 10 be confused with Giotto di Buondone, a contemporary
citUvu *nd ivJUkiin of Siena.
almost mythical vagueness. His accepted position as Giotto's
instructor and the pioneer of reform in his art has been attacked
from several sides as a mere invention of Florentine writers for
the glorification of their own city. One group of critics maintain
that the real advance in Tuscan painting before Giotto was the
work of the Sienese school and not of the Florentine. Another
group contend that the best painting done in Italy down to the
last decade of the 13th century was not done by Tuscan hands at
all, but by Roman craftsmen trained in the inherited principles
of Italo-Byzantine decoration in mosaic and fresco, and that
from such Roman craftsmen alone could Giotto have learnt
anything worth his learning. The debate thus opened is far
from closed, and considering how scanty, ambiguous and often
defaced are the materials existing for discussion, it is perhaps
never likely to be closed. But there is no debate as to the general
nature of the reform effected by the genius of Giotto himself.
He was the great humanizer of painting; it is his glory to have
been the first among his countrymen to breathe life into wall-
pictures and altar-pieces, and to quicken the dead conventional-
ism of inherited practice with the fire of natural action and
natural feeling. Upon yet another point there is no question;
and that is that the reform thus effected by Giotto in painting
had been anticipated in the sister art of sculpture by nearly
a whole generation. About the middle of the 13th century
Nicola Pisano had renewed that art, first by strict imitation of
classical models, and later by infusing into his work a fresh
spirit of nature and humanity, perhaps partly caught from the
Gothic schools of France. His son Giovanni had carried the same
re- vitalising of sculpture a great deal further; and hence to some
critics it would seem that the real inspirer and precursor of Giotto
was Giovanni Pisano the sculptor, and not any painter or wall-
decorator, whether of Florence, Siena or Rome.
In this division of opinion it is safer to regard the revival of
painting in Giotto's hands simply as part of the general awaken-
ing of the time, and to remember that, as of all Italian com-
munities Florence was the keenest in every form of activity
both intellectual and practical, so it was natural that a son of
Florence should be the chief agent in such an awakening. And
in considering his career the question of his possible participation
in the primitive frescoes of the upper courses at Assisi is best left
out of account, the more so because of the deplorable condition
in which they now exist. But with reference to the lowest
course of paintings on the same walls, those illustrating the life
of St Francis according to the narrative of St Bonaventura,
no one has any doubt, at least in regard to nineteen or twenty
of the twenty-eight subjects which compose the series, that Giotto
himself was their designer and chief executant. In these, sadly
as they too have suffered from time and wholesale repair, there
can nevertheless be discerned the unmistakable spirit of the
young Florentine master as we know him in his other works —
his shrewd realistic and dramatic vigour, the deep sincerity and
humanity of feeling which he knows how to express in every
gesture of his figures without breaking up the harmony of their
grouping or the grandeur of their linear design, qualities in-
herited from the earlier schools of impressive but lifeless hieratic
decoration. The " Renunciation of the Saint by his Father,"
the u Pope's Dream of the Saint upholding the tottering Church,"
the " Saint before the Sultan," the " Miracle of the Spring of
Water," the " Death of the Nobleman of Celano," the " Saint
preaching before Pope Honorius " — these are some of the most
noted and best preserved examples of the painter's power in this
series. Where doubt begins again is as to the relations of date
and sequence which the series bears to other works by the master
executed at Assisi and at Rome in the same early period of his
career, that is, probably between 1295 and 1300. Giotto's
remaining undisputed works at Assisi are the four celebrated
allegorical compositions in honour of St Francis in the vaulting
of the Lower Church, — the " Marriage of St Francis to Poverty,"
the "Allegory of Chastity," the " Allegory of Obedience"
and the " Vision of St Francis in Glory." These works are
scarcely at all retouched, and relatively little dimmed by time;
they are of a singular beauty, at once severe and tender, both
GIOTTO
35
m colour and design; the compositions, especially the first three,
fitted with admirable art into the cramped spaces of the vaulting,
the subjects, no doubt in the main dictated to the artist by his
Franciscan employers, treated in no cold or mechanical spirit
but with a full measure of vital humanity and original feeling.
Had the career and influence of St Francis had no other of their
vast and far-reaching effects in the world than that of inspiring
these noble works of art, they would still have been entitled
to no small gratitude from mankind. Other works at Assisi
which most modern critics, but not all, attribute to Giotto him-
self are three miracles of St Francis and portions of a group of
frescoes illustrating the history of Mary Magdalene, both in the
Lower Church; and again, in one of the transepts of the same
Lower Church, a series of ten frescoes of the Life of the Virgin
and Christ, concluding with the Crucifixion. It is to be remarked
as to this transept series that several of the frescoes present not
only the same subjects, but with a certain degree of variation
the same compositions, as are found in the master's great series
executed in the Arena chapel at Padua in the fullness of his
powers about 1306; and that the versions in the Assisi transept
show a relatively greater degree of technical accomplishment
than the Paduan versions, with a more attractive charm and
more abundance of accessory ornament, but a proportionately
less degree of that simple grandeur in composition and direct
strength of human motive which are the special notes of Giotto's
style. Therefore a minority of critics refuse to accept the
modern attribution of this transept series to Giotto himself,
and see in it later work by an accomplished pupil softening and
refining upon his master's original creations at Padua. Others,
insisting that these unquestionably beautiful works must be
by the hand of Giotto and none but Giotto, maintain that in
comparison with the Paduan examples they illustrate a gradual
progress, which can be traced in other of his extant works, from
the relatively ornate and soft to the austerely grand and simple.
This argument is enforced by comparison with early work of the
master's at Rome as to the date of which we have positive
evidence. In 1298 Giotto completed for Cardinal Stefaneschi
for the price of 2200 gold ducats a mosaic of Christ saving St
Peter from the waves (the celebrated " Navicella ") ; this is
still to be seen, but in a completely restored and transformed
state, in the vestibule of St Peter's. For the same patron he
executed, probably just before the " Navicella," an elaborate
ciborium or altar-piece for the high altar of St Peter's , for which
he received 800 ducats. It represents on the principal face a
colossal Christ enthroned with adoring angels beside him and
a kneeling donor at his feet, and the martyrdoms of St Peter and
St Paul on separate panels to right and left; on the reverse is
St Peter attended by St George and other saints, receiving from
the donor a model of his gift, with stately full-length figures of
two apostles to right and two to left, besides various accessory
scenes and figures in the predellas and the margins. The*
separated parts of this altar-piece are still to be seen, in a quite
genuine though somewhat tarnished condition, in the sacristy
of St Peter's. A third work by the master at Rome is a repainted
fragment at the Lateran of a fresco of Pope Boniface VIII.
proclaiming the jubilee of 1300. The " Navicella " and the
Lateran fragment are too much ruined to argue from; but the
ciborium panels, it is contended, combine with the aspects of
majesty and strength a quality of ornate charm and suavity
such as is remarked in the transept frescoes of Assisi. The
sequence proposed for these several works is accordingly, first
the St Peter's ciborium, next the allegories in the vaulting of the
Lower Church, next the three frescoes of St Francis* miracles
in the north transept, next the St Francis series in the Upper
Church; and last, perhaps after an interval and with the help
of pupils, the scenes from the life of Mary Magdalene in her
chapel in the Lower Church. This involves a complete reversal
of the prevailing view, which regards the unequal and sometimes
clumsy compositions of this St Francis series as the earliest
independent work of the master. It must be admitted that
there is something paradoxical in the idea of a progress from
the manner of the Lower Church transept series of the life of
Christ to the much ruder manner of the Upper Church series
of St Francis.
A kindred obscurity and little less conflict of opinion await
the inquirer at almost all stages of Giotto's career. In 1841
there were partially recovered from the whitewash that had
overlain them a series of frescoes executed in the chapel of the
Magdalene, in the Bargello or Palace of the Podesta at Florence,
to celebrate (as was supposed) a pacification between the Black
and White parties in the state effected by the Cardinal d'Acqua-
sparta as delegate of the pope in 1302. In them are depicted a
series of Bible scenes, besides great compositions of Hell and
Paradise, and in the Paradise are introduced portraits of Dante,
Brunetto Latini and Corso Dona to. These recovered fragments,
freely " restored " as soon as they were disclosed, were acclaimed
as the work of Giotto and long held in especial regard for the
sake of the portrait of Dante. Latterly it has been shown that
if Giotto ever executed them at all, which is doubtful, it must
have been at a later date than the supposed pacification, and
that they must have suffered grievous injury in the fire which
destroyed a great part of the building in 1332, and been after-
wards repainted by some well-trained follower of the school.
To about 1302 or 1303 would belong, if there is truth in it, the
familiar story of Giotto's O. Pope Benedict XL, the successor
of Boniface VIII. , sent, as the tale runs, a messenger to bring
him proofs of the painter's powers. Giotto would give no other
sample of his talent than an O drawn with a free sweep of the
brush from the elbow; but the pope was satisfied and engaged
him at a great salary to go and adorn with frescoes the papal
residence at Avignon. Benedict, however, dying at this time
(1305), nothing came of this commission; and the remains of
Italian 14th-century frescoes still to be seen at Avignon are now
recognized as the work, not, as was long supposed, of Giotto,
but of the Sienese Simone Martini and his school.
At this point in Giotto's life we come to the greatest by far of
his undestroyed and undisputed enterprises, and one which can
with some certainty be dated. This is the series of frescoes
with which he decorated the entire internal walls of the chapel
built at Padua in honour of the Virgin of the Annunciation by a
rich citizen of the town, Enrico Scrovegni, perhaps in order to
atone for the sins of his father, a notorious usurer whom Dante
places in the seventh circle of hell. The building is on the site
of an ancient amphitheatre, and is therefore generally called
the chapel of the Arena. Since it is recorded that Dante was
Giotto's guest at Padua, and since we know that it was in 1306
that the poet came from Bologna to that city, we may conclude
that to the same year, 1306, belongs the beginning of Giotto's
great undertaking in the Arena chapel. The scheme includes a
Saviour in Glory over the altar, a Last Judgment, full of various
and impressive incident, occupying the whole of the entrance wall,
with a series of subjects from the Old and New Testament and
the apocryphal Life of Christ painted in three tiers on either side
wall, and lowest of all a fourth tier with emblematic Virtues and
Vices in monochrome; the Virtues being on the side of the chapel
next the incidents of redemption in the entrance fresco of the
Last Judgment, the Vices on the side next the incidents of perdi-
tion. A not improbable tradition asserts that Giotto was helped
by Dante in the choice and disposition of the subjects. The
frescoes, though not free from injury and retouching, are upon
the whole in good condition, and nowhere else can the highest
powers of the Italian mind and hand at the beginning of the 14th
century be so well studied as here. At the close of the middle
ages we find Giotto laying the foundation upon which all the
progress of the Renaissance was afterwards securely based.
In his day the knowledge possessed by painters of the human
frame and its structure rested only upon general observation
and not upon detailed or scientific study; while to facts other
than those of humanity their observation had never been closely
directed. Of linear perspective they possessed but elementary
and empirical ideas, and their endeavours to express aerial per-
spective and deal with the problems of light and shade were rare
and partial. As far as painting could possibly be carried under
these conditions, it was carried by Giotto. In its choice of
36
GIOTTO
subjects, his art Is entirely subservient to the religious spirit of
his age. Even in its mode of conceiving and arranging those
subjects it is in part still trammelled by the rules and consecrated
traditions of the past. Many of those truths of nature to which
the painters of succeeding generations learned to give accurate
and complete expression, Giotto was only able to express by way
of imperfect symbol and suggestion. But among the elements of
art over which he has control he maintains so just a balance that
his work produces in the spectator less sense of imperfection
than that of many later and more accomplished masters. In
some particulars his mature painting, as we see it in the Arena
chapel, has never been surpassed— in mastery of concise and
expressive generalized line and of inventive and harmonious
decorative tint; in the judicious division of the field and massing
and scattering of groups; in the combination of high gravity
with complete frankness in conception, and the union of noble
dignity in the types with direct and vital truth in the gestures
of the personages.
The frescoes of the Arena chapel must have been a labour
of years, and of the date of their termination we have no proof.
Of many other works said to have been executed by Giotto at
Padua, all that remains consists of some scarce recognizable traces
in the chapter-house of the great Franciscan church of St Antonio.
For twenty years or more we lose all authentic data as to Giotto's
doings and movements. Vasari, indeed, sends him on a giddy
but in the main evidently fabulous round of travels, including a
sojourn in France, which it is certain he never made. Besides
Padua, he is said to have resided and left great works at Ferrara,
Ravenna, Vrbino, Rimini, Faenza, Lucca and other cities; in
some of them paintings of his school are still shown, but nothing
which can fairly be claimed to be by his hand. It is recorded
also that he was much employed in his native city of Florence;
but the vandalism of later generations has effaced nearly all that
he did there. Among works whitewashed over by posterity
were the frescoes with which he covered no less than five chapels
in the church of Santa Croce. Two of these, the chapels of the
Ranti and the Perujuti families, were scraped in the early part
of the 10th century, and very important remains were uncovered
and immediately subjected to a process of restoration which
has robbed them of half their authenticity. But through the
ruins of time we can trace in some of these Santa Croce frescoes
all the qualities of Giotto's work at an even higher and more
mature development than in the best examples at Assisi or Padua.
The f rescues of the Uarvii chapel tell again the story of St Francis,
to which so much of his best power had already been devoted;
those of the Peru«ti chapel deal with the lives of St John the
Baptist and St John the Kvangclist* Such scenes as the Funeral
of St Francis, the Dance of Hcrodias s Daughter* and the Re-
surrevtivMi of St John the Evangelist, which have to some extent
escaped the disfigurements of the rest orer* axe among acknow-
ledged classics of the world's art. The only clues to the dates
of any of those works are to be found in the tacts that among the
figures in the Rarvii chapel occurs that of Si Louis of Toulouse,
*ho xx as not canonised till 1^17, therefore the painting must be
subsequent to that \ear. and that the " Dance of Salome " must
have boon painted before i s v>i% when it was copied by the Loren-
#ci ; i at Siena. The only ox her extant wvrksof Giotto at Florence
are a tine " Otueinv** not undisputed* at San Marco, and the
nux>tv but s\xmex\ha; heav\ ahar-pjeceof the Madonna, prob-
ably an ea:*y wvrk* mfcich is placed in the Academy beside a
more prr.v,,;\ve Madonna supposed :o be the work of Cimabue.
low arvis the end ot vl»;to\s life we escape again from confused
legend* and treta the :an:alu;r^ record of works which have
no; surviwxi for us to ver.fx . :r;c the region of authentic docu-
nvn t a nd t act . It a : x ;x s at* : hi : O 20: t o had come under the notice
ot Duke Curves ot vV.ahr«JL sxx: oc King Robert of Naples, during
tho \ vsus oc the duke to F.ccesc* which took place between
V*.v and t^x^x ;n * h:\rh x?.tr he died. Soon afterwards Giotto
tv;*>; haw jone to k.r<£ SL\SfTt s court at Naples, where he was
e* % tv.y.od as an V-o^^rsc $%s^ and member of the household by
a rexal div^ree *i*;^ :S? .vch of January i,u°- Another docu-
i*c;*; sSo** h ^ ;c hv»e been slUl at Naples two years later.
Tradition says much about the friendship of the king for the
painter and the freedom of speech and jest allowed him; much
also of the works he carried out at Naples in the Castel Nuovo,
the Castel deir Uovo, and the church and convent of Sta Chiara.
Not a trace of these works remains; and others which later
criticism have claimed for him in a hall which formerly belonged
to the convent of Sta Chiara have been proved not to be his.
Meantime Giotto had been advancing, not only in years and
worldly fame, but in prosperity. He was married young, and
had, so far as is recorded, three sons, Francesco, Niccola and
Donato, and three daughters, Bice, Caterina and Lucia. He
had added by successive purchases to the plot of land inherited
from his father at Vespignano. His fellow-citizens of all occupa-
tions and degrees delighted to honour him. And now, in his sixty-
eighth year (if we accept the birth-date 1266/7), on his return
from Naples by way of Gaeta, he received the final and official
testimony to the esteem in which he was held at Florence. By
a solemn decree of the Priori on the 12th of April 1334, he was
appointed master of the works of the cathedral of Sta Reparata
(later and better known as Sta Maria del Fiore) and official
architect of the city walls and the towns within her territory.
What training as a practical architect his earlier career had
afforded him we do not know, but his interest in the art from
the beginning is made clear by the carefully studied architectural
backgrounds of many of his frescoes. Dying on the 8th of
January 1336 (old style 1337), Giotto only enjoyed his new
dignities for two years. But in the course of them he had found
time not only to make an excursion to Milan, on the invitation
of Azzo Visconti and with the sanction of his own government,
but to plan two great architectural works at Florence and
superintend the beginning of their execution, namely the west
front of the cathedral and its detached campanile or bell-tower.
The unfinished enrichments of the cathedral front were stripped
away in a later age. The foundation-stone of the Campanile was
laid with solemn ceremony in the presence of a great concourse
of magistrates and people on the 18th of July 1334. Its lower
courses seem to have been completed from Giotto's design, and
the first course of its sculptured ornaments (the famous series of
primitive Arts and Industries) actually by his own hand, before
his death. It is not clear what modifications of his design were
made by Andrea Pisano, who was appointed to succeed him,
or again by Francesco Talenti, to whom the work was next
entrusted; but the incomparable structure as we now see it
stands justly in the world's esteem as the most fitting monument
to the genius who first conceived and directed it.
The art of painting, as re-created by Giotto, was carried
on throughout Italy by his pupils and successors with little
change or development for nearly a hundred years, until a new
impulse was given to art by the combined influences of naturalism
and classicism in the hands of men like Donatello and Masaccio.
Most of the anecdotes related of the master are probably in-
accurate in detail, but the general character both as artist and
man which tradition has agreed in giving him can never be
assailed. He was from the first a kind of popular hero. He is
celebrated by the poet Petrarch and by the historian Villain.
He is made the subject of tales and anecdotes by Boccaccio
and by Franco Sacchetti. From these notices, as well as from
Vasari, we gain a distinct picture of the man, as one whose
nature was in keeping with his country origin; whose sturdy
frame and plain features corresponded to a character rather
distinguished for shrewd and genial strength than for sublimer
or more ascetic qualities; a master craftsman, to whose strong
combining and inventing powers nothing came amiss; conscious
of his own deserts, never at a loss either in the things of art or in
the things of life, and equally ready and efficient whether he has
to design the scheme of some great spiritual allegory in colour
or imperishable monument in stone, or whether he has to show
his wit in the encounter of practical jest and repartee. From his
own hand we have a contribution to literature which helps to
substantiate this conception of his character. A large part of
Giotto's fame as painter was won in the service of the Franciscans,
and in the pictorial celebration of the life and ordinances of
GIPSIES
37
their founder. As is well known, it was a part of the ordinances
of Francis that his disciples should follow his own example in
worshipping and being Vedded to poverty, — poverty idealized
and personified as a spiritual bride and mistress. Giotto, having
on the commission of the order given the noblest pictorial
embodiment to this and other aspects of the Franciscan doctrine,
presently wrote an ode in which his own views on poverty are
expressed; and in this he shows that, if on the one hand his
genius was at the service of the ideals of his time, and his imagina-
tion open to their significance, on the other hand his judgment
was shrewdly and humorously awake to their practical dangers
and exaggerations.
Authorities. — Ghiberti, Commentari; Vasari, Le Vile, vol. i.;
Crowe-Cavalcaselle, History of Painting in Italy, ed. Langton
Douglas (1903); H. Thode, Giotto (1809); M. G. Zimmermann,
Giotto und die Kunst Italiens im MiUeUdter (1899); B. Berenson,
Florentine Painters of the Renaissance \ F, Mason Perkin, Giotto
(in " Great Masters " series) (1902) ; Basil de Se'lincourt, Giotto
(1905). (S. C.)
GIPSIES, or Gypsies, a wandering folk scattered through
every European land, over the greater part of western Asia
and Siberia; found also in Egypt and the northern coast of
Africa, in America and even in Australia. No correct estimate
of their numbers outside of Europe can be given, and even in
Europe the information derived from official statistics is often
contradictory and unreliable. The only country in which the
figures have been given correctly is Hungary. In 1893 there
were 274,940 in Transleithania, of whom 243,432 were settled,
20,406 only partly settled and 8938 nomads. Of these 91,603
spoke the Gipsy language in 1890, but the rest had already been
assimilated. Next in numbers stands Rumania, the number
varying between 250,000 and 200,000 (1895). Turkey in Europe
counted 117,000 (1903), of whom 51,000 were in Bulgaria and
Eastern Rumelia, 22,000 in the vilayet of Adrianople and 2500 in
the vilayet of Kossovo. In Asiatic Turkey the estimates vary
between 67,000 and 200,000. Servia has 41,000; Bosnia and
Herzegovina, 18,000; Greece, 10,000; Austria (Cisleithania),
16,000, of whom 13,500 are in Bohemia and Moravia; Germany,
2000; France, 2000 (5000?); Basque Provinces, 500 to 700;
Italy, 32,000; Spain, 40,000; Russia, 58,000; Poland, 15,000;
Sweden and Norway, 1500; Denmark and Holland, 5000;
Persia, 15,000; Transcaucasia, 3000. The rest is mere guesswork.
For Africa, America and Australia the numbers are estimated
between 135,000 and 166,000. The estimate given by Miklosich
(1878) of 700,000 fairly agrees with the above statistics. No
statistics are forthcoming for the number in the British Isles.
Some estimate their number at 12,000.
> The Gipsies are known principally by two names, which
have been modified by the nations with whom they came in
contact, but which can easily be traced to either the one or the
other of these two distinct stems. The one group, embracing
the majority of Gipsies in Europe, the compact masses living
in the Balkan Peninsula, Rumania and Transylvania and
extending also as far as Germany and Italy, are known by the
name Atzigan or Alsigan } which becomes in time Tshingian
(Turkey and Greece), Tsigan (Bulgarian, Servian, Rumanian),
Czigany (Hungarian), Zigeuner (Germany), Zingari (Italian),
and it is not unlikely that the English word Tinker or Tinkler
(the latter no doubt due to a popular etymology connecting the
gaudy gipsy with the tinkling coins or the metal wares which
he carried on his back as a smith and tinker) may be a local
transformation of the German Zigeuner. The second name,
partly known in the East, where the word, however, is used as an
expression of contempt, whilst Zigan is not felt by the gipsies
as an insult, is Egyptian; in England, Gipsy; in some German
documents of the 16th century Aegypter\ Spanish Gitano;
modern Greek Gyphtos. They are also known by the parallel
expressions Faraon (Rumanian) and Phdrao Nephka (Hungarian)
or Pharaoh's people, which are only variations connected with
the Egyptian origin. In France they are known as BohSmiens,
a word the importance of which will appear later. To the same
category belong other names bestowed upon them, such as
Walachi, Saraceni, Agareni, Nubiani, &c. They were also known
by the name of Tartars, given to them in Germany, or as
" Heathen," Heydens. All these latter must be considered as
nicknames without thereby denoting their probable origin.
The same may have now been the case with the first name
with which they appear in history, Atzigan. Much ingenuity
has been displayed in attempts to explain the name, for it was
felt that a true explanation might help to settle the question of
their origin and the date of their arrival in Europe. Here
again two extreme theories have been propounded, the one
supported by Bataillard, who connected them with the Sigynnoi
of Herodotus and identified them with the Komodromoi of the
later Byzantine writers, known already in the 6th century.
Others bring them to Europe as late as the 14th century; and
the name has also been explained by de Goeje from the Persian
Chang, a kind of harp or zither, or the Persian Zang, black,
swarthy. Rienzi (1832) and Trumpp (1872) have connected
the name with the Changars of North-East India, but all have
omitted to notice that the real form was Atzigan or (more correct)
Atzingan and not Tsigan. The best explanation remains that sug-
gested by Miklosich, who derives the word from the Athinganoi,
a name originally belonging to a peculiar heretical sect living
in Asia Minor near Phrygia and Lycaonia, known also as the
Melki-Zedekites. The members of this sect observed very strict
rules of purity, as they were afraid to be defiled by the touch
of other people whom they considered unclean. They therefore
acquired the name of Athinganoi (i.e, " Touch-me-nots ").
Miklosich has collected seven passages where the Byzantine
historians of the 9th century describe the Athinganoi as sooth-
sayers, magicians and serpent-charmers. From these descrip-
tions nothing definite can be proved as to the identity of the
Athinganoi with the Gipsies, or the reason why this name was
given to soothsayers, charmers, &c. But the inner history of the
Byzantine empire of that period may easily give a clue to it
and explain how it came about that such a nickname was given
to a new sect or to a new race which suddenly appeared in the
Greek Empire at that period. In the history of the Church we
find them mentioned in one breath with the Paulicians and other
heretical sects which were transplanted in their tens of thousands
from Asia Minor to the Greek empire and settled especially in
Rumelia, near Adrianople and Philippopolis. The Greeks called
these heretical sects by all kinds of names, derived from ancient
Church traditions, and gave to each sect such names as first struck
them, on the scantiest of imaginary similarities. One sect was
called Paulician, another Melki-Zedekite; so also these were
called Athinganoi, probably being considered the descendants
of the outcast Samer, who, according to ancient tradition, was
a goldsmith and the maker of the Golden Calf in the desert.
For this sin Samer was banished and compelled to live apart
from human beings and even to avoid their touch (Athinganos:
" Touch-me-not "). Travelling from East to West these heretical
sects obtained different names in different countries, in accord-
ance with the local traditions or to imaginary origins. The
Bogomils and Patarenes became Bulgarians in France, and so
the gypsies Bohemiens, a name which was also connected with
the heretical sect of the Bohemian brothers (Bdhmische Briider).
Curiously enough the Kutzo-Vlachs living in Macedonia (q.v.)
and Rumelia are also known by the nickname Tsintsari, a word
that has not yet been explained. Very likely it stands in close
connexion with Zingari, the name having been transferred from
one people to the other without the justification of any common
ethnical origin, except that the Kutzo-Vlachs, like the Zingari,
differed from their Greek neighbours in race, as in language,
habits and customs; while they probably followed similar
pursuits to those of the Zingari, as smiths, &c. As to the other
name, Egyptians, this is derived from a peculiar tale which the
gipsies spread when appearing in the west of Europe. They
alleged that they had come from a country of their own called
Little Egypt, either a confusion between Little Armenia and
Egypt or the Peloponnesus.
Attention may be drawn to a remarkable passage in the Syriac
version of the apocryphal Book of Adam, known as the Cave of
Treasures and compiled probably in the 6th century: "And
3«
GIPSIES
<of the seed of Canaan were as I said the Aegyptians; and, lo,
they were scattered all over the earth and served as slaves of
slaves " (ed. Bezold, German translation, p. 25). No reference
to such a scattering and serfdom of the Egyptians is mentioned
anywhere else. This must have been a legend, current in Asia
Minor, and hence probably transferred to the swarthy Gipsies.
A new explanation may now be ventured upon as to the name
which the Gipsies of Europe give to themselves, which, it must
be emphasized, is not known to the Gipsies outside of Europe.
Only those who starting from the ancient Byzantine empire
have travelled westwards and spread over Europe, America and
Australia call themselves by the name of Rom, the woman being
Romni and a stranger Gail. Many etymologies have been sug-
gested for the word Rom. Paspati derived it from the word
Droma (Indian), and Miklosich had identified it with Poma or
Pomba, a " low caste musician," rather an extraordinary name
for a nation to call itself by. Having no home and no country
of their own and no political traditions and no literature, they
would naturally try to identify themselves with the people in
whose midst they lived, and would call themselves by the same
name as other inhabitants of the Greek empire, known also as
the Empire of New Rom, or of the Romaioi, Romeliots, Romanoi,
as the Byzantines used to call themselves before they assumed
the prouder name of Hellenes. The Gipsies would therefore
call themselves also Rom, a much more natural name, more
flattering to their vanity, and geographically and politically
more correct than if they called themselves "low caste
musicians." This Greek origin of the name would explain why
it is limited to the European Gipsies, and why it is not found
among that stock of Gipsies which has migrated from Asia
Minor southwards and taken a different route to reach Egypt
and North Africa,
Appearance in Europe, — Leaving aside the doubtful passages
in the Byzantine writers where the Athinganoi are mentioned,
the first appearance of Gipsies in Europe cannot be traced
positively further back than the beginning of the 14th century.
Some have hitherto believed that a passage in what was errone-
ously called the Rhymed Version of Genesis of Vienna, but which
turns out to be the work of a writer before the year 11 22,
and found only in the Klagenf urt manuscript (edited by Ditmar,
1862), referred to the Gipsies. It runs as follows: Gen. xiii. 15 —
" Hagar had a son from whom were born the Chaltsmide. When
Hagar had that child, she named it Ismael, from whom the
Ismaelites descend who journey through the land, and we call
them Chaltsmide, may evil befall them! They sell only things
with blemishes, and for whatever they sell they always ask more
than its real value. They cheat the people to whom they sell.
They have no home, no country, they are satisfied to live in
tents, they wander over the country, they deceive the people,
they cheat men but rob no one noisily."
This reference to the Chaltsmide (not goldsmiths, but very
likely ironworkers, smiths) has wrongly been applied to the
Gipsies. For it is important to note that at least three centuries
before historical evidence proves the immigration of the genuine
Gipsy, there had been wayfaring smiths, travelling from country
to country, and practically paving the way for their successors,
the Gipsies, who not only took up their crafts but who probably
have also assimilated a good proportion of these vagrants of
the west of Europe. The name given to the former, who pro-
bably were Oriental or Greek smiths and pedlars, was then
transferred to the new-comers. The Komodromoi mentioned
by Theophanes (758-818), who speaks under the date 554 of one
hailing from Italy, and by other Byzantine writers, are no
doubt the same as the Chaltsmide of the German writer of the
1 2th century translated by Ducange as Chaudroneurs. We
are on surer ground in the 14th century. Hopf has proved the
existence of Gipsies in Corfu before 1326. Before 1346 the
empress Catherine de Valois granted to the governor of Corfu
authority to reduce to vassalage certain vagrants who came
from the mainland; and in 13S6, under the Venetians, they
formed the Feudum Acindanorum, which lasted for many
centuries. About 1378 the Venetian governor of Nauplia
confirmed to the " Acingani " of that colony the priu&ges
granted by his predecessor to their leader John. It is even
possible to identify the people described by Friar Simon in his
Itinerarium, who, speaking of his stay in Crete in 1322,, says:
" We saw there a people outside the city who declare themselves
to be of the race of Ham and who worship according to the Greek
rite. They wander like a cursed people from place to place, not
stopping at all or rarely in one place longer than thirty days;
they live in tents like the Arabs, a little oblong black tent."
But their name lis not mentioned, and although the similarity
is great between these " children of Ham " and the Gipsies,
the identification has only the value of an hypothesis* By the
end of the 15th century they must have been settled for a
sufficiently long time in the Balkan Peninsula and the countries
north of the Danube, such as Transylvania and Walachia, to have
been reduced to the same state of serfdom as they evidently
occupied in Corfu in the second half of the 14th century. The
voivode Mircea I. of Walachia confirms the grant made by his
uncle Vladislav Voivode to the monastery of St Anthony of
Voditsa as to forty families of " Atsigane," for whom no taxes
should be paid to the prince. They were considered crown
property. The same gift is renewed in the year 1424 by the
voivode Dan, who repeats the very same words (i Acig&ne, m,
celiudi. da su slobodni ot vstkih rabot i dankov) (Hajd&u,
Arhiva, i. 20). At that time there must already have been
in Walachia settled Gipsies treated as serfs, and migrating
Gipsies plying their trade as smiths, musicians, dancers, sooth-
sayers, horse-dealers, &c, for we find the voivode Alexander of
Moldavia granting these Gipsies in the year 1478 " freedom of
air and soil to wander about and free fire and iron for their
smithy. " But a certain portion, probably the largest, became
serfs, who could be sold, exchanged, bartered and inherited.
It may be mentioned here that in the 17th century a family
when sold fetched forty Hungarian florins, and in the 18th
century the price was sometimes as high as 700 Rumanian
piastres, about £8, 10s. As late as 1845 an auction of 200
families of Gipsies took place in Bucharest, where they were sold
in batches of no less than 5 families and offered at a " ducat "
cheaper per head than elsewhere. The Gipsies followed at least
four distinct pursuits in Rumania and Transylvania, where they
lived in large masses. A goodly proportion of them were tied
to the soil; in consequence their position was different from that
of the Gipsies who had started westwards and who are nowhere
found to have obtained a permanent abode for any length of
time, or to have been treated, except for a very short period,
with any consideration of humanity. **
Their appearance in the West is first noted by chroniclers
early in the 1 5th century. In 1414 they are said to have already
arrived in Hesse. This date is contested, but for 141 7 the reports
are unanimous of their appearance in Germany. Some count
their number to have been as high as 1400, which of course is
exaggeration. In 1418 they reached Hamburg, 1419 Augsburg,
1428 Switzerland. In 1427 they had already entered France
(Provence). A troupe is said to have reached Bologna in 1422,
whence they are said to have gone to Rome, on a pilgrimage
alleged to have been undertaken for some act of apostasy. After
this first immigration a second and larger one seems to have
followed in its wake, led by Zumbel. The Gipsies spread over
Germany, Italy and France between the years 1438 and 15 12.
About 1500 they must have reached England. On the 5th of
July 1505 James IV. of Scotland gave to " Antonius Gaginae,"
count of Little Egypt, letters of recommendation to the king of
Denmark; and special privileges were granted by James V.
on the 15th of February 1540 to " oure louit johnne Faw Lord
and Erie of Litill Egypt," to whose son and successor he granted
authority to hang and punish all Egyptians within the realm
(May 26, 1540).
It is interesting to hear what the first writers who witnessed
their appearance have to tell us; for ever since the Gipsies
have remained the same. Albert Krantzius (Krantz), in his
Saxonia (xi. 2), was the first to give a full description, which was
afterwards repeated by Munster in his Cosmograpkia (iii. 5).
GIPSIES
39
He says that in the year 141 7 there appeared for the first time
in Germany a people uncouth, black, dirty, barbarous, called
in Italian " Ciani," who indulge specially in thieving and cheat-
ing. They had among them a count and a few knights well
dressed, others followed afoot. The women and children
travelled in carts. They also carried with them letters of safe-
conduct from the emperor Sigismund and other princes, and they
professed that they were engaged on a pilgrimage of expiation
for some act of apostasy.
The guilt of the Gipsies varies in the different versions of the
story, but all agree that the Gipsies asserted that they came from
their own country called " Litill Egypt," and they had to go
to Rome, to obtain pardon for that alleged sin of their fore-
fathers. According to one account it was because they had not
shown mercy to Joseph and Mary when they had sought refuge
in Egypt from the persecution of Herod (Basel Chronicle).
According to another, because they had forsaken the Christian
faith for a while (Rkaetia, 1656), &c. But these were fables,
no doubt connected with the legend of Cartaphylus or the
Wandering Jew.
Rrantz's narrative continues as follows: This people have
no country and travel through the land. They live like dogs and
have no religion although they allow themselves to be baptized
in the Christian faith. They live without care and gather unto
themselves also other vagrants, men and women. Their old
women practise fortune-telling, and whilst they are telling men
of their future they pick their pockets. Thus far Krantz. It
is curious that he should use the name by which these people
were called in Italy, ' i Ciani. ' ' Similarly Crusius, the author of the
Annates Suevici, knows their Italian name Zigani and the French
Bohemians. Not one of these oldest writers mentions them
as coppersmiths or farriers or musicians. The immunity which
they enjoyed during their first appearance in western Europe
is due to the letter of safe-conduct of the emperor. As it is of
extreme importance for the history of civilization as well as the
history of the Gipsies, it may find a place here. It is taken from
the compilation of Felix Oefelius, Rerum Boicarum scriptores
(Augsburg, 1763), ii. 15, who reproduces the " Diarium
sexennale" of "Andreas Presbyter," the contemporary of the
first appearance of the Gipsies in Germany.
* " Sigismundus Dei gratia Romanorum Rex semper Augustus,
ac Hungariae, Bohemiae, Dalmatiae, Croatiae, &c. Rex
Fidelibus nostris universis Nobilibus, Militibus, Castellanis,
Offidalibus, Tributariis, civitatibus liberis, opidis et eorum
iudicibus in Regno et sub domino nostro constitutis ex existenti-
bus salutem cum dilectione. Fideles nostri adierunt in prae-
sentiam personaliter Ladislaus Wayuoda Ciganorum cum aliis ad
ipsum spectantibus, nobis humilimas porrexerunt supplicationes,
hue in sepus in nostra praesentia supplicationum precum cum
instantia, ut ipsis gratia nostra uberiori providere dignaremur.
Unde nos illorum supplicatione illecti eisdem hanc libertatem
duximus concedendam, qua re quandocunque idem Ladislaus
Wayuoda et sua gens ad dicta nostra dominia videlicet civitates
vel oppida pervenerint, ex tunc vestris fidelitatibus praesentibus
firmiter committimus et mandamus ut eosdem Ladislaum
Wayuodam et Ciganos sibi subiectos omni sine impedimento ac
perturbatione aliquali fovere ac conservare debeatis, immo
ab omnibus impetitionibus seu offensionibus tueri velitis: Si
autem inter ipsos aliqua Zizania seu perturbatio evenerit ex
parte, quorumcunque ex tunc non vos nee aliquis alter vestrum,
sed idem Ladislaus Wayuoda iudicandi et liberandi habeat
facultatem. Praesentes autem post earum lecturam semper
reddi iubemus praesentanti.
"Datum in Sepus Dominica die ante festum St Georgii Martyris
Anno Domini MCCCCXXIIL, Regnorum nostrorum anno
Hungar. XXXVI., Romanorum vero XII., Bohemiae tertio."
Freely translated this reads: " We Sigismund by the grace
of God emperor of Rome, king of Hungary, Bohemia, &c. unto
all true and loyal subjects, noble soldiers, commanders, castellans,
open districts, free towns and their judges in our kingdom
established and under our sovereignty, kind greetings. Our
faithful voivode of the Tsigani with others belonging to him has
humbly requested us that we might graciously grant them our
abundant favour. We grant them their supplication, we have
vouchsafed unto them this liberty. Whenever therefore this
voivode Ladislaus and his people should come to any part of our
realm in any town, village or place, we commit them by these
presents, strongly to your loyalty and we command you to pro-
tect in every way the same voivode Ladislaus and the Tsigani
his subjects without hindrance, and you should show kindness
unto them and you should protect them from every trouble and
persecution. But should any trouble or discord happen among
them from whichever side it may be, then none of you nor any- '
one else belonging to you should interfere, but this voivode
Ladislaus alone should have the right of punishing and pardoning.
And we moreover command you to return these presents always
after having read them. Given in our court on Sunday the day
before the Feast of St George in the year of our Lord 1423. The
36th year of our kingdom of Hungary, the 12 th of our being
emperor of Rome and the 3rd of our being king of Bohemia."
There is no reason to doubt the authenticity of this document,
which is in no way remarkable considering that at that time the
Gipsies must have formed a very considerable portion of the
inhabitants of Hungary, whose king Sigismund was. They may
have presented the emperor's grant of favours to Alexander
prince of Moldavia in 1472, and obtained from him safe-conduct
and protection, as mentioned above.
No one has yet attempted to explain the reason why the Gipsies
should have started in the 14th and especially in the first half
of the 15th century on their march westwards. But if, as has
been assumed above, the Gipsies had lived for some length of
time in Rumelia, and afterwards spread thence across the Danube
and the plains of Transylvania, the incursion of the Turks into
Europe, their successive occupation of those very provinces,
the overthrow of the Servian and Bulgarian kingdoms and the
dislocation of the native population, would account to a remark-
able degree for the movement of the Gipsies: and this movement
increases in volume with the greater successes of the Turks and
with the peopling of the country by immigrants from Asia Minor.
The first to be driven from their homes would no doubt be the
nomadic element, which felt itself ill at ease in its new surround-
ings, and found it more profitable first to settle in larger numbers
in Walachia and Transylvania and thence to spread to the western
countries of Europe. But their immunity from persecution did
not last long.
Later History. — Less than fifty years from the time that they
emerge out of Hungary, or even from the date of the Charter of
the emperor Sigismund, they found themselves exposed to the
fury and the prejudices of the people whose good faith they had
abused, whose purses they had lightened, whose barns they had
emptied, and on whose credulity they had lived with ease and
comfort. Their inborn tendency to roaming made them the
terror of the peasantry and the despair of every legislator who
tried to settle them on the land. Their foreign appearance, their
unknown tongue and their unscrupulous habits forced the legis-
lators of many countries to class them with rogues and vagabonds,
to declare them outlaws and felons and to treat them with
extreme severity. More than one judicial murder has been com-
mitted against them. In some places they were suspected as
Turkish spies and treated accordingly, and the murderer of a
Gipsy was often regarded as innocent of any crime.
Weissenbruch describes the wholesale murder of a group of
Gipsies, of whom five men were broken on the wheel, nine perished
on the gallows, and three men and eight women were decapitated.
This took place on the 14th and 15th of November 1726. Acts
and edicts were issued in many countries from the end of the
15th century onwards sentencing the " Egyptians " to exile under
pain of death. Nor was this an empty threat. In Edinburgh
four "Faas" were hanged in 161 1 "for abyding within the
kingdome, they being Egiptienis," and in 1636 at Haddington
the Egyptians were ordered " the men to be hangied and the
weomen to be drowned, and suche of the weomen as hes children
to be scourgit throw the burg and burnt in the cheeks." The
burning on the cheek or on the back was a common penalty,
4 o
GIPSIES
In 1692 four Estremadura Gipsies caught by the Inquisition were
charged with cannibalism and made to own that they had eaten
a friar, a pilgrim and even a woman of their own tribe, for which
they suffered the penalty of death. And as late as 1782, 45
Hungarian Gipsies were charged with a similar monstrous crime,
and when the supposed victims of a supposed murder could not be
found on the spot indicated by the Gipsies, they owned under
torture and said on the rack, " We ate them." Of course they
were forthwith beheaded or hanged. The emperor Joseph II.,
who was also the author of one of the first edicts in favour of the
Gipsies, and who abolished serfdom throughout the Empire,
ordered an inquiry into the incident; it was then discovered that
no murder had been committed, except that of the victims of
this monstrous accusation.
The history of the legal status of the Gipsies, of their treatment
in various countries and of the penalties and inflictions to which
they have been subjected, would form a remarkable chapter in
the history of modern civilization. The materials are slowly
accumulating, and it is interesting to note as one of the latest
instances, that not further back than the year 1907 a " drive "
was undertaken in Germany against the Gipsies, which fact may
account for the appearance of some German Gipsies in England
in that year, and that in 1004 the Prussian Landtag adopted
unanimously a proposition to examine anew the question of
granting peddling licences to German Gipsies; that on the 17th
of February 1906 the Prussian minister issued special instructions
to combat the Gipsy nuisance; and that in various parts of
Germany and Austria a special register is kept for the tracing of
the genealogy of vagrant and sedentary Gipsy families.
Different has been the history of the Gipsies in what originally
formed the Turkish empire of Europe, notably in Rumania,
i.e. Walachia and Moldavia, and a careful search in the archives
of Rumania would offer rich materials for the history of the
Gipsies in a country where they enjoyed exceptional treatment
almost from the beginning of their settlement. They were
divided mainly into two classes, (1) Robi or Serfs, who were
settled on the land and deprived of all individual liberty, being
the property of the nobles and of churches or monastic establish-
ments, and (2) the Nomadic vagrants. They were subdivided
into four classes according to their occupation, such as the
Lingurari (woodcarvers; lit. "spoomnakers"), Caldarari (tinkers,
coppersmiths and ironworkers), Ursari (lit. " bear drivers ")
and Rudari (miners), also called Aurari (gold- washers), who used
formerly to wash the gold out of the auriferous river-sands
of Walachia. A separate and smaller class consisted of the
Gipsy L&eshi or V&trashi (settled on a homestead or " having
a fireplace " of their own). Each shatra or Gipsy community
was placed under the authority of a judge or leader, known in
Rumania as jude, in i Hungary as aga\ these officials were
subordinate to the bulubasha or voivod, who was himself under
the direct control of the yuzbasha (or governor appointed by the
prince from among his nobles). The yuzbasha was responsible
for the regular income to be derived from the vagrant Gipsies,
who were considered and treated as the prince's property.
These voivodi or yuzbashi who were not Gipsies by origin often
treated the Gipsies with great tyranny. In Hungary down to
1648 they belonged to the aristocracy. The last Polish Krolcstvo
cyganskie or Gipsy king died in 1790. The Robi could be bought
and sold, freely exchanged and inherited, and were treated,
as the negroes in America down to 1856, when their final freedom
in Moldavia was proclaimed. In Hungary and in Transylvania
the abolition of servitude in 1 781-1782 carried with it the
freedom of the jGipsies. In the 18th and 19th centuries many
attempts were made to settle and to educate the roaming Gipsies;
in Austria this was undertaken by the empress Maria Theresa
and the emperor Francis II. (1 761-1783), in Spain by Charles III.
(1788). In Poland (1791) the attempt succeeded. In England
(1827) and in Germany (1830) societies were formed for the
reclamation of the Gipsies, but nothing was accomplished in
either case. In other countries, however, definite progress was
made. Since 1866 the Gipsies have become Rumanian citizens,
and the latest official statistics no longer distinguish between
the Rumanians and the Gipsies, who are becoming thoroughly
assimilated, forgetting their language, and being slowly absorbed
by the native population. In Bulgaria the Gipsies were declared
citizens, enjoying equal political rights in accordance with the
treaty of Berlin in 1878, but through an arbitrary interpretation
they were deprived of that right, and on the 6th of January 1906
the first Gipsy Congress was held in Sofia, for the purpose of
claiming political rights for the Turkish Gipsies or Gopti as they
call themselves. Ramadan Alief, the tzari-bashi (i.e. the head
of the Gipsies in Sofia), addressed the Gipsies assembled; they
decided to protest and subsequently sent a petition to the
Sobranye, demanding the recognition of their political rights.
A curious reawakening, and an interesting chapter in the
history of this peculiar race.
Origin and Language of the Gipsies. — The real key to their
origin is, however, the Gipsy language. The scientific study
of that language began in the middle of the 19th century with
the work of Pott, and was brought to a high state of perfection
by Miklosich. From that time on monographs have multiplied
and minute researches have been carried on in many parts of
the world, all tending to elucidate the true origin of the Gipsy
language. It must remain for the time being an open question
whether the Gipsies were originally a pure race. Many a strange
element has contributed to swell their ranks and to introduce
discordant elements into their vocabulary. Ruediger (1782),
Grellmann (1783) and Marsden (1783) almost simultaneously
and independently of one another came to the same conclusion,
that the language of the Gipsies, until then considered a thieves'
jargon, was in reality a language closely allied with some Indian
speech. Since then the two principal problems to be solved
have been, firstly, to which of the languages of India the
original Gipsy speech was most closely allied, and secondly, by
which route the people speaking that language had reached
Europe and then spread westwards. Despite the rapid increase
in our knowledge of Indian languages, no solution has yet been
found to the first problem, nor is it likely to be found. For the
language of the Gipsies, as shown now by recent studies of the
Armenian Gipsies, has undergone such a profound change and
involves so many difficulties, that it is impossible to compare
the modern Gipsy with any modern Indian dialect owing to the
inner developments which the Gipsy language has undergone
in the course of centuries. All that is known, moreover, of the
Gipsy language, and all that rests on reliable texts, is quite
modern, scarcely earlier than the middle of the 19th century.
Followed up in the various dialects into which that language
has split, it shows such a thorough change from dialect to dialect^
that except as regards general outlines and principles of inflexion,
nothing would be more misleading than to draw conclusions
from apparent similarities between Gipsy, or any Gipsy dialect,
and any Indian language; especially as the Gipsies must have
been separated from the Indian races for a much longer period
than has elapsed since their arrival in Europe and since the forma-
tion of their European dialects. It must also be borne in mind
that the Indian languages have also undergone profound changes
of their own, under influences totally different from those to
which the Gipsy language has been subjected. The problem
would stand differently if by any chance an ancient vocabulary
were discovered representing the oldest form of the common
stock from which the European dialects have sprung; for there
can be no doubt of the unity of the language of the European
Gipsies. The question whether Gipsy stands close to Sanskrit
or Prakrit, or shows forms more akin to Hindi dialects, specially
those of the North- West frontier, or Dardestan and Kafiristan,
to which may be added now the dialects of the Pis&ca language
(Grierson, 1906), is affected by the fact established by Fink that
the dialect of the Armenian Gipsies shows much closer resem-
blance to Prakrit than the language of the European Gipsies,
and that the dialects of Gipsy spoken throughout Syria and Asia
Minor differ profoundly in every respect from the European
Gipsy, taken as a whole spoken. The only explanation possible
is that the European Gipsy represents the first wave of the
Westward movement of an Indian tribe or caste which, dislocated
GIPSIES
4i
at a certain period by political disturbances, had travelled
through Persia, making a very short stay there, thence to Armenia
staying there a little longer, and then possibly to the Byzantine
Empire at an indefinite period between 11 00 and 1200; and that
another clan had followed in their wake, passing through Persia,
settling in Armenia and then going farther down to Syria, Egypt
and North Africa. These two tribes though of a common
remote Indian origin must, however, be kept strictly apart
from one another in our investigation, for they stand to each
other in the same relation as they stand to the various dialects
in India. The linguistic proof of origin can therefore now not
go further than to establish the fact that the Gipsy language
is in its very essence an originally Indian dialect, enriched in its
vocabulary from the languages of the peoples among whom
the Gipsies had sojourned, whilst in its grammatical inflection
it has slowly been modified, to such an extent that in some
cases, like the English or the Servian, barely a skeleton has
remained.
Notwithstanding the statements to the contrary, a -Gipsy
from Greece or Rumania could no longer understand a Gipsy
of England or Germany, so profound is the difference. But the
words which have entered into the Gipsy language, borrowed as
they were from the Greeks, Hungarians, Rumanians, &c, are not
only an indication of the route taken — and this is the only use
that has hitherto been made of the vocabulary — but they are
of the highest importance for fixing the time when the Gipsies
had come in contact with these languages. The absence of Arabic
is a positive proof that not only did the Gipsies not come via
Arabia (as maintained by De Goeje) before they reached Europe,
but that they could not even have been living for any length of
time in Persia after the Mahommedan conquest, or at any rate
that they could not have come in contact with such elements of
the population as had already adopted Arabic in addition to
Persian. But the form of the Persian words found among
European Gipsies, and similarly the form of the Armenian words
found in that language, are a clear indication that the Gipsies
could not have come in contact with these languages before
Persian had assumed its modern form and before Armenian had
been changed from the old to the modern form of language.
Still more strong and clear is the evidence in the case of the Greek
and Rumanian words. If the Gipsies had lived in Greece, as some
contend, from very ancient times, some at least of the old Greek
words would be found in their language, and similarly the Slavonic
words would be of an archaic character, whilst on the contrary
we find medieval Byzantine forms, nay, modern Greek forms,
among the Gipsy vocabulary collected from Gipsies in Germany
or Italy, England or France; a proof positive that they could not
have been in Europe much earlier than the approximate date
given above of the nth or 12th century. We then find from a
grammatical point of view the same deterioration, say among the
English or Spanish Gipsies, as has been noticed in the Gipsy
dialect of Armenia. It is no longer Gipsy, but a corrupt English
or Spanish adapted to some remnants of Gipsy inflections. The
purest form has been preserved among the Greek Gipsies and
to a certain extent among the Rumanian. Notably through
Miklosich's researches and comparative studies, it is possible
to follow the slow change step by step and to prove, at any rate,
that, as far as Europe is concerned, the language of these Gipsies
was one and the same, and that it was slowly split up into a
number of dialects (13 Miklosich, 14 Colocci) which shade off
into one another, and which by their transitional forms mark
the way in which the Gipsies have travelled, as also proved by
historical evidence. The Welsh dialect, known by few, has
retained, through its isolation, some of the ancient forms.
Religion, Habits and Customs. — Those who have lived among
the Gipsies will readily testify that their religious views are a
strange medley of the local faith, which they everywhere embrace,
and some old-world superstitions which they have in common
with many nations. Among the Greeks they belong to the Greek
Church, among the Mahommedans they are Mahommedans, in
Rumania they belong to the National Church. In Hungary they
are mostly Catholics, according to the faith of the inhabitants of
that country. They have no ethical principles and they do not
recognize the obligations of the Ten Commandments. There is
extreme moral laxity in the relation of the two sexes, and on the
whole they take life easily, and are complete fatalists. At the
same time they are great cowards, and they play the rdle of the
fool or the jester in the popular anecdotes of eastern Europe.
There the poltroon is always a Gipsy, but he is good-humoured
and not so malicious as those Gipsies who had endured the
hardships of outlawry in the west of Europe.
There is nothing specifically of an Oriental origin in their
religious vocabulary, and the words Devla (God), Bang (devil)
or Trushul (Cross), in spite of some remote similarity, must be
taken as later adaptations, and not as remnants of an old Sky-
worship or Serpent-worship. In general their beliefs, customs,
tales, &c. belong to the common stock of general folklore, and
many of their symbolical expressions find their exact counterpart
in Rumanian and modern Greek, and often read as if they were
direct translations from these languages. Although they love
their children, it sometimes happens that a Gipsy mother will hold
her child by the legs and beat the father with it. In Rumania
and Turkey among the settled Gipsies a good number are carriers
and bricklayers; and the women take their full share in every
kind of work, no matter how hard it may be. The nomadic
Gipsies carry on the ancient craft of coppersmiths, or workers in
metal; they also make sieves and traps, but in the East they are
seldom farriers or horse-dealers. They are far-famed for their
music, in which art they are unsurpassed. The Gipsy musicians
belong mostly to the class who originally were serfs. They were
retained at the courts of the boyars for their special talent in
reciting old ballads and love songs and their deftness in playing,
notably the guitar and the fiddle. The former was used as an
accompaniment to the singing of either love ditties and popular
songs or more especially in recital or heroic ballads and epic
songs; the latter for dances and other amusements. They
were the troubadours and minstrels of eastern Europe; the
largest collection of Rumanian popular ballads and songs was
gathered by G. Dem. Teodorescu from a Gipsy minstrel, Petre
Sholkan; and not a few of the songs of the guslars among the
Servians and other Slavonic nations in the Balkans come also
from the Gipsies. They have also retained the ancient tunes
and airs, from the dreamy " doina " of the Rumanian to the
fiery " czardas " of the Hungarian or the stately " hora " of the
Bulgarian. Liszt went so far as to ascribe to the Gipsies the origin
of the Hungarian national music. This is an exaggeration, as
seen by the comparison of the Gipsy music in other parts of south-
east Europe; but they undoubtedly have given the most
faithful expression to the national temperament. Equally famous
is the Gipsy woman for her knowledge of occult practices. She
is the real witch; she knows charms to injure the enemy or to
help a friend. She can break the charm if made by others.
But neither in the one case nor in the other, and in fact as little
as in their songs, do they use the Gipsy language. It is either
the local language of the natives as in the case of charms, or a
slightly Romanized form of Greek, Rumanian or Slavonic. The
old Gipsy woman is also known for her skill in palmistry and
fortune-telling by means of a special set of cards, the well-known
Tarokof the Gipsies. They have also a large stock of fairy tales
resembling in each country the local fairy tales, in Greece agreeing
with the Greek, and in Rumania with the Rumanian fairy tales.
It is doubtful, however, whether they have contributed to the
dissemination of these tales throughout Europe, for a large
number of Gipsy tales can be shown to have been known in
Europe long before the appearance of the Gipsies, and others are
so much like those of other nations that the borrowing may be
by the Gipsy from the Greek, Slav or Rumanian. It is, however,
possible that playing-cards might have been introduced to
Europe through the Gipsies. The oldest reference to cards is
found in the Chronicle of Nicolaus of Cavellazzo, who says that
the cards were first brought into Viterbo in 1379 from the land
of the Saracens, probably from Asia Minor or the Balkans.
They spread very quickly, but no one has been able as yet to trace
definitely the source whence they were first brought. Without
xii. 2 a
42
GIPSIES
entering here into the history of the playing-cards and of the
different forms of the faces and of the symbolical meaning of the
different designs, one may assume safely that the cards, before
they were used for mere pastime or for gambling, may originally
have had a mystical meaning and been used as sortes in various
combinations. To this very day the oldest form is known by the
hitherto unexplained name of Tarock, played in Bologna at the
beginning of the 15th century and retained by the French under
the form Tarot, connected direct with the Gipsies, " Le Tarot des
Bohemiens." It was noted above that the oldest chronicler
(Presbyter) who describes the appearance of the Gipsies in 1416
in Germany knows them by their Italian name " Cianos,"
so evidently he must have known of their existence in Italy
previous to any date recorded hitherto anywhere, and it is there-
fore not impossible that coming from Italy they brought with
them also their book of divination.
Physical Characteristics, — As a race they are of small stature,
varying in colour from the dark tan of the Arab to the whitish
hue of the Servian and the Pole. In fact there are some white-
coloured Gipsies, especially in Servia and Dalmatia, and these
are o*ten not easily distinguishable from the native peoples,
except that they are more lithe and sinewy, better proportioned
and more agile in their movements than the thick-set Slavs and
the mixed race of the Rumanians. By one feature, however,
they are easily distinguishable and recognize one another, viz.
by the lustre of their eyes and the whiteness of their teeth. Some
are well built; others have the features of a mongrel race, due
no doubt to intermarriage with outcasts of other races. The
women age very quickly and the mortality among the Gipsies
is great, especially among children; among adults it is chiefly
due to pulmonary diseases. They love display and Oriental
showiness, bright-coloured dresses, ornaments, bangles, &c;
red and green are the colours mostly favoured by the Gipsies
in the East. .Along with a showy handkerchief or some shining
gold coins round their necks, they will wear torn petticoats and
no covering on their feet. And even after they have been
assimilated and have forgotten their own language they still
retain some of the prominent features of their character, such
as the love of inordinate display and gorgeous dress; and their
moral defects not only remain for a long time as glaring as among
those wl\o live the life of vagrants, but even become more pro-
nounced. The Gipsy of to-day is no longer what his fore-
fathers have been. The assimilation with the nations in the
near East and the steps taken for the suppression of vagrancy
in the West, combine to denationalize the Gipsy and to make
" Romani Chib " a thing of the past.
Bibliography. — The scientific study of the Gipsy language and
its origin, as well as the critical history of the Gipsy race, dates
(with the notable exception of Grellmann) almost entirely from
rott's researches in 1844.
I. Collections of Documents* to.— Lists of older publications
appeared in the books of Pott, Miklosich and the archduke Joseph;
Pott adds a critical appreciation of the scientific value of the books
enumerated. See also Verzeicknis von Werken und Aufsateen . . .
uber die Geschichte und Sprache der Zigeuner, to., 248 entries (Leipzig,
1886); J, Tipray, " Adalelcok a cziganyokrol sz616 irodalomhoz," in
Magyar KOnyeswemle (Budapest, 1877); Ch. G. Leland, A Collection
of Cuttings . . . relaHng to Gypsies (1874-1891), bequeathed by
him to the British Museum. See also the Orientalischer Jahresbericht,
ed. Muller (Berlin, 1887 ff.).
II. History. — (a) The first appearance of the Gipsies in Europe.
Sources: A. F. Oe/eWus, Rerum Boicarum scriptores, to. (Augsburg,
1763); M. Freher, Andreae Presbyteri . . . chronicon de ducibus
Bopariae . . . (1602); S. Munster, Cosmographia ... to. (Basel,
1545); t. Thurmaier, Annalium Boicrumlibri jeptem, ed. T. Zie-
gierus (ln|
cd. J. Nasmith (Cambridge, 1778). (&) Origin and spread of the
Gipsies: H. M. G. Grellmann, Die Zigeuner, to (1st ed., Dessau and
Leipiig, 1783; and ed., Gottingen, 1787); English by M. Roper
^London, 1787; 2nd ed., London, 1807), entitled Dissertation on the
Gipsies, to.; Carl von Heister, Etknoerapkische . . . Notizen uber
die Zigeuner (Kdnigsberg, 1842), a third and neatly improved
edition of Grellmann and the best book of its kind up to that date;
A, F. Pott, Die Zigeuner in Europa und Asien (2 vols,, Halle, 1844-
1845), the first scholarly work with complete and critical biblio-
graphy, detailed grammar, etymological dictionary and important
texts; C. Hopf, Die Einwanderung der Zigeuner in Europa (Gotha, *
1870); F. von Miklosich, " Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Zigcuner-
Mundarten," i.-iv., in Sitzungsber. d. Wiener Akad. d. Wissenschaften
(Vienna, 1874-1878), " Ober die Mundarten und die Wanderungen
der Zigeuner Europas," i.-xii., in Denkschriften d. Wiener Akad. d.
Wissenschaften (1 872-1 880); M. J. de Goeje, Bijdrage tot de ge-
schiedenis der Zigeuner s (Amsterdam, 1875), English translation by
Mac Ritchie, Account of the Gipsies of India (London, 1886); Zedler,
Universal-Lexicon, vol. lxii., s.v. Zigeuner," pp. 520-544 con-
taining a rich bibliography; many publications of F\ Bataillard
from 1844 to 1885; A, Colocci, Storia oV un popolo err ante t with
illustrations, map and Gipsy-Ital. and Ital.-Gipsy glossaries (Turin,
1889); F. H. Groome, " The Gypsies," in E. Magnusson, National
Life and Thought (1891), and art. " Gipsies " in Encyclopaedia
Britannica (9th ed., 1879); C. Amero, Bohemiens, Tsiganes et
Gypsies (Paris, 189O; M. Kogalnitschan, Esquisse sur Vhistoire, Us
mesurs et la langue des Cigains (Berlin, 1837; German trans., Stutt-
fjart, 1840) — valuable more for the historical part than for the
inguistic; J. Czacki, Dziela, vol. iii. (1 844-1 845) — for historic data
about Gipsies in Poland; I. Kopernicki and J. Mover, Ckaraktery-
styka fizyczna ludroici galicyjskiSj (1876) — for the history and
customs of Galician gipsies; Ungarische statistische MitteUungen,
vol. ix. (Budapest, 1895), containing the best statistical information
on the Gipsies; V. Dittrich, A nagy-idai czigdnyok (Budapest,
1898); T. H. Schwicker, "Die Zigeuner in Ungarn u. Sieben-
bttrgen," in vol. xii. of Die Volker Osterreich-Ungarns (Vienna,"
1883), and in MitteUungen d. K. K. geographischen Gesellschaft
(Vienna, 1896) ; Dr J. Polek, Die Zigeuner in der Bukowina (Czerno-
witz, 1908) ; Ficker, " Die Zigeuner der Bukowina," in Statist.
Monatschrift, v. 6, Hundert Jahre i77$-i&7$: Zigeuner in d. Buko-
wina (Vienna, 1875), Die Volkerstdmme der dsterr.-ungar. Monarchic,
to. (Vienna, 1869); V. S. Morwood, Our Gipsies (London, 1885);
D. MacRitchie, Scottish Gypsies under the Stewarts (Edinburgh, 1804) ;
F. A. Coelho, " Os Ciganos de Portugal," in Bol. Soc. Geog. (Lisbon,
1 892 ); A. Dumbarton, Gypsy Life %n the Mysore Jungle (London,
1902).
III. Linguistic. — [Armenia], F. N. Finck, " Die Sprache der arme-
nischen Zigeuner," in Memoires de VAcad. Imp. des Sciences, viii.
(St Petersburg, 1907). [Austria-HungaryJ, R. von Sowa, Die
Mundart der slovakischen Zigeuner (Gottingen, 1887), and Die
mdhrische Mundart der Romsprache (Vienna, 1893) J A. J, Puchmayer,
Romdni Cib (Prague, 1821); P. Josef Jesina, Komdfti Cib (in Czech,
1880; in German, 1886); G. Ihnatko, Czigdny nyelvtan (Losoncon,
1877); A. Kalina, La Langue des Tsiganes slovaques (Posen, 1882);
the archduke Joseph, Czigdny nyelvtan (Budapest, 1888); H. von
Wlislocki, Die Sprache der transsuvanischen Zigeuner (Leipzig, 1884).
[Brazil], A. T. de Mello Moraes, Os ciganos no Brazil (Rio de Janeiro,
1886). [France, the Basques], A. Saudrimont, Vocabulaire de la
langue des Bohemiens habitant les pays basques-francais (Bordeaux,
1862). [Germany], R. Pischel, Beitrage zur Kenntnis der deutschen
Zigeuner (Halle, 1894) ; R. von Sowa, " Wdrterbuch des Dialekts der
deutschen Zigeuner, in Abhandlungen f. d. Kunde d. Morgenlandes,
xi. 1, very valuable (Leipzig, 1898); F. N. Finck, Lehrbuch des
Dialekts der deutschen Zigeuner — very valuable (Marburg, 1903).
[Great Britain, &c], Ch. G. Leland, The English Gipsies and their
Language (London and New York, 1873; 2nd ed., 1874), The Gipsies
of Russia, Austria, England, America, to. (London, 1882) — the
validity of Leland's conclusions is often doubtful; B. C. Smart and
H. J. Crofton, The Dialect of the English Gypsies (2nd ed., London,
1875); G. Borrow, Romano lavo-lil (London, 1874, 1905), Lavengro,
ed. F. H. Groome (London, 1899). [Rumania], B. Constantinescu,
Probe de Limba si literatura tiganilor din Romdnia (Bucharest,
1878). [Russia, Bessarabia], O. Boethlingk, Uber die Sprache der
Zigeuner in Russland (St Petersburg, 1852; supplement, 1854).
[Russia, Caucasus], K. Badganian, Cygany. NZskoliko slovu o nartti-
jahu zakavkazskihu cyganH (St Petersburg, 1887); Istomin, Cieanskij
JazykH (1900). [Spain], G. H. Borrow, The Zincali, or an Account
of the Gipsies of Spain (London, i8ai, and numerous later editions) ;
K. Campuzano, Origen . . . de los Gitanos, y diccionario de su
dialecto (2nd ed., Madrid, 1857); A. de C, Diccionario del dialecto
gitano, to. (Barcelona, 1851); M. de Sales y Guindale, Historia,
cosiumbres y dialecto de los Gitanos (Madrid, 1870); M. de Sales,
El Gilanismo (Madrid, 1870); J. Tineo Rebolledo, " A ChipicaUi "
la lengua gitana: diccionario gitano-espafiol (Granada, 1900).
[Turkey], A. G. Paspati, £tudes sur les Tchin^hianes, ou Bohemiens
de V empire ottoman (Constantinople, 1870), with grammar, vocabu-
lary, tales and French glossary; very important. [General], John
Sampson, " Gypsy Language and Origin," in Journ. Gypsy Lore Soc.
vol. 1. (2nd ser., Liverpool, 1907) ; J. A. Decourdemanche, Gram-
tnaire du Tchinganf, to. (Paris, 1908)— fantastic in some of its
philology; F. Kluge, Rotaelsche Quellen (Strassbur|:, 1901); L.
Gunther, Das Rotwelsch des deutschen Gauners (Leipzig, 1905), for
the influence of Gipsy on argot; L. Besses, Diccionario de argot
espanol (Barcelona); G. A. Grierson, The Pfstica Languages of
North-Western India (London, 1906), for parallels in Indian dialects;
G. Borrow, Criscote e majarS Lucas . . . El eeangdto segun S.
Lucas . . . (London, 1837; 2nd ed., 1872)— this is the only complete
translation of any one of the gospels into Gipsy. For older fragments
of such translations, see Pott ii. 464-521.
I IV. Folklore, Tales, Songs, to.— Many songs and tales are found
GIRAFFE— GIRALDI, G. G.
43
in the books enumerated above, where they are mostly accompanied
by literal translations. See also Ch. G. Leland, £. H. Palmer and
T. Tuckey, English Gipsy Songs in Romany, with Metrical English
Translation (London, 1875); G. Smith* Gipsy Life, &c. (London,
1880); M. Rosenfcild, Liederder Zigeuner (1882); Ch. G. Leland,
The Gypsies (Boston, Mass* 1882), Gypsy Sorcery and Fortune-
TcUing (London, i$oi); H. von Wlislocki, Mdrchea und Sagen der
transstlvanischen Ztgeuner (Berlin, 1886) — containing 6% tales,
very freely translated; Volksdichtungen der siebenbiirgischen und
sudtmgarischen Ztgeuner (Vienna, 1890) — songs, ballads, charms,
proverbs and 100 tales; Vom wandernden Zigeunermolke (Hamburg,
1890) ; Wesen und Wirkunwskreis der Zauberfrauen bei den sieben-
burgischen Zigeuner (1891) ; Aus dem inneren Leben der Zigeuner,"
in EOtnologische Mittetlungen (Berlin, 1892); R. Pischel, Bericht
uber Wlislocki vom wandernden Zigeunervelke (Gdttmgen, 1890) — a
strong criticism of Wlislocki's jnethod, &c; F. H. Groome, Gypsy
Folk- Tales (London, 1 899) , with historical introduction and a complete
and trustworthy collection of 76 gipsy tales from many, countries;
Katada, Conies gUanos (Logrono, 1907); M. Gaster, Zigeuner -
mdrchen aus Rumdnien (1881); " Tiganii, &c," in Revista pentru
Istorie,&c, i. p. 469 ff. (Bucharest, I883); " Gypsy Fairy-Tales " in
Folklore, The Journal of the Gipsy-Lore Society (Edinburgh, 1888-
1892) was revived in Liverpool in 1907.
V- Legal Status. — A few of the books in which the legal status of
the Gipsies (either alone or in conjunction with "vagrants ") is
treated from a juridical point of view are here mentioned, also the
history erf the trial in 1726. J. B. Weissenbruch, Ausfuhrliche
Relation von der famosen Zigeuner-Diebes-Mord und Rduber (Frank-
furt and Leipzig, 1727); A. Ch- Thomasius, Tractatio juridica de
vagabmndoi &c. (Leipzig, 1731) ; F. Ch. B. Ave-Lallemant, Das
deulsche Gaunertum, &c (Leipzig, 1 858-1 862); V. de Rochas, Les
Farias de France et d'Espagne (Paris, 1876); P. Chuchul, Zum
Kampfe gegen Landstreicktr und Bettier (Kassel, 1881) ; R. Breithaupt,
Die Zigeuner und der deutsche Stoat (Wurzburg, 1907); G. Stem-
hausen. Geschichte der deutschen Kultur (Leipzig and Vienna, 1904).
(M. G.)
GIRAFFE, a corruption of Zardfah, the Arabic name for the
tallest of all mammals, and the typical representative of the
family Giraffi&ae, the distinctive characters of which are given
in the article Pecora, where the systematic position of the
group is indicated. The classic term " camelopard," probably
introduced when these animals were brought from North
Africa to the Roman amphitheatre, has fallen into complete
disuse.
In common with the okapi, giraffes have skin-covered horns
on the head, but in these animals, which form the genus Giraffa,
these appendages are present in both sexes; and there is often
an unpaired one in advance of the pair on the forehead. Among
other characteristics of these animals may be noticed the great
length of the neck and limbs, the complete absence of lateral
toes and the long and tufted tail. The tongue is remarkable
for its great length, measuring about 17 in. in the dead animal,
and for its great elasticity and power of muscular contraction
while living. It is covered with numerous large papillae, and
forms, like the trunk of the elephant, an admirable organ for
the examination and prehension of food. Giraffes are inhabit-
ants of open country, and owing to their length of neck and long
flexible tongues are enabled to browse on tall trees, mimosas
being favourites. To drink or graze they are obliged to straddle
the fore-legs apart; but they seldom feed on grass and are
capable of going long without water. When standing among
mimosas they so harmonize with their surroundings that they
are difficult of detection. Formerly giraffes were found in large
herds, but persecution has reduced their number and led to their
extermination from many districts. Although in late Tertiary
times widely spread over southern Europe and India, giraffes are
now confined to Africa south of the Sahara.
Apart from the distinct Somali giraffe (Giraffa reticulata),
characterized by its deep liver-red colour marked with a very
coarse network of fine white lines, there are numerous local forms
of the ordinary giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis). The northern
races, such as the Nubian G. c. typica and the Kordofan G. c.
antiquorutn, are characterized by the large frontal horn of the
bulls, the white legs, the network type of coloration and the pale
tint. The latter feature is specially developed in the Nigerian
G. c. peralta, which is likewise of the northern type s The Baringo
G. c. rothschildi also has a large frontal horn and white legs, but
the spots in the bulls are very dark and those of the females
jagged. In the Kilimanjaro G. c. tippelskirchi the frontal horn
is often developed in the bulls, but the legs are frequently spotted
to the fetlocks. Farther south the frontal horn tends to dis-
appear more or less completely, as in the Angola G. c. angolensis,
the Transvaal G.c. wardi and the Cape G. c. capensis, while the
legs are fully spotted and the colour-pattern on the body
(especially in the last-named) is more of a blotched type, that
The North African or Nubian Giraffe {Giraffa camelopardalis).
is to say, consists of dark blotches on a fawn ground, instead of
a network of light lines on a dark ground.
For details, see a paper on the subspecies of Giraffa camelopardalis,
by R. Lydekker in the Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London
for 1904. (R. L.*)
GIRALDI, GIGLIO GREGORIO [Lilius Gregorius Gyral-
dus] (1479-1552), Italian scholar and poet, was born on the
14th of June 1479, at Ferrara, where he early distinguished
himself by his talents and acquirements. On the completion
of his literary course he removed to Naples, where he lived on
familiar terms with Jovianus Pontanus and Sannazaro; and
subsequently to Lombardy, where he enjoyed the favour of the
Mirandola family. At Milan in 1507 he studied Greek under
Chalcondylas; and shortly afterwards, at Modena, he became
tutor to Ercole (afterwards Cardinal) Rangone. About the year
1 5 14 he removed to Rome, where, under Clement VII., he held
the office of apostolic protonotary; but having in the sack of that
city (1527), which almost coincided with the death of his patron
Cardinal Rangone, lost all his property, he returned in poverty
once more to Mirandola, whence again he was driven by the
troubles consequent on the assassination of the reigning prince in
1533. The rest of his life was one long struggle with ill-health,
poverty and neglect; and he is alluded to with sorrowful regret
by Montaigne in one of his Essais (i. 34) , as having, like Sebastian
Castalio, ended his days in utter destitution. He died at Ferrara
in February 1552; and his epitaph makes touching and graceful
allusion to the sadness of his end. Giraldi was a man of very
4+
GIRALDI, G. B.— GIRARD, J. B.
extensive erudition; and numerous testimonies to his profundity
and accuracy have been given both by contemporary and by
later scholars. His Historia de diis gentium marked a distinctly
forward step in the systematic study of classical mythology;
and by his treatises De annis et mensibus, and on the Calen-
darium Romanum et Graecum, he contributed to bring about the
reform of the calendar, which was ultimately effected by Pope
Gregory XIII. His Progymnasma adversus liter as et liter atos
deserves mention at least among the curiosities of literature;
and among his other works to which reference is still occasionally
made are Historiae poltarum Graecorum ac Latinorum; De
poitis suorum temporum\ and De sepultura ac vario sepeliendi
ritu. Giraldi was also an elegant Latin poet.
llin Opera omnia were published at Leiden in 1696.
GIRALDI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1504-1573)1 surnamed
Cynthujs, Cinthio or Cintio, Italian novelist and poet, born
at Ferrara in November 1504, was educated at the university
of his native town, where in 1525 he became professor of natural
philosophy, and, twelve years afterwards, succeeded Celio
Calcagnini in the chair of belles-lettres. Between 1542 and 1560
he acted as private secretary, first to Ercole II. and afterwards
to Alphonso II. of Este; but having, in connexion with a literary
quarrel in which he had got involved, lost the favour of his
patron in the latter year, he removed to Mondovi, where he
remained as a teacher of literature till 1568. Subsequently,
on the invitation of the senate of Milan, he occupied the chair
of rhetoric at Pa via till 1573, when, in search of health, he
returned to his native town, where on the 30th of December he
died. Besides an epic entitled Ercole (1557), in twenty-six
cantos, Giraldi wrote nine tragedies, the best known of which,
Orbecche, was produced in 1541. The sanguinary and disgusting
character of the plot of this play, and the general poverty of
its style, are, in the opinion of many of its critics, almost fully
redeemed by occasional bursts of genuine and impassioned
poetry; of one scene in the third act in particular it has even
been affirmed that, if it alone were sufficient to decide the
question, the Orbeccke would be the finest play in the world.
Of the prose works of Giraldi the most important is the Hecatom-
mithi or Ecatomiti, a collection of tales told somewhat after the
manner of Boccaccio, but still more closely resembling the novels
of Giraldi's contemporary Bandello, only much inferior in work-
manship to the productions of either author in vigour, liveliness
and local colour. Something, but not much, however, may be
said in favour of their professed claim to represent a higher
standard of morality. Originally published at Monteregale,
Sicily, in 1565, they were frequently reprinted in Italy, while a
French translation by Chappuys appeared in 1583 and one in
Spanish in 1500. They have a peculiar interest to students of
English literature, as having furnished, whether directly or in-
directly, the plots of Measure for Measure and Othello. That
of the latter, which is to be found in the Hecatommithi (iii. 7),
is conjectured to have reached Shakespeare through the French
translation; while that of the former (HecaL viii. 5) is probably
to be traced to Whetstone's Promos and Cassandra (1578), an
adaptation of CintmVs story, and to his Heplamerone (1582),
which contains a direct English translation. To Giraldi also
must be attributed the plot of Beaumont and Fletcher's Custom
of the Country*
GIRALDUS CAMBRKNSIS (1146^-1220), medieval historian,
also called G fraud de Barri, was born in Pembrokeshire. He
was the son of William de Barri and Augharat, a daughter of
Gerald, the ancestors of the Fitzgeralds and the Welsh princess,
Nest a, formerly mistress of King Henry I. Falling under the
influence of his uncle, David Fitzgerald, bishop of St David's,
he determined to enter the church. He studied at Paris, and his
works show that he had applied himself closely to the study of
the Latin poets. In 117 a he was appointed to collect tithe in
Wales, and showed such vigour that he was made archdeacon.
In 1 1 70 an attempt was made to elect him bishop of St David's,
but Henry II. was unwilling to see any one with powerful native
connexions a bishop in Wades. In n 80, after another visit to
Paris, he was appointed commissiary to the bishop of St David's,
who had ceased to reside. But Giraldus threw up his post,
indignant at the indifference of the bishop to the welfare of his
see. In n 84 he was made one of the king's chaplains, and was
elected to accompany Prince John on his voyage to Ireland.
While there he wrote a Topographia Hibernica, which is full of
information, and a strongly prejudiced history of the conquest,
the Expugnatio Hibernica. In n 86 he read his work with great
applause before the masters and scholars of Oxford. In 11 88
he was sent into Wales with the primate Baldwin to preach
the Third Crusade. Giraldus declares that the mission was
highly successful; in any case it gave him the material for his
Itinerarium Cambrense, which is, after the Expugnatio, his best
known work. He accompanied the archbishop, who intended
him to be the historian of the Crusade, to the continent, with the
intention of going to the Holy Land. But in 11 89 he was sent
back to Wales by the king, who knew his influence was great,
to keep order among his countrymen. Soon after he was absolved
from his crusading vow. According to his own statements,
which often tend to exaggeration, he was offered both the sees of
Bangor and Llandaff, but refused them. From 1192 to 1198
he lived in retirement at Lincoln and devoted himself to literature.
It is probably during this period that he wrote the Gemma
ecclesiastica (discussing disputed points of doctrine, ritual, &c.)
and the Vita S. Remigii. In 1198 he was elected bishop of St
David's. But Hubert Walter, the archbishop of Canterbury,
was determined to have in that position no Welshman who
would dispute the metropolitan pretensions of the English
primates. The king, for political reasons, supported Hubert
Walter. For four years Giraldus exerted himself to get his
election confirmed, and to vindicate the independence of St
David's from Canterbury. He went three times to Rome.
He wrote the De jure Meneviensis ecclesiae in support of the
claims of his diocese. He made alliances with the princes of
North and South Wales. He called a general synod of his diocese.
He was accused of stirring up rebellion among the Welsh, and
the justiciar proceeded against him. At length in 1202 the pope
annulled all previous elections, and ordered a new one. The
prior of Llanthony was finally elected. Gerald was immediately
reconciled to the king and archbishop; the utmost favour was
shown to him; even the expenses of his unsuccessful election
were paid. He spent the rest of his life in retirement, though
there was some talk of his being made a cardinal. He certainly
survived John.
The works of Giraldus are partly polemical and partly historical
His value as a historian is marred by his violent party spirit;
some of his historical tracts, such as the Liber de instructions
principum and the Vita Galfridi . Archiepiscopi Eborecensis,
seem to have been designed as political pamphlets. Henry H.,
Hubert Walter and William Longchamp, the chancellor of
Richard I., are the objects of his worst invectives. His own
pretensions to the see of St David are the motive of many of his
misrepresentations. But he is one of the most vivid and witty
of our medieval historians.
See the Rolls edition of his works, ed. J. S. Brewer, J. F. Dimock
and G. F. Warner in 8 vols. (London, 1861-1891), some of which
have valuable introductions.
GIRANDOLE (from the Ital. girandola), an ornamental
branched candlestick of several lights. It came into use about
the second half of the 17th century, and was commonly made
and used in pairs. It has always been, comparatively speaking,
a luxurious appliance for lighting, and in the great 18th-century
period of French house decoration the famous ciselcurs designed
some exceedingly beautiful examples. A great variety of metals
has been used for the purpose — sometimes, as in the case of the
candlestick, girandoles have been made in hard woods. Gilded
bronze has been a very frequent medium, but for table purposes
silver is still the favourite material.
GIRARD, JEAN BAPTISTE [known as " Le Pere Girard "
or" LePereGregoire "](i 765-1850), French-Swiss educationalist,
was born at Fribourg and educated for the priesthood at Lucerne.
He was the fifth child in a family of fourteen, and his gift for
teaching was early shown at home in helping his mother with the
GIRARD, P. H. DE— GIRARD, S.
45
younger children; and after passing through his noviciate he
spent some time as an instructor in convents, notably at Wurz-
burg (i 785-1 788). Then for ten years he was busy with
religious duty. In 1798, full of Kantian ideas, he published an
essay outlining a scheme -of national Swiss education; and in
1804 he began his career as a public teacher, first in the elementary
school at Fribourg (1805-1823), then (being driven away by
Jesuit hostility) in the gymnasium at Lucerne till 1834, when
he retired to Fribourg and devoted himself with the production
of his books on education, De V enseignement rlgulier de la
langue maternelle (1834, oth ed. 1894; Eng. trans, by Lord
Ebrington, The Mother Tongue, 1847), and Cours iducatif (1844-
1 846) . Father Girard's reputation and influence as an enthusiast
in the cause of education became potent not only in Switzerland,
where he was hailed as a second Pestalozzi, but in other countries.
He had a genius for teaching, his method of stimulating the
intelligence of the children at Fribourg and interesting them
actively in learning, and not merely cramming them with rules
and facts, being warmly praised by the Swiss educationalist
Francois Naville (1 784-1 846) in his treatise on public education
(1832). His undogmatic method and his Liberal Christianity
brought him into conflict with the Jesuits, but his aim was,
in all his teaching, to introduce the moral idea into the minds of
his pupils by familiarizing them with the right or wrong working
of the facts he brought to their attention, and thus to elevate
character all through the educational curriculum.
GIRARD, PHILIPPE HENRI DE (1775-1845), French
mechanician, was born at Lourmarin, Vaucluse, on the 1st of
February 1775. He is chiefly known in connexion with flax-
spinning machinery. Napoleon having in 1810 decreed.a reward
of one million francs to the inventor of the best machine for
spinning flax, Girard succeeded in producing what was required.
But he never received the promised reward, although in 1853,
after his death, a comparatively small pension was voted to his
heirs, and having relied on the money to pay the expenses of
his invention he got into serious financial difficulties. He was
obliged, in 181 5, to abandon the flax mills he had established
in France, and at the invitation of the emperor of Austria
founded a flax mill and a factory for his machines at Hirtenberg.
In 1825, at the invitation of the emperor Alexander I. of Russia,
he went to Poland, and erected near Warsaw a flax manufactory,
round which grew up a village which received the name of
Girardow. In 181 8 he built a steamer to run on the Danube.
He did not return to Paris till 1844, where he still found some
of his old creditors ready to press their claims, and he died in
that city on the 26th of August 1845. He was also the author
of numerous minor inventions.
GIRARD, STEPHEN (17 50-1831), American financier and
philanthropist, founder of Girard College in Philadelphia, was
born in a suburb of Bordeaux, France, on the 20th of May 1750.
He lost the sight of his right eye at the age of eight and had little
education. His father was a sea captain, and the son cruised
to the West Indies and back during 1 764-1 773, was licensed
captain in 1773, visited New York in 1774, and thence with the
assistance of a New York merchant began to trade to and from
New Orleans and Port au Prince. In May 1776 he was driven
into the port of Philadelphia by a British fleet and settled there as
a merchant; in June of the next year he married Mary (folly)
Lum, daughter of a shipbuilder, who, two years later, after
Girard's becoming a citizen of Pennsylvania (1778), built for him
the " Water Witch," the first of a fleet trading with New Orleans
and the West Indies — most of Girard's ships being named after
his favourite French authors, such as " Rousseau," " Voltaire,"
" Helv6tius " and " Montesquieu." His beautiful young wife
became insane and spent the years from 1790 to her death in
181 5 in the Pennsylvania Hospital. In 1810 Girard used about
a million dollars deposited by him with the Barings of London
for the purchase of shares of the much depreciated stock of
the Bank of the United States — a purchase of great assistance
to the United States government in bolstering European confi-
dence in its securities. When the Bank was not rechartered the
building and the cashier's house in Philadelphia were purchased
at a third of the original cost by Girard, who in May 181 2
established the Bank of Stephen Girard. He subscribed in
1814 for about 95% of the government's war loan of $5,000,000,
of which only $20,000 besides had been taken, and he generously
offered at par shares which upon his purchase had gone to a
premium. He pursued his business vigorously in person until
the 1 2th of February 1830, when he was injured in the street
by a truck; he died on the 26th of December 1831. His public
spirit had been shown during his life not only financially but
personally; in 1793, during the plague of yellow fever in Phil-
adelphia, he volunteered to act as manager of the wretched
hospital at Bush Hill, and with the assistance of Peter Helm
had the hospital cleansed and its work systematized; again
during the yellow fever epidemic of 1 797-1 798 he took the lead
in relieving the poor and caring for the sick. Even more was his
philanthropy shown in his disposition by will of his estate,
which was valued at about $7,500,000, and doubtless the greatest
fortune accumulated by any individual in America up to that
time. Of his fortune he bequeathed $116,000 to various
Philadelphia charities, $500,000 to the same city for the im-
provement of the Delaware water front, $300,000 to Pennsyl-
vania for internal improvements, and the bulk of his estate to
Philadelphia, to be used in founding a school or college, in
providing a better police system, and in making municipal
improvements and lessening taxation. Most of his bequest
to the city was to be used for building and maintaining a school
" to provide for such a number of poor male white orphan
children ... a better education as well as a more comfortable
maintenance than they usually receive from the application of
the public funds." His will planned most minutely for the
erection of this school, giving details as to the windows, doors,
walls, &c; and it contained the following phrase: "I enjoin
and require that no ecclesiastic, missionary or minister of any
sect whatsoever, shall ever hold or exercise any duty whatsoever
in the said college; nor shall any such person ever be admitted
for any purpose, or as a visitor, within the premises appropriated
to the purposes of the said college. ... I desire to keep the
tender minds of orphans . . . free from the excitements which
clashing doctrines and sectarian controversy are so apt to
produce." Girard's heirs-at-law contested the will in 1836, and
they were greatly helped by a public prejudice aroused by the
clause cited; in the Supreme Court of the United States in 1844
Daniel Webster, appearing for the heirs, made a famous plea,
for the Christian religion, but Chief Justice Joseph Story handed .
down an opinion adverse to the heirs (Bidal v. Girard 9 s Executors).
Webster was opposed in this suit by John Sergeant and Horace
Binney. Girard specified that those admitted to the college
must be white male orphans, of legitimate birth and good
character, between the ages of six and ten; that no boy was
to be permitted to stay after his eighteenth year; and that as
regards admissions preference was to be shown, first to orphans
born in Philadelphia, second to orphans born in any other part of
Pennsylvania, third to orphans born in New York City, and
fourth to orphans born in New Orleans. Work upon the build-
ings was begun in 1833, and the college was opened on the 1st
of January 1848, a technical point of law making instruction
conditioned upon the completion of the five buildings, of which
the principal one, planned by Thomas Ustick Walter (1804-1887),
has been called " the most perfect Greek temple in existence."
To a sarcophagus in this main building the remains of Stephen
Girard were removed in 185 1. In the 40 acres of the college
grounds there were in 1909 18 buildings (valued at $3,350,000),
1 513 pupils, and a total " population," including students,
teachers arid all employes, of 1907. The value of the Girard
estate in the year 1907 was $35,000,000, of which $550,000
was devoted to other charities than Girard College. The control
of the college was under a board chosen by the city councils
until 1869, when by act of the legislature it was transferred to
trustees appointed by the Common Pleas judges of the city of
Philadelphia. The course of training is partly industrial — for
a long time graduates were indentured till they came of age —
but it is also preparatory to college entrance.
4 6
GIRARDIN, D. DE— GIRART DE ROUSSILLON
See H. A. Ingram, The Life and Character of Stephen Girard
(Philadelphia, 1884), and George P. Rupp, " Stephen Girard —
Merchant and Mariner," in 1 848-1 898: Semi- Centennial of Girard
College (Philadelphia, 1898).
GIRARDIN, DELPHINE DE (1804-1855), French author,
was born at Aix-la-Chapelle on the 26th of January 1804. Her
mother, the well-known Madame Sophie Gay, brought her up
in the midst of a brilliant literary society. She published two
volumes of miscellaneous pieces, Essais poitiques (1824) and
Nouveaux Essais poitiques (1825). A visit to Italy in 1827,
during which she was enthusiastically welcomed by the literati
of Rome and even crowned in the capitol, was productive of
various poems, of which the most ambitious was Napoline (1833).
Her marriage in 1831 to fimile de Girardin (see below) opened
up a new literary career. The contemporary sketches which
she contributed from 1836 to 1839 to the feuilleton of La Presse,
under the nom de plume of Charles de Launay, were collected
under the title of Lettres parisiennes (1843), anc * obtained a
brilliant success. Contes oVune vieille fille & ses neveux (1832),
La Canne de Monsieur de Balzac (1836) and II nefaut pas jouer
avec la douleur (1853) are among the best-known of her romances;
and her dramatic pieces in prose and verse include L'£cole des
journalistes (1840), Judith (1843), CISopdtre (1847), Lady Tartufe
(1853), and the one-act comedies, Cest lafaute du mari (1851),
La Joiefait peur (1854), Le Ckapeau d J un horloger (1854) and Une
Femme qui diteste son mari, which did not appear till after the
author's death. In the literary society of her time Madame
Girardin exercised no small personal influence, and among the
frequenters of her drawing-room were Th6ophile Gautier and
Balzac, Alfred de Musset and Victor Hugo. She died on the
29th of June 1855. Her collected works were published in six
volumes (1 860-1 861).
See Sainte-Beuve, Causeries du lundi, t. iii.; G. de Molenes,
" Les Femmes poetes," in Revue des deux mondes (July 1842);
Taxile Delord, Les MatinSes UttSraires (i860); L' Esprit de Madame
Girardin f avec une preface par Af. Lamartine (1862); G. d'Heiily,
Madame de Girardin, sa vie et ses ceuvres (1868) ; Imbert de Saint
Amand, Mme de Girardin (1875).
GIRARDIN, fiMILE DE (1802-1881), French publicist, was
born, not in Switzerland in 1806 of unknown parents, but (as
was recognized in 1837) in Paris in 1802, the son of General
Alexandre de Girardin and of Madame Dupuy, wife of a Parisian
advocate. His first publication was a novel, £mile, dealing
with his birth and early life, and appeared under the name of
Girardin in 1827. He became inspector of fine arts under the
Martignac ministry just before the revolution of 1830, and
was an energetic and passionate journalist. Besides his work
on the daily press he issued miscellaneous publications which
attained an enormous circulation. His Journal des connais-
sances utiles had 120,000 subscribers, and the initial edition of
his Almanack de France (1834) ran to a million copies. In 1836
he inaugurated cheap journalism in a popular Conservative
organ, La Presse t the subscription to which .was only forty
francs a year. This undertaking involved him in a duel with
Armand Carrel, the fatal result of which made him refuse satis-
faction to later opponents. In 1839 he was excluded from the
Chamber of Deputies, to which he had been four times elected,
on the plea of his foreign birth, but was admitted in 1842. He
resigned early in February 1847, and on the 24th of February
1848 sent a note to Louis Philippe demanding his resignation and
the regency of the duchess of Orleans. In the Legislative
Assembly he voted with the Mountain. He pressed eagerly in
his paper for the election of Prince Louis Napoleon, of whom he
afterwards became one of the most violent opponents. In 1856
he sold La Presse f only to resume it in 1862, but its vogue was
over, and Girardin started a new journal, La LiberU, the sale
of which was forbidden in the public streets. He supported
fimile Ollivier and the Liberal Empire, but plunged into vehement
journalism again to advocate war against Prussia. Of his
many subsequent enterprises the most successful was the purchase
of Le Petit Journal, which served to advocate the policy of Thiers,
though he himself did not contribute. The crisis of the 16th
of May 1877, when Jules Simon fell from power, made him
resume his pen to attack MacMahon and the party of reaction
in La France and in Le Petit Journal, fimile de Girardin married
in 1 83 1 Delphine Gay (see above), and after her death in 1855
Guillemette Jos6phine Brunold, countess von Tieffenbach,
widow of Prince Frederick of Nassau. He was divorced from
his second wife in 1872.
The long list of his social and political writings includes: De la
presse pirtodique au XIX* Steele (1837); De V instruction publique
(1838); &tudes politiques (1838); De la libertS de la presse et du
journalisme (1842) ; Le Droit au travail au Luxembourg eta I 1 Assembled
Rationale (2 vols., 1848); Les Cinquante-deux (1849, &c), a series
of articles on current parliamentary questions; La Politique uni-
verseUe, dicrets de Vavenir (Brussels, 1852); Le Condamni du 6 mars
(1867), an account of his own differences with the government in
1867 when he was fined 5000 fr. for an article in La LibertS; he
Dossier de la guerre (1877), a collection of official documents; Ques-
tions de mon temps, 1836 a 1856, articles extracted from the daily
and weekly press (12 vols., 1858).
GIRARDON, FRANCOIS (1628-1715), French sculptor, was
born at Troyes on the 17th of March 1628. As a boy he had for
master a joiner and wood-carver of his native town, named
Baudesson, under whom he is said to have worked at the chateau
of Liebault, where he attracted the notice of Chancellor Seguier.
By the chancellor's influence Girardon was first removed to
Paris and placed in the studio of Francois Anguier, and afterwards
sent to Rome. In 1652 he was back in France, and seems at
once to have addressed himself with something like ignoble
subserviency to the task of conciliating the court painter Charles
Le Brun. Girardon is reported to have declared himself incap-
able of composing a group, whether with truth or from motives of
policy it is impossible to say. This much is certain, that a very
large proportion of his work was carried out from designs by
Le Brun, and shows the merits and defects of Le Bran's manner —
a great command of ceremonial pomp in presenting his subject,
coupled with a large treatment of forms which if it were more
expressive might be imposing. The court which Girardon paid
to the " premier peintre du roi " was rewarded. An immense
quantity of work at Versailles was entrusted to him, and in
recognition of the successful execution of four figures for the
Bains d'Apollon, Le Brun induced the king to present his protege
personally with a purse of 300 louis, as a distinguishing mark
of royal favour. In 1650 Girardon was made member of the
Academy, in 1659 professor, in 1674 " adjoint au recteur,"
and finally in 1695 chancellor. Five years before (1690), on the
death of Le Brun, he had also been appointed " ihspecteur
g6neral des ouvrages de sculpture " — a place of power and profit.
In 1699 he completed the bronze equestrian statue of Louis
XIV., erected by the town of Paris on the Place Louis le Grand.
This statue was melted down during the Revolution, and is
known to us only by a small bronze model (Louvre) finished
by Girardon himself. His Tomb of Richelieu (church of the
Sorbonne) was saved from destruction by Alexandre Lenoir,
who received a bayonet thrust in protecting the head of the
cardinal from mutilation. It is a capital example of Girardon 's
work, and the theatrical pomp of its style is typical of the funeral
sculpture of the reigns of Louis XIV. and Louis XV. ; but amongst
other important specimens yet remaining may also be cited the
Tomb of Louvois (St Eustache), that of Bignon, the king's
librarian, executed in 1656 (St Nicolas du Chardonneret), and
decorative sculptures in the Galerie d'Apollon and Chambre du
roi in the Louvre. Mention should not be omitted of the group,
signed and dated 1699, " The Rape of Proserpine " at Versailles,
which also contains the " Bull of Apollo." Although chiefly
occupied at Paris Girardon never forgot his native Troyes, the
museum of which town contains some of his best works, including
the marble busts of Louis XIV. and Maria Theresa. In the
h6tel de ville is still shown a medallion of Louis XlV./and in the
church of St R6my a bronze crucifix of some importance — both
works by his hand. He died in Paris in 17 15.
See Corrard de Breban, Notice sur la vie et les auvres de Girardon
(1850).
GIRART DE ROUSSILLON, an epic figure of the Carolingian
cycle of romance. In the genealogy of romance he is a son of
Doon de Mayence, and he appears in different and irreconcilable
CIRAUD— GIRDLE
47
circumstances in many of the chansons de geste. The legend of
Girart de Roussillon is contained in a Vita Girardi de Roussillon
(ed. P. Meyer, in Romania, 1878), dating from the beginning
of the 1 2 th century and written probably by a monk of the abbey
of PothiSres or of Vezelai, both of which were founded in 860 by
Girart; in Girart de Roussillon, a chanson de geste written early
in the 12th century in a dialect midway between French and
Provencal, and apparently based on an earlier Burgundian
poem; in a 14th century romance in alexandrines (ed. T. J. A. P.
Mignard, Paris and Dijon, 1878); and in a prose romance by
Jehan Wauquelin in 1447 (ed. L. de Montille, Paris, 1880). The
historical Girard, son of Leuthard and Grimildis, was a
Burgundian chief who was count of Paris in 837, and embraced
the cause of Lothair against Charles the Bald. He fought at
Fontenay in 841, and doubtless followed Lothair to Aix. In
855 he became governor of Provence for Lothair's son Charles,
king of Provence (d. 863). His wife Bertha defended Vienne
unsuccessfully against Charles the Bald in 870, and Girard,
who had perhaps aspired to be the titular ruler of the northern
part of Provence, which he had continued to administer under
Lothair H. until that prince's death in 869, retired with his wife
to Avignon, where he died probably in 877, certainly before 879.
The tradition of his piety, of the heroism of his wife Bertha,
and of his wars with Charles passed into romance; but the
historical facts are so distorted that in Girart de Roussillon the
trouvere makes him the opponent of Charles Martel, to whom
he stands in the relation of brother-in-law. He is nowhere
described in authentic historic sources as of Roussillon. The
title is derived from his castle built on Mount Lassois, near
Chatillon-sur-Seine. Southern traditions concerning Count
Girart, in which he is made the son of Garin de Monglane, are
embodied in Girart de Viane (13th century) by Bertrand de
Bar-siir-l'Aube, and in the Aspramonte of Andrea da Barberino,
based on the French chanson of Aspremont , where he figures as
Girart de Frete or de Fratte. 1 Girart de Viane is the recital of
a siege of Vienne by Charlemagne, and in Aspramonte Girart de
Fratte leads an army of infidels against Charlemagne. Girart de
Roussillon was long held to be of Provengal origin, and to be
a proof of the existence of an independent Provengal epic,
but its Burgundian origin may be taken as proved.
See F. Michel , Gerard de Rossillon . . . publti en francais et en
provengal d'aprhs les MSS. de Paris et de Londres (Pans, 1856);
P. Meyer, Girart de Roussillon (1884), a translation in modern French
with a comprehensive introduction. For Girart de Viane (ed. P.
Tarbe*, Reims, 1850) see L. Gautier, Upopees frangaises, vol. iv.;
F. A. WuHF, Notice sur les sagas de Magus et de Geirard (Lund, 1874).
GIRAUD, GIOVANNI, Count (1776-1834), Italian dramatist,
of French origin, was born at Rome, and snowed a precocious
passion for the theatre. His first play, L'Onestd non si vince,
was successfully produced in 1798. He took part in politics
as an active supporter of Pius VI., but was mainly occupied with
the production of his plays, and in 1809 became director-general
of the Italian theatres. He died at Naples in 1834. Count
Giraud's comedies, the best of which are Gelosie per equivoco
(1807) an< l V Ajonell f imbarazzo (1824), were bright and amusing
on the stage, but of no particular literary quality.
His collected comedies were published in 1823 and his Teatro
domestico in 1825.
GIRDLE (O. Eng. gyrdel, from gyrdan, to gird; cf. Ger. GUrtel,
Dutch gordel y from gilrten and gorden ; " gird " and its doublet
" girth " together with the other Teutonic cognates have been
referred by some to the root ghar — to seize, enclose, seen in
Gr. x*'P> hand, Lat. hortus, garden, and also English yard,
garden, garth, &c), a band of leather or other material worn
round the waist, either to confine the loose and flowing outer
robes so as to allow freedom of movement, or to fasten and
support the garments of the wearer. Among the Romans it
was used to confine the tunica, and it formed part of the dress
of the soldier; when a man quitted military service he was said,
1 It is of interest to note that Freta was the old name for the
town of Saint Remy, and that it is close to the site of the ancient
town of Glanum, the name of which is possibly preserved in Garin
de Monglane, the ancestor of the heroes of the cycle of Guillaume
d'Orange.
cingulum deponere, to lay aside the girdle. Money being carried
in the girdle, zonam perdere signified to lose one's purse, and,
among the Greeks, to cut the girdle was to rob a man of his
money.
Girdles and girdle-buckles are not often found in Gallo-Roman
graves, but in the graves of Franks and Burgundians they are
constantly present, often ornamented with bosses of silver or
bronze, chased or inlaid. Sidonius Apollinaris speaks of the
Franks as belted round the waist, and Gregory of Tours in the
6th century says that a dagger was carried in the Frankish
girdle.
In the Anglo-Saxon dress the girdle makes an unimportant
figure, and the Norman knights, as a rule, wore their belts under
their hauberks. After the Conquest, however, the artificers
gave more attention to a piece whose buckle and tongue invited
the work of the goldsmith. Girdles of varying richness are seen
on most of the western medieval effigies. That of Queen Beren-
garia lets the long pendant hang below the knee, following a
fashion which frequently reappears.
In the latter part of the 13th century the knight's surcoat
is girdled with a narrow cord at the waist, while the great belt,
which had become the pride of the well-equipped cavalier,
loops across the hips carrying the heavy sword aslant over the
thighs or somewhat to the left of the wearer.
But it is in the second half of the following century that the
knightly belt takes its most splendid form. Under the year
1356 the continuator of the chronicle of Nangis notes that the
increase of jewelled belts had mightily enhanced the price of
pearls. The belt is then worn, as a rule, girdling the hips at
some distance below the waist, being probably supported by
hooks as is the belt of a modern infantry soldier. The end of the
belt, after being drawn through the buckle, is knotted or caught
up after the fashion of the tang of the Garter. The waist girdle
either disappears from sight or as a narrow and ornamented
strap is worn diagonally to help in the support of the belt. A
mass of beautiful ornament covers the whole belt, commonly
seen as an unbroken line of bosses enriched with curiously
worked roundels or lozenges which, when the loose strap-end
is abandoned, meet in a splendid morse or clasp on which the
enameller and jeweller had wrought their best. About 1420
this fashion tends to disappear, the loose tabards worn over
armour in the jousting-yard hindering its display. The belt
never regains its importance as an ornament, and, at the beginning
of the 1 6th century, sword and dagger are sometimes seen hanging
at the knight's sides without visible support.
In civil dress the magnificent belt of the 14th century is
worn by men of rank over the hips of the tight short-skirted
coat, and in that century and in the 15th and 16th there are
sumptuary laws to check the extravagance of rich girdles worn
by men and women whose humble station made them unseemly.
Even priests must be rebuked for their silver girdles with baselards
hanging from them. Purses, daggers, keys, penners and inkhorns,
beads and even books, dangled from girdles in the 15th and
early 16th centuries. Afterwards the girdle goes on as a mere
strap for holding up the clothing or as a sword-belt. At the
Restoration men contrasted the fashion of the court, a light
rapier hung from a broad shoulder-belt, with the fashion of the
countryside, where a heavy weapon was supported by a narrow
waistbelt. Soon afterwards both fashions disappeared. Sword-
hangers were concealed by the skirt, and the belt, save in certain
military and sporting costumes, has no more been in sight in
England. Even as a support for breeches or trousers, the use
of braces has gradually supplanted the girdle during the past
century.
In most of those parts of the Continent — Brittany, for example
— where the peasantry maintains old fashions in clothing, the
belt or girdle is still an important part of the clothing. Italian
non-commissioned officers find that the Sicilian recruit's main
objection to the first bath of his life-time lies in the fact that he
must lay down the cherished belt which carries his few valuables.
With the Circassian the belt still buckles on an arsenal of pistols
and knives.
+8
GIRGA— GIRONDE
Folklore and ancient custom are much concerned with the
girdle. Bankrupts at one time put it off in open court; French
law refused courtesans the right to wear it; Saint Guthlac
casts out devils by buckling his girdle round a possessed man;
an earl is " a belted earl " since the days when the putting on
of a girdle was part of the ceremony of his creation; and fairy
tales of half the nations deal with girdles which give invisibility
to the wearer. (O. Ba.)
GIRGA, or Girgeh, a town of Upper Egypt on the W. bank
of the Nile, 313 m. S.S.E. of Cairo by rail and about 10 m. N.N.E.
of the ruins of Abydos. Pop. (1907) 19,893, of whom about
one-third are Copts. The town presents a picturesque appearance
from the Nile, which at this point makes a sharp bend. A
ruined mosque with a tall minaret stands by the river-brink.
Many of the houses are of brick decorated with glazed tiles.
The town is noted for the excellence of its pottery. Girga is
the seat of a Coptic bishop. It also possesses a Roman Catholic
monastery, considered the most ancient in the country. As
lately as the middle of the 18th century the town stood a quarter
of a mile from the river, but is now on the bank, the intervening
space having been washed away, together with a large part of
the town, by the stream continually encroaching on its left
bank.
GIRGENTI (anc. Agrigentum, q.v.), a town of Sicily, capital
of the province which bears its name, and an episcopal see, on
the south coast, 58 m. S. by E. of Palermo direct and 84} m. by
rail. Population (1901) 25,024. The town is built on the
western summit of the ridge which formed the northern portion
of the ancient site; the main street runs from E. to W. on
the level, but the side streets are steep and narrow. The cathedral
occupies the highest point in the town; it was not founded till
the 13th century, taking the place of the so-called temple of
Concord. The campanile still preserves portions of its original
architecture, but the interior has been modernized. In the
chapter-house a famous sarcophagus, with scenes illustrating
the myth of Hippolytus, is preserved. There are other scattered
remains of 13th-century architecture in the town, while, in the
centre of the ancient city, close to the so-called oratory of
Phalaris, is the Norman church of S. Nicolo. A small museum
in the town contains vases, terra-cottas, a few sculptures, &c.
The port of Girgenti, 5} m. S.W. by rail, now known as Porto
Empedocle (population in 1901, 11,529), as the principal place
of shipment for sulphur, the mining district beginning immedi-
ately north of Girgenti. (T. As.)
GIRISHK, a village and fort of Afghanistan. It stands on
the right bank of the Helmund 78 m. W. of Kandahar on the
road to Herat; 3641 ft. above the sea. The fort, which is
garrisoned from Kandahar and is the residence of the governor
of the district (Pusht-i-Rud), has little military value. It
commands the fords of the Helmund and the road to Seistan,
from which it is about 190 m. distant; and it is the centre of a
rich agricultural district. Girishk was occupied by the British
during the first Afghan War; and a small garrison of sepoys,
under a native officer, successfully withstood a siege of nine
months by an overwhelming Afghan force. The Dasht-i-Bakwa
stretches beyond Girishk towards Farah, a level plain of consider-
able width, which tradition assigns as the field of the final
contest for supremacy between Russia and England.
GIRNAR, a sacred hill in Western India, in the peninsula
of Kathiawar, 10 m. E. of Junagarh town. It consists of
five peaks, rising about 3500 ft. above the sea, on which are
numerous old Jain temples, much frequented by pilgrims.
At the foot of the hill is a rock, with an inscription of Asoka
(2nd century B.C.), and also two other inscriptions (dated 150
and 455 aj>.) of great historical importance.
GIRODET DE ROUSSY, ANNE LOUIS (1 767-1824), French
painter, better known as Girodet-Trioson, was born at Montargis
on the 5th of January 1767. He lost his parents in early youth,
and the care of his fortune and education fell to the lot of his
guardian, M. Trioson, " mtdecin de mesdames," by whom he was
in later life adopted. After some preliminary studies under a
painter named Luquin, Girodet entered the school of David,
and at the age of twenty-two he successfully competed for the
Prix de Rome. At Rome he executed his " Hippocrate refusant
les presents d'Artaxerxes "and" Endymion dormant " (Louvre),
a work which was hailed with acclamation at the Salon of 1792.
The peculiarities which mark Girodet's position as the herald
of the romantic movement are already evident in his " Endymion. "
The firm-set forms, the grey cold colour, the hardness of the
execution are proper to one trained in the school of David, but
these characteristics harmonize ill with the literary, sentimental
and picturesque suggestions which the painter has sought to
render. The same incongruity marks Girodet 's " Danae " and his
" Quatre Saisons," executed for the king of Spain (repeated for
Compiegne), and shows itself to a ludicrous extent in his " Fingal "
(St Petersburg, Leuchtenberg collection), executed for Napoleon
I. in 1802. This work unites the defects of the classic and
romantic schools, for Girodet's imagination ardently and ex-
clusively pursued the ideas excited by varied reading both of
classic and of modern literature, and the impressions which he
received from the external world afforded him little stimulus or
check; he consequently retained the mannerisms of his master's
practice whilst rejecting all restraint on choice of subject. The
credit lost by 'Tingal" Girodet regained in 1806, when he exhibited
" ScSne de Deluge " (Louvre), to which (in competition with the
"Sabines" of David) was awarded the decennial prize. This success
was followed up in 1808 by the production of the " Reddition de
Vienne " and " Atala au Tombeau " — a work which went far to
deserve its immense popularity, by a happy choice of subject,
and remarkable freedom from the theatricality of Girodet *s
usual manner, which, however, soon came to the front again in
his " Revolte de Caire " (1810). His powers now began to fail,
and his habit of working at night and other excesses told upon
his constitution; in the Salon of 181 2 he exhibited only a
" T£te de Vierge " ; in 1810 " Pygmalion et Galatee " showed a still
further decline of strength; and in 1824 — the year in which he
produced his portraits of Cathelineau and Bonchamps — Girodet
died on the 9th of December.
He executed a vast quantity of illustrations, amongst which may
be cited those to the Didot Virgil (1798) and to the Louvre Racine
(1801-1805). Fifty-four of his designs for Anacreon were engraved
by M . Chatillon. Girodet wasted much time on literary composition,
his poem Le Peintre (a string of commonplaces), together with poor
imitations of classical poets, and essays on Le GStne and La Gr&ce,
were published after his death (1829), with a biographical notice
by his friend M. Coupin de la Couperie; and M. Delecluze, in his
Louis David et son temps, has also a brief life of Girodet.
GIRONDE, a maritime department of south-western France,
formed from four divisions of the old province of Guyenne, viz.
Bordelais, Bazadais, and parts of Perigord and Agenais. Area,
4140 sq. m. Pop. (1906) 823,925. It is bounded N. by the
department of Charente-Interieure, E. by those of Dordogne
and Lot-et-Garonne, S. by that of Landes, and W. by the Bay
of Biscay. It takes its name from the river or estuary of the
Gironde formed by the union of the Garonne and Dordogne.
The department divides itself naturally into a western and an
eastern portion. The former, which is termed the Landes (?.v.),
occupies more than a third of the department, and consists
chiefly of morass or sandy plain, thickly planted with pines and
divided from the sea by a long line of dunes. These dunes are
planted with pines, which, by binding the sand together with
their roots, prevent it from drifting inland and afford a barrier
against the sea. On the east the dunes are fringed for some
distance by two extensive lakes, Carcans and Lacanau, communi-
cating with each other and with the Bay of Arcachon, near the
southern extremity of the department. The Bay of Arcachon
contains numerous islands, and on the land side forms a vast
shallow lagoon, a considerable portion of which, however, has
been drained and converted into arable land. The eastern
portion of the department consists chiefly of a succession of hill
and dale, and, especially in the valley of the Gironde, is very
fertile. The estuary of the Gironde is about 45 m. in length,
and varies in breadth from 2 to 6 m. It presents a succession of
islands and mud banks which divide it into two channels and
render navigation somewhat difficult. It is, however, well
GIRONDISTS
49
buoyed and lighted, and has a mean depth of 21 ft. There are
extensive marshes on the right bank to the north of Blaye, and
the shores on the left are characterized, especially towards the
mouth, by low-lying polders protected by dikes and composed
of fertile salt marshes. At the mouth of the Gironde stands the
famous tower of Cordouan, one of the finest lighthouses of the
French coast. It was built between the years 1585 and 161 1
by the architect and engineer Louis de Foix, and added to
towards the end of the 18th century. The principal affluent of
the Dordogne in this department is the Isle. The feeders of the
Garonne are, with the exception of the Dropt, all small. West
of the Garonne the only river of importance is the Leyre, which
flows into the Bay of Arcachon. The climate is humid and
mild and very hot in summer. Wheat, rye, maize, oats and
tobacco are grown to a considerable extent. The corn produced,
however, does not meet the wants of the inhabitants. The
culture of the vine is by far the most important branch of industry
carried on (see Wine) , the vineyards occupying about one-seventh
of the surface of the department. The wine-growing districts
are the M6doc, Graves, C6tes, Palus, Entre-deux-Mers and
Sauternes. The Medoc is a region of 50 m. in length by about
6 m. in breadth, bordering the left banks of the Garonne and the
Gironde between Bordeaux and the sea. The Graves country
forms a zone 30 rh. in extent, stretching along the left bank of
the Garonne from the neighbourhood of Bordeaux to Barsac.
The Sauternes country lies to the S.E. of the Graves. The
C6tes lie on the right bank of the Dordogne and Gironde,
between it and the Garonne, and on the left bank of the Garonne.
The produce of the Palus, the alluvial land of the valleys, and of
the Entre-deux-Mers, situated on the left bank of the Dordogne,
is inferior. Fruits and vegetables are extensively cultivated,
the peaches and pears being especially fine. Cattle are exten-
sively raised, the Bazadais breed of oxen and the Bordelais breed
of milch-cows being well known. Oyster-breeding is carried on
on a large scale in the Bay of Arcachon. Large supplies of resin,
pitch and turpentine are obtained from the pine woods, which
also supply vine-props, and there are well-known quarries of
limestone. The manufactures are various, and, with the general
trade, are chiefly carried on at Bordeaux (g.v.), the chief town
and third port in France. Pauillac, Blaye, Libourne and Arcachon
are minor ports. Gironde is divided into the arrondissements of
Bordeaux, Blaye, Lesparre, Libourne, Bazas and La Reole,
with 49 cantons and 554 communes. The department is served
by five railways, the chief of which are those of the Orleans and
Southern companies. It forms part of the circumscription of
the archbishopric, the appeal-court and the acadimie (educational
division) of Bordeaux, and of the region of the XVIII. army
corps, the headquarters of which are at that city. Besides
Bordeaux, Libourne, La Reole, Bazas, Blaye, Arcachon, St
Emilion and St Macaire are the most noteworthy towns and
receive separate treatment. Among the other places of interest
the chief are Cadillac, on the right bank of the Garonne, where
there is a castle of the 16th century, surrounded by fortifications
of the 14th century; LabrSde, with a feudal chateau in which
Montesquieu was born and lived; Villandraut, where there is a
ruined castle of the 13th century; Uzeste, which has a church
begun in 13 10 by Pope Clement V.; Mazeres with an imposing
castle of the 14th century; La Sauve, which has a church
(nth and 12th centuries) and other remains of a Benedictine
abbey; and Ste Foy-la- Grande, a bastide created in 1255 and
afterwards a centre of Protestantism, which is still strong there.
La Teste (pop. in 1906, 5699) was the capital in the middle ages
of the famous lords of Buch.
GIRONDISTS (Fr. Girondins), the name given to a political
party in the Legislative Assembly and National Convention
during the French Revolution (1791-1793). The Girondists
were, indeed, rather a group of individuals holding certain
opinions and principles in common than an organized political
party, and the name was at first somewhat loosely applied to
them owing to the fact that the most brilliant exponents of their
point of view were deputies from the Gironde. These deputies
were twelve in number, six of whom — the lawyers Vergniaud,
Guadet, GensonnS, Grangeneuve and Jay, and the tradesman
Jean Francois Ducos— sat both in the Legislative Assembly
and the National Convention. In the Legislative Assembly these
represented a compact body of opinion which, though not as yet
definitely republican, was considerably more advanced than the
moderate royalism of the majority of the Parisian deputies.
Associated with these views was a group of deputies from other
parts of France, of whom the most notable were Condorcet,
Fauchet, Lasource, Isnard, Kersaint, Henri Larividre, and,
above all, Jacques Pierre Brissot, Roland and Potion, elected
mayor of Paris in succession to Bailly on the 16th of November
1 79 1. On the spirit and policy of the Girondists Madame Roland,
whose salon became their gathering-place, exercised a powerful
influence (see Roland); but such party cohesion as they
possessed they owed to the energy of Brissot (q.v.), who came
to be regarded as their mouthpiece in the Assembly and the
Jacobin Club. Hence the name Brissotins, coined by Camille
Desmoulins, which was sometimes substituted for that of
Girondins, sometimes closely coupled with it. As strictly party
designations these first came into use after the assembling of the
National Convention (September 20th, 1792), to which a large
proportion of the deputies from the Gironde who had sat in the
Legislative Assembly were returned. Both were used as terms
of opprobrium by the orators of the Jacobin Club, who freely
denounced " the Royalists, the Federalists, the Brissotins, the
Girondins and all the enemies of the democracy " (F. Aulard,
Soc. des Jacobins, vi. 531).
In the Legislative Assembly the Girondists represented the
principle of democratic revolution within and of patriotic
defiance to the European powers without. They were all-
powerful in the Jacobin Club (see Jacobins), where Brissot's
influence had not yet been ousted by Robespierre, and they
did not hesitate to use this advantage to stir up popular passion
and intimidate those who sought to stay the progress of the
Revolution. They compelled the king in 1 792 to choose a ministry
composed of their partisans — among them Roland, Dumouriez,
ClaviSre and Servan; and it was they who forced the declaration
of war against Austria. In all this there was no apparent
line of cleavage between " La Gironde " and the Mountain.
Montagnards and Girondists alike were fundamentally opposed
to the monarchy; both were democrats as well as republicans;
both were prepared to appeal to force in order to realize their
ideals; in spite of the accusation of " federalism " freely brought
against them, the Girondists desired as little as the Montagnards
to break up the unity of France. Yet from the first the leaders
of the two parties stood in avowed opposition, in the Jacobin
Club as in the Assembly. It was largely a question of tempera-
ment. The Girondists were idealists, doctrinaires and theorists
rather than men of action; they encouraged, it is true, the
" armed petitions " which resulted, to their dismay, in the
imeute of the 20th of June; but Roland, turning the ministry of
the interior into a publishing office for tracts on the civic virtues,
while in the provinces riotous mobs were burning the chateaux
unchecked, is more typical of their spirit. With the ferocious
fanaticism or the ruthless opportunism of the future organizers
of the Terror they had nothing in common. As the Revolution
developed they trembled at the anarchic forces they had helped
to unchain, and tried in vain to curb them. The overthrow
of the monarchy on the 10th of August and the massacres of
September were not their work, though they claimed credit
for the results achieved.
The crisis of their fate was not slow in coming. It was they
who proposed the suspension of the king and the summoning
of the National Convention; but they had only consented to
overthrow the kingship when they found that Louis XVI. was
impervious to their counsels, and, the republic once established,
they were anxious to arrest the revolutionary movement which
they had helped to set in motion. As Daunou shrewdly observes
in his Mimoires, they were too cultivated and too polished to
retain their popularity long in times of disturbance, and were
therefore the more inclined to work for the establishment
of order, which would mean the guarantee of their own
5°
GIRONDISTS
power. 1 Thus the Girondists, who had been the Radicals of the
Legislative Assembly, became the Conservatives of the Conven-
tion. But they were soon to have practical experience of the fate
that overtakes those who attempt to arrest in mid-career a revolu-
tion they themselves have set in motion. The ignorant populace,
for whom the promised social millennium had by no means
dawned, saw in an attitude seemingly so inconsistent obvious
proof of corrupt motives, and there were plenty of prophets
of misrule to encourage the delusion — orators of the clubs and
the street corners, for whom the restoration of order would have
meant well-deserved obscurity. Moreover, the Septembriseurs —
Robespierre, Danton, Marat and their lesser satellites — realized
that not only their influence but their safety depended on keeping
the Revolution alive. Robespierre, who hated the Girondists,
whose lustre had so long obscured his own, had proposed to
include them in the proscription lists of September; the Mountain
to a man desired their overthrow.
The crisis came in March 1793. The Girondists, who had
a majority in the Convention, controlled the executive council
and filled the ministry, believed themselves invincible. Their
orators had no serious rivals in the hostile camp; their system
.was established in the purest reason. But the Montagnards
made up by their fanatical, or desperate, energy and boldness
for what they lacked in talent or in numbers. They had behind
them the revolutionary Commune, the Sections and the National
Guard of Paris, and they had gained control of the Jacobin club,
where Brissot, absorbed in departmental work, had been super-
seded by Robespierre. And as the motive power of this formid-
able mechanism of force they could rely on the native suspicious-
ness of the Parisian populace, exaggerated now into madness by
famine and the menace of foreign invasion. The Girondists
played into their hands. At the trial of Louis XVI. the bulk
of them had voted for the " appeal to the people," and so laid
themselves open to the charge of " royalism "; they denounced
the domination of Paris and summoned provincial levies to their
aid, and so fell under suspicion of " federalism," though they
rejected Buzot's proposal to transfer the Convention to Versailles.
They strengthened the revolutionary Commune by decreeing
its abolition, and then withdrawing the decree at the first sign
of popular opposition; they increased the prestige of Marat by
prosecuting him before the Revolutionary Tribunal, where his
acquittal was a foregone conclusion. In the suspicious temper
of the times this vacillating policy was doubly fatal. Marat
never ceased his denunciations of the "faction des kommes
d'£tat" by which France was being betrayed to her ruin, and
his parrot cry of "Nous sommes trahis!" was re-echoed from
group to group in the streets of Paris. The Girondists, for
all their fine phrases, were sold to the enemy, as Lafayette,
Dumouriez and a hundred others — once popular favourites —
had been sold.
The hostility of Paris to the Girondists received a fateful
advertisement by the election, on the 15th of February 1793,
of the ex-Girondist Jean Nicolas^Pache (1746-1823) to the
mayoralty. Pache had twice been minister of war in the
Girondist government; but his incompetence had laid him open
to strong criticism, and on the 4th of February he had been
superseded by a vote of the Convention. This was enough to
secure him the suffrages of the Paris electors ten days later,
and the Mountain was strengthened by the accession of an ally
whose one idea was to use his new power to revenge himself
on his former colleagues. Pache, with Chaumette, procureur of
the Commune, and Hubert, deputy procureur, controlled the
armed organization of the Paris Sections, and prepared to
turn this against the Convention. The abortive imeute of the
10th of March warned the Girondists of their danger, but the
Commission of Twelve appointed on the 18th of May, the arrest
of Marat and H6bert, and other precautionary measures, were
defeated by the popular risings of the 27th and 31st of May,
and, finally, on the 2nd of June, Hanriot with the National
1 Daunou, " Memoires pour servir a Thist. de la Convention
Nationale," p. 409, vol. xii. of M. Fr. Barriere, Bibl. des m&m. rel a
Vhist. de la Prance, &c. (Paris, 1863).
Guards purged the Convention of the Girondists. Isnard's
threat, uttered on the 25th of May, to march France upon Paris
had been met by Paris marching upon the Convention.
The list drawn up by Hanriot, and endorsed by a decree
of the intimidated Convention, included twenty-two Girondist
deputies and ten members of the Commission of ^Twelve, who
were ordered to be detained at their lodgings" under the safe-
guard of the people." Some submitted, among them Gensonn6,
Guadet, Vergniaud, P6tion, Birotteau and Boyer-Fonfrede.
Others, including Brissot, Louvet, Buzot, Lasource, Grangeneuve,
Larivtere and Bergoing, escaped from Paris and, joined later
by Guadet, P6tion and Birotteau, set to work to organize a
movement of the provinces against the capital. This attempt
to stir up civil war determined the wavering and frightened
Convention. On the 13th of June it voted that the city of
Paris had deserved well of the country, and ordered the imprison-
ment of the detained deputies, the filling up of their places in
the Assembly by their suppliants, and the initiation of vigorous
measures against the movement in the provinces. The excuse
for the Terror that followed was the imminent peril of France,
menaced on the east by the advance of the armies of the Coalition,
on the west by the Royalist insurrection of La Vendee, and the
need for preventing at all costs the outbreak of another civil
war. The assassination of Marat by Charlotte Corday (q.v.)
only served to increase the unpopularity of the Girondists
and to seal their fate. On the 28th of July a decree of the
Convention proscribed, as traitors and enemies of their country,
twenty-one deputies, the final list of those sent for trial comprising
the names of Antiboul, Boilleau the younger, Boyer-Fonfrede,
Brissot, Carra, Duchastel, the younger Ducos, Dufriche de
ValazS, Duprat, Fauchet, Gardien, Gensonn6, Lacaze, Lasource,
Lauze-Deperret, Lehardi, Lesterpt-Beauvais, the elder Minvielle,
Sillery, Vergniaud and Viger, of whom five were deputies from
the Gironde. The names of thirty-nine others were included in
the final acte d f accusation, accepted by the Convention on the
24th of October, which stated the crimes for which they were
to be tried as their perfidious ambition, their hatred of Paris,
their " federalism " and, above all, their responsibility for the
attempt of their escaped colleagues to provoke civil war.
The trial of the twenty-one, which began before the Revolu-
tionary Tribunal on the 24th of October, was a mere farce, the
verdict a foregone conclusion. On the 31st they were borne
to the guillotine in five tumbrils, the corpse of Dufriche de
Valaz6 — who had killed himself — being carried with them.
They met death with great courage, singing the refrain " Plutdt
la mort que Vesclavagel " Of those who escaped* to the provinces
the greater number, after wandering about singly or in groups,
were either captured and executed or committed suicide, among
them Barbaroux, Buzot, Condorcet, Grangeneuve, Guadet,
Kersaint, Petion^ Rabaut de Saint-fitienne and Rebecqui.
Roland had killed himself at Rouen on the 15th of November,
a week after the execution of his wife. Among the very few
who finally escaped was Jean Baptiste Louvet, whose MSmoires
give a thrilling picture of the sufferings of the fugitives. In-
cidentally they prove, too, that the sentiment of France was
for the time against the Girondists, who were proscribed even
in their chief centre, the city of Bordeaux. The survivors of
the party made an effort to re-enter the Convention after the
fall of Robespierre, but it was not until the 5th of March 1795
that they were formally reinstated. On the 3rd of October
of the same year (11 Vend6miaire, year III.) a solemn fete in
honour of the Girondist " martyrs of liberty " was celebrated
in the Convention. See also the article French Revolution
and separate biographies.
Of the special works on the Girondists Lamartine's Histoire des
Girondins (2 vols., Paris, 1847, new ed. 1902, in 6 vols.) is rhetoric
rather than history and is untrustworthy ; the Histoire des Girondins,
by A. Gramier de Cassagnac (Paris, i860) led to the publicaton of a
Protestation by J. Guadet, a nephew of the Girondist orator, which
was followed by his Les Girondins, leur vie privte, leur vie imblique,
leur proscription et leur mort (2 vols., Paris, 1861, new ea. 1890);
with which cf. Alary, Les Girondins par Guadet (Bordeaux, 1863);
also Charles Vatel, Charlotte de Corday et les Girondins: pieces
classees et annotSes (3 vols., Paris, 1 864-1 872); Recherches historiques
GIRTIN— GISBORNE
5i
sur les Girondins (2 vols., ib. 1873) ; Ducos, Les Trots Girondines
(Madame Roland, Charlotte Corday, Madame Bouquey) ei les
Girondins (ib. 1896) ; Edmond Bire\ La Ligende des Girondins (Paris,
1881, new ed. 1896); also Helen Maria Williams, State of Manners
and Opinions in the French Republic towards the dose of the 18th
Century (2 vols., London, 1801). Memoirs or fragments of memoirs
also exist by particular Girondists, e.g. Barbaroux, Potion, Louvet,
Madame Roland. See, further, the bibliography to the article
French Revolution. (W. A. P.)
GIRTIN, THOMAS (1775-1802), English painter and etcher,
was the son of a well-to-do cordage maker in Southwark, London.
His father died while Thomas was a child, and his widow married
Mr Vaughan, a pattern-draughtsman. Girtin learnt drawing
as a boy, and was apprenticed to Edward Doyes (1 763-1804),
the mezzotint engraver, and he soon made J. M. W. Turner's
acquaintance. His architectural and topographical sketches
and drawings soon established his reputation, his use of water-
colour for landscapes being such as to give him the credit of
having created modern water-colour painting, as opposed to
mere " tinting." His etchings also were characteristic of his
artistic genius. His early death from consumption (9th of
November 1802) led indeed to Turner saying that " had Tom
Girtin lived I should have starved." From 1794 to his death
he was an exhibitor at the Royal Academy; and some fine
examples of his work have been bequeathed by private owners
to the British Museum and the Victoria and Albert Museum.
GIRVAN, a police burgh, market and fishing town of Ayrshire,
Scotland, at the mouth of the Girvan, 21 m. S.W. of Ayr, and
63 m. S.W. of Glasgow by the Glasgow & South-Western railway.
Pop. (1001) 4024. The principal industry was weaving, but the
substitution of the power-loom for the hand-loom nearly put
an end to it. • The herring fishery has developed to considerable
proportions, the harbour having been enlarged and protected
by piers and a breakwater. Moreover, the town has grown in
repute as a health and holiday resort, its situation being one of
the finest in the west of Scotland. There is excellent sea-
bathing, and a good golf-course. The vale of Girvan, one of
the most fertile tracts in the shire, is made so by the Water of
Girvan, which rises in the loch of Girvan Eye, pursues a very
tortuous course of 36 m. and empties into the sea. Girvan is
the point of communication with Ailsa Craig. About 13 m.
S.W. at the mouth of the Stinchar is the fishing village of
Ballantrae (pop. 511).
GIRY (Jean Mame Joseph), ARTHUR (184&-1899), French
historian, was born at Trevoux (Ain) on the 29th of February
1848. After rapidly completing his classical studies at the lycie
at Chartres, he spent some time in the administrative service
and in journalism. He then entered the £cole des Chartes,
where, under the influence of J. Quicherat, he developed a strong
inclination to the study of the middle ages. The lectures at the
ficole des Hautes fitudes, which he attended from its foundation
in 1 863, revealed his true bent; and henceforth he devoted
himself almost entirely to scholarship. He began modestly by
the study of the municipal charters of St Omer. Having been
appointed assistant lecturer and afterwards full lecturer at the
£cole des Hautes Etudes, it was to the town of St Omer that he
devoted his first lectures and his first important work, Histoire
de la mile de Saint-Omer et de ses institutions jusqu'au XIV 9
siede (1877). He, however, soon realized that the charters of
one town can only be understood by comparing them with those
of other towns, and he was gradually led to continue the work
which Augustin Thierry had broadly outlined in his studies on
the Tiers £tat. A minute knowledge of printed books and a
methodical examination of departmental and communal archives
furnished him with material for a long course of successful
lectures, which gave rise to some important works on municipal
history and led to a great revival of interest in the origins and
significance of the urban communities in France. Giry himself
published Les £tablissements de Rouen (1883-1885), a study, based
on very minute researches, of the charter granted to the capital
of Normandy by Henry II., king of England, and of the diffusion
of similar charters throughout the French dominions of the
Plantagenets; a collection of Documents sur les relations de
la royauU avec les villes de France de 1180 & IJ14 (1885); and
£tude sur les origines de la commune de Saint-Quenlin (1887).
About this time personal considerations induced Giry to
devote the greater part of his activity to the study of diplomatic,
which had been much neglected at the ficole des Chartes, but
had made great strides in Germany. As assistant (1883) and
successor (1885) to Louis de Mas Latrie, Giry restored the study
of diplomatic, which had been founded in France by Dom Jean
Mabillon, to its legitimate importance. In 1894 he published
his Manuel de diplomatique, a monument of lucid and well-
arranged erudition, which contained the fruits of his long
experience of archives, original documents and textual criticism;
and his pupils, especially those at the ficole des Hautes fitudes,
soon caught his enthusiasm. With their collaboration he under-
took the preparation of an inventory and, subsequently, of a
critical edition of the Carolingian diplomas. By arrangement
with E. Miihlbacher and the editors of the Monumenta Germaniae
historica, this part of the joint work was reserved for Giry.
Simultaneously with this work he carried on the publication
of the annals of the Carolingian epoch on the model of the German
Jahrbiicher, reserving for himself the reign of Charles the Bald.
Of this series his pupils produced in his lifetime Les Derniers
Carolingiens (by F. Lot, 1891), Eudes, comic de Paris et roi de
France (by E. Favre, 1893), and Charles le Simple (by Eckel,
1899). The biographies of Louis IV. and Hugh Capet and the
history of the kingdom of Provence were not published until
after his death, and his own unfinished history of Charles the
Bald was left to be completed by his pupils. The preliminary
work on the Carolingian diplomas involved such lengthy and
costly researches that the Academie des Inscriptions et Belles-
Lettres took over the expenses after Giry's death.
In the midst of these multifarious labours Giry found time
for extensive archaeological researches, and made a special
study of the medieval treatises dealing with the technical
processes employed in the arts and industries. He prepared
a new edition of the monk Theophilus's celebrated treatise,
Diversarum artium schedula, and for several years devoted his
Saturday mornings to laboratory research with the chemist
Aime Girard at the Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers, the results
of which were utilized by Marcellin Berthelot in the first volume
( 1 894) of his Chimie au moyen dge. Giry took an energetic part in
the Collection de textes relatifs & Vhistoire du moyen dge, which
was due in great measure to his initiative. He was appointed
director of the section of French history in La Grande Encyclo-
pidie, and contributed more than a hundred articles, many of
which, e.g. " Archives " and " Diplomatique," were original
works. In collaboration with his pupil Andre* Reville, he wrote
the chapters on " L'fimancipation des villes, les communes et les
bourgeoisies " and " Le Commerce et Pindustrie au moyen age "
for the Histoire gSnerale of Lavisse and Rambaud. Giry took
a keen interest in politics, joining the republican party and
writing numerous articles in the republican newspapers, mainly
on historical subjects. He was intensely interested in the Dreyfus
case, but his robust constitution was undermined by the anxieties
and disappointments occasioned by the Zola trial and the Rennes
court-martial, and he died in Paris on the 13th of November 1S99.
For details of Giry's life and works see the funeral orations pub-
lished in the BibHotneque de I'Ecole des Chartes, and afterwards in a
pamphlet (1890). See also the biography by Ferdinand Lot in the
Annuaire de V&cole des Hautes Htudes for 190 1 ; and the bibliography
of his works by Henry Maistre in the Correspondence historique et
archfologique (1899 and 1900).
GISBORNE, a seaport of New Zealand, in Cook county,
provincial district of Auckland, on Poverty Bay of the east
coast of North Island. Pop. (1901) 2733; (1906)5664. Wool,
frozen mutton and agricultural produce are exported from the
rich district surrounding. Petroleum has been discovered in
the neighbourhood, and about 40 m. from the town there are
warm medicinal springs. Near the site of Gisborne Captain
Cook landed in 1769, and gave Poverty Bay its name from his
inability to obtain supplies owing to the hostility of the natives.
Young Nick's Head, the southern horn of the bay, was named
from Nicholas Young, his ship's boy, who first observed it.
52
GISLEBERT— GIULIO ROMANO
GISLEBERT (or Gilbert) OF MONS (c. 1150-1225), Flemish
chronicler, became a clerk, and obtained the positions of provost
of the churches of St Germanus at Mons and St Alban at Namur,
in addition to several other ecclesiastical appointments. In
official documents he is described as chaplain, chancellor or
notary, of Baldwin V., count of Hainaut (d. 1 195), who employed
him on important business. After 1200 Gislebert wrote the
Chronic on Hanoniense, a history of Hainaut and the neighbouring
lands from about 1050 to 1105, which is specially valuable for
the latter part of the 12th century, and for the life and times of
Baldwin V.
The chronicle is published in Band xxi. of the Monumenta Ger-
maniae historica (Hanover, 1826 fol.); and separately with intro-
duction by W. Arndt (Hanover, 1869). Another edition has been
published by L. Vandcrkindcrc in the Recueil de textes pour servir a
VHude de Vhistoire de Belgique (Brussels, 1904) ; and there is a French
translation by G. Mcnilglaise (Tournai, 1874).
Sec W. Meyer, Das Werk des Kanzlers Gislebert von Mons als
verfassungsgeschichtliche Quelle (K6nigsber$, 1888); K. Huygcns,
Sur la valeur historique de la chronique Gislebert de Mons (Ghent,
1889); and \V. Wattenbach, Deulschlands Geschichtsquellen, Band ii.
(Berlin, 1894).
GISORS, a town of France, in the department of Eure, situated
in the pleasant valley of the Epte, 44 m. N.W. of Paris on the
railway to Dieppe. Pop. (1006) 4345. Gisors is dominated by
a feudal stronghold built chiefly by the kings of England in the
nth and 1 2th centuries. The outer enceinte, to which is attached
a cylindrical donjon erected by Philip Augustus, king of France,
embraces an area of over 7 acres. On a mound in the centre of
this space rises an older donjon, octagonal in shape, protected
by another enceinte. The outer ramparts and the ground they
enclose have been converted into promenades. The church of
St Gcrvais dates in its oldest parts — the central tower, the choir
and parts of the aisles — from the middle of the 13th century,
when it was founded by Blanche of Castile. The rest of the
church belongs to the Renaissance period. The Gothic and
Renaissance styles mingle in the west facade, which, like the
interior of the building, is adorned with a profusion of sculptures;
the fine carving on the wooden doors of the north and west
portals is particularly noticeable. The less interesting buildings
of the town include a wooden house of the Renaissance era,
an old convent now used as an h6tcl de ville, and a handsome
modern hospital. There is a statue of General de Blanmont,
born at Gisors in 1770, Among the industries of Gisors are
felt manufacture, bleaching, dyeing and leather-dressing.
In the middle ages Gisors was capital of the Vexin. Its
position on the frontier of Normandy caused its possession to
be hotly contested by the kings of England and France during
the iith century, at the end of which it and the dependent
fortresses of Ncauflcs and Dangu were ceded by Richard Cceur
de Lion to Philip Augustus. During the wars of religion of the
1 Oth century it was occupied by the duke of Mayenne on behalf
of the League, and in the 17th century* during the Fronde, by
the duke of Longuovillc. Gisors was given to Charles Auguste
Fouquet in 171$ in exchange for Belle-Ile-en-Mer and made a
duchy in 174^. It afterwards came into the possession of the
count of Ku and the duke of Penthievre.
GISSINQ, GEORGE ROBERT (1857-1003), English novelist,
was born at Wakefield on the 22nd of November 1857. He was
educated at the Quaker boarding-school of Alderley Edge and
at Owens College, Manchester, His life, especially its earlier
period, was spent in great poverty, mainly in London, though
he was for a time also in the United States, supporting him-
self chiefly by private teaching. He published his first novel.
Workers 1* tkt Pjw, in t:fcfcx The CnJ<2S$cd U&&0 and Isabel
CfontJsn (iSSo> followed. Drmns {\SSb\ a novel dealing with
socialistic ideas, was. however, the first to attract attention. It
was followed by a series of novels remarkable for their pictures
of lower middle dass life, Gissing's own experiences had pre-
occupied him with poverty and its brutalizing effects on char-
acter. He made no attempt at popular writing, and for a long
time the sincerity of his w»rk was appreciated only by a limited
public, Arrs>r<g his more characteristic novels were: Thyrsa
U$S*\ * LrVs Mjm:\c w$$$\ Ths AV;fer WorX [i$$$\ AVar
Grub Street (1891), Born in Exile (1892), The Odd Women (1893),
In the Year of Jubilee (1894), The Whirlpool (1897). Others,
e.g. The Town Traveller (1901), indicate a humorous faculty,
but the prevailing note of his novels is that of the struggling
life of the shabby-genteel and lower classes and the conflict
between education and circumstances. The quasi-autobio-
graphical Private Papers of Henry Ryecroft (1003) reflects
throughout Gissing's studious and retiring tastes. He was a
good classical scholar and had a minute acquaintance with the
late Latin historians, and with Italian antiquities; and his
posthumous Veranilda (1004), a historical romance of Italy in
the time of Theodoric the Goth, was the outcome of his favourite
studies. Gissing's powers as a literary critic are shown in his
admirable study on Charles Dickens (1898). A book of travel.
By the Ionian Sea, appeared in 1001. He died at St Jean de
Luz in the Pyrenees on the 28th of December 1003.
See also the introductory essay by T. Seccombe to The House of
Cobwebs (1906), a posthumous volume of. Gissing's short stories.
GITSCHIN (Czech JiHn), a town of Bohemia, Austria, 65 m.
N.E. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1000) 9700, mostly Czech. The
parish church was begun by Wallenstein after the model of
the pilgrims' church of Santiago de Compostela in Spain, but
not completed till 1655. The castle, which stands next to the
church, was built by Wallenstein and finished in 1630. It was
here that the emperor Francis I. of Austria signed the treaty of
1 81 3 by which he threw in his lot with the Allies against Napoleon.
Wallenstein was interred at the neighbouring Carthusian mon-
astery, but in 1639 the head and right hand were taken by
General Baner to Sweden, and in 1702 the other remains were
removed by Count Vincent of Waldstein to his hereditary
burying ground at Munchengratz. Gitschin was originally the
village of Zidineves and received its present name when it was
raised to the dignity of a town by Wenceslaus II. in 1302. The
place belonged to various noble Bohemian families, and in the
17th century came into the hands of Wallenstein, who made it
the capital of the duchy of Friedland and did much to improve
and extend it. His murder, and the miseries of the Thirty
Years' War, brought it very low; and it passed through several
hands before it was bought by Prince Trauttmannsdorf, to
whose family it still belongs. On the 29th of June 1866 the
Prussians gained here a great victory over the Austrians. This
victory made possible the junction of the first and second
Prussian army corps, and had as an ultimate result the Austrian
defeat at Koniggr&tz.
GIUDICI, PAOLO EMIUANO (1812-1872), Italian writer,
was born in Sicily. His History of Italian Literature (1844)
brought him to the front, and in 1848 he became professor of
Italian literature at Pisa, but after a few months was deprived
of the chair on account of his liberal views in politics. On the
re-establishment of the Italian kingdom he became professor of
aesthetics (resigning 1862) and secretary of the Academy of
Fine Arts at Florence, and in 1867 was elected to the chamber
of deputies. He held a prominent place as an historian, his
works including a Storia del teatro (i860), and Storia dei comuni
italiani (1861), besides a translation of Macaulay's History of
England (1856). He died at Tonbridge in England, on the 8th of
September 1872.
A Life appeared at Florence in 1874.
GIULIO ROMANO* or Giutjo Pippi (c. 1492-1546), the head
of the Roman school of painting in succession to Raphael.
This prolific painter, modeller, architect and engineer receives
his common appellation from the place of his birth — Rome,
in the Macello de' Corbi. His name in full was Giulio di Pietro
de Filippo de' Giannuzzi — Giannuzzi being the true family name,
and Pippi (which has practically superseded Giannuzzi) being
an abbreviation from the name of his grandfather Filippo.
The date of Giulio's birth is a little uncertain. Vasari (who
knew him personally) speaks of him as fifty-four years old at
the date of his death, 1st November 1546; thus he would have
been born in 1492. Other accounts assign 1498 as the date of
birth. This would make Giulio young indeed in the early and
in such case most precocious stages of his artistic career, and
GIULIO ROMANO
53
would show him as dying, after an infinity of hard work, at the
comparatively early age of forty-eight.
Giulio must at all events have been quite youthful when he
first became the pupil of Raphael, and at Raphael's death in
1520 he was at the utmost twenty-eight years of age. Raphael
had loved him as a son, and had employed him in some leading
works, especially in the Loggie of the Vatican; the series there
popularly termed " Raphael's Bible " is done in large measure
by Giulio, — as for instance the subjects of the " Creation of Adam
and Eve," " Noah's Ark," and " Moses in the Bulrushes." In
the saloon of the " Incendio del Borgo," also, the figures of
" Benefactors of the Church " (Charlemagne, &c.) are Giulio's
handiwork. It would appear that in subjects of this kind
Raphael simply furnished the design, and committed the execu-
tion of it to some assistant, such as Giulio, — taking heed, however,
to bring it up, by final retouching, to his own standard of style
and type. Giulio at a later date followed out exactly the same
plan; so that in both instances inferiorities of method, in the
general blocking-out and even in the details of the work, are not
to be precisely charged upon the caposcuola. Amid the multitude
of Raphael's pupils, Giulio was eminent in pursuing his style, and
showed universal aptitude; he did, among other things, a large
amount of architectural planning for his chief. Raphael be-
queathed to Giulio, and to his fellow-pupil Gianfrancesco Penni
("II Fattore"), his implements and works of art; and upon
them it devolved to bring to completion the vast fresco-work of
the " Hall of Constantine " in the Vatican — consisting, along
with much minor matter, of the four large subjects, the " Battle of
Constantine," the " Apparition of the Cross," the " Baptism of
Constantine " and the " Donation of Rome to the Pope." The
two former compositions were executed by Pippi, the two latter
by Penni. The whole of this onerous undertaking was com-
pleted within a period of. only three years, — which is the more
remarkable as, during some part of the interval since Raphael's
decease, the Fleming, Adrian VI., had been pope, and his anti-
aesthetic pontificate had left art and artists almost in a state of
inanition. Clement VII. had now, however, succeeded to the
popedom. By this time Giulio was regarded as the first painter
in Rome; but his Roman career was fated to have no further
sequel.
Towards the end of 1524 his friend the celebrated writer
Baldassar Castiglione seconded with success the urgent request
of the duke of Mantua, Federigo Gonzaga, that Giulio should
migrate to that city, and enter the duke's service for the purpose
of carrying out his projects in architecture and pictorial decora-
tion. These projects were already considerable, and under
Giulio 's management they became far more extensive still.
The duke treated his painter munificently as to house, table,
horses and whatever was in request; and soon a very cordial
attachment sprang up between them. In Pippi's multifarious
work in Mantua three principal undertakings should be noted.
(1) In the Castello he painted the " History of Troy," along with
other subjects. (2) In the suburban ducal residence named
the Palazzo del Te (this designation being apparently derived
from the form of the roads which led towards the edifice) he
rapidly carried out a rebuilding on a vastly enlarged scale, —
the materials being brick and terra-cotta, as there is no local
stone, — and decorated the rooms with his most celebrated
works in oil and fresco painting — the story of Psyche, Icarus,
the fall of the Titans, and the portraits of the ducal horses and
hounds. The foreground figures of Titans are from 12 to 14 ft.
high; the room, even in its structural details, is made to subserve
the general artistic purpose, and many of its architectural
features are distorted accordingly. Greatly admired though these
pre-eminent works have always been, and at most times even
more than can now be fully ratified, they have suffered severely
at the hands of restorers, and modern eyes see them only through
a dull and deadening fog of renovation. The whole of the work
on the Palazzo del Te, which is of the Doric order of architecture,
occupied about five years. (3) Pippi recast and almost rebuilt the
cathedral of Mantua; erected his own mansion, replete with
numerous antiques and other articles of vertu; reconstructed
the street architecture to a very large extent, and made the city,
sapped as it is by the shallows of the Mincio, comparatively
healthy; and at Marmiruolo, some 5 m. distant from Mantua,
he worked out other important buildings and paintings. He
was in fact, for nearly a quarter of a century, a sort of Demiurgus
of the arts of design in the Mantuan territory.
Giulio's activity was interrupted but not terminated by the
death of Duke Federigo. The duke's brother, a cardinal who
became regent, retained him in full employment. For a while he
went to Bologna, and constructed the fagade of the church of
S. Petronio in that city. He was afterwards invited to succeed
Antonio Sangallo as architect of St Peter's in Rome, — a splendid
appointment, which, notwithstanding the strenuous opposition
of his wife and of the cardinal regent, he had almost resolved
to accept, when a fever overtook him, and, acting upon a con-
stitution somewhat enfeebled by worry and labour, caused his
death on the 1st of November 1 546. He was buried in the church
of S. Barnaba in Mantua. At the time of his death Giulio
enjoyed an annual income of more than 1000 ducats, accruing
from the liberalities of his patrons. He left a widow, and a son
and daughter. The son, named Raffaello, studied painting,
but died before he could produce any work of importance; the
daughter, Virginia, married Ercole Malatesta.
Wide and solid knowledge of design, combined with a prompti-
tude of composition that was never at fault, formed the chief
motive power and merit of Giulio Romano's art. Whatever
was wanted, he produced it at once, throwing off, as Vasari says,
a large design in an hour; and he may in that sense, though not
equally so when an imaginative or ideal test is applied, be called
a great inventor. It would be difficult to name any other artist
who, working as an architect, and as the plastic and pictorial
embellisher of his architecture, produced a total of work so fully
and homogeneously his own; hence he has been named " the
prince of decorators." He had great knowledge of the human
frame, and represented it with force and truth, though some-
times with an excess of movement; he was also learned in other
matters, especially in medals, and in the plans of ancient buildings.
In design he was more strong and emphatic than graceful, and
worked a great deal from his accumulated stores of knowledge,
. without consulting nature direct. As a general rule, his designs
are finer and freer than his paintings, whether in fresco or in oil
— his easel pictures being comparatively few, and some of them
the reverse of decent; his colouring is marked by an excess of
blackish and heavy tints.
Giulio Romano introduced the style of Raphael into Mantua,
and established there a considerable school of art, which surpassed
in development that of his predecessor Mantegna, and almost '
rivalled that of Rome. Very many engravings — more than
three hundred are mentioned — were made contemporaneously
from his works; and this not only in Italy, but in France and
. Flanders as well. His plan of entrusting principally to assistants
the pictorial execution of his cartoons has already been referred
to; Primaticcio was one of the leading coadjutors. Rinaldo
Mantovano, a man of great ability who died young, was the
chief executant of the " Fall of the Giants "; he also co-operated
with Benedetto Pagni da Pescia in painting the remarkable
series of horses and hounds, and the story of Psyche. Another
pupil was Fermo Guisoni, who remained settled in Mantua.
The oil pictures of Giulio Romano are not generally of high
importance; two leading ones are the " Martyrdom of Stephen,"
in the church of that saint in Genoa, and a "Holy Family"
in the Dresden Gallery. Among his architectural works not
already mentioned is the Villa Madama in Rome, with a fresco
of Polyphemus, and boys and satyrs; the Ionic fagade of this
building may have been sketched out by Raphael.
Vasari gives a pleasing impression of the character of Giulio.
He was very loving to his friends, genial, affable, well-bred,
temperate in the pleasures of the table, but liking fine apparel
and a handsome scale of living. He was good-looking, of
middle height, with black curly hair and dark eyes, and an
ample beard; his portrait, painted by himself, is in the
Louvre.
54
GIUNTA PISANO— GIUSTINIANI
Bcwidcfi Vasari, Lanzi and other historians of art, the following
works may be mentioned: C. D. Arco, Vita di G. Pipjn (1828);
(). C von Murr, Notice sur les estampes gravies apres desstns de Jules
Romain (1865); R. Sanzio, two works on Etchings and Paintings
(1800, 1836). (W. M. R.)
GIUNTA PISANO, the earliest Italian painter whose name is
found inscribed on an extant work. He is said to have exercised
his art from 1202 to 1236. He may perhaps have been born
towards 1180 in Pisa, and died in or soon after 1236; but other
accounts give 1202 as the date of his birth, and 1258 or there-
abouts for his death. There is some ground for thinking that
his family name was Capiteno. The inscribed work above
referred to, one of his earliest, is a " Crucifix," long in the kitchen
of the convent of St Anne in Pisa. Other Pisan works of like
date are very barbarous, and some of them may be also from
the hand of Giunta. It is said that he painted in the upper
church of Assisi, — in especial a "Crucifixion " dated i236,with a
figure of Father Elias, the general of the Franciscans, embracing
the foot of the cross. In the sacristy is a portrait of St Francis,
also ascribed to Giunta; but it more probably belongs to the
close of the 13th century. He was in the practice of painting
upon cloth stretched on wood, and prepared with plaster.
GIURGEVO (Giurgiu), the capital of the department of
Vlashca, Rumania; situated amid mud-fiats and marshes on
the left bank of the Danube. Pop. (1900) 13,977. Three small
islands face the town, and a larger one shelters its port, Smarda,
2 J m. E. The rich corn-lands on the north are traversed by a
railway to Bucharest, the first line opened in Rumania, which
was built in i86q and afterwards extended to Smarda. Steamers
ply to Rustchuk, 2} m. S.W. on the Bulgarian shore, linking
the Rumanian railway system to the chief Bulgarian line north
of the Balkans (Rustchuk-Varna). Thus Giurgevo, besides
having a considerable trade with the home ports lower down
the Danube, is the headquarters of commerce between Bulgaria
and Rumania, It exports timber, grain, salt and petroleum;
importing coal, iron and textiles. There are also large saw-mills.
Giurgevo occupies the site of Theodorapolis, a city built
by the Roman emperor Justinian (a.d. 483-565). It was
founded in the 14th century by Genoese merchant adventurers,
who established a bank, and a trade in silks and velvets. They
called the town, after the patron saint of Genoa, San Giorgio
(St George); and hence comes its present name. As a fortified
town, Giurgevo figured often in the wars for the conquest of the
lower Danube; especially in the struggle of Michael the Brave
(1 503-1601) against the Turks, and in the later Russo-Turkish
Wars. It was burned in 1659. In 1829, its fortifications were
finally razed, the only defence left being a castle on the island of
Slobosia, united to the shore by a bridge.
GIUSTI, GIUSEPPE (180Q-1850), Tuscan satirical poet, was
born at Monsummano, a small village of the Valdinievole, on
the 1 2th of May iSoq. His father, a cultivated and rich man,
accustomed his son from childhood to study, and himself taught
him, among other subjects, the first rudiments of music. After*
wards, in order to curb his too vivacious disposition, he placed
the boy under the charge of a priest near the village, whose
severity did perhaps more evil than good. At twelve Giusti
was sent to school at Florence, and afterwards to Pistoia and to
Lucca; and during those years he wrote his first verses. In
1826 he went to study law at Pisa; but, disliking the study,
he spent eight years in the course, instead of the customary four.
He lived gaily, however, though his father kept him short of
money, and learned to know the world, seeing the vices of
society, and the folly of certain laws and customs from which
his count ry was suffering. The experience thus gained he turned
to good account in the use he made of it in his satire.
His father had in the meantime changed his place of abode
to Pescia; but Giuseppe did worse there, and in November
i S3 3, his father having paid his debts, he returned to study at
Pisa, seriously enamoured of a woman whom he could not marry,
but now commencing to write in real earnest in behalf of his
country. With the poem called La Gkigliotiina (the guillotine),
Giusti began to strike out a path for himself, and thus revealed
his great genius. From this time he showed himself the Italian
Beranger, and even surpassed the Frenchman in richness of
language, refinement of humour and depth of satirical conception.
In B6ranger there is more feeling for what is needed for popular
poetry. His poetry is less studied, its vivacity perhaps more
boisterous, more spontaneous; but Giusti, in both manner and
conception, is perhaps more elegant, more refined, more pene-
trating. In 1834 Giusti, having at last entered the legal profes-
sion, left Pisa to go to Florence, nominally to practise with the
advocate Capoquadri, but really to enjoy life in the capital of
Tuscany. He fell seriously in love a second time, and as before
was abandoned by his love. It was then he wrote his finest
verses, by means of which, although his poetry was not yet
collected in a volume, but for some years passed from hand to
hand, his name gradually became famous. The greater part
of his poems were published clandestinely at Lugano, at no
little risk, as the work was destined to undermine the Austrian
rule in Italy. After the publication of a volume of verses at
Bastia, Giusti thoroughly established his fame by his GingillinOj
the best in moral tone as well as the most vigorous and effective
of his poems. The poet sets himself to represent the vileness
of the treasury officials, and the base means they used to conceal
the necessities of the state. The Gingillino has all the character
of a classic satire. When first issued in Tuscany, it struck all
as too impassioned and personal. Giusti entered heart and soul
into the political movements of 1847 and 1848, served in the
national guard, sat in the parliament for Tuscany; but finding
that there was more talk than action, that to the tyranny of
princes had succeeded the tyranny of demagogues, he began to
fear, and to express the fear, that for Italy evil rather than
good had resulted. He fell, in consequence, from the high
position he had held in public estimation, and in 1848 was
regarded as a reactionary. His friendship for the marquis
Gino Capponi, who had taken him into his house during the last
years of his life, and who published after Giusti's death a volume
of illustrated proverbs, was enough to compromise him in the
eyes of such men as Guerrazzi, Montanelli and Niccolini. On
the 31st of May 1850 he died at Florence in the palace of his
friend.
The poetry of Giusti, under a light trivial aspect, has a lofty
civilizing significance. The type of his satire is entirely original,
and it had also the great merit of appearing at the right moment,
of wounding judiciously, of sustaining the part of the comedy
that " castigat ridendo mores." Hence his verse, apparently
jovial, was received by the scholars and politicians of Italy in
all seriousness. Alexander Manzoni in some of his letters showed
a hearty admiration of the genius of Giusti; and the weak
Austrian and Bourbon governments regarded them as of the
gravest importance.
His poems have often been reprinted, the best editions being those
of Le Monnier, Carducci (1859; 3rd ed., 1879), Fioretti (1876) and
Bragi (1890). Besides the poems and the proverbs already men-
tioned, we have a volume of select letters, full of vigour and written
in the best Tuscan language, and a fine critical discourse on Giuseppe
Parini, the satirical poet. In some of his compositions the elegiac
rather than the satirical poet is seen. Many of his verses have been
excellently translated into German by Paul Heyse. Good English
translations were published in the Athenaeum by Mrs T. A. Trollope,
and some by W. D. Howells are in his Modern Italian Poets (1887).
GIUSTINIANI, the name of a prominent Italian family which
originally belonged to Venice, but established itself subsequently
in Genoa also, and at various times had representatives in
Naples, Corsica and several of the islands of the Archipelago.
In the Venetian line the following are most worthy of mention : —
1. Lorenzo (1380-1465), the Laurentius Justinianus of the
Roman calendar, at an early age entered the congregation of
the canons of St George in Alga, and in 1433 became general
of that order. About the same time he was made by Eugenius
IV. bishop of Venice; and his episcopate was marked by con-
siderable activity in church extension and reform. On the
removal of the patriarchate from Grado to Venice by Nicholas V.
in 145 1, Giustiniani was promoted to that dignity, which he
held for fourteen years. He died on January 8, 1465, was
canonized by Pope Alexander VIII., his festival (semi-duplex)
GIUSTO DA GUANTO
55
being fixed by Innocent XII. for September 5th, the anni-
versary of his elevation to the bishopric. His works, consisting
of sermons, letters and ascetic treatises, have been frequently
reprinted, — the best edition being that of the Benedictine
P. N. A. Giustiniani, published at Venice in 2 vols, folio, 1751.
They are wholly devoid of literary merit. His life has been
written by Bernard Giustiniani, by Maffei and also by the
Bollandists.
2. Leonardo (1388-1446), brother of the preceding, was for
some years a senator of Venice, and in 1443 was chosen procurator
of St Mark. He translated into Italian Plutarch's Lives of
Cinna and Lucullus, and was the author of some poetical pieces,
amatory and religious — strambotti and canzoneUi — as well as
of rhetorical prose compositions. Some of the popular songs
set to music by him became known as Giustiniani.
3. Bernardo (1408-1480), son of Leonardo, was a pupil of
Guarino and of George of Trebizond, and entered the Venetian
senate at an early age. He served on several important diplo-
matic missions both to France and Rome, and about 1485
became one of the council of ten. His orations and letters
were published in 1492; but his title to any measure of fame
he possesses rests upon his history of Venice, De origine urbis
Venetiarum rebusque ab ipsa gestis historia (1492), which was
translated into Italian by Domenichi in 1545, and which at the
time of its appearance was undoubtedly the best work upon the
subject of which it treated. It is to be found in vol. i. of the
Thesaurus of Graevius. **
4. Pietro, also a senator, lived in the 16th century, and
wrote on Historia rerum Venetarum in continuation of that of
Bernardo. He was also the author of chronicles De gestis Petri
Mocenigi and De bello Venetorum cum Carolo VIII. The latter
has been reprinted in the Script, rer. Hal. vol. xxi.
Of the Genoese branch of the family the most prominent
members were the following: —
5. Paolo, di Moniglia (1444-1502), a member of the order
of Dominicans, was, from a comparatively early age, prior of
their convent at Genoa. As a preacher he was very successful,
and his talents were fully recognized by successive popes, by
whom he was made master of the sacred palace, inquisitor-
general for all the Genoese dominions, and ultimately bishop
of Scio and Hungarian legate. He was the author of a number of
Biblical commentaries (no longer extant), which are said to
have been characterized by great erudition.
6. Agostino ( 1 470-1 536) was born at Genoa, and spent
some wild years in Valencia, Spain. Having in 1487 joined the
Dominican order, he gave himself with great energy to the
study of Greek, Hebrew, Chaldee and Arabic, and in 15 14
began the preparation of a polyglot edition of the Bible. As
bishop of Nebbio in Corsica, he took part in some of the earlier
sittings of the Lateran council (1516-1517), but, in consequence
of party complications, withdrew to his diocese, and ultimately
to France, where he became a pensioner of Francis I., and was
the first to occupy a chair of Hebrew and Arabic in the university
of Paris. After an absence from Corsica for a period of five
years, during which he visited England and the Low Countries,
and became acquainted with Erasmus and More, he returned
to Nebbio, about 1522, and there remained, with comparatively
little intermission, till in 1536, when, while returning from a
visit to Genoa, he perished in a storm at sea. He was the
possessor of a very fine library, which he bequeathed to the
republic of Genoa. Of his projected polyglot only the Psalter
was -published (Psalterium Hebraeum, Graecum, Arabicutn, et
Chaldaicum, Genoa, 1616). Besides the Hebrew text, the LXX.
translation, the Chaldee paraphrase, and an Arabic version, it
contains the Vulgate translation, a new Latin translation by
the editor, a Latin translation of the Chaldee, and a collection
of scholia. Giustiniani printed 2000 copies at his own expense,
including fifty in vellum for presentation to the sovereigns of
Europe and Asia; but the sale of the work did not encourage
him to proceed with the New Testament, which he had also
prepared for the press. Besides an edition of the book of Job,
containing the original text, the Vulgate, and a new translation,
he published a Latin version of the Moreh Nevockim of Maimonides
(Director dubitantium aut perptexorum, 1520), and also edited in
Latin the Aureus libellus of Aeneas Platonicus, and the Timaeus
of Chalcidius. His annals of Genoa (Castigatissimi annali di
Geneva) were published posthumously in 1537.
The following are also noteworthy: —
7. Pompeio (1 560-1616), a native of Corsica, who served under
Alessandro Farnese and the marquis of Spinola in the Low
Countries, where he lost an arm, and, from the artificial substitute
which he wore, came to be known by the sobriquet Bras de Fer.
He also defended Crete against the Turks; and subsequently was
killed in a reconnaissance at Friuli. He left in Italian a personal
narrative of the war in Flanders, whjch has been repeatedly
published in a Latin translation (Bellum Belgicum, Antwerp,
1609).
8. Giovanni (1513-1556), born in Candia, translator of
Terence's Andria and Eunuchus, of Cicero's In V err em, and of
Virgil's Aeneid, viii.
9. Orsatto (i 538-1603), Venetian senator, translator of the
Oedipus Tyrannus of Sophocles and author of a collection of
Rime, in imitation of Petrarch. He is regarded as one of the
latest representatives of the classic Italian school.
10. Geronimo, a Genoese, flourished during the latter half
of the 16th century. He translated the Alcestis of Euripides
and three of the plays of Sophocles; and wrote two original
tragedies, Jephte and Christo in Passione.
11. Vincenzo, who in the beginning of the 17th century
built the Roman palace and made the art collection which are
still associated with his name (see Galleria Giustiniana, Rome,
163 1). The collection was removed in 1807 to Paris, where it
was to some extent broken up. In 181 5 all that remained of it,
about 170 pictures, was purchased by the king of Prussia and
removed to Berlin, where it forms a portion of the royal museum.
GIUSTO DA GUANTO [Jodocus, or Justus, of Ghent]
(fl. 1465-147 5), Flemish painter. The public records of the city
of Ghent have been diligently searched, but in vain, for a clue
to the history of Justus or Jodocus, whom Vasari and Guicciardini
called Giusto da Guanto. Flemish annalists of the 16th century
have enlarged upon the scanty statements of Vasari, and described
Jodocus as a pupil of Hubert Van Eyck. But there is no source
to which this fable can be traced. The registers of St Luke's
gild at Ghent comprise six masters of the name of Joos or
Jodocus who practised at Ghent in the 15th century. But none
of the works of these masters has been preserved, and it is
impossible to compare their style with that of Giusto. It was
between 1465 and 1474 that this artist executed the " Communion
of the Apostles " which Vasari has described, and modern critics
now see to the best advantage in the museum of Urbino. It
was painted for the brotherhood of Corpus Christi at the bidding
of Frederick of Montefeltro, who was introduced into the picture
as the companion of Caterino Zend, a Persian envoy at that
time on a mission to the court of Urbino. From this curious
production it may be seen that Giusto, far from being a pupil of
Hubert Van Eyck, was merely a disciple of a later and less
gifted master, who took to Italy some of the peculiarities of his
native schools, and forthwith commingled them with those of
his adopted country. As a composer and draughtsman Giusto
compares unfavourably with the better-known painters of
Flanders; though his portraits are good, his ideal figures are
not remarkable for elevation of type or for subtlety of character
and expression. His work is technically on a level with that of
Gerard of St John, whose pictures are preserved in the Belvedere
at Vienna. Vespasian, a Florentine bookseller who contributed
much to form the antiquarian taste of Frederick of Montefeltro,
states that this duke sent to the Netherlands for a capable artist
to paint a series of " ancient worthies " for a library recently
erected in the palace of Urbino. It has been conjectured that
the author of these •" worthies," which are still in existence
at the Louvre and in the Barberini palace at Rome, was Giusto.
Yet there are notable divergences betweeen these pictures and the
" Communion of the Apostles." Still, it is not beyond the range
of probability that Giusto should have been able, after a certain
56
GIVET— GLACIAL PERIOD
time, to temper his Flemish style by studying the masterpieces
of Santi and Melozzo, and so to acquire the mixed manner of the
Flemings and Italians which these portraits of worthies display.
Such an assimilation, if it really took place, might justify the
Flemings in the indulgence of a certain pride, considering that
Raphael not only admired these worthies, but copied them in
the sketch-book which is now the ornament of the Venetian
Academy. There is no ground for presuming that Giusto ad
Guanto is identical with Justus d'Allamagna who painted the
" Annunciation " (1451) in the cloisters of Santa Maria di Castello
at Genoa. The drawing and colouring of this wall painting
shows that Justus d'Allamagna was as surely a native of south
Germany as his homonym at Urbino was a born Netherlander.
GIVET, a town of northern France, in the department of
Ardennes, 40 m. N. by E. of M6zidres on the Eastern railway
between the town and Namur. Pop. (1906) town, 5110;
commune, 7468. Givct lies on the Meuse about 1 m. from the
Belgian frontier, and was formerly a fortress of considerable
importance. It is divided into three portions — the citadel
called Charlcmont and Grand Givet on the left bank of the river,
and on the opposite bank Petit Givct, connected with Grand
Givct by a stone bridge of five arches. The fortress of Charle-
mont, situated at the top of a precipitous rock 705 ft. high, was
founded by the emperor Charles V. in the 16th century, and
further fortified by Vauban at the end of the 17th century; it
is the only survival of the fortifications of the town, the rest
of which were destroyed in 1892. In Grand Givet there are a
church and a town-hall built by Vauban, and a statue of the
composer fitienne Mlhul stands in the fine square named after
him. Petit Givct, the industrial quarter, is traversed by a
small tributary of the Meuse, the Houille, which is bordered by
tanneries and glue factories. Pencils and tobacco-pipes are
also manufactured. The town has considerable river traffic,
consisting chietly of coal, copper and stone. There is a chamber
of arts and manufactures.
GIVORS, a manufacturing town of south-eastern France, in
the department of Rhone, on the railway between Lyons and
St fitiennc, 14 m. S. of Lyon. Pop. (iqo6) 11,444. It is situated
on the right bank of the Rhone, here crossed by a suspension
bridge, at its confluence with the Gier and the canal of Givors,
which starts at Grand Croix on the Gier, some 13 m. distant.
The chief industries are metal-working, engineering-construction
and glass- working. There are coal mines in the vicinity. On the
hill overlooking the town are the ruins of the ch&teau of St
Gerald and of the convent of St Ferrtol, remains of the old
town destroyed in 1504.
GJALLAR, in Scandinavian mythology, the horn of Heimdall,
the guardian of the rainbow bridge by which the gods pass and
repass between earth and heaven. This horn had to be blown
whenever a stranger approached the bridge.
GLABRIO* x. Manivs Aciuvs Glabrio, Roman statesman
and general, member of a plebeian family. When consul in
tot B.C. he defeated Antiochus the Great of Syria at Thermopylae,
and compelled him to leave Greece. He then turned his attention
to the Aetolians, who had persuaded Antiochus to declare war
against Rome, and was only prevented from crushing them by
the intercession of T. Quinctius Flamininus. In 189 Glabrio
was a candidate for the censorship, but was bitterly opposed
by the nobles. He was accused by the tribunes of having
concealed a portion of the Syrian spoils in his own house; his
legate gave evidence against him, and he withdrew his candi-
dature. It is probable that he was the author of the law which
left it to the discretion of the pontiffs to insert or omit the
intercalary month of the year.
Ccnavrinus. IV Jit *ri*i. xx.: Macrobius, Saturnalia^ i. 13;
index to Livy: AppLuu ,Sv*\ 17-^1.
j. Manivs Aciuvs Guumuo. Roman statesman and general,
grandson of the famous jurist P. Mucins Scaevola* When
praetor urtv&nus v*s B.cO he presided at the trial of Verres.
According to Dio Cassius vsxxvi. 5$\ in conjunction with
L. Calpurnius Pisvv hi* colleague in the consulship <6;\ he
brought forward a severe law \Lex Acilia Calpurnia) against
illegal canvassing at elections. In the same year he was ap-
pointed to supersede L. Lucullus in the government of Cilicia
and the command of the war against Mithradates, but as he did
absolutely nothing and was unable to control the soldiery,
he was in turn superseded by Pompey according to the provisions
of the Manilian law. Little else is known of him except that
he declared in favour of the death punishment for the CatiUnarian
conspirators.
Dio Cassius xxxvi. 14, 16. 24; Cicero, Pro lege Manilia, 2. 9;
Appian, Mithrid. 90.
GLACE BAY, a city and port of entry of Cape Breton county,
Nova Scotia, Canada, on the Atlantic Ocean, 14 m. E. of Sydney,
with which it is connected both by steam and electric railway.
It is the centre of the properties of the Dominion Coal Company
(founded 1893), which produce most of the coal of Nova Scotia.
Though it has a fair harbour, most of the shipping is done from
Sydney in summer and from Louisburg in winter. Pop. (1892)
2000; (1901) 6945; (1906) 13,000.
GLACIAL PERIOD* in geology, the name usually given, by
English and American writers, to that comparatively recent
time when all parts of the world suffered a marked lowering
of temperature, accompanied in northern Europe and North
America by glacial conditions, not unlike those which now
characterize the Polar regions. This period, which is also
known as the " Great Ice Age " (German Die Eiszeit), is
synchronous with the Pleistocene period, the earlier of the Post-
Tertiary or Quaternary divisions of geological time. Although
" Glacial period " and " Pleistocene " (q.v.) are often used
synonymously it is convenient to consider them separately,
inasmuch as not a few Pleistocene formations have no causal
relationship with conditions of glaciation. Not until the begin-
ning of the 19th century did the deposits now generally recog-
nized as the result of ice action receive serious attention; the
tendency was to regard such superficial and irregular material
as mere rubbish. Early ideas upon the subject usually assigned
floods as the formative agency, and this view is still not without
its supporters (see Sir H. H. Howorth, The Glacial Nightmare
and the Flood). Doubtless this attitude was in part due to the
comparative rarity of glaciers and ice-fields where the work of
ice could be directly observed. It was natural therefore that the
first scientific references to glacial action should have been
stimulated by the Alpine regions of Switzerland, which called
forth the writings of J. J. Scheuchzer, B. F. Kuhn, H. B. de
Saussure, F. G. Hugi, and particularly those of J. Venetz, J. G.
von Charpentier and L. Aggasiz. Canon Rendu, J. Forbes
and others had studied the cause of motion of glaciers, while
keen observers, notably Sir James Hall, A. Brongniart and
J. Playfair, had noted the occurrence of travelled and scratched
stones.
The result of these efforts was the conception of great ice-sheets
flowing over the land, grinding the rock surfaces and transporting
rock debris in the manner to be observed in the existing glaciers.
However, before this view had become established Sir C. Lydl
evolved the " drift theory " to explain the widely spread pheno-
menon of transported blocks, boulder clay and the allied deposits;
in this he was supported by Sir H. de la Beche, Charles Darwin,
Sir R. I. Murchison and many others. According to the drift
theory, the transport and distribution of " erratic blocks," &c.,
had been effected by floating icebergs; this view naturally
involved a considerable and widespread submergence of the
land, an assumption which appeared to receive support from
the occasional presence of marine shells at high levels in the
" drift *' deposits. So great was the influence of those who
favoured the drift theory that even to-day it cannot be said to
have lost complete bold; we still speak of " drift " deposits in
England and America* and the belief in one or more great sub-
mergences during the Glacial period is still held more firmly
by certain geologists than the evidence would seem to warrant.
The case against the drift theory was most clearly expressed
by Sir A. C Ramsay for England and Scotland, and by the
Swedish scientist Ot to Torell. Since then the labours of Professor
James Geikie, Sir Archibald Geikie, Professor P. Kendall and
GLACIAL PERIOD
57
others in England; von Verendt, H. Credner, de Geer, E.
Geinitz, A. Helland, Jentzsch, K. Keilhack, A. Penck, H.
Schroder, F. Wahnschaffe in Scandinavia and Germany; T. C.
Chamberlin, W. Upham, G. F. Wright in North America, have
all tended to confirm the view that it is to the movement of
glaciers and ice-sheets that we must look as the predominant
agent of transport and abrasion in this period. The three stages
through which our knowledge of glacial work has advanced
may thus be summarized: (i) the diluvial hypothesis, deposits
formed by floods; (2) the drift hypothesis, deposits formed
mainly by icebergs and floating ice; (3) the ice-sheet hypothesis,
deposits formed directly or indirectly through the agency of
flowing ice.
Evidences. — The evidence relied upon by geologists for the
former existence of the great ice-sheets which traversed the
northern regions of Europe and America is mainly of two kinds:
(1) the peculiar erosion of the older rocks by ice and ice-borne
stones, and (2) the nature and disposition of ice-borne rock
debris. After having established the criteria by which the work
of moving ice is to be recognized in regions of active glaciation,
the task of identifying the results of earlier glaciation elsewhere
has been carried on with unabated energy.
1. Ice Erosion. 1 — Although there are certain points of difference
between the work of glaciers and broad ice-sheets, the former
Map showing the
majcimum ex tern- on at the
In Sheets in the
Glacial Period /
I I A rtas i\ { (if ft e teti heft xtrema gtaniat'on
5 = Th§ SeafrdtnQiua* Crntrr
C = Tht Cardi Herat Cwtr*
K ^ Th*\ jhnmrtl CtttrM
L m Tht Lohmdur or Lcrurvfitui* Cantrt
Arrow ladioot* th* direction of Icr-ftow
being more or less restricted laterally by the valleys in which
they flow, the general results of their passage over the rocky
floor are essentially similar. Smooth rounded outlines are
imparted to the rocks, markedly contrasting with the pinnacled
and irregular surfaces produced by ordinary weathering; where
these rounded surfaces have been formed on a minor scale the
well-known features of roches moutonnies (German Rundhdcker)
are created; on a larger scale we have the erosion-form known
as " crag and tail," when the ice-sheet has overridden ground
with more pronounced contours, the side of the hill facing the
advancing ice being rounded and gently curved (German
Stossscite), and the opposte side (Leeseite) steep, abrupt and
much less smooth. Such features are never associated with the
erosion of water. The rounding of rock surfaces is regularly
accompanied by grooving and striation (German Schrammen,
SMijfe) caused by the grinding action of stones and boulders
embedded in the moving ice. These " glacial striae " are of
great value in determining the latest path of the vanished ice-
sheets (see map). Several other erosion-features are generally
associated with ice action; such are the circular-headed valleys,
" cirques " or " corries " (German Zirkus) of mountain districts;
the pot-holes, giants' kettles (StrudeUdcher 9 Riesentopfe) , familiarly
exemplified in the Gletschergarten near Lucerne; the "rock-
basins " (Felsseebecken) of mountainous regions are also believed
to be assignable to this cause on account of their frequent
association with other glacial phenomena, but it is more than
probable that the action of running water (waterfalls, &c.) —
influenced no doubt by the disposition of the ice — has had much
to do with these forms of erosion. As regards rock-basins,
geologists are still divided in opinion: Sir A. C. Ramsay, J.
Geikie, Tyndall, Helland, H. Hess, A. Penck, and others have
expressed themselves in favour of a glacial origin; while A.
Heim, F. Stapff, T. Kjerulf, L. Rtitimeyer and many others
have strongly opposed this view.
2. Glacial deposits may be roughly classified in two groups:
those that have been formed directly by the action of the ice,
and those formed through the agency of water flowing under,
upon, and from the ice-sheets, or in streams and lakes modified
by the presence of the ice. To differentiate in practice between
the results of these two agencies is a matter of some difficulty
in the case of unstratified deposits; but the boulder clay may
be taken as the typical formation of the glacier or ice-sheet,
whether it has been left as a terminal moraine at the limit of
glaciation or as a ground moraine beneath the ice. A stratified
form of boulder clay, which not infrequently rests upon, and is
therefore younger than, the more typical variety, is usually
regarded as a deposit formed by water from the material
(englacialy innenmorUn) held in suspension within the ice, and
set free during the process of melting. Besides the innumerable
boulders, large and small, embedded in the boulder clay, isolated
masses of rock, often of enormous size, have been borne by ice-
sheets far from their original home and stranded when the ice
melted. These " erratic blocks," " perched blocks " (German
Findlinge) are familiar objects in the Alpine glacier districts,
where they have frequently received individual names, but they
are just as easily recognized in regions from which the gladers
that brought them there have long since been banished. Not
only did the ice transport blocks of hard rock, granite and the
like, but huge masses of stratified rock were torn from their
bed by the same agency; the masses of chalk in the cliffs near
Cromer are well known; near Berlin, at Firkenwald, there is a
transported mass of chalk estimated to be at least 2,000,000
cubic metres in bulk, which has travelled probably 15 kilometres
from its original site; a block of Lincolnshire oolite is recorded
by C. Fox-Strangways near Melton in Leicestershire, which is
300 yds. long and 100 yds. broad if no more; and instances of a
similar kind might be multiplied.
When we turn to the " fluvio-glacial " deposits we find a
bewildering variety of stratified and partially bedded deposits
of gravel, sand and clay, occurring separately or in every
conceivable condition of association. Some of these deposits
have received distinctive names; such are the " Karnes " of
Scotland, which are represented in Ireland by " Eskers," and in
Scandinavia by " Asar." Another type of hillocky deposit is
exemplified by the " drums " or " drumlins. ,, Everywhere
beyond the margin of the advancing or retreating ice-sheets
these deposits were being formed; streams bore away coarse and
fine materials and spread them out upon alluvial plains or upon
the floors of innumerable lakes, many of which were directly
caused by the damming of the ordinary water-courses by the ice.
As the level of such lakes was changed new beach-lines were
produced, such as are still evident in the great lake region of
North America, in the parallel roads of Glen Roy, and the
" Strandlinien " of many parts of northern Europe.
Viewed in relation to man's position on the earth, no geological
changes have had a more profound importance than those of the
Glacial period. The whole of the glaciated region bears evidence
of remarkable modification of topographic features; in parts
of Scotland or Norway or Canada the old rocks are bared of
soil, rounded and smoothed as far as the eye can see. The old
soil and subsoil, the product of ages of ordinary weathering,
were removed from vast areas to be deposited and concentrated
in others. Old valleys were filled— often to a great depth,
300-400 ft.; rivers were diverted from their old courses, never
to return; lakes of vast size were caused by the damming of old
outlets (Lake Lahontan, Lake Agassiz, &c, in North America),
while an infinite number of shifting lakelets— with their deposits
— played an important part along the ice-front at all stages
of its career. The influence of this period upon the present
58
GLACIAL PERIOD
distribution of plant and animal life in northern latitudes can
hardly be overestimated.
Much stress has been laid upon supposed great changes in
the level of the land in northern regions during the Glacial
period. The occurrence of marine shells at an elevation of
1350 ft. at Moel Tryfaen in north Wales, and at 1200 ft. near
Macclesfield in Cheshire, has been cited as evidence of profound
submergence by some geologists, though others see in these
and similar occurrences only the transporting action of ice-sheets
that have traversed the floor of the adjoining seas. Marine
shells in stratified materials have been found on the coast of
Scotland at 100 ft. and over, in S. Scandinavia at 600 to 800 ft.,
and in the " Champlain " deposits of North America at various
heights. The dead shells of the " Yoldia clay " cover wide areas
at the bottom of the North Atlantic at depths from 500 to 1300
fathoms, though the same mollusc is now found living in Arctic
seas at the depth of 5 to 15 fathoms. This has been looked upon
as a proof that in the N.W. European region the lithosphere
stood about 2600 ft. higher than it does now (Brogger, Nansen,
&c), and it has been suggested that a union of the mainland of
Europe with that of North America — forming a northern con-
tinental mass, " Prosarctis " — may have been achieved by way
of Iceland, Jan Mayen Land and Greenland. The pre-glacial
valleys and fjords of Norway and Scotland, with their deeply
submerged seaward ends, are regarded as proofs of former
elevation. The great depth of alluvium in some places (236
metres at Bremen) points in the same direction. Evidences of
changes of level occur in early, middle and late Pleistocene
formations, and the nature of the evidence is such that it is on
the whole safer to assume the existence only of the more moderate
degree of change.
The Cause of the Glacial Period. — Many attempts have been
made to formulate a satisfactory hypothesis that shall conform
with the known facts and explain the great change in climatic
conditions which set in towards the close of the Tertiary era,
and culminated during the Glacial period. Some of the more
prominent hypotheses may be mentioned, but space will not
permit of a detailed analysis of theories, most of which rest
upon somewhat unsubstantial ground. The principal facts
to be taken into consideration are (1) the great lowering of
temperature over the whole earth; (2) the localization of
extreme glaciation in north-west Europe and north-east America;
and (3) the local retrogression of the ice-sheets, once or more
times repeated.
Some have suggested the simple solution of a change in the
earth's axis, and have indicated that the pole may have travelled
through some 15 to 20 of latitude; thus, the polar glaciation,
as it now exists,might have been in this way transferred to include
north-west Europe and North America; but modern views on
the rigidity of the earth's body, together with the lack of any
evidence of the correlative movement of climatic zones in other
parts of the world, render this hypothesis quite untenable.
On similar grounds a change in the earth's centre of gravity is
unthinkable. Theories based upon the variations in the obliquity
of the ecliptic or eccentricity of the earth's orbit, or on the
passage of the solar system through cold regions of space, or
upon the known variations in the heat emitted by the sun, are
all insecure and unsatisfactory. The hypothesis elaborated by
James Croll {Phil. Mag., 1864, 28, p. 121; Climate and Time,
1875; and Discussion on Climate and Cosmology , 1889) was
founded upon the assumption that with the earth's eccentricity
at its maximum and winter in the north at aphelion, there would
be a tendency in northern latitudes for the accumulation of snow
and ice, which would be accentuated indirectly by the formation
of fogs and a modification of the trade winds. The shifting of
the thermal equator, and with it the direction of the trade winds,
would divert some of the warm ocean currents from the cold
regions, and this effect was greatly enhanced, he considered,
by the configuration of the Atlantic Ocean, Croll's hypothesis
was supported by Sir R. Ball (The Cause of the Great Ice Age,
1893), and it met with very general acceptance; but it has
been destructively criticized by Professor S. Newcomb (Phil.
Mag., 1876, 1883, 1884) and by E. P. Culverwell (Phil. Mag.,
1894, p. 541, and Geol. Mag., 1895, pp. 3 and 55). The difficulties
in the way of Croll's theory are: (1) the fundamental assump-
tion, that midwinter and midsummer temperatures are directly
proportional to the sun's heat at those periods, is not in accord-
ance with observed facts; (2) the glacial periods would be
limited in duration to an appropriate fraction of the precessional
period (21,000 years), which appears to be too short a time for
the work that was actually done by ice agency; and (3) Croll's
glacial periods would alternate between the northern and
southern hemispheres, affecting first one then the other. Sir
C. Lyell and others have advocated the view that great elevation
of the land in polar regions would be conducive to glacial condi-
tions; this is doubtless true, but the evidence that the Glacial
period was primarily due to this cause is not well established.
Other writers have endeavoured to support the elevation theory
by combining with it various astronomical and meteorological
agencies. More recently several hypotheses have been advanced
to explain the glacial period as the result of changes in the
atmosphere; F. W. Harmer (" The Influence of Winds upon the
Climate during the Pleistocene Epoch," Q.J.G.S., 1901, 57,
p. 405) has shown the importance of the influence of winds in
certain circumstances; Marsden Manson (" The Evolution of
Climate," American Geologist, 1899, 24, p. 93) has laid stress
upon the influence of clouds; but neither of these theories
grapples successfully with the fundamental difficulties. Others
again have requisitioned the variability in the amount of the
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere — hypotheses which depend
upon the efficiency of this gas as a thermal absorbent. The
supply of carbon dioxide may be increased from time to time,
as by the emanations from volcanoes (S. Arrhenius and A. G.
Hogbom), or it may be decreased by absorption into sea- water,
and by the carbonation of rocks. Professor T. C. Chamberlin
based a theory of glaciation on the depletion of the carbon
dioxide of the air (" An Attempt to frame a Working Hypothesis
of the cause of Glacial Periods on an Atmospheric Basis," J I.
Geol., 1899, vii. 752-771; see also Chamberlin and Salisbury,
Geology, 1906, ii. 674 and iii. 432). The outline of this
hypothesis is as follows: The general conditions for glaciation
were (1) that the oceanic circulation was interrupted by the
existence of land; (2) that vertical circulation of the atmosphere
was accelerated by continental and other influences; (3) that
the thermal blanketing of the earth was reduced by a depletion
of the moisture and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, and that
hence the average temperature of the surface of the earth and
of the body of the ocean was reduced, and diversity in the
distribution of heat and moisture introduced. The localization
of glaciation is assignable to the two great areas of permanent
atmospheric depression that have their present centres near
Greenland and the Aleutian Islands respectively. The periodici ty
of glacial advances and retreats, demanded by those who believe
in the validity of so-called " interglacial " epochs, is explained
by a series of complicated processes involving the alternate
depletion and completion of the normal charge of carbon dioxide
in the air.
Whatever may be the ultimate verdict upon this difficult
subject, it is tolerably clear that no simple cause of glacial
conditions is likely to be discovered, but rather it will appear
that these conditions resulted from the interaction of a compli-
cated series of factors; and further, until a greater degree of
unanimity can be approached in the interpretation of observed
facts, particularly as regards the substantiality of interglacial
epochs, the very foundations of a sound working hypothesis
are wanting.
Classification of Glacial Deposits — Interglacial Epochs. — Had
the deposits of glaciated regions consisted solely of boulder
clay little difficulty might have been experienced in dealing
with their classification. But there are intercalated in the boulder
clays those irregular stratified and partially stratified masses
of sand, gravel and loam, frequently containing marine or
freshwater shells and layers of peat with plant remains, which
have given rise to the conception of " interglacial epochs " —
GLACIAL PERIOD
59
pauses in the rigorous conditions of glaciation, when the ice-
sheets dwindled almost entirely away, while plants and animals
re-established themselves on the newly exposed soil. Glacialists
may be ranged in two schools: those who believe that one or
more phases of milder climatic conditions broke up the whole
Glacial period into alternating epochs of glaciation and "de-
glaciation "; and those who believe that the intercalated
deposits represent rather the localized recessional movements
of the ice-sheets within one single period of glaciation. In
addition to the stratified deposits and their contents, important
evidence in favour of interglacial epochs occurs in the presence
of weathered surfaces on the top of older boulder clays, which
are themselves covered by younger glacial deposits.
The cause of the interglacial hypothesis has been most ardently
championed in England by Professor James Geikie ; who has en-
deavoured to show that there were in Europe six distinct glacial
epochs within the Glacial period, separated by five epochs of more
moderate temperature. These are enumerated below:
6th Glacial epoch, Upper Turbarian, indicated by the deposits of
peat which underlie the lower raised beaches.
5th Interglacial epoch, Upper Forestian.
5th Glacial epoch, Lower Turbarian, indicated by peat deposits
overlying the lower forest-bed, by the raised beaches and carse-
clays of Scotland, and in part by the Littorina-clays of Scandinavia.
4th Interglacial epoch. Lower Forestian, the lower forests under
peat beds, the Ancylus-beds of the great freshwater Baltic lake and
the Littorina-clays of Scandinavia.
4th Glacial epoch, Mecklenburgian, represented by the moraines
of the last great Baltic glacier, which reach their southern limit in
Mecklenburg; the ioo-ft. terrace of Scotland and the Yoldia-beda of
Scandinavia.
3rd Interglacial epoch, Neudeckian, intercalations of marine and
freshwater deposits in the boulder clays of the southern Baltic coasts.
3rd Glacial epoch, Poland ian, glacial and flu vio-glacial formations
of the minor Scandinavian ice-sheet; and the " upper boulder clay"
of northern and western Europe.
2nd Interglacial epoch, Helvetian, interglacial beds of Britain and
lignites of Switzerland.
2nd Glacial epoch, Saxonian, deposits of the period of maximum
glaciation when the northern ice-sheet reached the low ground of
Saxony, and the Alpine glaciers formed the outermost moraines.
1st Interglacial epoch, Tforfolkian, the forest-bed series of Norfolk.
1st Glacial epoch, Scanian, represented only in the south of Sweden,
which was overridden by a large Baltic glacier. The Chillesford
clay and Weybourne crag of Norfolk and the oldest moraines and
fluvio-glacial gravels of the Arctic lands may belong to this epoch.
In a similar manner Professor Chamberlin and other American
geologists have recognized the following stages in the glaciation of
North America:
The Cham plain, marine substage.
The Glacio-lacustrine substage.
The later Wisconsin (6th glacial).
The fifth interglacial.
The earlier Wisconsin (5th glacial).
The Peorian (4th interglacial).
The Iowan (4th glacial).
The Sangamon (3rd interglacial).
The Illinoian (3rd glacial).
The Yarmouth or Buchanan (2nd interglacial).
The Kansan (2nd glacial). *'--t N .,„ , r •
The Aftonian (ist interglacial). ' r *
The sub- Aftonian or Jerseyan (ist glacial).
Although it is admitted that no strict correlation of the European
and North American stages is possible, it has been suggested that
the Aftonian may be the equivalent of the Helvetian; the Kansan
may represent the Saxonian; the Iowan, the Polandian; the
Jerseyan, the Scanian; the early Wisconsin, the Mecklenburgian.
But considering how fragmentary is much of the evidence in favour
of these stages both in Europe and America, the value of such
attempts at correlation must be infinitesimal. This is the more
evident when it is observed that there are other geologists of equal
eminence who are unable to accept so large a number of epochs
after a close study of the local circumstances; thus, in the sub-
joined scheme for north Germany, after H. W. Munthe, there are
three glacial and two interglacial epochs.
[The Mya time « beech-time.
Post-Glacial epoch A The Littorina times oak-time.
LThe Ancylus time =pine- and birch-time.
(Including the upper boulder clay,
" younger Baltic moraine " with the
Yoldia or Dryas phase in the retro-
gressive stage.
2nd Interglacial epoch including the Cyprina-clay.
2nd Glacial epoch, the maximum glaciation.
1st Interglacial epoch.
ist Glacial epoch, " older boulder clay."
Again, in the Alps four interglacial epochs have been recognized ;
while in England there are many who are willing to concede one
such epoch, though even for this the evidence is not enough to satisfy
all Racialists (G. W. Lamplugh, Address, Section C, Brit. Assoc,
York, 1906).
This great diversity of opinion is eloquent of the difficulties of the
subject ; it is impossible not to see that the discovery of interglacial
epochs bears a close relationship to the origin of certain hypotheses
of the cause of glaciation; while it is significant that those who
have had to do the actual mapping of glacial deposits have usually
greater difficulty in finding good evidence of such definite ameliora-
tions of climate, than those who have founded their views upon the
examination of numerous but isolated areas.
Extent of Glacial Deposits. — From evidence of the kind cited above,
it appears that during the glacial period a series of great ice-sheets
covered enormous areas in North America and north-west Europe.
The area covered during the maximum extension of the ice has been
reckoned at 20 million square kilometres (nearly 8 million sq. m.)
in North America and 6} million square kilometres (about 2} million
sq. m.) in Europe.
In Europe three great centres existed from which the ice-streams
radiated; foremost in importance was the region of Fennoscandia
(the name for Scandinavia with Finland as a single geological region) ;
from this centre the ice spread out far into Germany and Russia and
westward, across the North Sea, to the shores of Britain. The
southern boundary of the ice extended from the estuary of the Rhine
in an irregular series of lobes along the Schiefergebirge, Harz,
Thuringerwald, Erzgebirge and Riesengebirge, and the northern
flanks of the Carpathians towards Cracow. Down the valley of
the Dnieper a lobe of the ice-sheet projected as far as 40 50' N. ;
another lobe extended down the Don valley as far as 48 N. ; thence
the boundary runs north-easterly towards the Urals and the Kara
Sea. The British Islands constituted the centre second in import-
ance; Scotland, Ireland and all but the southern part of England
were covered by a moving ice-cap. On the west the ice-sheets reached
out to sea; on the east they were conterminous with those from
Scandinavia. The third European centre was the Alpine region;
it is abundantly clear from the masses of morainic detritus and
perched blocks that here, in the time of maximum glaciation, the
ice-covered area was enormously in excess of the shrivelled remnants,
which still remain in the existing glaciers. All the valleys were filled
with moving ice; thus the Rhone glacier at its maximum filled Lake
Geneva and the plain between the Bernese Oberland and the Jura;
it even overrode the latter and advanced towards Besancon. Ex-
tensive glaciation was not limited to the aforesaid regions, for all
the areas of high ground had their independent glaciers strongly
developed; the Pyrenees, the central highlands of France, the
Vosges, Black Forest, Apennines and Caucasus were centres of
minor but still important glaciation.
The greatest expansion of ice-sheets was located on the North
American continent; here, too, there were three principal centres
of outflow: the " Cordilleran " ice-sheet in the N.W., the " Kee-
watin " sheet, radiating from the central Canadian plains, and the
eastern " Labrador M or " Laurentide " sheet. From each of these
centres the ice poured outwards in every direction, but the principal
flow in each case was towards the south-west. The southern
boundary of the glaciated area runs as an irregular line along the
40 parallel in the western part of the continent, thence it follows
the Mississippi valley down to its junction with the Ohio (southern
limit 37 30' N.), eastward it follows the direction of that river and
turns north-eastward in the direction of New Jersey. As in Europe,
the mountainous regions of North America produced their own local
glaciers; in the Rockies, the Olympics and Sierras, the Bighorn
Mountains of Wyoming, the Uinta Mountains of Utah, &c. Although
it was in the northern hemisphere that the most extensive glaciation
took place, the effects of a general lowering of temperature seem to
have been felt in the mountainous regions of all parts; thus in South
America, New Zealand, Australia and Tasmania glaciers reached
down the valleys far below the existing limits, and even where none
are now to be found. In Asia the evidences of a former extension
of glaciation are traceable in the Himalayas, and northward in the
high ranges of China and Eastern Siberia. The same is true of parts of
Turkestan and Lebanon. In Africa also, in British East Africa moraines
are discovered 5400 ft. below their modern limit. In Iceland and
Greenland, and even in the Antarctic, there appears to be evidence
of a former greater extension of the ice. It is of interest to note that
Alaska seems to be free from excessive glaciation, and that a remark-
able " driftless " area lies in Wisconsin. The maximum glaciation of
the Glacial period was clearly centred around the North Atlantic.
Glacial Epochs in the Older Geological Periods. — Since Ramsay
drew attention to the subject in 1855 ( On the occurrence of angular,
subangular, polished and striated fragments and boulders in the
Permian Breccia of Shropshire, Worcestershire, &c, and on the
probable existence of glaciers and icebergs in the Permian epoch,"
Q.J.G.S., 1855, pp. 185-205), a good deal of attention has been paid
to such formations. It is now generally acknowledged that the
Permo-carboniferous conglomerates with striated boulders and
polished rock surfaces, such as are found in the Karoo formation of
South Africa, the Talkir conglomerate of the Salt Range in India,
and the corresponding formations in Australia, represent undeniable
62
GLACIER
the lower valleys it is more strongly heated, and surface
streams are established in consequence that flow into channels
caused by unequal melting of the ice and finally plunge into
crevasses. These crevasses are formed by strains established
as the central parts drag away from the sides of the glacier and
the upper surface from the lower, and more markedly by the
tension due to a sudden bend in the glacier caused by an in-
equality in its bed which must be over-ridden. These crevasses
are developed at right angles to the strain and often produce
intersecting fissures in several directions. The morainic material
is gradually dispersed by the inequalities produced, and is
further distributed by the action of superficial streams until the
whole surface is strewn with stones and d6bris, and presents,
as in the lower portions of the Mer de Glace, an exceedingly
dirty appearance. Many blocks of stone fall into the gaping
crevasses and much loose rock is carried down as " englacial
material " in the body of the glacier. Some of it reaches the
bottom and becomes part of the "ground moraine" which
underlies the glacier, at least from the bergschrund to the " snout,"
where much of it is carried away by the issuing stream and
spread finally on to the plains below. It appears that a very
considerable amount of degradation is caused under the berg-
schrund by the mass, of ice " plucking " and dragging great
blocks of rock from the side of the mountain valley where the
great head of ice rests in winter and whence it begins to move
in summer. These blocks and many smaller fragments are
carried downwards wedged in the ice and cause powerful abrasion
upon the rocky floor, rasping and scoring the channel, producing
conspicuous striae, polishing and rounding the rock surfaces,
and grinding the contained fragments as well as the surface
over which it passes into small fragments and fine powder,
from which " boulder clay " or " till " is finally produced.
Emerging, then, from the snow-field as pure granular ice the
glacier gradually becomes strewn and filled with foreign material,
not only from above but also, as is very evident in some Greenland
glaciers, occasionally from below by masses of fragments that
move upwards along gliding planes, or are forced upwards by
slow swirls in the ice itself.
As a glacier is a very brittle body any abrupt change in gradient
will produce a number of crevasses, and these, together with
those produced by dragging strains, will frequently wedge the
glacier into a mass of pinnacles or s&racs that may be partially
healed but are usually evident when the melting end of the
glacier emerges suddenly from a steep valley. Here the streams
widen the weaker portions and the moraine rocks fall from the
end to produce the " terminal " moraine, which usually lies in
a crescentic heap encircling the glacier snout, whence it can
only be moved by a further advance of the glacier or by the
ordinary slow process of atmospheric denudation.
In cases where no rock fails upon the surface there is a con-
siderable amount of englacial material due to upturning either
over accumulated ground debris or over structural inequalities
in the rock floor. This is well seen at the steep sides and ends
of Greenland glaciers, where material frequently comes to the
surface of the melting ice and produces median and lateral
moraines, besides appearing in enormous " eyes " surrounded
in the glacial body by contorted and foliated ice and sometimes
producing heaps and embankments as it is pushed out at the
end of the melting ice.
The environment of temperature requires consideration.
At the upper or dorsal portion of the glacier there is a zone
of variable (winter and summer) temperature, beneath which,
if the ice is thick enough, there is a zone of constant temperature
which will be about the mean annual temperature of the region
ofjthe snow-field. Underlying this there is a more or less constant
ventral or ground temperature, depending mainly upon the
internal heat of the earth, which is conducted to the under
surface of the glacier where it slowly melts the ice, the more
readily because the pressure lowers the melting point consider-
ably, so that streams of water run constantly from beneath many
glaciers, adding their volume to the springs which issue from the
rock. The middle zone of constant temperature is wedge-shaped
in " alpine " glaciers, the apex pointing downwards to the zone
of waste. The upper zone of variable temperature is thinnest
in the snow-field where the mean temperature is lowest, and
entirely dominant in the snout end of the glacier where the zone
of constant temperature disappears. Two temperature wedges
are thus superposed base to point, the one being thickest where
the other is thinnest, and both these lie upon the basal film of
temperature where the escaping earth-heat is strengthened
by that due to friction and pressure. The cold wave of winter
may pass right through a thin glacier, or the constant temperature
may be too low to permit of the ice melting at the base, in which
cases the glacier is " dry " and has great eroding power. But
in the lower warmer portions water running through crevasses
will raise the temperature, and increase the strength of the
downward heat wave, while the mean annual temperature
being there higher, the combined result will be that the glacier
will gradually become " wet " at the base and have little eroding
power, and it will become more and more wet as it moves down
the lower valley zone of ice-waste, until at last the balance
is reached between waste and supply and the glacier finally
disappears.
If the mean annual temperature be 20 F., and the mean
winter temperature be - 12 F., as in parts of Greenland, all
the ice must be considerably below the melting point, since the
pressure of ice a mile in depth lowers the melting point only
to 30 F., and the earth-heat is only sufficient to melt J in. of
ice in a year. Therefore in these regions, and in snow-fields and
high glaciers with an equal or lower mean temperature than
20 F., the glacier will be " dry " throughout, which may account
for the great eroding power stated to exist near the bergschrund
in glaciers of an alpine type, which usually have their origin on
precipitous slopes.
A considerable amount of ice-waste takes place by water-
drainage, though much is the result of constant evaporation
from the ice surface. The lower end of a glacier is in summer
flooded by streams of water that pour along cracks and plunge
into crevasses, often forming " pot-holes " or moulins where
stones are swirled round in a glacial " mill " and wear holes
in the solid rock below. Some of these streams issue in a spout
half way up the glacier's end wall, but the majority find their
way through it and join the water running along the glacier
floor and emerging where the glacier ends in a large glacial
stream.
Results of Glacial Action.-^ A glacier is a degrading and an
aggrading agent. Much difference of opinion exists as to the
potency of a glacier to alter surface features, some maintaining
that it is extraordinarily effective, and considering that a valley
glacier forms a pronounced cirque at the region of its origin
and that the cirque is gradually cut backward until a long and
deep valley is formed (which becomes evident, as in the Rocky
Mountains, in an upper valley with " reversed grade " when
the glacier disappears), and also that the end of a glacier plunging
into a valley or a fjord will gouge a deep basin at its region of
impact. The Alaskan and Norwegian fjords and the rock basins
of the Scottish lochs are adduced as examples. Other writers
maintain that a glacier is only a modifying and not a dominant
agent in its effects upon the land-surface, considering, for example,
that a glacier coming down a lateral valley will preserve the
valley from the atmospheric denudation which has produced
the main valley over which the lateral valley " hangs," a result
which the believers in strong glacial action hold to be due to the
more powerful action of the main glacier as contrasted with the
weaker action of that in the lateral valley. Both the advocates
and the opponents of strenuous ice action agree that a V-shaped
valley of stream erosion is converted to a U-shaped valley of
glacial modification, and that rock surfaces are rounded into
roches moutonnies, and are grooved and striated by the passage
of ice shod with fragments of rock, while the subglacial material
is ground into finer and finer fragments until it becomes mud
and " rock-flour " as the glacier proceeds. In any case striking
results are manifest in any formerly glaciated region. The high
peaks rise into pinnacles, and ridges with " house-roof " structure,
GLACIS— GLADIATORS
63
above the former glacier, while below it the contours are all
rounded and typically subdued. A landscape that was formerly
completely covered by a moving ice-cap has none but these
rounded features of dome-shaped hills and U-shaped valleys
that at least bear evidence to the great modifying power that
a glacier has upon a landscape.
There is no conflict of opinion with regard to glacial aggradation
and the distribution of superglacial, englacial and subglacial
material, which during the active existence of a glacier is finally
distributed by glacial streams that produce very considerable
alluviation. In many regions which were covered by the
Pleistocene ice-sheet the work of the glacier was arrested by
melting before it was half done. Great deposits of till and boulder
clay that lay beneath the glaciers were abandoned in situ, and
remain as an unsorted mixture of large boulders, pebbles and
mingled fragments, embedded in clay or sand. The lateral,
median and terminal moraines were stranded where they sank
as the ice disappeared, and together with perched blocks (roches
per chits) remain as a permanent record of former conditions
which are now found to have existed temporarily in much earlier
geological times. In glaciated North America lateral moraines
are found that are 500 to 1000 ft. high and in northern Italy
1500 to 2000 ft. high. The surface of the ground in all these
places is modified into the characteristic glaciated landscape,
and many formerly deep valleys are choked with glacial debris
either completely changing the local drainage systems, or compel-
ling the reappearing streams to cut new channels in a superposed
drainage system. Karnes also and eskers (q.v.) are left under
certain conditions, with many puzzling deposits that are clearly
due to some features of ice- work not thoroughly understood.
See L. Agassiz, Atudes sur les glaciers (Neuchatel, 1840) and
Nouvelles £tudes . . . (Paris, 1847); N. S. Shaler and W. M. Davis,
Glaciers (Boston, 1881); A. Penck, Die Begletscherung der deutschen
Alpen (Leipzig, 1882) ; J. Tyndall, The Glaciers of the Alps (London,
1896); T. G. Bonney, Ice- Work, Past and Present (London, 1896);
I. C. Russell, Glaciers of North America (Boston, 1897) ; E. Richter,
Neue Ergebnisse und Probleme der Gletscherforschung (Vienna, 1899) ;
F. Forel, Essai sur les variations pSriodiques des glaciers (Geneva, 188 1
and 1900) ; H. Hess, Die Gletscher (Brunswick, 1904). (E. C. Sp.)
GLACIS, in military engineering (see Fortification and
Siegecrapt), an artificial slope of earth in the front of works,
so constructed as to keep an assailant under the fire of the
defenders to the last possible moment. On the natural ground-
level, troops attacking any high work would be sheltered from
its fire when close up to it; the ground therefore is raised to
form a glacis, which is swept by the fire of the parapet. More
generally, the term is used to denote any slope, natural or
artificial, which fulfils the above requirements.
GLADBACH, the name of two towns in Germany distinguished
as Bergisch-Gladbach and Munchen-Gladbach.
1. Bergisch-Gladbach is in Rhenish Prussia, 8 m. N.E. of
Cologne by rail. Pop. (1005) 13,410. It possesses four large
paper mills and among its other industries are paste-board,
powder, percussion caps, nets and machinery. Ironstone,
peat and lime are found in the vicinity. The town has four
Roman Catholic churches and one Protestant. The Stunden-
thalshohe, a popular resort, is in the neighbourhood, and near
Gladbach is Altenberg, with a remarkably fine church, built
for the Cistercian abbey at this place.
2. Munchen-Gladbach, also in Rhenish Prussia, 16 m.
W.S.W. of Dusseldorf on the main line of railway to Aix-la-
Chapelle, Pop. (1885) 44,230; (1905) 60,714. It is one of the chief
manufacturing places in Rhenish Prussia, its principal industries
being the spinning and weaving of cotton, the manufacture
of silks, velvet, ribbon and damasks, and dyeing and bleaching.
There are also tanneries, tobacco manufactories, machine works
and foundries. The town possesses a fine park and has statues
of the emperor William I. and of Prince Bismarck. There are
ten Roman Catholic churches here, among them being the
beautiful minster, with a Gothic choir dating from 1250, a nave
dating from the beginning of the 13th century and a crypt of
the 8th century. The town has two hospitals, several schools,
and is the headquarters of important insurance societies.
Gladbach existed before the time of Charlemagne, and a Bene-
dictine monastery was founded near it in 793. It was thu9
called Munchen-Gladbach or Monks' Gladbach, to distinguish
it from another town of the same name. The monastery was
suppressed in 1802. It became a town in 1336; weaving was
introduced here towards the end of the 18th century, and
having belonged for a long time to the duchy of Juliers it came
into the possession of Prussia in 181 5.
See Strauss, Geschichte der Stadi M&nchen-Gladbach (1895); and
G. Eckertz, Das Verbriiderungs- und Todtenbuch der Abtei Gladbach
(1881).
GLADDEN, WASHINGTON (1836- ), American Congrega-
tional divine, was born in Pottsgrove, Pennsylvania, on the nth
of February 1836. He graduated at Williams College in 1859,
preached in churches in Brooklyn, Morrisania (New York City),
North Adams, Massachusetts, and Springfield, Massachusetts,
and in 1882 became pastor of the First Congregational Church
of Columbus, Ohio. He was an editor of the Independent in
1871-1875, and a frequent contributor to it and other periodicals.
He consistently and earnestly urged in pulpit and press the
need of personal, civil and, particularly, social righteousness,
and in 1900-1902 was a member of the city council of Columbus.
Among his many publications, which include sermons, occasional
addresses, &c, are: Plain Thoughts on the Art of Living (1868);
Workingmen and their Employers (1876); The Christian Way
(1877); Things New and Old (1884); Applied Christianity
(1887); Tools and the Man — Property and Industry under the
Christian Law (1893); The Church and the Kingdom (1894),
arguing against a confusion and misuse of these two terms;
Seven Puzzling Bible Books (1897); How much is Left of the Old
Doctrines (1899); Social Salvation (1901); Witnesses of the
Light (1903); the William Belden Noble Lectures (Harvard),
being addresses on Dante, Michelangelo, Fichte, Hugo, Wagner
and Ruskin; The New Idolatry (1005) ; Christianity and Social-
ism (1906), and The Church and Modern Life (1908). In 1909 he
published his Recollections.
GLADIATORS (from Lat. gladius, sword), professional com-
batants who fought to the death in Roman public shows. That
this form of spectacle, which is almost peculiar to Rome and
the Roman provinces, was originally borrowed from Etruria
is shown by various indications. On an Etruscan tomb dis-
covered at Tarquinii there is a representation of gladiatorial
games; the slaves employed to carry off the dead bodies from
the arena wore masks representing the Etruscan Charon; and
we learn from Isidore of Seville (Origines, x.) that the name for
a trainer of gladiators (lanista) is an Etruscan word meaning
butcher or executioner. These gladiatorial games are evidently
a survival of the practice of immolating slaves and prisoners
on the tombs of illustrious chieftains, a practice recorded in
Greek, Roman and Scandinavian legends, and traceable even as
late as the 19th century as the Indian suttee. Even at Rome
they were for a long time confined to funerals, and hence the older
name for gladiators was bustuarii; but in the later days of the
republic their original significance was forgotten, and they
formed as indispensable a part of the public amusements as the
theatre and the circus.
The first gladiators are said, on the authority of Valerius
Maximus (ii. 4. 7), to have been exhibited at Rome in the Forum
Boarium in 264 b.c. by Marcus and Decimus Brutus at the
funeral of their father. On this occasion only three pairs fought,
but the taste for these games spread rapidly, and the number
of combatants grew apace. In 174 Titus Flamininus celebrated
his father's obsequies by a three-days' fight, in which 74 gladiators
took part. Julius Caesar engaged such extravagant numbers
for his aedileship that his political opponents took fright and
carried a decree of the senate imposing a certain limit of numbers,
but notwithstanding this restriction he was able to exhibit no
less than 300 pairs. During the later days of the republic the
gladiators were a constant element of danger to the public
peace. The more turbulent spirits among the nobility had
each his band of gladiators to act as a bodyguard, and the
armed troops of Clodius, Milo and Catiline played the same part
6+
GLADIATORS
in Roman history as the armed retainers of the feudal barons
or the condottieri of the Italian republics. Under the empire,
notwithstanding sumptuary enactments, the passion for the
arena steadily increased. Augustus, indeed, limited the shows
to two a year, and forbade a praetor to exhibit more than 120
gladiators, yet allusions in Horace (Sat. ii. 3. 85) and Persius
(vi. 48) show that too pairs was the fashionable number for
private entertainments; and in the Marmor Ancyranum the
emperor states that more than 10,000 men had fought during
his reign. The imbecile Claudius was devoted to this pastime,
and would sit from morning till night in his chair of state, descend-
ing now and then to the arena to coax or force the reluctant
gladiators to resume their bloody work. Under Nero senators
and even well-born women appeared as combatants; and
Juvenal (viii. 199) has handed down to eternal infamy the
descendant of the Gracchi who appeared without disguise as a
rctiarius, and begged his life from the secutor, who blushed to
conquer one so noble and so vile. 1 Titus, whom his countrymen
sumamed the Clement, ordered a show which lasted 100 days;
and Trajan, in celebration of his triumph over Decebalus,
exhibited 5000 pairs of gladiators. Domitian at the Saturnalia
of a.d. 90 arranged a battle between dwarfs and women. Even
women of high birth fought in the arena, and it was not till
a.d. 200 that the practice was forbidden by edict. How widely
the taste for these sanguinary spectacles extended throughout
the Roman provinces is attested by monuments, inscriptions
and the remains of vast amphitheatres. From Britain to Syria
there was not a town of any size that could not boast its arena
and annual games. After Italy, Gaul, North Africa and Spain
were most famous for their amphitheatres; and Greece was the
only Roman province where the institution never thoroughly
took root.
Gladiators were commonly drawn either from prisoners of
war, or slaves or criminals condemned to death. Thus in the
first class we read of tattooed Britons in their war chariots,
Thracians with their peculiar bucklers and scimitars, Moors
from the villages round Atlas and negroes from central Africa,
exhibited in the Colosseum. Down to the time of the empire
only greater malefactors, such as brigands and incendiaries,
were condemned to the arena; but by Caligula, Claudius and
Nero this punishment was extended to minor offences, such as
fraud and peculation, in order to supply the growing demand
for victims. For the first century of the empire it was lawful
for masters to sell their slaves as gladiators, but this was forbidden
by Hadrian and Marcus Aurelius. Besides these three regular
classes, the ranks were recruited by a considerable number of
freedmen and Roman citizens who had squandered their estates
and voluntarily took the aucior amentum gladiatorium, by which
for a stated time they bound themselves to the lanista. Even
men of birth and fortune not seldom entered the lists, either for
the pure love of fighting or to gratify the whim of some dissolute
emperor; and one emperor, Commodus, actually appeared in
person in the arena.
Gladiators were trained in schools (ludi) owned either by
the state or by private citizens, and though the trade of a
lanista was considered disgraceful, to own gladiators and let
them out for hire was reckoned a legitimate branch of commerce.
Thus Cicero, in his letters to Atticus, congratulates his friend
on the good bargain he had made in purchasing a band, and
urges that he might easily recoup himself by consenting to let
them out twice. Men recruited mainly from slaves and criminals,
whose lives hung on a thread, must have been more dangerous
characters than modern galley slaves or convicts; and, though
highly fed and carefully tended, they were of necessity subject
to an iron discipline. In the school of gladiators discovered at
Pompeii, of the sixty-three skeletons buried in the cells many
were in irons. But hard as was the gladiators' lot, — so hard
that special precautions had to be taken to prevent suicide, —
it had its consolations. A successful gladiator enjoyed far
greater fame than any modern prize-fighter or athlete. He was
1 See A. E. Housmanon the passage in Classical Review (November
1904).
presented with broad pieces, chains and jewelled helmets, such
as may be seen in the museum at Naples; poets like Martial
sang his prowess; his portrait was multiplied on vases, lamps
and gems; and high-born ladies contended for his favours.
Mixed, too, with the lowest dregs of the city, there must have
been many noble barbarians condemned to the vile trade by the
hard fate of war. There are few finer characters in Roman
history than the Thracian Spartacus, who, escaping with seventy
of his comrades from the school of Lentulus at Capua, for three
years defied the legions of Rome; and after Antony's defeat at
Actium, the only part of his army that remained faithful to
his cause were the gladiators whom he had enrolled at Cyzicus
to grace his anticipated victory.
There were various classes of gladiators, distinguished by
their arms or modes of fighting. The Samnites fought with the
national weapons — a large oblong shield, a vizor, a plumed
helmet and a short sword. The Thraces had a small round
buckler and a dagger curved like a scythe; they were generally
pitted against the Mirmillones, who were armed in Gallic fashion
with helmet, sword and shield, and were so called from the fish
(fjLopfxd\os or /xop/x&pos) which served as the crest of their helmet.
In like manner the Retiarius was matched with the Secutor:
the former had nothing on but a short tunic or apron, and sought
to entangle his pursuer, who was fully armed, with the cast-net
(jaculum) that he carried in his right hand; and if successful,
he despatched him with the trident (tridens, fuscina) that he
carried in his left. We may also mention the Andabatae who
are generally believed to have fought on horseback and wore
helmets with closed vizors; the Dimachaeri of the later empire,
who carried a short sword in each hand; the Essedarii, who
fought from chariots like the ancient Britons; the Hoplomachi,
who wore a complete suit of armour; and the Laquearii, who
tried to lasso their antagonists.
Gladiators also received special names according to the
time or circumstances in which they exercised their calling.
The Bustuarii have already been mentioned; the Catervarii
fought, not in pairs, but in bands; the Meridiani came forward
in the middle of the day for the entertainment of those spectators
who had not left their seats; the Ordinarii fought only in pairs,
in the regular way; the Fiscales were trained and supported
at the expense of the imperial treasury; the Paegniarii used
harmless weapons, and their exhibition was a sham one; the
Postulaticii were those whose appearance was asked as a favour
from the giver of the show, in addition to those already exhibited.
The shows were announced some days before they took
place by bills affixed to the walls of houses and public buildings,
copies of which were also sold in the streets. These bills gave
the names of the chief pairs of competitors, the date of the show,
the name of the giver and the different kinds of combats. The
spectacle began with a procession of the gladiators through the
arena, after which their swords were examined by the giver of
the show. The proceedings opened with a sham fight (praelusio,
prolusio) with wooden swords and javelins. The signal for real
fighting was given by the sound of the trumpet, those who
showed fear being driven on to the arena with whips and red-hot
irons. When a gladiator was wounded, the spectators shouted
Habet (he is wounded) ; if he was at the mercy of his adversary,
he lifted up his forefinger to implore the clemency of the people,
with whom (in the later times of the republic) the giver left the
decision as to his life or death. If the spectators were in favour
of mercy, they waved their handkerchiefs; if they desired the
death of the conquered gladiator, they turned their thumbs
downwards. 1 The reward of victory consisted of branches of
palm, sometimes of money. Gladiators who had exercised
their calling for a long time, or such as displayed special skill
and bravery, were presented with a wooden sword (rudis), and
discharged from further service.
* A different account is given by Mayor on Juvenal iii. j6, who
says: "Those who wished the death of the conquered gladiator
turned their thumbs towards their breasts, as a signal to his opponents
to stab him ; those who wished him to be spared, turned their thumbs
downwards, as a signal for dropping the sword."
GLADIOLUS
65
Both the estimation in which gladiatorial games were held by
Roman moralists, and the influence that they exercised upon the
morals and genius of the nation, deserve notice. The Roman was
essentially cruel, not so much from spite or vindictiveness as from
callousness and defective sympathies. This element of inhumanity
and brutality must have been deeply ingrained in the national
character to have allowed the games to become popular, but there
can be no doubt that it was fed and fostered by the savage form
which their amusements took. That the sight of bloodshed provokes
a love of bloodshed and cruelty is a commonplace of morals. To
the horrors of the arena we may attribute in part, not only the
brutal treatment of their slaves and prisoners, but the frequency
of suicide among the Romans. On the other hand, we should be
careful not to exaggerate the effects or draw too sweeping infer-
ences from the prevalence of this degrading amusement. Human
nature is happily illogical; and we know that many of the Roman
statesmen who gave these games, and themselves enjoyed these siehts
of blood, were in every other department of life irreproachable —
indulgent fathers, humane generals and mild rulers of provinces.
In the present state of society it is difficult to conceive how a man
of taste can have endured to gaze upon a scene of human butchery.
Yet we should remember that it is not so long since bear-baiting was
prohibited in England, and we are only now attaining that stage of
morality in respect of cruelty to animals that was reached in the 5th
century, by the help of Christianity, in respect of cruelty to men.
We shall not then be greatly surprised if hardly one of the Roman
moralists is found to raise his voice against this amusement, except
on the score of extravagance. Cicero in a well-known passage com-
mends the gladiatorial games as the best discipline against die fear
of death and suffering that can be presented to the eye. The
younger Pliny, who perhaps of all Romans approaches nearest to our
ideal of a cultured gentleman, speaks approvingly of them. Marcus
Aurelius, though he did much to mitigate their horrors, yet in his
writings condemns the monotony rather than the cruelty. Seneca
is indeed a splendid exception, and his letter to Lentulus is an
eloquent protest against this inhuman sport. But it is without
a parallel till we come to the writings of the Christian fathers,
Tertullian, Lactantius, Cyprian and Augustine. In the Confessions
of the last there occurs a narrative which is worth quoting as a proof
of the strange fascination which the games exercised even on a
religious man and a Christian. He tells us how his friend Alipius
was dragged against his will to the amphitheatre, how he strove
to guiet his conscience by closing his eyes, how at some exciting
crisis the shouts of the whole assembly aroused his curiosity, how
he looked and was lost, grew drunk with the sight of blood, and
returned again and again, knowing his guilt yet unable to abstain*
The first Christian emperor was persuaded to issue an edict abolishing
gladiatorial games (325), yet in 404 we read of an exhibition of
gladiators to celebrate the triumph of Honorius over the Goths,
and it is said that they were not totally extinct in the West till the
time of Theodoric.
Gladiators formed admirable models for the sculptor. One of
the finest pieces of ancient sculpture that has come down to us is
the " Wounded Gladiator" of the National Museum at Naples. The
so-called " Fighting Gladiator" of the Borvhese collection, now in the
Museum of the Louvre, and the " Dying Gladiator " of the Capitoline
Museum, which inspired the famous stanza of Childe Harold, have
been pronounced by modern antiquaries to represent, not gladiators,
but warriors. In this connexion we may mention the admirable
picture of Gerome which bears the title, Ave, Caesar, morituri te
salutant."
The attention of archaeologists has been recently directed to the
tesserae of gladiators. These tesserae, of which about sixty exist in
various museums, are small oblong tablets of ivory or bone, with
an inscription on each of the four sides. The first line contains
a name in the nominative case, presumably that of the gladiator;
the second line a name in the genitive, that of the patronus or
dominus; the third line begins with the letters SP (for sbectatus
« approved), which shows that the gladiator had passed his pre-
liminary trials; this is followed by a day of a Roman month; and
in the fourth line are the names of the consuls of a particular year.
Authorities. — All needful information on the subject will be
found in L. Friedlander's Darstellungen aus der Sittengeschichte Roms,
(part ii., 6th ed., 1889), and in the section by him on^ 1 The Games "
in Marquardt's Romische Staatsverwaltung, iii. (1885) p. 554; see
also article by G. Lafaye in Daremberg and Saglio, Dictionnaire
des antiquiUs. See also F. W. Ritschl, Tesserae gJadialoriae (i86a)
and P. J. Meier, De gladiatura Romana quaestiones selectae (1881).
The articles by Lipsius on the Saturnalia and amphitheatrum in
Graevius, Thesaurus anUqu/Uaium Romanarum, be., may still be
consulted with advantage.
GLADIOLUS, a genus of monocotyledonous plants, belonging
to the natural order Iridaceae. They are herbaceous plants
growing from a solid fibrous-coated bulb (or corm), with long
narrow plaited leaves and a terminal one-sided spike of generally
bright-coloured irregular flowers. The segments of the limb of
the perianth are very unequal, the perianth tube is curved, funnel-
shaped and widening upwards, the segments equalling or
exceeding the tube in length. There are about 150 known
species, a large number of which are South African, but the
genus extends into tropical Africa, forming a characteristic
feature oi the mountain vegetation, and as far north as central
Europe and western Asia. One species G. illyricus (sometimes
regarded as a variety of G. communis) is found wild in England,
in the New Forest and the Isle of Wight. Some of the species
have been cultivated for a long period in English flower-gardens,
where both the introduced species and the modern varieties
bred from them are very ornamental and popular. G. segetum
has been cultivated since 1596, and G. byzantinus since 1629,
while many additional species were introduced during the latter
half of the 18th century. One of the earlier of the hybrids
originated in gardens was the beautiful G. Colvillei, raised in the
nursery of Mr Colville of Chelsea in 1823 from G. tristis fertilized
by G. cardinalis. In the first decade of the 1 9th century, however,
the Hon. and Rev. W. Herbert had successfully crossed the
showy G. cardinalis with the smaller but more free-flowering
G. blandus, and the result was the production of a race of great
beauty and fertility. Other crosses were made with G. tristis }
G. oppositiflorus, G. hirsuius, G. alatus and G. psiltacinus; but
it was not till after the production of G. gandavensis that the
gladiolus really became a general favourite in gardens. This
fine hybrid was raised in 1837 by M. Bedinghaus, gardener to
the due d'Aremberg, at Enghien, crossing G. psiltacinus and
G. cardinalis. There can, however, be little doubt that before
the gandavensis type had become fairly fixed the services of
other species were brought into force, and the most likely of
these were G. oppositiflorus (which shows in the white forms),
G. blandus and G. ramosus. Other species may also have been
used, but in any case the gandavensis gladiolus, as we now know
it, is the result of much crossing and inter-crossing between
the best forms as they developed (J. Weathers, Practical Guide
to Garden Plants). Since that time innumerable varieties have
appeared only to sink into oblivion upon being replaced by
still finer productions.
The modern varieties of gladioli have almost completely
driven the natural species out of gardens, except in botanical
collections. The most gorgeous groups — in addition to the
gandavensis type — are those known under the names of Lemoinei f
Childsi, nanceianus and brenchleyensis. The last-named was
raised by a Mr Hooker at Brenchley in 1848, and although quite
distinct in appearance from gandavensis, it undoubtedly had
that variety as one of its parents. Owing to the brilliant scarlet
colour of the flowers, this is always a great favourite for planting
in beds. The Lemoinei forms originated at Nancy, in France,
by fertilizing G. purpureo-auralus with pollen from G. gandavensis,
the first flower appearing in 1877, and the plants being put into
commerce in 1880. The Childsi gladioli first appeared in 1882,
having been raised .at Baden-Baden by Herr Max Leichtlin
from the best forms of G. gandavensis and G. Saundersi. The
flowers of the best varieties are of great size and substance, often
measuring 7 to 9 in. across, while the range of colour is marvellous,
with shades of grey, purple, scarlet, salmon, crimson, rose, white,
pink, yellow, &c, often beautifully mottled and blotched in the
throat. The plants are vigorous in growth, often reaching a
height of 4 to 5 ft. G. nanceianus was raised at Nancy by
MM. Lemoine and were first put into commerce in 1889. Next
to the Childsi group they are the most beautiful, and have the
blood of the best forms of G. Saundersi and G. Lemoinei in their
veins. The plants are quite as hardy as the gandavensis hybrids,
and the colours of the flowers are almost as brilliant and varied
in hue as those of the Childsi section.
A deep and rather stiff sandy loam is the best soil for the gladiolus,
and this should be trenched up in October and enriched with well-
decomposed manure, consisting partly of cow dung, the manure being
disposed altogether below the conns, a layer at the bottom of the
upper trench, say 9 in. from the surface, and another layer at double
that depth. The corms should be planted in succession at intervals
of two or three weeks through the months of March, April and May ;
about % to 5 in. deep and at least I ft. apart, a little pure soil or sand
being laid over each before the earth is closed in about them, an
Hi. 3
66
GLADSHEIM— GLADSTONE
arrangement which may be advantageously followed with bulbous
plants generally. In hot summer weather they should have a good
mulching of well-decayed manure, and, as soon as the flower spikes
are produced, liquid manure may occasionally be given them with
advantage.
The gladiolus is easily raised from seeds, which should be sown in
March or April in pots of rich soil placed in slight heat, the pots
being kept near the glass after they begin to grow, and the plants
being gradually hardened to permit their being placed out-of-doors
in a sheltered spot for the summer. Modern growers often grow the
seeds in the open in April on a nicely prepared bed in drills about
6 in. apart and i in. deep, covering them with finely sifted gritty
mould. The seed bed is then pressed down evenly and firmly,
watered occasionally and kept free from weeds during the summer.
In October they will have ripened off, and must be taken out of the
soil, and stored in paper bags in a dry room secure from frost. They
will have made little bulbs from the size of a hazel nut downwards,
according to their vigour. In the spring they should be planted
like the old bulbs, and the larger ones will flower during the season,
while the smaller ones must be again harvested and planted out as
before. The time occupied from the sowing of the seed until the
plant attains its full strength is from three to four years. The
approved sorts, which are identified by name, are multiplied by
means of bulblets or offsets or " spawn,*' which form around the
principal bulb or corm; but in this they vary greatly, some kinds
furnishing abundant increase and soon becoming plentiful, while
others persistently refuse to yield offsets. The stately habit and
rich glowing colours of the modern gladioli render them exceedingly
valuable as decorative plants during the late summer months. They
are, moreover, very desirable and useful flowers for cutting for the
purpose of room decoration, for while the blossoms themselves last
fresn for some days if cut either early in the morning or late in the
evening, the undeveloped buds open in succession, if the stalks are
kept in water, so that a cut spike will go on blooming for some time.
GLADSHEIM (Old Norse Gladsheimr) , in Scandinavian
mythology, the region of joy and home of Odin. Valhalla,
the paradise whither the heroes who fell in battle were escorted,
was situated there.
GLADSTONE, JOHN HALL (1827-1902), English chemist,
was born at Hackney, London, on the 7th of March 1827. From
childhood he showed great aptitude for science; geology was
his favourite subject, but since this in his father's opinion did
not afford a career of promise, he devoted himself to chemistry,
which he studied under Thomas Graham at University College,
London, and Liebig at Giessen, where he graduated as Ph.D.
in 1847. In 1850 he became chemical lecturer at St Thomas's
hospital, and three years later was elected a fellow of the Royal
Society at the unusually early age of twenty-six. From 1858
to 1 86 1 he served on the royal commission on lighthouses, and
from 1864 to 1868 was a member of the war office committee
on gun-cotton. From 1874 to 1877 he was Fullerian professor
of chemistry at the Royal Institution, in 1874 he was chosen
first president of the Physical Society, and in 1877-1879 he was
president of the Chemical Society. In 1897 the Royal Society
recognized his fifty years of scientific work by awarding him the
Davy medal. Dr Gladstone's researches were large in number
and wide in range, dealing to a great extent with problems
that lie on the border-line between physics and chemistry.
Thus a number of his inquiries, and those not the least important,
were partly chemical, partly optical. He determined the optical
constants of hundreds of substances, with the object of discover-
ing whether any of the elements possesses more than one atomic
refraction. Again, he investigated the connexion between the
optical behaviour, density and chemical composition of ethereal
oils, and the relation between molecular magnetic rotation and
the refraction and dispersion of nitrogenous compounds. So
early as 1856 he showed the importance of the spectroscope
in chemical research, and he was one of the first to notice that
the Fraunhofer spectrum at sunrise and sunset differs from that
at midday, his conclusion being that the earth's atmosphere
must be responsible for many of its absorption lines, which
indeed were subsequently traced to the oxygen and water-vapour
in the air. Another portion of his work was of an electro-chemical
character. His studies, with Alfred Tribe (1840-1885) and W.
Hibbert, in the chemistry of the storage battery, have added
largely to our knowledge, while the " copper-zinc couple," with
which his name is associated together with that of Tribe, among
other things, afforded a simple means of preparing certain
organo-metallic compounds, and thus promoted research in
branches of organic chemistry where those bodies are especially
useful. Mention may also be made of his work on phosphorus,
on explosive substances, such as iodide of nitrogen, gun-cotton
and the fulminates, on the influence of mass in the process of
chemical reactions, and on the effect of carbonic acid on the
germination of plants. Dr Gladstone always took a great
interest in educational questions, and from 1873 to 1894 he was
a member of the London School Board. He was also a member
of the Christian Evidence Society, and an early supporter of
the Young Men's Christian Association. His death occurred
suddenly in London on the 6th of October 1902.
GLADSTONE, WILLIAM EWART (1809- 1898), British
statesman, was born on the 29th of December 1809 at No. 62
Rodney Street, Liverpool. His forefathers were Gledstanes
of Gledstanes, in the upper ward of Lanarkshire; or in Scottish
phrase, Gledstanes of that Ilk. As years went on their estates
dwindled, and by the beginning of the 17th century Gledstanes
was sold. The adjacent property of Arthurshiel remained in
the hands of the family for nearly a hundred years longer. Then
the son of the last Gledstanes of Arthurshiel removed to Biggar,
where he opened the business of a maltster. His grandson,
Thomas Gladstone (for so the name was modified), became a
corn-merchant at Leith. He happened to send his eldest son,
John, to Liverpool to sell a cargo of grain there, and the energy
and aptitude of the young man attracted the favourable notice
of a leading corn-merchant of Liverpool, who recommended him
to settle in that city. Beginning his commercial career as a
clerk in his patron's house, John Gladstone lived to become
one of the merchant-princes of Liverpool, a baronet and a
member of parliament. He died in 185 1 at the age of eighty-
seven. Sir John Gladstone was a pure Scotsman, a Lowlander
by birth and descent. He married Anne, daughter of Andrew
Robertson of Stornoway, sometime provost of Dingwall. Provost
Robertson belonged to the Clan Donachie, and by this marriage
the robust and business-like qualities of the Lowlander were
blended with the poetic imagination, the sensibility and fire
of the Gael.
John and Anne Gladstone had six children. The fourth son,
William Ewart, was named after a merchant of Liverpool who
was his father's friend. He seems to have been a
remarkably good child, and much beloved at home. Chi J d ^ t ood m
In i8i8or 1819 Mrs Gladstone, who belonged to the ^a.
Evangelical school, said in a letter to a friend, that
she believed her son William had been " truly converted to God."
After some tuition at the vicarage of Seaforth, a watering-place
near Liverpool, the boy went to Eton in 182 1. His tutor was
the Rev. Henry Hartopp Knapp. His brothers, Thomas and
Robertson Gladstone, were already at Eton. Thomas was in the
fifth form, and William, who was placed in the middle remove
of the fourth form, became his eldest brother's fag. He worked
hard at his classical lessons, and supplemented the ordinary
business of the school by studying mathematics in the holidays.
Mr Hawtrey, afterwards headmaster, commended a copy of
his Latin verses, and " sent him up for good "; and this ex-
perience first led the young student to associate intellectual
work with the ideas of ambition and success. He was not a
fine scholar, in that restricted sense of the term which implies
a special aptitude for turning English into Greek and Latin, or
for original versification in the classical languages. " His
composition," we read, " was stiff," but he was imbued with
the substance of his authors; and a contemporary who was in
the sixth form with him recorded that " when there were thrilling
passages of Virgil or Homer, or difficult passages in the Scriptores
Graeciy to translate, he or Lord Arthur Hervey was generally
called up to edify the class with quotation or translation." By
common consent he was pre-eminently God-fearing, orderly
and conscientious. " At Eton," said Bishop Hamilton of
Salisbury, " I was a thoroughly idle boy, but I was saved from
some worse things by getting to know Gladstone." His most
intimate friend was Arthur Hallam, by universal acknowledg-
ment the most remarkable Etonian of his day; but he was not
GLADSTONE
67
generally popular or even widely known. He was seen to the
greatest advantage, and was most thoroughly at home, in the
debates of the Eton Society, learnedly called " The Literati," and
vulgarly " Pop," and in the editorship of the Eton Miscellany.
He left Eton at Christmas 1827. He read for six months with
private tutors, and in October 1828 went up to Christ Church,
where, in the following year, he was nominated to a studentship.
At Oxford Gladstone read steadily, but not laboriously,
till he neared his final schools. During the latter part of his
undergraduate career he took a brief but brilliant share in the
proceedings of the Union, of which he was successively secretary
and president. He made his first speech on the nth of February
1830. Brought up in the nurture and admonition of Canning, he
defended Roman Catholic emancipation, and thought the duke
of Wellington's government unworthy of national confidence.
He opposed the removal of Jewish disabilities, arguing, we are
told by a contemporary, "on the part of the Evangelicals,"
and pleaded for the gradual extinction, in preference to the
immediate abolition, of slavery. But his great achievement
was a speech against the Whig Reform Bill. One who heard
this famous discourse says: " Most of the speakers rose, more
or less, above their usual level, but when Mr Gladstone sat
down we all of us felt that an epoch in our lives had occurred.
It certainly was the finest speech of his that I ever heard."
Bishop Charles Wordsworth said that his experience of Gladstone
at this time " made me (and I doubt not others also) feel no less
sure than of my own existence that Gladstone, our then Christ
Church undergraduate, would one day rise to be prime minister
of England." In December 1831 Gladstone crowned his career
by taking a double first-class. Lord Halifax (1800-188 5) used
to say, with reference to the increase in the amount of reading
requisite for the highest honours: " My double-first must have
been a better thing than Peel's; Gladstone's must have been
better than mine."
Now came the choice of a profession. Deeply anxious to make
the best use of his life, Gladstone turned his thoughts to holy
orders. But his father had determined to make him
Bat Zj nt ° a P out i c * an « Quitting Oxford in the spring of 1832,
%jjg atm ' Gladstone spent six months in Italy, learning the
language and studying art. In the following September
he was suddenly recalled to England, to undertake his first
parliamentary campaign. The fifth duke of Newcastle was one
of the chief potentates of the High Tory party. His frank
claim to " do what he liked with his own " in the representation
of Newark has given him a place in political history. But that
claim had been rudely disputed by the return of a Radical
lawyer at the election of 1831, The Duke was anxious to obtain
a capable candidate to aid him in regaining his ascendancy over
the rebellious borough. His son, Lord Lincoln, had heard
Gladstone's speech against the Reform Bill delivered in the
Oxford Union, and had written home that " a man had uprisen
in Israel." At his suggestion the duke invited Gladstone to
stand for Newark in the Tory interest against Mr Serjeant
Wilde, afterwards Lord Chancellor Truro. The last of the
Unreformed parliaments was dissolved on the 3rd of December
1832. Gladstone, addressing the electors of Newark, said that
he was bound by the opinions of no man and no party, but felt
it a duty to watch and resist that growing desire for change
which threatened to produce " along with partial good a melan-
choly preponderance of mischief." The first principle to which
he looked for national salvation was, that the"dutiesof governors
are strictly and peculiarly religious, and that legislatures, like
individuals, are bound to carry throughout their acts the spirit
of the high truths they have acknowledged." The condition of
the poor demanded special attention; labour should receive
adequate remuneration; and he thought favourably of the
" allotment of cottage grounds." He regarded slavery as
sanctioned by Holy Scripture, but the slaves ought to be educated
and gradually emancipated. The contest resulted in his return
at the head of the poll.
The first Reformed parliament met on the 29th of January
1833, an d the young member for Newark took his seat for the first
time in an assembly which he was destined to adorn, delight
and astonish for more than half a century. His maiden speech
was delivered on the 3rd of June in reply to what was
almost a personal challenge. The colonial secretary, ^w 1 '
Mr Stanley, afterwards Lord Derby, brought forward ^^
a series of resolutions in favour of the extinction of
slavery in the British colonies. On the first night of the debate
Lord Howick, afterwards Lord Grey, who had been under-
secretary for the Colonies, and who opposed the resolutions
as proceeding too gradually towards abolition, cited certain
occurrences on Sir John Gladstone's plantation in Demerara
to illustrate his contention that the system of slave-labour in
the West Indies was attended by great mortality among the
slaves. Gladstone in his reply — his first speech in the House —
avowed that he had a pecuniary interest in the question, " and,
if he might say so much without exciting suspicion, a still deeper
interest in it as a question of justice, of humanity and of religion."
If there had recently been a high mortality on his father's planta-
tion, it was due to the age of the slaves rather than to any
peculiar hardship in their lot. It was true that the particular
system of cultivation practised in Demerara was more trying
than some others; but then it might be said that no two trades
were equally conducive to health. Steel-grinding was notoriously
unhealthy, and manufacturing processes generally were less
favourable to life than agricultural. While strongly condemning
cruelty, he declared himself an advocate of emancipation, but
held that it should be effected gradually, and after due prepara-
tion. The slaves must be religiously educated, and stimulated
to profitable industry. The owners of emancipated slaves were
entitled to receive compensation from parliament, because it
was parliament that had established this description of property.
" I do not," said Gladstone, " view property as an abstract
thing; it is the creature of civil society. By the legislature it is
granted, and by the legislature it is destroyed. " On the following
day King William IV. wrote to Lord Althorp: " The king
rejoices that a young member has come forward in so promis-
ing a manner as Viscount Althorp states Mr W. E. Gladstone
to have done." In the same session Gladstone spoke on
the question of bribery and corruption at Liverpool, and
on the temporalities of the Irish Church. In the session
of 1834 his most important performance was a speech in
opposition to Hume's proposal to throw the universities open
to Dissenters.
On the 10th of November 1834 Lord Althorp succeeded to
his father's peerage, and thereby vacated the leadership of
the House of Commons. The prime minister, Lord Melbourne,
submitted to the king a choice of names for the chancellorship
of the exchequer and leadership of the House of Commons;
but his majesty announced that, having lost the services of
Lord Althorp as leader of the House of Commons, he could feel
no confidence in the stability of Lord Melbourne's government,
and that it was his intention to send for the duke of Wellington.
The duke took temporary charge of affairs, but Peel was felt to
be indispensable. He had gone abroad after the session, and
was now in Rome. As soon as he could be brought back he
formed an administration, and appointed Gladstone to a junior
lordship of the treasury. Parliament was dissolved on the 29th
of December. Gladstone was returned unopposed, this time in
conjunction with the Liberal lawyer whom he had beaten at the
last election. The new parliament met on the 19th of February
1835. The elections had given the Liberals a considerable
majority. Immediately after the meeting of parliament Glad-
stone was promoted to the under-secretaryship for the colonies,
where his official chief was Lord Aberdeen. The administration
was not long-lived. On the 30th of March Lord John Russell
moved a resolution in favour of an inquiry into the temporalities
of the Irish Church, with the intention of applying the surplus
to general education without distinction of religious creed
This was carried against ministers by a majority of thirty-three.
On the 8th of April Sir Robert Peel resigned, and the under-
secretary for the colonies of course followed his chief into private
life.
68
GLADSTONE
Released from the labours of office, Gladstone, living in
chambers in the Albany, practically divided his time between
his parliamentary duties and study. Then, as always,
wo J^ ry his constant companions were Homer and Dante, and
it is recorded that he read the whole of St Augustine,
in twenty-two octavo volumes. He used to frequent the services
at St James's, Piccadilly, and Margaret chapel, since better
known as All Saints', Margaret Street. On the 20th of June
1837 King William IV. died, and Parliament, having been
prorogued by the young queen in person, was dissolved on the
17th of the following month. Simply on the strength of his
parliamentary reputation Gladstone was nominated, without
his consent, for Manchester, and was placed at the bottom of
the poll; but, having been at the same time nominated at
Newark, was again returned. The year 1838 claims special note
in a record of Gladstone's life, because it witnessed the appearance
of his famous work on The State in its Relations with the Church.
He had left Oxford just before the beginning of that Catholic
revival which has transfigured both the inner spirit and the
outward aspect of the Church of England. But the revival was
now in full strength. The Tracts for the Times were saturating
England with new influences. The movement counted no more
enthusiastic or more valuable disciple than Gladstone. Its
influence had reached him through his friendships, notably with
two Fellows of Merton — Mr James Hope, who became Mr Hope-
Scott of Abbotsford, and the Rev. H. E. Manning, afterwards
cardinal archbishop. The State in its Relations with the Church
was his practical contribution to a controversy in which his
deepest convictions were involved. He contended that the
Church, as established by law, was to be " maintained for its
truth," and that this principle, if good for England, was good
also for Ireland.
On the 25th of July 1839 Gladstone was married at Hawarden
to Miss Catherine Glynne, sister, and in her issue heir, of Sir
Stephen Glynne, ninth and last baronet of that name. In
1840 he published Church Principles considered in their Results.
Parliament was dissolved in June 1841. Gladstone was
again returned for Newark. The general election resulted in
a Tory majority of eighty. Sir Robert Peel became
cabinet, * prime minister, and made the member for Newark
vice-president of the Board of Trade. An inevitable
change is from this time to be traced in the topics of Gladstone's
parliamentary speaking. Instead of discoursing on the corporate
conscience of the state and the endowments of the Church, the
importance of Christian education, and the theological unfitness
of the Jews to sit in parliament, he is solving business-like
problems about foreign tariffs and the exportation of machinery;
waxing eloquent over the regulation of railways, and a graduated
tax on corn; subtle on the monetary merits of half -farthings,
and great in the mysterious lore of quassia and cocculus indicus.
In 1842 he had a principal hand in the preparation of the revised
tariff, by which duties were abolished or sensibly diminished
in the case of 1200 duty-paying articles. In defending the new
scheme he spoke incessantly, and amazed the House by his
mastery of detail, his intimate acquaintance with the commercial
needs of the country, and his inexhaustible power of exposition.
In 1843 Gladstone, succeeding Lord Ripon as president of the
Board of Trade, became a member of the cabinet at the age of
thirty-three. He has recorded the fact that " the very first
opinion which he ever was called upon to give in cabinet " was
an opinion in favour of withdrawing the bill providing education
for children in factories, to which vehement opposition was
offered by the Dissenters, on the ground that it was too favourable
to the Established Church.
At the opening of the session of 1845 the government, in
pursuance of a promise made to Irish members that they would
Maynootb deal with the question of academical education in
grant: Ireland, proposed to establish non-sectarian colleges
T^otT*' m t ^ iat countrv an d to make a large addition to the
grant to the Roman Catholic College of Maynooth.
Gladstone resigned office, in order, as he announced in the debate
on the address, to form " not only an honest, but likewise an
trade.
independent and an unsuspected judgment," on the plan to be
submitted by the government with respect to Maynooth. His
subsequent defence of the proposed grant, on the ground that
it would be improper and unjust to exclude the Roman Catholic
Church in Ireland from a " more indiscriminating support "
which the state might give to various religious beliefs, was
regarded by men of less sensitive conscience as only proving that
there had been no adequate cause for his resignation. Before
he resigned he completed a second revised tariff, carrying
considerably further the principles on which he had acted in
the earlier revision of 1842.
In the autumn of 1845 the failure of the potato crop in Ireland
threatened a famine, and convinced Sir Robert Peel that all
restrictions on the importation of food must be at
once suspended. He was supported by only three
members of the cabinet, and resigned on the 5th of
December. Lord John Russell, who had just announced his
conversion to total and immediate repeal of the Corn Laws,
declined the task of forming an administration, and on the 20th
of December Sir Robert Peel resumed office. Lord Stanley
refused to re-enter the government, and his place as secretary
of state for the colonies was offered to and accepted by Gladstone.
He did not offer himself for re-election at Newark, and remained
outside the House of Commons during the great struggle of the
coming year. It was a curious irony of fate which excluded
him from parliament at this crisis, for it seems unquestionable
that he was the most advanced Free Trader in Sir Robert Peel's
Cabinet. The Corn Bill passed the House of Lords on the 28th
of June 1846, and on the same day the government were beaten
in the House of Commons on an Irish Coercion Bill. Lord John
Russell became prime minister, and Gladstone retired for a season
into private life. Early in 1847 it was announced that one of the
two members for the university of Oxford intended to retire at
the general election, and Gladstone was proposed for the vacant
seat. The representation of the university had been pronounced
by Canning to be the most coveted prize of public life, and
Gladstone himself confessed that he " desired it with an almost
passionate fondness." Parliament was dissolved on the 23rd
of July 1847. The nomination at Oxford took place on the 29th
of July, and at the close of the poll Sir Robert Inglis stood at
the head, with Gladstone as his colleague.
The three years 1847, 1848, 1849 were for Gladstone a period
of mental growth, of transition, of development. A change
was silently proceeding, which was not completed for
twenty years. " There have been," he wrote in later ^Sif*.
days to Bishop Wilberforce, " two great deaths, or
transmigrations of spirit, in my political existence — one, very
slow, the breaking of ties with my original party." This was
now in progress. In the winter of 1850-1851 Gladstone spent
between three and four months at Naples, where he learned
that more than half the chamber of deputies, who had followed
the party of Opposition, had been banished or imprisoned; that
a large number, probably not less than 20,000, of the citizens
had been imprisoned on charges of political disaffection, and that
in prison they were subjected to the grossest cruelties. Having
made careful investigations, Gladstone, on the 7th of April 1851,
addressed an open letter to Lord Aberdeen, bringing an elaborate,
detailed and horrible indictment against the rulers of Naples,
especially as regards the arrangements of their prisons and the
treatment of persons confined in them for political offences.
The publication of this letter caused a wide sensation in England
and abroad, and profoundly agitated the court of Naples. In
reply to a question in the House of Commons, Lord Palmerston
accepted and adopted Gladstone's statement, expressed keen
sympathy with the cause which he had espoused, and sent a
copy of his letter to the queen's representative at every court of
Europe. A second letter and a third followed, and their effect,
though for a while retarded, was unmistakably felt in the
subsequent revolution which created a free and united Italy.
In February 1852 the Whig government was defeated on a
Militia Bill, and Lord John Russell was succeeded by Lord
Derby, formerly Lord Stanley, with Mr Disraeli, who now
GLADSTONE
69
entered office for the first time, as chancellor of the exchequer
and leader of the House of Commons. Mr Disraeli introduced
and carried a makeshift budget, and the government
Gladstone tided over the session, and dissolved parliament on the
DtorveiL 1 st of July 1852. There was some talk of inducing Glad-
stone to join the Tory government, and on the 29th of
November Lord Malmesbury dubiously remarked, " I cannot
make out Gladstone, who seems to me a dark horse." In the
following month the chancellor of the exchequer produced his
second budget. The government redeemed their pledge to do
something for the relief of the agricultural interest by reducing
the duty on malt. This created a deficit, which they repaired by
doubling the duty on inhabited houses. The voices of criticism
were heard simultaneously on every side. The debate waxed
fast and furious. In defending his proposals Mr Disraeli gave full
scope to his most characteristic gifts; he pelted his opponents
right and left with sarcasms, taunts and epigrams. Gladstone
delivered an unpremeditated reply, which has ever since been
celebrated. Tradition says that he " foamed at the mouth."
The speech of the chancellor of the exchequer, he said, must be
answered " on the moment." It must be " tried by the laws
of decency and propriety." He indignantly rebuked his rival's
language and demeanour. He tore his financial scheme to
ribbons. It was the beginning of a duel which lasted till
death removed one of the combatants from the political arena.
" Those who had thought it impossible that any impression
could be made upon the House after the speech of Mr Disraeli
had to acknowledge that a yet greater impression was produced
by the unprepared reply of Mr Gladstone." The House divided,
and the government were left in a minority of nineteen. Lord
Derby resigned.
The new government was a coalition of Whigs and Peelites.
Lord Aberdeen became prime minister, and Gladstone chancellor
of the exchequer. Having been returned again for
Chancellor $& university of Oxford, he entered on the active
exchequer, duties of a great office for which he was pre-eminently
" fitted by an unique combination of financial, adminis-
trative and rhetorical gifts. His first budget was introduced on
the 18th of April 1853. It tended to make life easier and cheaper
for large and numerous classes; it promised wholesale remissions
of taxation; it lessened the charges on common processes of
business, on locomotion, on postal communication, and on
several articles of general consumption. The deficiency thus
created was to be met by a " succession-duty," or application
of the legacy-duty to real property; by an increase of the duty
on spirits; and by the extension of the income-tax, at 5d. in
the pound, to all incomes between £100 and £150. The speech
in which these proposals were introduced held the House spell-
bound. Here was an orator who could apply all the resources
of a burnished rhetoric to the elucidation of figures>.who could
sweep the widest horizon of the financial future, and yet stoop
to bestow the minutest attention on the microcosm of penny
stamps and post-horses. Above all, the chancellor's mode of
handling the income-tax attracted interest and admiration. It
was a searching analysis of the financial and moral grounds on
which the impost rested, and a historical justification and eulogy
of it. Yet, great as had been the services of the tax at a time
of national danger, Gladstone could not consent to retain it as
a part of the permanent and ordinary finances of the country.
It was objectionable on account of its unequal incidence, of the
harassing investigation into private affairs which it entailed,
and of the frauds to which it inevitably led. Therefore, having
served its turn, it was to be extinguished in i860. The scheme
astonished, interested and attracted the country. The queen
and Prince Albert wrote to congratulate the chancellor of the
exchequer. Public authorities and private friends joined in
the chorus of eulogy. The budget demonstrated at once its
author's absolute mastery over figures and the persuasive force
of his expository gift. It established the chancellor of the
exchequer as the paramount financier of his day, and it was only
the first of a long series of similar performances, different, of
course, in detail, but alike in their bold outlines and brilliant
handling. Looking back on a long life of strenuous exertion,
Gladstone declared that the work of preparing his proposals
about the succession-duty and carrying them through Parlia-
ment was by far the most laborious task which he ever performed.
War between Great Britain and Russia was declared on the
27th of March 1854, and it thus fell to the lot of the most pacific
of ministers, the devotee of retrenchment, and the anxious
cultivator of all industrial arts, to prepare a war budget, and to
meet as well as he might the exigencies of a conflict which had so
cruelly dislocated all the ingenious devices of financial optimism.
No amount of skill in the manipulation of figures, no ingenuity
in shifting fiscal burdens, could prevent the addition of forty-one
millions to the national debt, or could countervail the appalling
mismanagement at the seat of war. Gladstone declared that
the state of the army in the Crimea was a " matter for weeping
all day and praying all night." As soon as parliament met in
January 1855 J. A. Roebuck, the Radical member for Sheffield,
gave notice that he would move for a select committee " to
inquire into the condition of our army before Sevastopol, and
into the conduct of those departments of the government whose
duty it has been to minister to the wants of that army." On
the same day Lord John Russell, without announcing his inten-
tion to his colleagues, resigned his office as president of the
council sooner than attempt the defence of the government.
Gladstone, in defending the government against Roebuck,
rebuked in dignified and significant terms the conduct of men
who, " hoping to escape from punishment, ran away from duty."
On the division on Mr Roebuck's motion the government was
beaten by the unexpected majority of 157.
Lord Palmerston became prime minister. The Peelites
joined him, and Gladstone resumed office as chancellor of the
exchequer. A shrewd observer at the time pronounced him
indispensable. " Any other chancellor of the exchequer would
be torn in bits by him." The government was formed on the
understanding that Mr Roebuck's proposed committee was to
be resisted. Lord Palmerston soon saw that further resistance
was useless; his Peelite colleagues stuck to their text, and,
within three weeks after resuming office, Gladstone, Sir James
Graham and Mr Sidney Herbert resigned. Gladstone once said
of himself and his Peelite colleagues, during the period of political
isolation, that they were like roving icebergs on which men
could not land with safety, but with which ships might come
into perilous collision. He now applied himself specially to
financial criticism, and was perpetually in conflict with the
chancellor of the exchequer, Sir George Cornewall Lewis.
In 1858 Lord Palmerston was succeeded by Lord Derby at
the head of a Conservative administration, and Gladstone
accepted the temporary office of high commissioner extraordinary
to the Ionian Islands. Returning to England for the session of
1859, he found himself involved in the controversy which arose
over a mild Reform Bill introduced by the government. They
were defeated on the second reading of the bill, Gladstone voting
with them. A dissolution immediately followed, and Gladstone
was again returned unopposed for the university of Oxford.
As soon as the new parliament met a vote of want of confidence
in the ministry was moved in the House of Commons. In the
critical division which ensued Gladstone voted with the govern-
ment, who were left in a minority. Lord Derby resigned. Lord
Palmerston became prime minister, and asked Gladstone to
join him as chancellor of the exchequer. To vote confidence
in an imperilled ministry, and on its defeat to take office with
the rivals who have defeated it, is a manoeuvre which invites
the reproach of tergiversation. But Gladstone risked the re-
proach, accepted the office and had a sharp tussle for his seat.
He emerged from the struggle victorious, and entered on his
duties with characteristic zeal. The prince consort wrote:
" Gladstone is now the real leader in the House of Commons,
and works with an energy and vigour altogether incredible."
The budget of i860 was marked by two distinctive features.
It asked the sanction of parliament for the commercial treaty
which Cobden had privately arranged with the emperor Napoleon,
and it proposed to abolish the duty on paper. The French treaty
7°
GLADSTONE
was carried, but the abolition of the paper-duty was defeated in
the House of Lords. Gladstone justly regarded the refusal to
remit a duty as being in effect an act of taxation, and
of i860. therefore as an infringement of the rights of the House
of Commons. The proposal to abolish the paper-
duty was revived in the budget of 1861, the chief proposals
of which, instead of being divided, as in previous years, into
several bills, were included in one. By this device the Lords were
obliged to acquiesce in the repeal of the paper-duty.
During Lord Palmerston's last administration, which lasted
from 1859 to 1865, Gladstone was by far the most brilliant and
most conspicuous figure in the cabinet. Except in finance, he
was not able to accomplish much, for he was met and thwarted
at every turn by his chief's invincible hostility to change; but
the more advanced section of the Liberal party began to look
upon him as their predestined leader. In 1864, in a debate on a
private member's bill for extending the suffrage, he declared that
the burden of proof lay on those " who would exclude forty-nine
fiftieths of the working-classes from the franchise." In 1865,
in a debate on the condition of the Irish Church Establishment,
he declared that the Irish Church, as it then stood, was in a false
position, inasmuch as it ministered only to one-eighth or one-
ninth of the whole community. But just in proportion as Glad-
stone advanced in favour with the Radical party he lost the
confidence of his own constituents. Parliament was dissolved
in July 1865, and the university elected Mr Gathorne Hardy
in his place.
Gladstone at once turned his steps towards South Lancashire,
where he was returned with two Tories above him. The result
of the general election was to retain Lord Palmerston's
L*mderoi government in power, but on the 18th of October the
cZmmong. °ld prime minister died. He was succeeded by Lord
Russell, and Gladstone, retaining the chancellorship
of the exchequer, became for the first time leader of the House
of Commons. Lord Russell, backed by Gladstone, persuaded
his colleagues to consent to a moderate Reform Bill, and the
task of piloting this measure through the House of Commons
fell to Gladstone. The speech in which he wound up the debate
on the second reading was one of the finest, if not indeed the very
finest, which he ever delivered. But it was of no practical avail.
The government were defeated on an amendment in committee,
and thereupon resigned. Lord Derby became prime minister,
with Disraeli as chancellor of the exchequer and leader of the
House of Commons. On the 18th of March 1867 the Tory
Reform Bill, which ended in establishing Household Suffrage
in the boroughs, was introduced, and was read a second time
without a division. After undergoing extensive alterations in
committee at the hands of the Liberals and Radicals, the bill
became law in August.
At Christmas 1867 Lord Russell announced his final retirement
from active politics, and Gladstone was recognized by acclama-
tion as leader of the Liberal party. Nominally he was
i Ubenl* i m Opposition; DUt ms party formed the majority
party. of the House of Commons, and could beat the govern-
ment whenever they chose to mass their forces.
Gladstone seized the opportunity to give effect to convictions
which had long been forming in his mind. Early in the session
he brought in a bill abolishing compulsory church-rates, and
this passed into law. On the 16th of March, in a debate raised
by an Irish member, he declared that in his judgment the Irish
Church, as a State Church, must cease to exist. Immediately
afterwards he embodied this opinion in a series of resolutions
concerning the Irish Church Establishment, and carried them
against the government. Encouraged by this triumph, he
brought in a Bill to prevent any fresh appointments in the Irish
Church, and this also passed the Commons, though it was
defeated in the Lords. Parliament was dissolved on the nth of
November. A single issue was placed before the country — Was
the Irish Church to be, or not to be, disestablished? The
response was an overwhelming affirmative. Gladstone, who had
been doubly nominated, was defeated in Lancashire, but was
returned for Greenwich. He chose this moment for publishing
a Chapter of Autobiography, in which he explained and justified
his change of opinion with regard to the Irish Church.
On the 2nd of December Disraeli, who had succeeded Lord
Derby as premier in the preceding February, announced that
he and his colleagues, recognizing their defeat, had
resigned without waiting for a formal vote of the new Minister:
parliament. On the following day Gladstone was iriMk
summoned to Windsor, and commanded by the Cfc « re *
queen to form an administration. The great task to ^^ImeuL
which the new prime minister immediately addressed
himself was the disestablishment of the Irish Church. The
queen wrote to Archbishop Tait that the subject of the Irish
Church " made her very anxious/ ' but that Mr Gladstone
" showed the most conciliatory disposition." " The government
can do nothing that would tend to raise a suspicion of their
sincerity in proposing to disestablish the Irish Church, and to
withdraw all state endowments from all religious communions
in Ireland; but, were these conditions accepted, all other
matters connected with the question might, the queen thinks,
become the subject of discussion and negotiation." The bill
was drawn and piloted on the lines thus indicated, and became
law on the 26th of July. In the session of 1870 Gladstone's
principal work was the Irish Land Act, of which the object was
to protect the tenant against eviction as long as he paid his rent,
and to secure to him the value of any improvements which his
own industry had made. In the following session Religious
Tests in the universities were abolished, and a bill to establish
secret voting was carried through the House of Commons.
This was thrown out by the Lords, but became law a year later.
The House of Lords threw out a bill to abolish the purchase of
commissions in the army. Gladstone found that purchase
existed only by royal sanction, and advised the queen to issue
a royal warrant cancelling, on and after the 1st of November
following, all regulations authorizing the purchase of commissions.
In 1873 Gladstone set his hand to the third of three great
Irish reforms to which he had pledged himself. His scheme
for the establishment of a university which should satisfy both
Roman Catholics and Protestants met with general disapproval.
The bill was thrown out by three votes, and Gladstone resigned.
The queen sent for Disraeli, who declined to take office in a
minority of the House of Commons, so Gladstone was compelled
to resume. But he and his colleagues were now, in Disraelitish
phrase, " exhausted volcanoes." Election after election went
wrong. The government had lost favour with the public, and
was divided against itself. There were resignations and rumours
of resignations. When the session of 1873 had come to an end
Gladstone took the chancellorship of the exchequer, and, as
high authorities contended, vacated his seat by doing so. The
point was obviously one of vital importance; and we learn from
Lord Selb*rne, who was lord chancellor at the time, that Glad-
stone " was sensible of the difficulty of either taking his seat
in the usual manner at the opening of the session, or letting ....
the necessary arrangements for business in the House of Commons
be made in the prime minister's absence. A dissolution was the
only escape." On the 23rd of January 1874 Gladstone announced
the dissolution in an address to his constituents, 0& ^ Arfto
declaring that the authority of the government had ot is74. *
now " sunk below the point necessary for the due de-
fence and prosecution of the public interest." He promised that,
if he were returned to power, he would repeal the income-tax.
This bid for popularity failed, the general election resulting in a
Tory majority of f orty^six. Gladstone kept his seat for Greenwich,
but was only second on the poll. Following the example of
Disraeli in 1868, he resigned without meeting parliament.
For some years he had alluded to his impending retirement
from public life, saying that he was "strong against going on in
politics to the end." He was now sixty-four, and his
life had been a continuous experience of exhausting g^finmeML
labour. On the 12th of March 1874 he informed
Lord Granville that he could give only occasional attendance
in the House of Commons during the current session, and that
he must " reserve his entire freedom to divest himself of all the
GLADSTONE
7i
responsibilities of leadership at no distant date." His most
important intervention in the debates of 1874 was when he
opposed Archbishop Tait's Public Worship Bill. This was read
a second time without a division, but in committee Gladstone
enjoyed some signal triumphs over his late solicitor-general,
Sir William Harcourt, who had warmly espoused the cause of
the government and the bill. At the beginning of 1875 Gladstone
carried into effect the resolution which he had announced a year
before, and formally resigned the leadership of the Liberal
party. He was succeeded by Lord Hartington, afterwards
duke of Devonshire. The learned leisure which Gladstone had
promised himself when released from official responsibility
was not of long duration. In the autumn of 1875 an insurrection
broke out in Bulgaria, and the suppression of it by the Turks
was marked by massacres and outrages. Public indignation
was aroused by what were known as the " Bulgarian atrocities,"
and Gladstone flung himself into the agitation against Turkey
with characteristic zeal. At public meetings, in the press, and
in parliament he denounced the Turkish government and its
champion, Disraeli, who had now become Lord Beaconsfield.
Lord Hartington soon found himself pushed aside from his
position of titular leadership. For four years, from 1876 to 1880,
Gladstone maintained the strife with a courage, a persistence
and a versatility which raised the enthusiasm of his followers
to the highest pitch. The county of Edinburgh, or Midlothian,
which he contested against the dominant influence of
campaign. tne duke °* Buccleuch, was the scene of the most
astonishing exertions. As the general election ap-
proached the only question submitted to the electors was — Do
you approve or condemn Lord Beaconsfield's foreign policy?
The answer was given at Easter 1880, when the Liberals were
returned by an overwhelming majority over Tories and Home
Rulers combined. Gladstone was now member for Midlothian,
having retired from Greenwich at the dissolution.
When Lord Beaconsfield resigned, the queen sent for Lord
Hartington, the titular leader of the Liberals, but he and Lord
Granville assured her that no other chief than Gladstone would
satisfy the party. Accordingly, on the 23rd of April he became
prime minister for the second time. His second administration,
of which the main achievement was the extension of the suffrage
to the agricultural labourers, was harassed by two controversies,
relating to Ireland and Egypt, which proved disastrous to the
Liberal party. Gladstone alienated considerable masses of
English opinion by his efforts to reform the tenure of Irish land,
and provoked the Irish people by his attempts to establish
social order and to repress crime. A bill to provide compensation
for tenants who had been evicted by Irish landlords passed the
Commons, but was shipwrecked in the Lords, and a ghastly
record of outrage and murder stained the following winter. A
Coercion Bill and a Land Bill passed in 188 1 proved unsuccessful.
On the 6th of May 1882 the newly appointed chief secretary
for Ireland, Lord Frederick Cavendish, and his under-secretary,
Mr Burke, were stabbed to death in the Phoenix Park at Dublin.
A new Crimes Act, courageously administered by Lord Spencer
and Sir George Trevelyan, abolished exceptional crime in Ireland,
but completed the breach between the British government and
the Irish party in parliament.
The bombardment of the forts at Alexandria and the occupa-
tion of Egypt in 1882 were viewed with great disfavour by the
bulk of the Liberal party, and were but little congenial to
Gladstone himself. The circumstances of General Gordon's
untimely death awoke an outburst of indignation against those
who were, or seemed to be, responsible for it. Frequent votes of
censure were proposed by the Opposition, and on the 8th of June
1885 the government were beaten on the budget. Gladstone
resigned. The queen offered him the dignity of an earldom,
which he declined. He was succeeded by Lord Salisbury.
The general election took place in the following November.
When it was over the Liberal party was just short of the numerical
strength which was requisite to defeat the combination of Tories
and Parnellites. A startling surprise was at hand. Gladstone
had for some time been convinced of the expediency of conceding
Home Rule to Ireland in the event of the Irish constituencies
giving unequivocal proof that they desired it. His intentions
were made known only to a privileged few, and
these, curiously, were not his colleagues. The general 2!*ito
election of 1885 showed that Ireland, outside Ulster, RuhBtti,
was practically unanimous for Home Rule. On the
17th of December an anonymous paragraph was published,
stating that if Mr Gladstone returned to office he was prepared
to " deal in a liberal spirit with the demand for Home Rule."
It was clear that if Gladstone meant what he appeared to mean,
the Parnellites would support him, and the Tories must leave
office. The government seemed to accept the situation. When
parliament met they executed, for form's sake, some confused
manoeuvres, and then they were beaten on an amendment
to the address in favour of Municipal Allotments. On the 1st
of February 1886 Gladstone became, for the third time, prime
minister. Several of his former colleagues declined to join
him, on the ground of their absolute hostility to the policy of
Home Rule; others joined on the express understanding that
they were only pledged to consider the policy, and did not fetter
their further liberty of action. On the 8th of April Gladstone
brought in his bill for establishing Home Rule, and eight days
later the bill for buying out the Irish landlords. Meanwhile
two members of his cabinet, feeling themselves unable to support
these measures, resigned. Hostility to the bills grew apace.
Gladstone was implored to withdraw them, or substitute a
resolution in favour of Irish autonomy; but he resolved to press
at least the Home Rule Bill to a second reading. In the early
morning of the 8th of June the bill was thrown out by thirty.
Gladstone immediately advised the queen to dissolve parliament.
Her Majesty strongly demurred to a second general election
within seven months; but Gladstone persisted, and she yielded.
Parliament was dissolved on the 26th of June. In spite of
Gladstone's skilful appeal to the constituencies to sanction
the principle of Home Rule, as distinct from the practical
provisions of his late bill, the general election resulted in a
majority of considerably over 100 against his policy, and Lord
Salisbury resumed office. Throughout the existence of the new
parliament Gladstone never relaxed his extraordinary efforts,
though now nearer eighty than seventy, on behalf of the cause
of self-government for Ireland. The fertility of argumentative
resource, the copiousness of rhetoric, and the physical energy
which he threw into the enterprise, would have been remarkable
at any stage of his public life; continued into his eighty-fifth
year they were little less than miraculous. Two incidents of
domestic interest, one happy and the other sad, belong to that
period of political storm and stress. On the 25th of July 1889
Gladstone celebrated the fiftieth anniversary of his marriage,
and on the 4th of July 189 1 his eldest son, William Henry, a
man of fine character and accomplishments, died, after a lingering
illness, in his fifty-second year.
The crowning struggle of Gladstone's political career was
now approaching its climax. Parliament was dissolved on the
28th of June 1892. The general election resulted
in a majority of forty for Home Rule, heterogeneously n!me%ih
composed of Liberals, Labour members and Irish. BUI
As soon as the new parliament met a vote of want of
confidence in Lord Salisbury's government was moved and
carried. Lord Salisbury resigned, and on the 15th of August
1892 Gladstone kissed hands as first lord of the treasury. He
was the first English statesman that had been four times prime
minister. Parliament reassembled in January 1893. Gladstone
brought in his new Home Rule Bill on the 13th of February.
It passed the House of Commons, but was thrown out by the
House of Lords on the second reading on the 8th of September
1893. Gladstone's political work was now, in his own judgment,
ended. He made his last speech in the House of Commons on the
1st of March 1894, acquiescing in some amendments introduced
by the Lords into the Parish Councils Bill; and on the 3rd of
March he placed his resignation in the queen's hands. He
never set foot again in the House of Commons, though he re-
mained a member of it till the dissolution of 1895. He paid
7°
GLADSTONE
was carried, but the abolition of the paper-duty was defeated in
the House of Lords. Gladstone justly regarded the refusal to
remit a duty as being in effect an act of taxation, and
o/ 1*69. therefore as an infringement of the rights of the House
of Commons. The proposal to abolish the paper-
duty was revived in the budget of 1861, the chief proposals
of which, instead of being divided, as in previous years, into
several bills, were included in one. By this device the Lords were
obliged to acquiesce in the repeal of the paper-duty.
During Lord Palmerston's last administration, which lasted
from 1859 to 1865, Gladstone was by far the most brilliant and
most conspicuous figure in the cabinet. Except in finance, he
was not able to accomplish much, for he was met and thwarted
at every turn by his chief's invincible hostility to change; but
the more advanced section of the Liberal party began to look
upon him as their predestined leader. In 1864, in a debate on a
private member's bill for extending the suffrage, he declared that
the burden of proof lay on those " who would exclude forty-nine
fiftieths of the working-classes from the franchise." In 1865,
in a debate on the condition of the Irish Church Establishment,
he declared that the Irish Church, as it then stood, was in a false
position, inasmuch as it ministered only to one-eighth or one-
ninth of the whole community. But just in proportion as Glad-
stone advanced in favour with the Radical party he lost the
confidence of his own constituents. Parliament was dissolved
in July 1865, and the university elected Mr Gathorne Hardy
in his place.
Gladstone at once turned his steps towards South Lancashire,
where he was returned with two Tories above him. The result
of the general election was to retain Lord Palmerston's
Ltmderot government in power, but on the 18th of October the
Common*. old prime minister died. He was succeeded by Lord
Russell, and Gladstone, retaining the chancellorship
of the exchequer, became for the first time leader of the House
of Commons. Lord Russell, backed by Gladstone, persuaded
his colleagues to consent to a moderate Reform Bill, and the
task of piloting this measure through the House of Commons
fell to Gladstone. The speech in which he wound up the debate
on the second reading was one of the finest, if not indeed the very
finest, which he ever delivered. But it was of no practical avail.
The government were defeated on an amendment in committee,
and thereupon resigned. Lord Derby became prime minister,
with Disraeli as chancellor of the exchequer and leader of the
House of Commons. On the 18th of March 1867 the Tory
Reform Bill, which ended in establishing Household Suffrage
in the boroughs, was introduced, and was read a second time
without a division. After undergoing extensive alterations in
committee at the hands of the Liberals and Radicals, the bill
became law in August.
At Christmas 1867 Lord Russell announced his final retirement
from active politics, and Gladstone was recognized by acclama-
tion as leader of the Liberal party. Nominally he was
£2JjJj|J o/ in Opposition; but his party formed the majority
party. °* tne House of Commons, and could beat the govern-
ment whenever they chose to mass their forces.
Gladstone seized the opportunity to give effect to convictions
which had long been forming in his mind. Early in the session
he brought in a bill abolishing compulsory church-rates, and
this passed into law. On the 16th of March, in a debate raised
by an Irish member, he declared that in his judgment the Irish
Church, as a State Church, must cease to exist. Immediately
afterwards he embodied this opinion in a series of resolutions
concerning the Irish Church Establishment, and carried them
against the government. Encouraged by this triumph, he
brought in a Bill to prevent any fresh appointments in the Irish
Church, and this also passed the Commons, though it was
defeated in the Lords. Parliament was dissolved on the nth of
November. A single issue was placed before the country — Was
the Irish Church to be, or not to be, disestablished? The
response was an overwhelming affirmative. Gladstone, who had
been doubly nominated, was defeated in Lancashire, but was
returned for Greenwich. He chose this moment for publishing
a Chapter of Autobiography, in which he explained and justified
his change of opinion with regard to the Irish Church.
On the 2nd of December Disraeli, who had succeeded Lord
Derby as premier in the preceding February, announced that
he and his colleagues, recognizing their defeat, had
resigned without waiting for a formal vote of the new MinMer:
parliament. On the following day Gladstone was M*k
summoned to Windsor, and commanded by the Chmxh
queen to form an administration. The great task to 2Jj me-< ,
which the new prime minister immediately addressed
himself was the disestablishment of the Irish Church. The
queen wrote to Archbishop Tait that the subject of the Irish
Church " made her very anxious," but that Mr Gladstone
" showed the most conciliatory disposition." " The government
can do nothing that would tend to raise a suspicion of their
sincerity in proposing to disestablish the Irish Church, and to
withdraw all state endowments from aU religious communions
in Ireland; but, were these conditions accepted, all other
matters connected with the question might, the queen thinks,
become the subject of discussion and negotiation." The bill
was drawn and piloted on the lines thus indicated, and became
law on the 26th of July. In the session of 1870 Gladstone's
principal work was the Irish Land Act, of which the object was
to protect the tenant against eviction as long as he paid his rent,
and to secure to him the value of any improvements which his
own industry had made. In the following session Religious
Tests in the universities were abolished, and a bill to establish
secret voting was carried through the House of Commons.
This was thrown out by the Lords, but became law a year later.
The House of Lords threw out a bill to abolish the purchase of
commissions in the army. Gladstone found that purchase
existed only by royal sanction, and advised the queen to issue
a royal warrant cancelling, on and after the 1st of November
following, all regulations authorizing the purchase of commissions.
In 1873 Gladstone set his hand to the third of three great
Irish reforms to which he had pledged himself. His scheme
for the establishment of a university which should satisfy both
Roman Catholics and Protestants met with general disapproval.
The bill was thrown out by three votes, and Gladstone resigned.
The queen sent for Disraeli, who declined to take office in a
minority of the House of Commons, so Gladstone was compelled
to resume. But he and his colleagues were now, in Disraelitish
phrase, " exhausted volcanoes." Election after election went
wrong. The government had lost favour with the public, and
was divided against itself. There were resignations and rumours
of resignations. When the session of 1873 had come to an end
Gladstone took the chancellorship of the exchequer, and, as
high authorities contended, vacated his seat by doing so. The
point was obviously one of vital importance; and we learn from
Lord Selbarne, who was lord chancellor at the time, that Glad-
stone " was sensible of the difficulty of either taking his seat
in the usual manner at the opening of the session, or letting ....
the necessary arrangements for business in the House of Commons
be made in the prime minister's absence. A dissolution was the
only escape." On the 23rd of January 1874 Gladstone announced
the dissolution in an address to his constituents, ^^
declaring that the authority of the government had t%s74. *
now " sunk below the point necessary for the due de-
fence and prosecution of the public interest." He promised that,
if he were returned to power, he would repeal the income-tax.
This bid for popularity failed, the general election resulting in a
Tory majority of forty^six. Gladstone kept his seat for Greenwich,
but was only second on the poll. Following the example of
Disraeli in 1868, he resigned without meeting parliament.
For some years he had alluded to his impending retirement
from public life, saying that he was " strong against going on in
politics to the end." He was now sixty-four, and his
life had been a continuous experience of exhausting ntinmoZ
labour. On the 12th of March 1874 he informed
Lord Granville that he could give only occasional attendance
in the House of Commons during the current session, and that
he must " reserve his entire freedom to divest himself of all the
GLADSTONE
7i
responsibilities of leadership at no distant date." His most
important intervention in the debates of 1874 was when he
opposed Archbishop Tait's Public Worship Bill. This was read
a second time without a division, but in committee Gladstone
enjoyed some signal triumphs over his late solicitor-general,
Sir William Harcourt, who had warmly espoused the cause of
the government and the bill. At the beginning of 1875 Gladstone
carried into effect the resolution which he had announced a year
before, and formally resigned the leadership of the Liberal
party. He was succeeded by Lord Hartington, afterwards
duke of Devonshire. The learned leisure which Gladstone had
promised himself when released from official responsibility
was not of long duration. In the autumn of 1875 an insurrection
broke out in Bulgaria, and the suppression of it by the Turks
was marked by massacres and outrages. Public indignation
was aroused by what were known as the " Bulgarian atrocities,"
and Gladstone flung himself into the agitation against Turkey
with characteristic zeal. At public meetings, in the press, and
in parliament he denounced the Turkish government and its
champion, Disraeli, who had now become Lord Beaconsfield.
Lord Hartington soon found himself pushed aside from his
position of titular leadership. For four years, from 1876 to 1880,
Gladstone maintained the strife with a courage, a persistence
and a versatility which raised the enthusiasm of his followers
to the highest pitch. The county of Edinburgh, or Midlothian,
which he contested against the dominant influence of
campaign. tne duke °* Buccleuch, was the scene of the most
astonishing exertions. As the general election ap-
proached the only question submitted to the electors was — Do
you approve or condemn Lord Beaconsfield's foreign policy?
The answer was given at Easter 1880, when the Liberals were
returned by an overwhelming majority over Tories and Home
Rulers combined. Gladstone was now member for Midlothian,
having retired from Greenwich at the dissolution.
When Lord Beaconsfield resigned, the queen sent for Lord
Hartington, the titular leader of the Liberals, but he and Lord
Granville assured her that no other chief than Gladstone would
satisfy the party. Accordingly, on the 23rd of April he became
prime minister for the second time. His second administration,
of which the main achievement was the extension of the suffrage
to the agricultural labourers, was harassed by two controversies,
relating to Ireland and Egypt, which proved disastrous to the
Liberal party. Gladstone alienated considerable masses of
English opinion by his efforts to reform the tenure of Irish land,
and provoked the Irish people by his attempts to establish
social order and to repress crime. A bill to provide compensation
for tenants who had been evicted by Irish landlords passed the
Commons, but was shipwrecked in the Lords, and a ghastly
record of outrage and murder stained the following winter. A
Coercion Bill and a Land Bill passed in 188 1 proved unsuccessful.
On the 6th of May 1882 the newly appointed chief secretary
for Ireland, Lord Frederick Cavendish, and his under-secretary,
Mr Burke, were stabbed to death in the Phoenix Park at Dublin.
A new Crimes Act, courageously administered by Lord Spencer
and Sir George Trevelyan, abolished exceptional crime in Ireland,
but completed the breach between the British government and
the Irish party in parliament.
The bombardment of the forts at Alexandria and the occupa-
tion of Egypt in 1882 were viewed with great disfavour by the
bulk of the Liberal party, and were but little congenial to
Gladstone himself. The circumstances of General Gordon's
untimely death awoke an outburst of indignation against those
who were, or seemed to be, responsible for it. Frequent votes of
censure were proposed by the Opposition, and on the 8th of June
1885 the government were beaten on the budget. Gladstone
resigned. The queen offered him the dignity of an earldom,
which he declined. He was succeeded by Lord Salisbury.
The general election took place in the following November.
When it was over the Liberal party was just short of the numerical
strength which was requisite to defeat the combination of Tories
and Parnellites. A startling surprise was at hand. Gladstone
had for some time been convinced of the expediency of conceding
Home Rule to Ireland in the event of the Irish constituencies
giving unequivocal proof that they desired it. His intentions
were made known only to a privileged few, and
these, curiously, were not his colleagues. The general ^j^e
election of 1885 showed that Ireland, outside Ulster, RuhBOL
was practically unanimous for Home Rule. On the
17th of December an anonymous paragraph was published,
stating that if Mr Gladstone returned to office he was prepared
to " deal in a liberal spirit with the demand for Home Rule."
It was clear that if Gladstone meant what he appeared to mean,
the Parnellites would support him, and the Tories must leave
office. The government seemed to accept the situation. When
parliament met they executed, for form's sake, some confused
manoeuvres, and then they were beaten on an amendment
to the address in favour of Municipal Allotments. On the 1st
of February 1886 Gladstone became, for the third time, prime
minister. Several of his former colleagues declined to join
him, on the ground of their absolute hostility to the policy of
Home Rule; others joined on the express understanding that
they were only pledged to consider the policy, and did not fetter
their further liberty of action. On the 8th of April Gladstone
brought in his bill for establishing Home Rule, and eight days
later the bill for buying out the Irish landlords. Meanwhile
two members of his cabinet, feeling themselves unable to support
these measures, resigned. Hostility to the bills grew apace.
Gladstone was implored to withdraw them, or substitute a
resolution in favour of Irish autonomy; but he resolved to press
at least the Home Rule Bill to a second reading. In the early
morning of the 8th of June the bill was thrown out by thirty.
Gladstone immediately advised the queen to dissolve parliament.
Her Majesty strongly demurred to a second general election
within seven months; but Gladstone persisted, and she yielded.
Parliament was dissolved on the 26th of June. In spite of
Gladstone's skilful appeal to the constituencies to sanction
the principle of Home Rule, as distinct from the practical
provisions of his late bill, the general election resulted in a
majority of considerably over 100 against his policy, and Lord
Salisbury resumed office. Throughout the existence of the new
parliament Gladstone never relaxed his extraordinary efforts,
though now nearer eighty than seventy, on behalf of the cause
of self-government for Ireland. The fertility of argumentative
resource, the copiousness of rhetoric, and the physical energy
which he threw into the enterprise, would have been remarkable
at any stage of his public life; continued into his eighty-fifth
year they were little less than miraculous. Two incidents of
domestic interest, one happy and the other sad, belong to that
period of political storm and stress. On the 25th of July 1889
Gladstone celebrated the fiftieth anniversary of his marriage,
and on the 4th of July 1891 his eldest son, William Henry, a
man of fine character and accomplishments, died, after a lingering
illness, in his fifty-second year.
The crowning struggle of Gladstone's political career was
now approaching its climax. Parliament was dissolved on the
28th of June 1892. The general election resulted i -^ .
in a majority of forty for Home Rule, heterogeneously ff eme j^
composed of Liberals, Labour members and Irish. Bill
As soon as the new parliament met a vote of want of
confidence in Lord Salisbury's government was moved and
carried. Lord Salisbury resigned, and on the 15th of August
1892 Gladstone kissed hands as first lord of the treasury. He
was the first English statesman that had been four times prime
minister. Parliament reassembled in January 1893. Gladstone
brought in his new Home Rule Bill on the 13th of February.
It passed the House of Commons, but was thrown out by the
House of Lords on the second reading on the 8th of September
1893. Gladstone's political work was now, in his own judgment,
ended. He made his last speech in the House of Commons on the
1st of March 1894, acquiescing in some amendments introduced
by the Lords into the Parish Councils Bill; and on the 3rd of
March he placed his resignation in the queen's hands. He
never set foot again in the House of Commons, though he re-
mained a member of it till the dissolution of 1895. He paid
7*
GLADSTONE— GLAGOLITIC
occasional visits to friends in London, Scotland and the south
of France; but the remainder of his life was spent for the most
part at Hawarden. He occupied his leisure by writing a rhymed
translation of the Odes of Horace, and preparing an elaborately
annotated edition of Butler's Analogy and Sermons. He had
also contemplated some addition to the Homeric studies which
he had always loved, but this design was never carried into effect,
for he was summoned once again from his quiet life of study
and devotion to the field of public controversy. The Armenian
massacres in 1894 and 1895 revived all his ancient hostility to
" the governing Turk." He denounced the massacres and their
perpetrators at public meetings held at Chester on the 6th of
August 1895, and at Liverpool on the 24th of September 1896.
In March 1897 he recapitulated the hideous history in an open
letter to the duke of Westminster.
But the end, though not yet apprehended, was at hand.
Since his retirement from office Gladstone's physical vigour,
up to that time unequalled, had shown signs of impairment.
Towards the end of the summer of 1897 he began to suffer from
an acute pain, which was attributed to facial neuralgia, and
in November he went to Cannes. In February 1898 he returned
to England and went to Bournemouth. There he was informed
that the pain had its origin in a disease which must soon prove
fatal. He received the information with simple thankfulness,
and only asked that he might die at home. On the 22nd of
March he returned to Hawarden, and there he died
on the ioth of May 1898. During the night of the
25th of May his body was conveyed from Hawarden to London
and the coffin was placed on a bier in Westminster Hall. Through-
out the 26th and 27th a vast train of people, officially estimated
at 250,000, and drawn from every rank and class, moved in
unbroken procession past the bier. On the 28th of May the
coflm, preceded by the two Houses of Parliament and escorted
by the chief magnates of the realm, was carried from Westminster
Hall to Westminster Abbey. The heir-apparent and his son,
the prime minister and the leader of the House of Commons,
were among those who bore the pall. The body was buried
in the north transept of the abbey, where, on the 19th of June
1900, Mrs Gladstone's body was laid beside it.
Mr and Mrs Gladstone had four sons and four daughters, of
whom one died in infancy. The eldest son, W. H. Gladstone
AMrifct. (1840-1891), was a member of parliament for many
years, and married the daughter of Lord Blantyre, his
son William (b. 1885) inheriting the family estates. The fourth
son, Herbert John (b. 1854), sat in parliament for Leeds from
i$8o to 19x0, and Ailed various offices, being home secretary
1 005- iq xo; in xoio he was created Viscount Gladstone, on being
appointed governor-general of united South Africa, The eldest
daughter, Agnes, married the Rev. E. C. Wickham, headmaster of
Wellington, 1873-1803, and later Dean of Lincoln. Another
daughter married the Rev, Harry Drew, rector of Hawarden.
The youngest, Helen, was for some years vice-principal of
Newnham College, Cambridge.
After a careful survey of Mr Gladstone's life, enlightened
by personal observation, it is inevitable to attempt some analysis
CiOTriiri °* kk ch*™ 01 ^ First among his moral attributes
must be placed his religiousness. From those early
days when a fond mother wrote of him as having been " truly
converted to God,* 1 down to the verge of ninety years, he lived
in the habitual eon temptation of the unseen world, and regulated
his private and public action by reference to a code higher
than that of mere prudence or worldly wisdom. A second
characteristic, scarcely less prominent than the first, was his
love of power. His ambition had nothing in common with the
vulgar eagerness for place and pay and social standing. Rather
it was a resolute determination to possess that control over the
machine of state which should enable him to fulfil without let
or hindrance the political mission with which he believed that
Providence had ch&rptd him. The love of power was supported
by a splendid fearlessness, Xo dangers were too threatening
for him to tace.no obstacles tooformidable.no tasks too laborious,
no heights too s:«|\ The love of power and the supporting
courage were allied with a marked imperiousness. Of this
quality there was no trace in his manner, which was courteous,
conciliatory and even deferential; nor in his speech, which
breathed an almost exaggerated humility. But the imperious-
ness showed itself in the more effectual form of action; in his
sudden resolves, his invincible insistence, his recklessness of
consequences to himself and his friends, his habitual assumption
that the civilized world and all its units must agree with him,
his indignant astonishment at the bare thought of dissent or
resistance, his incapacity to believe that an overruling Provid-
ence would permit him to be frustrated or defeated. He had
by nature what he himself called a " vulnerable temper and
impetuous moods." But so absolute was his lifelong self-mastery
that he was hardly ever betrayed into saying that which, on
cooler reflection, needed to be recalled. It was easy enough
to see the " vulnerable temper " as it worked within, but it
was never suffered to find audible expression. It may seem
paradoxical, but it is true, to say that Mr Gladstone was by
nature conservative. His natural bias was to respect things as
they were. In his eyes, institutions, customs, systems, so long
as they had not become actively mischievous, were good because
they were old. It is true that he was sometimes forced by
conviction or fate or political necessity to be a revolutionist
on a large scale; to destroy an established Church; to add two
millions of voters to the electorate; to attack the parliamentary
union of the kingdoms. But these changes were, in their in-
ception, distasteful to their author. His whole life was spent
in unlearning the prejudices in which he was educated. His
love of freedom steadily developed, and he applied its principles
more and more courageously to the problems of government.
But it makes some difference to the future of a democratic
state whether its leading men are eagerly on the look-out for
something to revolutionize, or approach a constitutional change
by the gradual processes of conviction and conversion.
Great as were his eloquence, his knowledge and his financial
skill, Gladstone was accustomed to say of himself that the only
quality in which, so far as he knew, he was distinguished from
his fellow-men was his faculty of concentration. Whatever were
the matter in hand, he so concentrated himself on it, and absorbed
himself in it, that nothing else seemed to exist for him.
A word must be said about physical characteristics. In
his prime Gladstone was just six feet high, but his inches
diminished as his years increased, and in old age the unusual
size of his head and breadth of his shoulders gave him a slightly
top-heavy appearance. His features were strongly marked;
the nose trenchant and hawk-like, and the mouth severely
lined. His flashing eyes were deep-set, and in colour resembled
the onyx with its double band of brown and grey. His com-
plexion was of an extreme pallor, and, combined with his jet-black
hair, gave in earlier life something of an Italian aspect to his
face. His dark eyebrows were singularly flexible, and they per-
petually expanded and contracted in harmony with what he
was saying. He held himself remarkably upright, and even
from his school-days at Eton had been remarked for the rapid
pace at which he habitually walked. His voice was a baritone,
singularly clear and far-reaching. In the Waverley Market
at Edinburgh, which is said to hold 20,000 people, he could be
heard without difficulty; and as late as 1895 he said to the
present writer: " What difference does it make to me whether
I speak to 400 or 4000 people ? " His physical vigour in old
age earned him the popular nickname of the Grand Old Man.
Lord Morley of Blackburn's Life of Gladstone was published in
1903. (G. W. E. R.)
GLADSTONE, a seaport of Clinton county, Queensland,
Australia, 328 m. by rail X.E. of Brisbane. Pop. (1901) 1566.
It possesses a fine, well-sheltered harbour reputed one of the
best in Queensland, at the mouth of the river Boyne. Gold,
manganese, copper and coal are found in the neighbourhood.
Gladstone, founded in 1S47. became a municipality in 1S63.
See J. F- Hogan, The Gladstone Colony ^ London, iSoS).
GLAGOUTIC, an early Slavonic alphabet: also the liturgy
written therein, and the people ^Dalmatians and Roman Catholic
GLAIR—GLAMORGANSHIRE
-73
Montenegrins) among whom it has survived by special Hcence
of the Pope (see Sj.ay« for, table of letters).
GLAIR (from Fr<. glaire, probably from Lat clams, clear,
bright), the white of an egg, and hence a term used for a prepara-
tion made of this and used, in bookbinding and in gilding, to
retain the gold and as a varnish. The adjective " glairy " is
usecfof substances having the viscous and transparent consistency
of the white bl an egg.
GLAISHER, JAMBS (1809-1903), English meteorologist and
aeronaut, was bora in. London on the 7th of April 1809. After
serving for a few years on the Ordnance Survey of Ireland,
he acted as an assistant at the Cambridge and Greenwich ob-
servatories successively, and when the department of meteorology
and magnetism was formed at the latter, he was entrusted ( ^vith
its superintendence^whiich he continued to exercise for thirty-four
years, until his retirement from the public service. In 1845 he
published his well-known dew-point tables, which have gone
through many editions. In 1850 he established the Meteoro-
logical Society,: acting as its secretary for many years, and, in
1866 he assisted in the foundation of the Aeronautical Society
of Great Britain. He was appointed a member of the royal
commission on , the warming and ventilation of dwellings in 1875,
and for twelve years from 1880 acted as chairman of the executive
committee of the Palestine Exploration Fund. But his name
is best known in connexion with the series of balloon ascents
which he made between 1862 and 1866, mostly in company
with Henry Tracey Coxwell. Many of these ascents were
arranged by a committee of the British Association, of which
he was a member, and were strictly scientific in character, the
object being to carry out observations on the temperature,
humidity, &c, of the atmosphere at high elevations. In one of
them, that which took place at Wolverhampton on the 5th of
September 1862, Glaisher and his companion attained the
greatest height that had been reached by a balloon carrying
passengers. As no. automatically recording instruments were
available, and Glaisher was unable to read the barometer at
the highest point owing to loss of consciousness, the precise
altitude can never be known, but it is estimated at about
7 m. from the earth. Hfe died on the 7th of February 1903 at
Croydon. ' .
GLAMIS, a village and: parish of Forfarshire, Scotland, 5J m.
W. by S. of Forfar by the Caledonian railway. Pop. of parish
(iqoi) 1351, .The name is sometimes spelled Glammis and the
* is mute: it is derived from the Gaelic, glamhus, " a Wide gap,"
" a vale." The chief object in the village is the sculptured stone,
traditionally supposed to be a memorial of Malcolm II., although
Fordun's statement that the king was slain in the castle is now
rejected. About a- mile from the station stands Glamis Castle,
the seat of the fearl of Strathmore aiid Kinghbrne, a fine example ;
of the Scottish ;BarbriiaJ style, enriched with certain features
of the French chateau. In its present form it dates mostly
from the 17th cehturyi but tbt original structure was as old as ',
the nth century, for Macbeth was Thane of Qlamis. Several
of the early Scots kings, especially Alexander III., used it
occasionally as a residence. Robert H. bestowed the thanedom
on John Lyon, who had married the king's second daughter
by Elizabeth Mure and was thus the founder of the existing
family. Patrick Lyon becarnje hostage to "England fdr James I.
in 1424, When, in. 35537, Janet Douglas* widow of the 6th Lord
Glamis, was burned at Edinburgh; as- a witch, for conspiring to
procure James V.'s death, Glamis was forfeited to the crown, but
it was restored to her son six years later when her innocence had
been established. The 3rd earl of Strathmore entertained the
Old Chevalier and eighty of. his immediate followers in 171 5.
After discharging the duties of hospitality the earl joined the
Jacobites at Sheriffmuir and fell on the battlefield. Sir Walter
Scott spent a night in the " hoary old pile " when he was about
twenty years old, and gives a striking relation of his experiences
in his Demonohgy: and Witchcraft. . The hall has, an arched
ceiling and seVeral histprical portraits, including those of Claver-
house, Charles II. and James II. of England. At Cossans, in
the parish of Glamis, there is a remarkable sculptured monolith,
and other examples occur at the Hunters* Hill and hi the oM
kfrkyard of Eassie, ' ' ' '
GLAMORGANSHIRE (Welsh Motganwg), a maritime county
occupying the south-east corner of Wales, and bounded N,W.
by Carmarthenshire, N. by Carmarthenshire 'and Breconshire,
E. by Monmouthshire and S. and S. W. by the Bristol Channel
and Carmarthen Bay. The contour of the county is largely
determined by the fact that it lies between the mountains of
Breconshire and the Bristol Channel Its extreme breadth frodi
the sea inland' is 29 m., while its greatest length from east to
west is 53- m. • Its chief rivers, the Rhymtiey, Taff, Neath (or
NSdd)* and Tawe br f awy/have their sources' in the Breconshire
mountains, the two first trending towards the south-east, while
the two last trend to the south-west, so that the ma{n body of the
county forms a sort of quarter-circle between the Tag and the
Neath. Near tine apex of the angle formed by these two rivers
is the toftiest "peak m the county, the great Pennant scarp of
Craig y Llyn or Cam Moesyn, 1970 ft high, which in the Glacial
period diverted the ice-flow from the Beacons into the valley
on either side of it. To the south and southeast of this p6ak
extend the great coal-fields of mid-Glamorgan, their surface
forming an irregular plateau with an average elevation of 600 to,
1200 ft. above sea-level, but with numerous peaks about 1500 ft
high, or more; Mynydd y Caerau, the second highest being
1823 ft. Out of this plateau have been carved, to the depth
of 500 to 800 ft. below its general level, three distinct series
of narrow valleys, those in -each series being more or less parallel.
The rivers which give their names to these valleys include the
Cynon, the Great and Lesser Rhondda (tributaries of the Taff)
and the Ely flowing to the S.E., the Ogwr or Ogmore (with its
tributaries the Garw and Llynfi) flowing south through Bridgend,
and the Avan bringing the waters of the Corwg and Gwynfi to
the south-west into Swansea Bay at Aberavon. To the south
of this Central hiU country, which is wet, cold and sterile, and
whose steep slopes form the southern edge of the coal-field, there
stretches out to the sea a gently undulating plain, compendiously
known as the " Vale of Glamorgan," but in fact consisting of a
succession of small vales of such fertile land' and with such a
mild climate that it has been styled, not inaptly, the " Garden
of Wales.*' To the east of the central area referred to and
divided from it by a spur of the Brecknock mountains culminating
in Cam Bugail, 1570 ft. high, is the Rhymney, which forms the
county's eastern boundary. On. the west other spurs of the
Beacons divide the Neath from the Tawe (which enters the
sea at 'Swansea), and the Tawe from the Loughor, which, with
its tributary the Amman, separates the county on the N.W.
from Carmarthenshire, in , which it rises, and falling into Car-
marthen* Bay forms what is known as the Burry estuary, so
called from a small stream of that name in the Gower peninsula.
The rivers are all comparatively short, the Taff, in every respect
the chief river, feeing only 33 m. long.
Down to the middle of the 19th century mdst of the Glamorgan
valleys were famous for their beautiful scenery, but industrial
operations have since destroyed most of ttis beauty, except in
the so-called "iVale of Glamorgan," the Vale of Neath, the
" combes "and limestone gorges of Gower and the upper reaches
of the Taff and the Tawe. The Vale of Neath is fat excellence
the* waterfall district of South Wales, the finest falls being the
Cflhepstc fall, the Sychnant and the three . Chjuigwyns on the
Mellte and its tributaries near the Vale of Neath railway from
Neath to Rirwaun, Scwd Einon Gam and Scwd Gladys on th,e
Pyrddin on the west side of the valley close by, with Melin Court
and Abergarwed still nearer Neath. There are also several
cascades on the Dulais, and in the same district, though in
Breconshire, is Scwd Henrhyd on the Llech near Colbren Junction.
Almost the only part of the county which is now well timbered
is the Vale oi Neath. There are three small lakes, Llyn Fawr
and Llyn Each near Craig y Llyn and Kenfig Pool amid the
sand-dunes of Margam. The rainfall of the county varies from
an average of about 25 in. at Porthcawl and other parts of the
Vale of Glamorgan to about 37 in. at Cardiff,.^ in. at Swansea
and to. upwards of 70 in. in the northern part of the county >
xn. 3 a
n
[GLAMORGANSHIRE
the fad] being stall' higher id the adjoining parts, of B Devonshire
whence Cardiff, Swansea, Merthyr and a large area near Neath
draw their main supplies of water; i-: ...
. The county has a, coast-line of about 83 m. Its two chief bays
are the Burry estuary and Swansea, one on either side of the
Cower Peninsula, which has also a number of smaller inlets with
magnificent cliff scenery. The rest of the coast is fairly regular,
the chief openings being at the mouths of the Ogmqre and the
Taff respectively. The most conspicuous headlands are Whitef ord
Point, Worms Head and Mumbles Head in Gower, Nash Point
and Lavetnock Point on the eastern half of the coast.
Geology. — The Silurian rocks, the oldest in the county, form a
small injier about 2 sq. m. in area at Rumnev and Pen-y-lan, north
of Cardiff, and consist of mudstones and sandstones of Wenlock and
Ludlow age ; a feeble representative of the Wenlock Limestone also
is present. They are conformably succeeded by the Old Red Sand-
stone which extends westwards as far as Cowbridge as a deeply-
eroded anticline largely concealed by Trias and Lias. The Old
Red Sandstone consists in the lower parts of red marls and sand-
stones, while the upper beds are quartzitic and pebbly, and form
bold scarps which dominate the low ground formed by the softer
beds below. Cefn-y-bryn, another anticline of Old Red Sandstone
(including small exposures of Silurian rocks), forms the prominent
backbone of the Gower peninsula. The next formation is the
Carboniferous Limestone which encircles and underlies the great
South Wales coal-field, on the south of which, west of Cardiff, it
forms a bold escarpment of steeply-dipping beds surrounding the
Old Red Sandstone anticline. It shows up through the Trias and
Lias in extensive inliers near Bridgend, while in Gower it dips away
from the Old Red Sandstone of Cefn-y-bryn. On the north of the
coal-field it is just reached near Merthyr Tydfil. The Millstone Grit,
which consists of grits, sandstones and shales, crops out above the
limestone and serves to introduce the Coal Measures, which lie in the
form of a great trough extending east and west across the county and
occupying most of its surface. The coal seams are most numerous
in the lower part of the series; the Pennant Sandstone succeeds
and occupies the inner parts of the basin, forming an elevated
moorland region deeply trenched by the teeming vafleya {e.g. the
Rhondda) which cross the coal-field from north to south. Above
the Pennant Sandstone still higher coals come in. Taken generally,
the coals are bituminous in the south-east and anthracitic in the
north-west.
After the Coal Measures had been deposited, the southern part of
the region was subjected to powerfulfolding; tne resulting anticlines
were worn down during a long period of detrition, and then sub-
merged slowly beneath a Triassic lake in which accumulated the
Keuper conglomerates and marls which spread over the district
west of Cardiff and are traceable on the coast of Gower. The
succeeding Rhaetic and Lias which form most of the coastal plain
(the fertile Vale of Glamorgan) from Penarth to near Bridgend werfe
laid down by the Jurassic sea. A well-marked raised beach is
traceable in Gower. Sand-dunes are present locally around Swansea
Bay. Moraines, chiefly formed of gravel and clay, occupy many
of the Glamorgan valleys; and these, together with the striated
surfaces which may be observed at higher levels, are clearly glacial
fn origin. In the Coal Measures and the newer Limestones and
Triassic, Rhaetic and Liassic conglomerates, marls and shales, many
interesting fossils have been disinterred: these include the remains
of an air-breathing reptile {A nthracespeton) . Bones of the cave-bear,
lion, mammoth, reindeer, rhinoceros, along with flint weapons and
tools, have been discovered in some caves of the Gower peninsula.
Agriculture.— T\v^ low-lying land on the south from Caerphilly to
Margam is. very fertile, the soil being a deep rich loam ; and nere the
standard of agriculture is fairly high, and there prevails a well-
defined tenant-right custom, supposed to be of ancient origin but
g'obably dating only from the beginning of the 19th century,
very where on the Coal Measures the soil is poor, while vegetation is
also injured by the smoke from the works, especially copper smoke.
Leland (c. 1535) describes the lowlands as growing gooq corn and
grass but little wood, while the mountains had " redde dere, kiddes
plenty, oxen and sheep." The land even in the " Vale " seems to
nave been open and unenclosed till the end of the 15th or beginning
of the 1 6th century, while enclosure spread to the uplands still later.
About one-fifth of the total area is still common land, more than half
of which is unsuitable for cultivation. The total area under culti-
vation in 1005 was 269,271 acres or about one-half of the total are a
of the county. The chief crops raised (giving them in the order
of their respective acreages) are oats, barley, turnips and swedes,
wheat, potatoes and mangolds. A steady decrease of the acreage
under grain-crops, green-crops and clover has been accompanied
by an increase m the area of pasture. Dairying has been largely
abandoned for stock-raising, and very little " Caerphilly cheese " is
now made in that, district. In 1905 Glamorgan had the largest
number of horses in agriculture of any Welsh county except those of
Carmarthen and Cardigan, Good sheep and ponies are reared in the
hill-country. Pig-keeping is much neglected, and despite the mild
climate very little fruit is grown. The average size of holdings in
1905 was 47*3 acres* there being only 46 holdings above 300 acres,
and 1 71 9 between 56 and 500 acres.
Mining and Manufactures. — Down to the middle of the 18th
century the county had no industry of any importance except
agriculture. The coal which underlies practically the wl}o|e surface
of the county except the Vale of Glamorgan and West Gower was
little worked till about 1755, when it began to be used Instead of
charcoal for the smelting of iron. By 181 1, when there were 25
blast furnaces in the county, the demand for coal for this purpose
had much increased, but it was in the most active period of railway
construction that it reached its maximum. Down to about 1850,
if not later, the chief collieries were owned by the ironmasters and
were worked for their own requirements, but when the suitability
of the lower seams in the district north of Cardiff for steam purposes
was realized, an export trade sprang up and soon assumed enormous
Proportions, so that " the port of Cardiff " (including Barry and
enarth), from which the bulk of the steam coal was shipped, became
the first port in the world for the shipment of coal . The development
of the anthracite coal-field lying to the north and west of Swansea
{from which port it is mostly shipped) dates mainly from the closing
years of the 19th century, when the demand for this coal grew
rapidly. There are still large areas in the Rhymney Valley on the
east, and in the districts of Neath and Swansea on the west, whose
development has only recently been undertaken. In connexion with
the coal industry, patent fuel (made from small coal and tar) is
largely manufactured at Cardiff, Port Talbot and Swansea, the ship-
ments from Swansea being the largest in the kingdom. Next in
importance to coal are the iron, steel and tin-plate industries, and
in the Swansea district the smelting of copper and a variety of other
ores.
The manufacture of iron and steel is carried onat Dowlais, Merthyr
Tydfil, Cardiff, Port Talbot, Briton Ferry, Pontardawe, Swansea,
Gorseinon and Gowerton. During the last quarter of the loth cen-
tury the use of the native ironstone was almost wholly given up,
and the necessary ore is now imported, mainly from Spain. As a
result several of the older inland works, such as those of Aberdare,
Ystalyfera and Brynaman have been abandoned, and new works
have been established on or near the sea-board; e.g. the Dowlais
company in 1891 opened large works at Cardiff. The tin-plate
industry is mainly confined to the west of the county, Swansea being
the chief port for the shipment of tin-plates, though there are works
near Llantrisant and at Melin Griffith near Cardiff, the latter being
the oldest in the county. Copper-smelting is carried on on a large
scale in the west of the county, at Port Talbot, Cwmavon, Neath and
Swansea, and on a small scale at Cardiff, the earliest works having
been established at Neath in 1584 and at Swansea in 17 17. There
are nickel works at Clydach near Swansea, the nickel being imported
in the form of " matte " from Canada. Swansea has almost a
monopoly of the manufacture of spelter or zinc. Lead, silver and a
number of other metals or their by-products are treated in or near
Swansea, which is often styled the metallurgical capital of Wales."
Limestone and silica quarries are worked, while sandstone and clay
are also raised. Swansea and Nantgarw were formerly famous for
their china, coarse ware is still made chiefly at Ewenny and terra-
cotta at Pencoed. Large numbers of people are employed in
engineering works and in the manufacture of machines, chains,
conveyances, tools, paper and .chemicals. The textile factories are
few and unimportant.
Fisheries. — Fisheries exist all along the coast; by lines, draught-
nets, dredging, trawling, fixed nets and by hand* There is a fleet of
trawlers at Swansea. The principal fish caught are cod, herring,
pollock, whiting, flukes, brill, plaice, soles, turbot, oysters, mussels,
limpets, cockles, shrimps, crabs and lobsters. There are good fish-
markets at Swansea and Cardiff.
Communications. — The county has ample dock accommodation.
The various docks of Cardiff amount to 210 acres, including timber
ponds; Penarth has a dock and basin of 26 acres and a tidal harbour
of 55 acres. Barry docks cover iia acres; Swansea has 147 acres,
including its new king's Dock; and Port Talbot 90 acres. There
are also docks at Briton Ferry and Porthcawl, but they are not
capable of admitting deep-draft vessels.
Besides its ports, Glamorgan has abundant means of transit in
many railways, of which the Great Western is the chief. Its trunk
line traversing the country between the mountains and the sea passes
through Cardiff, Bridgend and Landore (on the outskirts of Swansea),
and throws off numerous branches to the north. The Taff Vale
railway serves all the valley of the Taff and its tributaries, and has
also extensions to Barry and (through Llantrisant and Cowbridge)
to Aberthaw. The Rhymney railway likewise serves the Rhymney
Valley, and has a joint service with the Great Western between
Cardiff and Merthyr Tydfil— the latter town being also the terminus
of the Brecon and Merthyr and a branch of the North- Western from
Abergavenny. The Barry railway visits Cardiff and then travels in
a north-westerly direction to Pontypridd and Porth, while it sends
another branch along the coast through Llantwit Major to Bridgend.
Swansea is connected with Merthyr by the Great Western, with
Brecon by the Midland, with Craven Arms and Mid- Wales generally
by the London & North- Western, with the Rhondda Valley by
the Rhondda and Swansea Bay (now worked by the Great Western)
and with Mumbles by the Mumbles railway. The Port Talbot
GLAMQ&#/VN$HIRE
«W
railway runs to Blaengarw, and the Neath,-. and Brecon railway
(starting from Neath) Joins the Midland at Colbren Junction. The,
canals of the county are the Glamorgan canal from Cardiff "to
Merthyr Tydfil (35$ m.), with a' branch <? m.) fc> Aberdare, the
Neath canal (13 m.) from Briton Feiry to' Aberrant, 'Glyn Neath
(whence a tramway formerly connected it with Aberaare),. the
Tennarit canal connecting the rivers Neath and Tawe, and the Swan-
sea canal (i6i m.)i running up the Swansea Valley from Swansea to
Abercrave in Breconshire. Comparatively little use is now made of
these canals* excepting the lower portion© of the Glamorgan canal.
Population and Administration. — The area of. the ancient county'
with which the administrative county is conterminous is 516,863
acres, with a population in 1901 of 859,931 persons. In the three
decades between 1831 and 1861 it increased 35*2, 35*4 and 37*1 %
respectively, and in 1881-1891, 34*4, its average increase in the other
decennial periods subsequent to 1861 being about 25%. The
county is divided into five parliamentary divisions (viz. Glamorgan-
shire East, South and Middle, Gower and Rhondda) ; it also includes
the Cardiff district of boroughs (consisting of Cardiff, Cowbridge and
Llantrisant), which has one member; the greater part of the parlia-
mentary borough of Merthyr Tydfil (which mainly consists of the
county borough of Merthyr, the urban district of Aberdare and part
of Mountain Ash), and returns two members; and the two divisions
of Swansea District returning one member each, one division con-
sisting of the major part of Swansea town, the other comprising the
remainder of Swansea and the boroughs of Aberavon, Ken fig,
Llwchwr and Neath. There are six municipal boroughs: Aberavon
(pop. in 1901, 7553)» Cardiff (164,333), Cowbridge (1202), Merthyr
Tydfil (69,228), Neath (13,720) and Swansea (94,537). Cardiff
(which in 1905 was created a city), Merthyr Tydfil and Swansea are
county boroughs. The following are urban districts: Aberdare
Cj3.3°5)» Barry (27,030), Bridgend (6062), Briton Ferry (6973),
Caerphilly (15,835), Glyncorrwg (6452), Maesteg (15,012), Margam
(9014), Mc ~ ' * ' v ~ ' ~ ' ^
mouth
ilyncc
(31/3
ountain Ash (31,093), Ogmore and Garw (19,007), Oyi
.61), fenarth (14,22^), Pontypridd (32,316), Porth
ster
mouth (4461), ifenarth (14,228), Pontypridd (32,316), Porthcawl
(1872) ana Rhondda, previously known as Ystradytodwg (113,735).
Glamorgan is in the S. Wales circuit, and both assizes ana quarter-
sessions are held at Cardiff and Swansea alternately. AH the
municipal boroughs have separate commissions of the peace, and
Cardiff and Swansea have also separate courts of quarter-sessions.
The county has thirteen other petty sessional divisions, Cardiff, the 1
Rhondda (with Pontypridd) and the Merthyr and Aberdare district
have stipendiary magistrates. There are 165 civil parishes. Ex-'
cepting the districts of Gower and Kilvey, which are in the diocese
of St David's, the whole county is in the diocese of Llandaff. • There
are 159 ecclesiastical parishes or districts situated whoijy pr partly'
within the county. .,.',.., '
History*** The earliest known traces of man within the area
of the present county are the human remains found in the famous
bone-caves of Gower, though they are scanty as compared with
the huge depoaits of still earlier animal remains.' To a later;
stage, perhaps in the Neolithic period,, belongs a number of cpm-|
piete skeletons discovered in 1005 in sanoVfalown , tumuli at!
the mouth of the Ogmore, where many flint .implements were;
also found. Considerably later, and probably belonging, to the'
Bronze Age (though finds of bronze implements have been scanty) ,
are the many cairns and tumuli, mainly on the (hills, such as on;
Garth Mountain near Cardiff, Crug-yr-avan and a number east!
of the Tawe;' the stone circles often found in association, with!
the tumuli, that of Cam Llechartb near Pon tarda we being, one
of the most complete in Wales; and the one cromlechs of Cefn!
Bryn in Gower (known as Arthur's Stone), of St Nicholas and of,
St Lythan's near Cardiff. ■• ' 1
In Roman times the country from: the Neath to the Wye was-
occupied by the Silures, a pre-Celtic race, probably governed at
that time by Brythonic Celts. West' of the Neath and along the
fringe of the Brecknock Mountains were probably remnants of the
earlier Goidelic Celts, who have left traces in the place-names of
the Swansea valley (e.g. Uwck, <( a lake '!) and in the illegible
Ogham inscription at Loughor, the only other Ogham stone in
the county being at Kenfig, a few miles to the east of the Neath
estuary. The conquest of the Silures by. the Romans was begun'
about aj>. 50 by Ostorius Scapula and completed some 25 years
later by Julius Frontinus, who probably constructed the great
military road, called Via Julia Maritima, from Gloucester to St
David's, with stations at Cardiff, Bovium (variously identified
with Boverton, Cowbridge and Eweimy), Nidum (identified with,
Neath) and Leucarum or Loughor* The important station of
Gaer on the Usk near Brecon was connected by two branch
roads, one running from Cardiff through .GelKgae*. (where there
wasasttoi^hinfort) and Merthyr ;Tydfil^ndanotherfromNeatb]
through CapeJ. Colbren, . Welslj . tradition credits Glanaor^an
with being the first home of Christianity, and Handaff the earliest
bishopric in Britain, tlie na/ne of three reputed nuWonaries of
the 2nd century being preserved in the names of parishes insouth
Glamorgan. What is certain, however, is that the first two bishops
of Llandaff, St Dubricius and St Teilo, lived during, the first
half of the 6th century, to whic^i period also belongs the establish-
ment of the great monastic settlements of Llancarvan by Cadoc,
of Llandough by Oudoceus and of JUantwit Major \>y Illtutus, the
last of which flourished as a seat pf learning down to the 12th
century. A few moated mounds such as at Cardiff indicate that,
after the withdrawal of the Romans, the coasts were visited by
sporadic bands of Savons, but the Scandinavians who came in
the 9th and succeeding centuries left more abundant traces both
in the place-names of the coast and in such camps as that on
Sully Island, the Bulwarks at Porthkerry and Hardings Down
in Gower. Meanwhile the native tribes of the district had
regained their independence under a line of Welsh chieftains,
whose domain was consolidated into a principality known as
Glywyssing, till about the end of the 10th century when it
acquired the name of Morganwg, that is the territory of Morgan,
a prince who died in a.d. 980; it then comprised the whole
country from the Neath to the Wye, practically corresponding
to the present diocese of Llandaff. Gwlad Morgan, later softened
into Glamorgan,, never had much vogue and meant precisely the
same as Morganwg, though the two terms became differentiated
a few centuries later.
The Norman conquest of Morganwg was effected in the
closing years of the nth century by Robert Fitzhamon, lord of
Gloucester. His followers settled in- the lpw-Jying lands of the
" Vale," which becarae known as the " body " of the shire,
while in the hill country, which consisted of ten." members,"
corresponding to its ancient territorial divisions, the Welsh
retained their customary, laws and much of their independence.
Glamorgan, whose bounds were now contracted between the
Neath and; the Rhymney,. tjien became ;a lordsliip marcber> its
status and organization being that of a county palatine; its
lord possessed jura* regalia, and his chief official was froni the
first a vice-comes, ,or sheriff, who presided over a county court
composed of his lord's principal tenants. The inhabitants of
Cardiff in which, as the, caput baroniae, this court was held
(though sometimes ambulatory), were soon granted municipal
privileges, and in, time Cowbridge, Kenfig, Llantrisant, Aberavon
and Neath also became chartered market-towns. The manorial
system was introduced throughout the " Vale," the manor in
-many cases becoming the parish, and tfre owner building: for its
protection first a castle and then a church., The church itself
became Normanjzed, and monasteries were established— the
Cistercian abbey of Neath .and Margam .in nag and 1147 re-
spectively, the Benedictine priory of Eweuny in 1141 and that of
Cardiff in 1147-' Dominican and; Franciscan. houses were also
founded at Cardiff in the following century.
Gower (with Kilvey) or the country west of the morass between
-Neath and Swansea had a separate history. It was conquered
about 1 100 by Henry de Newburgh, rst earl of Warwick, by
whose descendants and the powerful family of De Breos it
was successively held as a marcher lordship, organized to some
extent on county lines, till 1460. Swansea (which was the caput
baroniae of Gower) and Loughor received their .earlier charters
from the lords of Gower (see Gower),
For the first two centuries after Fitzhamon's time the lordship
of Glamorgan was held by the earls of Gloucester, a title con-
ferred by Henry J. on his natural son Robert, who acquired
Glamorgan- by marrying Fitzhamon's daughter. To the 1st
earl's patronage of Geoffrey of Monmouth and other men of
letters, at Cardiff Castle of which he was the bfuilder, is probably
due the large place which Celtic romance, especially theArthurian
cycle, won for itself in medieval literature. The Jordsbip passed
by descent through the families of Clare (who held it from 121 7
•to 1317), Pespenser, Beauchnmp and Neville tq Richard .III., on
whose fall it escheated to the crown. : From time to time, the
Welsh- ef;the WUs* t qf ten Joined: by theft .co^atryir*en from, other
7 6
GLANDERS
part*, raided the Vale, and even Cardiff Castle was seized about
**53 by Ivor Bach, lord of Senghenydd, who for a time held its
lord a prisoner. At last Caerphilly Castle was built to keep them
in check, but this provoked an invasion in 1270 by Prince
Llewelyn ap Griffith, who besieged the castle and refused to retire
except on conditions. In 1316 Llewelyn Bren headed a revolt in
the same district, but being defeated wasput to death by Despenser,
whose great unpopularity with the Welsh made Glamorgan less
safe as a retreat for Edward II. a few years later. In 1404
Glendower swept through the county, burning castles and laying
waste the possessions of the king's supporters. By the Act of
Union of 1535 the court ty of Glamorgan was incorporated as it
now exists, by the addition to the old county of the lordship
of Gower and Kilvey, west of the Neath. By another act of
1542 the court of great sessions was established, and Glamorgan,
with the counties of Brecon and Radnor, formed one of its four
Welsh circuits from thence till 1830, When the English assize
system was introduced into Wales. In the same year the county
was given one parliamentary representative, increased to two
in 1832 and to five in 1885. The boroughs were also given a
member. In 1832 Cardiff (with Llantrisant and Cowbridge), the
Swansea group of boroughs and the parliamentary borough of
Merthyr Tydfil were given one member each, increased to two,
in the case of Merthyr Tydfil in 1867. In 1885 the Swansea
group was divided into two constituencies with a member each.
The lordship of Glamorgan, shorn of its quasi-regal status, was
granted by Edward VI. to William Herbert, afterwards 1st earl
of Pembroke, from whom it has descended to the present marquess
of Bute.
The rule of the Tudors promoted the rapid assimilation of the
inhabitants of the county, and by the reign of Elizabeth even
the descendants of the Norman knights had largely become
Welsh both in speech and sentiment. . Welsh continued to be the
prevalent speech almost throughout the county, except in the
peninsular part of Gower and perhaps Cardiff, till the last quarter
of the ioth century. Since then it has lost ground in the mari-
time towns and the south-east corner of the county generally,
while fairly holding its own, despite much English migration, in
the industrial districts to the north. In 1001 about 56% of the
total population above three ydars of age was returned as speaking
English only, 37% as speaking both English and Welsh, and.
about 6J% as speaking Welsh only.
In common with the rest of Wales the county was mainly
Royalist in the Civil War, and indeed stood foremost in its
readiness to pay ship-money, but when Charles I. visited Cardiff;
in July 1645 he failed to recruit his army there, owing to the
dissatisfaction of the county, which a few months later declared
for the parliament. There was, however, a subsequent Royalist
revolt in Glamorgan in 1648, butr it was signally crushed by
Colonel Horton at the battle of St Fagan's (8th of May).
The educational gap caused by final disappearance of the
great university of Llantwit Major, founded in the 6th century,
and by the dissolution of the monasteries was to some extent,
filled by the foundation, by the Stradling family, of a grammar,
school at Cowbridge which, relounded in 1685 by Sir Leoline
Jenkins, is stiH calmed on as an endowed school. The only other
ancient grammar school is that of Swansea, founded by Bishop
Gore in 1682, and now under the control of the borough council.
Besides the l*niversity College of South Wales and Monmouth-
shire established at Cardiff in 1883, and a technical college
at Swansea, there is a Church of England theological college
(St Michael's) at Llandaff (previously at Aberdare), a training
college for school-mistresses at Swansea, schools for the blind at
Cardiff and Swansea and for the deaf at Cardiff, Swansea and
Pontypridd,
Antiquities* — The antiquities oi the county not already
mentioned include an unusually large number of castles, all
of which, except the castles of Morlais (near Merthyr Tydfil),
Castell Coch and Llantrisant, are between the hill country and
the sea. The finest specimen is that of Caerphilly, but there
are also more or less imposing ruins at Oystermouth, Coity,
Newcastle (at Bridgend), LlanUethian, Pennard and Swansea.
Among the restored castles, resided in by their present owners, ;
are St Donat's, " the latest and most complete of the structures $
built for defence," Cardiff, the residence of the marquess of £
Bute, St Fagan's, Dunraven, Fonmon and Penrice. Of the ^
monastic buildings, that of Ewenny is best preserved, Neath <
and Margam are mere ruins, while all the others have disappeared. ?
Almost all the older churches possess towers of a somewhat ;
military character, and most of them, except in Gower, retain /
some Norman masonry. Coity, Coychurch and Ewenny (all near ^
Bridgend) are fine examples of cross churches with embattled t
towers characteristic of the county. There are interesting ,,
monumental effigies at St Mary's, Swansea, Oxwich, Ewenny, ^
Llantwit Major, Llantrisant, Coity and other churches in the '
Vale. There are from . twenty-five to thirty sculptured stones,
of which some sixteen are bpth ornamented and inscribed, five
of the latter being at Margam and three at Llantwit .Major,
and dating from the 9th century if not earlier. "
Authorities. — The records of the Curia comilatus or County
Court of Glamorgan are supposed to have perished,, so also have i
the records of Neath. With these exceptions, the records of the 3
county have been well preserved. A collection edited by G. T. i
Clark under the title Car toe el alia munimenta quae ad dominium de
Glamorgan pertinent was privately printed, by 'him in four volumes
( 1 885-1 833 J. A Descriptive Catalogue oftte Penriu and Margam
Abbey MSS. in the Possession of Miss Talbot of Margam (6 vols.)
was privately issued (1893-1905) under the editorship of Dr de
Gray Birch, who has also published histories of the Abbeys of
Neath and Margam. The Book of Han V&f (edited by Dr Gweno-
zvryn Evans, 1903) contains documents illustrative of the early
history of the diocese of Llandaff. Cardiff has published its Records
in 5 vols., and there is a volume of Swansea charters. There is no
complete history of the county, except a modest but useful one
in Welsh — Hants Morganwg, by D. W. Jones (Dafydd M organ wg)
(1 87a) ; the chief contributions are Rice Merrick's Booke of Glamorgan-
shires Antiquities, written in 1578; The Land of Morgan (1883)
(a history of the lordship of Glamorgan), by G. T. Clark, whose :
Genealogies of Glamorgan (1886) and Medieval Military Architecture '.
(1884) are also indispensable; see also T. Nicholas, Annals and a
Antiquities of the Counties and County Families of Wales (2 vols., a
1872). For Gower, see Gower. (D. Ll. T.)
GLANDERS, or Farcy (Equinio), a specific infective and -
contagious disease, caused by a tissue parasite {Bacillus mallei), '
to which certain animals, chiefly the horse, ass and mule, are l
liable, and which' is communicable from them to man. Glanders
in the domesticated animals is dealt with under Veterinary }
Science; it is happily a rare form of disease in man, there being
evidently less affinity for its development in the human subject *
than in the equine species. For the pathology see the article *
Parasitic Diseases. It occurs chiefly among those who from
their occupation are frequently in contact with horses, such as '
grooms, coachmen, cavalry soldiers, veterinary sturgeons, &c ; the e
bacillus is communicated from a giandered animal either through
a wound or scratch or through application to the mucous menu- ?
brane of the nose or mouth. A period of incubation, lasting
from three to five days, generally follows the introduction of 3
the virus into the human system. This period, however, appears
sometimes to be of much longer duration, especially where there '
has been no direct inoculation of the poison. The first symptoms
are a general feeling of illness, accompanied with pains in the 1
limbs and joints resembling those of acute rheumatism. If s
the disease has been introduced by means of an abraded surface,
pain is felt at that point, and inflammatory swelling takes place
there, and extends along the neighbouring lymphatics. An
ulcer is formed at the point of inoculation which discharges
an offensive ichor, and blebs appear in the inflamed skin, along
with diffuse abscesses, as in phlegmonous erysipelas. Sometimes
the disease stops short with these local manifestations, but
more commonly goes on rapidly accompanied, with symptoms
of grave constitutional disturbance. Over the whole surface
of the body there appear numerous red spots or pustules, which
break and discharge a thick mucous or sanguineous fluid. Besides
these there are larger swellings lying deeper in the subcutaneous
tissue, which at first are extremely hard and painful, and to
which the term farcy " buds " or " buttons " is applied. These
ultimately open and become extensive sloughing ulcers.
The mucous membranes participate in the same
GLANVIL^-mGJLAPTHORNE
77-
are present in the skin, and this is particularly the case with
the interior of the nose, where indeed, in many instances, the
disease first of all shows itself. This organ becomes greatly
swollen and inflamed, while from one or both nostrils there
exudes a copious discharge of highly offensive purulent or
sanguineous matter. The lining membrane of the nostrils
is covered with papules similar in character to those on the
skin, which form ulcers, and may lead to the destruction of the
cartilaginous and bony textures of the hose. The diseased action
extends into the throat, mouth and eyes, while the whole face
becomes swollen and erysipelatous, and the lymphatic glands
under the jaws inflame and suppurate. Not unfrequently the
bronchial tubes become affected, and cough . attended with
expectoration of matter similar to that discharged from the
nose is the consequence. The general constitutional symptoms
are exceedingly severe, and advance with great rapidity, the
patient passing Into a st^ate of extreme prostration. In the
acute form of the disease recovery rarely if ever occurs, and the
case generally terminates fatally in a period varying from two
or three days to as many weeks.
A chronic form of glanders and farcy is occasionally met with,
in which the symptoms, although essentially the same as those
above described, advance much more slowly, and are attended
with relatively less urgent constitutional disturbance. Cases
of recovery from this form are on record; but in general the
disease ultimately proves fatal by exhaustion of the patient,
or by a sudden supervention, which is apt to occur, of the acute
form. On the other hand, acute glanders is never observed
to become chronic.
In the treatment of this malady in human beings reliance
is mainly placed on the maintenance of the patient's strength
by strong nourishment and tonic remedies. Cauterization
should be resorted to if the point of infection is early known.
Abscesses may be opened and antiseptic lotions used. In all
cases of the outbreak of glanders it is of the utmost consequence
to prevent the spread of the disease by the destruction of affected
animals and the cleansing and disinfection of infected localities.
GLANVILL (or Glanvil), JOSEPH (1636-1680)-, English
philosopher, was born at Plymouth in 1636, and was educated
at Exeter and Lincoln colleges, Oxford, where he graduated as
M.A. in 1658. After the Restoration he was successively rector
of Wimbush, Essex, vicar of Frome Selwood, Somersetshire,
rector of S treat and Walton. In 1666 he was appointed to the
abbey church, Bath; in 1678 he became prebendary of Wor-
cester Cathedral, and acted as chaplain in ordinary to Charles II.
from 1672. He died at Bath in November 1680. GlanvhTs
first work (a passage in which suggested the theme of Matthew
Arnold's Scholar Gipsy), The Vanity of Dogmatizing, or Con-
fidence in Opinions, manifested in a Discourse of the shortness
and uncertainty of our Knowledge, and Us Causes, with Reflexions
on Peripateticism, and an Apology for Philosophy (1 661), is
interesting as showing one special direction in which the new
method of the Cartesian philosophy might be developed. Pascal
had already shown how philosophical scepticism might be
employed as a bulwark for faith, and Glanvill follows in the
same track. The philosophic endeavour to cognize the whole
system of things by referring all events to their causes appears
to him to be from the outset doomed to failure. For if we
inquire into this causal relation we find that though we know
isolated facts, we. cannot perceive any such connexion between
them as that the one should give rise to the other. In the
words of Hume, " they seem conjoined but never connect ed."
All causes then are but secondary, i.e. merely the occasions
on which the one first cause operates. It is singular enough
that Glanvill who had not only shown, but even exaggerated,
the infirmity of human reason, himself provided an example of
its weakness; for, after having combated scientific dogmatism,
he not only yielded to vulgar superstitions, *but actually en-
deavoured to. accredit them both in his revised edition of the
Vanity x>f Dogmatizing, published as Scepsis scienlifica (1665,
ed. Rev. John Owen, 1885), and in his Philosophical Considera-
tions concerning the existence of Sorcerers and Sorcery (1666).
The latter work appears to. have been based on the story of the
drum which was alleged to have been heard * every night In a'
house in Wiltshire (Tedworth, belonging to a Mi* Mompesson),
a story which macle much noise in the year *6<5$, and Which is
supposed to bave' furnished Addison with the idea of hi* comedy
the Drummer. At his death Glanvill left a piece entitled Saddu-
cismus Triumphalus (printed in r68i, reprinted with some
additions in 1682, German trans. 1701). He had there collected
twenty-six relation^ or stories of the same description as that
of the drum, in orcler to establish, by a series' of facts, the opinion
which he had expressed in his Philosophical Considerations*
Glanvill supported a much more honourable cause when he
undertook the defence of the Royal Society of London, under
the title of Plus Ultra, or the Progress and Advancement of
Science since the time of Aristotle (1668), a work which shows
how thoroughly he was imbued with the ideas of the empirical
method.
Besides the works already noticed, Glanvill wrote lAtx otimtaUs
(1662) ; . Philosophia pia (1671); Essays on Several Important
Subjects in Philosophy and Religion (1676); An Essay concerning
Preaching; and Sermons. See C. Remusat, Hist, de la phil. en
Angleterre, bk. ill. ch. xi.; W. E. H. Lecky, Rationalism in Europe
(1865), i. 120-128; Hallam's Literature of Europe, iii. 358-362;
Tulloch's Rational Theology, ii. 443-455. ;f
GLANVILL, RANULF DE (sometimes written Glanvil,
Glanville) (d. 1 1 90), chief justiciar of England and reputed
author of a book on English law, was born at Stratford in Suffolk,
but in what year is unknown. There is but little information
regarding his early life. He first comes to the front as sheriff
of Yorkshire from 1263 to n 70. In 11 73 he became sheriff
of Lancashire and custodian of the honour of Richmond. In
1 1 74 he was one of the English leaders at the battle of Alnwick,
and it was to him that the king of the Scots, William the Lion,
surrendered. In n 75 he was reappointed sheriff of Yorkshire,
in 1 1 76 he became justice of the king's court' and a justice
itinerant in the northern circuit, and in t 180 chief justiciar of
England. It was with his assistance that Henry II. completed
his Judicial reforms, though the principal of them had been
carried out before he came into office. He became the king's
right-hand man, and during Henry's frequent absences was in
effect viceroy of England. After the death of Henry in 1189,
Glanvill was removed from his office by Richard I., and im-
prisoned till he had paid a ransom, according to one authority,
of £15,000. Shortly after obtaining his freedom he took the
cross, and he died at the siege of Acre in 1190; At the instance,
it may be, of Henry II. , Glanvill wrote or superintended the
writing of the Tractatus de legibus el consuetudimbus regni
Angliae, which is a practical treatise on the forms of procedure
in the king's court. As the source of our knowledge regarding
the earliest form of the curia regis, and for the information it
affords regarding ancient customs and laws, it is of great value
to the student of English history. It is now generally agreed
that the work of Glanvill is of earlier date than the Scottish law
book known from its first words as Regiam idajestatem, a work
which bears a close resemblance to his.
The treatise of Glanvill was first printed in 1554. An English
translation, with notes and introduction by John Beames, was
published at London in 18 12. A French version is found in various
MSS., but has not yet been printed. (See also English Law:
History of.)
GLAPTHORNE, HENRY (fl. 1635-1642), English poet and
dramatist, wrote in the reign of Charles I. All that is known
Of him is gathered from his own work. He published Poems
(1639), many of them in praise of an unidentified " Lucinda ";
a poem in honour of his friend Thomas Beedome, whose Poems
Divine and Humane he edited in 1641; and Whitehall (1642),
dedicated to his " noble friend and gossip, Captain Richard
Lovelace." The "first volume contains a poem' in honour of the
duke of York, and Whitehall is a review of the 'past glories of
the English court, containing abundant evidences of the writer's
devotion to the royal cause. Argalus and Parthenia (1639) is a
pastoral tragedy founded on an episode in Sidney's Arcadia;
4lbertus WaUenstein (1639), his only attempt at historical tragedy,
represents Wallenstein as a monster of pride and cruelty. EHs
7 "S
GLARU^
/ T:)
other plays axe. The Hollander "(written 1635; printed 1640),
a romantic comedy, of which the scene is laid in Genoa; Wit in a
Constable (1640), which is probably a version of an earlier play,
arid owes something to Shakespeare's Much Ado about Nothing)
and The Ladies Priviledge (1640). The Lady Mother (1635)
has been identified (Fleay, Biog, Chron. of the Drama) with The
Noble Trial, one of the plays destroyed by Warburton's cook,
and Mr A» H. Bnllen prints it in vol. ii. of his Old English Plays
as most probably Glapthorne's work. The Paraside, or Revenge
for Honour ,(16 54) , entered at Stationers' Hall in 1653 as Glap-
thorne's, was printed in the next year with George Chapman's
name on the title-page. It should probably be included among
Glapthorne's plays, which, though they hardly rise above the
level of contemporary productions, contain many felicitous
isolated passages.
The Plays and Poems of Henry Glapthorne (1874) contains an un-
signed memoir, which, however, gives no information about the
dramatist's life. There is no reason for supposing that the George
Glapthorne of whose trial details are given was a relative of the poet.
GLARTJS (Fr. Glaris), one of the Swiss cantons, the name
being taken from that of its chief town. Its area is 266-8 sq. m.,
of which 173-1 sq. m. are classed as "productive" (forests
covering 41 sq. m.), but it also contains 13*9 sq. m. of glaciers,
ranking as the fifth Swiss canton in this respect. It is thus a
mountain canton, the loftiest point in it being theTodi (1 1,887 ft.),
the highest summit that rises to the north of the upper Aar and
Vorder Rhine valleys. It is composed of the upper valley of
the Linth, that is the portion which lies to the south of a line
drawn from the Lake of Zurich to the Walensee. This river
rises in the glaciers of the Todi, and has carved out for itself a
deep bed, so that the floor of the valley is comparatively level,
and therefore is occupied by a number of considerable villages.
Glacier passes only lead from its head to the Grisons, save the
rough footpath over the Kisten Pass, while a fine new carriage
road over the Klausen Pass gives access to the canton of Uri.
The upper Linth valley is sometimes called the Grossthal (main
valley) to distinguish it from its chief (or south-eastern) tributary,
the Sernf valley or Kleinthal, which joins it at Schwanden, a
little above Glarus itself. At the head of the Kleinthal a mule
track leads to the Grisons over the Panixer Pass, as also a foot-
path over the Segnes Pass. Just below Glarus town, another
glen (coming from the south-west) joins the main valley, and is
watered by the Klon, while from its head the Pragel Pass
(a mule path, converted into a carriage road) leads over to
the canton of Schwyz. The Klon glen (uninhabited save in
summer) is separated from the main glen by the fine bold mass
of the Giarnisch (9580 ft.), while the Sernf valley is similarly cut
off from the Grossthal by the high ridge running northwards
from the Hausstock (10,342 ft.) over the Karpfstock (9177 ft.).
The principal lakes, the Klonthalersee and the Muttensee, are
of a thoroughly Alpine character, while there are several fine
waterfalls near the head of the main valley, such as those formed
by the Sandbach, the Schreienbach and the Fatschbach. The
Pantenbrucke, thrown over the narrow cleft formed by the
Linth, is one of the grandest sights of the Alps below the snow-
line. There is a sulphur spring at Stachelberg, near Linthal
village, and ah iron spring at Elm, while in the Sernf valley
there are the Plattenberg slate quarries, and just south of Elm
those of the Tschingelberg, whence a terrific landslip descended
to Elm ( 1 1 th September 1 88 1) , destroying many houses and killing
115 persons. A railway runs through the whole canton from
north to south past Glarus to Linthal village (i6jt m.), while
from Schwanden there is an electric line (opened in 1905) up to
Elm (Sim.). .
In 1000 the population of the canton was 32,349 (a decrease
on the 33,825 of 1888, this being the only Swiss canton which
shows a decrease), of whom 31,797 were German-speaking,
while there were 24,403 Protestants, 7918 Romanists (many in
Nafels) and 3 Jews. After the capital, Glarus (q.v.) 9 the largest
villages are Nafels (2557 inhabitants), Ennenda (2494 inhabitants,
opposite Glarus, of which it is practically a suburb), Netstal
(2003 inhabitants), Mollis (191 2 inhabitants) and Linththal
(1894 inhabitants), 'the slate industry is now the most important
; as the cotton manufacture has lately very greatly, fallen off,
this being the real reason of the diminution in the nurnber of the
population. There is little agriculture, for it is a pastoral region
(owing to its height) and contains'87 mountain pastures (though
the. finest of all within the limits of the canton, the Uraerboden,.
or the Glarus side of the Klausen Pass, belongs to Uri), which
can support 8054 cows, and are of an estimated capital value
of about £246,000. One of the most characteristic products
(though inferior qualities are manufactured elsewhere in Switzer-
land) is the cheese called Schabzieger, Krduterkiise, or green cheese,
made of skim milk (Zieger or strac), whether of goals or cows,
mixed with buttermilk and coloured with powdered Steinklee
(Melilotus officinalis) or blauer Honigklee (Melilolus caerulea).
The curds are brought down from the huts on the pastures, and,
after being mixed with the dried powder, are ground in a mill,
then put into shapes and pressed. The cheese thus produced
is ripe in about a year, keeps a long time and is largely exported,
even to America. The ice formed on the surface of the K15n-
thalersee in winter is stored up on its shore and exported. A
certain number of visitors come to the canton in the summer,
either to profit by one or other of the mineral springs men-
tioned above, or simply to enjoy the beauties of nature, especially
at Obstalden, above the Walensee. The canton forms but a
single administrative district and contains 28 communes. It
sends to the Federal St&nderath 2 representatives (elected by
the Landsgemeinde) and 2 also to the Federal Nationalrath. The
canton still keeps its primitive democratic assembly or Lands-
gemeinde (meeting annually in the open air at Glarus on the first
Sunday in May), composed of all male citizens of 20 years of age.
It acts as the sovereign body, so that no " referendum " is
required, while any citizen can submit a proposal. It names the
executive of 6 members, besides the Landammann or president,
all holding office for three years. The communes (forming 18
electoral circles) elect for three years the Landrath, a sort of
standing committee composed of members in the proportion of
1 for every 500 inhabitants or fraction over 250. The present
constitution dates from 1887. (W. A. B. C.)
GLARUS (Fr. Glaris) f the capital of the Swiss canton of the
same name. It is a clean, modern little town, built on the left
bank of the Linth (opposite it is the industrial suburb of Ennenda
on the right bank), at the north-eastern foot of the imposing
rock peak of the Vorder Giarnisch (7648 ft.), while on the east
rises the Schild (6400 ft.). It now contains but few houses
built before 1861, for on the 10/ 11 May 1861 practically the
whole town was destroyed by fire that was fanned by a violent
Fohn or south wind, rushing down from the high mountains
through the natural funnel formed by the Linth valley. The
total loss is estimated at about half a million sterling, of which
about £100,000 were made up by subscriptions that poured in
from every side. It possesses the broad streets and usual
buildings of a modern town, the parish church being by far the
most stately and well-situated building; it is used in common
by the Protestants and Romans. Zwingli, the reformer, was
parish priest here from 1506 to 15 16, before he became a Pro-
testant. The town is 1578 ft. above the sea-level, and in 1900
had a population of 4877, almost all German-speaking, while
1248 were Romanists. For the Linth canals (181 1 and 18 16)
see Linth.
The District of Glarus is said to have been converted to
Christianity in the 6th century by the Irish monk, Fridolin,
whose special protector was St Hilary of Poitiers; the former
was the founder, and both were patrons, of the Benedictine
nunnery of Sackingen, on the Rhine between Constance and
Basel, that about the 9th century became the owner of the
district which was then named after St Hilary. The Habsburgs,
protectors of the nunnery, gradually drew to themselves the
exercise of all the rights of the nuns, so that in 1352 Glarus
joined the Swiss Confederation. But the men of Glarus did not
gain their complete freedom till after they had driven back the
Habsburgs in the glorious battle of Nafels (1388), the comple-
ment of Sempach, so that the Habsburgers gave up their rights
GLAS, G.-— GLAS^JP
in 1398, while those of Sackingen were bought up in 1395, on
condition of a small annual payment. Glarus early adopted'
Protestantism; but there were many struggles later on between
the two parties, as the chief family, that of Tschudi, adhered to
the old faith. At last it was arranged that, besides the common
Lands gemeinde, each party should have its separate Lands-
gemeinde (1623) and tribunals (1683), while it was not till 1798
that the Protestants agreed to accept the Gregorian calendar:
The slate-quarrying industry appeared early in the 17th century,
while cotton-spinning was introduced about 1714, and calico-
printing by 1750. In 1798, in consequence of the resistance
of Glarus to the French invaders, the canton was united to other
districts under the name of canton of the Linth, though in 1803
it was reduced to its former limits. In 1799 it was traversed
by the Russian army, under Suworoff, coming over the Pragel
Pass, but blocked by the French at Nafels, and so driven over
the Panixer to the prisons. The old system of government was
set up again in 1814. But in 1836 by the new Liberal con-
stitution one single Landsgemeinde was restored, despite the
resistance (1837) of the Romanist population at Nafels.
Authorities. — J. B&bler, Die Alpwirtschaft im Kant. G. (Sofeure,
1898); J. J. Blumer, article on the early history of the canton in
vol. iii. (Zurich, 1844) of the Arckiv f. sehweiz. Geschichte; E. Buss
and A. Heim, Der Bergsturz von Elm (1881) (Zurich, 1881) ; W. A. B.
Coolidge, The Range of the Todi (London, 1894) ; J. G. Ebel, Schilde-
rung der Gebirgsvofker d. Sehweiz, vol. ii. (Leipzig, 1798) ; Gottfried
Heer, Geschichte d. Landes Glarus (to 1830) (2 vols., Glarus, 1898-
1899), Glarnetiscke Reformationsgeschichte (Glarus, 1900), Zur $oo
jahrigen Gedachtnisfeier der Schlacht bei Nafels (1388) (Glarus, 1888)
and Die Kitchen d. Kant, Glarus (Glarus, 1890); Oswald Heer and
J. J. Blumer-Heer, Der Kant. Glarus (St Gall, 1846); T. J. Hottineef.
Conrad Escher von der Linth (Zurich, 1852); Jahrbuch, published
annually since 1865 by the Cantonal Historical Society ; A; Jenny-
Trumpy, " Handel u. Industrie d. Kant. G." (article in vol. xxxiii.,
1899, of the Jahrbuch); M. Schuler, Geschichte d. Landes Glarus
(Zurich, 1836); E. Naf-Blumer, Clubfuhrer durch die Glarner-Alpen
(Schwanden, 1902) ; Aloys Schulte, article on the true and legendary
early history of the Canton, published in vol. xviii., 1893, of the
Jahrbuch f. sehweiz. Geschichte (Zurich) ; J. J. Blumer, Stoats- und
Rechtsgeschichte a\ sehweiz. Demokratien (3 vols., St Gall, 1850-
I 859); H. Ryffel, Die sehweiz. Landsgemeinden (Zurich, 1903);
R. von Reding-Biberegg, Der Zug Suworoffs durch die Sehweiz in
1799 (Stans, 1895). (W. A. B, C.)
GLAS, GEORGE (1725-1765), Scottish seaman and merchant
adventurer in West Africa, son of John Glas the divine, was
born at Dundee in 1725, and is said to have been brought up
as a surgeon. He obtained command of a ship which traded
between Brazil, the N.W. coasts of Africa and the Canary Islands.
During his voyages he discovered on the Saharan seaboard a
river navigable for some distance inland, and here he proposed
to found a trading station. The exact spot is not known with
certainty, but it is plausibly identified with Gueder, a place
in about 29 10' N., possibly the haven where the Spaniards had
in the 15th and 16th centuries a fort called Santa Cruz de Mar
Pequeiia. Glas made an arrangement with the Lords of Trade
whereby he was granted £15,000 if he obtained free cession of
the port he had discovered to the British crown; the proposal
was to be laid before parliament in the session of 1765.
Having chartered a vessel, Glas, with his wife and daughter,
sailed for Africa in 1764, reached his destination and made
a treaty with the Moors of the district. He named his settle-
ment Port Hillsborough, after Wills Hill, earl of Hillsborough
(afterwards marquis of Downshire), president of the Board
of Trade and Plantations, 1763-1765. In November 1764
Glas and some companions, leaving his ship behind, went in
the longboat to Lanzarote, intending to buy a small barque
suitable for the navigation of the river on which was his settle-
ment. From Lanzarote he forwarded to London the treaty
he had concluded for the acquisition of Port Hillsborough. A
few days later he Was seized by the Spaniards, taken to Teneriffe
and imprisoned at Santa Cruz. In a letter to the Lords of Trade
from Teneriffe, dated the 15th of December 1764, Glas said
be believed the reason for his detention was the jealousy of the
Spaniards at the settlement at Port Hillsborough "because
from thence in time of war the English might ruin their fishery
and effectually stop the whole commerce of the Canary Islands/'
|The 'Spaniards farther : looked iipoti the settlement as a step,
towards the conquest of the islands. "They - are, therefore,
contriving how to make out a claim to -the port; and. will forge,
old manuscripts to prove their assertion " (Calendar of Home
Office Paferr, 1760^1765), in March 176$ the ship's company
at Port Hillsborough was attacked by the natives and several,
members of it killed. The survivors, including Mrs and Miss
Glas, escaped to Teneriffe. In October following, through the
representations of the British government, Glas was released
from prison. With his wife and child he set sail for England
on board the barque " Earl of Sandwich." Qn the 30th of
November Spanish and Portuguese members of the crew* who
had learned that the ship contained much treasure, mutinied,
killing the captain and passengers. Glas was stabbed to death,
and his wife and daughter thrown overboard. (The murderers
were afterwards captured and hanged at Dublin-) After the
death of Glas the British government appears to have taken
no steps to carry out his project.
In 1764 Glas published in London The History of the Discovery and
Conquest of the Canary Islands, which he had translated from the
MS. of an Andalusian monk named Juan Abreu de Galindo, then
recently discovered at Palma. To this Glas added a description of
the islands, a continuation of the history and an account of the
manners, customs, trade, &c, of the inhabitants, displaying con*
siderable knowledge of the archipelago.
GLAS, JOHN (1695-1773), Scottish divine, was born at
Auchtermnchty, Fife, where his father was parish minister,
on the 5th of October 1695. He was educated at Kinclaven and
the grammar school, Perth, graduated A.M. at the university of
St Andrews in 17 13, and completed his education for the ministry
at Edinburgh. He was licensed as a preacher by the presbytery
of Dunkeld, and soon afterwards ordained by that of Dundee
as minister of the parish of Tealing (1719), where his effective
preaching soon secured a large congregation. Early in his
ministry he was " brought to a stand " while lecturing on the
"Shorter Catechism v by the question "How doth Christ
execute the office of a king ? " This led to an examination of
the New Testament foundation of the Christian Church, and in
1725, in a letter to Francis Archibald, minister of Guthrie,
Forfarshire, he repudiated the obligation of national covenants.
In the same year his views found expression in the formation of
a society " separate from the multitude " numbering nearly a
hundred, and drawn from his own and neighbouring parishes.
The members of this ecclesiola in ecclesia pledged themselves
" to join together in the Christian profession, to follow Christ
the Lord as the righteousness of his people, to walk together
in brotherly love, and in the duties of it, in subjection to
Mr Glas as their overseer in the Lord, to observe the ordinance
of the Lord's Supper once every month,, to submit themselves
to the Lord's law for removing offences," &c. (Matt, xviii.
15-20). From the scriptural doctrine of the essentially spiritual
nature of the kingdom of Christ, Glas in his public teaching
drew the conclusions: (1) that there is no warrant in the New
Testament for a national church; (2) that the magistrate as
such has no function in the church; (3) that national covenants
are without scriptural grounds; (4) that the true Reformation
cannot be carried out by political and secular weapons but by
the word and spirit of Christ only.
This argument is most fully exhibited in a treatise entitled
The Testimony of the King of Martyrs (1729). For the promulga-
tion of these views, which were confessedly at variance with the
doctrines of the standards of the national church of Scotland,
he was summoned (1726) before his presbytery, where in the
course of the investigations which followed he affirmed still
more explicitly his belief that " every national church established
by the laws of earthly kingdoms is antichristian in its constitution
and persecuting in its spirit," and further declared opinions
upon the subject of church government which amounted to a
repudiation of Presbyterianism and an acceptance of the puritan
type of Independency. For these opinions he was in 1728
suspended from the discharge of ministerial functions, and
finally deposed in 1730* The members of the society already
referred to, however, for the most, part continued to adhere
8o
GL^SER— GLASGOW
to him, thus constituting the first " Glassite i" o* "Glasite"
church. The^ seat 1 of this congregation was shortly. afterward
transferred to Dundee (whence Glas subsequently removed to
Edinburgh), where he officiated for some time as an "elder,"
He next laboured in Perth for a few years* where, he was joined
by Robert Sandeman (see Glasites)} who became his son-in-law,
and eventually was recognized as the leader and principal
exponent of Glas's views? these he. developed in a direction
which laid them open to the charge of antinomianism. Ulti-
mately iti 1730 Glas returned to Dundee, where the remainder
of his life was spent. He introduced in his church the primitive
custom of the' * 4 osculum pads " and the " agape " celebrated
as a common meal with broth. From this custom his congrega-
tion was known as the "kail kirk." In 1^39 .the General
Assembly, without any application from him, removed the
sentence of deposition which had: been passed against him, and
restored him to the character and function of a minister, of the
gospel of Christ, but not that of a minister of the Established
Church of Scotland* declaring that he was not eligible for a
charge until he should have renounced principles inconsistent
with the constitution of the church.
A collected edittoa of his works was published at Edinburgh in
1 76 1 (4 vols,, 8vo), and again at Perth in 1782 (5 vols., 8vo). He
died in 1773.
Glas's published works bear witness to his vigorous mind and
scholarly attainments. His reconstruction of the True Discourse of
Celsus (1753), from Origen's reply to it, is a competent and learned
piece of work. The Testimony of the King of Martyrs concerning His
Kingdom (1729) is a classic repudiation of erastianism and defence
of the spiritual autonomy of the church under Jesus Christ. His
common sense appears in his rejection of Hutchinson's attempt to
prove that the Bible supplies a complete system of physical science,
and his shrewdness in his Notes on Scripture Texts (1747). He
published a volume of Christian Songs (Perth, 1784). (D. Mn.)
GLASER, CHRISTOPHER, a pharmaceutical chemist of the
17th century, was a native of Basel, became demonstrator of
chemistry at the Jardin du Roi in Paris and apothecary to
Louis XIV. and to the duke of Orleans. He is best known by
his Trait* de fo ckymie (Paris, 1663), which went through some
ten editions in about five-and-twenty years, and was translated
into both German and English. It has been alleged that he was
an accomplice in the notorious poisonings carried out by the
marchioness de Brinvilliers, but the extent of his complicity is
doubtful. He appears to have died some time before 1676.
The sal polychrestum Gfaseri is normal potassium sulphate which
he prepared and used medicinally.
GLASGOW, a city, county of a city, royal burgh and port of
Lanarkshire, Scotland, situated on both banks of the Clyde,
401 J m. N\W. of London by the West Coast railway route, and
47 m. W.S.W. of Edinburgh by the North British railway. The
valley of the Clyde is closely confined by hills, and the city
extends far over these, the irregularity of its site making for
picturesqueness. The commercial centre of Glasgow, with the
majority of important public buildings, lies on the north bank
of the river, which traverses the city from W.S.W. to E.N.E.,
and is crossed by a number of bridges. The uppermost is
Dalmamock Bridge, dating from 1801, and next below it is
Ruthcrglen Bridge, rebuilt in 1806, and superseding a structure
of 1 7 7 5. St Andrew's suspension bridge gives access to the Green
to the inhabitants of Hutchesontown, a district winch is ap-
proached also by Albert Bridge, a handsome erection, leading
from the Salt market. Above this bridge is the tidal dam and
weir. Victoria Bridge, of granite, was opened in 1856, taking
the place of the venerable bridge erected by Bishop Rae in 1345,
whi ch was demolished in 1 $4 7. Then follows a suspension bridge
(vlating from r$53> by which foot-passengers from the south side
obtain access to St Enoch Square and. finally, the most important
bridge of all is reached, variously known as Glasgow, Jamaica
Street, or Broomiehw Bridge, built of granite from Telford's
designs and first used in 1S35. Towards the dose of the century
it was reconstructed, and reopened in 1800. At the busier
periods of the day it bears a very heavy traffic The stream is
spanned between Victoria and Albert Bridges by a bridge
belor^ing to the Glasgow & South-Western railway and by two
bridges carrying the lines of the Caledonian railway, one below
Dalmarnock Bridge and the other a massive work immediately
west of Glasgow Bridge. ' . V .
Buildings.— George Square, in tfre heart of the city, is an
open space of which every possible advantage has been taken.
On its eastern side stand the municipal buildings, a palatial
pile in Venetian renaissance style, from the designs of William
Young, a native of Paisley. They were opened in 1889 and cost
nearly £600,000. They form a square block four storeys high
and carry a domed turret at each . end of the western facade,
from the centre qf which rises a massive tower. The entrance
hall and grand staircase, the council chamber, banqueting hall
and reception rooms are decorated in a grandiose style, not
unbecoming to the commercial and industrial metropolis of
Scotland. Several additional blocks have been built or rented"
! for the accommodation of the municipal staff. Admirably
equipped sanitary chambers were opened in 1897, including a
bacteriological and chemical laboratory. Up till 1810 the town
council met in a hall adjoining the old tplbooth. It then moved
to the fine classical structure at the foot of the Salt market,
which is now used as court-houses. This was vacated in 1842
for the county buildings in Wilson Street. Growth of business
compelled another migration to Ingram Street. in 1875, and,
fourteen years later, it occupied its present quarters. On the
southern side of George Square the chief structure is the massive
General Post Office. On the western side stand two ornate Italian
buildings, the Bank of Scotland and the Merchants' House, the
head of which (the dean of gild), along with the head of the
Trades' House (the deacon-convener of trades) has been de facto
member of the town council since 1711, an arrangement devised
with a view to adjusting the frequent disputes between the two
gilds. The Royal Exchange, a Corinthian building with a fine
portico of columns in two rows, is an admired example of the
work of David Hamilton (1 768-1 843), a native of Glasgow, who
designed several of the public buildings and churches, and gained
the second prize for a design for the Houses of Parliament. The
news-room of the exchange is a vast apartment, 130 ft. long,
60 ft. wide, 130 ft. high, with a richly-decorated roof supported
by Corinthian pillars. Buchanan Street, the most important
and handsome street in the city, contains the Stock Exchange,
the Western Club House (by David Hamilton) and the offices of
the Glasgow Herald. In Sauchiehall Street are the Fine Art
Institute and the former Corporation Art Gallery. Argyll
Street, the busiest thoroughfare, mainly occupied with shops,
leads to Trongate, where a few remains of the old town are now
carefully preserved. On the south side of the street, spanning
the pavement, stands the Tron Steeple, a stunted spire dating
from 1637. It is all that is left of St Mary's church, which was
burned down in 1793 during the revels of a notorious body
known as the Hell Fire Club. On the opposite side, at the corner
of High Street, stood the ancient tolbooth, or prison, a turreted
building, five storeys high, with a fine Jacobean crown tower.
The only remnant of the structure is the tower known as the
Cross Steeple.
Although almost all the old public buildings of Glasgow have
been swept away, the cathedral remains in excellent preservation.
It stands in the north-eastern quarter of the city at a
height of 104 ft. above the level of the Clyde. It is a |* .
beautiful example of Early English work, impressive cSSnL
in its simplicity. Its form is that of a Latin cross,
with imperfect transepts. Its length from east to west is 319 ft. ,
and its width 63 ft.; the height of the choir is 93 ft., and of the
nave 85 ft. At the centre rises a fine tower, with a short octagonal
spire, 225 ft. high. The choir, locally known as the High Church,
serves as one of the city churches, and the extreme east end of it
forms the Lady chapel. The rich western doorway is French
in design but English in details. The chapter-house projects
from the north-eastern corner and somewhat mars the harmony
of the effect. It was built in the 15th century and has a groined
roof supported by a pillar 20 ft. high. Many citizens have
contributed towards filling the windows with stained glass,
executed at Munich, the government providing the eastern
GLASGOW
window in recognition of their enterprise. The crypt beneath
the choir is not the least remarkable part of the edifice, being
without equal in Scotland. It is borne on 65 pillars and lighted
by 41 windows. The sculpture of the capitals of the columns
and bosses of the groined vaulting is exquisite and the whole
is in excellent preservation. Strictly speaking, it is not a crypt,
but a lower church adapted to the sloping ground of the right
bank of the Molendinar burn. The dripping aisle is so named
from the constant dropping of water from the roof. St Mungo's
Well in the south-eastern corner was considered to possess
therapeutic virtues, and in the crypt a recumbent effigy, headless
and handless, is faithfully accepted as the tomb of Kentigern.
The cathedral contains few monuments of exceptional merit,
but the surrounding graveyard is almost completely paved with
tombstones; In 11 15 an investigation was ordered by David,
prince of Cumbria, into the lands and churches belonging to the
bishopric, and from the deed then drawn up it is clear that at
that date a cathedral had already been endowed. When David
ascended the throne in 1124 he gave to the see of Glasgow the
lands of Partick, besides restoring many possessions of which
it had been deprived. JoceKn (dL 1:199 j^ made bishop in 11 74,
was the first great bishop, and is memorable for his efforts to
replace the cathedral built in 1136 by Bishop John Achaius, which
had been destroyed by fire. The crypt is hib wdrx, and he began
the. choir, Lady chapel, and central tower. The new structure
was sufficiently advanced to be dedicated Jn 1 1 9 7 . Other famous
bishops were Robert Wishart (d. 13 16), appointed in 1272, who
was among the first to join in the revolt of Wallace, and received
Robert Bruce when he lay under the ban of the church for the
murder of Comyn; John Cameron (d. 1446), appointed in 1428,
under whom the building as it stands was completed; and
William Turnbull (d. 1454), appointed * n J 447/ wno founded the
university in 1450. James Beaton or Bethune (151 7-1603)
was the last Roman Catholic archbishop. He fled to France at
the reformation in 1560, and took with him the treasures and
records of the see, including the Red Book of Glasgow dating
from the reign of Robert III. The documents were deposited
in the Scots College in Paris, were sent at the outbreak of the
Revolution for safety to St Omer, and were never recovered.
This loss explains the paucity of the earlier annals of the city.
The zeal of the Reformers led them ,to threaten to mutilate the
cathedral, but the building was saved by the prompt action of
the craftsmen, who mustereo! in force and dispersed the fanatics.
Excepting the cathedral, none of the Glasgow churches
possesses historical interest; and, speaking generally, it is
only the buildings that have been erected since the cbtimhea^
beginning of the 19th century that have pronounced
architectural merit. This was due largely to the long survival
of the severe sentiment of the Covenanters, who discouraged,
i^ they did not actually forbid^ the raising of, temples of beautiful
8*
GLASGOW
design. Representative examples of later work ate found in rile
United Free churches in Vincent Street, in Caledonia Road and
at Queen's Park, designed by Alexander Thomson (1817-1875),
an architect of distinct originality; St George's church, in West
George Street, a remarkable work by William Stark, erected
in the beginning of the 19th century; St Andrew's church
in St Andrew's Square off the Saltmarket, modelled after
St MartinVin-the-Fields, London, with a fine Roman portico;
some of the older parish churches, such as St Enoch's, dating
from 1780, with a good spire (the saint's name is said to be a
corruption of Tanew, mother of Kentigern); the episcopal
church of St Mary (1870), in Great Western Road, by Sir G. G.
Scott; the Roman Catholic cathedral of St Andrew, on the
river-bank between Victoria and Broomielaw bridges; the
Barony church, replacing the older kirk in which Norman
Macleod ministered; and several admirable structures, well
situated, on the eastern confines of Kelvingrove Park.
The principal burying-ground is the Necropolis, occupying
Fir Park, a hill about 300 ft. high in the northern part of the
city. It provides a not inappropriate background to the cathe-
dral, from which it is approached by a bridge, known as the
" Bridge of Sighs," over the Molendinar ravine. The ground,
which once formed portion of the estate of Wester Craigs, belongs
to the Merchants' House, which purchased it in 1650 from Sir
Ludovic Stewart of Minto. A Doric column to the memory of
Knox, surmounted by a colossal statue of the reformer, was
erected by public subscription on the crown of the height in
1824, and a few years later the idea arose of utilizing the land as
a cemetery. The Jews have reserved for their own people a
detached area in the north-western corner of the cemetery.
Education. — The university, founded in 1450 by Bishop
Turnbull under a bull of Pope Nicholas V., survived in its old
quarters till far in the 19th century. The paedagogium,
V m jf ow or college of arts, was at first housed in Rottenrow,
venity. DUt was moved in 1460 to a site in High Street,
where Sir James Hamilton of Cadzow, first Lord
Hamilton (d. 1479), 8 ave it four acres of land and some buildings.
Queen Mary bestowed upon it thirteen acres of contiguous
ground, and her son granted it a new charter and enlarged the
endowments. Prior to the Revolution its fortunes fluctuated,
but in the 18th century it became very famous. By the middle
of the 19th century, however, its surroundings had deteriorated,
and in i860 it was decided to rebuild it elsewhere. The ground
had enormously increased in value and a railway company
purchased it for £100,000. In 1864 the university bought the
Gilmore Hill estate for £65,000, the adjacent property of Dowan
Hill for £16,000 and the property of Clayslaps for £17,400. Sir
G. G. Scott was appointed architect and selected as the site of
the university buildings the ridge of Gilmore Hill — the finest
situation in Glasgow. The design is Early English with a
suggestion in parts of the Scots-French style of a much later
period. The main structure is 540 ft. long and 300 ft. broad.
The principal front faces southwards and consists of a lofty central
tower with spire and corner blocks with turrets, between which
are buildings of lower height. Behind the tower lies the Bute
hall, built on cloisters, binding together the various departments
and smaller halls, and dividing the massive edifice into an
eastern and western quadrangle, on two sides of which are
ranged the class-rooms in two storeys. The northern facade
comprises two corner blocks, besides the museum, the library
and, in the centre, the students' reading-room on one floor and
the Hunterian museum on the floor above. On the south the
ground falls in terraces towards Kelvingrove Park and the
Kelvin. On the west, but apart from the main structure, stand
the houses of the principal and professors. The foundation
stone was laid in 1868 and the opening ceremony was held in
1870. The total cost of the university buildings amounted to
£500,000, towards which government contributed £120,000 and
public subscription £250,000. The third marquess of Bute
(1847-1000) gave £40,000 to provide the Bute or common hall,
a room of fine proportions fitted in Gothic style and divided
by a beautiful Gothic screen from the Randolph hall, named
after another benefactor, " Charles "Randolph ^1809- x8fS]^" a.
native of Stirling, who had prospered as shipbuilder and marine!
engineer and left £60,000 to Ihe university. The graceful spire =
surmounting the tower was provided from the bequest of £5000;
by Mr A. Cunningham, deputy town-clerk, and Dr John M'Intyre ■
erected the Students' Union at a cost of £5000, while other
donors completed the equipment so generously that the senate
was enabled to carry on its work, for the first time in its history,
in almost ideal circumstances. The library includes the collec-
tion of Sir William Hamilton, and the Hunterian museum,
.bequeathed by William Hunter, the anatomist, is particularly
rich in coins, medals, black-letter books and anatomical prepara-
tions. The observatory on Dowan Hill is attached to the chair
of astronomy. An interesting link with the past are the exhibi-
tions founded by John Snell (1 629-1 679), a native of Colmonell
in Ayrshire, for the purpose of enabling students of distinction
to continue their career at Balliol College, Oxford. Amongst
distinguished exhibitioners have been Adam Smith, John
Gibson Lockhart, John Wilson (" Christopher North"), Arch-
bishop Tait, Sir William Hamilton and Professor Shairp. The
curriculum of the university embraces the faculties of arts,
divinity, medicine, law and science. The governing body
includes the chancellor, elected for life by the general council,
the principal, also elected for life, and the lord rector elected
triennially by the students voting in " nations " according to
their birthplace (GlotHana, natives of Lanarkshire; Trans-
fortkana, of Scotland north of the Forth; Rothseiana, of the
shires of Bute, Renfrew and Ayr; and Loudonia, all others).
There are a large number of well-endowed chairs and lectureships
and the normal number of students exceeds 2000. The uni-
versities of Glasgow and Aberdeen unite to return one member
to parliament. Queen Margaret College for women, established
in 1883, occupies a handsome building close to the botanic
gardens, has an endowment of upwards of £25,000, and was
incorporated with the university in 1893. Muirhead College
is another institution for women.
Elementary instruction is supplied at numerous board schools.
Higher, secondary and technical education is provided at several
well-known institutions. There are two educational
endowments boards which apply a revenue of about
£10,000 a year mainly to the foundation of bursaries. **?
Anderson College in George Street perpetuates the ooue ^
memory of its founder, John Anderson (1 726-1 796), professor of
natural philosophy in the university, who opened a class in physics
for working men, which he conducted to the end of his life. By his
will he provided for an institution for the instruction of artisans and
others unable to attend the university. The college which bears his
name began in 1796 with lectures on natural philosophy and chemistry
by Thomas Garnett ( 1 766-1 802) . Two years later mathematics and
geography were added. In 1799 Dr George Birkbeck (1 776-1 841)
succeeded Garnett and began those lectures on mechanics and applied
science which, continued elsewhere, ultimately led to the foundation
of mechanics' institutes in many towns. In later years the college
was further endowed and its curriculum enlarged by the inclusion
of literature and languages, but ultimately it was determined to
limit the scope of its work to medicine (comprising, however, physics,
chemistry and botany also). The lectures of its medical school*
incorporated in 1887 and situated near the Western Infirmary, are
accepted by Glasgow and other universities. The Glasgow and
West of Scotland Technical College, formed in 1886 out of a com-
bination of the arts side of Anderson College, the College of Science
and Arts, Allan Glen's Institution and the Atkinson Institution, is
subsidized by the corporation and the endowments board, and is
especially concerned with students desirous of following an in-
dustrial career. St Mungo's College, which has developed from an
extra-mural school in connexion with the Royal Infirmary, was
incorporated in 1889, with faculties of medicine and law. The
United Free Church College, finely situated near Kelvingrove Park,
the School of Art and Design, and the normal schools for the training
of teachers, are institutions with distinctly specialized objects.
The High school in Elmbank is the successor of the grammar
school (long housed in John Street) which was founded in the 14th
century as an appanage of the cathedral. It was placed under the
jurisdiction of the school board in 1873. Other secondary schools
include Glasgow Academy, Kervinside Academy and the girls' and
boys' schools endowed by the Hutcheson trust. Several of the
schools under the board are furnished with secondary departments
or equipped as science schools, and the Roman Catholics maintain
elementary schools and advanced academies.
Art GaUeries, Libraries and M useums.— Glasgow merchants and
GLASGOW
«3
manufacturer* ttllkef havri teen constant patron* of -art, 'and thdr
liberality may have had gome influence on the younger painters who,
towards the close of the l<)th century, broke away from tradition
and, stimulated by training in the studios of Paris, became known
as the "Glasgow schook" The' art gallery and museum in Kelvin-
grove Park, which was built at a cost of £250,000 (partly derived
from the profits of the exhibitions held in the park in 1888 and 1901),
is exceptionally well appointed. The collection originated m 1854
in the purchase of the works of art belonging to Archibald M'Lellan',
and was supplemented from time to time by numerous bequests of
important pictures. It was housed for many years in the Corpora*
tion galleries in Sauchiehall Street. The Institute of Fine Arts, in
Sauchiehall Street, is mostly devoted to periodical exhibitions of
modern art. There are also pictures on exhibition in the People's
Palace on Glasgow Green, which was built by the corporation in
1898 and combines an art gallery and museum with a conservatory
and winter garden, and In the museum at Camphill, situated
within the bounds of Queen's Park. The library and Hunteriah
museum in the university are mostly reserved for the use of students.
The faculty of procurators possess a valuable library which is housed
in their hall, an Italian Renaissance building, in West George Street.
In Bath Street there are the Mechanics' and the Philosophical
Society's libraries, and the Physicians' is in St Vincent Street.
Miller Street contains the headquarters of the public libraries. The
premises once occupied by the water commission have been converted
to house the Mitchell library, which grew out of a bequest of £70,000
by Stephen Mitchell, largely reinforced by further gifts of libraries
and funds, and now contains upwards of 100,000 volumes. It is
governed by the city council and has been in use since 1877. Another
building in this street accommodates both the Stirling and Baillie
libraries. The Stirling, with some 50,000 volumes, is particularly
rich in tracts of the 16th and 17 th centuries, and the Baillie was
endowed by George Baillie, a solicitor who, in 1863, gave ■£ 18,000
for educational objects. The Athenaeum in St George's Place, an
institution largely concerned with evening classes in various subjects,
contains an excellent library and reading-room.
Charities. — The old Royal Infirmary, designed by Robert Adam
and opened in 1704, adjoining the cathedral, occupies the site of the
archiepiscopal palace, the last portion of which was removed towards
the close of the 18th century. The chief architectural feature of the
infirmary is the central dome forming the roof of the operating
theatre. On the northern side are the buildings of the medical
school attached to the institution. The new infirmary commemor-
ates the Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria. A little farther north,
in Castle Street, is the blind asylum. The Western Infirmary is to
some extent used for the purposes of clinical instruction in connexion
with the university, to which it stands in immediate proximity.
Near it is the Royal hospital for sick children. To the south of
Queen's Park is Victoria Infirmary, and close to it the deaf and dumb
institution. On the bank of the river, not far from the south-eastern
boundary of the city, is the Belvedere hospital for infectious diseases,
and at Ruchill, in the north, is another hospital of the same character
opened in 1900. The Royal asylum at Gartnavel is situated near
jordanhill station, and the District asylum at Gartloch (with a
branch at West Muckroft) lies in the parish of Cadder beyond the
north-eastern boundary. There are numerous hospitals exclusively
devoted to the treatment of special diseases, ana several nursing
institutions and homes. Hutcheson's Hospital, designed by David
Hamilton and adorned with statues of the founders, is situated in
I ngram Street, and by the increase in the value of its lands has become
a very wealthy body. George Hutcheson (1580-1639), a lawyer in
the Trongate near the tolbooth, who afterwards lived in the Bishop's
castle, which stood close to the snot where the Kelvin enters the Clyde,
founded the hospital for poor old men. His brother Thomas (1580-
1641) established in connexion with it a school for the lodging and
education of orphan boys, the sons of burgesses. The trust, through
the growth of its funds, has been enabled to extend its educational
scope and to subsidise schools apart from the charity.
Monuments. — Most of the statues have been erected in George
Square. They are grouped around a fluted pillar 80 ft. high, sur-
mounted by a colossal statue of Sir- Walter Scott by John Ritchie
( 1 809-1 850), erected in 1837, and include Queen Victoria and the
Prince Consort (both equestrian) by Baron Marochetti; James Watt
by Chantrey; Sir Robert Peel, Thomas Campbell the poet, who
was born in Glasgow, and David Livingstone, all by John Mossman;
Sir John Moore, a native of Glasgow, by Flaxman, erected in 1819;
James Oswald, the first member returned to parliament for the city
after the Reform Act of 1832; Lord Clyde (Sir Colin Campbell),
also a native, by Foley, erected in 1868; Dr Thomas Graham,
master of the mint, another native, by Brodie; Robert Burns by
G. E. Ewing, erected in 1877, subscribed for in shillings by the work-
ing men of Scotland; and William Ewart Gladstone by Hamo
Thornycroft, unveiled by Lord Rosebery in' 19O2. In front of the
Royal Exchange stands the equestrian monument of the duke of
Wellington. In Cathedral Square are the statues of Norman
Macieod, James White and James Arthur, and iri front of the Royal
infirmary is that of Sir James Lumedert, lord provost and benefactor.
Nelson is commemorated by an obelisk' 143 ft. high on the Green,
which was erected in 1806 and is said to be a copy of that in the
Piazza del Popolo at Rome. One of the most familiar statues is the
equestrian figure ofWiltfam III. indie Tfohgate, which waa.prfisettted
to the town in 1735 by James Macrae (1677-1744), a poor Ayrshire
lad who had amassed a fortune in India, where he was governor of
Madras from 1725 to 1730:
Recreations. ~~Qt the theatres the chief are the King's in Batii
Street, the Royal and' the Grand in Cowcaddena, the. Royalty and
Gaiety in Sauchiehall Street, and the Princess's in Main Street
Variety theatres, headed by the Empire in Sauchiehall Street, are
found in various parts of tne town. There is a circus in Waterloo
Street, a hippodrome in Sauchiehall Street and a joofagicnl garde*
in New City Road. The principal concert halls are the great hall
of the St Andrew's Halls, a group of rooms belonging to the corpora-
tion ; the City Hall in Candleriggs, the People's Palace on the Green,
and Queen's Rooms close to Kdvingrove Park. Throughout winter
enormous crowds throng the football grounds of the Queen V Park,
the leading amateur dub* and the Celtic, the Rangers, the Third
Lanark and other prominent professional clubs.
Parks and Open Spaces.— The oldest open space is the Green
(140 acres), on the right bank of the river, adjoining a densely-
populated district. It once extended farther west, but a portion
was built over at a time when public rights were not vigilantly
guarded. It is a favourite area for popular demonstrations, and
sections have been reserved for recreation or laid out in flower-beds.
Kelvingrove Park, in the west end, has exceptional advantages, for
the Kelvin burn flows through it and the ground is naturally terraced*
while the situation is beautified by the adjoining Gilmore Hill with
the university on its summit. The park was laid out under the
direction of Sir Joseph Paxton, and contains the Stewart fountain,
erected to commemorate the labours of Lord Provost Stewart
and his colleagues in the promotion of the Loch Katrine water scheme.
The other parks on the right bank are, in the north, Ruchill (53
acres), acquired in 1891, and Springburn (53$ acres), acquired in
1892, and, in the east, Alexandra Park (120 acres), in which is laid
down a nine-hole golf-course, and Tollcross (82! acres), beyond the
municipal boundary, acquired in 1897. On the left bank Queen's
Park (130 acres), occupying a commanding she, was laid out by Sir
Joseph Paxton, and considerably enlarged in 1894 by the enclosure
of the grounds of Camphill. The other southern parks are Richmond
(44 acres), acquired in 1898, and named after Lord Provost Sir David
Richmond, who opened it in 1800,; Maxwell, which was taken over
on the annexation of Pollokshields in 1891; Bellahouston (176
acres), acquired in 1895; and Cathkin Braes (50 acres), aim. beyond
the south-eastern boundary, presented to the city in 1886 by James
Dick, a manufacturer, containing " Queen Mary's stone," a point
which commands a view of the lower valley of the Clyde. In the
north-western district of the town 40 acres between Great Western
Road and the Kelvin are devoted to the Royal Botanic Gardens,
which became public property in 1891. They are beautifully laid
out, and contain a great range of hothouses. The gardens owed
much to Sir William Hooker, who was regius professor of botany in
Glasgow University before his appointment to the directorship of
Kew Gardens.
Communications. — The North British railway terminus is situated
in Queen Street, and consists of a high-level station (main line)
anda low-level station, used in connexion with the City & District
line, largely underground, serving the northern side of the town,
opened -in 1886. The Great Northern and North- Eastern railways
use the high-level line of the N.B.R., the three companies forming the
East Coast Joint Service. The Central terminus of the Caledonian
railway in Gordon Street, served by the West Coast system (in
which the London & North- Western railway shares), also comprises
a high-level station for the main line traffic and a low-level station
for the Cathcart District railway, completed in 1886 and made
circular for the southern side and suburbs in 1804, and also for the
connexion between Maryhill and Rutherglen, which is mostly under-
ground. Both the underground lines communicate with certain
branches of the main line, either directly or by change of carriage.
The older terminus of the Caledonian railway in Buchanan Street
now takes the northern and eastern traffic. The terminus of the
Glasgow & South-Western railway company in St Enoch Square
serves the country indicated in its title, and also gives the Midland
railway of England access to the west coast and Glasgow. The
Glasgow Subway — an underground cable passenger line, 64 m. long,
worked in two tunnels and passing below the Clyde twice — was
opened in 1896. Since no more bridge-building will be sanctioned
west of the railway bridge at the Broomielaw, there are at certain
points steam ferry boats or floating bridges for conveying vehicles
across the harbour, and at Stobcross there is a subway for foot and
wheeled traffic Steamers, carrying both goods and passengers,
constantly leave the Broomielaw quay for the piers and ports on
the river and firth, and the islands and sea lochs of Argyllshire.
The city is admirably served by tramways which penetrate every
populous district and cross the rrver by Glasgow and Albert bridges.
Trade. — Natural causes, such as proximity to the richest field of
coal and ironstone in Scotland and the vicinity of hill streams of pure
water, account forj much of the great development of trade in Glasgow.
It was in textiles that the city showed its earliest predominance,
which, however, has not been maintained, owing, it is alleged, to
the shortage of female labour. Several cotton mitts- are still worked,
but the leading feature in the trade has always been the manufacture
84
GLASGOW
of such light textures as plain, striped ahd figured muslins, ginghams
and fancy fabrics.. * Thread is made on a considerable scale, but jute
and silk are of comparatively little importance. The principal
varieties of carpets are woven. Some factories are exclusively
devoted to the making of lace curtains; The allied industries of
bleaching v printing, and dyeing, an the other hand; have never
declined* The use of. chlorine in bleaching was first introduced in
Great Britain at Glasgow in 1787; on the suggestion of James Watt,
•whose father-in-law was a bleacher; and it was a Glasgow bleacher,
Charles Tenrtant, who first discovered and made bleaching powder
(chloride, of lime). . Turkey *ced dyeing. was. begun at Glasgow by
David Dale arid George M'lntosh, and the colour was long known
locally as Dale's red. A large quantity of grey cloth continues to be
sent from Lancashire and other, mills to be bleached and printed in
Scottish works. These industries gave a powerful impetus to the
manufacture of chemicals, and the works at St Rollox developed
rapidly. Among prominent chemical industries- are to be reckoned
the alkali trades-— including soda, bleaching powder and soap-
making — the preparation of alum and prussiates of potash, bichro-
mate of potash, white lead and other pigments, dynamite and gun-
powder. - Glass-making and paper-making are also carried on, and
there are several breweries and distilleries, besides factories for the
making of aerated waters, starch, dextrine and matches. Many
miscellaneous tirades flourish; such as clothing, confectionery,
cabinet-making, bread and biscuit making, boot and shoe making,
flour mills and saw mills, pottery and incharubber. Since the days
of the brothers Robert Foulis (1705-1776) and Andrew Foulis
(1712+-1775), printing, both letterpress and colour, has been identified
with Glasgow, though in a lesser degree than with Edinburgh.
The tobacco trade still flourishes, though much lessened; But the
great industry is iron-founding. The discovery of the value of
blackband ironstone, till then regarded as useless " wild coal," by
David Mushet (1772-1847), and Neilson's invention of the hot-air
blast threw the control of the Scottish iron trade into the hands of
Glasgow ironmasters, although the furnaces themselves were mostly
erected in Lanarkshire and Ayrshire. The expansion of the industry
was such that, in 1850, one-third of the total output in the United
Kingdom was Scottish. During the following years, however, the
tracte seemed to have lost its elasticity, the annual production
averaging about one million tons of pigfiron. Mild steel is manu-
factured extensively : and some crucible cast steel is made. In addi-
tion to brass foundries there are works for the extraction of copper
and the smelting of lead and zinc. With such resources every
branch of engineering is well represented. Locomotive engines are
built for every country where railways are employed, and all kinds of
builder's ironwork is forged in enormous quantities, .and the sewing-
machine factories in the neighbourhood are important. Boiler-
making and marine engine works, in many cases in direct connexion
with the shipbuilding yards, are numerous. Shipbuilding* indeed, is
the greatest of the industries of Glasgow 1 , and m some years more
than half of the total tonnage in the United Kingdom has been
launched on the Clyde, the yards of which extend from the harbour
to Dumbarton on One side and Greenock on the other side of the river
and firth. Excepting a trifling proportion of wooden ships, the
Clyde-built vessels are of iron and steel, the trade having owed its
immense expansion to the prompt adoption of this material. Every
variety of craft is turned out, from battleships and great liners to
dredging-plant and hopper barges.
The Fort.— -The harbour extends from Glasgow Bridge to the point
where the Kelvin joins the Clyde, and occupies 206 acres. For the
most part it is lined by quays and wharves, which have a total
length of 8} m., and from the harbour to the sea vessels drawing
26 ft. can go up or down on one tide. It is curious to remember
that in the middle of the 18th century the river was fordable on
foot at Dumbuck, 12 m. below Glasgow and I J m. S.E. of Dum-
barton. Even within the limits of the present harbour Smeaton
reported to the town council in 1740 that at Pointhouse ford, just
east of the mouth of the Kelvin, the depth at low water was only
15 in. and at high water 39 in. The transformation effected within
a century and a half is due to the energy and enterprise of the Clyde
Navigation Trust. The earliest shipping-port of Glasgow was Irvine
in Ayrshire, but lighterage was tedious and land carriage costly, and
in 1658 the civic authorities endeavoured rx> purchase a site for a
spacious harbour at Dumbarton. Being thwarted by the magistrates
of that burgh, however, in 1662 they secured ij acres on the southern
bank at a spot some 2 m. above Greenock, which became known as
Port Glasgow, where they built harbours and constructed the first
graving dock in Scotland. Sixteen years later the Broomielaw auay
was built, but it was not until the tobacco merchants appreciated
the necessity of bringing their wares into the heart of the city that
serious consideration was paid to schemes for deepening the water-
way. Smeaton 'a suggestion of a lock and dam 4 m. below the
Broornielarw was happily not accepted. In 1768 John Golborne
advised the- narrowing of the- river iand the increasing of the 6Cour
by the construction of rubble jetties and the dredging of sandbanks
and shoals.' : After; James Watt's report in 1769 on the ford at
. Dumfbnekv Gqlbonte succeeded in 1775 in deepening the ford to 6 ft.
• sit low water with: a width of 300 ft. By; Rennie's advice in 1799,
following up GoKborne's< recommendation, as many as 200 jetties
were built between! Glasgow and,. Bowling, some old ones were
shortened and low rabble walla carried Iron* point to point of the
jetties, and thus the channel was made more uniform and much land
reclaimed. By 1 836 there was a depth of <7 or 8 ft. at the Broomielaw
at low water, and in 1 840 the whole duty of improving the navigation
was devolved upon; the Navigation Trust,! Steam dredgers were
kept constantly at work, shoals were Removed and rocks blasted
away. Two million cubic yards of matter are lifted -every year
and dumped in Loch Long. By [900 the channel had been deepened
to a minimum of 22 ft., and, as already indicated, the largest vessels
make the open sea in one tide, whereas in ^40 it took ships drawing
only 1 5 ft. two and even three tides to reach the sea. The debt of the
Trust amounts to £6,000,000, and the annual revenue to £450*000.
Long before these great results had been achieved, however> the
shipping trade had been revolutionized by the application of steam
to navigation, and later by the use ©£ iron for wood in shipbuilding,
in both respects enormously enhancing the industry and commerce
of Glasgow. From 1812 to 1820 Henry Bell's " Comet," ,30 tons,
driven by an engine of 3 horse-power, plied between Glasgow and
Greenock, until she was wrecked, being the first steamer to run
regularly on any river in the Old World. Thus since the appearance
of that primitive vessel phenomenal changes had taken place on the
Clyde. When the quays and wharves ceased to be able to accom-
modate the growing traffic, the construction of docks became
imperative. In 1867 Kingston Dock on the south side, of 5 J acres,
was opened, but soon proved inadequate, and in 1880 Queen's Dock
(two basins) at Stobcross, on the north side* of 30 acres, was com-
pleted. Although this could accommodate one million tons of
shipping, more dock space was speedily called for, and in 1897
Prince's Dock (three basins) on the opposite side, of 72 acres, was
opened, fully equipped with hydraulic and steam cranes and all the
other latest appliances. There are, besides, three graving docks,
the longest of which (880 ft.) can be made at will into two docks
of 417 ft. and 457 ft. in length. The. Caledonian and Glasgow &
South- Western railways have access to the harbour for goods and
minerals at Terminus Quay to the west of Kingston Dock* and a
mineral dock has been constructed by the Trust at Clydebank,
about si m « below the harbour* The shipping attains to colossal
proportions. The imports consist chiefly of flour, fruit, timber,
iron ore, live stock and wheat; and the exports principally of cotton
manufactures, manufactured iron . and steel, machinery, whisky,
cotton yarn, linen fabrics, coal* jute, jam and foods, and woollen
manufactures.
Government. — By the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1889 the
city was placed entirely in the county of, Lanark, the districts then
transferred having previously belonged to the 9hires of Dumbarton
and Renfrew. In 1891 the boundaries were enlarged to include
six suburban burghs and a number of suburban districts, the area
being increased from 6x11 acres to II>86i acres. The total area
of the city and the conterminous burghs of Govan, Partick and
Kinning Park— which, though they successfully resisted annexation
in 1891, are practically part of the city— is 15,659 acres. The
extreme length from north to south and from east to west is about
5 m. each way, and the circumference measures 27 m. In 1893 tne
municipal burgh was constituted a county of a city. Glasgow is
governed by a corporation consisting of 77 members, including 14
bailies and the lord provost. In 1895 all the powers which the town
council exercised as police commissioners and trustees for parks,
markets, water and the like were consolidated and conferred upon
the corporation. Three years later the two parish councils of the
city and barony, which administered the poor law over the greater
part of the city north of the Clyde, were amalgamated as the parish
council of Glasgow, with 3 1 members. As a cou nty of a city Glasgow
has a lieutenancy (successive lords provost holding the office) and a
court of quarter sessions, which is the appeal court from the magis-
trates sitting as licensing authority. Under the corporation municipal
ownership has reached a remarkable development, the corporation
owning the supplies of water, gas and electric power, tramways and
municipal lodging-houses. The enterprise of the corporation has
brought its work prominently into notice, not only in the United
Kingdom, but in the United States of America and elsewhere.
In 1859 water was conveyed by aqueducts and tunnels from Loch
Katrine (364 ft. above sea-level, giving a pressure of 70 or 80 ft.
above the highest point in the city) to the reservoir at Mugdock
(with a capacity of 500,000,000 gallons), a distance of 27 m., whence
after filtration it was distributed by pipes to Glasgow, a further
distance of 7 m., or J4 m. in all. During the next quarter of a cen-
tury it became evident that this supply would require to be aug-
mented, and powers were accordingly obtained in 1895 to raise Loch
Katrine 5 ft. and to connect with it by tunnel Loch Arklet (455 ft.
above the sea), with storage for 2,050,000,000 gallons, the two lochs
together possessing a capacity of twelve thousand million gallons.
The entire works between the loch and the city were duplicated
over a distance. of. 23$ m., and an additional reservoir, holding
694,000,000 gallons, , was constructed, increasing the supply held in
reserve from I2jdays' to 30$ days'. In 1909 the building of a dam
was undertaken 1 J m. west of the lower end. of Loch Arklet, designed
to create a sheet of water 2 i m. long and to increase the water-supply
of the city. 'by ten. million gallons a day. The water committee
supplies hydraulic power to manufacturers and merchants. In
1869 the corporation acquired the gasworks, the productive capacity
GLASGOW
*i
of which exceeds 70 million cut>. ft. a day. In 1893 the supply
of electric light was also undertaken* and sipce that date the city has
been partly lighted by electricity. The corporation also laid down
the tramways, which were, leased by a company for twenty-three
years at a rental of £150 a mile per annum. When the lease expired
in 1804 the town council took over the working of the cars, substitut-
ing overhead electric traction for horse-power. , One of the most
difficult problems that the corporation has had to deal with was the
housing of the poor. By the lapse of time and the congestion of
population, certain quarters of the city, in old Glasgow especially,
had become slums and rookeries of the worst description. The
condition of the town was rapidly growing into a byword, when the
municipality obtained parliamentary powers in 1866 enabling it to
condemn for purchase over-crowded districts, to borrow money and
levy rates. The scheme of reform contemplated the demolition of
10,000 insanitary dwellings occupied by 50,000 persons, but the
corporation was required to provide accommodation for. the dis-
lodged whenever the numbers exceeded 500, In point of fact they
never needed to build, as private enterprise more than kept pace
with the operations of the improvement. *^he work was carried out
promptly and effectually, and when the act expired in 1881 whole
localities had been recreated and nearly 40,000 persons properly
housed* Under the amending, act of 1881 the corporation began in
1888 to build tenement houses in which the poor could rent one or
more rooms at the most moderate rentals; lodging-houses for men
and women followed, and in 1896 a home was erected for the accom-
modation of families in certain circumstances; The powers of the
improvement trustees were practically exhausted in 1896, when it
appeared that during twenty-nine years £1,955,550 had been spent
in buying and improving lane and buildings, and £231,500 in building
tenements and lodging-houses; while, on the other side, ground
had been sold for £1,072,000, and the trustees owned heritable
property valued at £692,000, showing a deficiency of £423,050.
Assessment of ratepayers for the purposes of the trust had yielded
£593 •000, and it was estimated that these operations, beneficial to
the city in a variety of ways, had cost the citizens £24,000 a year.
In 1897 an act was obtained for dealing in similar fashion with in-
sanitary and congested areas in the centre of the city, and. on the
south side of the river, and for acquiring not more than 25 acres of
land, within or without the city, for dwellings for the poorest classes.
Along with these later improvements the drainage system ^ was
entirely remodelled, the area being divided into three sections,
each distinct, with separate works for the disposal of its own sewage.
One section (authorized in 1891 and doubled in 1901) comprises ri
sq. m. — one-half within the city north of the river, and the other in
the district in Lanarkshire — with works at Dalmarnock; another
section (authorized in 1896) includes the area on the north bank
not provided for in 1891, as well as the qurgha of Partick and Clyde-
bank and intervening portions of the shires of Renfrew and Dum-
barton, the total area consisting of 14 sq. m., with works at Dalmuir,
7 m. below Glasgow; and the third section (authorized in 1898)
embraces the whole municipal area on the south side of the river,
the burghs of Rutherglen, Pollokshaws, Kinning Park and Govan,
and certain districts in the counties of Renfrew and Lanark — 14
sq. m. in all, which may be extended by the inclusion of the burghs
of Renfrew and Paisley — with works at Braehead, r m. east of
Renfrew. Among other works in which it has interests there may be
mentioned its representation on %he board of the Clyde Navigation
Trust and the governing body of the West of Scotland Technical
College. In respect of parliamentary representation the Reform
Act of 1832 gave two members to Glasgow, a third was added in
1868 (though each elector had only two votes), and in 1885 the city
was split up into seven divisions* each : returning one member.
Population* — Throughout the iQtii century the population .grew,
prodigiously. Only 77,385 in 1801, it was nearly doubled in twenty
years, being 147,043 in 1 821, already outstripping Edinburgh. It
had become 395,503 in r£ol* and in 188 1 it was 5 it, 41 5* In 1891,
priqr to extension of the fronndary* it was 565.839* and, after, exf
tension, 658,198, and in 1901 it stood at ,761,700. The birth-rate
averages 33, and the death-rate 21 per 1000, but the mortality before
the city improvement scheme was carried out was as high as 33
per 1000* Owing to hs being convenient of access from tne High-
lands, a very considerable number of Gaelic-speaking (tarsons live in
Glasgow, while the great industries attract an enormpus number of
persons from other parts of Scotland. , The valuation of the city,
which in 1 878-1 879 was £3,420,697, now exceeds £5,000,000.
History, — There axe several theories as to the origin of the
name of Glasgow. One holds that it conies from Gaelic words
meaning " dark glen," descriptive of the narrow ravine through
which the Molendiuar flowed to the Clyde. But the more
generally accepted version is that the word is the Celtic Cleschu,
afterwards written Glesco or Glasghu, meaning " dear green
spot " (glas s green; cu or gnu, dear), which is supposed to have
been the name of the. settlement that Kentigexn found here
when he came to convert the Britons of Strathclyde. Mungo
became the patron-saint of Glasgow, and the motto and arms
of the city are wholly identified with him—" Let Glasgow
Flourish by the Preaching of the Word," usually shortened to
" Let Glasgow Flourish." It is not till the 12th century, however,
that the history of the city becomes clear. About x 178 William
the. Lion made the town by charter a burgh of barony, and gave
it a market with freedom and customs* Amongst more or less
isolated episodes of which record has been preserved may be
mentioned the battle of the Bell o* the Brae, on the site of High
Street, in which Wallace routed the English under tercy in
, 1300; the betrayal of Wallace to the English in 1305 in, a; barn
situated, according to tradition, in Robroyston, just beyond the
north-eastern boundary of the city; the ravages of the £IagueJin
1350 and thirty years later; the regent Arran's siege, in 1544,
of the bishop's castle, garrisoned by the earl of Glencairn, and
the subsequent fight at the Butts (now the Gallowgate) when
the terms of surrender were dishonoured, in which the regent's
men gained the day. ' Most of the inhabitants were opposed to
Queen Mary and many actively supported Murray in the battle
of Langside — the site of which is now occupied by the Queen's
Park—on the 13th of May 1568, in which she lost. crown and
kingdom. A memorial of the conflict was erected on the site
in 1887. Under James VI. the town became a royal burgh in
1636, with freedom of the river from the Broomielaw to theCloch.
But the efforts to establish episcopacy aroused the fervent
anti-prelatical sentiment of the people, who made common
cause with the Govenanters to the end of their long struggle.
Montrose mulcted the citizens heavily after the battle of Kilsyth
in 1645, and three years later the provost and bailies were deposed
for contumacy to their sovereign lord. Plague and famine devast-
ated the town in 1649, and in 1652 a conflagration laid a third
of the burgh in ashes. Even after the restoration its sufferings
were acute. It was the headquarters of the Whiggamores
of the west and its prisons were constantly filled with rebels
for conscience 1 sake. The government scourged the townsfolk
with an army of Highlanders, whose brutality only served to
> strengthen the resistance at the battles of Drumclog and BothweE
Brig. With the Union, hotly resented as it was at the time,
the dawn of almost unbroken prosperity arose. By the treaty
of Union Scottish ports were placed, in respect of trade, on the
same footing as English ports, and the situation of Glasgow
enabled it to acquire a full share of the ever-increasing Atlantic
trade. Its commerce was already considerable and in population-
it was now the second town in Scotland. It enjoyed a practical
monopoly of the sale of raw and refined sugars, had the right
to distil spirits from molasses free of duty, dealt largely in cured
herring and salmon, sent hides to English tanners and manu-
factured soap and linen. It challenged the supremacy of Bristol
in the tobacco trader-fetching cargoes from 'Virginia, Maryland
and Carolina in its own fleet— so that by 1772 its importations
of tobacco amounted to more than half of the whole quantity
brought into the United Kingdom. The* tobacco merchants
built handsome mansions *and the town rapiidly extended west-
wards; With the surplus profits new industries were created,
which- helped the* city through the period of the* American War.
Most, though' not all, of the manufactures in which Glasgow,
has always held a f dremost place date from this period. It wai
^1764 that. James Watt succeeded in » repatiritfg a hitherto
, unworkable) modeLof Neweomen's fire (steam) engine in his small
workshop witWn the. college precincts. Shipbuilding on a
colossal scale and the enormous developments in th^' Iron in-
dustries and engineering were practically the growth of the' 19th
century. The failure of the Western bank in 1857, the Civil
War in the United States, the collapse of the City of Glasgow,
bank in 1878, among other disasters, involved' heavy losses and
distress, but recovery was always rapid. '
Authorities.— J. Cleland, Annals of Glasgow (Glasgow, 18 16);
Duncan, Literary History of Glasgow (Glasgow, 1886); Repstrum
Episcopates Glasgow (Maitland Cltib, 1843) ; Pagan, Sketch of the
History of Glasgow (Glasgow, 1847); Sir J. D. Marwick, Extracts
from the Burgh Records of Glasgow (Burgh Records Society) ; Charters
relating to Glasgow (Glasgow, 1891); River Clyde and Harbour of
Glasgow (Glasgow, 1898) ; Glasgow Past and Present (Glasgow, 1884) ;
Munimenta UnivetsitaHs Glasgow (Maitland Club, 1854); J. Strang,
86
GLASITE&--GLASS
Glasgow audits Clubs. (Glasgow, 1864) ; Reid (" Senex "), Old Glasgow
(Glasgow, 1864); A. Macgeorge, Old Glasgow (Glasgow, 1888);
Deas, The River Clyde (Glasgow, 1881); Gale, Loch Katrine Water-
works (Glasgow, 1^83); Mason, Public and Private Libraries of
Glasgow (Glasgow, 1885); J. Nicol, Vital, Social and Economic
Statistics of Glasgow <i88i) ; T.B.Russell, Life in One Room (Glasgow,
1888); Ticketed Houses (Glasgow, 1889); T. Somerville, George
Square (Glasgow, 1891); J. A. Kilpatrick, Literary Landmarks of
Glasgow (Glasgow, 1898); J. K. M'Dowali, People's History of
Glasgow (Glasgow, "1899); Sir J. Bell and J. Paton, Glasgow: Its
Municipal Organization and Administration (Glasgow, 1896); Sir
D. Richmond, Notes on Municipal Work (Glasgow, 1899); J. M.
Lang, Glasgow and the Barony (Glasgow, 1895) ; Old Glasgow (Glasgow,
1896) ; J, H. Muir, Glasgow in 1901.
GLASITES, or Sandemanians, 1 a Christian sect, founded in
Scotland by John Glas (q.v.). It. spread into England and
America, but is now practically extinct. Glas dissented from
the Westminster Confession only in his views as to the spiritual
nature of the church and the functions of the civil magistrate.
But his son-in-law Robert Sandexnan added a distinctive doctrine
as to the nature of faith which is thus stated on his tombstone:
" That the bare death of Jesus Christ without a thought or
deed on the part of man, is sufficient to present the chief of sinners
spotless before God." In a series of letters to James Hervey,
the author of Theron and As pasta, he maintained that justifying
faith is a simple assent to the divine testimony concerning
Jesus Christ, differing in no way in its character from belief in any
ordinary testimony. In their practice the Glasite churches aimed
at a strict conformity with the primitive type of Christianity
as understood by them. Each congregation had a plurality of
elders, pastors or bishops, who were chosen according to what
were believed to be the instructions of Paul, without regard to
previous education or present occupation, and who enjoy a
perfect equality in office. To have been married a second time
disqualified for ordination, or for continued tenure of the office
of bishop. In all the action of the church unanimity was con-
sidered to be necessary; if any member differed in opinion from
the rest, he must either surrender his judgment to that of the
church, or be shut out from its communion. To join in prayer
with any one not a member of the denomination was regarded
as unlawful, and even to eat or drink with one who had been
excommunicated was held to be wrong. The Lord's Supper
was observed weekly; and between forenoon and afternoon
service every Sunday a love feast was held at which every
member was required to be present. Mutual exhortation was
practised at all the meetings for divine service, when any member
who had the gift of speech (x&purpa) was allowed to speak.
The practice of washing one another's feet was at one time
observed ; and it was for a long time customary for each brother
aind sister to receive new members, on admission, with a holy
kiss, " Things strangled " and " blood " were rigorously ab-
stained from; the lot was regarded as sacred; the accumulation
of wealth they held to be unscriptural and improper, and each
member considered his property as liable to be called upon
at any time to meet the wants of the poor and the necessities
of the church. Churches of this order were founded in Paisley,
Glasgow, Edinburgh, Leith, Arbroath, Montrose, Aberdeen,
Dunkeldt Cupar, Galashiels, Liverpool and London, where
Michael Faraday was long an elder. Their exclusiveness
in practice, neglect of education for the ministry, and the
antinomian tendency of their doctrine contributed to their
dissolution. Many Glasites joined the general body of Scottish
Congregationalists, and the sect may now be considered extinct.
The last of the Sandemanian churches in America ceased to
exist in 1890.
See James Ross, History
Scotland (Glasgow, 1900).
of Congregational Independency in
(D. Mn.)
GLASS (O.E. glas, cf. Ger. Glas f perhaps derived from an old
Teutonic root gla-, a variant of glo-, having the general sense of
shining, cf. " glare/' " glow "), a hard substance, usually trans-
parent or translucent, which from a fluid condition at a high
temperature has passed to a solid condition with sufficient
rapidity to prevent the formation of visible crystals. There
1 The name Glasites or Glassites was generally used in Scotland ;
in England and America the name Sandemanians was more common.
are many varieties of glass differing > widely in chemical com-
position and in physical qualities. Most varieties, however,
have certain qualities in common. They pass through a viscous
stage in cooling from a state. of fluidity; they develop effects
of colour when the glass mixtures are fused with certain metallic
oxides; they are, when cold, bad conductors both of electricity
and heat, they are easily fractured by a blow or shock and show a
conchoidal fracture; they are but slightly affected by ordinary
solvents, but are readily attacked by hydrofluoric acid.
The structure of glass has been the subject of repeated in-
vestigations. The theory most widely accepted at present is
that glass is a quickly solidified solution, in which silica, silicates,
borates, phosphates and aluminates may be either solvents or
solutes, and metallic oxides and metals may be held either
in solution or in suspension. Long experience has fixed the
mixtures, so far as ordinary furnace temperatures are con-
cerned, which produce the varieties of glass in common use. The
essential materials of which these mixtures are made are, for
English flint glass, sand, carbonate of potash and red lead;
for plate and sheet glass, sand, carbonate or sulphate of soda
and carbonate of lime; and for Bohemian glass, sand, carbonate,
of potash and carbonate of lime. It is convenient to treat
these glasses as " normal " glasses, but they are in reality
mixtures of silicates, and cannot rightly be regarded as definite
chemical compounds or represented by definite chemical
formulae.
The knowledge of the chemistry of glass-making has been
considerably widened by Dr F. O. Schott's experiments at the
Jena glass-works. The commercial success of these works has
demonstrated the value of pure science to manufactures.
The recent large increase in the number of varieties of glass
has been chiefly due to developments in the manufacture of
optical glass. Glasses possessing special qualities have been
required, and have been supplied by the introduction of new
combinations of materials. The range of the specific gravity
of glasses from 2-5 to 5-0 illustrates the effect of modified
compositions. In the same, way glass can be rendered more or
less fusible, and its stability can be increased both in relation
i to extremes of temperature and to the chemical action of
solvents.
The fluidity of glass at a high temperature renders possible
the processes of ladelling, pouring, casting and stirring. A
mass of glass in a viscous state can be rolled with an iron roller
like dough; can be rendered hollow by the pressure of the human
breath or by compressed air; can be forced by air pressure, or
, by a mechanically driven plunger, to take the shape and im-
pression of a mould; and can be almost indefinitely extended as
solid rod or as hollow tube. So extensible is viscous glass that
it can be drawn out into a filament sufficiently fine and elastic
to be woven into a fabric* * i
Glasses are generally transparent but may be translucent or
opaque. Semi-opacity due to crystallization may be induced
in many glasses by maintaining them for a long period at a
temperature just insufficient to cause fusion. In this way is pro-
duced the crystalline, devitrified material, known as R6aumur's
porcelain. Semi^opacity and opacity are usually produced
by the addition to the glass-mixtures of materials which will
remain in suspension in the glass, such as oxide of tin, oxide
of arsenic, phosphate of lime, cryolite or a mixture of felspar
and fluorspar.
Little is known about the actual cause of colour in glass
beyond the fact that certain materials added to and melted
with certain glass-mixtures will in favourable circumstances
produce effects of colour. The colouring agents are generally
metallic oxides. The same oxide may produce different colours
with different glass-mixtures, and different oxides of the same
metal may produce different colours. The purple-blue of cobalt,
the chrome green or yellow of chromium, the dichroic canary-
colour of uranium and the violet of manganese, are constant.
Ferrous oxide produces an olive green or a pale blue according
to the glass with which it is mixed. Ferric oxide gives a yellow
colour, but requires the presence of an oxidizing agent to prevent
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reduction to the ferrous state. Lead gives a pale yellow colour.
Silver oxide, mixed as a paint and spread on the surface of a
piece of glass and heated, gives a permanent yellow stain. Finely
divided vegetable charcoal added to a soda-lime glass gives a
yellow colour. It has been suggested that the colour is due to
sulphur, but the effect can be produced with a glass mixture
containing no sulphur, free or combined, and by increasing
the proportion of charcoal the intensity of the colour can be
increased until it reaches black opacity. Selenites and selenates
give a pale pink or pinkish
yellow. Tellurium appears
to give a pale pink tint.
Nickel with a potash-lead
glass gives a violet colour,
and a brown colour with
a soda-lime glass. Copper
gives a peacock-blue which
becomes green if the pro-
portion of the copper oxide
is increased. If oxide of
copper is added to a glass
mixture containing a strong
reducing agent, a glass is
produced which when first
taken from the crucible is
colourless but on being re-
heated develops a deep
crimson - ruby colour. A
similar glass, if its cooling
is greatly retarded, produces throughout its substance minute
crystals of metallic copper, and closely resembles the mineral
called avanturine. There is also an intermediate stage in which
the glass has a rusty red colour by reflected light, and a purple-
blue colour by transmitted light. Glass containing gold behaves
in almost precisely the same way, but the ruby glass is less crimson
than copper ruby glass. J. E. C, Maxwell Garnett, who has studied
the optical properties of these glasses, has suggested that the
changes in colour correspond with changes effected in the
structure of the metals as they pass gradually from solution in
the glass to a state of crystallization. ;
Owing to impurities contained in the materials from which
glasses are made, accidental coloration or discoloration is often
produced. For this reason chemical agents are added to glass
mixtures to remove or neutralize accidental colour. Ferrous
oxide is the usual cause of discoloration. By converting ferrous
into ferric oxide the green tint is changed to yellow, which is
less noticeable. Oxidation may be effected by the addition to
the glass mixture of a substance which gives up oxygen at a
high temperature, such as manganese dioxide or arsenic trioxide.
With the same object, red lead and saltpetre are used in the
mixture for potash-lead glass. Manganese dioxide not only acts
as a source of oxygen, but develops a pink tint in the glass, which
is complementary to and neutralizes the green colour due to
ferrous oxide.
Glass is a bad conductor of heat. When boiling water is
poured into a glass vessel, the vessel frequently breaks, on
account of the unequal expansion of the inner and outer layers.
If in the process of glass manufacture a glass vessel is suddenly
cooled, the constituent particles are unable to arrange themselves
and the vessel remains in a state of extreme tension. The surface
of the vessel may be hard, but the vessel is liable to fracture
on receiving a trifling shock. M. de la Bastie's process of
" toughening " glass consisted in dipping glass, raised to a
temperature slightly below the melting-point, into molten
tallow. The surface of the glass was hardened, but the inner
layers remained in unstable equilibrium. Directly the crust
was pierced the whole mass was shattered into minute fragments.
In all branches of glass manufacture the process of " annealing,"
i .e. cooling the manufactured objects sufficiently slowly to allow
the constituent particles to settle into a condition of equilibrium,
is of vital importance. The desired result is obtained either by
moving the manufactured goods gradually away from a constant
source of heat, or by placing them in a heated kiln and allowing
the heat gradually to die out. , ,
The furnaces (fig. 1 5) employed for melting glass are usually
heated with gas on the " Siemens," or some similar system of
regenerative heating. In the United States natural gas is used
wherever it is available. In some English works coal is still
employed for direct heating with various forms of mechanical
stokers. Crude petroleum and a thin tar, resulting from the
process of enriching water-gas with petroleum, have been used
■jfe^rS
Fig. 15. — Siemens's Continuous Tank Furnace.
both with compressed air and with steam with considerable
success. Electrical furnaces have not as yet been employed
for ordinary glass-making on a commercial scale, but the electrical
plants which have been erected for melting and moulding
quartz suggest the possibility of electric heating being employed
for the manufacture of glass. Many forms of apparatus have
been tried for ascertaining the temperature of glass furnaces.
It is usually essential that some parts of the apparatus shall be
made to acquire a temperature identical with the temperature
to be measured. Owing to the physical changes produced in the
material exposed prolonged observations of temperature are
impossible. In the F£ry radiation pyrometer this difficulty
is obviated, as the instrument may be placed at a considerable
distance from the furnace. The radiation passing out from an
opening in the furnace falls upon a concave mirror in a telescope
and is focused upon a thermoelectric couple. The hotter the
furnace the greater is the rise of temperature of the couple.
The electromotive force thus generated is measured by a galvano-
meter, the scale of which is divided and figured so that the
temperature may be directly read. (See Thermometry.)
In dealing with the manufacture of glass it is convenient
to group the various branches in the following manner :
Manufactured Glass*
I. Optical Glass
II. Blown Glass
)
A. Table glass.
B. Tube.
Special glasses
for thermo-
meters, and
other special
glasses.
C. Sheet
and crown
glass.
ittles.
III. Mechanically Pressed Glass
A. Plate and rolled plate glass. ' B. Pressed table glass.
I. Optical Glass. — As regards both mode of production and
essential properties optical glass differs widely from all other
varieties. These differences arise primarily from the fact that
glass for optical uses is required in comparatively large and thick
pieces, while for most other purposes glass is used in the form
of comparatively thin sheets; when, therefore, as a consequence
88
GLASS
of Dollond'i invention of achromatic telescope objectives in
1757, a demand first arose for optical glass, the industry was
unable to furnish suitable material. Flint glass particularly,
which appeared quite satisfactory when viewed in small pieces,
was found to be so far from homogeneous as to be useless for
lens construction. The first step towards overcoming this vital
defect in optical glass was taken by P. L. Guinand, towards the
end of the 18th century, by introducing the process of stirring
the molten glass by means of a cylinder of fireclay. Guinand
was induced to migrate from his home in Switzerland to Bavaria,
where he worked at the production of homogeneous flint glass,
first with Joseph von Utzschncidcr and then with J. Fraunhofer;
the latter ultimately attained considerable success and produced
telescope disks up to 28 centimetres (1 1 in.) diameter. Fraunhofer
further initiated the specification of refraction and dispersion
in terms of cortain lines of the spectrum, and even attempted
an investigation of the effect of chemical composition on the
relative dispersion produced by glosses in different parts of the
spectrum. Guinand's process was further developed in France
by Guinand's sons and subsequently by Bontemps and £. Feil.
In 1848 Bontemps was obliged to leave France for political
reasons and came to England, where he initiated the optical
glass manufacture at Chance's glass works near Birmingham,
and this firm ultimately attained a considerable reputation in
the production of optical gloss, especially of large disks for
telescope objectives. Efforts at improving optical glass had,
however, not been confined to the descendants and successors
of Guinand and Fraunhofer. In 1824 the Royal Astronomical
Society of London appointed a committee on the subject, the
experimental work being carried out by Faraday. Faraday
independently recognized the necessity for mechanical agitation
of the molten gloss in order to ensure homogeneity, and to
facilitate his manipulations he worked with dense lead borate
glasses which are very fusible, but have proved too unstable
for ordinary optical purposes. Later Maes of Clichy (France)
exhibited some " zinc crown " glass in small plates of optical
quality at the London Exhibition of 1851; and another French
gloss-maker, Lamy, produced a dense thallium glass in 1867.
In 1834 W. V. llarcourt began experiments in glass-making,
in which he was subsequently joined by G. G. Stokes. Their
object was to pursue the inquiry begun by Fraunhofer as to the
effect of chemical composition on the distribution of dispersion.
The specific effect of boric acid in this respect was correctly
ascertained by Stokes and Harcourt, but they mistook the effect
of titanic acid. J. Hopkinson, working at Chance's glass works,
subsequently made an attempt to produce a titanium silicate
glass, but nothing further resulted.
The next and most important forward step in the progress of
optical glass manufacture was initiated by Ernst Abbe and
carried out jointly by him and O. Schott at Jena in Germany.
Aided by grants from the Prussian government, these workers
systematically investigated the effect of introducing a large
number of different chemical substances (oxides) into vitreous
fluxes. As a result a whole series of glasses of novel composition
and optical properties were produced, A certain number of the
most promising of these* from the purely optical point of view,
had unfortunately to be abandoned for practical use owing to
their chemical instability, and the problem of Fraunhofer, viz.
the production of pairs of glasses of widely differing refraction
ami dispersion, but having a similar distribution of dispersion
in the various regions of the spectrum, was not in the first instance
solved. On the other hand, while in the older crown and flint
glasses the relation between refraction and dispersion had been
practically thoi dispersion and refraction increasing regularly
w ith the density of the glass, in some of the new glasses introduced
by Abbe and Schott this relation is altered and a relatively
low retractive index is ■acwmrsunied by a relatively high disper-
>ion % while in others a h;$h refractive index is associated with
knv dispersive power.
The initiative of Abbe a:ul Schott. which was greatly aided
by the resources for scier.tinc investigation avaitable at the
rhxsiVaUsche Rckhsanstalt vlmperiai rhysical Laboratory \
led to such important developments that similar work was
undertaken in France by the firm of Mantois, the successors
of Feil, and somewhat later by Chance in England. The manu-
facture of the new varieties of glass, originally known as " Jena "
glasses, is now carried out extensively and with a considerable
degree of commercial success in France, and also to a less extent
in England, but none of the other makers of optical glass has
as yet contributed to the progress of the industry to anything
like the same extent as the Jeria firm.
The older optical glasses, now generally known as the
" ordinary " crown and flint glasses, are all of the nature of pure
silicates, the basic constituents being, in the case of crown
glasses, lime and soda or lime and potash, or a mixture of both,
and in the case of flint glasses, lead and either (or both) soda and
potash. With the exception of the heavier flint (Lead) glasses,
these can be produced so as to be free both from noticeable
colour and from such defects as bubbles, opaque inclusions or
" striae," but extreme care in the choice of all the raw materials
and in all the manipulations is required to ensure this result.
Further, these glasses, when made from properly proportioned
materials, possess a very considerable degree of chemical stability,
which is amply sufficient for most optical purposes. The newer
glasses, on the other hand, contain a much wider variety of
chemical constituents, the most important being the oxides of
barium, magnesium, aluminium and zinc, used either with or
without the addition of the bases already named in reference
to the older glasses, and — among acid bodies — boric anhydride
(B2O1) which replaces the silica of the older glasses to a varying
extent. It must be admitted that, by the aid of certain of these
new constituents, glasses can be produced which, as regards
purity of colour, freedom from defects and chemical stability are
equal or even superior to the best of the " ordinary " glasses, but
it is a remarkable fact that when this is the case the optical
properties of the new glass do not fall very widely outside
the limits set by the older glasses. On the other hand, the more
extreme the optical properties of these new glasses, i.e. the
further they depart from the ratio of refractive index to dispersive
power found in the older glasses, the greater the difficulty found
in obtaining them of either sufficient purity or stability to be of
practical use. It is, in fact, admitted that some of the glasses,
most useful optically, the dense barium crown glasses, which
are so widely used in modern photographic lenses, cannot be
produced entirely free either from noticeable colour or from
numerous small bubbles, while the chemical nature of these
glasses is so sensitive that considerable care is required to protect
the surfaces of lenses made from them if serious tanrishing is to
be avoided. In practice, however, it is not found that the presence
either of a decidedly greenish-yellow colour or of numerous
small bubbles interferes at all seriously with the successful use
of the lenses for the majority of purposes, so that it is preferable
to sacrifice the perfection of the glass in order to secure valuable
optical properties.
It is a further striking fact, not unconnected with those just
enumerated, that the extreme range of optical properties covered
even by the relatively large number of optical glasses now available
is in reality very small. The refractive indices of all glasses at
present available lie between 1-46 and 1*00, whereas transparent
minerals are known having refractive indices lying considerably
outside these limits; at least one of these, fraorite (calcium
fluoride), is actually used by opticians in the construction of
certain lenses, so that probably progress is to be looked for in a
considerable widening of the limits of available optical materials:
possibly such progress may lie in the direction of the artificial
production of large mineral crystals.
The qualities required in optical glasses have already been
partly referred to, but may now be summarized: —
1, Transparency and Freedom from Colour. — These qualities can
be readily judged - by inspection oT the glass in pieces of considerable
thickness, amfthey may be quantitatively measured by means of cbe
spectro-photometer.
2. Homogeneity* — The optical desideratum is uniformitv of re-
fract ive index and dispersive power throughout the mass of the ^!ass>
This is probably never completely attained, variations ra the sbch
GLASS
*9
significant figure of the refractive index being observed in different
parts of single large blocks of the most perfect glass. t While such
minute and gradual variations are harmless for most optical purposes,
sudden variations which generally take the form of striae or veins
are fatal defects in all optical glass. In their coarsest forms such
striae are readily visible to the unaided eye, but finer ones escape
detection unless special means are taken for rendering them visible;
such special means conveniently take the form of an apparatus for
examining the glass in a beam of parallel light, when the striae
scatter the light and appear as either dark or bright lines according
to the position of the eye. Plate glass of the usual quality, which
appears to be perfectly homogeneous when looked at in the ordinary
way, is seen to be a mass of fine striae, when a considerable thickness
is examined in parallel light. Plate glass is, nevertheless, consider-
ably used for the cheaper forms of lenses, where the scattering of
the light and loss of definition arising from these fine striae is not
readily recognized.
Bubbles and enclosures of opaque matter, although more readily
observed, do not constitute such serious defects; their presence in a
lens, to a moderate extent, does not interfere with its performance
(see above).
3. Hardness and Chemical Stability. — These properties contribute
to the durability of lenses, and are specially desirable in the outer
members of lens combinations which are likely to be subjected to
frequent handling or are exposed to the weather. As a general rule,
to which, however, there are important exceptions, both these
qualities are found to a greater degree, the lower the refractive index
of the glass. The chemical stability, i.e. the power of resisting the
disintegrating effects of atmospheric moisture and carbonic acid,
depends largely upon the auantity of alkalis contained in the glass
and their proportion to the lead, lime or barium present, the stability
being generally less the higher the proportion of alkali. A high
silica-content tends towards both hardness and chemical stability,
and this can be further increased by the addition of small proportions
of boric acid; in larger quantities, however, the latter constituent
produces the opposite effect.
4. Absence of Internal Strain. — Internal strain in glass arises from
the unequal contraction of the outer and inner portions of masses
of glass during cooling. Processes of annealing, or very gradual
cooling, are intended to relieve these strains, but such processes are
only completely effective when the cooling, particularly through
those ranges of temperature where the glass is just losing the last
traces of plasticity, is extremely gradual, a rate measured in hours
per degree Centigrade being required. The existence of internal
strains in glass can be readilv recognized by examination in polarized
light, any signs of double refraction indicating the existence of strain.
Ifthe glass is very badly annealed, the lenses made from it may fly
to pieces during or after manufacture, but apart from such extreme
cases the optical effects of internal strain are not readily observed
except in large optical apparatus. Very perfectly annealed optical
glass is now, however, readily obtainable.
5. Refraction and Dispersion. — The purely optical properties of
refraction and dispersion, although of the greatest importance,
cannot be dealt witn in any detail here; for an account of the optical
properties required in glasses for various forms of lenses see the
articles Lens and Aberration: II. In Optical Systems. As typical
of the range of modern optical glasses Table I. is given, which
constituted the list of optical glasses exhibited by Messrs Chance
at the Optical Convention in London in 1905. In this table n is the
refractive index of the glass for sodium light (the D line of the solar
spectrum), while the letters C, F and G' refer to lines in the hydrogen
spectrum by which dispersion is now generally specified. The
symbol v represents the inverse of the dispersive power, its value
being (» D -iJ/(C-F). The very much longer lists of German and
French firms contain only a few types not represented in this table.
Manufacture of Optical Glass. — In its earlier stages, the process
for the production of optical glass closely resembles that used in
the production of any other glass of the highest quality. The raw
materials are selected with great care to assure chemical purity,
but whereas in most glasses the only impurities to be dreaded
are those that are either infusible or produce a colouring effect
upon the glass, for optical purposes the admixture of other
glass-forming bodies than those which are intended to be present
must be avoided on account of their effect in modifying the
optical constants of the glass. Constancy of composition of the
raw materials and their careful and thorough admixture in con-
stant proportions are therefore essential to the production of the
required glasses. The materials are generally used in the form
either of oxides (lead, zinc, silica, &c.) or of salts readily decom-
posed by heat, such as the nitrates or carbonates. Fragments of
glass of the same composition as that aimed at are generally
incorporated to a limited extent with the mixed raw materials
to facilitate their fusion. The crucibles or pots used for the
production of optical glass very closely resemble those used in the
manufacture of flint glass for other purposes; they are " covered "
and the molten materials are thus protected from the action of
the furnace gases by the interposition of a wall of fireclay, but
as crucibles for optical glass are used for only one fusion and are
then broken up, they are not made so thick and heavy as those
used in flint-glass making, since the latter remain in the furnace
for many weeks. On the other hand, the chemical and physical
nature of the fireclays used in the manufacture of such crucibles
requires careful attention in order to secure the best results.
The furnace used for the production of optical glass is generally
constructed to take one crucible only, so that the heat of the
furnace may be accurately adjusted to the requirements of the
particular glass under treatment. These small furnaces are
frequently arranged for direct coal firing, but regenerative gas-
fired furnaces are also employed. The empty crucible, having
first been gradually dried and heated to a bright red heat in a
subsidiary furnace, is taken up by means of massive iron tongs
and introduced into the previously heated furnace, the tempera-
ture of which is then gradually raised. When a suitable tempera-
ture for the fusion of the particular glass in question has been
attained, the mixture of raw materials is introduced in com-
paratively small quantities at a time. In this way the crucible
is gradually filled with a mass of molten glass, which is, however,
Table I.— Optical Properties.
Factory
Number.
IMpHinm
Partial and Relative Partial Dispersions.
Name.
"D.
V.
Dispersion.
C-F.
C-D.
C-D
C-F.
D-F.
D-F
C-F.
F-G'.
F-G'
C-F.
C. 644
B. 646
Extra Hard Crown .
1-4959
64-4
•00770
•00228
•296
•00542
•704
•00431
•560
Boro-silicate Crown .
15096
63-3
•00803
•00236
•294
•00562
•700
•00446
•555
A. 605
Hard Crown
I-5I75
60-5
•00856
•00252
•294
•00604
•706
•00484
•554
C 577
Medium Barium Crown
1-5738
57-9
•00990
•00293
•00308
•296
•00697
•00738
•704
•00552
•557
C 579
Densest Barium Crown
1-6065
57-9
•01046
•294
•705
•00589
•563
A. 569
Soft Crown .
I-5I52
56-9
•00906
•00264
•291
•00642
•708
•00517
•57o
B. 563
Medium Barium Crown
1-5660
56-3
•01006
•00297
•00298
•295
•00709
•704
•00576
•00582
•572
B. 535
Barium Light Flint
1*5452
53*5
•01020
•292
•00722
•701
•57o
A. 490
Extra Light Flint
I-53I6
49-o
•01085
•00313
•288
•00772
•711
•00630
•580
A. 485
Extra Light Flint
1-5333
48-5
•01099
•01 187
•00322
•293
•00777
•707
•00640
•582
C. 474
Boro-silicate Flint
1-5623
ga
•00343
•289
•00844
•711
•00693
•584
B. 466
Barium Light Flint .
I-5833
•01251
•00362
•288
•00889
.711
•00721
•576
B. 458
Soda Flint .
1-5482
45-8
•01 195
•01 196
•00343
•287
•00852
•713
•00690
•577
A. 458
Light Flint .
1-5472
1-5610
45-8
•00348
•291
•00848
.709
•00707
•59i
A. 432
Light Flint .
43-2
•01299
•00372
•287
•00927
•713
•00770
•593
•598
A. 410
Light Flint .
i-576o
41-0
•01404
•00402
•286
•01002
•713
•00840
B. 407
Light Flint .
1-5787
40-7
•01420
•01657
•00404
•284
•01016
•715
•00840
•591
A. 370
Dense Flint .
1-6118
36-9
•00470
•284
•01 187
•716
•OIOOJ.
•01040
-606
A. 361
Dense Flint .
1-6214
36-1
•01722
•00491
•285
•01231
•715
•608
A. 360
Dense Flint . .
1-6225
36-0
•01729
•00493
•286
•01236
•7i5
•01054
•609
A. 337
Extra Dense Flint
1-6469
33-7
•01917
•00541
•285
•01376
•720
•01 I 70
•655
A. 299
Densest Flint
1-7129
299
•02384
•00670
-281
•01714
.789
•01661
•678
90
GLASS
full of bubble* of all nizcu. These bubbles arise partly from the
air endowd between the particle* of raw materials and partly
from the gjurous decomposition products of the materials
themurlve*, In the next stage of the process, the glass is raised
lo a high lempentture in order to render it sufficiently fluid to
allow of the complete elimination of these bubbles; the actual
temperature required varies with the chemical composition of
the glitftrt, a bright red heat sufficing for the most fusible glasses,
while with others the utmost capacity of the best furnaces
Is required to attain the necessary temperature. With these
latter glumes there is, of course, considerable risk that the
partial (union and consequent contraction of the fireclay of the
criuihle may result in its destruction and the entire loss of the
gltiM. The stages of the process so far described generally occupy
from .40 to oo hours, and during this time the constant care and
watchfulness of those attending the furnace is required. This is
still more the case in the next stage. The examination of small
text pieces of the glass withdrawn from the crucible by means
of an iron rod having shown that the molten mass is free from
bubbles, the stirring process may be begun, the object of this
nmnipulat ion being to render the glass as homogeneous as possible
and to secure the absence of veins or striae in the product. For
this purpose a cylinder of fireclay, provided with a square axial
hole at the upper end, is heated in a small subsidiary furnace and
Is then Introduced into the molten glass. Into the square axial
hole tits the square end of a hooked iron bar which projects
several yards beyond the mouth of the furnace; by means of
this bar a workman moves the fireclay cylinder about in the glass
with a steady circular sweep. Although the weight of the iron
bar is carried by a support, such as an overhead chain or a swivel
roller, this operation is very laborious and trying, more especially
during the earlier stages when the heat radiated from the open
mouth of the crucible is intense. The men who manipulate the
stirring bars are therefore changed at short intervals, while the
bars themselves have also to be changed at somewhat longer
intervals, as they rapidly become oxidised, and accumulated
scale would tend to fall off them, thus contaminating the glass
Mow. The stirring process is begun when the glass is perfectly
fluid at a temperature little short of the highest attained in its
fusion, but as the stirring proceeds the glass is allowed to cool
gradually and thus becomes more and more viscous until finally
the st irring cylinder can scarcely Ik moved. When the glass has
acquired this degree of consistency it is supposed that no fresh
movements can occur within its mass, so that if homogeneity has
been at tained the glass w ill preserve it permanently. Thestirring
is ihetviore discontinued and the clay cylinder is either left
embedded in the glass, or by the exercise of considerable force
it may Ik giaduallv withdrawn. The crucible
*ith i he semi **\Ud gU>* which it contains is now
allowed to cool considerably in the melting furnace,
or it way be eemovwl to another slightly heated
t\uuA\\\ When the glass has cooled so far as
h\ KwMwe ha.vd and soiid v the furnace is hermetic-
*U> xv\dx\l up and allowed to cool wry gradually
lo the ot\lu\ai\ temperature H the cooling is very
gtadual occupying several weeks— it sometime*
hap$vns that ihe emir* consents of a large crucible, weighing
pet Saps *s\» IK ate found intact as a single mass of glass, but
mote uwjuentvv the mass is KhukI broken up in;o a number of
UAjtmcn;* ot \arious sue*. Krvvn the lar$e masses great lenses
and nv.teors nvav be p?v\tuord, while the smaller pieces are used
km tSe piodwevA>n of :Sie dv&s and slabs of moderate s£», in
*Ku h ; V op* v*i ^va^s of cocuinerce is usually supplied. Is order
to aUo* ot ; V wxs>v*l of the $U*$* the cvvi craciSe ts broken
**p a*Avi ;Se $wss c^ef^^r s«^vira:evi frvva :he frignents of nre-
v>*\ . IV p\ves oc jUss are ;Sra evirri:xvi roc :be iewetxxi of
tav ^tvt^H n\:vv;$. A*vi oc-\nk*C> detective pieces are reacted.
are chosen, and are heated to a temperature just sufficient to
soften the glass, when the lumps are caused to assume the shape
of moulds made of iron or fireclay either by the natural flow of
the softened glass under gravity, or by pressure from suitable
tools or presses. The glass, now in its approximate form, is
placed in a heated chamber where it is allowed to cool very
gradually — the minimum time of cooling from a dull red heat
being six days, while for " fine annealing " a much longer period
is required (see above). At the end of the annealing process the
glass issues in the shape of disks or slabs slightly larger than
required by the optician in each case. The glass is, however, by
no means ready for delivery, since it has yet to be examined
with scrupulous care, and all defective pieces must be rejected
entirely or at least the defective part must be cut out and the
slab remoulded or ground down to a smaller size. For the purpose
of rendering this minute examination possible, opposite plane
surfaces of the glass are ground approximately flat and polished,
the faces to be polished being so chosen as to allow of a view
through the greatest possible thickness of glass; thus in slabs
the narrow edges are polished.
It will be readily understood from the above account of the
process of production that optical glass, relatively to other
kinds of glass, is very expensive, the actual price varying from
3s, to 30s. per lb in small slabs or disks. The price, however,
rapidly increases with the total bulk of perfect glass required in
one piece, so that large disks of glass suitable for telescope
objectives of wide aperture, or blocks for large prisms, become
exceedingly costly. The reason for this high cost is to be found
partly in the fact that the yield of optically perfect glass even
in large and successful meltings rarely exceeds 20% of the total
weight of glass melted. Further, all the subsequent processes
of cutting, moulding and annealing become increasingly difficult,
owing to the greatly increased risk of breakage arising from
either external injury or internal strain, as the dimensions of
the individual piece of glass increase. Nevertheless, disks of
optical glass, both crown and flint, have been produced up to
39 in. in diameter.
II. Blown Glass. (A) Table-ware and Vases. — The varieties
of glass used for the manufacture of table-ware and vases are
the potash-lead glass, the soda-lime glass and the potash-lime
glass. These glasses may be colourless or coloured. Venetian
glass is a soda-lime glass; Bohemian glass is a potash-lime
glass. The potash-lead glass, which was first used on a com-
mercial scale in England for the manufacture of table-ware,
and which is known as " flint " glass or " crystal," is also largely
used in France, Germany and the United States. Table II.
shows the typical composition of these glasses.
Table II.
SiO,-
K,0.
PbO.
Xa,0.
CaO.
MgO.
Ferf),
and
IVtash-lead vflint) glass .
Soda-Ume (Venetian) glass
Potash-lime v Bohemian) glass
53-17
7340
7170
12-70
52-95
18-58
250
506
10-30
--
24*
0-90
iTWS ^'iv\^ o*
;V $Us* i- this coaditaoa. are un-
:\jux^ a £0*x£ ie-il of .diss :hi; tv&sses
*v.,a\v \>c deccatv-
;* * x . k svv ; v« \v* \v< .. ^\*;oC\ to S? arreted. Tbe nest stage
$* .V ^c^m; jt;,vv> 0* ,>c ^.fc^ ^ Ibc process of ^ocldizg arsi
**±<ou-j^ i -^v* vtt $v*ss v* Jcrcc?.T-?r.irgqr tie r^ttc weight
For melting the leadless glasses, open, bowl-shaped crucibles
are used, ranging from 12 to 40 in. in diameter. Glass mixtures
containing lead are melted in covered, beehive-shaped crucibles
holding from 12 to 18 cut. of glass. They have a hooded open-
ing on one side near the top. This opening serves for the intro-
duction of the glass-mixture, for the removal of the melted
glass and as a source of heat for the processes of manipulation.
The Venetian furnaces in the island of Murano are small
low structures heated with wood. The heat passes from the
melting furnace into the annealing kiln. In Germany. Austria
and the United States, gas furnaces are generally used. In
England directly-heated coal furnaces are still in common use
which in many cases are stoked by mechanical feeders. There
are two systems of annealing. The manufactured goods are
either removed gradually from a constant source of heat by meams
of a train of small iron trucks drawn along a tramway by an
GLASS
9 1
endless chain, or are placed in a heated kiln in which the fire is
allowed gradually to die out. The second system is especially
used for annealing large and heavy objects. The manufacture
of table-ware is carried on by small gangs of men and boys. In
England each " gang " or " chair " consists of three men and one
boy. In works, however, in which most of the goods are moulded,
and where less skilled labour is required, the proportion of boy
labour is increased. There are generally two shifts of workmen,
each shift working six hours, and the work is carried on continu-
ously from Monday morning until Friday morning. Directly
work is suspended the glass remaining in the crucibles is ladled
into water, drained and dried. It is then mixed with the glass
mixture and broken glass (" cullet "), and replaced in the
Fig. 16. — Pontils and Blowing Iron,
a, Puntee; 6, spring puntee; c, blowing iron.
crucibles. The furnaces are driven to a white heat in order to
fuse the mixture and expel bubbles of gas and air. Before work
begins the temperature is lowered sufficiently to render the glass
viscous. In the viscous state a mass of glass can be coiled upon
the heated end of an iron rod, and if the rod is hollow can be
blown into a hollow bulb. The tools used are extremely primitive
— hollow iron blowing-rods, solid rods for holding vessels during
manipulation, spring tools, resembling sugar-tongs in shape,
with steel or wooden blades for fashioning the viscous glass,
callipers, measure-sticks, and a variety of moulds of wood,
carbon, cast iron, gun-metal and plaster of Paris (figs. 16 and 1 7).
The most important tool, however, is the bench or " chair "
on which the workman sits, which serves as his lathe. He sits
Fig. 17. — Shaping and Measuring Tools.
d, " Sugar-tongs " tool with wooden /, Pincers,
ends. g. Scissors,
e, e, " Sugar-tongs " tools with cutting \ Battledore.
edges. t , Marking compacs.
between two rigid parallel arms, projecting forwards and back-
wards and sloping slightly from back to front. Across the arms
he balances the iron rod to which the glass bulb adheres, and
rolling it backwards and forwards with the fingers of his left
hand fashions the glass between the blades of his sugar-tongs
tool, grasped in his right hand. The hollow bulb is worked into
the shape it is intended to assume, partly by blowing, partly by
gravitation, and partly by the workman's tool. If the blowing
iron is held vertically with the bulb uppermost the bulb becomes
flattened and shaflow, if the bulb is allowed to hang downwards
it becomes elongated and reduced in diameter, and if the end of
the bulb is pierced and the iron is held horizontally and sharply
trundled, as a mop is trundled, the bulb opens out into a flattened
disk.
During the process of manipulation, whether on the chair
or whilst the glass is being reheated, the rod must be constantly
and gently trundled to prevent the collapse of the bulb or vessel.
Every natural development of the spherical form can be obtained
by blowing and fashioning by hand. A non-spherical form can only
be produced by blowing the hollow bulb into a mould of the
required shape. Moulds are used both for giving shape to vessels
and also for impressing patterns on their suface. Although
spherical forms can be obtained without the use of moulds,
moulds are now largely used for even the simplest kinds of table-
ware in order to economize time and skilled labour. In France,
Germany and the United States it is rare to find a piece of table-
ware which has not received its shape in a mould. The old and
the new systems of making a wine-glass illustrate almost all the
ordinary processes of glass working. Sufficient glass is first
" gathered " on the end of a blowing iron to form the bowl of
the wine-glass. The mere act of coiling an exact weight of
molten glass round the end of a rod 4 ft. in length requires
considerable skill. The mass of glass is rolled on a polished
slab of iron, the " marvor," to solidify it, and it is then slightly
hollowed by blowing. Under the old system the form of the bowl
is gradually developed by blowing and by shaping the bulb with
the sugar-tongs tool. The leg is either pulled out from the
substance of the base of the bowl, or from a small lump of glass
added to the base. The foot starts as a small independent bulb
on a separate blowing iron. One extremity of this bulb is made
to adhere to the end of the leg, and the other extremity is broken
away from its blowing iron. The fractured end is heated, and by
the combined action of heat and centrifugal force opens out
into a flat foot. The bowl is now severed from its blowing iron
and the unfinished wine-glass is supported by its foot, which is
attached to the end of a working rod by a metal clip or by a seal
of glass. The fractured edge of the bowl is heated, trimmed
with scissors and melted so as to be perfectly smooth and even,
and the bowl itself receives its final form from the sugar-tongs
tool.
Under the new system the bowl is fashioned by blowing the
slightly hollowed mass of glass into a mould. The leg is formed
and a small lump of molten glass is attached to its extremity
to form the foot. The blowing iron is constantly trundled, and
the small lump of glass is squeezed and flattened into the shape
of a foot, either between two slabs of wood hinged together,
or by pressure against an upright board. The bowl is severed
from the blowing iron, and the wine-glass is sent to the an-
nealing oven with a bowl, longer than that of the finished glass,
and with a rough fractured edge. When the glass is cold the
surplus is removed either by grinding, or by applying heat to a
line scratched with a diamond round the bowl. The fractured
edge is smoothed by the impact of a gas flame. ",
In the manufacture of a wine-glass the ductility of glass is
illustrated on a small scale by the process of pulling out the leg.
It is more strikingly illustrated in the manufacture of glass cane
and tube. Cane is produced from a solid mass of molten glass,
tube from a mass hollowed by blowing. One workman holds
the blowing iron with the mass of glass attached to it, and
another fixes an iron rod by means of a seal of glass to the
extremity of the mass. The two workmen face each other
and walk backwards. The diameter of the cane or tube is
regulated by the weight of glass carried, and by the distance
covered by the two workmen. It is a curious property of viscous
glass that whatever form is given to the mass of glass before it
is drawn out is retained by the finished cane or tube, however
small its section may be. Owing to this property, tubes or
canes can be produced with a square, oblong, oval or triangular
section. Exceedingly fine canes of milk-white glass play an
important part in the masterpieces produced by the Venetian
glass-makers of the 16th century. Vases and drinking cups
were produced of extreme lightness, in the walls of which were
embedded patterns rivalling lace-work in fineness and intricacy.
The canes from which the patterns are formed are either simple
or complex. The latter are made by dipping a small mass of
molten colourless glass into an iron cup around the inner wall
of which short lengths of white cane have been arranged at
9 2
GLASS
regular intervals. The canes adhere to the molten glass, and
the mass is first twisted and then drawn out into fine cane,
which contains white threads arranged in endless spirals. The
process can be almost indefinitely repeated and canes formed
of extreme complexity. A vase decorated with these simple
or complex canes is produced by embedding short lengths of
the cane on the surface of a mass of molten glass and blowing
and fashioning the mass into the required shape.
Table-ware and vases [may be wholly coloured or merely
decorated with colour. Touches of colour may be added to
vessels in course of manufacture by means of seals of molten
glass, applied like sealing-wax; or by causing vessels to wrap
themselves round with threads or coils of coloured glass. By
the application of a pointed iron hook, while the glass is still
ductile, the parallel coils can be distorted into bends, loops or
zigzags. The surface of vessels may be spangled with gold or
platinum by rolling the hot glass on metallic leaf, or iridescent,
by the deposition of metallic tin, or by the corrosion caused
by the chemical action of acid fumes. Gilding and enamel
decoration are applied to vessels when cold, and fixed by
heat.
Cutting and engraving are mechanical processes for producing
decorative effects by abrading the surface of the glass when cold.
The abrasion is effected by pressing the glass against the edge
of wheels, or disks, of hard material revolving on horizontal
spindles. The spindles of cutting wheels are driven by steam
or electric power. The wheels for making deep cuts are made
of iron, and are fed with sand and water. The wheels range
in diameter from 18 in. to 3 in. Wheels of carborundum are
also used. Wheels of fine sandstone fed with water are used
for making slighter cuts and for smoothing the rough surface
left by the iron wheels. Polishing is effected by wooden wheels
fed with wet pumice-powder and rottenstone and by brushes
fed with moistened putty-powder. Patterns are produced by
combining straight and curved cuts. Cutting brings out the
brilliancy of glass, which is one of its intrinsic qualities. At
the end of the 18th century English cut glass was unrivalled
for design and beauty. Gradually, however, the process was
applied without restraint and the products lost all artistic
quality. At the present time cut glass is steadily regaining
favour.
Engraving is a process of drawing on glass by means of small
copper wheels. The wheels range from J in. to 2 in. in diameter,
and are fed with a mixture of fine emery and oil. The spindles
to which the wheels are attached revolve in a lathe worked by
a foot treadle. The true use of engraving is to add interest to
vessels by means of coats of arms, crests, monograms, inscriptions
and graceful outlines. The improper use of engraving is to
hide defective material. There are two other processes of
marking patterns on glass, but they possess no artistic value.
In the " sandblast " process the surface of the glass is exposed
to a stream of sharp sand driven by compressed air. The parts
of the surface which are not to be blasted are covered by adhesive
paper. In the " etching " process the surface of the glass is
etched by the chemical action of hydrofluoric acid, the parts
which are not to be attacked being covered with a resinous paint.
The glass is first dipped in this protective liquid, and when the
paint has set the pattern is scratched through it with a sharp
point. The glass is then exposed to the acid.
Glass stoppers are fitted to bottles by grinding. The mouth
of the bottle is ground by a revolving iron cone, or mandrel,
fed with sand and water and driven by steam. The head of the
stopper is fastened in a chuck and the peg is ground to the size
of the mouth of the bottle by means of sand and water pressed
against the glass by bent strips of thin sheet iron. The mouth
of the bottle is then pressed by hand on the peg of the stopper,
and the mouth and peg are ground together with a medium of
very fine emery and water until an air-tight joint is secured.
The revival in recent years of the craft of glass-blowing in
England must be attributed to William Morris and T.G. Jackson,
R.A. (PL II. figs, n and 12). They, at any rate, seem to have
been the first to grasp the idea that a wine-glass is not merely
a bowl, a stem and a foot, but that, whilst retaining simplicity
of form, it may nevertheless possess decorative effect. They,
moreover, suggested the introduction for the manufacture of
table-glass of a material similar in texture to that used by the
Venetians, both colourless and tinted.
The colours previously available for English table-glass were
ruby, canary-yellow, emerald-green, dark peacock-green, light
peacock-blue, dark purple-blue and a dark purple. About
1870 the " Jackson " table-glass was made in a light, dull green
glass. The dull green was followed successively by amber, white
opal, blue opal, straw opal, sea-green, horn colour and various
pale tints of soda-lime glass, ranging from yellow to blue. Ex-
periments were also tried with a violet-coloured glass, a violet
opal, a transparent black and with glasses shading from red
to blue, red to amber and blue to green.
In the Paris Exhibition of 1900 surface decoration was the
prominent feature of all the exhibits of table-glass. The carved
or " cameo " glass, introduced by Thomas Webb of Stourbridge
in 1878, had been copied with varying success by glass-makers
of all nations. In many specimens there were three or more
layers of differently coloured glass, and curious effects of blended
colour were obtained by cutting through, or partly through,
the different layers. The surface of the glass had usually been
treated with hydrofluoric acid so as to have a satin-like gloss.
Some vases of this character, shown by Emile Galle* and Daum
Freres of Nancy, possessed considerable beauty. The " Favrile "
glass of Louis C. Tiffany of New York (PL II. fig. 13) owes its
effect entirely to surface colour and lustre. ' The happiest speci-
mens of this glass almost rival the wings of butterflies in the
brilliancy of their iridescent colours. The vases of Karl Koepping
of Berlin are so fantastic and so fragile that they appear to be
creations of the lamp rather than of the furnace. An illustration
is also given of some of Powell's " Whitefriars " glass, shown at
the St Louis Exhibition, 1904 (PL II. fig. 14). The specimens
of " pate de verre " exhibited by A. L. Dammouse, of Sevres,
in the Mus6e des Arts decoratifs in Paris, and at the London
Franco-British Exhibition in 1908, deserve attention. They
have a semi-opaque body with an "egg-shell" surface and are
delicately tinted with colour. The shapes are exceedingly
simple, but some of the pieces possess great beauty. The material
and technique suggest a close relationship to porcelain.
(B) Tube. — The process of making tube has already been
described. Although the bore of the thermometer-tube is
exceedingly small, it is made in the same way as ordinary
tube. The white line of enamel, which is seen in some thermo-
meters behind the bore, is introduced before the mass of glass
is pulled out. A flattened cake of viscous glass-enamel is welded
on to one side of the mass of glass after it has been hollowed by
blowing. The mass, with the enamel attached, is dipped into
the crucible and covered with a layer of transparent glass;
the whole mass is then pulled out into tube. If the section of
the finished tube is to be a triangle, with the enamel and bore
at the base, the molten mass is pressed into a V-shaped mould
before it is pulled out.
In modern thermometry instruments of extreme accuracy
are required, and researches have been made, especially in
Germany and France, to ascertain the causes of variability
in mercurial thermometers, and how such variability is to be
removed or reduced. In all mercurial thermometers there
is a slight depression of the ice-point after exposure to high
temperatures; it is also not uncommon to find that the readings
of two thermometers between the ice- and boiling-points
fail to agree at any intermediate temperature, although the
ice- and boiling-points of both have been determined together
with perfect accuracy, and the intervening spaces have been
equally divided. It has been proved that these variations
depend to a great extent on the chemical nature of the glass of
which the thermometer is made. Special glasses have therefore
been produced by Tonnelot in France and at the Jena glass-
works in Germany expressly for the manufacture of thermometers
for accurate physical measurements; the analyses of these are
shown in Table III.
GLASS
93
Table III.
SiO,.
Narf).
K 2 0.
CaO.
AI2O,.
MgO.
B 2 8 .
ZnO.
Depression
of
Ice-point.
Tonnelot's " Verre dur "
Jena glass —
XVI .-in . .
59-"i
70*96
67-5
72-0
1202
14-0
11*0
0-56
14-40
70
50
1.44
2-5
50
0-40
2-0
12-0
7.0
0-07
0-05
002
Since the discovery of the Rontgen rays, experiments have
been made to ascertain the effects of the different constituents
of glass on the transparency of glass to X-rays. The oxides
of lead, barium, zinc and antimony are found perceptibly to
retard the rays. The glass tubes, therefore, from which the
X-ray bulbs are to be fashioned, must not contain any of these
oxides, whereas the glass used for making the funnel-shaped
shields, which direct the rays upon the patient and at the same
time protect the hands of the operator from the action of the
rays, must contain a large proportion of lead.
Among the many developments of the Jena Works, not the
least important are the glasses made in the form of a tube,
from which gas-chimneys, gauge-glasses and chemical apparatus
are fashioned, specially adapted to resist sudden changes of
temperature. One method is to form the tube of two layers
of glass, one being considerably more expansible than the other.
(C) Sheet and Crown-glass. — Sheet-glass is almost wholly
a soda-lime-silicate glass, containing only small quantities of
iron, alumina and other impurities. The raw materials used
in this manufacture are chosen with considerable care, since the
requirements as to the colour of the product are somewhat
stringent. The materials ordinarily employed are the following:
sand, of good quality, uniform in grain and free from any
notable quantity of iron oxide; carbonate of lime, generally
in the form of a pure variety of powdered limestone; and
sulphate of soda. A certain proportion of soda ash (carbonate
of soda) is also used in some works in sheet-glass mixtures, while
" decolorizers " (substances intended to remove or reduce the
colour of the glass) are also sometimes added, those most generally
used being manganese dioxide and arsenic. Another essential
ingredient of all glass mixtures containing sulphate of soda
is some form of carbon, which is added either as coke, charcoal
or anthracite coal; the carbon so introduced aids the reducing
substances contained in the atmosphere of the furnace in bringing
about the reduction of the sulphate of soda to a condition in
which it combines more readily with the silicic acid of the sand.
The proportions in which these ingredients are mixed vary
according to the exact quality of glass required and with the
form and temperature of the melting furnace employed. A
good quality of sheet-glass should show, on analysis, a composi-
tion approximating to the following: silica (SiO^), 72%;
lime (CaO), 13%; soda (Na 2 0), 14%; and iron and alumina
(Fe 2 08,Al 2 8 ), 1%. The actual composition, however, of a
mixture that will give a glass of this composition cannot be
directly calculated from these figures and the known composition
of the raw materials, owing to the fact that considerable losses,
particularly of alkali, occur during melting.
The fusion of sheet-glass is now generally carried out in
gas-fired regenerative tank furnaces. The glass in process
of fusion is contained in a basin or tank built up of large blocks
of fire-clay and is heated by one or more powerful gas flames
which enter the upper part of the furnace chamber through
suitable apertures or " ports." In Europe the gas burnt in
these furnaces is derived from special gas-producers, while in
some parts of America natural gas is utilized. With producer
gas it is necessary to pre-heat both the gas and the air which
is supplied for its combustion by passing both through heated
regenerators (for an account of the principles of the regenerative
furnace see article Furnace). In many respects the glass-
melting tank resembles the open-hearth steel furnace, but there
are certain interesting differences. Thus the dimensions of the
largest glass tanks greatly exceed those of the largest steel
furnaces; glass furnaces containing up to 250 tons of molten
glass have been successfully oper-
ated, and owing to the relatively
low density of glass this involves
very large dimensions. The tem-
perature required in the fusion of
sheet-glass and of other glasses
produced in tank furnaces is much
lower than that attained in steel
furnaces, and it is consequently pos-
sible to work glass-tanks continuously for many months together;
on the other hand, glass is not readily freed from foreign bodies
that may become admixed with it, so that the absence of detach-
able particles is much more essential in glass than in steel melting.
Finally, fluid steel can be run or poured off, since it is perfectly
fluid, while glass cannot be thus treated, but is withdrawn from
the furnace by means of either a ladle or a gatherer's pipe,
and the temperature required for this purpose is much lower than
that at which the glass is melted. In a sheet-glass tank there
is therefore a gradient of temperature and a continuous passage
of material from the hotter end of the furnace where the raw
materials are introduced to the cooler end where the glass,
free from bubbles and raw material, is withdrawn by the
gatherers. For the purpose of the removal of the glass, the
cooler end of the furnace is provided with a number of suitable
openings, provided with movable covers or shades. The
" gatherer " approaches one of these openings, removes the
shade and introduces his previously heated "pipe." This
instrument is an iron tube, some 5 ft. long, provided at one end
with an enlarged butt and at the other with a wooden covering
acting as handle and mouthpiece. The gatherer dips the butt
of the pipe into the molten " metal " and withdraws upon it a
small ball of viscous glass, which he allows to cool in the air
while constantly rotating it so as to keep the mass as nearly
spherical in shape as he can. When the first ball or " gathering "
has cooled sufficiently, the whole is again dipped into the molten
glass and a further layer adheres to the pipe-end, thus forming
a larger ball. This process is repeated, with slight modifications,
until the gathering is of the proper size and weight to yield the
sheet which is to be blown. When this is the case the gathering
is carried to a block or half-open mould in which it is rolled
and blown until it acquires, roughly, the shape of a hemisphere,
the flat side being towards the pipe and the convexity away
from it; the diameter of this hemisphere is so regulated as to
be approximately that of the cylinder which is next to be formed
of the viscous mass. From the hemispherical shape the mass
of glass is now gradually blown into the form of a short cylinder,
and then the pipe with the adherent mass of glass is handed
over to the blower proper. This workman stands upon a platform
in front of special furnaces which, from their shape and purpose,
are called "blowing holes." The blower repeatedly heats
the lower part of the mass of glass and keeps it distended by
blowing while he swings it over a deep trench which is provided
next to his working platform. In this way the glass is extended
into the form of a long cylinder closed at the lower end. The
size of cylinder which can be produced in this way depends
chiefly upon the dimensions of the working platform and the
weight which a man is able to handle freely. The lower end of
the cylinder is opened, in the case of small and thin cylinders,
by the blower holding his thumb over the mouthpiece of the
pipe and simultaneously warming the end of the cylinder in the
furnace, the expansion of the imprisoned air and the softening
of the glass causing the end of the cylinder to burst open. The
blower then heats the end of the cylinder again and rapidly
spins the pipe about its axis; the centrifugal effect is sufficient
to spread the soft glass at the end to a radius equal to that of the
rest of the cylinder. In the case of large and thick cylinders,
however, another process of opening the ends is generally
employed: an assistant attaches a small lump of hot glass to the
domed end, and the heat of this added glass softens the cylinder
sufficiently to enable the assistant to cut the end open with a
pair of shears; subsequently the open end is spun out to the
diameter of the whole as described above. The finished cylinder
9+
GLASS
is next carried to a rack and the pipe detached from it by applying
a cold iron to the neck of thick hot glass which connects pipe-butt
and cylinder, the neck cracking at the touch. Next, the rest
of the connecting neck is detached from the cylinder by the
application of a heated iron to the chilled glass. This leaves a
cylinder with roughly parallel ends; these ends are cut by the
use of a diamond applied internally and then the cylinder is
split longitudinally by the same means. The split cylinder is
passed to the flattening furnace, where it is exposed to a red heat,
sufficient to soften the glass; when soft the cylinder is laid upon
a smooth fiat slab and flattened down upon it by the careful
application of pressure with some form of rubbing implement,
which frequently takes the form of a block of charred wood.
When flattened, the sheet is moved away from the working
opening of the furnace, and pushed to a system of movable
grids, by means of which it is slowly moved along a tunnel,
away from a source of heat nearly equal in temperature to that
•f the flattening chamber. The glass thus cools gradually as it
passes down the tunnel and is thereby adequately annealed.
The process of sheet-glass manufacture described above is
typical of that in use in a large number of works, but many
modifications are to be found, particularly in the furnaces in
which the glass is melted. In some works, the older method
of melting the glass in large pots or crucibles is still adhered to,
although the old-fashioned coal-fired furnaces have nearly
everywhere given place to the use of producer gas and re-
generators. For the production of coloured sheet-glass, however,
the employment of pot furnaces is still almost universal, prob-
ably because the quantities of glass required of any one tint
are insufficient to employ even a small tank furnace continuously;
the exact control of the colour is also more readily attained with
the smaller bulk of glass which has to be dealt with in pots. The
general nature of the colouring ingredients employed, and the
colour effects produced by them, have already been mentioned.
In coloured sheet-glass, two distinct kinds are to be recognized;
in one kind the colouring matter is contained in the body of the
glass itself, while in the other the coloured sheet consists of
ordinary white glass covered upon one side with a thin coating of
intensely coloured glass. The latter kind is known as " flashed,"
and is universally employed in the case of colouring matters
whose effect is so intense that in any usual thickness of glass
they would cause almost entire opacity. Flashed glass is
produced by taking either the first or the last gathering in the
production of a cylinder out of a crucible containing the coloured
" metal," the other gatherings being taken out of ordinary
white sheet-glass. It is important that the thermal expansion
of the two materials which are thus incorporated should be
nearly alike, as otherwise warping of the finished sheet is liable
to result.
Mechanical Processes for the Production of Sheet-glass. — The
complicated and indirect process of sheet-glass manufacture
has led to numerous inventions aiming at a direct method of
production by more or less mechanical means. All the earlier
attempts in this direction failed on account of the difficulty of
bringing the glass to the machines without introducing air-bells,
which are always formed in molten glass when it is ladled or
poured from one vessel into another. More modern inventors
have therefore adopted the plan of drawing the glass direct from
the furnace. In an American process the glass is drawn direct
from the molten mass in the tank in a cylindrical form by means
of an iron ring previously immersed in the glass, and is kept
in shape by means of special devices for cooling it rapidly as it
leaves the molten bath. In this process, however, the entire
operations of splitting and flattening are retained, and although
the mechanical process is said to be in successful commercial
operation, it has not as yet made itself felt as a formidable rival
to hand-made sheet-glass. An effort at a more direct mechanical
process is embodied in the inventions of Foucault which are at
present being developed in Germany and Belgium; in this
process the glass is drawn from the molten bath in the shape of
flat sheets, by the aid of a bar of iron, previously immersed in the
glass, the glass receiving its form by being drawn through slots
in large fire-bricks, and being kept in shape by rapid chilling
produced by the action of air-blasts. The mechanical operation
is quite successful for thick sheets, but it is not as yet available
for the thinner sheets required for the ordinary purposes of
sheet-glass, since with these excessive breakage occurs, while
the sheets generally show grooves or lines derived from small
irregularities of the drawing orifice. For the production of thick
sheets which are subsequently to be polished the process may
thus claim considerable success, but it is not as yet possible
to produce satisfactory sheet-glass by such means.
Crown-glass has at the present day almost disappeared from
the market, and it has been superseded by sheet-glass, the more
modern processes described above being capable of producing
much larger sheets of glass, free from the knob or " bullion "
which may still be seen in old crown-glass windows. For a
few isolated purposes, however, it is desirable to use a glass
which has not been touched upon either surface and thus pre-
serves the lustre of its " fire polish " undiminished; this can
be attained in crown-glass but not in sheet, since one side of
the latter is always more or less marked by the rubber used
in the process of flattening. One of the few uses of crown-glass
of this kind is the glass slides upon which microscopic specimens
are mounted, as well as the thin glass slips with which such
preparations are covered. A full account of the process of
blowing crown-glass will be found in all older books and articles
on the subject, so that it need only be mentioned here that the
glass, instead of being blown into a cylinder, is blown into a
flattened sphere, which is caused to burst at the point opposite
the pipe and is then, by the rapid spinning of the glass in front
of a very hot furnace-opening, caused to expand into a flat disk
of large diameter. This only requires to be annealed and is then
ready for cutting up, but the lump of glass by which the original
globe was attached to the pipe remains as the bullion in the centre
of the disk of glass.
Coloured Glass for Mosaic Windows, — The production of coloured
glass for " mosaic " windows has become a separate branch
of glass-making. Charles Winston, after prolonged study
of the coloured windows of the 13th, 14th and 15th centuries,
convinced himself that no approach to the colour effect of these
windows could be made with glass which is thin and even in
section, homogeneous in texture, and made and coloured with
highly refined materials. To obtain the effect it was necessary
to reproduce as far as possible the conditions under which the
early craftsmen worked, and to create scientifically glass which
is impure in colour, irregular in section, and non-homogeneous
in texture. The glass is made in cylinders and in " crowns " or
circles. The cylinders measure about 14 in. in length by 8 in.
in diameter, and vary in thickness from J to $ in. The crowns
are about 15 in. in diameter, and vary in thickness from J to § in.,
the centre being the thickest. These cylinders and crowns
may be either solid colour or flashed. Great variety of colour
may be obtained by flashing one colour upon another, such as
blue on green, and ruby on blue, green or yellow,
£. J. Prior has introduced an ingenious method of making
small oblong and square sheets of coloured glass, which are thick
in the centre and taper towards the edges, and which have one
surface slightly roughened and one brilliantly polished. Glass is
blown into an oblong box-shaped iron mould, about 12 in. in depth
and 6 in. across. A hollow rectangular bottle is formed, the base
and sides of which are converted into sheets. The outer surface
of these sheets is slightly roughened by contact with the iron
mould.
(D) Bottles and mechanically blown Glass, — The manufacture
of bottles has become an industry of vast proportions. The
demand constantly increases, and, owing to constant improve-
ments in material in the moulds and in the methods of working,
the supply fully keeps pace with the demand. Except for
making bottles of special colours, gas-heated tank furnaces are
in general use. Melting and working are carried on continuously.
The essential qualities of a bottle are strength and power to resist
chemical corrosion. The materials are selected with a view to
secure these qualities. For the highest quality of bottles, which
GLASS
95
are practically colourless, sand, limestone and sulphate and
carbonate of soda are used. The following is a typical analysis
of high quality bottle-glass: SiC>2, 69- 15%; Na20, 13-00%;
CaO, 15-00%; AI2O3, 2-20%; and Fe 2 8 , 0-65%. For the
commoner grades of dark-coloured bottles the glass mixture
is cheapened by substituting common salt for part of the sulphate
of soda, and by the addition of felspar, granite, granulite,
furnace slag and other substances fusible at a high temperature.
Bottle moulds are made of cast iron, either in two pieces, hinged
together at the base or at one side, or in three pieces, one
forming the body and two pieces forming the neck.
A bottle gang or "shop" consists of five persons. The
" gatherer " gathers the glass from the tank furnace on the end
of the blowing-iron, rolls it on a slab of iron or stone, slightly
expands the glass by blowing, and hands the blowing iron and
glass to the " blower." The blower places the glass in the mould,
closes the mould by pressing a lever with his foot, and either
blows down the blowing iron or attaches it to a tube connected
with a supply of compressed air. When the air has forced the
glass to take the form of the mould, the
mould is opened and the blower gives the
blowing iron with the bottle attached to
it to the "wetter off." The wetter off
touches the top of the neck of the bottle
with a moistened piece of iron and by
tapping the blowing iron detaches the
bottle and drops it into a wooden trough.
He then grips the body of the bottle with
a four-pronged clip, attached to an iron
rod, and passes it to the " bottle maker."
The bottle maker heats the fractured neck
of the bottle, binds a band of molten glass
round the end of it and simultaneously
shapes the inside and the outside of the
Fig. 18.— Tool for nec ^ ky us^S the tool shown in fig. 18.
moulding the inside The finished bottle is taken by the " taker
and outside of the in " to the annealing furnace. The bottles
CM* 'ttl* k Qtt are stacked * n i* 011 trucks, which, when
A, Conical piece of ^ lu ^» are move< * slowly away from a constant
iron to form the source of heat.
the The processes of manipulation which have
been described, although in practice they
inside of
neck.
B ' dfton?wM&^ are very rapidly Performed, are destined
be pressed upon to be replaced by the automatic working
the outside of of a machine. Bottle-making machines,
the neck by the based on Ashley's original patent, are
spnng-nanale H. alrcady being largely use± They ensure
absolute regularity in form and save both
time and labour. A bottle-making machine combines the
process of pressing with a plunger with that of blowing by
compressed air. The neck of the bottle is first formed by the
plunger, and the body is subsequently blown by compressed air
admitted through the plunger. A sufficient weight of molten
glass to form a bottle is gathered and placed in a funnel-shaped
vessel which serves as a measure, and gives access to the mould
which shapes the outside of the neck. A plunger is forced
upwards into the glass in the neck-mould and forms the neck.
The funnel is removed, and the plunger, neck-mould and the
mass of molten glass attached to the neck are inverted. A bottle
mould rises and envelops the mass of molten glass. Com-
pressed air admitted through the plunger forces the molten glass
to take the form of the bottle mould and completes the bottle.
In the case of the machine patented by Michael Owens of
Toledo, U.S.A., for making tumblers, lamp-chimneys, and other
goods of similar character, the manual operations required are
(1) gathering the molten glass at the end of a blowing iron;
(2) placing the blowing iron with the glass attached to it in the
machine; (3) removing the blowing iron with the blown vessel
attached. Each machine (fig. 19) consists of a revolving table
carrying five or six moulds. The moulds are opened and closed
by cams actuated by compressed air. As soon as a blowing
iron is in connexion with an air jet, the sections of the mould
close upon the molten glass, and the compressed air forces the
glass to take the form of the mould. After removal from the
machine, the tumbler is severed from the blowing iron, and
its fractured edge is trimmed.
Compressed air or steam is also used for fashioning very large
vessels, baths, dishes and reservoirs by the " Sievert " process.
Molten glass is spread upon a large iron plate of the required
shape and dimensions. The flattened mass of glass is held by
a rim, connected to the edge of the plate. The plate with the glass
attached to it is inverted, and compressed air or steam is intro-
duced through openings in the plate. The mass of glass, yielding
to its own weight and the pressure of air or steam, sinks down-
wards and adapts itself to any mould or receptacle beneath it.
The processes employed in the manufacture of the glass
bulbs for incandescent electric lamps, are similar to the old-
Fig. 19. — Owens's Glass-blowing Machine. g,g,g, Blowing-irons.
fashioned processes of bottle making. The mould is in two
pieces hinged together; it is heated and the inner surface is
rubbed over with finely powdered plumbago. When the glass
is being blown in the mould the blowing iron is twisted round and
round so that the finished bulb may not be marked by the joint
of the mould.
III. Mechanically Pressed Glass. (A) Plate-glass.— The
glass popularly known as " plate-glass " is made by casting and
rolling. The following are typical analyses:
SiO*.
CaO.
Na 2 0.
AW),.
Fe,0«.
French .
English .
71-80
70-64
1570
16-27
11*10
11.47
1*26
0-70
0-14%
o-49%
The raw materials for the production of plate-glass are chosen
with great care so as to secure a product as free from colour
as possible, since the relatively great thickness of the sheets
^ 1
9 6
GLASS
would render even a faint tint conspicuous. The substances
employed are the same as those used for the manufacture
pi sheet-glass, viz. pure sand, a pure form of carbonate of lime,
and sulphate of soda, with the addition of a suitable proportion
of carbon in the form of coke, charcoal or anthracite coal.
The glass to be used for the production of plate is universally
melted in pots or crucibles and not in open tank furnaces.
When the glass is completely melted and " fine," i.e. free from
bubbles, it is allowed to cool down to a certain extent so as
to become viscous or pasty. The whole pot, with its contents
of viscous glass, is then removed bodily from the furnace by
means of huge tongs and is transported to a crane, which grips
the pot, raises it, and ultimately tips it over so as to pour the
glass upon the slab of the rolling-table. In most modern works
the greater part of these operations, as well as the actual rolling
of the glass, is carried out by mechanical means, steam power
and subsequently electrical power having been successfully
applied to this purpose; the handling of the great weights of
glass required for the largest sheets of plate-glass which are
produced at the present time would, indeed, be impossible
without the aid of machinery. The casting-table usually con-
sists of a perfectly smooth cast-iron slab, frequently built up
of a number of pieces carefully fitted together, mounted upon
a low, massive truck running upon rails, so that it can be readily
moved to any desired position in the casting-room. The viscous
mass having been thrown on the casting-table, a large and
heavy roller passes over it and spreads it out into a sheet.
Rollers up to 5 tons in weight are employed and are now
generally driven by power. The width of the sheet or plate
is regulated by moving guides which are placed in front of
the roller and are pushed along by it, while its thickness
is regulated by raising or lowering the roller relatively to
the surface of the table. Since the surfaces produced by
rolling have subsequently to be ground and polished, it is
essential that the glass should leave the rolling-table with as
smooth a surface as possible, so that great care is required in
this part of the process. It is, however, equally important
that the glass as a whole should be flat and remains flat during
the process of gradual cooling (annealing), otherwise great
thicknesses of glass would have to be ground away at the pro-
jecting parts of the sheet. The annealing process is therefore
carried out in a manner differing essentially from that in use
for any other variety of flat glass and nearly resembling that
used for optical glass. The rolled sheet is left on the casting-
table until it has set sufficiently to be pushed over a flat iron
plate without risk of distortion; meanwhile the table has been
placed in front of the opening of one of the large annealing
kilns and the slab of glass is carefully pushed into the kiln. The
annealing kilns are large fire-brick chambers of small height
but with sufficient floor area to accommodate four or six large
slabs, and the slabs are placed directly upon the floor of the
kiln, which is built up of carefully dressed blocks of burnt fire-
clay resting upon a bed of sand; in order to avoid any risk of
working or buckling in this floor these blocks are set slightly
apart and thus have room to expand freely when heated. Before
the glass is introduced, the annealing kiln is heated to dull red
by means of coal fires in grates which are provided at the ends
or sides of the kiln for that purpose. When the floor of the kiln
has been covered with slabs of glass the opening is carefully
built up and luted with fire-bricks and fire-clay, and the whole
is then allowed to cool. In the walls and floor of the kiln special
cooling channels or air passages are provided and by gradually
opening these to atmospheric circulation the cooling is con-
siderably accelerated while a very even distribution of tempera-
ture is obtained; by these means even the largest slabs can now
be cooled in three or four days and are nevertheless sufficiently
well annealed to be free from any serious internal stress. From
the annealing kiln the slabs of glass are transported to the
cutting room, where they are cut square, defective slabs being
rejected or cut down to smaller sizes. The glass at this stage
has a comparatively dull surface and this must now be replaced
by that brilliant and perfectly polished surface which is the chief
beauty of this variety of glass. The first step in this process is
that of grinding the surface down until all projections are
removed and a close approximation to a perfect plane is obtained.
This operation, like all the subsequent steps in the polishing
of the glass, is carried out by powerful machinery. By means
of a rotating table either two surfaces of glass, or one surface
of glass and one of cast iron, are rubbed together with the inter-
position of a powerful abrasive such as sand, emery or carbor-
undum. The machinery by which this is done has undergone
numerous modifications and improvements, all tending to pro-
duce more perfectly plane glass, to reduce the risk of breakage,
and to lessen the expenditure of time and power required per
sq. yd. of glass to be worked. It is impossible to describe
this machinery within the limits of this article, but it is notable
that the principal difficulties to be overcome arise from the
necessity of providing the glass with a perfectly continuous
and unyielding support to which it can be firmly attached but
from which it can be detached without undue difficulty.
When the surface of the glass has been ground down to a plane,
the surface itself is still " grey," i.e. deeply pitted with the marks
of the abrasive used in grinding it down; these marks are re-
moved by the process of smoothing, in which the surface is
successively ground with abrasives of gradually increasing fine-
ness, leaving ultimately a very smooth and very minutely pitted
" grey " surface. This smooth surface is then brilliantly polished
by the aid of friction with a rubbing tool covered with a soft
substance like leather or felt and fed with a polishing material,
such as rouge. A few strokes of such a rubber are sufficient to
produce a decidedly " polished " appearance, but prolonged
rubbing under considerable pressure and the use of a polishing
paste of a proper consistency are required in order to remove the
last trace of pitting from the surface. This entire process must,
obviously, be applied in turn to each of the two surfaces of the
slab of glass. Plate-glass is manufactured in this manner in
thicknesses varying from A- in. to 1 in. or even more, while
single sheets are produced measuring more than 27 ft. by 13 ft.
" Rolled Plate " and figured " Rolled Ptote."— Glass for this
purpose, with perhaps the exception of the best white and
tinted varieties, is now universally produced in tank-furnaces,
similar in a general way to those used for sheet-glass, except that
the furnaces used for " rolled plate " glass of the roughest kinds
do not need such minutely careful attention and do not work at
so high a temperature. The composition of these glasses is very
similar to that of sheet-glass, but for the ordinary kinds of rolled
plate much less scrupulous selection need be made in the choice
of raw materials, especially of the sand.
The glass is taken from the furnace in large iron ladles, which
are carried upon slings running on overhead rails; from the
ladle the glass is thrown upon the cast-iron bed of a rolling-table,
and is rolled into sheet by an iron roller, the process being
similar to that employed in making plate-glass, but on a smaller
scale. The sheet thus rolled is roughly trimmed while hot and
soft, so as to remove those portions of glass which have been
spoilt by immediate contact with the ladle, and the sheet, still
soft, is pushed into the open mouth of an annealing tunnel or
" lear," down which it is carried by a system of moving grids.
The surface of the glass produced in this way may be modified
by altering the surface of the rolling-table; if the table has a
smooth surface, the glass will also be more or less smooth, but
much dented and buckled on the surface and far from having the
smooth face of blown sheet. If the table has a pattern engraved
upon it the glass will show the same pattern in relief, the most
frequent pattern of the kind being either small parallel ridges or
larger ribs crossing to form a lozenge pattern.
The more elaborate patterns found on what is known as
" figure rolled plate " are produced in a somewhat different
manner; the glass used for this purpose is considerably whiter
in colour and much softer than ordinary rolled plate, and instead
of being rolled out on a table it is produced by rolling between
two moving rollers from which the sheet issues. The pattern is
impressed upon the soft sheet by a printing roller which is
brought down upon the glass as it leaves the main rolls. This
GLASS
97
glass shows a pattern in high relief and gives a very brilliant
effect.
The various varieties of rolled plate-glass are now produced
for some purposes with a reinforcement of wire netting which is
embedded in the mass of the glass. The wire gives the glass
great advantages in the event of fracture from a blow or from
fire, but owing to the difference in thermal expansion between
wire and glass, there is a strong tendency for such " wired glass "
to crack spontaneously.
Patent Plate-glass. — This term is applied to blown sheet-glass,
whose surface has been rendered plane and brilliant by a process
of grinding and polishing. The name " patent plate " arose from
the fact that certain patented devices originated by James
Chance of Birmingham first made it possible to polish com-
paratively thin glass in this way.
(B) Pressed Glass. — The technical difference between pressed
and moulded glass is that moulded glass-ware has taken its form
from a mould under the pressure of a workman's breath, or of com-
pressed air, whereas pressed glass-ware has taken its form from a
mould under the pressure of a plunger. Moulded glass receives
the form of the
mould on its in-
terior as well as on
its exterior surface.
In pressed glass the
exterior surface is
modelled by the
mould, whilst the
interior surface is
modelled by the
plunger (fig. 20).
The process of
pressing glass was
introduced to meet
the demand for
cheap table-ware.
Pressed glass,
which is necessarily
thick and service-
able, has well met
this legitimate de-
mand, but it also
caters for the less
legitimate taste for
cheap imitations of
hand-cut glass. An
American writer
has expressed his
satisfaction that
the day-labourer can now have on his table at a nominal price
glass dishes of elaborate design, which only an expert can dis-
tinguish from hand-cut crystal. The deceptive effect is in some
cases heightened by cutting over and polishing by hand the
pressed surface.
The glass for pressed ware must be colourless, and, when
molten, must be sufficiently fluid to adapt itself readily to the
intricacies of the moulds, which are often exceedingly complex.
The materials employed are sand, sulphate of soda, nitrate of
soda, calcspar and in some works carbonate of barium. The
following is an analysis of a specimen of English pressed glass;
SiOj, 70-68%; Na*0, ia-38%; CaO, 5-45%; BaO, 4-17%
AljOs, 0-33%; and Fe a O$,o-2o%. Tanks and pots are both used
for melting the glass. The moulds are made of cast iron. They
axe usually in two main pieces, a base and an upper part or collar
of hinged sections. The plunger 1 is generally worked by a hand
lever. The operator knows by touch when the plunger has
pressed the glass far enough to exactly fill the mould. Although
the moulds are heated, the surface of the glass is always slightly
ruffled by contact with the mould. For this reason every piece
of pressed glass-ware, as soon as it is liberated from the mould,
is exposed to a sharp heat in a small subsidiary furnace in order
that the ruffled surface may be removed by melting. These
Fig. 20. — Modern American Glass-Press.
small furnaces are usually heated by an oil spray under the
pressure of steam or compressed air.
See Antonio Neri, Ars vitraria, cum MerriUi observationibus
(Amsterdam, 1668) (Neri's work was translated into English by C.
Merritt in 1662, and the translation. The Art of making Glass, was
Srivately reprinted by Sir T. Phillipps, Bart., in 1826); Johann
[unkel, Voustdndige Glasmacher-Kunst (Nuremberg, 1785) ; Apsley
Pellatt, Curiosities of Glass-making (London, 1840); A. Sauzay,
Marvels of Glass-making (from the French) (London, 1869); G.
Bontemps, Guide du verrier (Paris, 1868); E. Peligot, Le Verre t
son histoire, sa fabrication (Paris, 1878); W. Stein, " Die Gksfabri-
kation," in Bolicy's Technologies vol. ill. (Brunswick, 1862) ; H. E.
Benrath, Die Glasfabrikation (Brunswick, 1875); J. Falck and L.
Lobmeyr, Die Glasindustrie (Vienna, 1875); D. H. Hovestadt,
Jenaer Glas (Jena, 1900; Eng. trans, by J. D. and A. Everett,
Macmillan, 1907); J. Henrivaux, Le Verre et le cristal (Paris, 1887),
and La Verrerie au XX* siecle (1903) ; Chance, Harris and Powell,
Principles of Glass-making (London, 1883); Moritz V. Rohr, Theorie
und Geschichte der photographischen Objektive (Berlin, 1899); C. E.
Guillaume, TraiU pratique de la thermometrie de precision (Paris,
1889); Louis Coffignal, verres et imaux (Paris, 1900); R. Gerner,
Die Glasfabrikation (Vienna, 1897); C. Wetzel, Herstellung grosser
GUiskorper (Vienna, 1900) ; C. Wetzel, Bearbeitung von Glaskdrpern
(Vienna, 1901); E. Tscheuschner, Handbuch der Glasfabrikation
(Weimar, 1885); R. Dralle, Anlage und Betrieb der Glasfabriken
Leipzig, 1886); G. Tammann, KristaUisicren und Schmelzen
Leipzig, 1903) ; W. Rosenhain, " Some Properties of Glass," Trans.
Optical Society (London, 1903), " Possible Directions of Progress in
Optical Glass," Proc. Optical Convention (London, 1905) and Glass
Manufacture (London, 1908); Introduction to section 1, Catalogue
of the Optical Convention (London, 1905). .-, (H. J. P.; W. RnJ.
History of Glass Manufacture.
The great similarity in form, technique and decoration of
the earliest known specimens of glass-ware suggests that the
craft of glass-making originated from a single centre. It has
been generally assumed that Egypt was the birthplace of the
glass industry. It is true that many conditions existed in Egypt
favourable to the development of the craft. The Nile supplied a
waterway for the conveyance of fuel and for the distribution
of the finished wares. Materials were available providing the
essential ingredients of glass. The Egyptian potteries afforded
experience in dealing with vitreous glazes and vitreous colours,
and from Egyptian alabaster-quarries veined vessels were
wrought, which may well have suggested the decorative arrange-
ment of zigzag lines (see Plate I. figs. 1, 2, 4 d) so frequently
found on early specimens of glass-ware. In Egypt, however,
no traces have at present been found of the industry in a rudi-
mentary condition, and the vases which have been classified
as " primitive " bear witness to an elaboration of technique
far in advance of the experimental period. The earliest specimens
of glass-ware which can be definitely claimed as Egyptian
productions, and the glass manufactory discovered by Dr
Flinders Petrie at Tell el Amarna, belong to the period of the
XVIIIth dynasty. The comparative lateness of this period
makes it difficult to account for the wall painting at Beni Hasan,
which accurately represents the process of glass-blowing, and
which is attributed to the period of the Xlth dynasty. Dr
Petrie surmounts the difficulty by saying that the process
depicted is not glass-blowing, but some metallurgical process
in which reeds were used tipped with lumps of clay. It is possible
that the picture does not represent Egyptian glass-blowers, but
is a traveller's record of the process of glass-blowing seen in some
foreign or subject country. The scarcity of specimens of early
glass-ware actually found in Egypt, and the advanced technique
of those which have been found, lead to the supposition that
glass-making was exotic and not a native industry. The
tradition, recorded by Pliny (Nat. Hist, xxxvi. 65), assigns the
discovery of glass to Syria, and the geographical position of that
country, its forests as a source of fuel, and its deposits of sand
add probability to the tradition. The story that Phoenician
merchants found a glass-like substance under their cooking pots,
which had been supported on blocks of natron, need not be
discarded as pure fiction. The fire may well have caused the
natron, an impure form of carbonate of soda, to combine with
the surrounding sand to form silicate of soda, which, although
not a permanent glass, is sufficiently glass-like to suggest the
xii. 4
9»
GLASS
possibility of creating a permanent transparent material. More-
over, Pliny (xxxvi. 66) actually records the discovery which
effected the conversion of deliquescent silicate of soda into
permanent glass. The words are " Coestus Addi magnes lapis."
There have been many conjectures as to the meaning of the
words " magnes lapis." The material has been considered by
some to be magnetic iron ore and by others oxide of manganese.
Oxides of iron and manganese can only be used in glass manu-
facture in comparatively small quantities for the purpose of
colouring or neutralizing colour in glass, and their introduction
would not be a matter of sufficient importance to be specially
recorded. In chapter 25 of the same book Pliny describes five
varieties of " magnes lapis." One of these he says is found in
magnesia, is white in colour, does not attract iron and is like
pumice stone. This variety must certainly be magnesian
limestone. Magnesian limestone mixed and fused with sand and
an alkaline carbonate produces a permanent glass. The scene
of the discovery of glass is placed by Pliny on the banks of the
little river Belus, under the heights of Mount Carmel, where
sand suitable for glass-making exists and wood for fuel is
abundant. In this neighbourhood fragments and lumps of glass
are still constantly being dug up, and analysis proves that the
glass contains a considerable proportion of magnesia. The
district was a glass-making centre in Roman times, and it is
probable that the Romans inherited and perfected an indigenous
industry of remote antiquity. Pliny has so accurately recorded
the stages by which a permanent glass was developed that it
may be assumed that he had good reason for claiming for Syria
the discovery of glass. Between Egypt and Syria there was
frequent intercourse both of conquest and commerce. It was
customary for the victor after a successful raid to carry off
skilled artisans as captives. It is recorded that Tahutmes III.
sent Syrian artisans to Egypt. Glass-blowers may have been
amongst their captive craftsmen, and may have started the
industry in Egypt. The claims of Syria and Egypt are at the
present time so equally balanced that it is advisable to regard
the question of the birthplace of the glass industry as one that
has still to be settled.
The "primitive" vessels which have been found in Egypt are
small in size and consist of columnar stibium jars, flattened
bottles and amphorae, all decorated with zigzag lines, tiny
wide-mouthed vases on feet and minute jugs. The vessels
of later date which have been found in considerable quantities,
principally in the coast towns and islands of the Mediterranean,
are amphorae and alabastra, also decorated with zigzag lines.
The amphorae (Plate I. figs. 1 and 2) terminate with a point,
or with an unfinished extension from the terminal point, or with
a knob. The alabastra have short necks, are slightly wider at
the base than at the shoulder and have rounded bases. Dr
Petrie has called attention to two technical peculiarities to be
found in almost every specimen of early glass-ware. The
inner surface is roughened (Plate I. fig. 4 c), and has particles
of sand adhering to it, as if the vessel had been filled with sand
and subjected to heat, and the inside of the neck has the impres-
sion of a metal rod (Plate I. fig. 4 a), which appears to have
been extracted from the neck with difficulty. From this evidence
Dr Petrie has assumed that the vessels were not blown, but
formed upon a core of sandy paste, modelled upon a copper rod,
the rod being the core of the neck (see Egypt: Art and
Archaeology). The evidence, however, hardly warrants the
abandonment of the simple process of blowing in favour of a
process which is so difficult that it may almost be said to be
impossible, and of which there is no record or tradition except
in connexion with the manufacture of small beads. The technical
difficulties to which Dr Petrie has called attention seem to
admit of a somewhat less heroic explanation. A modern glass-
blower, when making an amphora-shaped vase, finishes the base
first, fixes an iron rod to the finished base with a seal of glass,
severs the vase from the blowing iron, and finishes the mouth,
whilst he holds the vase by the iron attached to its base. The
" primitive " glass-worker reversed this process. Having blown
the body of the vase, he finished the mouth and neck part, and
fixed a small, probably hollow, copper rod inside the finished
neck by pressing the neck upon the rod (Plate I. fig. 4 b) . Having
severed the body of the vase from the blowing iron, he heated
and closed the fractured base, whilst holding the vase by means
of the rod fixed in the neck. Nearly every specimen shows
traces of the pressure of a tool on the outside of the neck, as
well as signs of the base having been closed by melting. Occasion-
ally a knob or excrescence, formed by the residue of the glass
beyond the point at which the base has been pinched together,
remains as a silent witness of the process.
If glass-blowing had been a perfectly new invention of Graeco-
Egyptian or Roman times, some specimens illustrating the
transition from core-moulding to blowing must have been
discovered. The absence of traces of the transition strengthens
the supposition that the revolution in technique merely consisted
in the discovery that it was more convenient to finish the base
of a vessel before its mouth, and such a revolution would leave
no trace behind. The roughened inner surface and the adhering
particles of sand may also be accounted for. The vessels,
especially those in which many differently coloured glasses were
incorporated, required prolonged annealing. It is probable that
when the metal rod was withdrawn the vessel was filled with
sand, to prevent collapse, and buried in heated ashes to anneal.
The greater the heat of the ashes the more would the sand
adhere to and impress the inner surface of the vessels. The
decoration of zigzag lines was probably applied directly after
the body of the vase had been blown. Threads of coloured
molten glass were spirally coiled round the body, and, whilst
still viscid, were dragged into zigzags with a metal hook.
Egypt. — The glass industry flourished in Egypt in Graeco-
Egyptian and Roman times. All kinds of vessels were blown,
both with and without moulds, and both moulding and cutting
were used as methods of decoration. The great variety of these
vessels is well shown in the illustrated catalogue of Graeco-
Egyptian glass in the Cairo museum, edited by C. C. Edgar.
Another species of glass manufacture in which the Egyptians
would appear to have been peculiarly skilled is the so-called
mosaic glass, formed by the union of rods of various colours
in such a manner as to form a pattern; the rod so formed was
then reheated and drawn out until reduced to a very small size,
1 sq. in. or less, and divided into tablets by being cut trans-
versely, each of these tablets presenting the pattern traversing
its substance and visible on each face. This process was no
doubt first practised in Egypt, and is never seen in such per-
fection as in objects of a decidedly Egyptian character. Very
beautiful pieces of ornament of an architectural character are
met with, which probably once served as decorations of caskets
or other small pieces of furniture or of trinkets; also tragic
masks, human faces and birds. Some of the last-named are
represented with such truth of colouring and delicacy of detail
that even the separate feathers of the wings and tail are well
distinguished, although, as in an example in the British Museum,
a human-headed hawk, the piece which contains the figure
may not exceed } in. in its largest dimension. Works of this
description probably belong to the period when Egypt passed
under Roman domination, as similar objects, though of inferior
delicacy, appear to have been made in Rome.
Assyria. — Early Assyrian glass is represented in the British
Museum by a vase of transparent greenish glass found in the
north-west palace of Nineveh. On one side of this a lion is
engraved, and also a line of cuneiform characters, in which
is the name of Sargon, king of Assyria, 722 B.C. Fragments of
coloured glasses were also found there, but our materials are
too scanty to enable us to form any decided opinion as to the
degree of perfection to which the art was carried in Assyria. Many
of the specimens discovered by Layard at Nineveh have all the
appearance of being Roman, and were no doubt derived from
the Roman colony, Niniva Claudiopolis, which occupied the same
site.
Roman Glass. — In the first centuries of our era the art of glass-
making was developed at Rome and other cities under Roman
rule in a most remarkable manner, and it reached a point of
GLASS
Plate I.
Fig. 5.
Fig. 6.
Fig. 8.
Fie. 10.
XII. 98.
Fig. 7,
Fig. 9.
Plate II.
GLASS
r
f
x
Jh
Fig. ii— TABLE GLASS.
Designed by T. G. Jackson in 1870.
T5^- -^
Fig. 12.— TABLE GLASS
Designed for Wm. Morris about 1872 by Philip Webb.
Fig. 13.— TIFFANY GLASS.
Fig. 14.— WHITEFRIARS GLASS, 1906.
GLASS
99
excellence which in some respects has never been excelled or
even perhaps equalled. It may appear a somewhat exaggerated
assertion that glass was used for more purposes, and in one sense
more extensively, by the Romans of the imperial period than
by ourselves in the present day; but it is one which can be
borne out by evidence. It is true that the use of glass for windows
was only gradually extending itself at the time when Roman
civilization sank under the torrent of German and Hunnish
barbarism, and that its employment for optical instruments
was only known in a rudimentary stage; but for domestic
purposes, for architectural decoration and for personal orna-
ments glass was unquestionably much more used than at the
present day. It must be remembered that the Romans possessed
no fine procelain decorated with lively colours and a beautiful
glaze; Samian ware was the most decorative kind of pottery
which was then made. Coloured and ornamental glass held
among them much the same place for table services, vessels for
toilet use and the like, as that held among us by porcelain.
Pliny (Nat. Hist, xxxvi. 26, 67) tells us that for drinking vessels
it was even preferred to gold and silver.
Glass was largely used in pavements, and in thin plates as a
coating for walls. It was used in windows, though by no means
exclusively, mica, alabaster and shells having been also em-
ployed. Glass, in flat pieces, such as might be employed for
windows, has been found in the ruins of Roman houses, both in
England and in Italy, and in the house of the faun at Pompeii
a small pane in a bronze frame remains. Most of the pieces
have evidently been made by casting, but the discovery of
fragments of sheet-glass at Silchester proves that the process
of making sheet-glass was known to the Romans. When the
window openings were large, as was the case in basilicas and
other public buildings, and even in houses, the pieces of glass
were, doubtless, fixed in pierced slabs of marble or in frames
of wood or bronze. The Roman glass-blowers were masters
of all the ordinary methods of manipulation and decoration.
Their craftsmanship is proved by the large cinerary urns, by
the jugs with wide, deeply ribbed, scientifically fixed handles,
and by vessels and vases as elegant in form and light in weight
as any that have been since produced at Murano. Their moulds,
both for blowing hollow vessels and for pressing ornaments, were
as perfect for the purposes for which they were intended as those
of the present time. Their decorative cutting (Plate I. figs. 5
and 6), which took the form of simple, incised lines, or bands of
shallow oval or hexagonal hollows, was more suited to the
material than the deep prismatic cutting of comparatively
recent times.
The Romans had at their command, of transparent colours,
blue, green, purple or amethystine, amber, brown and rose;
of opaque colours, white, black, red, blue, yellow, green and
orange. There are many shades of transparent blue and of
opaque blue, yellow and green. In any large collection of
fragments it would be easy to find eight or ten varieties of opaque
blue, ranging from lapis lazuli to turquoise or to lavender and
six or seven of opaque green. Of red the varieties are fewer;
the finest is a crimson red of very beautiful tint, and there are
various gradations from this to a dull brick red. One variety
forms the ground of a very good imitation of porphyry; and
there is a dull semi-transparent red which, when light is passed
through it, appears to be of a dull green hue. With these
colours the Roman vitrarius worked, either using them singly
or blending them in almost every conceivable combination,
sometimes, it must be owned, with a rather gaudy and inharmo-
nious effect.
The glasses to which the Venetians gave the name " mille
fiori " were formed by arranging side by side sections of glass
cane, the canes themselves being built up of differently coloured
rods of glass, and binding them together by heat. A vast
quantity of small cups and paterae were made by this means in
patterns which bear considerable resemblance to the surfaces of
madrepores. In these every colour and every shade of colour
seem to have been tried in great variety of combination with
effects more or less pleasing, but transparent violet or purple
appears to have been the most common ground colour. Although
most of the vessels of this mille fiori glass were small, some were
made as large as 20 in. in diameter. Imitations of natural
stones were made by stirring together in a crucible glasses of
different colours, or by incorporating fragments of differently
coloured glasses into a mass of molten glass by rolling. One
variety is that in which transparent brown glass is so mixed
with opaque white and blue as to resemble onyx. This was
sometimes done with great success, and very perfect imitations
of the natural stone were produced. Sometimes purple glass
is used in place of brown, probably with the design of imitating
the precious murrhine. Imitations of porphyry, of serpentine,
and of granite are also met with, but these were used chiefly
in pavements, and for the decoration of walls, for which pur-
poses the onyx-glass was likewise employed.
The famous cameo glass was formed by covering a mass of
molten glass with one or more coatings of a differently coloured
glass. The usual process was to gather, first, a small quantity
of opaque white glass; to coat this with a thick layer of trans-
lucent blue glass; and, finally, to cover the blue glass with a
coating of the white glass. The outer coat was then removed
from that portion which was to constitute the ground, leaving
the white for the figures, foliage or other ornamentation; these
were then sculptured by means of the gem-engraver's tools,
Pliny no doubt means to refer to this when he says (Nat. Hist.
xxxvi. 26. 66), "aliud argenti modo caelatur," contrasting it
with the process of cutting glass by the help of a wheel, to which
he refers in the words immediately preceding, " aliud tonio
teritur."
The Portland or Barberini vase in the British Museum is the
finest example of this kind of work which has iomt duvvn to us.
and was entire until it was broken into some hundj^etplecejs by a
madman. The pieces, however, were joined lojgeiber by Mr
Doubleday with extraordinary skill, and the beauty of design
and execution may still be appreciated. The two other most
remarkable examples of this cameo glass are an amphora
Naples and the Auldjo vase. The amphora measures 1 ft. fir),
in height, 1 ft. 7 J in. in circumference; it is shaped. like the
earthern amphoras with a foot far too small to support^,- and
must no doubt have had a stand, probably of gold; the greater
part is covered with a most exquisite design of garlands and
vines, and two groups of boys gathering and treading grapes
and playing on various instruments of music; below these
is a line of sheep and goats in varied attitudes. The ground
is blue and the figures white. It was found in a house in the
Street of Tombs at Pompeii in the year 1839, and is now in the
Royal Museum at Naples. It is well engraved in Richardson's
Studies of Ornamental Design. The Auldjo vase, in the British
Museum, is an oenochoe about 9 in. high; the ornament consists
mainly of a most beautiful band of foliage, chiefly of the vine,
with bunches of grapes; the ground is blue and the ornaments
white; it was found at Pompeii in the house of the faun. It also
has been engraved by Richardson. The same process was used
in producing large tablets, employed, no doubt, for various
decorative purposes. In the South Kensington Museum is a
fragment of such a tablet or slab; the figure, a portion of which
remains, could not have been less than about 14 in. high. The
ground of these cameo glasses is most commonly transparent
blue, but sometimes opaque blue, purple or dark brown. The
superimposed layer, which is sculptured, is generally opaque
white. A very few specimens have been met with in which
several colours are employed.
At a long interval after these beautiful objects come those
vessels which were ornamented either by means of coarse threads
trailed over their surfaces and forming rude patterns, or by
coloured enamels merely placed on them in lumps; and these,
doubtless, were cheap and common wares. But a modification
of the first-named process was in use in the 4th and succeeding
centuries, showing great ingenuity and manual dexterity, — that,
namely, in which the added portions of glass are united to the
body of the cup, not throughout, but only at points, and then
shaped either by the wheel or by the hand (Plate I. fig. 3). The
sign
aost
1 at
100
GLASS
attached portions form in some instances inscriptions, as on a
cup found at Strassburg, which bears the name of the emperor
Maximian (a.d. 286-310), on another in the Vereinigte Samm-
lungen at Munich, and on a third in the Trivulzi collection at
Milan, where the cup is white, the inscription green and the
network blue. Probably, however, the finest example is a
situla, 10J in. high by 8 in. wide at the top and 4 in. at the
bottom, preserved in the treasury of St Mark at Venice. This
is of glass of a greenish hue; on the upper part is represented,
in relief, the chase of a lion by two men on horseback accompanied
by dogs; the costume appears to be Byzantine rather than
Roman, and the style is very bad. The figures are very much
undercut. The lower part has four rows of circles united to the
vessel at those points alone where the circles touch each other.
All the other examples have the lower portion covered in like
manner by a network of circles standing nearly a quarter of an
inch from the body of the cup. An example connected with the
specimens just described is the cup belonging to Baron Lionel
de Rothschild; though externally of an opaque greenish colour,
it is by transmitted light of a deep red. On the outside, in very
high relief, are figures of Bacchus with vines and panthers,
some portions being hollow from within, others fixed on the
exterior. The changeability of colour may remind us of the
" calices versicolors " which Hadrian sent to Serviahus.
So few examples of glass vessels of this period which have
been painted in enamel have come down to us that it has been
questioned whether that art was then practised; but several
specimens have been described which can leave no doubt on the
point; decisive examples are afforded by two cups found at
Vaspclev, in Denmark, engravings of which are published in
the Annalerfor Nardisk Oldkyndegked for 1861, p. 305. These
are small cups, 3 in. and a| in. high, 3! in. and 3 in. wide, with
feet and straight sides; on the larger are a lion and a bull, on
the smaller two birds with grapes, and on each some smaller
ornaments. On the latter are the letters DVB. R. The colours
are vitrified and slightly in relief; green, blue and brown may
be distinguished. They are found with Roman bronze vessels
and other articles.
The art of glass-making no doubt, like all other art, deteriorated
during the decline of the Roman empire, but it is probable that
it continued to be practised, though with constantly decreasing
skill, not only in Rome but in the provinces. Roman technique
was to be found in Byzantium and Alexandria, in Syria, in Spain,
in Germany, France and Britain.
Early Christian and Byzantine Glass* — The process of embed-
ding gold and silver leaf between two layers of glass originated
as early as the xst century, probably in Alexandria. The process
consisted in spreading the leaf on a thin film of blown glass and
pressing molten glass on to the leaf so that the molten glass
cohered with the film of glass through the pores of the metallic
leaf. If before this application of the molten glass the metallic
leaf, whilst resting on the thin film of blown glass, was etched
with a sharp point, patterns, emblems, inscriptions and pictures
could be embedded and rendered permanent by the double
coating of glass. The plaques thus formed could be reheated
and fashioned into the bases of bowls and drinking vessels.
In this way the so-called " fondi d'oro " of the catacombs in Rome
were made. They arc the broken bases of drinking vessels
containing inscriptions, emblems, domestic scenes and portraits
etched in gold leaf. Very few have any reference to Christianity,
but they served as indestructible marks for indicating the position
of interments in the catacombs. The fondi d'oro suggested the
manufacture of plaques of gold which could be broken up into
tesserae for use in mosaics.
Some of the Roman artificers in glass no doubt migrated
to Constantinople, and it is certain that the art was practised
there to a very great extent during the middle ages. One
of the gates near the port took its name from the adjacent
glass houses. St Sofia when erected by Justinian had vaults
covered with mosaics and immense windows filled with plates
of glass fitted into pierced marble frames; some of the plates,
7 to $ in. wide and o to 10 in. high, not blown but cast, which
are in the windows may possibly date from the building of the
church. It is also recorded that pierced silver disks were sus-
pended by chains and supported glass lamps " wrought by fire."
Glass for mosaics was also largely made and exported. In the
8th century, when peace was made between the caliph Walid
and the emperor Justinian II., the former stipulated for a
quantity of mosaic for the decoration of the new mosque at
Damascus, and in the 10th century the materials for the decora-
tion of the niche of the kibla at Cordova were furnished by
Romanus II. In the nth century Desiderius, abbot of Monte
Casino, sent to Constantinople for workers in mosaic.
We have in the work of the monk Theophilus, Diversarum
artium schedula, and in the probably earlier work of Eraclius,
about the nth century, instructions as to the art of glass-making
in general, and also as to the production of coloured and enamelled
vessels, which these writers speak of as being practised by the
Greeks. The only entire enamelled vessel which we can con-
fidently attribute to Byzantine art is a small vase preserved in
the treasury of St Mark's at Venice. This is decorated with
circles of rosettes of blue, green and red enamel, each surrounded
by lines of gold; within the circles are little figures evidently
suggested by antique originals, and precisely like similar figures
found on carved ivory boxes of Byzantine origin dating from
the nth or 12th century. Two inscriptions in Cufic characters
surround the vase, but they, it would seem, are merely ornamental
and destitute of meaning. The presence of these inscriptions
may perhaps lead to the inference that the vase was made
in Sicily, but by Byzantine workmen. The double-handled
blue-glass vase in the British Museum,dating from the 5 th century,
is probably a chalice, as it closely resembles the chalices re-
presented on early Christian monuments.
Of uncoloured glass brought from Constantinople several
examples exist in the treasury of St Mark's at Venice, part of
the plunder of the imperial city when taken by the crusaders
in 1204. The glass in all is greenish, very thick, with many
bubbles, and has been cut with the wheel; in some instances
circles and cones, and in one the outlines of the figure of a
leopard, have been left standing up, the rest of the surface having
been laboriously cut away. The intention would seem to have
been to imitate vessels of rock crystal. The so-called ' ' Hedwig "
glasses may also have originated in Constantinople. These are
small cups deeply and rudely cut with conventional representa-
tions of eagles, lions and griffins. Only nine specimens are known.
The specimen in the Rijks Museum at Amsterdam has an eagle
and two lions. The specimen in the Germanic Museum at
Nuremberg has two lions and a griffin.
Saracenic Glass. — The Saracenic invasion of Syria and Egypt
did not destroy the industry of glass-making. The craft survived
and flourished under the Saracenic regime in Alexandria, Cairo,
Tripoli, Tyre, Aleppo and Damascus. In inventories of the 14th
century both in England and in France mention may frequently
be found of glass vessels of the manufacture of Damascus. A
writer in the early part of the 15th century states that " glass-
making is an important industry at Haleb (Aleppo)." Edward
Dillon (Glass , 1902) has very properly laid stress on the import-
ance of the enamelled Saracenic glass of the 13th, 14th and
15th centuries, pointing out that, whereas the Romans and
Byzantine Greeks made some crude and ineffectual experiments
in enamelling, it was under Saracenic influence that the processes
of enamelling and gilding on glass vessels were perfected. Ait
analysis of the glass of a Cairene mosque lamp shows that it is a
soda-lime glass and contains as much as 4% of magnesia. This
large proportion of magnesia undoubtedly supplied the stability
required to withstand the process of enamelling. The enamelled
Saracenic glasses take the form of flasks, vases, goblets, beakers
and mosque lamps. The enamelled decoration on the lamps is
restricted to lettering, scrolls and conventional foliage; on other
objects figure-subjects of all descriptions are freely used. C. H.
Read has pointed out a curious feature in the construction of the
enamelled beakers. The base is double but the inner lining has
an opening in the centre. Dillon has suggested that this central
recess may have served to support a wick. It is possible, however
GLASS
101
that it served no useful purpose, but that the construction
is a survival from the manufacture of vessels with fondi d'oro.
The bases containing the embedded gold leaf must have been
welded to the vessels to which they belonged, in the same way
as the bases are welded to the Saracenic beakers. The enamelling
process was probably introduced in the early part of the 13th
century; most of the enamelled mosque lamps belong to the
14th century.
Venetian Glass. — Whether refugees from Padua, Aquileia
or other Italian cities carried the art to the lagoons of Venice
in the 5th century, or whether it was learnt from the Greeks
of Constantinople at a much later date, has been a disputed
question. It would appear not improbable that the former
was the case, for it must be remembered that articles formed
of glass were in the later days of Roman civilization in constant
daily use, and that the making of glass was carried on, not as
now in large establishments, but by artisans working on a small
scale. It seems certain that some knowledge of the art was
preserved in France, in Germany and in Spain, and it seems
improbable that it should have been lost in that archipelago,
where the traditions of ancient civilization must have been
better preserved than in almost any other place. In 523
Cassiodorus writes of the "innumerosa navigia" belonging
to Venice, and where trade is active there is always a probability
that manufactures will flourish. However this may be, the
earliest positive evidence of the existence at Venice of a worker
in glass would seem to be the mention of Petrus Flavianus,
phiolarius, in the ducale of Vitale Falier in the year 1000. In
1224 twenty-nine persons are mentioned as friolari (i.e. phiolari),
and in the same century " mariegole," or codes of trade regula-
tions, were drawn up (Monografia delta vetraria Veneziana e
Muranese, p. 2 1 9) . The manufacture had then no doubt attained
considerable proportions: in 1268 the glass-workers became
an incorporated body; in their processions they exhibited
decanters, scent-bottles and the like; in 1279 they made, among
other things, weights and measures. In the latter part of this
century the glass-houses were almost entirely transferred to
Murano. Thenceforward the manufacture continued to grow
in importance; glass vessels were made in large quantities,
as well as glass for windows. The earliest example which has
as yet been described — a cup of blue glass, enamelled and gilt —
is, however, not earlier than about 1440. A good many other
examples have been preserved which may be assigned to the
same century: the earlier of these bear a resemblance in form
to the vessels of silver made in the west of Europe; in the later
an imitation of classical forms becomes apparent. Enamel
and gilding were freely used, in imitation no doubt of the much-
admired vessels brought from Damascus. Dillon has pointed
out that the process of enamelling had probably been derived
from Syria, with which country Venice had considerable com-
mercial intercourse. Many of the ornamental processes which
we admire in Venetian glass were already in use in this century,
as that of mille fiori, and the beautiful kind of glass known as
" vitro di trina " or lace glass. An elaborate account of the
processes of making the vitro di trina and the vasi a reticelli
(Plate I., fig. 7) is given in Bontemps's Guide du verrier, pp.
602-612. Many of the examples of these processes exhibit
surprising skill and taste, and are among the most beautiful
objects produced at the Venetian furnaces. That peculiar
kind of glass usually called schmelz, an imperfect imitation of
calcedony, was also made at Venice in the 15th century. Avan-
turine glass, that in which numerous small particles of copper
are diffused through a transparent yellowish or brownish mass,
was not invented until about 1600.
The peculiar merits of the Venetian manufacture are the
elegance of form and the surprising lightness and thinness of
the substance of the vessels produced. The highest perfection
with regard both to form and decoration was reached in the
1 6th century; subsequently the Venetian workmen somewhat
abused their skill by giving extravagant forms to vessels, making
drinking glasses in the forms of ships, lions, birds, whales and
the like.
Besides the making of vessels of all kinds the factories of
Murano had for a long period almost an entire monopoly of
two other branches of the art — the making of mirrors and of
beads. Attempts to make mirrors of glass were made as early
as a.d. 1317, but even in the 16th century mirrors of steel were
still in use. To make a really good mirror of glass two things
are required — a plate free from bubbles and striae, and a method
of applying a film of metal with a uniform bright surface free
from defects. The principle of applying metallic films to glass
seems to have been known to the Romans and even to the
Egyptians, and is mentioned by Alexander Neckam in the 12th
century, but it would appear that it was not until the 16th
century that the process of " silvering " mirrors by the use of an
amalgam of tin and mercury had been perfected. During the
16th and 17th centuries Venice exported a prodigious quantity of
mirrors, but France and England gradually acquired knowledge
and skill in the art, and in 1772 only one glass-house at Murano-
continued to make mirrors.
The making of beads was probably practised at Venice from
a very early period, but the earliest documentary evidence
bearing on the subject does not appear to be of earlier date than
the 14th century, when prohibitions were directed against those
who made of glass such objects as were usually made of crystal
or other hard stones. In the 16th century it had become a trade
of great importance, and about 1764 twenty-two furnaces were
employed in the production of beads. Towards the end of the
same century from 600 to 1000 workmen were, it is stated,,
employed on one branch of the art, that of ornamenting beads
by the help of the blow-pipe. A very great variety of patterns
was produced; a tariff of the year 1800 contains an enumeration
of 562 species and a vast number of sub-species.
The efforts made in France, Germany and England, in the
17th and 18th centuries, to improve the manufacture of glass
in those countries had a very injurious effect on the industry
of Murano. The invention of colourless Bohemian glass brought
in its train the practice of cutting glass, a method of ornamenta-
tion for which Venetian glass, from its thinness, was ill adapted.
One remarkable man, Giuseppe Briati, exerted himself, with
much success, both in working in the old Venetian method and
also in imitating the new fashions invented in Bohemia. He
was especially successful in making vases and circular dishes of
vitro di trina; one of the latter in the Correr collection at Venice,
believed to have been made in his glass-house, measures 55
centimetres (nearly 23 in.) in diameter. The vases made by
him are as elegant in form as the best of the Cinquecento period,
but may perhaps be distinguished by the superior purity and
brilliancy of the glass. He also made with great taste and
skill large lustres and mirrors with frames of glass ornamented
either in intaglio or with foliage of various colours. He obtained
a knowledge of the methods of working practised in Bohemia
by disguising himself as a porter, and thus worked for three
years in a Bohemian glass-house. In 1736 he obtained a patent
at Venice to manufacture glass in the Bohemian manner. He
died in 1772. e A£
The fall of the republic was accompanied by interruption of
trade and decay of manufacture, and in the last years of the
1 8th and beginning of the 19th century the glass-making of
Murano was at a very low ebb. In the year 1838 Signor Bussolin
revived several of the ancient processes of glass-working, and
this revival was carried on by C. Pietro Biguglia in 1845, and
by others, and later by Salviati, to whose successful efforts the
modern renaissance of Venetian art glass is principally due.
The fame of Venice in glass-making so completely eclipsed
that of other Italian cities that it is difficult to learn much
respecting their progress in the art. Hartshorne and Dillon have
drawn attention to the important part played by the little
Ligurian town, Altare, as a centre from which glass-workers
migrated to all parts of Europe. It is said that the glass industry
was established at Altare, in the nth century, by French
craftsmen. In the 14th century Muranese glass- workers settled
there and developed the industry. It appears that as early
as 1295 furnaces had been established at Treviso, Vicenza,
102
GLASS
Padua, Mantua, Ferrara, Ravenna and Bologna. In 1634
there were two glass-houses in Rome and one in Florence; but
whether any of these produced ornamented vessels, or only articles
of common use and window glass, would not appear to have as
yet been ascertained.
Germany — Glass-making in Germany during the Roman
period seems to have been carried on extensively in the neighbour-
hood of Cologne. The Cologne museum contains many specimens
of Roman glass, some of which are remarkable for their cut
decoration. The craft survived the downfall of the Roman
power, and a native industry was developed. This industry
must have won some reputation, for in 758 the abbot of Jarrow
appealed to the bishop of Mainz to send him a worker in glass.
There are few records of glass manufacture in Germany before
the beginning of the 16th century. The positions of the factories
were determined by the supply of wood for fuel, and subse-
quently, when the craft of glass-cutting was introduced, by the
accessibility of water-power. The vessels produced by the
16th-century glass-workers in Germany, Holland and the Low
Countries are closely allied in form and decoration. The glass
is coloured (generally green) and the decoration consists of glass
threads and glass studs, or prunts (" Nuppen ")• The use of
threads and prunts is illustrated by the development of the
" Roemer," so popular as a drinking-glass, and as a feature
in Dutch studies of still life. The " Igel," a squat tumbler
covered with prunts, gave rise to the " Krautsrunk," which is
like the " Igel," but longer and narrow- waisted. The " Roemer "
itself consists of a cup, a short waist studded with prunts and
a foot. The foot at first was formed by coiling a thread of
glass round the base of the waist; but, subsequently, an open
glass cone was joined to the base of the waist, and a glass thread
was coiled upon the surface of the cone. The " Passglas,"
another popular drinking-glass, is cylindrical in form and marked
with horizontal rings of glass, placed at regular intervals, to
indicate the quantity of liquor to be taken at a draught.
In the edition of 158 1 of the De re metallica by Georg Agricola,
there is a woodcut showing the interior of a German glass
factory, and glass vessels both finished and unfinished.
In 1428 a Muranese glass- worker set up a furnace in Vienna,
and another furnace was built in the same town by an Italian
in i486. In 1 53 1 the town council of Nuremberg granted a
subsidy to attract teachers of Venetian technique. Many
specimens exist of German winged and enamelled glasses of
Venetian character. The Venetian influence, however, was
indirect rather than direct. The native glass-workers adopted
the process of enamelling, but applied it to a form of decoration
characteristically German. On tall, roomy, cylindrical glasses
they painted portraits of the emperor and electors of Germany,
or the imperial eagle bearing on its wings the arms of the states
composing the empire. The earliest-known example of these
enamelled glasses bears the date 1553. They were immensely
popular and the fashion for them lasted into the iSth century.
Some of the later specimens have views of cities, battle scenes
and processions painted in grisaille.
A more important outcome, however, of Italian influence was
the production, in emulation of Venetian glass, of a glass made
of refined potash, lime and sand, which was more colourless
than the material it was intended to imitate. This colourless
potash-lime glass has always been known as Bohemian glass.
It was well adapted for receiving cut and engraved decoration,
and in these processes the German craftsmen proved themselves
to be exceptionally skilful. At the end of the 16th century
Rudolph II. brought Italian rock-crystal cutters from Milan
to take control of the crystal and glass-cutting works he had
established at Prague. It was at Prague that Caspar Lehmann
and Zachary Belzer learnt the craft of cutting glass. George
Schwanhart, a pupil of Caspar Lehmann, started glass-cutting
at Ratisbon, and about 1690 Stephen Schmidt and Hermann
Schwinger introduced the crafts of cutting and engraving
glass in Nuremberg. To the Germans must be credited the
discovery, or development, of colourless potash-lime glass,
the reintroduction of the crafts of cutting and engraving on
glass, the invention by H. Schwanhart of the process of etching
on glass by means of hydrofluoric acid, and the rediscovery by
J. Kunkel, who was director of the glass-houses at Potsdam in
1679, of the method of making copper-ruby glass.
Low Countries and the United Provinces. — The glass industry
of the Low Countries was chiefly influenced by Italy and Spain,
whereas German influence and technique predominated in the
United Provinces. The history of glass-making in the provinces
is almost identical with that of Germany. In the 17th and
1 8th centuries the processes of scratching, engraving and etching
were brought to great perfection.
The earliest record of glass-making in the Low Countries
consists in an account of payments made in 1453-1454 on behalf
of Philip the Good of Burgundy to " Gossiun de Vieuglise,
Maitre Vomer de Lille " for a glass fountain and four glass
plateaus. Schuermans has traced Italian glass-workers to
Antwerp, Liege, Brussels and Namur. Antwerp appears to
have been the headquarters of the Muranese, and Liege the
headquarters of the Altarists. Guicciardini in his description
of the Netherlands, in 1563, mentions glass as among the chief
articles of export to England.
In 1599 the privilege of making " Voires de cristal a la faschon
Venise, ,, was granted to Philippe de Gridolphi of Antwerp.
In 1623 Anthony Miotti, a Muranese, addressed a petition to
Philip IV. of Spain for permission to make glasses, vases and
cups of fine crystal, equal to those of Venice, but to be sold at
one- third less than Venetian glasses. In 1642 Jean Savonetti
" gentilhomme Verrier de Murano " obtained a patent for
making glass in Brussels. The Low Country glasses are closely
copied from Venetian models, but generally are heavier and
less elegant. Owing to the fashion of Dutch and Flemish painters
introducing glass vases and drinking-glasses into their paintings
of still life, interiors and scenes of conviviality, Holland and
Belgium at the present day possess more accurate records of
the products of their ancient glass factories than any other
countries.
Spain. — During the Roman occupation Pliny states that glass
was made " per Hispanias " (Nat. Hist, xxxvi. 26. 66). Traces
of Roman glass manufactories have been found in Valencia
and Murcia, in the valleys which run down to the coast of Cata-
lonia, and near the mouth of the Ebro. Little is known about
the condition of glass-making in Spain between the Roman
period and the 13th century. In the 13th century the craft of
glass-making was practised by the Moors in Almeria, and was
probably a survival from Roman times. The system of decorat-
ing vases and vessels by means of strands of glass trailed upon
the surface in knots, zigzags and trellis work, was adopted by
the Moors and is characteristic of Roman craftsmanship. Glass-
making was continued at Pinar de la Vidriera and at Al Castril
de la Pena into the 17th century. The objects produced show
no sign of Venetian influence, but are distinctly Oriental in form.
Many of the vessels have four or as many as eight handles, and
are decorated with serrated ornamentation, and with the trailed
strands of glass already referred to. The glass is generally of a
dark-green colour.
Barcelona has a long record as a centre of the glass industry.
In 1324 a municipal edict was issued forbidding the erection
of glass-furnaces within the city. In 1455 the glass-makers of
Barcelona were permitted to form a gild. Jeronimo Paulo, writing
in 1 49 1, says that glass vessels of various sorts were sent thence
to many places, and even to Rome. Marineus Siculus, writing
early in the 16th century, says that the best glass was made at
Barcelona; and Gaspar Baneiros, in his Chronographia, published
in 1562, states that the glass made at Barcelona was almost
equal to that of Venice and that large quantities were exported.
The author of the Atlante espafiol, writing at the end of the
1 8th century, says that excellent glass was still made at Barcelona
on Venetian models. The Italian influence was strongly felt
in Spain, but Spanish writers have given no precise information
as to when it was introduced or whence it came. Schuermans
has, however, discovered the names of more than twenty Italians
who found their way into Spain, in some cases by way of Flanders,
GLASS
103
either from Altare or from Venice. The Spanish glass-makers
were very successful in imitating the Venetian style, and many
specimens supposed to have originated from Murano are really
Spanish. In addition to the works at Barcelona, the works
which chiefly affected Venetian methods were those of Cadalso
in the province of Toledo, founded in the 16th century, and the
works established in 1680 at San Martin de Valdeiglesias in
Avila. There were also works at Valdemaqueda and at Villa-
franca. In 1680 the works in Barcelona, Valdemaqueda and
Villafranca are named in a royal schedule giving the prices at
which glass was to be sold in Madrid. In 1772 important glass
works were established at Recuenco in the province of Cuenca,
mainly to supply Madrid. The royal glass manufactory of La
Granja de San Ildefonso was founded about 1725; in the first
instance for the manufacture of mirror plates, but subsequently
for the;production of vases and table-ware in the French style.
The objects produced are mostly of white clear glass, cut,
engraved and gilded. Engraved flowers, views and devices
are often combined with decorative cutting. Don Sigismundo
Brun is credited with the invention of permanent gilding fixed
by heat. Spanish glass is well represented in the Victoria and
Albert Museum.
France. — Pliny states that glass was made in Gaul, and there
is reason to believe that it was made in many parts of the country
and on a considerable scale. There were glass-making districts
both in Normandy and in Poitou.
Little information can be gathered concerning the glass
industry between the Roman period and the 14th century.
It is recorded that in the 7th century the abbot of Wearmouth
in England obtained artificers in glass from France; and there
is a tradition that in the nth century glass-workers migrated
from Normandy and Brittany and set up works at Altare near
Genoa.
In 1302 window glass, probably crown-glass, was made at
Beza le For6t in the department of the Eure. In 1416 these
works were in the hands of Robin and Leban Guichard, but
passed subsequently to the Le Vaillants.
In 1338 Humbert, the dauphin, granted a part of the forest
of Chamborant to a glass-worker named Guionet on the condition
that Guionet should supply him with vessels of glass.
In 1466 the abbess of St Croix of Poitiers received a gross
of glasses from the glass-works of La FerriSre, for the privilege
of gathering fern for the manufacture of potash.
In France, as in other countries, efforts were made to intro-
duce Italian methods of glass-working. Schuermans in his
researches discovered that during the 15th and 16th centuries
many glass-workers left Altare and settled in France, — the
Saroldi migrated to Poitou, the Ferri to Provence, the Massari to
Lorraine and the Bormioli to Normandy. In 1551 Henry II.
of France established at St Germain en Laye an Italian named
Mutio; he was a native of Bologna, but of Altare origin. In
1598 Henry IV. permitted two " gentil hommes verriers " from
Mantua to settle at Rouen in order to make " verres de cristal,
verres doree emaul et autres ouvrages qui se font en Venise."
France assimilated the craft of glass-making, and her crafts-
men acquired a wide reputation. Lorraine and Normandy
appear to have been the most important centres. To Lorraine
belong the well-known names Hennezel, de Thietry, du Thisac,
de Houx; and to Normandy the names de Bongar, de Cacqueray
le Vaillant and de Brossard.
In the 17th century the manufacture of mirror glass became
an important branch of the industry. In 1665 a manufactory
was established in the Faubourg St Antoine in Paris, and another
at Tour-la- Ville near Cherbourg.
Louis Lucas de Nehou, who succeeded de Cacqueray at the
works at Tour-la- Ville, moved in 1675 to the works in Paris.
Here, in 1688, in conjunction with A. Thevart, he succeeded
in perfecting the process of casting plate-glass. Mirror plates
previous to the invention had been made from blown " sheet ff
glass, and were consequently very limited in size. De Nehou's
process of rolling molten glass poured on an iron table rendered
the manufacture of very large plates possible.
The Manufacture Royale des Glaces was removed in 1693 to
the Chateau de St Gobain.
In the 1 8th century the manufacture of vases de verre had
become so neglected that the Academy of Sciences in 1759
offered a prize for an essay on the means by which the industry
might be revived (Labarte, Histoire des arts industriels) .
The famous Baccarat works, for making crystal glass, were
founded in 1818 by d'Artigues.
English Glass. — The records of glass-making in England are
exceedingly meagre. There is reason to believe that during the
Roman occupation the craft was carried on in several parts of
the country. Remains of a Roman glass manufactory of con-
siderable extent were discovered near the Manchester Ship
Canal at Warrington. Wherever the Romans settled glass
vessels and fragments of glass have been found. There is no
evidence to prove that the industry survived the withdrawal
of the Roman garrison.
It is probable that the glass drinking- vessels, which have been
found in pre-Christian Anglo-Saxon tombs, were introduced
from Germany. Some are elaborate in design and bear witness
to advanced technique of Roman character. In 675 Benedict
Biscop, abbot of Wearmouth, was obliged to obtain glass- workers
from France, and in 758 Cuthbert, abbot of Jarrow, appealed
to the bishop of Mainz to send him artisans to manufacture
" windows and vessels of glass, because the English were ignorant
and helpless." Except for the statement in Bede that the French
artisans, sent by Benedict Biscop, taught their craft to the
English, there is at present no evidence of glass having been made
in England between the Roman period and the 13th century.
In some deeds relating to the parish of Chiddingfold, in Surrey,
of a date not later than 1230, a grant is recorded of twenty
acres of land to Lawrence " vitrearius," and in another deed,
of about 1280, the " ovenhusveld " is mentioned as a boundary.
This field has been identified, and pieces of crucible and fragments
of glass have been dug up. There is another deed, dated 1300,
which mentions one William " le verir " of Chiddingfold.
About 1350 considerable quantities of colourless flat glass
were supplied by John Alemayn of Chiddingfold for glazing
the windows in St George's chapel, Windsor, and in the chapel
of St Stephen, Westminster. The name Alemayn (Aleman)
suggests a foreign origin. In 1380 John Glasewryth, a Stafford-
shire glass-worker, came to work at Shuerewode, Kirdford,
and there made brode-glas and vessels for Joan, widow of
John Shertere.
There were two kinds of flat glass, known respectively as
" brode-glas " and " Normandy " glass. The former was made,
as described by Theophilus, from cylinders, which were split,
reheated and flattened into square sheets. It was known as
Lorraine glass, and subsequently as " German sheet " or sheet-
glass. Normandy glass was made from glass circles or disks.
When, in after years, the process was perfected, the glass was
known as " crown " glass. In 1447 English flat glass is
mentioned in the contract for the windows of the Beauchamp
chapel at Warwick, but disparagingly, as the contractor binds
himself not to use it. In i486, however, it is referred to in such
a way as to suggest that it was superior to " Dutch, Venice or
Normandy glass." The industry does not seem to have prospered,
for when in 1567 an inquiry was made as to its condition, it was
ascertained that only small rough goods were being made.
In the 16th century the fashion for using glass vessels of
ornamental character spread from Italy into France and England.
Henry VEIL had a large collection of glass drinking-vessels
chiefly of Venetian manufacture. The increasing demand for
Venetian drinking-glasses suggested the possibility of making
similar glass in England, and various attempts were made to
introduce Venetian workmen and Venetian methods of manu-
facture. In 1 550 eight Muranese glass-blowers were working in
or near the Tower of London. They had left Murano owing to
slackness of trade, but had been recalled, and appealed to the
Council of Ten in Venice to be allowed to complete their contract
in London. Seven of these glass-workers left London in the
following year, but one, Josepho Casselari, remained and joined
io4
GLASS
Thomas Cavato, a Dutchman. In 1574 Jacob Verzellini, a
fugitive Venetian, residing in Antwerp, obtained a patent for
making drinking-glasses in London " such as are made in
Murano." He established works in Crutched Friars, and to him
is probably due the introduction of the use of soda-ash, made
from seaweed and seaside plants, in place of the crude potash
made from fern and wood ashes. His manufactory was burnt
down in 1575, but was rebuilt. He afterwards moved his works
to Winchester House, Broad Street. There is a small goblet
(PL I., fig. 8) in the British Museum which is attributed to
Verzellini. It is Venetian in character, of a brownish tint, with
two white enamel rings round the body. It is decorated with
diamond or steel-point etching, and bears on one side the date
1586, and on the opposite side the words " In God is al mi trust."
Verzellini died in 1606 and was buried at Down in Kent. In
1 592 the Broad Street works had been taken over by Jerome
Bowes. They afterwards passed into the hands of Sir R. Mansel,
and in 1618 James Howell, author of Epistolae Ho-elianae, was
acting as steward. The works continued in operation until 1641.
During excavations in Broad Street in 1874 many fragments
of glass were found; amongst them were part of a wine-glass,
a square scent-bottle and a wine-glass stem containing a spiral
thread of white enamel.
A greater and more lasting influence on English glass-making
came from France and the Low Countries. In 1567 James
Carre 1 of Antwerp stated that he had erected two glass-houses
at " Fernefol " (Fernfold Wood in Sussex) for Normandy and
Lorraine glass for windows, and had brought over workmen.
From this period began the records in England of the great
glass-making families of Hennezel, de Thietry, du Thisac and du
Houx from Lorraine, and of de Bongar and de Cacqueray from
Normandy. About this time glass-works were established at
Ewhurst and Alford in Surrey, Loxwood, Kirdford, Wisborough
and Petworth in Sussex, and Sevenoaks and Penshurst in Kent.
Beginning in Sussex, Surrey and Kent, where wood for fuel
was plentiful, the foreign glass-workers and their descendants
migrated from place to place, always driven by the fuel-hunger
of their furnaces. They gradually made their way into Hamp-
shire, Wiltshire, Gloucestershire, Staffordshire, Northumberland,
Scotland and Ireland. They can be traced by cullet heaps and
broken-down furnaces, and by their names, often mutilated,
recorded in parish registers.
In 16 10 a patent was granted to Sir W. Slingsby for burning
coal in furnaces, and coal appears to have been used in the
Broad Street works. In 161 5 all patents for glass-making
were revoked and a new patent issued for making glass with
coal as fuel, in the names of Mansel, Zouch, Thelwall, Kellaway
and Percival. To the last is credited the first introduction of
covered crucibles to protect the molten glass from the products
of burning coal.
Simultaneously with the issue of this patent the use of wood
for melting glass was prohibited, and it was made illegal to import
glass from abroad. About 161 7 Sir R. Mansel, vice-admiral
and treasurer of the navy, acquired the sole rights of making
glass in England. These rights he retained for over thirty years.
During the protectorate all patent rights virtually lapsed,
and mirrors and drinking-glasses were once more imported from
Venice. In 1663 the duke of Buckingham, although unable to
obtain a renewal of the monopoly of glass-making, secured the
prohibition of the importation of glass for mirrors, coach plates,
spectacles, tubes and lenses, and contributed to the revival of
the glass industry in all its branches. Evelyn notes in his
Diary a visit in 1673 to the Italian glass-house at Greenwich,
" where glass was blown of finer metal than that of Murano," and
a visit in 1677 to the duke of Buckingham's glass-works, where
they made huge " vases of mettal as cleare, ponderous and
thick as chrystal; also looking-glasses far larger and better
than any that came from Venice."
Some light is thrown on the condition of the industry at the
end of the 17th century by the Houghton letters on the improve-
ment of trade and commerce, which appeared in 1696. A few
of these letters deal with the glass trade, and in one a list is
given of the glass-works then in operation. There were 88 glass
factories in England which are thus classified:
Bottles 39
Looking-glass plates .... 2
Crown and plate-glass .... 5
Window glass 15
Flint and ordinary glass ... 27
88
It is probable that the flint-glass of that date was very different
from the flint-glass of to-day. The term flint-glass is now
understood to mean a glass composed of the silicates of potash
and lead. It is the most brilliant and the most colourless
of all glasses, and was undoubtedly first perfected in England.
Hartshorne has attributed its discovery to a London merchant
named Tilson, who in 1663 obtained a patent for making
" crystal glass." E. W. Hulme, however, who has carefully
investigated the subject, is of opinion that flint-glass in its
present form was introduced about 1730. The use of oxide of
lead in glass-making was no new thing; it had been used,
mainly as a flux, both by Romans and Venetians. The invention,
if it may be regarded as one, consisted in eliminating lime from
the glass mixture, substituting refined potash for soda, and using
a very large proportion of lead oxide. It is probable that flint-
glass was not invented, but gradually evolved, that potash-lead
glasses were in use during the latter part of the 17th century,
but that the mixture was not perfected until the middle of the
following century.
The 1 8th century saw a great development in all branches of
glass-making. Collectors of glass are chiefly concerned with the
drinking-glasses which were produced in great profusion and
adapted for every description of beverage. The most noted
are the glasses with stout cylindrical legs (Plate I. fig. 9), con-
taining spiral threads of air, or of white or coloured enamel.
To this type of glass belong many of the Jacobite glasses which
commemorate the old or the young Pretender.
In 1746 the industry was in a sufficiently prosperous condition
to tempt the government to impose an excise duty. The report
of the commission of excise, dealing with glass, published in 1835
is curious and interesting reading. So burdensome was the duty
and so vexatious were the restrictions that it is a matter for
wonder that the industry survived. In this respect England
was more fortunate than Ireland. Before 1825, when the excise
duty was introduced into Ireland, there were flourishing glass-
works in Belfast, Cork, Dublin and Waterford. By 1850 the
Irish glass industry had been practically destroyed. Injurious
as the excise duty undoubtedly was to the glass trade generally,
and especially to the flint-glass industry, it is possible that it
may have helped to develop the art of decorative glass-cutting.
The duty on flint-glass was imposed on the molten glass in the
crucibles and on the unfinished goods. The manufacturer had,
therefore, a strong inducement to enhance by every means in his
power the selling value of his glass after it had escaped the
exciseman's clutches. He therefore employed the best available
art and skill in improving the craft of glass-cutting. It is
the development of this craft in connexion with the perfecting
of flint-glass that makes the 18th century the most important
period in the history of English glass-making. Glass-cutting
was a craft imported from Germany, but the English material
so greatly surpassed Bohemian glass in brilliance that the
Bohemian cut-glass was eclipsed. Glass-cutting was carried on
at works in Birmingham, Bristol, Belfast, Cork, Dublin, Glas-
gow, London, Newcastle, Stourbridge, Whittington and Water-
ford. The most important centres of the craft were London,
Bristol, Birmingham and Waterford (see Plate I., fig. 10, for
oval cut-glass Waterford bowl). The finest specimens of cut-
glass belong to the period between 1780 and 18 10. Owing
to the sacrifice of form to prismatic brilliance, cut-glass gradually
lost its artistic value. Towards the middle of the 19th century
it became the fashion to regard all cut-glass as barbarous, and
services of even the best period were neglected and dispersed.
At the present time scarcely anything is known about the
origin of the few specimens of 18th-century English cut-glass
GLASS, STAINED
105
which have been preserved in public collections. It is strange
that so little interest has been taken in a craft in which for
some thirty years England surpassed all competitors, creating
a wave of fashion which influenced the glass industry throughout
the whole of Europe.
In the report of the Excise Commission a list is given of the
glass manufactories which paid the excise* duty in 1833. There
were 105 factories in England, 10 in Scotland and 10 in Ireland.
In England the chief centres of the industry were Bristol,
Birmingham, London, Manchester, Newcastle, Stourbridge
and York. Plate-glass was made by Messrs Cookson of New-
castle, and by the British Plate Glass Company of Ravenhead.
Crown and German sheet-glass were made by Messrs Chance &
Hartley of Birmingham. The London glass-works were those
of Apsley Pellatt of Blackf riars, Christie of Stangate, and William
Holmes of Whitefriars. In Scotland there were works in Glasgow,
Leith and Portobello. In Ireland there were works in Belfast,
Cork, Dublin and Waterford. The famous Waterford works
were in the hands of Gatchell & Co.
India. — Pliny states (Nat. Hist, xxxvi. 26. 66) that no glass
was to be compared to the Indian, and gives as a reason that it
was made from broken crystal; and in another passage (xii.
19, 42) he says that the Troglodytes brought to Ocelis (Ghella
near Bab-el- Mandeb) objects of glass. We have, however,
very little knowledge of Indian glass of any considerable antiquity.
A few small vessels have been found in the " topes," as in that
at Manikiala in the Punjab, which probably dates from about
the Christian era; but they exhibit no remarkable character,
and fragments found at Brahmanabad are hardly distinguishable
from Roman glass of the imperial period. The chronicle of the
Sinhalese kings, the Mahavamsa, however, asserts that mirrors
of glittering glass were carried in procession in 306 B.C., and beads
like gems, and windows with ornaments like jewels, are also
mentioned at about the same date. If there really was an
important manufacture of glass in Ceylon at this early time,
that island perhaps furnished the Indian glass of Pliny. In the
later part of the 17th century some glass decorated with enamel
was made at Delhi. A specimen is in the Indian section of the
South Kensington Museum. Glass is made in several parts of
India— as Patna and Mysore — by very simple and primitive
methods, and the results are correspondingly defective. Black,
green, red, blue and yellow glasses are made, which contain a
large proportion of alkali and are readily fusible. The greater
part is worked into bangles, but some small bottles are blown
(Buchanan, Journey through Mysore, i. 147, iii. 369).
Persia. — No very remarkable specimens of Persian glass are
known in Europe, with the exception of some vessels of blue
glass richly decorated with gold. These probably date from
the 17th century, for Chardin tells us that the windows of the
tomb of Shah Abbas II. (ob. 1666), at Kum, were " de cristal
peint d'or et d'azur." At the present day bottles and drinking-
vessels are made in Persia which in texture and quality differ
little from ordinary Venetian glass of the 16th or 17th centuries,
while in form they exactly resemble those which may be seen
in the engravings in Chardin's Travels.
China. — The history of the manufacture of glass in China is
obscure, but the common opinion that it was learnt from
the Europeans in the 17th century seems to be erroneous. A
writer in the Mtmoires concernant les Chinois (ii. 46) states
on the authority of the annals of the Han dynasty that the
emperor Wu-ti (140 B.C.) had a manufactory of the kind of glass
called " lieou-li " (probably a form of opaque glass), that in the
beginning of the 3rd century of our era the emperor Tsaou-tsaou
received from the West a considerable present of glasses of all
colours, and that soon after a glass-maker came into the country
who taught the art to the natives.
The Wei dynasty, to which Tsaou-tsaou belonged, reigned in
northern China, and at this day a considerable manufacture
of glass is carried on at Po-shan-hien in Shantung, which it
would seem has existed for a long period. The Rev. A. William-
son (Journeys in North China, i. 131) says that the glass is
extremely pure, and is made from the rocks in the neighbourhood.
The rocks are probably of quartz, i.e. rock crystal, a correspond-
ence with Pliny's statement respecting Indian glass which seems
deserving of attention.
Whether the making of glass in China was an original dis-
covery of that ingenious people, or was derived via Ceylon from
Egypt, cannot perhaps be now ascertained; the manufacture
has, however, never greatly extended itself in China. The case
has been the converse of that of the Romans; the latter had no-
fine pottery, and therefore employed glass as the material for
vessels of an ornamental kind, for table services and the like.
The Chinese, on the contrary, having from an early period had
excellent porcelain, have been careless about the manufacture of
glass. A Chinese writer, however, mentions the manufacture
of a huge vase in a.d. 627, and in 11 54 Edrisi (first climate, tenth
section) mentions Chinese glass. A glass vase about a foot high
is preserved at Nara in Japan, and is alleged to have been placed
there in the 8th century. It seems probable that this is of
Chinese manufacture. A writer in the Mtmoires concernant
les Chinois (ii. 463 and 477), writing about 1770, says that
there was then a glass-house at Peking, where every year a
good number of vases were made, some requiring great labour
because nothing was blown (rien n'est souffle), meaning no doubt
that the ornamentation was produced not by blowing and mould-
ing, but by cutting. This factory was, however, merely an
appendage to the imperial magnificence. The earliest articles
of Chinese glass the date of which has been ascertained, which
have been noticed, are some bearing the name of the emperor
Kienlung (1 735-1 795), one of which is in the Victoria and Albert
Museum.
In the manufacture of ornamental glass the leading idea
in China seems to be the imitation of natural stones. The
coloured glass is usually not of one bright colour throughout,
but semi-transparent and marbled; the colours in many instances
are singularly fine and harmonious. As in 1770, carving or cut-
ting is the chief method by which ornament is produced, the
vessels being blown very solid. ' l \
Bibliography. — Georg Agricola, De re metaUica (Basel, 1556);
Percy Bate, English Table Glass (n.d.) ; G. Bontemps, Guide du verrier
(Pans, 1868); Edward Dillon, Glass (London, 1907); C. C. Edgar,
" Graeco-Egyptian Glass," Catalogue du MusSe du Caire (1905);
Sir A. W. Franks, Guide to Glass Room in British Museum (1888) ;
Rev. A. Hallen, " Glass- making in Sussex," Scottish Antiquary,
No. 28 (1893); Albert Hartshorne, Old English Glasses (London);
E. W. Hulme, " English Glass-making in XVI. andXVII. Centuries,"
The Antiquary, Nos. 59, 60, 63, 64, 65; Alexander Nesbitt, " Glass,"
Art Handbook, Victoria and Albert Museum; E. Peligot, Le Verre,
son histoire, sa fabrication (Paris, 1878); Apsley Pellatt, Curiosities
of Glass-making (London, 1840) ; F. Petrie, TeU-el-Amarna, Egypt
Exploration Fund (1894); ,r Egypt," sect. Art; H. J. Powell,
" Cut Glass," Journal Society of Arts, No. 2795; C. H. Read, " Sara-
cenic Glass," Archaeotogia, vol. 58, part 1.; Juan F. Riano,
"Spanish Arts," Art Handbook, Victoria and Albert Museum;
H. Schuermans, " Muranese and Altarist Glass Workers," eleven
letters: Bulletins des commissions royales (Brussels, 1883, 1891).
For the United States, see vol. x. of Reports of the 12th Census, pp.
949-1000, and Special Report of Census of Manufactures (1905), Part
III., pp. 837-935. ..... .„ ... .. .v . „ (A. Ne.; H. J. P.) ,
GLASS, STAINED. All coloured glass is, strictly speaking,
" stained " by some metallic oxide added to it in the process
of manufacture. But the term " stained glass " is popularly,
as well as technically, used in a more limited sense, and is under-
stood to refer to stained glass windows. Still the words " stained
glass " do not fully describe what is meant; for the glass in
coloured windows is for the most part not only stained but
painted. Such painting was, however, until comparatively
modern times, used only to give details of drawing and to define
form. The colour in a stained glass window was not painted
on the glass but incorporated in it, mixed with it in the making —
whence the term " pot-metal " by which self-coloured glass is
known, i.e. glass coloured in the melting pot.
A medieval window was consequently a patchwork of variously
coloured pieces. And the earlier its date the more surely was
it a mosaic, not in the form of tesserae, but in the manner
known as " opus sectile." Shaped pieces of coloured glass were,
that is to say, put together like the parts of a puzzle. The
xn. 40
io6
GLASS, STAINED
nearest approach to an exception to this rule is a fragment at
the Victoria and Albert Museum, in which actual tesserae are
fused together into a solid slab of many-coloured glass, in effect
a window panel, through which the light shines with all the
brilliancy of an Early Gothic window. But apart from the fact
that the design proves in this case to be even more effective
with the light upon it, the use of gold leaf in the tesserae con-
firms the presumption that this work, which (supposing it to
be genuine) would be Byzantine, centuries earlier than any
coloured windows that we know of, and entirely different from
them in technique, is rather a specimen of fused mosaic that
happens to be translucent than part of a window designedly
executed in tesserae.
The Eastern (and possibly the earlier) practice was to set
chips of coloured glass in a heavy fretwork of stone or to imbed
them in plaster. In a medieval window they were held together
by strips of lead, in section something like the letter n , the
upright strokes of which represent the " tapes " extending on
either side well over the edges of the glass, and the crossbar the
connecting " core " between them. The leading was soldered
together at the points of junction, cement or putty was rubbed
into the crevices between glass and lead, and the window was
attached (by means of copper wires soldered on to the leads)
to iron saddle-bars let into the masonry.
Stained glass was primarily the art of the glazier; but the
painter, called in to help, asserted himself more and more, and
eventually took it almost entirely into his own hands. Between
the period when it was glazier's work eked out by painting
and when it was painter's work with the aid of the glazier lies
the entire development of stained and painted window-making.
With the eventual endeavour of the glass painter to do without
the glazier, and to get the colour by painting in translucent
enamel upon colourless glass, we have the beginning of a form of
art no longer monumental and comparatively trivial.
This evolution of the painted window from a patchwork of
little pieces of coloured glass explains itself when it is remembered
that coloured glass was originally not made in the big sheets
produced nowadays, but at first in jewels to look as much as
possible like rubies, sapphires, emeralds and other precious
stones, and afterwards in rounds and sheets of small dimensions.
Though some of the earliest windows were in the form of pure
glazing (" leaded-lights "), the addition of painting seems to have
been customary from the very first. It was a means of render-
ing detail not to be got in lead. Glazing affords by itself scope
for beautiful pattern work; but the old glaziers never carried their
art as far as they might have done in the direction of ornament;
their aim was always in the direction of picture; the idea was to
make windows serve the purpose of coloured story books. That
was beyond the art of the glazier. It was easy enough to repre-
sent the drapery of a saint by red glass, the ground on which he
stood by green, the sky above by blue, his crown by yellow,
the scroll in his hand by white, and his flesh by brownish pink;
but when it came to showing the folds of red drapery, blades of
green grass, details of goldsmith's work, lettering on the scroll,
the features of the face — the only possible way of doing it was
by painting. The use of paint was confined at first to an opaque
brown, used, not as colour, but only as a means of stopping out
light, and in that way defining comparatively delicate details
within the lead lines. These themselves outlined and defined
the main forms of the design. The pigment used by the glass
painter was of course vitreous: it consisted of powdered glass
and sundry metallic oxides (copper, iron, manganese, &c),
so that, when the pieces of painted glass were made red hot in
the kiln, the powdered glass became fused to the surface, and
with it the dense colouring matter also. When the pieces of
painted glass were afterwards glazed together and seen against
the light, the design appeared in the brilliant colour of the glass,
its forms drawn in the uniform black into which, at a little
distance, leadwork and painting lines became merged.
It needed solid painting to stop out the light entirely: thin
paint only obscured it. And, even in early glass, thin paint was
used, whether to subdue crude colour or to indicate what little
shading a 13th-century draughtsman might desire. In the
present state of old glass, the surface often quite disintegrated,
it is difficult to determine to what extent thin paint was used for
either purpose. There must always have been the temptation to
make tint do instead of solid lines; but the more workmanlike
practice, and the usual one, was to get difference of tint, as a
pen-draughtsman does, by lines of solid opaque colour. In
comparatively colourless glass (grisaille) the pattern was often
made to stand out by cross-hatching the background; and
another common practice was to coat the glass with paint all
over, and scrape the design out of it. The effect of either
proceeding was to lower the tone of the glass without dirtying
the colour, as a smear of thin paint would do.
Towards the 14th century, when Gothic design took a more
naturalistic direction, the desire to get something like modelling
made it necessary to carry painting farther, and they got rid
to some extent of the ill effect of shading-colour smeared on the
glass by stippling it. This not only softened the tint and allowed
of gradation according to the amount of stippling, but let some
light through, where the bristles of the stippling-tool took up
the pigment. Shading of this kind enforced by touches of strong
brushwork, cross-hatching and some scratching out of high
lights was the method of glass painting adopted in the 14th
century.
Glass was never at the best a pleasant surface to paint on;
and glass painting, following the line of least resistance,
developed in the later Gothic and early Renaissance periods
into something unlike any other form of painting. The outlines
continued to be traced upon the glass and fixed in the fire; but,
after that, the process of painting consisted mainly in the
removal of paint. The entire surface of the glass was coated with
an even " matt " of pale brown; this was allowed to dry; and
then the high lights were rubbed off, and the modelling was got
by scrubbing away the paint with a dry hog-hair brush, more
or less, according to the gradations required. Perfect modelling
was got by repeating the operation — how often depended upon
the dexterity of the painter. A painter's method is partly the
outcome of his individuality. One man would float on his colour
and manipulate it to some extent in the moist state; another
would work entirely upon the dry matt. Great use was made
of the pointed stick with which sharp lines of light were easily
scraped out; and in the 16th century Swiss glass painters,
working upon a relatively small scale, got their modelling
entirely with a needle-point, scraping away the paint just as an
etcher scratches away the varnish from his etching plate. The
practice of the two craftsmen is, indeed, identical, though the
one scratches out what are to be black lines and the other lines
Of light. In the end, then, though a painter would always use
tnuches of the brush to jjet crisp lines of dark, the manipulation
of glass painting consisted more in erasing lights than in painting
shadows, more in rubbing out or scraping off paint than in putting
it on in brush strokes. ^
So far there was no thought of getting colour by means of
paint. The colour was in the glass itself, permeating the mass
(" pot-metal "). There was only one exception to this — ruby*
glass, the colour of which was so dense that red glass thick
enough for its purpose would have been practically obscure;
and so they made a colourless pot-metal coated on one side
only with red glass. This led to a practice which forms an ex-
ception to the rule that in "pot-metal" glass every change of
colour, or from colour to white, is got by the use of a separate
piece of glass. It was possible in the case of this " flashed "
ruby to grind away portions of the surface and thus obtain
white on red or red on white. Eventually they made coated
glass of blue and other colours, with a view to producing similar
effects by abrasion. (The same result is arrived at nowadays
by means of etching. The skin of coloured glass, in old days
laboriously ground or cut away, is now easily eaten off by fluoric
acid.) One other exceptional expedient in colouring had very
considerable effect upon the development of glass design from
about the beginning of the 14th century. The discovery that
a solution of silver applied to glass would under the action of the
GLASS, STAINED
107
fire stain it yellow enabled the glass painter to get yellow upon
colourless glass, green upon grey-blue, and (by staining only
the abraded portions) yellow upon blue or ruby. This yellow was
neither enamel nor pot-metal colour, but stain — the only staining
actually done by the glass painter as distinct from the glass
maker. It varied in colour from pale lemon to deep orange, and
was singularly pure in quality. As what is called " white "
glass became purer and was employed in greater quantities it
was lavishly used; so much so that a brilliant effect of silvery
white and golden yellow is characteristic of later Gothic
windows.
The last stage of glass painting was the employment of enamel
not for stopping out light but to get colour. It began to be used
in the early part of the 16th century — at first only in the form of a
flesh tint; but it was not long before other colours were introduced.
This use of colour no longer in the glass but upon it marks quite
a new departure in technique. Enamel colour was finely powdered
coloured glass mixed with gum or some such substance into a
pigment which could be applied with a brush. When the glass
painted with it was brought to a red heat in the oven, the powdered
glass melted and was fused to it, just like the opaque brown
employed from the very beginning of glass-painting.
This process of enamelling was hardly called for in the interests
of art. Even the red flesh-colour (borrowed from the Limoges
enamellers upon copper) did not in the least give the quality of
flesh, though it enabled the painter to suggest by contrast the
whiteness of a man's beard. As for the brighter enamel colours,
they had nothing like the depth or richness of "stained " glass.
What enamel really did was to make easy much that had been
impossible in mosaic, as, for example, to represent upon the
very smallest shield of arms any number of " charges " all in
the correct tinctures. It encouraged the minute workmanship
characteristic of Swiss glass painting; and, though this was not
altogether inappropriate to domestic window panes, the painter
was tempted by it to depart from the simplicity and breadth of
design inseparable from the earlier mosaic practice. In the end
he introduced coloured glass only where he could hardly help it,
and glazed the great part of his window in rectangular panes of
clear glass, upon which he preferred to paint his picture in opaque
brown and translucent enamel colours.
Enamel upon glass has not stood the test of time. Its presence
is usually to be detected in old windows by specks of light shining
through the colour. This is where the enamel has crumbled off.
There is a very good reason for that. Enamel must melt at a
temperature at which the glass it is painted on keeps its shape.
The lower the melting point of the powdered glass the more easily
it is fused. The painter is consequently inclined to use enamel of
which the contraction and expansion is much greater than that of
his glass — with the result that, under the action of the weather,
the colour is apt to work itself free and expose the bare white
glass beneath. The only enamel which has held its own is that of
the Swiss glass-painters of the 16th and 17th centuries. The
domestic window panes they painted may not in all cases have
been tried by the sudden changes of atmosphere to which church
windows are subject; but credit must be given them for ex-
ceptionally skilful and conscientious workmanship.
The story of stained glass is bound up with the history of
architecture, to which it was subsidiary, and of the church,
which was its patron. Its only possible course of development
was in the wake of church building. From its very inception it
was Gothic and ecclesiastical. And, though it survived the
upheaval of the Renaissance and was turned to civil and domestic
use, it is to church windows that we must go to see what stained
glass really was — or is; for time has been kind to it. The charm
of medieval glass lies to a great extent in the material, and especi-
ally in the inequality of it. Chemically impure and mechanic-
ally imperfect, it was rarely crude in tint or even in texture. It
shaded off from light to dark according to its thickness; it was
speckled with air bubbles; it was streaked and clouded; and all
these imperfections of manufacture went to perfection of colour.
And ag6 has improved it: the want of homogeneousness in the
material has led to the disintegration of its surface; soft particles
in it have been dissolved away by the action of the weather, and
the surface, pitted like an oyster-shell, refracts the light in a way
which adds greatly to the effect; at the same time there is
roothold for the lichen which (like the curtains of black cobwebs)
veils and gives mystery to the colour. An appreciable part of the
beauty of old glass is the result of age and accident. In that
respect no new glass can compare with it. There is, however, no
such thing as " the lost secret " of glass-making. It is no secret
that age mellows.
Stained and painted glass is commonly apportioned to its
" period," Gothic or Renaissance, and further to the particular
phase of the style to which it belongs. C. Winston, who was the
first to inquire thoroughly into English glass, adopting T.
Rickman's classification, divided Gothic windows into Early
English (to c. 1280), Decorated (to c. 1380) and Perpendicular
(to c. 1530). These dates will do. But the transition from one
phase of design to another is never so sudden, nor so easily
defined, as any table of dates would lead us to suppose. The old
style lingered in one district long after the new fashion was
flourishing in another. Besides, the English periods do not quite
coincide with those of other countries. France, Germany and
the Low Countries count for much in the history of stained glass;
and in no two places was the pace of progress quite the same.
There was, for example, scarcely any 13th-century Gothic in
Germany, where the " geometric " style, equivalent to our
Decorated, was preceded by the Romanesque period; in France
the Flamboyant took the place of our Perpendicular; and in
Italy Gothic never properly took root at all. All these con-
sidered, a rather rough and ready division presents the least
difficulty to the student of old glass; and it will be found con-
venient to think of Gothic glass as (1) Early, (2) Middle and (3)
Late, and of the subsequent windows as (1) Renaissance and (2)
Late Renaissance. The three periods of Gothic correspond
approximately to the 13th, 14th and 15th centuries. The
limits of the two periods of the Renaissance are not so easily
defined. In the first part of the 16th century (in Italy long
before that) the Renaissance and Gothic periods overlapped; in
the latter part of it, glass painting was already on the decline;
and in the 17th and 18th centuries it sank to deeper depths of
degradation.
The likeness of early windows to translucent enamel (which is
also glass) is obvious. The lines of lead glazing correspond
absolutely to the " cloisons " of Byzantine goldsmith's work.
Moreover, the extreme minuteness of the leading (not always
either mechanically necessary or architecturally desirable)
suggests that the starting point of all this gorgeous illumination
was the idea of reproducing on a grandiose scale the jewelled
effect produced in small by cloisonne enamellers. In other
respects the earliest glass shows the influence of Byzantine
tradition. It is mainly according to the more or less Byzantine
character of its design and draughtsmanship that archaeologists
ascribe certain remains of old glass to the 1 2th or the nth century.
Apart from documentary or direct historic evidence, it is not
possible to determine the precise date of any particular fragment.
In the " restored " windows at St Denis there are remnants of
glass belonging to the year 1 108. Elsewhere in France (Reims,
Anger, Le Mans, Chartres, &c.) there is to be found very early
glass, some of it probably not much later than the end of the 10th
century, which is the date confidently ascribed to certain
windows at St Remi (Reims) and at Tegernsee. The rarer the
specimen the greater may be its technical and antiquarian
interest. But, even if we could be quite sure of its date, there is
not enough of this very early work, and it does not sufficiently
distinguish itself from what followed, to count artistically for
much. The glory of early glass belongs to the 13th century.
The design of windows was influenced, of course, by the con-
ditions of the workshop, by the nature of glass, the difficulty
of shaping it, the way it could be painted, and the necessity
of lead glazing. The place of glass in the scheme of church
decoration led to a certain severity in the treatment of it. The
growing desire to get more and more light into the churches,
and the consequent manufacture of purer and more transparent
io8
GLASS, STAINED
glass, affected the glazier's colour scheme. For all that, the
fashion of a window was, mutatis mutandis , that of the painting,
carving, embroidery, goldsmith's work, enamel and other crafts-
manship of the period. The design of an ivory triptych is very
much that of a three-light window. There is a little enamelled
shrine of German workmanship in the Victoria and Albert
Museum which might almost have been designed for glass;
and the famous painted ceiling at Hildesheim is planned precisely
on the lines of a medallion window of the 13th century. By that
time glass had fallen into ways of its own, and there were already
various types of design which we now recognize as characteristic
of the first great period, in some respects the greatest of all.
Pre-eminently typical of the first period is the " medallion
window." Glaziers began by naively accepting the iron bars
across the light as the basis of their composition, and planned
a window as a series of panels, one above the other, between the
horizontal crossbars and the upright lines of the border round it.
The next step was to mitigate the extreme severity of this com-
position by the introduction of a circular or other medallion
within the square boundary lines. Eventually these were
abandoned altogether, the iron bars were shaped according to
the pattern, and there was evolved the " medallion window/'
in which the main divisions of the design are emphasized by the
strong bands of iron round them. Medallions were invariably
devoted to picturing scenes from Bible history or from the lives
of the saints, set forth in the simplest and most straightforward
manner, the figures all on one plane, and as far as possible clear-cut
against a sapphire-blue or ruby-red ground. Scenery was not so
much depicted as suggested. An arch or two did duty for archi-
tecture, any scrap of foliated ornament for landscape. Simplicity
of silhouette was absolutely essential to the readableness of
pictures on the small scale allowed by the medallion. As it is,
they are so difficult to decipher, so confused and broken in effect,
as to give rise (the radiating shape of " rose windows " aiding)
to the misconception that the design of early glass is kaleido-
scopic — which it is not. The intervals between subject medallions
were filled in England (Canterbury) with scrollwork, in France
(Chartres) more often with geometric diaper, in which last
sometimes the red and blue merge into an unpleasant purple.
Design on this small scale was obviously unsuited to distant
windows. Clerestory lights were occupied by figures, sometimes
on a gigantic scale, entirely occupying the window, except for
the border and perhaps the slightest pretence of a niche. This
arrangement lent itself to broad effects of colour. The drawing
may be rude; at times the figures are grotesque; but the general
impression is one of mysterious grandeur and solemnity.
The depth and intensity of colour in the windows so far described
comes chiefly from the quality of the glass, but partly also from
the fact that very little white or pale-coloured glass was used.
It was not the custom at this period to dilute the colour of a
rich window with white. If light was wanted they worked in
white, enlivened, it might be, by colour. Strictly speaking,
13th-century glass was never colourless, but of a greenish tint,
due to impurities in the sand, potash or other ingredients; it
was of a horny consistency, too; but it is convenient to speak
of all would-be-clear glass as " white." The greyish windows in
which it prevails are technically described as " in grisaille."
There are examples (Salisbury, Chalons, Bonlieu, Angers) of
" plain glazing " in grisaille, in which the lead lines make very
ingenious and beautiful pattern. In the more usual case of
painted grisaille the lead lines still formed the groundwork of
the design, though supplemented by foliated or other detail,
boldly outlined in strong brown and emphasized by a background
of cross-hatching. French grisaille was frequently all in white
{Reims, St Jean-aux-Bois, Sens), English work was usually
enlivened by bands and bosses of colour (Salisbury); but the
general effect of the window was still grey and silvery, even
though there might be distributed about it (the " five sisters,"
York minster) a fair amount of coloured glass. The use of grisaille
is sufficiently accounted for by considerations of economy
and the desire to get light; but it was also in some sort a protest
(witness the Cistercian interdict of 1134) against undue indulgence
in the luxury of colour. At this stage of its development it was
confined strictly to patternwork; figure subjects were always
in colour. For all that, some of the most restful and entirely
satisfying work of the 13th century was in grisaille (Salisbury,
Chartres, Reims, &c).
The second or Middle period of Gothic glass marks a stage
between the work of the Early Gothic artist who thought out his
design as glazing, and that of the later draughtsman who con-
ceived it as something to be painted. It represents to many the
period of greatest interest — probably because of its departure
from the severity of Early work. It was the period of more
naturalistic design; and a touch of nature is more easily
appreciated than architectural fitness. Middle Gothic glass,
halting as it does between the relatively rude mosaic of early
times and the painter-like accomplishment of fully-developed
glass painting, has not the salient merits of either. In the matter
of tone also it is intermediate between the deep, rich, sober
harmonies of Early windows and the lighter, brighter, gayer
colouring of later glass. Now for the first time grisaille ornament
and coloured figurework were introduced into the same window.
And this was done in a very judicious way, in alternate bands
'of white and deep rich colour, binding together the long lights
into which windows were by this time divided (chapter-house,
York minster). A similar horizontal tendency of design is notice-
able in windows in which the figures are enshrined under canopies,
henceforth a feature in glass design. The pinnaclework falls
into pronounced bands of brassy yellow between the tiers of
figures (nave, York minster) and serves to correct the vertical
lines of the masonry. Canopywork grew sometimes to such
dimensions as quite to overpower the figure it was supposed
to frame; but, then, the sense of scale was never a directing
factor in Decorated design. A more interesting form of ornament
is to be found in Germany, where it was a pleasing custom
(Regensburg) to fill windows with conventional foliage without
figurework. There is abundance of Middle Gothic glass in
England (York, Wells, Ely, Oxford), but the best of it, such as
the great East window at Gloucester cathedral, has features
more characteristic of the 15th than of the 14th century.
The keynote of Late Gothic glass is brilliancy. It had a silvery
quality. The 15th century was the period of white glass, which
approached at last to colourlessness, and was employed in great
profusion. Canopywork, more universal than ever, was repre-
sented almost entirely in white touched with yellow stain, but
not in sufficient quantities to impair its silveriness. Whatever
the banality of the idea of imitation stonework in glass, the
effect of thus framing coloured pictures in delicate white is
admirable: at last we have white and colour in perfect combina-
tion. Fifteenth-century figurework contains usually a large
proportion of white glass; flesh tint is represented by white;
there is white hi the drapery; in short, there is always white
enough in the figures to connect them with the canopywork and
make the whole effect one. The preponderance of white will be
better appreciated when it is stated that very often not a fifth
or sixth part of the glass is coloured. It is no uncommon thing
to find figures draped entirely in white with only a little colour
in the background; and figurework all in grisaille upon a ground
of white latticework is quite characteristic of Perpendicular
glass.
One of the most typical forms of Late English Gothic canopy
is where (York minster) its slender pinnacles fill the upper part
of the window, and its solid base frames a picture in small of
some episode in the history of the personage depicted as large as
life above. A much less satisfactory continental practice was
to enrich only the lower half of the window with stained glass and
to make shift above (Munich) with " roundels " of plain white
glass, the German equivalent for diamond latticework.
A sign of later times is the way pictures spread beyond the
confines of a single light. This happened by degrees. . At first
the connexion between the figures in separate window openings
was only in idea, as when a central figure of the crucified Christ
was flanked by the Virgin and St John in the side lights. Then
the arms of the cross would be carried through, or as it were
GLASS, STAINED
Plate I.
I. EARLY GLAZING. From S. Serge, Angers, Grisaille, with
colour introduced in the small circles.
II. AN EARLY BORDER. From S. Kunibert, Cologne.
III. PORTION OF AN EARLY MEDALLION WINDOW.
From Canterbury, showing the plan of the design and the
ornamental details.
IV. AN EARLY FIGUREJFROM LYONS. Showing the leading
of the eyes, hair, nimbus, and drapery.
V. DECORATED LIGHTS. From S. Urbain, Troyes, showing
both the influence of the early period in the figures, and
the beginning of the architectural canopy.
VI. TYPICAL DECORATED CANOPY. From Exeter.
Nos. I., II., III., IV., VI. are taken from illustrations in Lewis F. Day, Windows, by permission of B. T. Batsford.
XII. xo8.
Plate II.
GLASS, STAINED
'.«'<>
I. A TYPICAL PERPENDICULAR CANOPY (from Lewis F. Day, Windows, by permission of B. T. Batsford).
II. A WINDOW FROM AUCH. Illustrating the transition from Perpendicular to Renaissance.
III. A SIXTEENTH-CENTURY JESSE WINDOW. From Beauvais (source as in Fig. I.).
IV. PORTION OF A RENAISSANCE WINDOW. From Montmorency, showing the perfection of glass painting.
From Lutien Magne, Oeuvre des Peintres Verriers Francais, by permission of Firrain-Didot et C*e.
GLASS, STAINED
109
behind, the mullions. The expansion to a picture right across
the window was only a question of time. Not that the artist
ventured as yet to disregard the architectural setting of his
picture — that happened later on — but that he often composed
it with §uch cunning reference to intervening stonework that it
did not interfere with it. It has been argued that each separate
light of a window ought to be complete in itself. On the other
hand it has proved possible to make due acknowledgment of
architectural conditions without cramping design in that way.
There can be no doubt as to the variety and breadth of treatment
gained by accepting the whole window as field for a design. And,
when a number of lights go to make a window, it is the window,
and no separate part of it, which is the main consideration.
By the end of the Gothic period, glass painters proceeded on
an entirely different method from that of the 13 th century.
The designer of early days began with glazing: he thought in
mosaic and leadwork; the lines he first drew were the lines of
glazing; painting was only a supplementary process, enabling
him to get what lead lines would not give. The Late Gothic
draughtsman began with the idea of painting; glazing was to him
of secondary importance; he reached a stage (Creation window,
Great Malvern) where it is clear that he first sketched out his
design, and then bethought him how to glaze it in such wise that
the leadwork (which once boldly outlined everything) should not
interfere with the picture. The artful way in which he would
introduce little bits of colour into a window almost entirely
white, makes it certain that he had always at the back of his
mind the consideration of the glazing to come. So long as he
thought of that, and did not resent it, all was fairly well with
glass painting, but there came a point where he found it difficult,
if not impossible, to reconcile the extreme delicacy of his painting
upon white glass with the comparatively brutal strength of
his lead lines. It is here that the conditions of painting and
glazing clash at last.
It must not be supposed that Late Gothic windows were never
by any chance rich in colour. Local conservatism and personal
predilection prevented anything like monotonous progress in
a single direction. There is (St Sebald, Nuremberg) Middle
Gothic glass as dense in colour as any 13th-century work, and
Late Gothic (Troyes cathedral) which, from its colour, one might
take at first to be a century earlier than it is. In Italy (Florence)
and to some extent in Spain (Seville) it was the custom to make
canopywork so rich in colour that it was more like part of the
picture than a frame to it. But that was by exception. The
tendency was towards lighter windows. Glass itself was less
deeply stained when painters depended more upon their power
of deepening it by paint. It was the seeking after delicate
effects of painting, quite as much as the desire to let light into
the church, which determined the tone of later windows. The
clearer the glass the more scope it gave for painting.
It is convenient to draw a line between Gothic art and Renais-
sance. Nothing is easier than to say that windows in which
crocketed canopywork occurs are Gothic, and that those with
arabesque are Renaissance. But that is an arbitrary distinction,
which does not really distinguish. Some of the most beautiful
work in glass, such for example as that at Auch, is so plainly
intermediate between two styles that it is impossible to describe
it as anything but " transitional." And, apart from particular
instances, we have only to look at the best Late Gothic work to
see that it is informed by the new spirit, and at fine Renaissance
glass to observe how it conforms to Gothic traditions of workman-
ship. The new idea gave a spurt to Gothic art; and it was
Gothic impetus which carried Renaissance glass painting to the
summit of accomplishment reached in the first hall of the 16th
century. When that subsided, and the pictorial spirit of the age
at last prevailed, the bright days of glass were at an end. If we
have to refer to the early Renaissance as the culminating period
of glass painting, it is because the technique of an earlier period
found in it freer and fuller expression. With the Renaissance,
design broke free from the restraints of tradition.
An interesting development of Renaissance design was the
framing of pictures in golden-yellow arabesque ornament,
scarcely architectural enough to be called canopywork, and
reminiscent rather of beaten goldsmith's work than of stone
carving. This did for the glass picture what a gilt frame does for
a painting in oil. Very of ten framework of any kind was dispensed
with. The primitive idea of accepting bars and mullions as
boundaries of design, and filling the compartments formed by
them with a medley of little subjects, lingered on. The result
was delightfully broken colour, but inevitable confusion; for
iron and masonry do not effectively separate glass pictures.
There was no longer in late glass any pretence of preserving the
plane of the window. It was commonly designed to suggest that
one saw out of it. Throughout the period of the Renaissance,
architectural and landscape backgrounds play an important
part in design. An extremely beautiful feature in early 16th-
century French glass pictures (Rouen, &c.) is the little peep of
distant country delicately painted upon the pale-blue glass which
represents the sky. In larger work landscape and architecture
were commonly painted upon white (King's College, Cambridge).
The landscape effect was always happiest when one or other of
these conventions was adopted. Canopywork never went quite
out of fashion. For a long while the plan was still to frame
coloured pictures in white. Theoretically this is no less effectually
to be done by Italian than by Gothic shrinework. Practically the
architectural setting assumed in the 16th century more and more
the aspect of background to the figures, and, in order that it
should take its place in the picture, they painted it so heavily that
it no longer told as white. Already in van Orley's magnificent
transept windows at St Gudule, Brussels, the great triumphal arch
behind the kneeling donors and their patron saints (in kite glass
donors take more and more the place of holy personages) tells
dark against the clear ground. There came a time, towards the
end of the century, when, as in the wonderful windows at Gouda,
the very quality of white glass is lost in heavily painted shadow.
The pictorial ambition of the glass painter, active from the
first, was kept for centuries within the bounds of decoration.
Medallion subjects were framed in ornament, standing figures in
canopywork, and pictures were conceived with regard to the
window and its place in architecture. Severity of treatment in
design may have been due more to the limitations of technique
than to restraint on the part of the painter. The point is that it
led to unsurpassed results. It was by absolute reliance upon the
depth and brilliancy of self-coloured glass that all the beautiful
effects of early glass were obtained. We need not compare early
mosaic with later painted glass; each was in its way admirable;
but the early manner is the more peculiar to glass, if not the more
proper to it. The ruder and more archaic design gives in fullest
measure the glory of glass — for the loss of which no quality of
painting ever got in glass quite makes amends. The pictorial
effects compatible with glass design are those which go with pure,
brilliant and translucent colour. The ideal of a " primitive "
Italian painter was more or less to be realized in glass: that of a
Dutch realist was not. It is astonishing what glass painters did
in the way of light and shade. But the fact remains that heavy
painting obscured the glass, that shadows rendered in opaque
surface-colour lacked translucency, and that in seeking before all
things the effects of shadow and relief, glass painters of the 17th
century fell short of the qualities on the one hand of glass and on
the other of painting.
The course of glass painting was not so even as this general
survey of its progress might seem to imply. It was quickened
here, impeded there, by historic events. The art made a splendid
start in France; but its development was stayed by the disasters
of war, just when in England it was. thriving under the Planta-
genets. It revived again under Francis I. In Germany it was
with the prosperity of the free cities of the Empire that glass
painting prospered. In the Netherlands it blossomed out under
the favour of Charles V. In the Swiss Confederacy its direction
was determined by civil and domestic instead of church patron-
age. In most countries there were in different districts local
schools of glass painting, each with some character of its own. To
what extent design was affected by national temperament it is not
easy to say. The marked divergence of the Flemish from the
no
GLASS, STAINED
French treatment of glass in the 16th century is not entirely due
to a preference on the one part for colour and on the other for
light and shade, but is partly owing to the circumstance that,
whilst in France design remained in the hands of craftsmen,
whose trade was glass painting, in the Netherlands it was
entrusted by the emperor to his court painter, who concerned
himself as little as possible with a technique of which he knew
nothing. If in France we come also upon the names of well-
known artists, they seem, like Jean Cousin, to have been closely
connected with glass painting: they designed so like glass
painters that they might have begun their artistic career in the
workshop.
The attribution of fine windows to famous artists should not
be too readily accepted; for, though it is a foible of modern
times to father whatever is noteworthy upon some great name,
the masterpieces of medieval art are due to unknown craftsmen.
In Italy, where glass painting was not much practised, and it
seems to have been the custom either to import glass painters as
they were wanted or to get work done abroad, it may well be
that designs were supplied by artists more or less distinguished.
Ghiberti and Donatello may have had a hand in the cartoons for
the windows of the Duomo at Florence; but it is not to any
sculptor that we can give the entire credit of design so absolutely
in the spirit of colour decoration. The employment of artists not
connected with glass design would go far to explain the great
difference of Italian glass from that of other countries. The 14th-
century work at Assisi is more correctly described as " Trecento "
than as Gothic, and the " Quattrocento " windows at Florence
are as different as could be from Perpendicular work. One
compares them instinctively with Italian paintings, not with
glass elsewhere. And so with the 15th-century Italian glass.
The superb 16th-century windows of William of Marseilles at
Arezzo, in which painting is carried to the furthest point possible
short of sacrificing the pure quality of glass, are more according
to contemporary French technique. Both French and Italian
influence may be traced in Spanish glass (Avila, Barcelona,
Burgos, Granada, Leon, Seville, Toledo). Some of it is said to
have been executed in France. If so it must have been done to
Spanish order. The coarse effectiveness of the design, the
strength of the colour, the general robustness of the art, are
characteristically Spanish; and nowhere this side of the Pyrenees
do we find detail on a scale so enormous.
We have passed by, in following the progressive course of
craftsmanship, some forms of design, peculiar to no one period
but very characteristic of glass. The " quarry window," barely
referred to, its diamond-shaped or oblong panes painted, richly
bordered, relieved by bosses of coloured ornament often heraldic,
is of constant occurrence. Entire windows, too, were from
first to last given up to heraldry. The " Jesse window " occurs
in every style. According to the fashion of the time the " Stem
of Jesse " burst out into conventional foliage, vine branches
or arbitrary scrollwork. It appealed to the designer by the
scope it gave for freedom of design. He found vent, again,
for fantastic imagination in the representation of the "Last
Judgment," to which the west window was commonly devoted.
And there are other schemes in which he delighted; but this
is not the place to dwell upon them.
The glass of the 17th century does not count for much. Some
of the best in England is the work of the Dutch van Linge family
(Wadham and Balliol Colleges, Oxford). What glass painting
came to in the 18th century is nowhere better to be seen than in
the great west window of the ante-chapel at New College, Oxford.
That is all Sir Joshua Reynolds and the best china painter of
his day could do between them. The very idea of employing a
china painter shows how entirely the art of the glass painter
had died out.
It re-awoke in England with the Gothic revival of the 19th
century; and the Gothic revival determined the direction
modern glass should take. Early Victorian doings are interesting
only as marking the steps of recovery (cf . the work of T. Willement
in the choir of the Temple church; of Ward and Nixon, lately
removed from the south transept of Westminster Abbey; of
Wailes) . Better things begin with the windows at Westminster
inspired by A. C. Pugin, who exercised considerable influence
over his contemporaries. John Powell (Hardman & Co.) was
an able artist content to walk, even after that master's death,
reverently in his footsteps. Charles Winston, whose Hints
on Glass Painting was the first real contribution towards the
understanding of Gothic glass, and who, by the aid of the Powells
(of Whitefriars) succeeded in getting something very like the
texture and colour of old glass, was more learned in ancient
ways of workmanship than appreciative of the art resulting
from them. (He is responsible for the Munich glass in Glasgow
cathedral.) So it was that, except for here and there a window
entrusted by exception to W. Dyce, E. Poynter, D. G. Rossetti,
Ford Madox Brown or E. Burne- Jones, glass, from the beginning
of its recovery, fell into the hands of men with a strong bias
towards archaeology. The architects foremost in the Gothic
revival (W. Butterfield, Sir G. Scott, G. E. Street, &c.) were all
inclined that way; and, as they had the placing of commissions
for windows, they controlled the policy of glass painters.
Designers were constrained to work in the pedantically archaeo-
logical manner prescribed by architectural fashion. Unwillingly
as it may have been, they made mock-medieval windows, the
interest in which died with the popular illusion about a Gothic
revival. But they knew their trade; and when an artist like
John Clayton (master of a whole school of later glass painters)
took a window in hand (St Augustine's, Kilburn; Truro cathedral;
King's College Chapel, Cambridge) the result was a work of art
from which, tradework as it may in a sense be, we may gather
what such men might have done had they been left free to follow
their own artistic impulse. It is necessary to refer to this because
it is generally supposed that whatever is best in recent glass is
due to the romantic movement. The charms of Burne- Jones's
design and of William Morris's colour, place the windows done
by them among the triumphs of modern decorative art; but
Morris was neither foremost in the reaction, nor quite such a
master of the material he was working in as he showed himself
in less exacting crafts. Other artists to be mentioned in con-
nexion with glass design are: Clement Heaton, Bayne, N. H. J.
Westlake and Henry Holiday, not to speak of a younger genera-
tion of able men.
Foreign work shows, as compared with English, a less just
appreciation of glass, though the foremost draughtsmen of
their day were enlisted for its design. In Germany, King Louis
of Bavaria employed P. von Cornelius and W. von Kaulbach
(Aix-la-Chapelle, Cologne, Glasgow); in France the Bourbons
employed J. A. D. Ingres, F. V. E. Delacroix, Vernet and J. H.
Flandrin (Dreux); and the execution of their designs was
entrusted to the most expert painters to be procured at Munich
and SSvres; but all to little effect. They either used potmetal
glass of poor quality, or relied upon enamel — with the result
that their colour lacks the qualities of glass. Where it is not
heavy with paint it is thin and crude. In Belgium happier
results were obtained. In the chapel of the Holy Sacrament at
Brussels there is one window by J. B. Capronnier not unworthy
of the fine series by B. van Orley which it supplements. At the
best, however, foreign artists failed to appreciate the quality
of glass; they put better draughtsmanship into their windows
than English designers of the mid- Victorian era, and painted
them better; but they missed the glory of translucent colour.
Modern facilities of manufacture make possible many things
which were hitherto out of the question. Enamel colours are
richer; their range is extended; and it may be possible, with
the improved kilns and greater chemical knowledge we possess,
to make them hold permanently fast. It was years ago demon-
strated at Sevres how a picture may be painted in colours upon
a sheet of plate-glass measuring 4 ft. by 2 J ft. We are now no
doubt in a position to produce windows painted on much larger
sheets. But the results achieved, technically wonderful as they
are, hardly warrant the waste of time and labour upon work so
costly, so fragile, so lacking in the qualities of a picture on the
one hand and of glass on the other.
In America, John la Farge, finding European material not
GLASS, STAINED
m
-dense enough, produced potmetal more heavily charged with
colour. This was wilfully streaked, mottled and quasi-
accidentally varied; some of it was opalescent; much of it was
more like agate or onyx than jewels. Other forms of American
enterprise were : the making of glass in lumps, to be chipped
into flakes; the ruckling it;
restrained from self-expression. Moreover, the recognition of
the artistic position of craftsmen in general makes it possible
for a man to devote himself to glass without sinking to the rank
of a mechanic; and artists begin to realize the scope glass offers
them. What they lack as yet is experience in their craft, and
cathedrals.
the shaping it in a molten
state, or the pulling it out of
shape. It takes an artist of
some reserve to make judicious
use of glass like this. La Farge
and L. C. Tiffany have turned it
to beautiful account; but even
they have put it to purposes
more pictorial than it can
properly fulfil. The design it
calls for is a severely abstract
form of ornament verging upon
the barbaric.
Of late years each country
has been learning so much
from the others that the
newest effort is very much in
one direction. It seems to be
agreed that the art of the
window-maker begins with
glazing, that the all-needful
thing is beautiful glass, that
painting may be reduced to a
minimum, and on occasion
(thanks to new developments
in the making of glass) dis-
pensed with altogether. A
tendency has developed itself
in the direction not merely of
mosaic, but of carrying the
glazier's art farther than has
been done before and render-
ing landscapes and even figure
subjects in unpainted glass.
When, however, it comes to
the representation of the
human face, the limitations
of simple lead-glazing are at
once apparent. A possible
way out of the difficulty was
shown at the Paris Exhibition
of 1900 by M. Tournel, who,
by fusing together coloured
tesserae on to larger pieces of
colourless glass, anticipated the
discovery of the already men-
tioned fragment of Byzantine
mosaic now in the Victoria
and Albert Museum. He may
have seen or heard of some-
thing of the sort. There would
be no advantage in building
up whole windows in this
way; but for the rendering of
the flesh and sundry minute
details in a window for the
most part heavily leaded, this
fusing together of tesserae,
and even of little pieces of
glass cut carefully to shape, seems to supply the want of some-
thing more in keeping with severe mosaic glazing than painted
flesh proves to be.
Glass painters are allowed to-day a freer hand than formerly.
They are no longer exclusively engaged upon ecclesiastical work;
domestic glass is an important industry; and a workman once
comparatively exempt from pedantic control is not so easily
Examples of Important Historical Stained Glass.
There are remains of the earliest known glass: in France— at Le Mans, Chartres, Chilons-sur-Marne.
Angers and Poitiers cathedrals, the abbey church of St Denis and at St Remi, Reims: in England — at
York minster (fragments): in Germany — at Augsburg and Strassburg cathedrals: in Austria — in the
cloisters of Heiligen Kreuz.
The following is a classified list of some of the most characteristic and important windows, omitting
for the most part isolated examples, and giving by preference the names of churches where there is a fair
amount of glass remaining ; the country in which at each period the art throve best is put first.
Early Gothic
England.
Canterbury )
Salisbury Y cathedrals.
Lincoln )
York minster.
France.
Chartres ■*
Le Mans
Bourges
Reims
Auxerre .
Ste Chapelle, Paris.
Church of St Jean-aux-Bois.
England.
York minster.
Ely cathedral.
Wells cathedral.
Tewkesbury abbey.
Italy.
Church of St Francis, Assist.
Church of Or San Michele,
Florence.
Church of S. Petronio, Bologna.
England.
New College, Oxford.
Gloucester cathedral.
York, minster and other churches.
Great Malvern abbey.
Church of St Mary, Shrewsbury.
Fairf ord church.
France,
St Vincent )
St Patrice \ Rouen.
St Godard )
Church of St Foy, Conches.
Church of St Gervais, Paris.
Church of St £tienne-du-Mont,
Paris.
Church of St Martin, Mont-
morency.
Church of Ecouen.
Church of St fetienne, Beauvais.
Church of St Nirier, Troyes.
Church of Brou, Bourg-en-
The Chateau de Chantilly.
Netherlands.
Groote Kirk, Gouda.
Choir of Brussels cathedral.
Antwerp cathedral.
Germany.
Church of St Kunibert, Cologne
(Romanesque).
Cologne cathedral.
Middle Gothic
Germany.
Church of St Sebald, Nuremberg.
Strassburg ^
Regensburg
Augsburg I- cathedrals.
Erfurt
Freiburg J
Church of Nieder Haslach.
Late Gothic
France.
Bar \~*+*-
Church of Notre Dame, Alencon.
Italy.
The Duomo, Florence.
Transition Period
The choir of the cathedral at Auch.
Renaissance
Netherlands.
Brussels cathedral.
Church of St Jacques
Church of St Martin
Cathedral
France.
£vreux cathedral.
Church of St Pierre, Chartres.
Cathedral and church of St
Urbain, Troyes.
Church of Ste Radegonde,Poitiers.
Cathedral and church of St Ouen,
Rouen.
Spain.
Toledo cathedral.
Germany.
- cathedrals.
Cologne )
Ulm f<
Munich )
Church of St Lorenz, Nuremberg.
I Lii
Liege.
Spain.
Toldeo cathedral.
Switzerland.
Lucerne and most of the. other
principal museums.
Granada
Seville
Spain.
I cathedrals.
England.
College chapel,
Cam-
Italy.
Certosa di Pavia.
Church of S. Petronio, Bologna.
Church of Sta Maria Novella,
Florence.
'Germany.
Freiburg cathedral..
Late Renaissance
France.
Church of St Martin-te-Vignes,
Troyes.
Nave and transepts of Auch
cathedral.
Switzerland.
Most museums.
perhaps due workmanlike respect for traditional ways of work-
manship. When the old methods come to be superseded
it will be only by new ones evolved out of them. At present the
conditions of glass painting remain very much what they were.
The supreme beauty of glass is still in the purity, the brilliancy,
the translucency of its colour. To make the most of this the
designer must be master of his trade. The test of window design
Kind's
bridge.
Lichfield cathedral.
St George's church, Hanover
Square, London.
St Margaret's church, West-
minster*
England.
Wadham)
Balliol [ colleges, Oxford.
New )
112
GLASSBRENNER— GLASTONBURY
is, now as ever, that it should have nothing to lose and everything
to gain by execution in stained glass.
Bibliography.— Theophilus, Arts of the Middle Ages (London,
1847); Charles Winston, An Inquiry into the Difference of Style
observable in Ancient Glass Painting, especially in England (Oxford,
1847), and Memoirs illustrative of the Art of Glass Painting (London,
1865); N. H. J. Westlake, A History of Design in Painted Glass
U vols., London, 1881-1804); L. F. Day, Windows, A Book about
Stained and Painted Glass (London, 1009), and Stained Glass (London,
1003); A. W. Franks, A Book of Ornamental Glazing Quarries
(London, i8ao); A Booke of Sundry Draughtes, principaly serving
for Glasiers (London, 161 5, reproduced 1900); F. G. Joyce, The
Fairford Windows (coloured plates) (London, 1870); Divers Works
of Early Masters in Ecclesiastical Decoration, edited by John Weale
(2 vols., London, 1846); Ferdinand de Lasteyrie, Histoire de la
peinture sur verre d'apres ses monuments en France (2 vols., Paris,
1852), and Ouelques mots sur la thtorie de la peinture sur verre (Paris,
1853); L. Magne, (Euvre des j>eintres verriers frangais (2 vols., Paris,
1885) ; Viollet le Due. " Vitrail," vol. ix. of the Dictionnaire raisonni
de V architecture (Pans, 1868); O. Merson, " Les Vitraux," Biblio-
theque de I'enseignement des beaux-arts (Paris, 1895); E. Levy and
J. B. Capronnier, Histoire de la peinture sur verre (coloured plates)
(Brussels, i860); Ottin, Le Vitrail, son histoire & trovers les Ages
(Paris) ; Pierre le Vieil, LArt de la peinture sur verre et de la vitrerie
(Paris, 1 774) ; C. Cahier and A. Martin, Vitraux peints de Bourges
du XIII* Steele {2 vols., Paris, 1841-1&14); S. Clement and A.
Guitard, Vitraux du XIII* sihcle de la cathearale de Bourges (Bourges,
1900); M. A. Gessert, Geschichte der Glasmalerei in Deulschland
und den Niederlanden, Frankreich, England, 6fc, von ihrem Ur sprung
1902, &c.) ; A. Hafner, Chefs-d'cBuvre de la peinture Suisse sur verre
(Berlin). (L. F. D.)
GLASSBRENNER, ADOLF (1810-1876), German humorist
and satirist, was born at Berlin on the 27th of March 1810.
After being for a short time in a merchant's office, he took to
journalism, and in 1831 edited Don Quixote, a periodical which
was suppressed in 1833 owing to its revolutionary tendencies.
He next, under the pseudonym Adolf Brennglas, published a
series of pictures of Berlin life, under the titles Berlin wie es
ist und—trinkt (30 parts, with illustrations, 1833-1849), and
Buntes Berlin (14 parts, with illustrations, Berlin, 1837-1858),
and thus became the founder of a popular satirical literature
associated with modern Berlin. In 1840 he married the actress
Adele Peroni (1813-1895), and removed in the following year
to Neustrelitz, where his wife had obtained an engagement at
the Grand ducal theatre. In 1848 Glassbrenner entered the
political arena and became the leader of the democratic party
in Mecklenburg-Strelitz. Expelled from that country in 1850,
he settled in Hamburg, where he remained until 1858; and then
he became editor of the Montagszeitung in Berlin, where he died
on the 25th of September 1876.
Among Glassbrenner 's other humorous and satirical writings may
be mentioned: Leben und Treiben der feinen Welt (1834); Bilder
und Trdume aus Wien (2 vols., 1836); Gedichte (1851, 5th ed. 1870);
the comic epics, Neuer Reineke Fuchs (1846, 4th ed. 1870) and
Die verkehrte Welt (1857, 6th ed. 1873); also Berliner Volksleben
(3 vols., illustrated; Leipzig, 18,17-1851). Glassbrenner has
published some charming books for children, notably Lackende Kinder
(14th ed„ 1884), and Sprechende Tiere (20th ed., Hamburg, 1899).
See R. Schmidt-Cabanis, " Adolf Glassbrenner," in Unsere Zeit
(1881).
GLASS CLOTH, a textile material, the name of which indicates
the use for which it was originally intended. The cloths are in
general woven with the plain weave, and the fabric may be all
white, striped or checked with red, blue or other coloured
threads; the checked cloths are the most common. The real
article should be all linen, but a large quantity is made with
cotton warp and tow weft, and in some cases they are composed
entirely of cotton. The short fibres of the cheaper kind are
easily detached from the cloth, and hence they are not so satis-
factory for the purpose for which they are intended.
GLASSIUS, SALOMO (1 593-1656), theologian and biblical
critic, was born at Sondershausen, in the principality of Schwarz-
burg-Sondershausen, on the 20th of May 1593. In 161 2 he
entered the university of Jena. In 1615, with the idea of studying
law, he moved to Wittenberg. In consequence of an illness,
however, he returned to Jena after a year. Here, as a student
of theology under Johann Gerhard, he directed his attention
especially to Hebrew and the cognate dialects; in 1619 he was
made an " adjunctus " of the philosophical faculty, and some
time afterwards he received an appointment to the chair of
Hebrew. From 1625 to 1638 he was superintendent in Sonders-
hausen; but shortly after the death of Gerhard (1637) he was,
in accordance with Gerhard's last wish, appointed to succeed
him at Jena. In 1640, however, at the earnest invitation of
Duke Ernest the Pious, he removed to Gotha as court preacher
and general superintendent in the execution of important reforms
which had been initiated in the ecclesiastical and educational
establishments of the duchy. The delicate duties attached to
this office he discharged with tact and energy; and in the
" syncretistic " controversy, by which Protestant Germany
was so long vexed, he showed an unusual combination of firmness
with liberality, of loyalty to the past with a just regard to the
demands of the present and the future. He died on the 27th of
July 1656.
His principal work, Philologia sacra (1623), marks the transition
from the earlier views on questions of biblical criticism to those of
the school of Spener. It was more than once reprinted during his
lifetime, and appeared in a new and revised form, edited by J. A.
Dathe (1731-1791) and G. L. Bauer at Leipzig. Glassius succeeded
Gerhard as editor of the Weimar Bibelwerk, and wrote the commentary
on the poetical books of the Old Testament for that publication. A
volume of his Opuscula was printed at Leiden in 1700.
See the article in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopddie.
GLASSWORT, a name given to Salicornia herbacea (also
known as marsh samphire), a salt-marsh herb with succulent,
jointed, leafless stems, in reference to its former use in glass-
making, when it was burnt for barilla. Salsola Kali, an allied
plant with rigid, fleshy, spinous-pointed leaves, which was used
for the same purpose, was known as prickly glasswort. Both
plants are members of the natural order Chenopodiaceae.
GLASTONBURY, a market town and municipal borough in
the Eastern parliamentary division of Somersetshire, England,
on the main road from London to Exeter, 37 m. S.W. of Bath by
the Somerset & Dorset railway. Pop. (1901) 4016. The town
lies in the midst of orchards and water-meadows, reclaimed from
the fens which encircled Glastonbury Tor, a conical height once
an island, but now, with the surrounding flats, a peninsula washed
on three sides by the river Brue.
The town is famous for its abbey, the ruins of which are frag-
mentary, and as the work of destruction has in many places
descended to the very foundations it is impossible to make out
the details of the plan. Of the vast range of buildings for the
accommodation of the monks hardly any part remains except the
abbot's kitchen, noteworthy for its octagonal interior (the ex-
terior plan being square, with the four corners filled in with fire-
places and chimneys), the porter's lodge and the abbey barn.
Considerable portions are standing of the so-called chapel of St
Joseph at the west end, which has been identified with the Lady
chapel, occupying the site of the earliest church. This chapel,
which is the finest part of the ruins, is Transitional work of the
1 2th century. It measures about 66 ft. from east to west and
about 36 from north to south. Below the chapel is a crypt of the
15th century inserted beneath a building which had no previous
crypt. Between the chapel and the great church is an Early
English building which appears to have served as a Galilee porch.
The church itself was a cruciform structure with a choir, nave
and transepts, and a tower surmounting the centre of intersection.
From east to west the length was 410 ft. and the breadth of the
nave was about 80 ft. The nave had ten bays and the choir six.
Of the nave three bays of the south side are still standing, and the
windows have pointed arches externally and semicircular arches
internally. Two of the tower piers and a part of one arch give
some indication of the grandeur of the building. The foundations
of the Edgar chapel, discovered in 1908, make the whole church
the longest of cathedral or monastic churches in the country. The
old clock, presented to the abbey by Adam de Sodbury (1322-
133 5) > and noteworthy as an early example of a clock striking the
hours automatically with a count-wheel, was once in Wells
cathedral, but is now preserved in the Victoria and Albert
Museum.
GLASTONBURY
"3
The Glastonbury thorn, planted, according to the legend, by-
Joseph of Arimathea, has been the object of considerable com-
ment. It is said to be a distinct variety, flowering twice a year.
The actual thorn visited by the pilgrims w*s destroyed about the
Reformation time, but specimens of the same variety are still
extant in various parts of the country.
The chief buildings, apart from the abbey, are the church of St
John Baptist, Perpendicular in style, with a fine tower and some
15th-century monuments; St Benedict's, dating from 1493-15 24;
St John's hospital, founded 1246; and the George Inn, built in
the time of Henry VII. or VIII. The present stone cross replaced
a far finer one of great age, which had fallen into decay. The
Antiquarian Museum contains an excellent collection, including
remains from a prehistoric village of the marshes, discovered in
1892, and consisting of sixty mounds within a space of five acres.
There is a Roman Catholic missionaries' college. In the 16th
century the woollen industry was introduced by the duke of
Somerset; and silk manufacture was carried on in the 18th
century. Tanning and tile-making, and the manufacture of
boots and sheep-skin rugs are practised. The town is governed
by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 5000 acres.
The lake-village discovered in 1892 proves that there was a
Celtic settlement about 300-200 B.C. on an island in the midst of
swamps, and therefore easily defensible. British earthworks
and Roman roads and relics prove later occupation. The name
of Glastonbury, however, is of much later origin, being a corrup-
tion of the Saxon Glmstyngabyrig. By the Britons the spot
seems to have been called Ynys yr Afalon (latinized as Avallonia)
or Ynysvitrin (see Avalon), and it became the local habitation of
various fragments of Celtic romance. According to the legends
which grew up under the care of the monks, the first church of
Glastonbury was a little wattled building erected by Joseph of
Arimathea as the leader of the twelve apostles sent over to
Britain from Gaul by St Philip. About a hundred years later,
according to the same authorities, the two missionaries, Phaganus
and Deruvianus, who came to king Lucius from Pope Eleutherius,
established a fraternity of anchorites on the spot, and after three
hundred years more St Patrick introduced among them a regular
monastic life. The British monastery founded about 601 was
succeeded by a Saxon abbey built by Ine in 708. From the
decadent state into which Glastonbury was brought by the
Danish invasions it was recovered by Dunstan, who had been
educated within its walls and was appointed its abbot about 946.
The church and other buildings of his erection remained till the
installation, in 1082, of the first Norman abbot, who inaugurated
the new epoch by commencing a new church. His successor
Herlewin (1101-1120), however, pulled it down to make way for
a finer structure. Henry of Blois (n 26-1 17 2) added greatly to
the extent of the monastery. In 1 1 84 (on 2 5 th May) the whole of
the buildings were laid in ruins by fire; but Henry II. of England,
in whose hands the monastery then was, entrusted his chamberlain
Rudolphus with the work of restoration, and caused it to be
carried out with much magnificence. The great church of which
the ruins still remain was then erected. In the end of the 12th
century, and on into the following, Glastonbury was distracted
by a strange dispute, caused by the attempt of Savaric, the
ambitious bishop of Bath, to make himself master of the abbey.
The conflict was closed by the decision of Innocent III., that the
abbacy should be merged in the new see of Bath and Glastonbury,
and that Savaric should have a fourth of the property. On
Savaric's death his successor gave up the joint bishopric and
allowed the monks to elect their own abbot. From this date to the
Reformation the monastery, one of the chief Benedictine abbeys
in England, continued to flourish, the chief events in its history
being connected with the maintenance of its claims to the
possession of the bodies or tombs of King Arthur and St Dunstan.
From early times through the middle ages it was a place of
pilgrimage. As early at least as the beginning of the nth
century the tradition that Arthur was buried at Glastonbury
appears to have taken shape; and in the reign of Henry II.,
according to Giraldus Cambrensis and others, the abbot Henry de
Blois, causing search to be made, discovered at the depth of 16
ft. a massive oak trunk with an inscription " Hie jacet sepultus
inclitus rex Arthurus in insula Avalonia." After the fire of 1 184 *
the monks asserted that they were in possession of the remains of
St Dunstan, which had been abstracted from Canterbury after the
Danish sack of 101 1 and kept in concealment ever since. The
Canterbury monks naturally denied the assertion, and the contest
continued for centuries. In 1508 Warham and Goldston having
examined the Canterbury shrine reported that it contained all the
principal bones of the saint, but the abbot of Glastonbury in
reply as stoutly maintained that this was impossible. The day
of such disputes was, however, drawing to a close. In 1539 the
last and 60th abbot of Glastonbury, Robert Whyting, was
lodged in the Tower on account of " divers and sundry treasons."
" The ' account ' or ' book ' of his treasons .... seems to be lost,
and the nature of the charges .... can only be a matter of specu-
lation " (Gairdner, Col. Pap. on Hen. VIII., xiv. ii. pref. xxxii).
He was removed to Wells, where he was " arraigned and next
day put to execution for robbing of Glastonbury church." The
execution took place on Glastonbury Tor. His body was
quartered and his head fixed on the abbey gate. A darker
passage does not occur in the annals of the English Reformation
than this murder of an able and high-spirited man, whose worst
offence was that he defended as best he could from the hand of the
spoiler the property in his charge.
In 1907, the site of the abbey with the remains of the buildings,
which had been in private hands since the granting of the estate
to Sir Peter Carew by Elizabeth in 1559, was bought by Mr
Ernest Jardine for the purpose of transferring it to the Church
of England. Bishop Kennion of Bath and Wells entered into
an agreement to raise a sum of £31,000, the cost of the purchase;
this was completed, and the site and buildings were formally
transferred at a dedicatory service in 1909 to the Diocesan
Trustees of Bath and Wells, who are to hold and manage the
property according to a deed of trust. This deed provided for
the appointment of an advisory council, consisting of the arch-
bishop of Canterbury, the bishop of Bath and Wells and four
other bishops, each with power to nominate one clerical and
one lay member. The council has the duty of deciding the
purpose for which the property is to be used " in connexion with
and for the benefit of the Church of England." To give time for
further collection of funds and deliberation, the property was
re-let for five years to the original purchaser.
In the 8th century Glastonbury was already a borough owned
by the abbey, which continued to be overlord till the Dissolution.
The abbey obtained charters in the 7th century, but the town
received its first charter from Henry II., who exempted the men
of Glastonbury from the jurisdiction of royal officials and freed
them from certain tolls. This was confirmed by Henry III. in
1227, by Edward I. in 1278, by Edward H. in 13 13 and by
Henry VI. in 1447. The borough was incorporated by Anne in
1706, and the corporation was reformed by the act of 1835.
In 13 19 Glastonbury received a writ of summons to parliament,
but made no return, and has not since been represented. A
fair on the 8th of September was granted in 11 27; another on
the 29th of May was held under a charter of 1282. Fairs known
as Torr fair and Michaelmas fair are now held on the second
Mondays in September and October and are chiefly important
for the sale of horses and cattle. The market day every other
Monday is noted for the sale of cheese. Glastonbury owed its
medieval importance to its connexion with the abbey. At the
Dissolution the introduction of woollen manufacture checked
the decay of the town. The cloth trade flourished for a century
and was replaced by silk-weaving, stocking-knitting and glove-
making, all of which have died out..
See Abbot Gasquet, Henry VI II. and the English Monasteries (1906),
and The Last Abbot of Glastonbury (1895 and 1908); William of
Malmesbury, " De antiq. Glastoniensis ecclesiae," in Rerum Angli-
carum script, vet. torn. i. (1684) (also printed by Hearne and Migne) ;
John of Glastonbury, Chronica sive de hist, de rebus Glast., ea. by
Hearne (2 vols., Oxford, 1726); Adam of Domerham, De rebus
gestis Glast., ed. by Hearne (2 vols., Oxford, 1727); Hist, and Antiq.
of Glast. (London, 1807); Avalonian Guide to the Town of Glastonbury
(8th ed„ 1839); Warner, Hist, of the Abbey and Town (Bath, 1826);
Rev. F. Warre, " Glastonbury Abbey," in Proc. of Somersetshire
n6
GLAZING
GLAZING. — The business of the glazier may be confined to
the mere fitting and setting of glass (q.v.) t even the cutting up
of the plates into squares being generally an independent art,
requiring a degree of tact and judgment not necessarily possessed
by the building artificer. The tools generally used by the glazier
are the diamond for cutting, laths or straight edges, tee square,
measuring rule, glazing knife, hacking knife and hammer, duster,
sash tool, two-foot rule and a glazier's cradle for carrying the
glass. Glaziers' materials are glass, putty, priming or paint,
springs, wash-leather or india-rubber for door panels, .size, black.
The glass is supplied by the manufacturer and cut to the sizes
required for the particular work to be executed. Putty is made
of whiting and linseed oil, and is generally bought in iron kegs
of i or i cwt.; the putty should always be kept covered over,
and when found to be getting hard in the keg a little oil
should be put on it to keep it moist. Priming is a thin coat of
paint with a small amount of red lead in it. In the majority
of cases after the sashes for the windows are fitted they are
sent to the glazier's and primed and glazed, and then returned
to the job and hung in their proper positions. When priming
sashes it is important that the rebates be thoroughly primed,
else the putty will not adhere. All wood that is to be painted
requires before being primed to have the knots coated with
knotting. When the priming is dry, the glass is cut and fitted
into its place; each pane should fit easily with about J*th in.
play all round. The glazier runs the putty round the rebates
with his hands, and then beds the glass in it, pushing it down
tight, and then further secures it by knocking in small nails,
called glaziers' sprigs, on the rebate side. He then trims up
the edges of the protruding putty and bevels off the putty on
the rebate or outside of the sash with a putty knife. The sash
is then ready for painting. Large squares and plate glass are
usually inserted when the sashes are hung to avoid risks of
breakage. For inside work the panes of glass are generally
secured with beads (not with putty), and in the best work
these beads are fixed with brass screws and caps to allow of easy
removal without breaking the beads and damaging the paint,
&c. In the case of glass in door panels where there is much
vibration and slamming, the glass is bedded in wash-leather
or india-rubber and secured with beads as before mentioned.
The most common glass and that generally used is clear sheet
in varying thicknesses, ranging in weight from 15 to 30 oz. per sq.
ft. This can be had in several qualities of English
^TJtaw? or foreign manufacture. But there are many other
varieties — obscured, fluted, enameDed, coloured and
ornamental, rolled and rough plate, British polished plate,
patent plate, fluted rolled, quarry rolled, chequered rough, and
a variety of figured rolled, and stained glass, and crown-glass
with bulls'-eyes in the centre.
Lead light glazing is the glazing of frames with small squares
of glass, which are held together by reticulations of lead; these
are secured by means of copper wire to iron saddle bars, which
are let into mortices in the wood frames or stone jambs. This
is formed with strips of lead, soldered at the angles; the glass
is placed between the strips and the lead flattened over the
edges of glass to secure it. This is much used in public build-
ings and private residences. In Weldon's method the saddle
bars are bedded in the] centre of the strips of lead, thus
strengthening the frame of lead strips and giving a better
appearance.
Wired rolled plate or wired cast plate, usually J in. thick, has
wire netting embedded in it to prevent the glass from falling
in the case of fire; its use is obligatory in London for all lantern
and skylights, screens and doors on the staircases of public
and warehouse buildings, in accordance with the London Building
Act. It is also used for the decks of ships and for port and cabin
lights, as it is much stronger than plain glass, and if fractured is
held together by the wire.
Patent prismatic rolled glass, or " refrax " (fig. 1), consists of an
effectual application of the well-known properties of the prism;
it absorbs all the light that strikes the window opening, and
diffuses it in the most efficient manner possible in the darkest
portions of the apartment. It can be fixed in the ordinary
way or placed over the existing glass.
Pavement lights (fig. 2) and staUboard lights are constructed
with iron frames in small squares and glazed with thick prismatic
glass, and are used to light basements. They
are placed on the pavement and under shop
fronts in the portion called the staUboard, and
are also inserted in iron coal plates.
Great skill has of late years been displayed in
the ornamentation of glass such as is seen in
public saloons, restaurants, &c, as, for instance,
in bevelling the edges, silvering, brilliant cutting,
embossing, bending, cutting shelving to fancy
shapes and polishing, and in glass ventilators.
There are several patent methods of roof glazing,
such as are applied to railway stations, studios
and printing and other factories requir-
ing light. Some of the first patents of
this kind were erected with wood glazing
bars; these were unsightly, since they required to
be of large sectional area when spanning a distance
of 7 or 8 ft., and also required to be constantly
painted. This was a source of trouble; the roof
was constantly leaking and, moreover, it was not
fire-resisting.
Of subsequent patents one includes the use of
steel T-bars, in which the glass is bedded and Fig. i. — Prism
covered with a capping of copper or zinc secured Window Glass,
with bolts and nuts. Another employs steel bars
covered with lead ; and this is a very good method, as the bars are
of small section, require no painting, and are also fire-resisting.
There is one reason for preferring wood to steel, namely, that wood
does not expand and contract like steel does. After the sun has been
on steel bars, especially those in long lengths, they tend to buckle
and then when cold contract, thus getting out of shape; there is also
the possibility that when expanding they may break the glass.
This is more noticeable in the case of iron ventilating frames in this
glazing, which after having weathered for a year or two will begin
to get out of shape and so give trouble in opening and closing.
Care should be taken not to fit the glass in iron bars tightly, but
Root
glazing.
Fig. 2. — Section through Prism Pavement Light, the direction of
light rays being indicated by arrows.
a good ith in. play all round should be allowed. A few of the
systems of patent roof glazing will be described in the following
pages, together with illustrations.
The system of glazing known as the " British Challenge " (fig. 3),
with steel bars encased with a sheeting of 4-Ib lead, is very simple
and durable, needs no painting, and can be fixed at as much as 8 ft.
clear bearings, with the bars spaced 2 ft. apart. The ends of the
bars rest on the wood or steel purlins or plates, and are either notched
and screwed down, or simply fitted with a bracket which is screwed.
The bar is of T section with condensation grooves, and the lead
wings on top are turned down on to the glass after fitting. This
lead-covered steel bar
is a great improve-
ment on the plain steel
bar as it is entirely
unaffected by smoke,
acids or exhaust fumes
from steam engines;
this is important in
the case of a railway
station, where the Fig. 3. — "British Fig. 4. — Mellowes*
fumes would otherwise Challenge " Glazing. Glazing,
eat the steel away and
so weaken the bars that in time they would snap. Another somewhat
similar system is known as " Mellowes' Eclipse Roof Glazing " (fig. a).
It consists of steel T-bars having lead wings on top to turn on to the
glass in a similar manner to the last, the top wings being double and
the underside of the bar having an additional wine to catch the con-
densation. The Heywood combination system (fig. 5) i9 composed
of galvanized steel T-bars, sometimes encased in lead and sometimes
partly encased. It has a capping and condensation gutters of lead,
GLAZUNOV— GLEE
117
Fig. 5. — Heywood's
Glazing.
Fig. 6.— Helliwell's
Fig. 7— Rendle's
Urn hi
and the glass is bedded on asbestos packing to get a better bearing
edge, so as to be held more securely. Hope s glazing is very similar,
but the bars are either T or cross according to the span. The
" Perfection " glazing used by Messrs Helliwelf& Co. (fig. 6) is com-
posed of steel shaped T bars with copper capping, secured with bolts
and nuts ana having asbestos packing on
top of the glass under the edges of the
capping. Pennycook's glazing is composed
of steel shaped T bars encased with lead
and lead wings. Rendle's " Invincible "
glazing (fig. 7) is composed of steel T bars
with soecially shaped copper water and con-
densation channels, all formed in the one
piece and resting on top of the T steel;
the glass rests on the zinc channel, and a
copper capping is fixed over the edges of
the glass and secured with bolts and nuts.
Deard's glazing is very similar, and is com-
posed of T steel encased with lead; it
claims to save all drilling for fixing to iron
roofs. There are also other systems com-
a< Perfection " Glazing, posed of wood bars with condensation gutter
and capping of copper secured with bolts
and nuts, and asbestos packing with slight
differences in some minor matters, but these
systems are but little used.
Cloisonne^ glass is a patent ornamental
glass formed by placing two pieces fiat
against each other enclosing a species of
glass mosaic. Designs are worked and
shaped in gilt wire and placed on one sheet
of glass; the space between the wire is
then filled in with coloured beads, and
another sheet of glass is placed on top of
' Invincible"'' Glazing, ft to k^P them in position, and the edges
' of the glass are bound with linen, &c,
.to keep them firmly together.
Glass is now used for decorative purposes, such as wall tiling
and ceilings; it is coloured and decorated in almost any shade
and presents a very effective appearance. An invention
has been patented for building houses entirely of
glass; the walls are constructed of blocks or bricks
of opaque glass, the several walls being varied in thickness
according to the constructional requirements.
It is certainly true that daylight has much to do with the
sanitary condition of all buildings, and this being so the proper
distribution of daylight to a building is of the greatest possible
importance, and must be effected by an ample provision of
windows judiciously arranged. The heads of all windows should
be kept as near the ceiling as possible, as well to obtain easy
ventilation as to ensure good lighting. As far as is practicable
a building should be planned so that each room receives the
sun's rays for some part of the day. This is rarely an easy
matter, especially in towns where the aspect of the building
is out of the architect's hands. The best sites for light are
found in streets running north and south and east and west,
and lighting areas or courts in buildings should always if possible
be arranged on these lines. The task of adequately lighting
lofty city buildings has been greatly minimized by the introduc-
tion of many forms of reflecting and intensifying contrivances,
which are used to deflect light into those apartments into which
daylight does not directly penetrate, and which would otherwise
require the use of artificial light to render them of any use;
the most useful of these inventions are the various forms of
prism glass already referred to and illustrated in this article.
See L. F. Day, Stained and Painted Glass; and W. Eckstein,
Interior Lighting. (J. Bt.)
GLAZUNOV, ALEXANDER CONSTANTINOVICH (1865- ),
Russian musical composer, was born in St Petersburg on the
10th of August 1865, his father being a publisher and bookseller.
He showed an early talent for music, and studied for a year or
so with Rimsky-Korsakov. At the age of sixteen he composed
a symphony (afterwards elaborated and published as op. 5),
but his opus 1 was a quartet in D, followed by a pianoforte
suite on S-a-c-h-a, the diminutive of his name Alexander. In
1884 he was taken up by Liszt, and soon became known as a
composer. His first symphony was played that year at Weimar,
and he appeared as a conductor at the Paris exhibition in 1889.
In 1897 his fourth and fifth symphonies were performed in London
under his own conducting. In 1900 he became professor at the
St Petersburg conservatoire. His separate works, including
orchestral symphonies, dance music and songs, make a long
list. Glazunov is a leading representative of the modern Russian
school, and a master of orchestration; his tendency as compared
with contemporary Russian composers is towards classical form,
and he was much influenced by Brahms, though in " programme
music " he is represented by such works as his symphonic poems
The Forest, Stenka Rosin, The Kremlin and his suite Aus dent
Mittelalter. His ballet music, as in Raymonda, achieved much
popularity.
GLEBE (Lat. glaeba, gleba, clod or lump of earth, hence soil,
land), in ecclesiastical law the land devoted to the maintenance
of the incumbent of a church. Burn (Ecclesiastical Law, s.v.
" Glebe Lands ") says: " Every church of common right is
entitled to house and glebe, and the assigning of them at the
first was of such absolute necessity that without them no church
could be regularly consecrated. The house and glebe are both
comprehended under the word manse, of which the rule of the
canon law is, sancitum est tti unicuique ecclesiae unus ntansus
integer absque uUo servitio tribuatur" In the technical language
of English law the fee-simple of the glebe is said to be in abeyance,
that is, it exists " only in the remembrance, expectation and
intendment of the law." But the freehold is in the parson,
although at common law he could alienate the same only with
proper consent, — that is, in his case, with the consent of the bishop.
The disabling statutes of Elizabeth (Alienation by Bishops,
1559, and Dilapidations, &c, 1571) made void all alienations
by ecclesiastical persons, except leases for the term of twenty-
one years or three lives. By an act of 1842 (5 & 6 Vict. c. 27,
Ecclesiastical Leases) glebe land and buildings may be let on
lease for farming purposes for fourteen years or on an improving
lease for twenty years. But the parsonage house and ten acres
of glebe situate most conveniently for occupation must not be
leased. By the Ecclesiastical Leasing Acts of 1842 (5 & 6
Vict. c. 108) and 1858 glebe lands may be let on building leases
for not more than ninety-nine years and on mining leases for
not more than sixty years. The Tithe Act 1842, the Glebe
Lands Act 1888 and various other acts make provision for the
sale, purchase, exchange and gift of glebe lands. In Scots
ecclesiastical law, the manse now signifies the minister's dwelling-
house, the glebe being the land to which he is entitled in addition
to his stipend. All parish ministers appear to be entitled to a
glebe, except the ministers in royal burghs proper, who cannot
claim a glebe unless there be a landowner's district annexed;
and even in that case, when there are two ministers, it is only
the first who has a claim.
See Phillimore, Ecclesiastical Law (2nd ed.); Cripps, Law of
Church and Clergy; Leach, Tithe Acts (6th ed.); Dart, Vendors and
Purchasers (7th ed.).
GLEE, a musical term for a part-song of a particular kind.
The word, as well as the thing, is essentially confined to England.
The technical meaning has been explained in different ways;
but there is little doubt of its derivation through the ordinary
sense of the word (i.e. merriment, entertainment) from the A.S.
gleoVf gleo f corresponding to Lat. gaudium, delectamentum, hence
ludus musicus; on the other hand, a musical " glee " is by no
means necessarily a merry composition. Gleeman (A.S. " gleo-
man ") is translated simply as " musicus " or " cantor," to which
the less distinguished titles of " mimus, jocista, scurra," are
frequently added in old dictionaries. The accomplishments
and social position of the gleeman seem to have been as varied
as those of the Provencal " joglar." There are early examples of
the word " glee " being used as synonymous with harmony or
concerted music. The former explanation, for instance, is
given in the Promptorium parvulorum, a work of the 1 5th century.
Glee in its present meaning signifies, broadly speaking, a piece
of concerted vocal music, generally unaccompanied, and for
male voices, though exceptions are found to the last two restric-
tions. The number of voices ought not to be less than three.
As regards musical form, the glee is little distinguished from the
catch, — the two terms being often used indiscriminately for the
n8
GLEICHEN— GLEIM
same song; but there is a distinct difference between it and the
madrigal — one of the earliest forms of concerted music known
in England. While the madrigal does not show a distinction of
contrasted movements, this feature is absolutely necessary in
the glee. In the madrigal the movement of the voices is strictly
contrapuntal, while the more modern form allows of freer treat-
ment and more compact harmonies. Differences of tonality are
fully explained by the development of the art, for while the
madrigal reached its acme in Queen Elizabeth's time, the glee
proper was little known before the Commonwealth; and its
most famous representatives belong to the 18th century and the
first quarter of the 19th. Among the numerous collections of
the innumerable pieces of this kind, only one of the earliest
and most famous may be mentioned, Catch that Catch can, a
Choice Collection of Catches, Rounds and Canons, for three and
four voices, published by John Hilton in 1652. The name
" glee," however, appears for the first time in John Playford's
Musical Companion, published twenty-one years afterwards,
and reprinted again and again, with additions by later composers
— Henry Purcell, William Croft and John Blow among the
number. The originator of the glee in its modern form was
Dr Arne, born in 17x0. Among later English musicians famous
for their glees, catches and part-songs, the following may be
mentioned: — Attwood, Boyce, Bishop, Crotch, Callcott, Shield,
Stevens, Horsley, Webb and Knyvett. The convivial character
of the glee led, in the 18th century, to the formation of various
societies, which offered prizes and medals for the best composi-
tions of the kind and assembled for social and artistic purposes.
The most famous amongst these — The Glee Club — was founded
in 1787, and at first used to meet at the house of Mr Robert
Smith, in St Paul's churchyard. This club was dissolved in
1857. A similar society — The Catch Club — was formed in 1761
and is still in existence.
GLEICHEN, two groups of castles in Germany, thus named
from their resemblance to each other (Ger. gleich=tike, or
resembling). The first is a group of three, each situated on a
hill in Thuringia between Gotha and Erfurt. One of these
called Gleichen, the Wanderslebener Gleiche (1221 ft. above
the sea), was besieged unsuccessfully by the emperor Henry IV.
in 1088. It was the seat of a line of counts, one of whom, Ernest
III., a crusader, is the subject of a romantic legend. Having
been captured, he was released from his imprisonment by a
Turkish woman, who returned with him to Germany and became
his wife, a papal dispensation allowing him to live with two
wives at the same time (see Reineck, Die Sage von der Doppelehe
eines Graf en von Gleichen, 1801). After belonging to the elector
of Mainz the castle became the property of Prussia in 1803.
The second castle is called Miihlburg (1309 ft. above the sea).
This existed as early as 704 and was besieged by Henry IV.
in 1087. It came into the hands of Prussia in 1803. The third
castle, Wachsenburg (1358 ft.), is still inhabited and contains
a collection of weapons and pictures belonging to its owner, the
duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, whose family obtained possession
of it in 1368. It was built about 935 (see Beyer, Die drei Gleichen,
Erfurt, 1898). The other group consists of two castles, Neuen-
Gleichen and Alten-Gleichen. Both are in ruins and crown
two hills about 2 m. S.E. from GSttingen.
The name of Gleichen is taken by the family descended from
Prince Victor of Hohenlohe-Langenburg through his marriage
with Miss Laura Seymour, daughter of Admiral Sir George
Francis Seymour, a branch of the Hohenlohe family having at
one time owned part of the county of Gleichen.
GLEIG, GEORGE (1 753-1840), Scottish divine, was born at
Boghall, Kincardineshire, on the 12th of May 1753, the son of a
farmer. At the age of thirteen he entered King's College,
Aberdeen, where the first prize in mathematics and physical and
moral sciences fell to him. In his twenty-first year he took
orders in the Scottish Episcopal Church, and was ordained to the
pastoral charge of a congregation at Pittenweem, Fife, whence
he removed in 1 790 to Stirling. He became a frequent contributor
to the Monthly Review, the Gentleman's Magazine, the Anti-
Jacobin Review and the British Critic. He also wrote several
articles for the third edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, and
on the death of the editor, Colin Macfarquhar, in 1793, was
engaged to edit the remaining volumes. Among his principal
contributions to this work were articles on "Instinct," "Theology"
and " Metaphysics." The two supplementary volumes were
mainly his own work. He was twice chosen bishop of Dunkeld,
but the opposition of Bishop Skinner, afterwards primus, rendered
the election on both occasions ineffectual. In 1808 he was con-
secrated assistant and successor to the bishop of Brechin, in 1810
was preferred to the sole charge, and in 18 16 was elected primus
of the Episcopal Church of Scotland, in which capacity he greatly
aided in the introduction of many useful reforms, in fostering a
more catholic and tolerant spirit, and in cementing a firm
alliance with the sister church of England. He died at Stirling
on the 9th of March 1840.
Besides various sermons, Gleig was the author of Directions for the
Study of Theology, in a series of letters from a bishop to his son on
his admission to holy orders (1827); an edition of Stackhouse's
History of the Bible (181 7); and a life of Robertson the historian,
prefixed to an edition of his works. See Life of Bishop Gleig, by
the Rev. W. Walker (1879). Letters to Henderson of Edinburgh
and John Douglas, bishop of Salisbury, are in the British Museum.
His third and only surviving son, George Robert Gleig ( 1 796-
1888), was educated at Glasgow University, whence he passed with
a Snell exhibition to Balliol College, Oxford. He abandoned his
scholastic studies to enter the army, and served with distinction
in the Peninsular War (1813-14), and in the American War, in
which he was thrice wounded. Resuming his work at Oxford, he
proceeded B.A. in 1818, M.A. in 1821, and, having been ordained
in 1820, held successively curacies at Westwell in Kent and Ash
(to the latter the rectory of Ivy Church was added in 1822). He
was subsequently appointed chaplain of Chelsea hospital (1824),
chaplain-general of the forces (1844-1875) and inspector-general
of military schools (1846-1857). From 1848 till his death on the
9th of July 1888 he was prebend of Willesden in St Paul's
cathedral. During the last sixty years of his life he was a prolific,
if not very scientific, writer; he wrote for Blackwood's Magazine
and Fraser's Magazine, and produced a large number of historical
works.
Among the latter were (besides histories of the campaigns in which
he served), Life of Sir Thomas Munro (3 vols., 1830); History of
India (4 vols., 1 830-1 835); The Leipsic Campaign and Lives of
Military Commanders (1831); Story of the Battle of Waterloo (1847);
Sketch of the Military History of Great Britain (1845) J Sale's Brigade
in Afghanistan (1847); biographies of Lord Clive (1848), the duke
of Wdlinffton (1862), and Warren Hastings (1848; tne subject of
Macaulay s essay, in which it is described as " three big bad volumes
full of undigested correspondence and undiscerning panegyric ").
GLEIM, JOHANN WILHELM LUDWIG (1710-1803), German
poet, was born on the 2nd of April 17 19 at Ermsleben, near
Halberstadt. Having studied law at the university of Halle he
became secretary to Prince William of Brandenburg-Schwedt
at Berlin, where he made the acquaintance of Ewald von Kleist,
whose devoted friend he became. When the prince fell at the
battle of Prague, Gleim became secretary to Prince Leopold of
Dessau; but he soon gave up his position, Hot being able to bear
the roughness of the " Old Dessauer." After residing a few
years in Berlin he was appointed, in 1747, secretary of the
cathedral chapter at Halberstadt. " Father Gleim " was the title
accorded to him throughout all literary Germany on account of
his kind-hearted though inconsiderate and undiscriminating
patronage alike of the poets and poetasters of the period. He
wrote a large number of feeble imitations of Anacreon, Horace and
the minnesingers, a dull didactic poem entitled Halladat oder das
rote Buch (1774), and collections of fables and romances. Of higher
merit are his Preussische Kriegslieder von einent Grenadier (1758).
These, which were inspired by the campaigns of Frederick II.,
are often distinguished by genuine feeling and vigorous force of
expression. They are also noteworthy as being the first of that
long series of noble political songs in which later German litera-
ture is so rich. With this exception, Gleim's writings are for the
most part tamely commonplace in thought and expression. He
died at Halberstadt on the 18th of February 1803.
Gleim's Sdmtliche Werke appeared in 7 vols, in the years 181 1-
18 13; a reprint of the Lieder eines Grenadiers was published by
GLEIWITZ— GLENCORSE
119
A. Sauer in 1882. A eood selection of Gleim's poetry will be found
in F. Muncker, Anakreontiker und preussisch-patrtotische Lyriker
(1 894). See W. Korte, Gleims Leben aus seinen Brief en und Schriften
(181 1 ). His correspondence with Heinse was published in 2 vols.
(1894-1896), with \Sz (1889), in both cases edited by C. Schtiddekopf.
GLEIWITZ, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Silesia, on the Klodnitz, and the railway between Oppeln and
Cracow, 40 m. S.E. of the former town. Pop. (1875) 14,156;
(1005) 61,324. It possesses two Protestant and four Roman
Catholic churches, a synagogue, a mining school, a convent, a
hospital, two orphanages, and barracks. Gleiwitz is the centre of
the mining industry of Upper Silesia. Besides the royal foundry,
with which are connected machine manufactories and boiler-
works, there are other foundries, meal mills and manufactories
of wire, gas pipes, cement and paper.
See B. Nietsche, Gesehichte der Stadt Gleiwitz (1886); and Seidel,
Die kdnigliche Eisengiesserei zu Gleiwitz (Berlin, 1896).
GLENALMOND, a glen of Perthshire, Scotland, situated to the
S.E. of Loch Tay. * It comprises the upper two-thirds of the
course of the Almond, or a distance of 20 m. For the greater
part it foDows a direction east by south, but at Newton Bridge
it inclines sharply to the south-east for 3 m., and narrows to such
a degree that this portion is known as the Small (or Sma') Glen.
At the end of this pass the glen expands and runs eastwards as
far as the well-known public school of Trinity College, where it
may be considered to terminate. The most interesting spot in
the glen is that traditionally known as the grave of Ossian. The
district east of Buchanty, near which are the remains of a Roman
camp, is said to be the Drumtochty of Ian Maclaren's stories.
The mountainous region at the head of the glen is dominated by
Ben y Hone or Ben Chonzie (3048 ft. high).
GLENCAIRN, EARLS OF. The 1st earl of Glencairn in the
Scottish peerage was Alexander Cunningham (d. 1488), a son
of Sir Robert Cunningham of Kilmaurs in Ayrshire. Made a lord
of the Scottish parliament as Lord Kilmaurs not later than 1469,
Cunningham was created earl of Glencairn in 1488; and a few
weeks later he was killed at the battle of Sauchieburn whilst
fighting for King James III. against his rebellious son, afterwards
James IV. His son and successor, Robert (d. c. 1490), was
deprived of his earldom by James IV., but before 1505 this had
been revived in favour of Robert's son, Cuthbert (d. c. 1540),
who became 3rd earl of Glencairn, and whose son William
(c. 1490-1 547) was the 4th earl. This noble, an early adherent of
the Reformation, was during his public life frequently in the
pay and service of England, although he fought on the Scottish
side at the battle of Solway Moss (1542), where he was taken
prisoner. Upon his release early in 1543 he promised to adhere
to Henry VIH., who was anxious to bring Scotland under his
rule, and in 1544 he entered into other engagements with Henry,
undertaking inter alia to deliver Mary queen of Scots to the
English king. However, he was defeated by James Hamilton,
earl of Arran, and the project failed; Glencairn then deserted
his fellow-conspirator, Matthew Stewart, earl of Lennox, and
came to terms with the queen-mother, Mary of Guise, and her
party.
William's son, Alexander, the 5th earl (d. 1574)* was a more
pronounced reformer than his father, whose English sympathies
he shared, and was among the intimate friends of John Knox.
In March 1557 he signed the letter asking Knox to return to
Scotland; in the following December he subscribed the first
"band" of the Scottish reformers; and he anticipated Lord
James Stewart, afterwards the regent Murray, in taking up arms
against the regent, Mary of Guise, in 1558. Then, joined by
Stewart and the lords of the congregation, he fought against
the regent, and took part in the attendant negotiations with
Elizabeth of England, whom he visited in London in December
1560. When in August 1561 Mary queen of Scots returned to
Scotland, Glencairn was made a member of her council; he
remained loyal to her after she had been deserted by Murray,
but in a few weeks rejoined Murray and the other Protestant
lords, returning to Mary's side in 1566. After the queen had
married the earl of Bothwell she was again forsaken by Glen-
cairn, who fought against her at Carberry Hill and at Langside.
The earl, who was always to the fore in destroying churches,
abbeys and other " monuments of idolatry," died on the 23rd of
November 1 5 74. His short satirical poem against the Grey Friars
is printed by Knox in his History of the Reformation.
James, the 7th earl (d. c. 1622), took part in the seizure of
James VI., called the raid of Ruthven in 1582. William, the
9th earl (c. 1610-1664), a somewhat lukewarm Royalist during
the Civil War, was a party to the " engagement " between the
king and the Scots in 1647; f° r this proceeding the Scottish
parliament deprived him of his office as lord justice-general,
and nominally of his earldom. In March 1653 Charles II.
commissioned the earl to command the Royalist forces in Scotland,
pending the arrival of General John Middleton, and the insurrec-
tion of this year is generally known as Glencairn's rising. After
its failure he was betrayed and imprisoned, but although excepted
from pardon he was not executed; and when Charles H. was
restored he became lord chancellor of Scotland. After a dispute
with his former friend, James Sharp, archbishop of St Andrews,
he died at Belton in Haddingtonshire on the 30th of May 1664.
This earPs son John (d. 1703), who followed his brother Alexander
as nth earl in 1670, was a supporter of the Revolution of 1688.
His descendant, James, the 14th earl (1 740-1 791), is known as
the friend and patron of Robert Burns. He performed several
useful services for the poet; and when he died on the 30th of
January 1791 Burns wrote a Lament beginning, " The wind
blew hollow frae the hills," and ending with the lines, " But
I'll remember thee, Glencairn, and a* that thou hast done for me."
The 14th earl was never married, and when his brother and
successor, John, died childless in September 1796 the earldom
became extinct, although it was claimed by Sir Adam Fergusson,
Bart., a descendant of the 10th earl.
GLENCOE, a glen in Scotland, situated in the north of Argyll-
shire. Beginning at the north-eastern base of Buchaille Etive,
it takes a gentle north-westerly trend for 10 m. to its mouth
on Loch Leven, a salt-water arm of Loch Linnhe. On both sides
it is shut in by wild and precipitous mountains and its bed is
swept by the Coe — Ossian's " dark Cona," — which rises in the
hills at its eastern end. About half-way down the glen the
stream forms the tiny Loch Triochatan. Towards Invercoe
the landscape acquires a softer beauty. Here Lord Strathcona,
who, in 1894, purchased the heritage of the Macdonalds of
Glencoe, built his stately mansion of Mount Royal. The principal
mountains on the south side are the various peaks of Buachaille
Etive, Stob Dearg (3345 ft.), Bidean nam Bian (3756 ft.) and
Meall Mor (2215 ft.), and on the northern side the Pap of Glencoe
(2430 ft.), Sgor nam Fiannaidh (3168 ft.) and Meall Dearg
(31 18 ft.). Points of interest are the Devil's Staircase, a steep,
boulder-strewn " cut " (1754 ft. high) across the hills to Fort
William; the Study; the cave of Ossian, where tradition says
that he was born, and the Iona cross erected in 1883 by a
Macdonald in memory of his clansmen who perished in the
massacre of 1692. About 1 m. beyond the head of the glen is
Kingshouse, a relic of the old coaching days, when it was
customary for tourists to drive from Ballachulish via Tyndrum
to Loch Lomond. Now the Glencoe excursion is usually made
from Oban — by rail to Achnacloich, steamer up Loch Etive,
coach up Glen Etive and down Glencoe and steamer at
Ballachulish to Oban. One mile to the west of the Glen lies the
village of Ballachulish (pop. 1143). It is celebrated for its
slate quarries, which have been worked since 1 760. The industry
provides employment for 600 men and the annual output
averages 30,000 tons. The slate is of excellent quality and is
used throughout the United Kingdom. Ballachulish is a station
on the Callander and Oban extension line to Fort William
(Caledonian railway). The pier and ferry are some 2 m. W. of
the village.
GLENCORSE, JOHN INGLIS, Lord (1810-1891), Scottish
judge, son of a minister, was born at Edinburgh on the 21st of
August 1 810. From Glasgow University he went to Balliol
College, Oxford. He was admitted a member of the Faculty
of Advocates, and soon became known as an eloquent and
successful pleader. In 1852 he was made solicitor-general for
120
GLENDALOUGH— GLENDOWER, OWEN
Scotland in Lord Derby's first ministry, three months later
becoming Lord Advocate. In 1858 he resumed this office in
Lord Derby's second administration, being returned to the
House of Commons as member for Stamford. He was responsible
for the Universities of Scotland Act of 1858, and in the same
year he was elevated to the bench as lord justice clerk. In 1867
he was made lord justice general of Scotland and lord president
of the court of session, taking the title of Lord Glencorse.
Outside his judicial duties he was responsible for much useful
public work, particularly in the department of higher education.
In i860 he was elected chancellor of Edinburgh University,
having already been rector of the university of Glasgow. He
died on the 20th August 1891.
GLENDALOUGH, VALE OF, a mountain glen of Co.
Wicklow, Ireland, celebrated and frequently visited both on
account of its scenic beauty and, more especially, because of the
collection of ecclesiastical remains situated in it. Fortunately
for its appearance, it is not approached by any railway, but
services of cars are maintained to several points, of which
Rathdrum, 8J m. S.E., is the nearest railway station, on the
Dublin & South-Eastern. The glen is traversed by the stream
of Glencalo, a tributary of the Avonmore, expanding into small
loughs, the Upper and the Lower. The former of these is
walled by the abrupt heights of Camaderry (2296 ft.) and
Lugduff (2176 ft.), and here the extreme narrowness of the valley
adds to its grandeur; while lower down, where it widens, the
romantic character of the scenery is enhanced by the scattered
ruins of the former monastic settlement. These ruins have
the collective name of the " Seven Churches." The settlement
owed its foundation to the hermit St Kevin, who is reputed to
have died on the 3rd of June 618; and it rapidly became a seat
of learning of wide fame, but suffered much at the hands of the
Danes and the Anglo-Normans. In close proximity to an hotel,
and to one another, in an enclosure, are a round tower, one of the
finest in Ireland, uc ft. high and 52 in circumference; St Kevin's
kitchen or church (closely resembling the house of St Columba at
Kells), which measures 25 ft. by 15, with a high-pitched roof and
round belfry — supposed to be the earliest example of its type;
and the cathedral, about 73 ft. in total length by 51 in width.
This possesses a good square-headed doorway, and an east
window of ornate character (the chancel being of later date
than the nave), and there are also some early tombs, but the
whole is in a decayed condition. In the enclosure are also a
Lady chapel, chiefly remarkable for its doorway of wrought
granite, in a style of architecture resembling Greek; a priest's
house (restored), and slight remains of St Chiaran's church.
Here is also St Kevin's cross, a granite monolith never completed;
and the enclosure is entered by a fine though dilapidated gateway.
Other neighbouring remains are Trinity or the Ivy Church,
towards Larogh, with beautiful detailed work; St Saviour's
monastery, carefully restored under the direction of the Board
of Works, with a chancel arch of three orders (re-erected);
while on the shores of the upper lough ore Reefert Church,
the burial-place of the O'Toole family, and Teampull-na-skellig,
the church of the rock. St Kevin's bed is a cave approachable
with difficulty, above the lough, probably a natural cavity
artificially enlarged, to which attaches the legend of St Kevin's
hermitage. Along the valley there are a number of monuments
and stone crosses of various sizes and styles. The whole collec-
tion forms, with the possible exception of Clonmacnoise in King's
county, the most striking monument of monasticism in Ireland.
GLENDOWER, OWEN (c. 1350-141 5) > the last to claim the
title of an independent prince of Wales, more correctly described
as Owain ab Gruffydd, lord of Glyndyvrdwy in Merioneth, was
a man of good family, with two great houses, Sycharth and
Glyndyvrdwy in the north, besides smaller estates in south
Wales* His father was called Gruffydd Yychan, and his mother
Helen; on both sides he had pretensions to be descended from
the old Welsh princes. Owen was probably born about 1350,
studied law at Westminster, was squire to the earl of Arundel,
and a witness for Grosvenor in the famous Scrope and Grosvenor
lawsuit in 13S6. Afterwards he was in the service of Henry of
Bolingbroke, the future king, though by an error it has been
commonly stated that he was squire to Richard IL Welsh
sympathies were, however, on Richard's side, and combined
with a personal quarrel to make Owen the leader of a national
revolt.
The lords of Glyndyvrdwy had an ancient feud with their
English neighbours, the Greys of Ruthin. Reginald Grey
neglected to summon Owen, as was his duty, for the Scottish
expedition of 1400, and then charged him with treason for
failing to appear. Owen thereupon took up arms, and when
Henry IV. returned from Scotland in September he found north
Wales ablaze. A hurried campaign under the king's personal
command was ineffectual. Owen's estates were declared forfeit
and vigorous measures threatened by the English government.
Still the revolt gathered strength. In the spring of 1401 Owen
was raiding in south Wales, and credited with the intention of
invading England. A second campaign by the king in the
autumn was defeated, like that of the previous year, through
bad weather and the Fabian tactics of the Welsh. Owen had
already been intriguing with Henry Percy (Hotspur), who
during 1401 held command in north Wales, and with Percy's
brother-in-law, Sir Edmund Mortimer. During the winter of
1401-1402 his plans were further extended to negotiations with
the rebel Irish, the Scots and the French. In the spring he had
grown so strong that he attacked Ruthin, and took Grey prisoner.
In the summer he defeated the men of Hereford under Edmund
Mortimer at Pilleth, near Brynglas, in Radnorshire. Mortimer
was token prisoner and treated with such friendliness as to
moke the English doubt his loyalty; within a few months he
married Owen's daughter. In the autumn the English king
was for the third time driven " bootless home and weather-
beaten back." The few English strongholds left in Wales were
now hard pressed, and Owen boasted that he would meet his
enemy in the field. Nevertheless, in May 1403 Henry of Mon-
mouth was allowed to sack Sycharth and Glyndyvrdwy un-
opposed. Owen had a greater plot in hand. The Percies were
to rise in arms, and meeting Owen at Shrewsbury, overwhelm
the prince before help could arrive. But Owen's share in the
undertaking miscarried through his own defeat near Carmarthen
on the 1 2th of July, and Percy was crushed at Shrewsbury ten
days later. Still the Welsh revolt was never so formidable.
Owen styled himself openly prince of Wales, established a regular
government, and called a parliament at Machynlleth. As a
result of a formal alliance the French sent troops to his aid, and
in the course of 1404 the great castles of Harlech and Aberystwith
fell into his hands.
In the spring of 1405 Owen was at the height of his power;
but the tide turned suddenly. Prince Henry defeated the Welsh
at Grosmont in March, and twice again in May, when Owen's
son Griffith and his chancellor were made prisoners. Scrope's
rebellion in the North prevented the English from following
up their success. The earl of Northumberland took refuge in
Wales, and the tripartite alliance of Owen with Percy and
Mortimer (transferred by Shakespeare to an earlier occasion)
threatened a renewal of danger. But Northumberland's plots
and the active help of the French proved ineffective. The
English under Prince Henry gained ground steadily, and the
recovery of Aberystwith, after a long siege, in the autumn of
1408 marked the end of serious warfare. In February 1409
Harlech was also recaptured, and Owen's wife, daughter and
grandchildren were token prisoners. Owen himself still held
out and even continued to intrigue with the French. In July
141 5 Gilbert Talbot had power to treat with Owen and his
supporters and admit them to pardon. Owen's name does not
occur in the document renewing Talbot's powers in February
1416; according to Adam of Usk he died in 141 5. Later English
writers allege that he died of starvation in the mountains; but
Welsh legend represents him as spending a peaceful old age with
his sons-in-law at Ewyas and Monington in Herefordshire, till
his death and burial at the latter place. The dream of an
independent and united Wales was never nearer realization than
under Owen's leadership. The disturbed state of England
GLENELG— GLEYRE
121
helped him, but he was indeed a remarkable personality, and
has not undeservedly become a national hero. Sentiment and
tradition have magnified his achievements, and confused his
career with tales of portents and magical powers. Owen left
many bastard children; his legitimate representative in 1433
was his daughter Alice, wife of Sir John Scudamore of Ewyas.
The facte of Owen's life must be pieced together from scattered
references in contemporary chronicles and documents ; perhaps the
most important are Adam of Usk's Chronicle and Ellis's Original
Letters. On the Welsh side something is given by the bards Iolo
Goch and Lewis Glyn Cothi. For modern accounts consult J. H.
WyhVs History of England under Henry IV. (4 vols., 1 884-1 898);
A. C. Bradley's popular biography ; and Professor Tout's article in the
Dictionary of National Biography. (C. L. K.)
GLENELG, CHARLES GRANT, Baron (1 778-1866), eldest
son of Charles Grant (q.v.), chairman of the directors of the
East India Company, was born in India on the 26th of October
1778, and was educated at Magdalene College, Cambridge, of
which he became a fellow in 1802. Called to the bar in 1807,
he was elected member of parliament for the Inverness burghs
in 1807, and having gained some reputation as a speaker in the
House of Commons, he was made a lord of the treasury in
December 1813, an office which he held until August 1819, when
he became secretary to the lord-lieutenant of Ireland and a
privy councillor. In 1823 he was appointed vice-president of
the board of trade; from September 1827 to June 1828 he was
president of the board and treasurer of the navy; then joining
the Whigs, he was president of the board of control under Earl
Grey and Lord Melbourne from November 1830 to November
1834. At the board of control Grant was primarily responsible
for the act of 1833, which altered the constitution of the govern-
ment of India. In April 1835 he became secretary for war and
the colonies, and was created Baron Glenelg. His term of office
was a stormy one. His differences with Sir Benjamin d'Urban
(q.v.) f governor of Cape Colony, were serious; but more so were
those with King William IV. and others over the administration
of Canada. He was still secretary when the Canadian rebellion
broke out in 1837; his wavering and feeble policy was fiercely
attacked in parliament; he became involved in disputes with
the earl of Durham, and the movement for his supercession found
supporters even among his colleagues in the cabinet. In February
1839 he resigned, receiving consolation in the shape of a pension
of £2000 a year. From 181 8 until he was made a peer Grant
represented the county of Inverness in parliament, and he has
been called "the last of the Canningites." Living mainly
abroad during the concluding years of his life, he died unmarried
at Cannes on the 23rd of April 1866 when his title became
extinct.
Glenelg's brother, Sir Robert Grant (1 779-1838), who was
third wrangler in 1801 , was, like his brother, a fellow of Magdalene
College, Cambridge, and a barrister. From 1818 to 1834 he
represented various constituencies in parliament, where he was
chiefly prominent for his persistent efforts to relieve the dis-
abilities of the Jews. 1 In June 1834 he was appointed governor
of Bombay, and he died in India on the 9th of July 1838. Grant
wrote a Sketch of the History of the East India Co. (1813), and is
also known as a writer of hymns.
GLENELG, a municipal town and watering place of Adelaide
county, South Australia, on Holdfast Bay, 6J m. by rail S.S.W.
of the city of Adelaide. Pop. (1901) 3949. It is a popular
summer resort, connected with Adelaide by two lines of railway.
In the vicinity is the " Old Gum Tree " under which South
Australia was proclaimed British territory by Governor Hind-
marsh in 1836.
GLENGARRIFF, or Glengariff (" Rough Glen "), a celebrated
resort of tourists in summer and invalids in winter, in the west
riding of county Cork, Ireland, on Glengarriff Harbour, an inlet
on the northern side of Bantry Bay, n m. by coach road from
Bantry on the Cork, Bandon & South Coast railway. Beyond
its hotels, Glengarriff is only a small village, but the island-
studded harbour, the narrow glen at its head and the surrounding
1 Sir S. Walpole (History of England, vol. v.) is wrong in stating
that Charles Grant introduced bills to remove Jewish disabilities in
1833 and 1834. They were introduced by his Brother Robert.
of mountains, afford most attractive views, and its situation on
the " Prince of Wales' " route travelled by King Edward VII.
in 1848, and on a fine mountain coach road from Macroom,
brings it into the knowledge of many travellers to Killarney.
Thackeray wrote enthusiastically of the harbour. The glaciated
rocks of the glen are clothed with vegetation of peculiar luxuri-
ance, flourishing in the mild climate which has given Glengarriff
its high reputation as a health resort for those suffering from
pulmonary complaints.
GLEN GREY, a division of the Cape province south of the
Stormberg, adjoining on the east the Transkeian Territories. Pop.
(1904) 55,107. Chief town Lady Frere, 32 m. N.E. of Queens-
town. The district is well watered and fertile, and large quantities
of cereals are grown. Over 96% of the inhabitants are of the
Zulu-Xosa (Kaffir) race, and a considerable part of the district
was settled during the Kaffir wars of Cape Colony by Tembu
(Tambookies) who were granted a location by the colonial
government in recognition of their loyalty to the British.
Act No. 25 of 1894 of the Cape parliament, passed at the instance
of Cecil Rhodes, which laid down the basis upon which is effected
the change of land tenure by natives from communal to individual
holdings, and also dealt with native local self-government and
the labour question, applied in the first instance to this division,
and is known as the Glen Grey Act (see Cape Colony: History).
The provisions of the act respecting individual land tenure and
local self-government were in 1898 applied, with certain modifica-
tions, to the Transkeian Territories. The division is named
after Sir George Grey, governor of Cape Colony 1854-1861.
GLENS FALLS, a village of Warren county, New York, U.S.A.,
55 m. N. of Troy, on the Hudson river. Pop. (1890) 9509;
(1900) 12,613, of whom 1762 were foreign-bornj (1 910 census)
15,243. Glens Falls is served by the Delaware & Hudson and
the Hudson Valley (electric) railways. The village contains a
state armoury, the Crandall free public library, a Y.M.C.A.
building, the Park hospital, an old ladies' home, and St Mary's
(Roman Catholic) and Glens Falls (non-sectarian) academies.
There are two private parks, open to the public, and a water-
works system is maintained by the village. An iron bridge
crosses the river just below the falls, connecting Glens Falls and
South Glens Falls (pop. in 1905, 2097). The falls of the Hudson
here furnish a fine water-power, which is utilized, in connexion
with steam and electricity, in the manufacture of lumber, paper
and wood pulp, women's clothing, shirts, collars and cuffs, &c.
In 1905 the village's factory products were valued at $4,780,331.
About 12 m. above Glens Falls, on the Hudson, a massive stone
dam has been erected; here electric power, distributed to a large
area., is generated. In the neighbourhood of Glens Falls are
valuable quarries of black marble and limestone, and lime,
plaster and Portland cement works. Glens Falls was settled
about the close of the French and Indian War (1763), and was
incorporated as a village in 1839.
GLENTILT, a glen in the extreme north of Perthshire, Scotland.
Beginning at the confines of Aberdeenshire, it follows a north-
westerly direction excepting for the last 4 m., when it runs
due S. to Blair AtholL It is watered throughout by the Tilt,
which enters the Garry after a course of 14 m., and receives on
its right the Tarff, which forms some beautiful falls just above
the confluence, and on the left the Fender, which has some
fine falls also. The attempt of the 6th duke of Atholl (1814-
1864) to close the glen to the public was successfully contested
by the Scottish Rights of Way Society. The group of mountains —
Cam nan Gabhar (3505 ft.), Ben y Gloe (3671) and Cam Liath
(3193) — on its left side dominate the lower half of the glen.
Marble of good quality is occasionally quarried in the glen, and
the rock formation has attracted the attention of geologists
from the time of James Hutton.
GLEYRE, MARC CHARLES GABRIEL (1 806-1874), French
painter, of Swiss origin, was born at Chevilly in the canton of
Vaud on the 2nd of May 1806. His father and mother died
while he was yet a boy of some eight or nine years of age; and
he was brought up by an uncle at Lyons, who sent him to the
industrial school of that city. Going up to Paris a lad of
122
GLIDDON— GLINKA, M. I.
seventeen or nineteen, he spent four years in close artistic study —
in Hersent's studio, in Suisse's academy, in the galleries of the
Louvre. To this period of laborious application succeeded
four years of meditative inactivity in Italy, where he became
acquainted with Horace Vernet and Leopold Robert; and six
years more were consumed in adventurous wanderings in Greece,
Egypt, Nubia and Syria. At Cairo he was attacked with
ophthalmia, and in the Lebanon he was struck down by fever;
and he returned to Lyons in shattered health. On his recovery
he proceeded to Paris, and, fixing his modest studio in the rue
de University began carefully to work out the conceptions which
had been slowly shaping themselves in his mind. Mention is
made of two decorative panels — " Diana leaving the Bath," and
a "Young Nubian" — as almost the first fruits of his genius;
but these did not attract public attention till long after, and the
painting by which he practically opened his artistic career was
the " Apocalyptic Vision of St John," sent to the Salon of 1840.
This was followed in 1843 by " Evening," which at the time
received a medal of the second class, and afterwards became
widely popular under the title of the Lost Illusions. It represents
a poet seated on the bank of a river, with drooping head and
wearied frame, letting his lyre slip from a careless hand, and
gazing sadly at a bright company of maidens whose song is
slowly dying from his ear as their boat is borne slowly from his
sight.
In spite of the success which attended these first ventures,
Gleyre retired from public competition, and spent the rest of
his life in quiet devotion to his own artistic ideals, neither seeking
the easy applause of the crowd, nor turning his art into a means
of aggrandizement and wealth. After 1845, when he exhibited
the " Separation of the Apostles," he contributed nothing to
the Salon except the " Dance of the Bacchantes " in 1849. Yet
he laboured steadily and was abundantly productive. He had
an " infinite capacity of taking pains," and when asked by what
method he attained to such marvellous perfection of workman-
ship, he would reply, " En y pensant toujours," A long series
of years often intervened between the first conception of a piece
and its embodiment, and years not unfrequently between the
first and the final stage of the embodiment itself. A landscape
was apparently finished; even his fellow artists would consider
it done; Gleyre alone was conscious that he had not " found
his sky." Happily for French art this high-toned laboriousness
became influential on a large number of Gleyre's younger
contemporaries; for when Delaroche gave up his studio of
instruction he recommended his pupils to apply to Gleyre, who
at once agreed to give them lessons twice a week, and character-
istically refused to take any fee or reward. By instinct and
principle he was a confirmed celibate: " Fortune, talent, health,
— he had everything; but he was married," was his lamentation
over a friend. Though he lived in almost complete retirement
from public life, he took a keen interest in politics, and was a
voracious reader of political journals. For a time, indeed, under
Louis Philippe, his studio had been the rendezvous of a sort
of liberal club. To the last — amid all the disasters that befell
his country — he was hopeful of the future, " la raison finira bien
par avoir raison." It was while on a visit to the Retrospective
Exhibition, opened on behalf of the exiles from Alsace and
Lorraine, that he died suddenly on the 5th of May 1874. He
left unfinished the " Earthly Paradise," a noble picture, which
Taine has described as " a dream of innocence, of happiness
and of beauty — Adam and Eve standing in the sublime and
joyous landscape of a paradise enclosed in mountains," — a
worthy counterpart to the " Evening." Among the other
productions of his genius are the " Deluge," which represents
two angels speeding above the desolate earth, from which the
destroying waters have just begun to retire, leaving visible
behind them the ruin they have wrought; the "Battle of the
Lemanus," a piece of elaborate design, crowded but not cumbered
with figures, and giving fine expression to the movements of
the various bands of combatants and fugitives; the " Prodigal
Son," in which the artist has ventured to add to the parable
the new element of mother's love, greeting the repentant youth
with a welcome that shows that the mother's heart thinks less
of the repentance than of the return; "Ruth and Boaz";
" Ulysses and Nausicaa "; " Hercules at the feet of Omphale ";
the " Young Athenian," or, as it is popularly called, " Sappho ";
"Minerva and the Nymphs"; "Venus ird^/Ltos"; " Daphnis
and Ohloe*"; and "Love and the Parcae." Nor must it be
omitted that he left a considerable number of drawings and water-
colours, and that we are indebted to him for a number of portraits,
among which is the sad face of Heine, engraved in the Revue des
deux tnondes for April 1852. In Clement's catalogue of his
works there are 683 entries, including sketches and studies.
See Fritz Berthoud in BibHotheaue universellc de Geneve (1874);
Albert de Montet, Diet, biographtque des Genevois et des Vaudois
(1877); and Vie de Charles Gleyre (1877), written by his friend,
Charles Clement, and illustrated by 30 plates from his works.
GLIDDON, GEORGE ROBINS (1800-1857), British Egyptolo-
gist, was born in Devonshire in 1809. His father, a merchant,
was United States consul at Alexandria, and there Gliddon
was taken at an early age. He became United States vice-
consul, and took a great interest in Egyptian antiquities. Sub-
sequently he lectured in the United States and succeeded in
rousing considerable attention to the subject of Egyptology
generally. He died at Panama in 1857. His chief work was
Ancient Egypt (1850, ed. 1853). He wrote also Memoir on the
Cotton of Egypt (1841); Appeal to the Antiquaries of Europe
on the Destruction of the Monuments of Egypt (1841); Discourses
on Egyptian Archaeology (1841); Types of Mankind (1854),
in conjunction with J. C. Nott and others; Indigenous Races
of the Earth (1857), also in conjunction with Nott and others.
GLINKA, FEDOR NIKOLAEVICH (1 788-1849), Russian poet
and author, was born at Smolensk in 1788, and was specially
educated for the army. In 1803 he obtained a commission
as an officer, and two years later took part in the Austrian cam-
paign. His tastes for literary pursuits, however, soon induced
him to leave the service, whereupon he withdrew to his estates
in the government of Smolensk, and subsequently devoted
most of his time to study or travelling about Russia. Upon the
invasion of the French in 181 2, he re-entered the Russian army r
and remained in active service until the end of the campaign
in 1 814. Upon the elevation of Count Milarodovich to the military
governorship of St Petersburg, Glinka was appointed colonel
under his command. On account of his suspected revolutionary
tendencies he was, in 1826, banished to Petrozavodsk, but he
nevertheless retained his honorary post of president of the
Society of the Friends of Russian Literature, and was after a
time allowed to return to St Petersburg. Soon afterwards he
retired completely from public life, and died on his estates in
1849.
Glinka's martial songs have special reference to the Russian
military campaigns of his time. He is known also as the author of
the descriptive poem Kareliya, &c. (Carelia, or the Captivity of
Martha Joanovna) (1830), and of a metrical paraphrase of the book
of Job. His fame as a military author is chiefly due to his Pisma
Russkago Qfitsera (Letters of a Russian Officer) (8 vols., 1815-1816).
GLINKA, MICHAEL IVANOVICH (1803-1857), Russian
musical composer, was born at Novospassky, a village in the
Smolensk government, on the 2nd of June 1803. His early
life he spent at home, but at the age of thirteen we find him
at the Blagorodrey Pension, St Petersburg, where he studied
music under Carl Maier and John Field, the Irish composer and
pianist, who had settled in Russia. We are told that in his
seventeenth year he had already begun to compose romances
and other minor vocal pieces; but of these nothing now is known.
His thorough musical training did not begin till the year 1830,
when he went abroad and stayed for three years in Italy, to study
the works of old and modern Italian masters. His thorough
knowledge of the requirements of the voice may be connected
with this course of study. His training as a composer was
finished under the contrapuntist Dehn, with whom Glinka
stayed for several months at Berlin. In 1833 he returned to
Russia, and devoted himself to operatic composition. On the
27th of September (9th of October) 1836, took place the first
representation of his opera Life for the Tsar (the libretto by Baron
GLINKA, S. N.— GLOCKENSPIEL
123
de Rosen). This was the turning-point in Glinka's life,— for
the work was not only a great success, but in a manner became
the origin and basis of a Russian school of national music.
The story is taken from the invasion of Russia by the Poles
early in the 17 th century, and the hero is a peasant who sacrifices
his life for the tsar. Glinka has wedded this patriotic theme
to inspiring music His melodies, moreover, show distinct
affinity to the popular songs of the Russians, so that the term
" national " may justly be applied to them. His appointment
as imperial chapelmaster and conductor of the opera of St Peters-
burg was the reward of his dramatic successes. His second opera
Russian and Lyudmila, founded on Pushkin's poem, did not
appear till 1842; it was an advance upon Life for the Tsar
in its musical aspect, but made no impression upon the public.
In the meantime Glinka wrote an overture and four entre-actes
to Kukolnik's drama Prince K holms ky. In 1844 he went to
Paris, and hisJota Arragonesa (1847), and the symphonic work
on Spanish themes, Une Nuit a Madrid, reflect the musical results
of two years' sojourn in Spain. On his return to St Petersburg
he wrote and arranged several pieces for the orchestra, amongst
which the so-called Kamarinskaya achieved popularity beyond
the limits of Russia. He also composed numerous songs and
romances. In 1857 he went abroad for the third time; he now
wrote his autobiography, orchestrated Weber's Invitation & la
valse, and began to consider a plan for a musical version of
Gogol's Tarass-Boulba. Abandoning the idea and becoming
absorbed in a passion for ecclesiastical music he went to Berlin
to study the ancient church modes. Here he died suddenly
on the 2nd of February 1857.
GLINKA, SERGY NIKOLAEVICH (1 774-1847), Russian
author, the elder brother of Fedor N. Glinka, was born at
Smolensk in 1774. In 1796 he entered the Russian army, but
after three years' service retired with the rank of major. He
afterwards employed himself in the education of youth and in
literary pursuits, first in the Ukraine, and subsequently at
Moscow, where he died in 1847. His poems are spirited and
patriotic; he wrote also several dramatic pieces, and translated
Young's Night Thoughts.
Among his numerous prose works the most important from an
historical point of view are: Russkoe Chtenie (Russian Reading:
Historical Memorials of Russia in the 18th and igth Centuries) (2
vols., 1845) ; Istoriya Kossii, &c. (History of Russia for the use of
Youth) (10 vols., 1817-1819, 2nd ed. 1822, 3rd ed. 1824); Istoriya
Armyan, &c. (History of the Migration of the Armenians of Azerbijan
from Turkey to Russia) (1831); and his contributions to the Russky
Vyestnik (Russian Messenger), a monthly periodical, edited by him
from 1808 to 1820.
GLOBE-FISH, or Sea-Hedgehog, the names by which some
sea-fishes are known, which have the remarkable faculty of
inflating their stomachs with air. They belong to the families
Diodontidae and Tetrodontidae. Their jaws resemble the sharp
beak of a parrot, the bones and teeth being coalesced into one
mass with a sharp edge. In the Diodonts there is no mesial
division of the jaws, whilst in the Tetrodonts such a division
exists, so that they appear to have two teeth above and two
Fig. 1. — Diodon macula tus.
below. By means of these jaws they are able to break off
branches of corals, and to masticate other hard substances
on which they feed. Usually they are of a short, thick, cylindrical
shape, with powerful fins (fig. 1). Their body is covered with
thick skin, without scales, but provided with variously formed
spines, the size and extent of which vary in the different species.
When they inflate their capacious stomachs with air, they assume
a globular form, and the spines protrude, forming a more or less
formidable defensive armour (fig. 2). A fish thus blown out
turns over and floats belly upwards, driving before the wind
and waves. Many of these fishes are highly poisonous when
eaten, and fatal accidents have occurred from this cause. It
appears that they acquire poisonous qualities from their fooa,
which frequently consists of decomposing or poisonous animal
matter, such as would impart, and often does impart, similar
Fig. 2. — Diodon maculatus (inflated).
deleterious qualities to other fish. They are most numerous
between the tropics and in the seas contiguous to them, but a
few species live in large rivers, as, for instance, the Tetrodon
fahaka, a fish well known to all travellers on the Nile. Nearly
100 different species are known.
GLOBIGERINA, A. d'Orbigny, a genus of Perforate Fora-
minifera (q.v.) of pelagic habit, and formed of a conical spiral
aggregate of spheroidal chambers with a crescentic mouth. The
shells accumulate at the bottom of moderately deep seas to form
" Globigerina ooze " and are preserved thus in the chalk.
Hastigerina only differs in the " flat " or nautiloid spiral.
GLOCKENSPIEL, or Orchestral Bells (Fr. carillon; Ger.
Glockenspiel, Stahlhartnonika; Ital. campanelli; Med. Lat.
tintinnabulum, cymbalum, bombulum), an instrument of percussion
of definite musical pitch, used in the orchestra, and made in
two or three different styles. The oldest form of glockenspiel,
seen in illuminated MSS. of the middle ages, consists of a set
of bells mounted on a frame and played by one performer by
means of steel hammers. The name " bell " is now generally
a misnomer, other forms of metal or wood having been found
more convenient. The pyramid-shaped glockenspiel, formerly
used in the orchestra for simple rhythmical effects, consists
of an octave of semitone, hemispherical bells, placed one above
the other and fastened to an iron rod which passes through the
centre of each, the bells being of graduated sizes and diminishing
in diameter as the pitch rises. The lyre-shaped glockenspiel,
or steel harmonica (Stahlharmonika) , is a newer model, which has
instead of bells twelve or more bars of steel, graduating in size
according to their pitch. These bars are fastened horizontally
across two bars of steel set perpendicularly in a steel frame in
the shape of a lyre. The bars are struck by little steel hammers
attached to whalebone sticks.
Wagner has used the glockenspiel with exquisite judgment in the
fire scene of the last act of Die Walkure ana in the peasants' waltz
in the last scene of Die Meister singer. When chords are written for
the glockenspiel, as in Mozart's Magic Flute, the keyed harmonica 1
is used. It consists of a keyboard having a little hammer attached
to each key, which strikes a bar of glass or steel when the key is
depressed. The performer, being able to use both hands, can play
a melody with full harmonies, scale and arpeggio passages in single
and double notes. A peal of hemispherical bells was specially
constructed for Sir Arthur Sullivan's Golden Legend. It consists of
four bells constructed of bell-metal about 1 in. thick, the largest
measuring 27 in. in diameter, the smallest 23. They are fixed on a
stand one above the other, with a clearance of about } in. between
them; the rim of the lowest and largest bell is 15 in. from the foot
of the stand. The bells are struck by mallets, which are of two
kinds — a pair of hard wood for forte passages, and a pair covered
1 See " The Keyed Harmonica improved by H. Klein of Pressburg,"
article in the Allg. musik. Ztg., Bd. i. pp. 675-699 (Leipzig, 1798):
also Becker, p. 254, Bartel.
124
GLOGAU— GLOSS, GLOSSARY
with wash-leather for piano effects. The peal was unique at the
time it was made for the Golden Legend, but a smaller bell of the same
shape, J in. thick, with a diameter measuring about 16 in., specially
made for the performance of Liszt's 5/ Elizabeth, when conducted
by the composer in London, evidently suggested the idea for the
peal. (K. S.)
GLOGAU, a fortified town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Silesia, 59 m. N.W. from Breslau, on the railway to Frankfort-
on-Oder. Pop. (190s) 23461. It is built partly on an island
and partly on the left bank of the Oder; and owing to the
fortified enceinte having been pushed farther afield, new quarters
have been opened up. Among its most important buildings
are the cathedral, in the Gothic, and a castle (now used as a
courthouse), in the Renaissance style, two other Roman Catholic
and three Protestant churches, a new town-hall, a synagogue,
a military hospital, two classical schools (Gymnasien) and
several libraries. Owing to its situation on a navigable river
and at the junction of several lines of railway, Glogau carries
on an extensive trade, which is fostered by a variety of local
industries, embracing machinery-building, tobacco, beer, oil,
sugar and vinegar. It has also extensive lithographic works,
and its wool market is celebrated.
In the beginning of the nth century Glogau, even then a
populous and fortified town, was able to withstand a regular
siege by the emperor Henry V.; but in 11 57 the duke of Silesia,
finding he could not hold out against Frederick Barbarossa,
set it on fire. In 1252 the town, which had been raised from its
ashes by Henry I., the Bearded, became the capital of a princi-
pality of Glogau, and in 1482 town and district were united to
the Bohemian crown. In the course of the Thirty Years' War
Glogau suffered greatly. The inhabitants, who had become
Protestants soon after the Reformation, were dragooned into
conformity by Wallenstein's soldiery; and the Jesuits received
permission to build themselves a church and a college. Captured
by the Protestants in 1632, and recovered by the Imperialists
in 1633, the town was again captured by the Swedes in 1642,
and continued in Protestant hands till the peace of Westphalia
in 1648, when the emperor recovered it. In 1741 the Prussians
took the place by storm, and during the Seven Years' War it
formed an important centre of operations for the Prussian forces.
After the battle of Jena (1806) it fell into the hands of the French;
and was gallantly held by Laplane, against the Russian and
Prussian besiegers, after the battle of Katzbach in August 18 13
until the 17th of the following April.
See Minsberg, Geschickte der Stadt und Fe stung Glogau' s (2 vols.,
Glogau, 1853); and H. von Below, Zur Geschickte des Jahres 1806.
Glogau s Bdagerung und Verteidigung (Berlin, 1893).
GLORIOSA, in botany, a small genus of plants belonging to
the natural order Liliaceae, native of tropical Asia and Africa.
They are bulbous plants, the slender stems of which support
themselves by tendril-like prolongations of the tips of some
of the narrow generally lanceolate leaves. The flowers, which
are borne in the leaf-axils at the ends of the stem, are very
handsome, the six, generally narrow, petals are bent back and
stand erect, and are a rich orange yellow or red in colour; the
six stamens project more or less horizontally from the place
of insertion of the petals. They are generally grown in cultiva-
tion as stove-plants.
GLORY (through the 0. Fr. glorie, modern gloire, from Lat.
gloria, cognate with Gr. xXcfe, kXfeir), a synonym for fame,
renown, honour, and thus used of anything which reflects honour
and renown on its possessor. In the phrase " glory of God "
the word implies both the honour due to the Creator, and His
majesty and effulgence. In liturgies of the Christian Church
are the Gloria Patri, the doxology beginning " Glory be to the
Father," the response Gloria tibi, Domine, " Glory be to Thee,
O Lord,** sung or said after the giving out of the Gospel for
the day, and the Gloria in exedsis, " Glory be to God on
high/* sung during the Mass and Communion service. A
" glory " is the term often used as synonymous with halo,
nimbus or aureola (?.?.) for the ring of light encircling the
head or figure in a pictorial or other representation of sacred
persons.
GLOSS, GLOSSARY, &c. The Greek word y\uxrcra (whence
our " gloss "), meaning originally a tongue, then a language or
dialect, gradually came to denote any obsolete,foreign, provincial,,
technical or otherwise peculiar word or use of a word (see Arist,
Rhet. iii. 3. 2). The making of collections and explanations 1 of
such y\uxro*OL was at a comparatively early date a weU-recognized
form of literary activity. Even in the 5th century B.C., among
the many writings of Abdera was included a treatise entitled
Ifcpl 'Opffpov tl dpdoejrelrjs tcai y\oxr<T&jv. It was not, however r
until the Alexandrian period that the -yXcodwypdtfxu, glosso-
graphers (writers of glosses), or glossators, became numerous.
Of many of these perhaps even the names have perished; but
Athenaeus the grammarian alone (c. a.d. 250) alludes to no
fewer than thirty-five. Among the earliest was Philetas of Cos
(d. c. 200 B.C.), the elegiac poet, to whom Aristarchus dedicated
the treatise Ilpds Qikirrav; he was the compiler of a lexico-
graphical work, arranged probably according to subjects, and
entitled "Arcucra or fyaxrerat (sometimes "Araicrot ybuxraai).
Next came his disciple Zenodotus of Ephesus (c. 280 B.C.), one of
the earliest of the Homeric critics and the compiler of rX&crcrcu
% Ofirif>iKal; Zenodotus in turn was succeeded by his greater pupil
Aristophanes of Byzantium (c. 200 B.C.), whose great compilation
Hepi Xifecui' (still partially preserved in that of Pollux), is known
to have included 'Arrucai X££«s, Aatcoopuccd y\uxTcrai t and the
like. From the school of Aristophanes issued more than one
glossographer of name, — Diodorus, Artemidorus (rX&rtrcu, and
a collection of \e£eis bif/aprvriKal), Nicander of Colophon
(rXaxHrcu, of which some twenty-six fragments still survive),
and Aristarchus (c. 210 B.C.), the famous critic, whose numerous
labours included an arrangement of the Homeric vocabulary
(\££eis) in the order of the books. Contemporary with the
last named was Crates of Mallus, who, besides making some
new contributions to Greek lexicography and dialectology,
was the first to create at Rome a taste for similar investigations
in connexion with the Latin idioms. From his school proceeded
Zenodotus of Mallus, the compiler of 'ESvucat X££as or yXaxraai,
a work said to have been designed chiefly to support the views
of the school of Pergamum as to the allegorical interpretation of
Homer.* Of later date were Didymus (Chalcenterus, c. 50 B.C.),
who made collections of X£{ets rpaycabovyivax ito>/uuxai, &c; Apol-
lonius Sophista (c. 20 B.C.), whose Homeric Lexicon has come
down to modern times; and Neoptolemus, known distinctively as
6 yXwrcroyp&<lxx. In the beginning of the 1st century of the
Christian era Apion, a grammarian and rhetorician at Rome
during the reigns of Tiberius and Claudius, followed up the labours
of Aristarchus and other predecessors with VKuxraai ( 0/ii7pt*ot,
and a treatise Ilcpi rrjs TujucuKip diaXkerov; Heliodorus or
Herodorus was another almost contemporary glossographer;
Erotian also, during the reign of Nero, prepared a special glossary
for the writings of Hippocrates, still preserved. To this period
also Pamphilus, the author of the Aequoy, from which Diogenian
and Julius Vestinus afterwards drew so largely, most probably
belonged. In the following century one of the most prominent
workers in this department of literature was Aelius Herodianus,
whose treatise Uepl /iopqpovs X££«ds has been edited in modern
times, and whose 'Em/icpur/iot we still possess in an abridgment;
also Pollux, Diogenian (Aefts Tavro5aTrij)y Julius Vestinus
('Emropi) twv Hafi<t>LXov yXuxrowp) and especially Phrynichus,
who flourished towards the close of the 2nd century, and whose
Eclogae nominum et verborum Atticorum has frequently been
edited. To the 4th century belongs Ammonius of Alexandria
(c. 380), who wrote Ilcpt bfjoitav koX 6ia<£6pw*' Xtfewy, a dictionary
of words used in senses different from those in which they had
~ l The history of the literary gloss in its proper sense has given
rise to the common English U9e of the word to mean an interpretation,
especially in a disingenuous, sinister or false way; the form " ekwe,"
more particularly associated with explaining away , palliating or
talking speciously, is simply an alternative spelling. The wonfhas
thus to some extent influenced, or been influenced by, the meaning
of the etymologkally different " gloss " — lustrous surface (from the
same root as " glass "; cf. " glow "), in its extended sense of " out-
ward fair seeming."
1 See Matthaei, Glossaria Graeca (Moscow, 1774/5)-
GLOSS, GLOSSARY
125
been employed by older and approved writers. Of somewhat
later date is the well-known Hesychius, whose often-edited
Aetuc6v superseded all previous works of the kind; Cyril, the
celebrated patriarch of Alexandria, also contributed somewhat
to the advancement of glossography by his Swaryoryi) t&v *pte
Sia<f>opov onuaxriav 5ta<^6pcos rovovukvw \e£«ov; while Orus,
Orion, Philozenus and the two Philemons also belong to this
period. The works of Photius, Suidas and Zonaras, as also the
Etymologicum magnum, to which might be added the Lexica
Sangermania and the Lexica Segueriana, are referred to in the
article Dictionary.
To a special category of technical glossaries belongs a large
and important class of works relating to the law-compilations of
Justinian. Although the emperor forbade under severe penalties
all commentaries (foro/u^Mara) on his legislation (Const. Deo
Auctore, sec. 12; Const. Tanta, sec. 21), yet indices (Xvduces)
and references Orap&rirXa), as well as translations (Ipunvtiax
icard iro5a) and paraphrases (IppnvtLax ek tc\otos), were
expressly permitted, and lavishly produced. Among the
numerous compilers of alphabetically arranged X£(ets Taj/icu/tai
or AaretPtJcal, and y\wrcr<u vofiucal (glossae nomicae),
Cyril and Philoxenus are particularly noted; but the authors
of xapaypa<t>ai y or onuGdxrets, whether li&dtv or iawfev
kAu&oi, are too numerous to mention. A collection of these
xap ay pa<f>al twv Tcakauav, combined with vkai Trapaypa<t>al on
the revised code called rd /WiXikA, was made about the middle
of the 1 2 th century by a disciple of Michael Hagiotheodorita.
This work is known as the Glossa ordinaria twp Patriku&v. 1
In Italy also, during the period of the Byzantine ascendancy,
various glossae (glosae) and scholia on the Justinian code were
produced 2 ; particularly the Turin gloss (reprinted by Savigny),
to which, apart from later additions, a date prior to 1000 is
usually assigned. After the total extinction of the Byzantine
authority in the West the study of law became one of the free
arts, and numerous schools for its cultivation were instituted.
Among the earliest of these was that of Bologna, where Pepo
(1075) and Irnerius (1100-1118) began to give their expositions.
They had a numerous following, who, besides delivering exegetical
lectures (" ordinariae " on the Digest and Code, " extraordin-
ariae " on the rest of the Corpus juris cmlis), also wrote
Glossae, first interlinear, afterwards marginal. 8 The series
of these glossators was closed by Accursius (q.v.) with the com-
pilation known as the Glossa ordinaria or magistralis, the
authority of which soon became very great, so that ultimately
it came to be a recognized maxim, " Quod non agnoscit glossa,
non agnoscit curia." 4 For some account of the glossators on
the canon law, see Canon Law. \~i
• In late classical and medieval Latin, glosa was the vulgar and
romanic (e.g. in the early 8th century Corpus Glossary, and the
late 8th century Leiden Glossary), glossa the learned form
(Varro, De ling. Lat.vu. 10; Auson. Epigr. 127. 2 (86. 2), written
in Greek, Quint, i. 1. 34). The diminutive glossula occurs in
Diom. 426. 26 and elsewhere. The same meaning has glossarium
(Gell. xviii. 7. 3 glosaria=y\axTcr6,ptov), which also occurs in the
modern sense of " glossary " (Papias, " unde glossarium dictum
quod omnium fere partium glossas contineat "), as do the words
glossa, glossae, glossulae, glossemata (Steinmeyer, Alth. Gloss, iv.
408, 4i°)> expressed in later times by dictionariutn, dictionarius,
vocabularium, vocabularius (see Dictionary). Glossa and
1 See Labb6, Veteres glossae verborum juris quae passim in BasUicis
reperiuntur (1606); Otto, Thesaurus juris Romani, in. (1697);
Stephens, Thesaurus linguae Graecae, viii. (1825).
1 See Biener, Geschichte der Novellen, p. 229 sqq.
* Irnerius himself is with some probability believed to have been
the author of the Brachylogus (q.v.),
4 Thus Fil. Villani (De ortgine cwitaiis Florentine, ed. 1847, p. 23),
speaking of the Glossator Accursius, says of the Glossae that " tantae
auctoritatis gratiaeque fuere, ut omnium consensu publice appro
barentur, et reiectis aliis, quibuscumque penitus abolitis, solae
juxta textum legum adpositae sunt et ubique terrarum sine contro-
versia pro legibus celebrantur, ita ut nefas sit, non secus quam
textui, Glossis Accursii contraire." For similar testimonies see
Bayle's Dictionnaire, s.v. " Accursius," and Rudorff, Rom. Rechts-
teschichte, i. 338 (1857).
glossema (Varro vii. 34. 107; Asinius Gallus, ap. Suet. De gramm.
22; Fest. 166 b . 8, 181*. 18; Quint, i. 8. 15, &c.) are synonyms,
signifying (a) the word which requires explanation; or (b)
such a word (called lemma) together with the interpretation
(interpretamentum); or (c) the interpretation alone (so first
in the Anecd. Helv.).
Latin, like Greek glossography, had its origin chiefly in the
practical wants of students and teachers, of whose names we
only know a few. No doubt even in classical times collections
of glosses (" glossaries ") were compiled, to which allusion seems
to be made by Varro (De ling. Lot. vii. 10, " tesca, aiunt sancta esse
qui glossas scripserunt ") and Verrius-Festus (166 b . 6, " naucum
. . . glossematorum . . . scriptores f abae grani quod haereat in
fabulo "), but it is not known to what extent Varro, for instance,
used them, or retained their original forms. The scriptores
glossematorum were distinguished from the learned glossographers
like Aurelius Opilius (cf. his Musae, ap. Suet. De gramm. 6;
Gell. i. 25. 17; Varro vii. 50, 65, 67, 70, 79, 106), Servius Clodius
(Varro vii. 70. 106), Aelius Stilo, L. Ateius PhiloL, whose liber
glossematorum Festus mentions (181 B . 18). ... ... J .; .
Verrius Flaccus and his epitomists, Festus and Paulus, have
preserved many treasures of early glossographers who are now lost to
us. He copied Aelius Stilo (Reitzenstein, Verr. Forsch.," in vol. i.
of Breslauer philol. Abhandl., p. 88; Kriegshammer, Comm. phil.
Jen. vii. 1. 74 sqq.), Aurelius Opilius, Ateius PhiloL, the treatise
De obscuris Catonis (Reitzenstein, ib. 56. 92). He often made use of
Varro (Willers, De Verrio Flacco, Halle, 1898), though not of his
ling. lot. (Kriegshammer, 74 sqq.); and was also acquainted with
later glossographers. Perhaps we owe to him the glossae asbestos
(Goetz, Corpus, iv.; id., Rhetn. Mus. xl. 328). Festus was used by
Ps.-Philoxenus (Dammann, " De Festo Ps.-Philoxeni auctore,
Comm. Ien. v. 26 sqq.), as appears from the glossae ab absens (Goetz r
11 De Astrabae PI. fragment is," Ind. Ien., 1895, Hi. sqq.). The
distinct connexions with Nonius need not be ascribed to borrowing,
as Pliniusand Caper may have been used (P. Schmidt, De Non. Marc,
audi, gramm. 145; Nettleship, Lect. and Ess. 229; Fr6hde, De Non.
Marc, et Verrio Flacco, 2; W. M. Lindsay, " Non. Marc," Diet, of
Repub. Latin, 100, &c).
The bilingual (Gr.-Lat., Lat.-Gr.) glossaries also point to an early
period, and were used by the grammarians (1) to explain the peculi-
arities (idiomata) of the Latin language by comparison with the
Greek, and (2) tor instruction in the two languages (Charis. 254.
9, 291. 7, 292. 16 sqq. ; Marschall, De Q. Remmii P. libris gramm. 22 ;
Goetz, Corp. gloss, lot. ii. 6).
For the purposesof grammatical instruction (Greek for the Romans,
Latin for the Hellenistic world), we have systematic works, a trans-
lation of Dositheus and the so-called Hermeneutica, parts of which
may be dated as early as the 3rd century a.d., and lexica (cf.
Schoenemann, De lexicts ant. 122; Knaack, in Phil. Rundsch., 1884,
372; Traube, in Byzant. Ztschr. iii. 605; David, Comment. Ien. v.
197 sqq.).
The most important remains of bilingual glossaries are two well-
known lexica; one (Latin-Greek), formerly attributed (but wrongly,
see Rudorff, in Abh. Akad. Berl., 1865, 220 sq.; Loewe, Prodr. 183,
190; Mommsen, C.I.L. v. 8120; A. Dammann, De Festo Pseudo-
pkiloxeni auctore, 12 sqq.; Goetz, Corp. ii. 1-2 12) to Philoxenus
(consul a.d. 525), clearly consists of two closely allied glossaries
(containing glosses to Latin authors, as Horace, Cicero, Juvenal,
Virgil, the Jurists, and excerpts from Festus), worked into one by
some Greek grammarian, or a person who worked under Greek
influence (his alphabet runs A, B, G, D, E, &c.) ; the other (Greek-
Latin) is ascribed to Cyril (Stephanus says it was found at the end
of some of his writings), and is considered to be a compilation of
not later than the 6tn century (Macrobius is used, and the Cod.
Harl., which is the source of all the other MSS., belongs to the 7th
century); cf. Goetz, Corp. ii. 215-483, 487-506, praef. ibid. p.
xx. sqq. Furthermore, the bilingual medico-botanic glossaries had
their origin in old lists of plants, as Ps.-Apuleius in the treatise
De herbarum virtutibus, and Ps.-Dioscorides (cf. M. Wellmann,
Hermes, xxxiii. 360 sqq., who thinks that the latter work is based on
Pamphilus, q.v. ; Goetz, Corp. iii.); the glossary, entitled Herme-
neuma f printed from the Cod. Vatic, reg. Christ. 1260, contains names
of diseases.
Just as grammar developed, so we see the original form of the
glosses extend. If massucum edacem in Placidus indicates the
original form, the allied gloss of Festus (masucium edacem a man'
dendo scilicet) shows an etymological addition. Another extension
consists in adding special references to the original source, as e.g.
at the gloss Ocrem (Fest. i8i\ 17), which is taken from Ateius
Philol. In this way collections arose like the priscorum verborum
cum exemfUs, a title given by Fest. (2i8 b . 10) to a particular work.
Further the glossae veterum (Charis. 242. 10) ; the glossae antiquitatum
(id. 229. 30); the idonei vocum antiquarum enarratores (Gell. xviii.
6. 8); the libri return verborumque veterum (id. xiii. 24. 25). L.
126
GLOSS, GLOSSARY
Cincius, according to Festus (330b. 2), wrote De verbis priscis ; Santra,
De antiquikUe verborum (Festus 277*. 2).
Of Latin glossaries of the first four centuries of the Roman emperors
few traces are left, if we except Verrius-Festus. Charis, 220. 30,
speaks of glossae anliquitatum and 242. 10 of glossae veterum, but it
is not known whether these glosses are identic, or in what relation
they stand to the glossemata per litteras Latinos ordine composite,
which were incorporated with the works of this grammarian according
to the index in Keil, p. 6. Latin glosses occur in Ps.-Philoxenus,
and Nonius must have used Latin glossaries; there exists a glos-
sarium Plautinum (Ritschl, Op. ii. 234 sqq.), and the bilingual
glossaries have been used by the later grammarian Marty rius; but
of this early period we know by name only Fulgentius and Placidus,
who is sometimes called Luctatius Placidus, by confusion with
the Sta tius scholiast, with whom the glossae Placidi have no con-
nexion. All that we know of him tends to show that he lived in
North Africa (like Fulgentius and Nonius and perhaps Charisius)
in the 6th century, from whence his glosses came to Spain, and were
used by Isidore and the compiler of the Liber glossarum (see below).
These glosses we know from (1) Codices Romani (15th and 16th
century); (2) the Liber glossarum; (3) the Cod. Paris, nov. acquis.
1298 (saec. xi.), a collection of glossaries, in which the Placidus-
glosses are kept separate from the others, and still retain traces of
their original order (cf. the editions published by A. Mai, Class,
auct. iii. 427-50J, and Deuerling, 1875; Goetz, Corp. v.; P. Karl,
" De Placidi glossis," Comm. Ien. vii. 2. 99, 103 sqq.; Loewe,
Gloss. Norn. 86; F. Bucheler, in Thesaur. gloss, emend.). His
collection includes glosses from Plautus and Lucilius.
(Fabius Planciades) Fulgentius (c. a.d. 468-533) wrote Expositio
sermonum antiquorum (ed. Rud. Helm, Lips. 1898 ; cf . Wessner, Com-
ment. Ien. vi. 2. 135 sqq.) in sixty-two paragraphs, each containing a
lemma (sometimes two or three) with an explanation giving quotations
and names of authors. Next to him come the glossae Nontanae, which
arose from the contents of the various paragraphs in Nonius Mar-
cellus' work being written in the margin without the words of the
text; these epitomized glosses were alphabetized and afterwards
copied for other collections (see Goetz, Corp. v. 637 sqq., id. v.
Praef. xxxv. ; Onions and Lindsay, Harvard Stud. ix. 67 sqq. ;
Lindsay, Nonii praef. xxL). In a similar way arose the glossae
Eucherii or glossae sbiritales secundum Eucherium episcopum found
in many MSS. (cf. K. Wotke, Site. Ber. Akad. Wien f cxv. 425 sqq. ;
=the Corpus Glossary, first part), which are an alphabetical extract
from the formulae spiritalis inteUigentdae of St Eucherius, bishop of
Lyons, c. 434-450. 1
Other sources were the Differentiae, already known to Placidus and
much used in the medieval glossaries; and the Synonyma Ciceronis;
cf. Goetz, " Der Liber glossarum," in Abhandl. der philol.-hist. CI.
der sacks. Gesellsch. d. Wiss., 1893, p. 215; id. in Berl. philol.
Wochenschr., 1890, p. 195 sqq.; Beck, in Wochenschr., p. 297 sqq.,
and Sittls, ibid. p. 267; Archiv f. lot. Lex. vi. 594; W. L. Mahne,
(Leid. 1850, 1 851); also various collections of scholia. By the side
of the scholiasts come the grammarians, as Charisius, or an ars similar
to that ascribed to him; further, treatises de dubiis generibus, the
scriptores orthographici (especially Caper and Beda), and Priscianus,
the chief grammarian of the middle ages (cf. Goetz in Melanges
Boissier, 224).
During the 6th, 7th and 8th centuries glossography developed in
various ways; old glossaries were worked up into new forms, or
amalgamated with more recent ones. It ceased, moreover, to be
exclusively Latin-Latin, and interpretations in Germanic (Old High
German, Anglo-Saxon) and Romanic dialects took the place of or
were used side by side with earlier Latin ones. The origin and
development of the late classic and medieval glossaries preserved
1 The so-called Malberg glosses, found in various texts of the Lex
Salica, are not glosses in the ordinary sense of the word, but precious
remains of the parent of the present literary Dutch, namely, the Low
German dialect spoken by the Salian Franks who conquered Gaul
from the Romans at the end of the §th century. It is supposed that
the conquerors brought their Frankish law with them, either written
down, or by oral tradition; that they translated it into Latin for
the sake of the Romans settled in the country, and that the trans-
lators, not always knowing a proper Latin equivalent for certain
things or actions, retained in their translations the Frankish technical
names or phrases which they had attempted to translate into Latin.
E.g. in chapter ii., by the side of " porceuus lactans " (a sucking-pig),
we find the Frankish " chramnechaltio," lit. a stye-porker. The
person who stole such a pig (still kept in an enclosed place, in a stye)
was fined three times as much as one who stole a " porcellus de campo
qui sine matre vivere possit" as the Latin text has it, for which the
Malberg technical expression appears to have been ingymus, that is,
a one year (winter) old animal, i.e. a yearling. Nearly all these
glosses are preceded by " mal " or " malb," which is thought to be
a contraction for " malberg," the Frankish for " forum." The
antiquity and importance of these glosses for philology may be
realized from the fact that the Latin translation of the Lex Salica
probably dates from the latter end of the §th century. For further
information cf. Jac. Grimm's preface to Joh. Merkel's ed. (1850),
and H. Kern's notes to J. H. Hessels's ed. (London, 1880) of the Lex
Salica.
to us can be traced with certainty. While reading the manuscript
texts of classical authors, the Bible or early Christian and profane
writers, students and teachers, on meeting with any obscure or out-
of-the-way words which they considered difficult to remember or to
require elucidation, wrote above them, or in the margins, interpreta-
tions or explanations in more easy or better-known words. The
interpretations written above the line are called " interlinear,"
those written in the margins of the MSS. Il marginal glosses."
Apain, MSS. of the Bible or portions of the Bible were often provided
with literal translations in the vernacular written above the lines of
the Latin version (interlinear versions).
Of such glossed MSS. or translated texts, photographs may be
seen in the various palaeographical works published in recent years;
cf. The Palaeogr. Society, 1st ser. vol. ii. pis. p (Terentius MS. of
4th or 5th century, interlinear glosses) and 24 (Augustine's epistles,
6th or 7th century, marginal glosses); see further, plates 10, 12,
33> 40. 5<>-54» 57. 58. 63, 73, 75, 80; vol. iii. plates 10, 24, 31, 39,
44, 54, 80.
From these glossed or annotated MSS. and interlinear versions
glossaries were compiled; that is, the obscure and difficult Latin
words, together with the interpretations, were excerpted and
collected in separate lists, in the order in which they appeared, one
after the other, in the MSS., without any alphabetical arrangement,
but with the names of the authors or the titles of the books whence
they were taken, placed at the head of each separate collection or
chapter. In this arrangement each article by itself is called a gloss;
when reference is made only to the word explained it is called the
lemma, while the explanation is termed the interpretamentum.
In most cases the form of the lemma was retained just as it stood
in its source, and explained by a single word (tesca: sancta,
Varro vii. 10; elucidates 1 suavis, id. vii. 107 \ cf. Isid. Etym. i.
30. 1, " quid enim illud sit in uno verbo posit um declarat [scil.
glossa] ut conticescere est tacere "), so that we meet with lemmata
in the accusative, dative and genitive, likewise explained by words
in the same cases; the forms of verbs being treated in the same way.
Of this first stage in the making of glossaries, many traces are
preserved, for instance, in the late 8tn century Leiden Glossary
(Voss. 69, ed. J. H. Hessels), where chapter iii. contains words or
glosses excerpted from the Life of St Martin by Sulpicius Severus;
chs. iv., v. and xxxv. glosses from Rufinus; chs. vi. and xl. from
Gildas; chs. vii. to xxv. from books of the Bible (Paralipomenon ;
Proverbs, &c, &c.) ; chs. xxvi. to xlviii. from Isidore, the Vita S.
Anthonii, Cassiodorus, St Jerome, Cassianus, Orosius, St Augustine,
St Clement, Eucherius, St Gregory, the grammarians Donatus,
Phocas, &c. (See also Goetz, Corp. v. 546. 23-547. 6. and i. 5-40
from Ovid's Metam.; v. 657 from Apuleius, De aeo Socratis; cf.
Landgraf, in Arch. ix. 174).
By a second operation the glosses came to be arranged in alpha-
betical order according to the first letter of the lemma, but still re-
tained in separate chapters under the names of authors or the titles
of books. Of this second stage the Leiden Glossary contains traces
also: ch. i. (Verba de Canontbus) and ii. (Sermones de Regulis); see
Goetz, Corp. v. 529 sqq. (from Terentius), iv. 427 sqq. (Virgil).
The third operation collected all the accessible glosses in alpha-
betical order, in the first instance according to the first letters of the
lemmata. In this arrangement the names of the authors or the titles
of the books could no longer be preserved, and consequently the
sources whence the glosses were excerpted became uncertain,
especially if the grammatical forms of the lemmata had been
normalized.
A fourth arrangement collected the glosses according to the first
two letters of the lemmata, as in the Corpus Glossary and in the still
earlier Cod. Vat. 3321 (Goetz, Corp. iv. 1 sqq.), where even many
attempts were made to arrange them according to the first three
letters of the alphabet. A peculiar arrangement is seen in the
Glossae affatim (Goetz, Corp. iv. 471 sqq.), where all words are
alphabetized, first according to'the initial letter of the word (a, b, c,
Sec), and then further according to the first vowel in the word
(a, e, i, o, u).
No date or period can be assigned to any of the above stages or
arrangements. For instance, the first and second are both found in
the Leiden Glossary, which dates from the end of the 8th century,
whereas the Corpus Glossary, written in the beginning of the same
century, represents already the fourth stage.
For the purpose of identification titles have of late ^ears been
given to the various nameless collections of glosses, derived partly
from their first lemma, partly from other characteristics, as glossae
abstrusae; glossae abavus major and minor; g. affatim; g. ah absens;
g. abactor; g. Abba Pater; g. a, a; g. Vergmanae; g. nominum
(Goetz, Corp. ii. 563, iv.); g. Sangallenses (Warren, Transact.
Amer. Philof. Assoc, xv., 1885, p. 141 sqq.).
A chief landmark in glossography is represented by the Origines
(Etymologiae) of Isidore (d. 636), an encyclopedia in which he, like
Cassiodorus, mixed human and divine subjects together. In many
places we can trace his sources, but he also used glossaries. His work
became a great mine for later glossographers. In the tenth book he
deals with the etymology of many substantives and adjectives
arranged alphabetically according to the first letter of the words,
perhaps by himself from various sources. His principal source
is Servius, then the fathers of the Church (Augustine, Jerome,
GLOSS, GLOSSARY
127
Lactantius) and Donatus the grammarian. This tenth book was
also copied and used separately, and mixed up with other works
(cf. Loewe, Prodr. 167. 21). Isidore's Differentiae have also had a
great reputation.
Next comes the Liber gloss arum, chiefly compiled from Isidore,
but all articles arranged alphabetically; its author lived in Spain
c. a.d. 690-750; he has been called Ansileubus, but not in any of
the MSS. f some of which belong to the 8th century; hence this name
is suspected to be merely that of some owner of a copy of the book
fcf. Goetz, " Der Liber Glossarum," in Abhandl. air pkilol.-kist.
Class, der kdn. sacks. Ges. xiii., 1893; id., Corp. v., praef. xx. 161).
Here come, in regard to time, some Latin glossaries already largely
mixed with Germanic, more especially Anglo-Saxon interpretations :
(1) the Corpus Glossary (ed. J. H. Hessels), written in the beginning
of the 8th century, preserved in the library of Corpus Christi College,
Cambridge; (2) the Leiden Glossary (end of 8th century, ed. Hessels;
another edition by Plac. Glogger), preserved in the Leiden MS. Voss.
Q°* 69; (3) the Epinal Glossary, written in the beginning of the 9th
century 1 and published in facsimile by the London PhUol. Society
from a MS. in the town library at Epinal ; (4) the Glossae Amplo-
nianae, i.e. three glossaries preserved in the Amplonian library at
Erfurt, known as Erfurt 1 , Erfurt 1 and Erfurt*. The first, published
by Goetz (Corp. v. 337-401 ; cf . also Loewe, Prodr. 1 14 sqq.) with
the various readings of the kindred Epinal, consists, like the latter,
of different collections of glosses (also some from Aldhelm), some
arranged alphabetically according to the first letter of the lemma,
others according to the first two letters. The title of Erfurt* {incijrit
II. conscripHo gfosarum in unam) shows that it is also a combination
of various glossaries ; it is arranged alphabetically according to the
first two letters of the lemmata, and contains the affatim and abavus
maior glosses, also a collection from Aldhelm; Erfurt* are the
Glossae nominum, mixed also with Anglo-Saxon interpretations
(Goetz, Corf. ii. 563). The form in which the three Erfurt glossaries
have come down to us points back to the 8th century.
The first great glossary or collection of various glosses and glossaries
is that of Salomon, bishop of Constance, formerly abbot of St Gall,
who died a.d. 919. An edition of it in two parts was printed c. 1475
at Augsburg, with the headline Salemoms ecclesie Constantiensis
episcopi glosse ex illustrissimis collecte auctoribus. The oldest MSS.
of this work date from the nth century. Its sources are the Liber
glossarum (Loewe, Prodr. 234 sqq.), the glossary preserved in the
9th-century MS. Lot. Monac. 14429 (Goetz, " Lib. Gloss." 35 sqq.),
and the great Abavus Gloss (ta., ibid. p. 37; id., Corp. iv. praef.
xxxv ii.).
The Lib. glossarum has also been the chief source for the important
(but not original) glossary of Papias, of a.d. 1053 (cf. Goetz in Sitz.
Ber. Akad. MUnck., 1903, p. 267 sqq.., who enumerates eighty-seven
MSS. of the 1 2th to the 15 th centuries), of whom we only know that he
lived among clerics and dedicated his work to his two sons. An
edition of it was published at Milan " per Dominicum de Vespolate "
on the 1 2th of December 1476; other editions followed m 1485,
1491, 14196 (at Venice). He also wrote a grammar, chiefly compiled
from Pnscianus (Hagen, Anecd. Helv. clxxix. sqq.).
The same Lib. gloss, is the source (1) for the Abba Pater Glossary
(cf. Goetz, ibid. p. 39), published by G. M. Thomas (Sitz. Ber. Akad.
Munch., 1868, ii. 369 sqq.); (2) the Greek glossary Absida lucida
(Goetz, ib. p. 41) ; and (3) the Lat.-Arab. glossary in the Cod. Leid.
Seal. Orient. No. 231 (published by Seybold in Semit. Studien, Heft
xv.-xvii., Berlin, 1900).
The Paulus-Glossary (cf. Goetz, " Der Liber Glossarum," p. 215) is
compiled from the second Salomon-Glossary (abacti ma^istratus),
the Abavus major and the Liber glossarum, with a mixture of
Hebraica. Many of his glosses appear again in other compilations,
as in the Cod. Vatic. 1460 (cf. Goetz, Corp. v. 520 sqq.), mixed up
with glosses from Beda, Placidus, &c. (cf. a glossary published by
Ellis in Amer. Journ. of Philol. vi. 4, vii. 3, containing besides
Paulus glosses, also excerpts from Isidore; Cambridge Journ. of
Pkilol. viii. 71 sqq., xiv. 81 sqq.).
Osbern of Gloucester (c. 1 123-1200) compiled the glossary entitled
Panormia (published by Angelo Mai as Tkesaurus novus Latinitatis,
from Cod. Vatic, reg. Christ. 1392; cf.JW. Meyer, Khein. Mus,
sqq. ; Berickte db. die Verkandl. der kdn. sacks. GeseUsck. der Wiss.,
Leipzig, 1902) ; giving derivations, etymologies, testimonia collected
from Paulus, Priscianus, Plautus, Horace, Virgil, Ovid, Mart.
Capella, Macrobius, Ambrose, Sidonius, Prudentius, Josephus,
Jerome, &c, &c. Osbern's material was also used by Hugucio,
whose compendium was still more extensively used (cf. Goetz, l.c,
p. 121 sqq., who enumerates one hundred and three MSS. of his
treatise), and contains many biblical glosses, especially Hebraica,
some treatises on Latin numerals, &c. (cf. Ha man n, Wettere Mitteil.
aus dem Breviioquus Bentkemianus, Hamburg, 1882; A. Thomas,
" Glosses provencales ine'd." in Romania, xxxiv. p. 177 sqq; P.
Toynbee, ibid. xxv. p. 537 sqq.).
The great work of Johannes de Janua, entitled Summa quae
vocatur catkolicon, dates from the year 1286, and treats of (1) accent,
(2) etymology, (3) syntax, and (4) so-called prosody, i.e. a lexicon,
1 Anglo-Saxon scholars ascribe an earlier date to the text of the
MS. on account of certain archaisms in its Anglo-Saxon words.
which also deals with quantity. It mostly uses Hugucio and Papias ;
its classical quotations are limited, except from Horace; it quotes the
Vulgate by preference, frequently independently from Hugucio ;
it excerpts Priscianus, Donatus, Isidore, the fathers of the Church,
especially Jerome, Gregory, Augustine, Ambrose; it borrows
many Hebrew glosses, mostly from Jerome and the other collections
then in use ; it mentions the Graecismus of Eberhardus Bethuniensis,
the works of Hrabanus Maurus, the Doctrinale of Alexander de Villa
Dei, and the Aurora of Petrus de Riga. Many quotations from the
Catkolicon in Du Cange are really from Hugucio, and may be traced
to Osbern. There exist many MSS. of this work, and the Mainz
edition of 1460 is well known (cf. Goetz in Berickte Hb. die Verkandl.
der kdn. sacks. GeseUsck. der Wiss., Leipzig, 1002).
The gloss MSS. of the 9th and 10th centunes are numerous, but a
diminution becomes visible towards the nth. We then find gram-
matical treatises arise, for which also glossaries were used. The chief
material was (1) the Liber glossarum; (2) the Paulus glosses; (3)
the Abavus major; (4) excerpts from Priscian and glosses to Priscian;
(5) ;Hebrew-biblical collections of proper names (chiefly from Jerome).
After these comes medieval material, as the derivationes which are
found in many MSS. (cf. Goetz in Sitzungsber. sacks. Ges. d. Wiss.,
I 9°3t p* 136 sqq-I Traube in Arckiv f. lot. Lex. vi. 264), containing
quotations from Plautus, Ovid, Juvenal, Persius, Terence, occasion-
ally from Priscian, Eutyches, and other grammarians, with etymo-
logical explanations. These derivationes were the basis for the
grammatical works of Osbern, Hugucio and Joannes of Janua.
A peculiar feature of the late middle ages are the medico-botanic
glossaries based on the earlier ones (see Goetz, Corp. iii.). The
additions consisted in Arabic words with Latin explanations, while
Greek, Latin, Hebrew and Arabic, interchange with English, French,
Italian and German forms. Of glossaries of this kind we have (1)
the Glossae alpkita (published by S. de Renzi in the 3rd vol. of the
Collect. Salernitana, Naples, 1854, from two Paris MSS. of the 14th
and 15th centuries, but some of the glosses occur already in earlier
MSS.); (2) Sinonoma Bartholomew, collected by John Mirfeld,
towards the end of the 14th century, ed. J. L. G. Mowat (Anecd.
Oxon. i. 1, 1882, cf. Loewe, Gloss. Nom. 116 sqq.); it seems to have
used the same or some similar source as No. 1 ; (3) the compilations
of Simon de Janua (Clavis sanationis, end of 13th century), and of
Matthaeus Silvaticus (Pandectae medicinae, 14th century; cf.
H. Stadler, " Dioscor. Longob." in Roman. Forsck. x. 3. 371 ;
Steinmeyer, AUhockd. Gloss, ui.).
Of biblical glossaries we have a large number, mostly mixed with
glosses on other, even profane, subjects, as Hebrew and other
iblical proper names, and explanations of the text of the Vulgate
in general, and the prologues of Hieronymus. So we have the
Glossae veteris ac novi testamenti (beginning " Prologus graece latine
praelocutio sive praefatio ") in numerous MSS. oi the 9th to 14th
centuries, mostly retaining the various books under separate headings
(cf. Arevalo, Isid. vii. 407 sqq.; Loewe, Prodr. 141; Steinmeyer
iv. 459; S. Berger, De comfenaiis exegeticis quibusdam medii aevi,
Paris, 1879). Special mention should be made of Guil. Brito, who
lived about 1250, and compiled a Summa (beginning "difficiles studeo
partes quas Bibliagestat Pandere "), contained in many MSS. especi-
ally in French libraries. This Summa gave rise to the Mammotrectus
of Joh. Marchesinus, about 1300, of which we have editions printed
in 1470, 1476, 1479, &c.
Finally we may mention such compilations as the Summa Heinrici;
the work of Johannes de Garlandia, which he himself calls dictionarius
(cf. Scheler in Jakrb. f. rom. u. end. Pkilol. vi., 1865, p. 142 sqq.);
and that of Alexander Neckam (to. vii. p. 60 sqq.), cf. R. Ellis, in
Amer. Journ. of Phil. x. 2); which are, strictly speaking, not glosso-
graphic. The Breviioquus drew its chief material from rapias,
Hugucio, Brito, &c. (K. Hamann, Mitteil. aus dem Breviioquus
Bentkemianus, Hamburg, 1879; id., Weitere Mitteil., &c, Hamburg,
1882); so also the Vocabularium Ex quo; the various Gemmae;
Vocabularia rerum (cf. Diefenbach, Glossar. Latino-Germanicum).
After the revival of learning, J. Scaliger (1 S40-1609) was the first
to impart to glossaries that importance which they deserve (cf.
Goetz, in Sitzungsber. sacks. Ger. d. Wiss., 1888, p. 219 sqq.), and in
his edition of Festus made great use of Ps.-Philoxenus, which enabled
O. Milller, the later editor of Festus, to follow in his footsteps.
Scaliger also planned the publication of a Corpus glossarum, and left
behind a collection of glosses known as glossae Istdori (Goetz, Corp.
v. p. 589 sqq. ; id. in Sitzungsber. sacks. Ges., 1888, p. 224 sqq. ; Loewe,
Prodr. 23 sqq.), which occurs also in old glossaries, clearly in reference
to the tenth book of the Etymologiae.
The study of glosses spread through the publication, in ^573,
of the bilingual glossaries by H. Stephanus (Estienne), containing,
besides the two great glossaries, also the Hermeneumata Stephani,
which is a recension of the Ps.-Dositkeana (republished Goetz,
Corp. iii. 438-474), and the glossae Stephani, excerpted from a
Election of the Hermeneumata (ib. iii. 438-474).
In 1600 Bonav. Vulcanius republished the same glossaries, adding
(1) the glossae Isidori, which now appeared for the first time; (2)
the Onomasticon; (%) notae and castigationes, derived from Scaliger
(Loewe, Prodr. 183).
In 1606 Carolus and Petrus Labbaeus published, with the effective
help of Scaliger, another collection of glossaries, republished, in 1679,
by Du Cange, after which the 17th and 18th centuries produced no
128 GLOSSOP— GLOUCESTER, EARLS AND DUKES OF
further glossaries (Erasm. Nyerup published extracts from the
Leiden Glossary, Voss. 69, in 1787, Symbolae ad Literal. Teut.),
though glosses were constantly used or referred to by Salmasius,
Meursius, Herald us, Barth, Fabricius and Burman at Leiden, where
a rich collection of glossaries had been obtained by the acquisition
of the Vossius library (cf. Loewe, Prodr. 168). In the 19th century
came Osann's Glossarii Latini specimen (1826); the glossographic
publications of Angelo Mai {Classici auctores, vols, iii., vi., vn. t viii.,
Rome, 1 83 1-1836, containing Osbern's Panormia, Placidus and
various jjlosses from Vatican MSS.) ; Fr. Oehler's treatise (1847)
on the Cod. Amplonianus of Osbern, and his edition of the three
Erf urt glossaries, so important for Anglo-Saxon philology; in 1854
G. F. Hildebrand's Glossarium Latinum (an extract from Abavus
minor), preserved in a Cod. Paris, lat. 7690; 1857, Thomas Wright's
vol. of Anglo-Saxon glosses, which were republished with others in
1 884 by R. Paul Wulcker under the title Anglo-Saxon and Old English
Vocabularies (London, 2 vols., 1857); L. Diefenbach's supplement
to Du Cange, entitled Glossarium Latino-Germanicum mediae el
infimae aetatis, containing mostly glosses collected from glossaries,
vocabularies, &c, enumerated m the preface; Ritschl's treatise
(1870) on Placidus, which called forth an edition (1875) of Placidus
by Deuerling; G. Loewe's Prodromus (1876), and other treatises
by him, published after his death by G. Goetz (Leipzig, 1884);
1888, the second volume of Goetz's own great Corpus glossariorum
Latinorum, of which seven volumes (except the first) had seen the
light by 1907, the last two being separately entitled Thesaurus
glossarum emendatarum, containing many emendations and correc-
tions of earlier glossaries by the author and other scholars; 1900,
Arthur S. Napier, Old English Glosses (Oxford), collected chiefly from
Aldhelm MSS., but also from Augustine, Avianus, Beda, Boethius,
Gregory, Isidore, Juvencus, Phocas, Prudentius, &c.
Tnereare a very great number of glossaries still in MS. scattered in
various libraries of Europe, especially in the Vatican, at Monte Cassino,
Paris, Munich, Bern, the British Museum, Leiden, Oxford, Cambridge,
&c. Much has already been done to make the material contained in
these MSS. accessible in print, and much may yet be done with what
is still unpublished, though we may find that trie differences between
the glossaries which often present themselves at first sight are mere
differences in form introduced by successive more or less qualified
copyists.
Some Celtic (Breton, Cornish, Welsh, Irish) glossaries have been
preserved to us, the particulars of which may be learnt from the
publications of Whitley Stokes, Sirjohn Rhys, Kuno Meyer, L. C.
Stern, G. I. Ascoli, Heinr. Zimmer, Ernst Windisch, Nigra, and many
others; these are published separately as books or in Zeuss's Gram-
matica Celtica, A. Ktihn's Beitrdge zur vergleich. Sprachforschung,
Zeilschr. fUr celtische Philologie, Archiv far Celtische Lexicographic,
the Revue celtique, Transactions of the London Philological Society, &c.
The first Hebrew author known to have used glosses was R.
Gershom of Metz (1000) in his commentaries on the Talmud. But
he and other Hebrew writers after him mostly used the Old French
language (though sometimes also Italian, Slavonic, German) of which
an example has been published by Lambert and Brandin, in their
Glossaire hibreu-francais du XIII 9 siecle: recueil de mots Mbreux
bibliyues avec traduction francaise (Paris, 1905). See further The
Jewish Encyclopedia (New York and London, 1903), article " Gloss."
Authorities. — For a great part of what has been said above, the
writer is indebted to G. Goetz's article on " Latein. Glossographie "
in Pauly's Reakncyhlopddie. By the side of Goetz's Corpus stands
the great collection of Steinmeyer and Sievers, Die atthochdeutschen
Glossen (in ± vols., 1 879-1 898), containing a vast number of (also
Anglo-Saxon) glosses culled from Bible M§S. and MSS. of classical
Christian authors, enumerated and described in the 4th vol. Besides
the works of the editors of, or writers on, glosses, already mentioned,
we refer here to a few others, whose writings may be consulted :
Hugo Blumner; Catholicon Anglicum (ed. Hertage); De-Vit (at
end of Forcellini's Lexicon); F. Deycks; Du Cange; Funck;
' " ~ "' (Altsdchs. Sprachdenkm., 1894); Grflber; K. Gruber
des Corpus, Epin. u. Erfurt Gloss., Erlangen, 1904);
J. H. Gallee (Altsdchs. Sprachdenkm., 1894); Grflber; K. Gruber
(Hauptquellen des Corpus, Epin. u. Erfurt Gloss., Erlangen, 1904);
Hattemer; W. Heraeus (Die Sprache des Petronius und die Glossen,
Leipzig, 1899); Kettner; Kluge; Krumbacher; Lagarde; Land-
grat; Marx;
*PZ1K, . _ . _
at; Marx; W. Meyer-Lubke (" Zu den latein. Glossen " in
.Yiener Stud. xxv. 90 sqq.); Henry Nettleship; Niedermann,
Notes d'Hvmol. lat. (Macon, 1902), Contribute a la critique des glosses
latines (Neuchatel, 1905); Pokrowskij; Quicherat; Otto B.
So hi utter (many important articles in Anglta, Englische Studien,
Archiv /. latein. Lexicographic, &c); Schfill; Scnuchardt; Leo
Soramer; Stadler; Stowasser; Strachan; H. Sweet; Usener
{Rhein. Mus. xxiii. A96, xxiv. 382) ; A. Way, Promptorium parvulorum
sive clericorum (3 vols., London, 1 843-1865) ; Weyman; Wilmanns (in
Rhein. Mus. xxiv. 363); \V61fflin in Arch, fir laLLexicogr.; Zupitza.
Cf. further, the various volumes of the following periodicals:
Romania; Zeilschr. Mr deutsches Alterthum; AngjUa; Englische
Studien; Journal of English and German Philology (ed. Cook and
Karsten); Archiv fir latein. Lexicogr., and others treating of philo-
logy, lexicography, grammar, &c. (J. H. H.)
GLOSSOP, a market town and municipal borough, in the
High Peak parliamentary division of Derbyshire, England, on
the extreme northern border of the county; 13 m. E. by S. of
Manchester by the Great Central railway. Pop. (1001) 21,526.
It is the chief seat of the cotton manufacture in Derbyshire,
and it has also woollen and paper miDs, dye and print works,
and bleaching greens. The town consists of three main divisions,
the Old Town (or Glossop proper), Howard Town (or Glossop
Dale) and Mill Town. An older parish church was replaced by
that of All Saints in 1830; there is also a very fine Roman
Catholic church. In the immediate neighbourhood is Glossop
Hall, the seat of Lord Howard, lord of the manor, a picturesque
old building with extensive terraced gardens. On a hill near the
town is Melandra Castle, the site of a Roman fort guarding
Longdendale and the way into the hills of the Peak District.
In the neighbourhood also a great railway viaduct spans the
Dinting valley with sixteen arches. To the north, in Longden-
dale, there are five lakes belonging to the water-supply system
of Manchester, formed by damming the Etherow, a stream which
descends from the high moors north-east of Glossop. The town
is governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area,
3052 acres.
Glossop was granted by Henry I. to William Peverel, on the
attainder of whose son it reverted to the crown. In 1157 it
was gifted by Henry II. to the abbey of Basingwerk. Henry
VIII. bestowed it on the earl of Shrewsbury. It was made a
municipal borough in 1866.
GLOUCESTER, EARLS AND DUKES OF. The English
earldom of Gloucester was held by several members of the royal
family, including Robert, a natural son of Henry I., and John,
afterwards king, and others, until 12 18, when Gilbert de Clare
was recognized as earl of Gloucester. It remained in the family
of Clare (q.v.) until 13 14, when another Earl Gilbert was killed
at Bannockburn; and after this date it was claimed by various
relatives of the Clares, among them by the younger Hugh le
Despenser (d. 1326) and by Hugh Audley (d. 1347), both of whom
had married sisterspf Earl Gilbert. In 1397 Thomas le Despenser
(1373-1400), a descendant of the Clares, was created earl of
Gloucester; but in 1399 he was degraded from his earldom
and in January 1400 was beheaded.
The dukedom dates from 1385, when Thomas of Woodstock,
a younger son of Edward IIL, was created duke of Gloucester,
but his honours were forfeited when he was found guilty of
treason in 1397. The next holder of the title was Humphrey,
a son of Henry IV., who was created duke of Gloucester in 1414.
He died without sons in 1447, and in 1461 the title was revived
in favour of Richard, brother of Edward IV., who became king
as Richard III. in 1483.
In 1659 Henry (1639-1660), a brother of Charles II., was
formally created duke of Gloucester, a title which he had borne
since infancy. This prince, sharing the exile of the Stuarts, had
incensed his mother, Queen Henrietta Maria, by his firm ad-
herence to the Protestant religion, and had fought among the
Spaniards at Dunkirk in 1658. Having returned to England
with Charles II., he died unmarried in London on the 13th of
September 1660. The next duke was William (1680-1700),
son of the princess Anne, who was, after his mother, the heir to
the English throne, and who was declared duke of Gloucester by
his uncle, William III., in 1689, but no patent for this creation
was ever passed. William died on the 30th of July 1700, and
again the title became extinct.
Frederick Louis, the eldest son of George II., was known
for some time as duke of Gloucester, but when he was raised to
the peerage in 1726 it was as duke of Edinburgh only. In 1764
Frederick's third son, William Henry (1743-1805), was created
duke of Gloucester and Edinburgh by his brother, George III.
This duke's secret marriage with Maria (d. 1807), an illegitimate
daughter of Sir Edward Walpole and widow of James, 2nd
Earl Waldegrave, in 1766, greatly incensed his royal relatives
and led to his banishment from court. Gloucester died on 1 the
25th of August 1805, leaving an only son, William Frederick
(1 7 76-1834) ,who now became duke of Gloucester and Edinburgh.
The duke, who served with the British army in Flanders, married
his cousin Mary (1 776-1857), a daughter of George III. He
died on the 30th of November 1834, leaving no children, and his
GLOUCESTER, EARLS AND . DUKES OF
129
widow, the last survivor of the family of George III., died on the
30th of April 1857.
GLOUCESTER, GILBERT DE CLARE, Earl of (i 243-1 295),
was a son of Richard de Clare, 7th earl of Gloucester and 8th
earl of Clare, and was born at Christchurch, Hampshire, on the
2nd of September 1243. Having married Alice of Angouleme,
half-sister of king Henry III., he became earl of Gloucester
and Clare on his father's death in July 1262, and almost at once
joined the baronial party led by Simon de Montfort, earl of
Leicester. With Simon Gloucester was at the battle of Lewes
in May 1264, when the king himself surrendered to him, and
after this victory he was one of the three persons selected to
nominate a council. Soon, however, he quarrelled with Leicester.
Leaving London for his lands on the Welsh border he met
Prince Edward, afterwards king Edward I., at Ludlow, just
after his escape from captivity, and by his skill contributed
largely to the prince's victory at Evesham in August 1265, But
this alliance was as transitory as the one with Leicester. Glou-
cester took up the cudgels on behalf of the barons who had
surrendered at Kenilworth in November and December 1266,
and after putting his demands before the king, secured possession
of London. This happened in April 1267, but the earl quickly
made his peace with Henry III. and with Prince Edward, and,
having evaded an obligation to go on the Crusade, he helped
to secure the peaceful accession of Edward I. to the throne
in 1272. Gloucester then passed several years in fighting in
Wales, or on the Welsh border; in 1289 when the barons were
asked for a subsidy he replied on their behalf that they would
{rant nothing until they saw the king in person (nisi prius
-rersonaliter vtderent in Anglia faciem regis), and in 1291 he was
lined and imprisoned on account of his violent quarrel with
Humphrey de Bohun, earl of Hereford. Having divorced his
wife Alice, he married in 1290 Edward's daughter Joan, or
Johanna (d. 1307). Earl Gilbert, who is sometimes called the
" Red," died at Monmouth on the 7th of December 1295,
leaving in addition to three daughters a son, Gilbert, earl of
Gloucester and Clare, who was killed at Bannockburn.
See C. B6mont, Simon de Montfort, comte de Leicester (1884), and
G. W. Prothero, Simon de Montfort (1877).
GLOUCESTER, HUMPHREY, Duke of (1391-1447), fourth
son of Henry IV. by Mary de Bohun, was born in 1391. He was
knighted at his father's coronation on the nth of October
1399, and created duke of Gloucester by Henry V. at Leicester
on the 16th of May 1414. He served in the war next year,
and was wounded at Agincourt, where he owed his life to his
brother's valour. In April 141 6 Humphrey received the emperor
Sigismund at Dover and, according to a 16th-century story,
did not let him land till he had disclaimed all title to imperial
authority in England. In the second invasion of France
Humphrey commanded the force which during 141 8 reduced
the Cotentin and captured Cherbourg. Afterwards he joined
the main army before Rouen, and took part in subsequent
campaigns till January 1420. He then went home to replace
Bedford as regent in England, and held office till Henry's
own return in February 142 1. He was again regent for his
brother from May to September 1422.
Henry V. measured Humphrey's capacity, and by his will
named him merely deputy for Bedford in England. Humphrey
at once claimed the full position of regent, but the parliament
and council allowed him only the title of protector during
Bedford's absence, with limited powers. His lack of discretion
soon justified this caution. In the autumn of 1422 he married
Jacqueline of Bavaria, heiress of Holland, to whose lands
Philip of Burgundy had claims. Bedford, in the interest of so
important an ally, endeavoured vainly to restrain his brother.
Finally in October 1424 Humphrey took up arms in his wife's
behalf, but after a short campaign in Hainault went home,
and left Jacqueline to be overwhelmed by Burgundy. Return-
ing to England in April 1425 he soon entangled himself in a
quarrel with the council and his uncle Henry Beaufort, and
stirred up a tumult in London. Open war was averted only by
Beaufort's prudence, and Bedford's hurried return. Humphrey
had charged his uncle with disloyalty to the late and present
kings. With some difficulty Bedford effected a formal reconcilia-
tion at Leicester in March 1426, and forced Humphrey to accept
Beaufort's disavowal. When Bedford left England next year
Humphrey renewed his intrigues. But one complication was
removed by the annulling in 1428 of his marriage with Jacqueline.
His open adultery with his mistress, Eleanor Cobham, also made
him unpopular. To check his indiscretion the council, in
November 1429, had the king crowned, and so put an end to
Humphrey's protectorate. However, when Henry VI. was soon
afterwards taken to be crowned in France, Humphrey was made
lieutenant and warden of the kingdom, and thus ruled England
for nearly two years. His jealousy of Bedford and Beaufort
still continued, and when the former died in 1435 there was no
one to whom he would defer. The defection of Burgundy roused
English feeling, and Humphrey won popularity as leader of the
war party. In 1436 he commanded in a short invasion of
Flanders. But he had no real power, and his political im-
portance lay in his persistent opposition to Beaufort and the
councillors of his party. In 1439 he renewed his charges against
his uncle without effect. His position was further damaged by
his connexion with Eleanor Cobham, whom he had now married.
In 144 1 Eleanor was charged with practising sorcery against
the king, and Humphrey had to submit to see her condemned,
and her accomplices executed. Nevertheless, he continued
his political opposition, and endeavoured to thwart Suffolk,
who was now taking Beaufort's place in the council, by opposing
the king's marriage to Margaret of Anjou. Under Suffolk's
influence Henry VL grew to distrust his uncle altogether. The
crisis came in the parliament of Bury St Edmunds in February
1447. Immediately on his arrival there Humphrey was arrested,
and four days later, on the 23rd of February, he died. Rumour
attributed his death to foul play. But his health had been long
undermined by excesses, and his end was probably only hastened
by the shock of his arrest.
Humphrey was buried at St Albans Abbey, in a fine tomb,
which still exists. He was ambitious and self-seeking, but
unstable and unprincipled, and, lacking the fine qualities of his
brothers, excelled neither in war nor in peace. Still he was a
cultured and courtly prince, who could win popularity. He
was long remembered as the good Duke Humphrey, and in his
lifetime was a liberal patron of letters. He had been a great
collector of books, many of which he presented to the university
of Oxford. He contributed also to the building of the Divinity
School, and of the room still called Duke Humphrey's library.
His books were dispersed at the Reformation and only three
volumes of his donation now remain in the Bodleian library.
Titus Livius, an Italian in Humphrey's service, wrote a life
of Henry V. at his patron's bidding. Other Italian scholars,
as Leonardo Aretino, benefited by his patronage. Amongst
English men of letters he befriended Reginald Pecock, Whet-
hamstead of St Albans, Capgrave the historian, Lydgate, and
Gilbert Kymer, who was his physician and chancellor of Oxford
university. A popular error found Humphrey a fictitious tomb
in St Paul's Cathedral. The adjoining aisle, called Duke
Humphrey's Walk, was frequented by beggars and needy
adventurers. Hence the 16th-century proverb " to dine with
Duke Humphrey," used of those who loitered there dinner-
less.
The most important contemporary sources are Stevenson's Wars
of the English in France, Whethamstead's Register, and Beckington's
Letters (all in Rolls Ser.), with the various London Chronicles, and
the works of Waurin and Monstrelet. For hia relations with
Jacqueline see F. von Loner's Jacobaa von Bayern und ikre Zeit
(2 vols., Nordlingen, 1869). For other modern authorities consult
W. Stubbs's Constitutional History, J. H. Ramsay's Lancaster and
York; Political History of England, vol. iv.; R. Pauli, Pictures of
Old England, pp. 373-401 (1861); and K. H. Viekers, Humphrey,
Duke of Gloucester (1907). For Humphrey's correspondence with
Piero Candido Decembrio see the English Historical Review, vols.
x., xix., xx. (C. L. K.)
GLOUCESTER, RICHARD BE CLARE, Earl of (1222-1262),
was a son of Gilbert de Clare, 6th earl of Gloucester and 7th
I earl of Clare, and was born on the 4th of August 1222, succeeding
Xii. s
130
GLOUCESTER, EARLS AND DUKES OF
to his father's earldoms on the death of the latter in October
1 230. His first wife was Margaret, daughter of Hubert de Burgh,
and after her death in 1 237 he married Maud, daughter of John de
Lacy, earl of Lincoln, and passed his early years in tournaments
and pilgrimages, taking for a time a secondary and undecided
part in politics. He refused to help Henry III. on the French
expedition of 1250, but was afterwards with the king at Paris;
then he went on a diplomatic errand to Scotland, and was sent
to Germany to work among the princes for the election of his
stepfather, Richard, earl of Cornwall, as king of the Romans.
About 1258 Gloucester took up his position as a leader of the
barons in their resistance to the king, and he was prominent
during the proceedings which followed the Mad Parliament at
Oxford in 1258. In 1259, however, he quarrelled with Simon dc
Montfort, earl of Leicester; the dispute, begun in England,
was renewed in France and he was again in the confidence and
company of the king. This attitude, too, was only temporary,
and in 1261 Gloucester and Leicester were again working in
concord. The earl died at his residence near Canterbury on the
1 5th of July 1 262. A large landholder like his son and successor,
Gilbert, Gloucester was the most powerful English baron of his
time; he was avaricious and extravagant, but educated and able.
He left several children in addition to Earl Gilbert.
GLOUCESTER, ROBERT, Earl of (d. 1147), was a natural
son of Henry I. of England. He was born, before his father's
accession, at Caen in Normandy; but the exact date of his birth,
and his mother's name are unknown, tie received from his
father the hand of a wealthy heiress, Mabel of Gloucester,
daughter of Robert Fitz Hamon, and with her the lordships
of Gloucester and Glamorgan. About 11 21 the earldom of
Gloucester was created for his benefit. His rank and territorial
influence made him the natural leader of the western baronage.
Hence, at his father's death, he was sedulously courted by the
rival parties of his half-sister the empress Matilda and of Stephen.
After some hesitation he declared for the latter, but tendered
his homage upon strict conditions, the breach of which should be
held to invalidate the contract. Robert afterwards alleged that
he had merely feigned submission to Stephen with the object
of secretly furthering his half-sister's cause among the English
barons. The truth appears to be that he was mortified at finding
himself excluded from the inner councils of the king, and so
resolved to sell his services elsewhere. Robert left England for
Normandy in 1137, renewed his relations with the Angevin
party, and in 1 138 sent a formal defiance to the king. Returning
to England in the following year, he raised the standard of
rebellion in his own earldom with such success that the greater
part of western England and the south Welsh marches were
soon in the possession of the empress. By the battle of Lincoln
(Feb. 2, 1141), in which Stephen was taken prisoner, the earl
made good Matilda's claim to the whole kingdom. He accom-
panied her triumphal progress to Winchester and London; but
was unable to moderate the arrogance of her behaviour. Con-
sequently she was soon expelled from London and deserted by
the bishop Henry of Winchester who, as legate, controlled the
policy of the English church. With Matilda the earl besieged
the legate at Winchester, but was forced by the royalists to beat
a hasty retreat, and in covering Matilda's flight fell into the
hands of the pursuers. So great was his importance that his
party purchased his freedom by the release of Stephen. The earl
renewed the struggle for the crown and continued it until his
death (Oct. 31, 1147); but the personal unpopularity of Matilda,
and the estrangement of the Church from her cause, made his
efforts unavailing. His loyalty to a lost cause must be allowed
to weigh in the scale against his earlier double-dealing. But he
hardly deserves the extravagant praise which is lavished upon
him by William of Malmesbury. The sympathies of the chronicler
are too obviously influenced by the earl's munificence towards
literary men.
See the Historia novella by William of Malmesbury (Rafts edition} ;
the Historia Anglorum by Henry of Huntingdon (Rolls edition);
^H. Round's Geoffrey de MandeviUe (1892); and O. R&ssler's
aiserin Mathilde (Berlin, 1897)- (H. W. C. D.)
GLOUCESTER, THOMAS OP WOODSTOCK, Duke of (1355-
i397)i seventh and youngest son of the English king Edward HI.,
was born at Woodstock on the 7th of January 1355. Having
married Eleanor (d. 1390), daughter and co-heiress of Humphrey
de Bohun, earl of Hereford, Essex and Northampton (d. 1373),
Thomas obtained the office of constable of England, a position
previously held by the Bohuns, and was made earl of Buckingham
by his nephew, Richard H., at the coronation in July 1377.
He took part in defending the English coasts against the attacks
of the French and Castilians, after which he led an army through
northern and central France, and besieged Nantes, which town,
however, he failed to take.
Returning to England early in 1381, Buckingham found that
his brother, John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, had married
his wife's sister, Mary Bohun, to his own son, Henry, afterwards
King Henry IV. The relations between the brothers, hitherta
somewhat strained, were not improved by this proceeding, as
Thomas, doubtless, was hoping to retain possession of Mary's
estates. Having taken some part in crushing the rising of the
peasants in 1381, Buckingham became more friendly with
Lancaster; and while marching with the king into Scotland in
1385 was created duke of Gloucester, a mark of favour, however,
which did not prevent him from taking up an attitude of hostility
to Richard. Lancaster having left the country, Gloucester
placed himself at the head of the party which disliked the royal
advisers, Michael de la Pole, earl of Suffolk and Robert de Vere,
earl of Oxford, whose recent elevation to the dignity of duke of
Ireland had aroused profound discontent. The moment was
propitious for interference, and supported by those who were
indignant at the extravagance and incompetence, real or alleged,
of the king, Gloucester was soon in a position of authority. He
forced on the dismissal and impeachment of Suffolk; was a
member of the commission appointed in 1386 to reform the
kingdom and the royal household; and took up arms when
Richard began proceedings against the commissioners. Having
defeated Vere at Radcot in December 1387 the duke and his
associates entered London to find the king powerless in their
hands. Gloucester, who had previously threatened his uncle
with deposition, was only restrained from taking this extreme
step by the influence of his colleagues; but, as the leader of the
" lords appellant " in the " Merciless Parliament," which met
in February 1388 and was packed with his supporters, he took
a savage revenge upon his enemies, while not neglecting to add
to his own possessions.
He was not seriously punished when Richard regained his
power in May 1389, but he remained in the background, although
employed occasionally on public business, and accompanying the
king to Ireland in 1394. In 1396, however, uncle and nephew were
again at variance. Gloucester disliked the peace with France and
Richard's second marriage with Isabella, daughter of King
Charles VI.; other causes of difference were not wanting, and it
has been asserted that the duke was plotting to seize the king. At
all events Richard decided to arrest him. By refusing an invita-
tion to dinner the duke frustrated the first attempt, but on the
nth of July 1397 he was arrested by the king himself at his
residence, Pleshey castle in Essex. He was taken at once to
Calais, and it is probable that he was murdered by order of the
king on the 9th of September following. The facts seem to be as
follows. At the beginning of September it was reported that he
was dead. The rumour, probably a deliberate one, was false, and
about the same time a justice, Sir William Rickhill (d. 1407) r
was sent to Calais with instructions dated the 17th of August to
obtain a confession from Gloucester. On the 8th of September
the duke confessed that he had been guilty of treason, and his.
death immediately followed this avowal. Unwilling to meet his
parliament so soon after his uncle's death, Richard's purpose was.
doubtless to antedate this occurrence, and to foster the impression,
that the duke had died from natural causes in August. When.
parliament met in September he was declared guilty of treason
and his estates forfeited. Gloucester had one son, Humphrey
(c. 1381-1399), who died unmarried, and four daughters, the
most notable of whom was Anne (c. 1380-1438), who was
GLOUCESTER
131
successively the wife of Thomas, 3rd earl of Stafford, Edmund, 5th
earl of Stafford, and William Bourchier, count of Eu. Gloucester
is supposed to have written L'Ordonnance d'Anglelerre pour It
tamp & Voutrance, ou gaige de bataille.
Bibliography.— -See T. Walsingham, Historic Anglicana, edited
by H. T. Riley (London, 1863-1864); The Monk of Evesham,
Mistoria vitae et regni Ricardi II., edited by T. Hearne (Oxford,
1729) ; Chronique de la traison et mori de Richard II, edited by B.
Williams (London, 1846); J- Froissart, Chroniques, edited by S.
Luce and u. Raynaud (Paris, 1860-1807); W. Stubbs, Constitutional
History, vol. ii. (Oxford, 1896) ; f. Tait in Owens College Historical
Essays and S. Armitage-Smith, John of Gaunt (London, 1904).
GLOUCESTER (abbreviated as pronounced Glo'sler), a city,
oounty of a city, municipal and parliamentary borough and port,
and the county town of Gloucestershire, England, on the left
(east) bank of the river Severn, 114 m. W.N.W. of London. Pop.
(1001) 47,955. It is served by the Great Western railway and
the west-and-north branch of the Midland railway; while the
Berkeley Ship Canal runs S*W. to Sharpness Docks in the Severn
estuary (i6£ m.). Gloucester is situated on a gentle eminence
overlooking the Severn and sheltered by the Cotteswolds on the
east, while the Malverns and the hills of the Forest of Dean rise
prominently to the west and north-west.
The cathedral, in the north of the city near the river, originates
in the foundation of an abbey of St Peter in 681, the foundations
of the present church having been laid by Abbot Serlo (1072-
1104); and Walter Froucester (d. 141 2) its historian, became its
first mitred abbot in 1381. Until 1541, Gloucester lay in the see
of Worcester, but the separate see was then constituted, with
John Wakeman, last abbot of Tewkesbury, for its first bishop.
The diocese covers the greater part of Gloucestershire, with small
parts of Herefordshire and Wiltshire. The cathedral may be
succinctly described as consisting of a Norman nucleus, with
additions in every style of Gothic architecture. It is 420 ft. long,
and 144 ft. broad, with a beautiful central tower of the 15th
century rising to the height of 225 ft. and topped by four graceful
pinnacles. The nave is massive Norman with Early English
roof; the crypt also, under the choir, aisles and chapels, is
Norman, as is the chapter-house. The crypt is one of the four
apsidal cathedral crypts in England, the others being at Worcester,
Winchester and Canterbury. The south porch is Perpendicular,
with fan-tracery roof, as also is the north transept, the south
being transitional Decorated. The choir [has Perpendicular
tracery over Norman work, with an apsidal chapel on each side.
The choir-vaulting is particularly rich, and the modern scheme
#f colouring is judicious. The splendid late Decorated east
window is partly filled with ancient glass. Between the apsidal
chapels is a cross Lady chapel, and north of the nave are the
cloisters, with very early example of fan-tracery, the carols or
stalls for the monks' study and writing lying to the south. The
inest monument is the canopied shrine of Edward II. who was
brought hither from Berkeley. By the visits of pilgrims to this
Hie building and sanctuary were enriched. In a side-chapel, too,
is a monument in coloured bog oak of Robert Curthose, a great
benefactor to the abbey, the eldest son of the Conqueror, who was
interred there; and those of Bishop Warburton and Dr Edward
Jenner are also worthy of special mention. A musical festival
(the Festival of the Three Choirs) is held annually in this cathedral
and those of Worcester and Hereford in turn. Between 1873
and 1800 and in 1897 the cathedral was extensively restored,
principally by Sir Gilbert Scott. Attached to the deanery is the
Norman prior's chapel. In St Mary's Square outside the Abbey
gate, Bishop Hooper suffered martyrdom under Queen Mary in
I5S5-
Quaint gabled and timbered houses preserve the ancient aspect
of the city. At the point of intersection of the four principal
streets stood the Tolsey or town hall, replaced by a modern
building in 1894. None of the old public buildings, in fact, is left,
but the New Inn in Northgate Street is a beautiful timbered
house, strong and massive, with external galleries and courtyards,
built in 1450 for the pilgrims to Edward II. 's shrine, by Abbot
Sebroke, a traditional subterranean passage leading thence to the
cathedral. The timber is principally chestnut. There are a large
number of churches and dissenting chapels, and it may have
been the old proverb, " as sure as God's in Gloucester," which
provoked Oliver Cromwell to declare that the city had " more
churches than godliness." Of the churches four are of special
interest: St Mary de Lode, with a Norman tower and chancel,
and a monument of Bishop Hooper, on the site of a Roman
temple which became the first Christian church in Britain; St
Mary de Crypt, a cruciform structure of the 12th century, with
later additions and a beautiful and lofty tower; the church of
St Michael, said to have been connected with the ancient abbey of
St Peter; and St Nicholas church, originally of Norman erection,
and possessing a tower and other portions of later date. In the
neighbourhood of St Mary de Crypt are slight remains of Grey-
friars and Blackfriars monasteries, and also of the city wall.
Early vaulted cellars remain under the Fleece and Saracen's
Head inns.
There are three endowed schools: the College school, refounded
by Henry VIII. as part of the cathedral establishment; the
school of St Mary de Crypt, founded by Dame Joan Cooke in the
same reign; and Sir Thomas Rich's Blue Coat hospital for 34
boys (1666). At the Crypt school the famous preacher George
Whitefield (1 714-1770) was educated, and he preached his first
sermon in the church. The first Sunday school was held in
Gloucester, being originated by Robert Raikes, in 1780.
The noteworthy modern buildings include the museum and
school of art and science, the county gaol (on the site of a Saxon
and Norman castle), the Shire Hall and the Whitefield memorial
church. A park in the south of the city contains a spa, a chaly-
beate spring having been discovered in 1814. West of this,
across the canal, are the remains (a gateway and some walls) of
Llanthony Priory, a cell of the mother abbey in the vale of
Ewyas, Monmouthshire, which in the reign of Edward IV. became
the secondary establishment.
Gloucester possesses match works, foundries, marble and
slate works, saw-mills, chemical works, rope works, flour-mills,
manufactories of railway wagons, engines and agricultural
implements, and boat and ship-building yards. Gloucester
was declared a port in 1882. The Berkeley canal was opened in
1827. The Gloucester canal-harbour and that at Sharpness on
the Severn are managed by a board. Principal imports are
timber and grain; and exports, coal, salt, iron and bricks.
The salmon and lamprey fisheries in the Severn are valuable.
The tidal bore in the river attains its extreme height just below
the city, and sometimes surmounts the weir in the western
branch of the river, affecting the stream up to Tewkesbury lock.
The parliamentary borough returns one member. The city is
governed by a mayor, 10 aldermen and 30 councillors. Area,
2315 acres.
History. — The traditional existence of a British settlement
at Gloucester (Caer Glow, Gleawecastre, Gleucestre) is not
confirmed by any direct evidence, but Gloucester was the Roman
municipality or colonic of Glevunt, founded by Nerva (a.d. 96-98).
Parts of the walls can be traced, and many remains and coins
have been found, though inscriptions (as is frequently the case
in Britain) are somewhat scarce. Its situation on a navigable
river, and the foundation in 681 of the abbey of St Peter by
^Ethelred favoured the growth of the town; and before the
Conquest Gloucester was a borough governed by a portreeve,
with a castle which was frequently a royal residence, and a mint.
The first overlord, Earl Godwine, was succeeded nearly a century
later by Robert, earl of Gloucester. Henry II. granted the first
charter in n 55 which gave the burgesses the same liberties
as the citizens of London and Winchester, and a second charter
of Henry II. gave them freedom of passage on the Severn. The
first charter was confirmed in 1 194 by Richard I. The privileges
of the borough were greatly extended by the charter of John
(1200) which gave freedom from toll throughout the kingdom
and from pleading outside the borough. Subsequent charters
were numerous. Gloucester was incorporated by Richard III.
in 1483, the town being made a county in itself. This charter
was confirmed in 1489 and 15 10, and other charters of incorpora-
tion were received by Gloucester from Elizabeth in 1560, James I.
132
GLOUCESTER, UJS.A.--GLOUCESTERSHIRE
in 1604, Charles I. in 1626 and Charles II. in 1672. The
chartered port of Gloucester dates from 1580. Gloucester
returned two members to parliament from 1275 to 1885, since
when it has been represented by one member. A seven days'
fair from the 24th of June was granted by Edward I. in 1302,
and James I. licensed fairs on the 25th of March and the 17th
of November, and fairs under these grants are still held on the
first Saturday ' in April and July and the last Saturday in
November. The fair now held on the 28th of September was
granted to the abbey of St Peter in 1227. A market on Wednes-
day existed in the reign of John, was confirmed by charter in
1227 and is still held. The iron trade of Gloucester dates from
before the Conquest, tanning was carried on before the reign of
Richard III., pin-making and bell-founding were introduced
in the 16th, and the long-existing coal trade became important
in the 18th century. The cloth trade flourished from the 12th
to the 1 6th century. The sea-borne trade in corn and wine
existed before the reign of Richard I.
See W. H. Stevenson, Records of the Corporation of Gloucester
(Gloucester, 1893); Victoria County History, Gloucestershire.
GLOUCESTER, a city and port of entry of Essex county,
Massachusetts, U.S.A., beautifully situated on Cape Ann.
Pop. (1890) 24,651; (1900) 26,121, of whom 8768 were foreign-
born, including 4388 English Canadians, 800 French Canadians,
665 Irish, 653 Finns and 594 Portuguese; (1910 census)
24,398. Area, 53*6 sq. m. It is served by the Boston & Maine
railway and by a steamboat line to Boston. The surface is
sterile, naked and rugged, with bold, rocky ledges, and a most
picturesque shore, the beauties of which have made it a favourite
summer resort, much frequented by artists. Included within
the city borders are several villages, of which the principal one,
also known as Gloucester, has a deep and commodious harbour.
Among the other villages, all summer resorts, are Annisquam,
Bay View and Magnolia (so called from the Magnolia glauca,
which grows wild there, this being probably its most northerly
habitat) ; near Magnolia are Rafe's Chasm (60 ft. deep and 6-10 ft.
wide) and Norman's Woe,the scene of the wreck of the " Hesperus"
(which has only tradition as a basis), celebrated in Longfellow's
poem. There is some slight general commerce — in 1909 the
imports were valued at $130,098; the exports at $7853 —
but the principal business is fishing, and has been since early
colonial days. The pursuit of cod, mackerel, herring and
halibut fills up, with a winter coasting trade, the round of
the year. In this industry Gloucester is the most important
place in the United States; and is, indeed, one of the greatest
fishing ports of the world. Most of the adult males are engaged
in it. The " catch " was valued in 1895 at $3,212,985 and in
1905 at $3,377,330. The organization of the industry has
undergone many transformations, but a notable feature is the
general practice — especially since modern methods have necessi-
tated larger vessels and more costly gear, and correspondingly
greater capital — of profit-sharing; all the crew entering on that
basis and -not independently. There are some manufactures,
chiefly connected with the fisheries. The total factory product
in 1905 was valued at $6,920,984, of which the canning and
preserving of fish represented $4,068,571, and glue represented
$752,003. An industry of considerable importance is the
quarrying of the beautiful, dark Cape Ann granite that underlies
the city and all the environs.
Gloucester harbour was probably noted by Champlain (as
La Beauport), and a temporary settlement was made by English
fishermen sent out by the Dorchester Company of " merchant
adventurers " in 1623-1625; some of these settlers returned
to England in 1625, and others, with Roger Conant, the governor,
removed to what is now Salem. 1 Permanent settlement ante-
dated 1639 at least, and in 1642 the township was incorporated.
From Gosnold's voyages onward the extraordinary abundance
of cod about Cape Ann was well known, and though the first
1 According to some authorities (e.g. Pringle) a few settlers
remained on the site of Gloucester, the permanent settlement thus
dating from 1623 to 1625; of this, however, there is no proof, and
the contrary opinion is the one generally held.
settlers characteristically enough tried to live by farming, they
speedily became perforce a sea-faring folk. The active pursuit of
fishing as an industry may be dated as beginning about 1700,
for then began voyages beyond Cape Sable. Voyages to the
Grand Banks began about 1741. Mackerel was a relatively
unimportant catch until about 1821, and since then has been
an important but unstable return; halibut fishing has been
vigorously pursued since about 1836 and herring since about
1856. At the opening of the War of Independence Gloucester*
whose fisheries then employed about 600 men, was second to
Marblehead as a fishing-port. The war destroyed the fisheries,
which steadily declined, reaching their lowest ebb from 1820 to
1840. Meanwhile foreign commerce had greatly expanded.
The cod take had supported in the 18th century an extensive
trade with Bilbao, Lisbon and the West Indies, and though
changed in nature with the decline of the Bank fisheries after
the War of Independence, it continued large through the first
quarter of the 19th century. Throughout more than half of
the same century also Gloucester carried on a varied and
valuable trade with Surinam, hake being the chief article of
export and molasses and sugar the principal imports. " India
Square " remains, a memento of a bygone day. About 1850 the
fisheries revived, especially after i860, under the influence of
better prices, improved methods and the discovery of new
grounds, becoming again the chief economic interest; and since
that time the village of Gloucester has changed from a picturesque
hamlet to a fairly modern, though still quaint and somewhat
foreign, settlement. Gasoline boats were introduced in 1900.
Ship-building is another industry of the past. Thefirst "schooner"
was launched at Gloucester in 1713. From 1830 to 1907, 776
vessels and 5242 lives were lost in the fisheries; but the loss of
life has been greatly reduced by the use of better vessels and by
improved methods of fishing. Gloucester became a city in 1874.
Gloucester life has been celebrated in many books ; among others
in Elizabeth Stuart Phelps- Ward's Singular Life and Old Maid's
Paradise, in Rudyard Kipling's Captains Courageous, and in James
B. Connolly's Out of Gloucester (1902), The Deep Sea's Toll (1905).
and The Crested Seas (1007).
See J. J. Babson, Htstory of the Town of Gloucester (Gloucester,
i860; with Notes and Additions, on genealogy, 1876, 1891); and
J. R. Pringle, History of the Town and City of Gloucester (Gloucester,
1892).
GLOUCESTER CITY, a city of Camden county, New Jersey,
U.S.A., on the Delaware river, opposite Philadelphia. Pop.
(1890) 6564; (1900) 6840, of whom 1004 were foreign-born;
(1905) 8055; (1910) 9462. The city is served by the West
Jersey & Seashore and the Atlantic City railways, and by ferry
to Philadelphia, of which it is a residential suburb. Among
its manufactures are incandescent gas-burners, rugs, cotton
yarns, boats and drills. The municipality owns and operates
the water works. It was near the site of Gloucester City that
the Dutch in 1623 planted the short-lived colony of Fort Nassau,
the first European settlement on the Delaware river, but it was
not until after the arrival of English Quakers on the Delaware,
in 1677, that a permanent settlement, at first called Axwamus,
was established on the site of the present city. This was surveyed
and laid out as a town in 1689. During the War of Independence
the place was frequently occupied by troops, and a number of
skirmishes were fought in its vicinity. The most noted of these
was a successful attack upon a detachment of Hessians on the
25th of November 1777 by American troops under the command
of General Lafayette. In 1868 Gloucester City was chartered
as a city. In Camden county there is a township named
Gloucester (pop. in 1905, 2300), incorporated in 1798, and
originally including the present township of Clementon and parts
of the present townships of Waterford, Union and Winslow.
GLOUCESTERSHIRE, a county of the west midlands of
England, bounded N. by Worcestershire, N.E. by Warwickshire,
E. by Oxfordshire, S.E. by Berkshire and Wiltshire, S. by
Somerset, and W. by Monmouth and Herefordshire. Its area
is 1243-3 sq. m. The outline is very irregular, but three physical
divisions are well marked — the hills, the vale and the forest.
(1) The first (the eastern part of the county) lies among the
GLOUCESTERSHIRE
133
uplands of the Cotteswold Hills (q.v.) y whose westward face is
a line of heights of an average elevation of 700 ft., but exceeding
1000 ft. at some points. This line bisects the county from
S.W. to N.E. The watershed between the Thames and Severn
valleys lies close to it, so that Gloucestershire includes Thames
Head itself, in the south-east near Cirencester, and most of the
upper feeders of the Thames which join the main stream, from
narrow and picturesque valleys on the north. (2) The western
Cotteswold line overlooks a rich valley, that of the lower Severn,
usually spoken of as " The Vale," or, in two divisions, as the
vale of Gloucester and the vale of Berkeley. This great river
receives three famous tributaries during its course through
Gloucestershire. Near Tewkesbury, on the northern border,
the Avon joins it on the left and forms the county boundary
for 4 m. This is the river known variously as the Upper,
Worcestershire, Warwickshire, Stratford or Shakespeare's Avon,
which descends a lovely pastoral valley through the counties
named. It is to be distinguished from the Bristol Avon, which
rises as an eastward flowing stream of the Cotteswolds, in the
south-east of Gloucestershire, sweeps southward and westward
through Wiltshire, pierces the hills through a narrow valley
which becomes a wooded gorge where the Clifton suspension
bridge crosses it below Bristol, and enters the Severn estuary
at Avonmouth. For 17 m. from its mouth it forms the boundary
between Gloucestershire and Somersetshire, and for 8 m. it is
one of the most important commercial waterways in the kingdom,
connecting the port of Bristol with the sea. The third great
tributary of the Severn is the Wye. From its mouth in the
estuary, 8 m. N. of that of the Bristol Avon, it forms the county
boundary for 16 m. northward, and above this, over two short
reaches of its beautiful winding course, it is again the boundary.
(3) Between the Wye and the Severn lies a beautiful and historic
tract, the forest of Dean, which, unlike the majority of English
forests, maintains its ancient character. Gloucestershire has
thus a share in the courses of five of the most famous of English
rivers, and covers two of the most interesting physical districts
in the country. The minor rivers of the county are never long.
The vale is at no point within the county wider than 24 m., and
so does not permit the formation of any considerable tributary
to the Severn from the Dean Hills on the one hand or the
Cotteswolds on the other. The Leadon rises east of Hereford,
forms part of the north-western boundary, and joins the Severn
near Gloucester, watering the vale of Gloucester, the northern
part of the vale. In the southern part, the vale of Berkeley,
the Stroudwater traverses a narrow, picturesque and populous
valley, and the Little Avon flows past the town of Berkeley,
joining the Severn estuary on the left. Hie Frome runs south-
ward to the Bristol Avon at Bristol. The principal northern
feeders of the Thames are the Churn (regarded by some as
properly the headwater of the main river) rising in the Seven
Springs, in the hills above Cheltenham, and forming the southern
county boundary near its junction with the Thames at Cricklade;
the Coin, a noteworthy trout-stream, joining above Lechlade,
and the Lech (forming part of the eastern county boundary)
joining below the same town; while from the east of the county
there pass into Oxfordshire the Windrush and the Evenlode,
much larger streams, rising among the bare uplands of the
northern Cotteswolds.
Geology, — No county in England has a greater variety of geological
formations. The pre-Cambnan is represented by the gneissic rocks
at the south end of the Malvern Hills and by grits at Huntley.
At Damory, Charfield and Woodford is a patch of greenstone, the
' cause of the upheaval of the Upper Silurian basin of Tort worth, in
which are the oldest stratified rocks of the county. Of these the Upper
Llandovery is the dominant stratum, exposed near Damory mill,
Micklewood chase and Purton passage, wrapping round the base of
May and Huntley hills, and reappearing in the vale of Woolhope.
The Wenlock limestone is exposed at Falfield mill and Whitfield,
and quarried for burning at "may hill. The Lower Ludlow shales or
mudstones are seen at Berkeley and Purton, where the upper part
1 is probably Aymestry limestone. The series of sandy shales and
sandstones which, as Downton sandstones and Ledbury shales,
form a transition to the Old Red Sandstone are quarried at Dymock.
The " Old Red " itself occurs at Berkeley, Tortworth Green, Thorn-
bury, and several places in the Bristol coal-field, in anticlinal folds
forming hills. It forms also the great basin extending from Ross to
Monmouth and from Dymock to Mitcheldean, Abenhall, Blakeney,
&c, within which is the Carboniferous basin of the forest. It is cut
through by the Wye from Monmouth to Woolaston. This formation
is over 8000 ft. thick in the forest of Dean. The Bristol and Forest
Carboniferous basins lie within the synclinal folds of the Old Red
Sandstone ; and though the seams of coal have not yet been corre-
lated, they must have been once continuous, as further appears from
the existence of an intermediate basin, recently pierced, under the
Severn. The lower limestone shales are 500 ft. thick in the Bristol
area and only 165 in the forest, richly fossiliferous and famous for
their bone bed. The great marine series known as the Mountain
Limestone, forming the walls of the grand gorges of the Wye and
Avon, is over 2000 ft. thick in the latter district, but only 480 in the
former, where it yields the brown hematite in pockets so largely
worked for iron even from Roman times. It is much used too for
lime and road metal. Above this comes the Millstone Grit, well seen
at Brandon hill, where it is 1000 ft. in thickness, though but 455
in the forest. On this rest the Coal Measures, consisting in the
Bristol field of two great series, the lower 3000 ft. thick with 36
seams, the upper 3000 ft. with 22 seams, 9 of which reach 2 ft. in
thickness. These two series are separated by over 1700 ft. of hard
sandstone (Pennant Grit), containing only 5 coal-seams. In the
Forest coal-field the whole series is not 3000 ft. thick, with but 15
seams. At Durdham Down a dolomitic conglomerate, of the age
known as Keuper or Upper Trias, rests unconformably on the edges
of the Palaeozoic rocks, and is evidently a shore deposit, yielding
dinosaurian remains. Above the Keuper clays come the Penarth
beds, of which classical sections occur at Westbury, Aust, &c. The
series consists of grey marls, black paper shales containing much
pyrites and a celebrated bone bed, the Cotham landscape marble,
and the White Lias limestone, yielding Ostrea Liassica and Carddum
Rhaeticum. The district of Over Severn is mainly of Keuper marls.
The whole vale of Gloucester is occupied by the next formation, the
Lias, a warm sea deposit of clays and clayey limestones, characterized
by ammonitesj befemnites and gigantic saurians. At its base is
the insect-bearing limestone bed. The pastures producing Gloucester
cheese are on the clays of the Lower Lias. The more calcareous
Middle Lias or marlstone forms hillocks flanking the Oolite escarp-
ment of the Cotteswolds, as at Wotton-under-Edge and Churchdown.
The Cotteswolds consist of the great limestone series of the Lower
Oolite. At the base is a transition series of sands, 30 to 40 ft. thick,
well developed at Nailsworth and Frocester. Leckhampton hill is
a typical section of the Lower Oolite, where the sands are capped by
40 ft. of a remarkable pea grit. Above this are 147 ft. of freestone,
j ft. of oolite marl, 34 ft. of upper freestone and 38 ft. of ragstone.
The Painswick stone belongs to lower freestone. Resting on the
Inferior Oolite, and dipping with it to S.E., is the " fuller's earth,"
a rubbly limestone about 100 ft. thick, throwing out many of the
springs which form the head waters of the Thames. Next comes
the Great or Bath OoHte, at the base of which are the Stonesfield
" slate " beds, quarried for roofing, paling, &c, at Sevenhampton and
elsewhere. From the Great Oolite Minchinhampton stone is obtained,
and at its top is about 40 ft. of flaggy Oolite with bands of clay
known as the Forest Marble. Ripple marks are abundant on. the
flags; in fact all the Oolites seem to have been near shore or in
shallow water, much of the limestone being merely comminuted
coral. The highest bed of the Lower Oolite is the Corn brash, about
40 ft. of rubble, productive in corn, forming a narrow belt from
Siddington to Fairford. Near the latter town and Lechlade is a
small tract of blue Oxford Clay of the Middle Oolite. The county has
no higher Secondary or Tertiary rocks; but the Quaternary series
is represented by much northern drift gravel in the vale and Over
Severn, by accumulations of Oolitic detritus, including post-Glacial
extinct mammalian remains on the flanks of the Cotteswolds, and by
submerged forests extending from Sharpness to Gloucester.
Agriculture. — The climate is mild. Between three-quarters and
seven-eighths of the total area is under cultivation, and of this some
four-sevenths Is in permanent pasture. Wheat is the chief grain
crop. In the vale the deep rich black and red loamy soil is well
adapted for pasturage, and a moist mild climate favours the growth
of grasses and root crops. The cattle, save on the frontier of Here-
fordshire, are mostly shorthorns, of which many are fed for distant
markets, and many reared and kept for dairy purposes. The rich
grazing tract of the vale of Berkeley produces the famous " double
Gloucester " cheeses, and the vale in general has long been celebrated
for cheese and butter. The vale of Gloucester is the chief grain-
growing district. Turnips, &c, occupy about three-fourths of the
green crop acreage, potatoes occupying only about a twelfth. A
feature of the county is its apple and pear orchards, chiefly for the
manufacture of cider and perry, which are attached to nearly every
farm. The Cotteswold district is comparatively barren except in
the valleys, but it has been famous since the 15th century for the
breed of sheep named after it. Oats and barley are here the chief
crops.
Other Industries. — The manufacture of woollen cloth followed upon
the early success in sheep-farming among the Cotteswolds. This
industry is not confined to the hill country or even to Gloucestershire
itself in the west of England. The description of cloth principally
manufactured is broadcloth, dressed with teazles to produce a short
134
GLOUCESTERSHIRE
close nap on the face, and made of all shades of colour, but chiefly
black, blue and scarlet. The principal centre of the industry lies
in and at the foot of the south-western Cotteswolds. Stroud is the
centre for a number of manufacturing villages, and south-west of
this are Wotton-under-Edge, North Nibley and others. ^Machinery
and tools, paper, furniture, pottery and glass are also produced.
Ironstone, clay, limestone and sandstone are worked, and the
coal-fields in the forest of Dean are important. Of less extent is the
field in the south of the county, N.E. of Bristol. Strontium sulphate
is dug from shallow pits in the red marl of Gloucestershire and
Somersetshire.
Communications. — Railway communications are provided princi-
pally by the Great Western and Midland companies. Of the Great
Western lines, the main line serves Bristol from London. It divides
at Bristol, one section serving the south-western counties, another
South Wales, crossing beneath the Severn by the Severn Tunnel,
4} m. in length, a remarkable engineering work. A more direct
route, by this tunnel, between London and South Wales, is provided
by a line from Wootton Bassett on the main line, running north of
Bristol by Badminton and Chipping Sodbury. Other Great Western
lines are that from Swindon on the main line, by the Stroud valley
to Gloucester, crossing the Severn there, and continuing by the right
bank of the river into Wales, with branches north-west into Hereford-
shire; the Oxford and Worcester trunk line, crossing the north-east
of the county, connected with Cheltenham and Gloucester by a
branch through the Cotteswolds from Chipping Norton junction;
and the line from Cheltenham by Broadway to Honcybourne.
The west-and-north line of the Midland railway follows the vale
from Bristol by Gloucester and Cheltenham with a branch into the
forest of Dean by Berkeley, crossing the Severn at Sharpness by a
great bridge 1387 yds. in length, with 22 arches. The coal-fields of
the forest of Dean are served by several branch lines. In the north,
Tewkesbury is served by a Midland branch from Ashchurch to
Malvern. The Midland and South-western Junction railway runs
east and south from Cheltenham by Cirencester, affording com-
munication with the south of England. The East Gloucester line
of the Great Western from Oxford terminates at Fairford. The
Thames and Severn canal, rising to a summit level in the tunnel
through the Cotteswolds at Sapperton, is continued from Wallbridge
(Stroud) by theStroudwater canal, and gives communication between
the two great rivers. The Berkeley Ship Canal (i6i m.) connects
the port of Gloucester with its outport of Sharpness on Severn.
Population and Administration. — The area of the ancient county is
795«7°9 acres, with a population in 1891 of 599,947 and in 1901 of
634,729- The area of the administrative county is 805,482 acres. The
county contains 28 hundreds. The municipal boroughs are — Bristol,
a city and county borough (pop. 328,94k); Cheltenham (49,4.39);
Gloucester, a city and county borough (47,955); Tewkesbury
(5419). The other urban districts are — Awre (1096), Charlton Kings
(38o6),Circenester (7536), Coleford (2541), Kingswood, on the eastern
outskirts of Bristol (11,061), Nailsworth (3028), Newnham (1184),
Stow-on-the-Wold (1386), Stroud (9153)1 Tetbury (1989), Westbury-
on-Severn (1866). The number of small ancient market towns is
large, especially in the southern part of the vale, on the outskirts
of the forest, and among the foot hills of the wolds. Those in the
forest district are mostly connected with the coal trade, such as
Lydney (355?)» besides Awre and Coleford; and, to the north,
besides Newnham, Cinderford and Mitcheldean. South from Stroud
there are Minchinhampton (3737) and Nailsworth ; near the south-
eastern boundary Tetbury and Marshfield; Stonehouse (2183),
Dursley (2372), Wotton-under-Edge (2992) and Chipping Sodbury
along the western line of the hills; and between them and the
Severn, Berkeley and Thornbury (2504). Among the uplands of the
Cotteswolds there are no towns, and villages are few, but in the east of
the county, in the upper Thames basin, there are, besides Cirencester,
Fairford on the Coin and Lechlade, close to the head of the naviga-
tion on the Thames itself. Far up in the Lech valley, remote from
railway communication, is Northleach, once a great posting station
on the Oxford and Cheltenham road. In the north-east are Stow-on-
the-Wold, standing high, and M ore ton- in-t he- Marsh near the head-
waters of the Evenlode. In a northern prolongation of the county,
almost detached, is Chipping Campden. Winchcomb (2699) lies
6 m. N.E. of Cheltenham. In the north-west, Newent (2^85) is the
only considerable town. Gloucestershire is in the Oxford circuit, and
assizes are held at Gloucester. It has one court of quarter sessions,
and is divided into 24 petty sessional divisions. The boroughs
of Bristol, Gloucester and Tewkesbury have separate commissions
of the peace and courts of quarter sessions. There are 359 civil
parishes. Gloucestershire is principally in the diocese of Gloucester,
but part is in that of Bristol, and small parts in those of Worcester
and Oxford. There are 408 ecclesiastical parishes or districts wholly
or in part within the county. There are five parliamentary divisions,
namely, Tewkesbury or northern, Cirencester or eastern, Stroud or
mid, Thornbury or southern, and Forest of Dean, each returning
one member. The county also includes the boroughs of Gloucester
and Cheltenham, each returning one member; and the greater part
of the borough of Bristol, which returns four members.
History. — The English conquest of the Severn valley began in
577 with the victory of Ceawlin at Deorham, followed by the
capture of Cirencester, Gloucester and Bath. The Hwiccas who
occupied the district were a West Saxon tribe, but their territory
had become a dependency of Mercia in the 7 th century, and
was not brought under West Saxon dominion until the 9th
century. No important settlements were made by the Danes
in the district. Gloucestershire probably originated as a shire
in the 10th century, and is mentioned by name in the Anglo-
Saxon Chronicle in 1016. Towards the close of the nth century
the boundaries were readjusted to include Winchcomb, hitherto
a county by itself, and at the same time the forest district between
the Wye and the Severn was added to Gloucestershire. The
divisions of the county for a long time remained very unsettled,
and the thirty-nine hundreds mentioned in the Domesday Survey
and the thirty-one hundreds of the Hundred Rolls of 1274 differ
very widely in name and extent both from each other and from
the twenty-eight hundreds of the present day.
Gloucestershire formed part of Harold's earldom at the time
of the Norman invasion, but it offered slight resistance to the
Conqueror. In the wars of Stephen's reign the cause of the
empress Maud was supported by Robert of Gloucester who had
rebuilt the castle at Bristol, and the castles at Gloucester and
Cirencester were also garrisoned on her behalf. In the barons'
war of the reign of Henry III. Gloucester was garrisoned for
Simon de Montfort, but was captured by Prince Edward in 1265,
in which year de Montfort was slain at Evesham. Bristol and
Gloucester actively supported the Yorkist cause during the Wars
of the Roses. In the religious struggles of the 16th century
Gloucester showed strong Protestant sympathy, and in the
reign of Mary Bishop Hooper was sent to Gloucester to be burnt
as a warning to the county, while the same Puritan leanings
induced the county to support the Parliamentary cause in the
civil war of the 17th century. In 1643 Bristol and Cirencester
were captured by the Royalists, but the latter was recovered
in the same year and Bristol in 1645. Gloucester was garrisoned
for the parliament throughout the struggle.
On the subdivision of the Mercian diocese in 680 the greater
part of modern Gloucestershire was included in the diocese of
Worcester, and shortly after the Conquest constituted the arch-
deaconry of Gloucester, which in 1200 comprised the deaneries
of Campden, Stow, Cirencester, Fairford, Winchcombe, Stone-
house, Hawkesbury, Bitton, Bristol, Dursley and Gloucester.
The district west of the Severn, with the exception of a few
parishes in the deaneries of Ross and Staunton, constituted the
deanery of the forest within the archdeaconry and diocese of
Hereford. In 1535 the deanery of Bitton had been absorbed
in that of Hawkesbury. In 1 541 the diocese of Gloucester was
created, its boundaries being identical with those of the county.
On the erection of Bristol to a see in 1542 the deanery of Bristol
was transferred from Gloucester to that diocese. In 1S36 the
sees of Gloucester and Bristol were united; the archdeaconry of
Bristol was created out of the deaneries of Bristol, Cirencester,
Fairford and Hawkesbury; and the deanery of the forest was
transferred to the archdeaconry of Gloucester, In 1882 the
archdeaconry of Cirencester was constituted to include the
deaneries of Campden, Stow, Northleach north and south,
Fairford and Cirencester. In 1897 the diocese of Bristol was
recreated, and included the deaneries of Bristol, Stapleton and
Bitton.
After the Conquest very extensive lands and privileges in the
county were acquired by the church, the abbey of Cirencester
alone holding seven hundreds at fee-farm, and the estates of the
principal lay-tenants were for the most part outlying parcels
of baronies having their " caput " in other counties. The large
estates held by William Fitz Osbern, earl of Hereford, escheated
to the crown on the rebellion of his son Earl Roger in 1074-
1075. The Berkeleys have held lands in Gloucestershire from
the time of the Domesday Survey, and the families of Basset,
Tracy, Clifton, Dennis and Poyntz have figured prominently
in the annals of the county. Gilbert de Clare, earl of Gloucester,
and Richard of Cornwall claimed extensive lands and privileges
in the shire in the 13th century, and Simon de Montfort owned
Minsterworth and Rodley.
GLOVE
135
Bristol was made a county in 1425, and in 1483 Richard III.
created Gloucester an independent county, adding to it the
hundreds of Dudston and King's Barton. The latter were
reunited to Gloucestershire in 1673, but the cities oi Bristol and
Gloucester continued to rank as independent counties, with
separate jurisdiction, county rate and assizes. The chief officer
of the forest of Dean was the warden, who was generally also
constable of St Briavei Castle. The first justice-seat for the
forest was held at Gloucester Castle in 1282, the last in 1635.
The hundred of the duchy of Lancaster is within the jurisdiction
of the duchy of Lancaster for certain purposes.
The physical characteristics of the three natural divisions of
Gloucestershire have given rise in each to a special industry,
as already indicated. The forest district, until the development
of the Sussex mines in the 16th century, was the chief iron-
producing area of the kingdom, the mines having been worked
in Roman times, while the abundance of timber gave rise to
numerous tanneries and to an important ship-building trade.
The hill district, besides fostering agricultural pursuits, gradually
absorbed the woollen trade from the big towns, which now
devoted themselves almost entirely to foreign commerce. Silk-
weaving was introduced in the 17th century, and was especially
prosperous in the Stroud valley. The abundance of clay and
building-stone in the county gave rise to considerable manu-
factures of brick, tiles and pottery. Numerous minor industries
sprang up in the 17th and 18th centuries, such as flax-growing
and the manufacture of pins, buttons, lace, stockings, rope and
sailcloth.
Gloucestershire was first represented in parliament in 1290,
when it returned two members. Bristol and Gloucester acquired
representation in 1295, Cirencester in 1572 and Tewkesbury
in 1620. Under the Reform Act of 1832 the county returned
four members in two divisions; Bristol, Gloucester, Cirencester,
Stroud and Tewkesbury returned two members each, and
Cheltenham returned one member. The act of 1868 reduced the
representation of Cirencester and Tewkesbury to one member each.
Antiquities. — The cathedrals of Gloucester and Bristol, the
magnificent abbey church of Tewkesbury, and the church of
Cirencester with its great Perpendicular porch, are described
under their separate headings. Of the abbey of Hayles near
Winchcomb, founded by Richard, earl of Cornwall, in 1246,
little more than the foundations are left, but these have been
excavated, with great care, and interesting fragments have been
brought to light. Most of the old market towns have fine parish
churches. At Deerhurst near Tewkesbury, and Cleeve near
Cheltenham, there are churches of special interest on account
of the pre-Norman work they retain. The Perpendicular church
at Lechlade is unusually perfect; and that at Fairford was
built (c. 1500), according to tradition, to contain the remarkable
series of stained-glass windows which are said to have been
brought from the Netherlands. These are, however, adjudged
to be of English workmanship, and are one of the finest series
in the country. The great Decorated Calcot Barn is an interesting
relic of the monastery of Kingswood near Tetbury. The castle
at Berkeley is a splendid example of a feudal stronghold. Thorn-
bury Castle, in the same district, is a fine Tudor ruin, the pre-
tensions of which evoked the jealousy of Cardinal Wolsey against
its builder, Edward Stafford, duke of Buckingham, who was
beheaded in 1521. Near Cheltenham is the fine 15th-century
mansion of Southam de la Bere, of timber and stone. Memorials
of the de la Bere family appear in the church at Cleeve. The
mansion contains a tiled floor from Hayles Abbey. Near
Winchcomb is Sudeley Castle, dating from the 15th century,
but the inhabited portion is chiefly Elizabethan. The chapel is
the burial place of Queen Catherine Parr. At Great Badminton
is the mansion and vast domain of the Beauforts (formerly of
the Botelers and others), on the south-eastern boundary of the
county.
See Victoria County History t Gloucestershire; Sir R. Atk>ns,
The Ancient and Present State of Gloucestershire (London, 1712; 2nd
ed., London, 1768) ; Samuel Rudder, A New History of Gloucestershire
(Cirencester, 1779); Ralph Bigland, Historical, Monumental and
Genealogical Collections relative to the County of Gloucester (2 vols.,
London, 1701) ; Thomas Rudge, The History of the County of Gloucester
(2 vols., Gloucester, 1803); T. D. Fosbroke Abstract of Records and
Manuscripts respecting the County of Gloucestershire formed into a
History (2 vols-, Gloucester, 1807); Legends, Tales and Songs in
the Dialect of the Peasantry of Gloucestershire (London, 1876); j. D.
Robertson, Glossary of Dialect and Archaic Words of Gloucester
(London, 1890); W. Bazelcy and F. A. Hyett, Bibliographers 1
Manual of Gloucestershire (3 vols., London, 1 895-1 897); W. H.
Huttori, By Thames and Cotswold (London, 1903). See also Trans-
actions of the Bristol and Gloucestershire Archaeological Society.
GLOVE (O. Eng. glof, perhaps connected with Gothic lofa, the
palm of the hand), a covering for the hand, commonly with a
separate sheath for each finger.
The use of gloves is of high antiquity, and apparently was
known even to the pre-historic cave dwellers. In Homer
LaSrtes is described as wearing gloves (x^pidas bcl xepal)
while walking in his garden (Od. xxiv. 230). Herodotus (vi.
72) tells how Leotychides filled a glove (x«pfc) with the money
he received as a bribe, and Xenophon (Cyrop. viii. 8. 17) records
that the Persians wore fur gloves having separate sheaths for
the fingers (x^tdas BaoeLas koX daKTvMfipas). Among the
Romans also there are occasional references to the use of gloves*
According to the younger Pliny (Ep. iii. 5. 15) the secretary
whom his uncle had with him when ascending Vesuvius wore
gloves (tnanicae) so that he might not be impeded in his work
by the cold, and Varro (R.R. i. 55.1) remarks that olives gathered
with the bare fingers are better than those gathered with gloves
(digitabula or digitalia). In the northern countries the general
use of gloves would be more natural than in the south, and it
is not without significance that the most common medieval
Latin word for glove (guantus or wanius, Mod. Fr. gant) is of
Teutonic origin (O. H. Ger. want). Thus in the life of Columbanus
by Jonas, abbot of Bobbio (d. c. 665), gloves for protecting the
hands in doing manual labour are spoken of as tegumenta manuum
quae GaUi wanios vocant. Among the Germans and Scandi-
navians, in the 8th and 9th centuries, the use of gloves, fingerless
at first, would seem to have been all but universal; and in the
case of kings, prelates and nobles they were often elaborately
embroidered and bejewelled. This was more particularly the case
with the gloves which formed part of the pontifical vestments(see
below). In war and in the chase gloves of leather, or with the
backs armoured with articulated iron plates, were early worn; yet
in the Bayeux tapestry the warriors on either side fight ungloved.
The fact that gloves are not represented by contemporary artists
does not prove their non-existence, since this might easily be
an omission due to lack of observation or of skill; but, so far
as the records go, there is no evidence to prove that gloves were
in general use in England until the 13th century. It was in
this century that ladies began to wear gloves as ornaments;
they were of linen and sometimes reached to the elbow. It
was, however, not till the 16th century that they reached their
greatest elaboration, when Queen Elizabeth set the fashion for
wearing them richly embroidered and jewelled.
The symbolic sense of the middle ages early gave to the use
of gloves a special significance. Their liturgical use by the
Church is dealt with below {Pontifical gloves) ; this was imitated
from the usage of civil life. Embroidered and jewelled gloves
formed part of the insignia of the emperors, and also, and that
quite early, of the kings of England. Thus Matthew of Paris,
in recording the burial of Henry II. in 1189, mentions that he
was buried in his coronation robes, with a golden crown on his
head and gloves on his hands. Gloves were also found on the
hands of King John when his tomb was opened in 1797, and on
those of King Edward I. when his tomb was opened in 1774.
See W. B. Redfern, Royal and Historic Gloves and Shoes, with
numerous examples.
Gages. — Of the symbolical uses of the glove one of the most
widespread and important during the middle ages was the
practice of tendering a folded glove as a gage for waging one's
law. The origin of this custom is probably not far to seek. The
promise to fulfil a judgment of a court of law, a promise secured
by the delivery of a wed or gage, is one of the oldest, if not the
very oldest, of all enforceable contracts. This gage was originally
136
GLOVE
a chattel of value, -Which had to be deposited at once by the
defendant as security into his adversary's hand; and that the
glove became the formal symbol of such deposit is doubtless
due to its being the most convenient loose object for the purpose.
The custom survived after the contract with the vadium, wed
or gage had been superseded by the contract with pledges (per-
sonal sureties). In the rules of procedure of a baronial court
of the 14th century we find: " He shall wage his law with his
folded glove (de son gaunt plyee) and shall deliver it into the hand
of the other, and then take his glove back and find pledges for
his law." The delivery of the glove had, in fact, become a mere
ceremony, because the defendant had his sureties close at hand. 1
Associated with this custom was the use of the glove in the
wager of battle (vadium in duello). The glove here was thrown
down by the defendant in open court as security that he would
defend his cause in arms; the accuser by picking it up accepted
the challenge (see Wager). This form is still prescribed for the
challenge of the king's champion at the coronation of English
sovereigns, and was actually followed at that of George IV.
(see Champion). The phrase " to throw down the gauntlet "
is still in common use of any challenge.
Pledges of Service. — The use of the glove as a pledge of fulfilment
is exemplified also by the not infrequent practice of enfeoffing
vassals by investing them with the glove; similarly the emperors
symbolized by the bestowal of a glove the concession of the right
to found a town or to establish markets, mints and the like;
the " hands " in the armorial bearings of certain German towns
are really gloves, reminiscent of this investiture. Conversely,
fiefs were held by the render of presenting gloves to the sovereign.
Thus the manor of Little Holland in Essex was held in Queen
Elizabeth's time by the service of one knight's fee and the rent of
a pair of gloves turned up with hare's skin (Blount's Tenures,
ed. Beckwith, p. 130). The most notable instance in England,
however, is the grand serjeanty of finding for the king a glove
for his right hand on coronation day, and supporting his right
arm as long as he holds the sceptre. The right to perform
this " honourable service " was originally granted by William. the
Conqueror to Bertram de Verdun, together with the manor of
Fernham (Farnham Royal) in Buckinghamshire. The male
descendants of Bertram performed this serjeanty at the corona-
tions until the death of Theobald de Verdun in 1316, when the
right passed, with the manor of Farnham, to Thomas Lord
Furnival by his marriage with the heiress Joan. His son William
Lord Furnival performed the ceremony at the coronation of
Richard II. He died in 1383, and his daughter and heiress Jean
de Furnival having married Sir Thomas Nevill, Lord Furnival
in her right, the latter performed the ceremony at the coronation
of Henry IV. His heiress Maud married Sir John Talbot (1st
earl of Shrewsbury) who, as Lord Furnival, presented the glove
embroidered with the arms of Verdun at the coronation of
Henry V. When in 1541 Francis earl of Shrewsbury exchanged
the manor of Farnham with King Henry VIII. for the site and
precincts of the priory of Worksop in Nottinghamshire he
stipulated that the right to perform this serjeanty should be
reserved to him, and the king accordingly transferred the
obligation from Farnham to Worksop. On the 3rd of April
1838 the manor of Worksop was sold to the duke of Newcastle
and with it the right to perform the service, which had hitherto
always been carried out by a descendant of Bertram de Verdun.
At the coronation of King Edward VII. the earl of Shrewsbury
disputed the duke of Newcastle's right, on the ground that the
serjeanty was attached not to the manor but to the priory lands
at Worksop, and that the latter had been subdivided by sale
so that no single person was entitled to perform the ceremony
and the right had therefore lapsed. His petition for a regrant
to himself as lineal heir of Bertram de Verdun, however, was
1 F. W. Maitiand and W. P. Baildon, The Court Baron (Selden
Society, London, 1891), p. 17. Maitiand wrongly translates gaunt
plyee as " twisted " glove, adding " why it should be twisted I cannot
say." An earlier instance of the delivery of a folded glove as gage
is quoted from the 13th-century Anglo-Norman poem known as The
Song of DermoU and the Earl (ed. G. H. Open, Oxford, 1892) in
J. H. Round's Commune of London, p. 153.
disallowed by the court of claims, and the serjeanty was declared
to be attached to the manor of Worksop (G. Woods Wollaston,
Coronation Claims, London, 1003, p. 133).
Presentations. — From the ceremonial and symbolic use of
gloves the transition was easy to the custom which grew up of
presenting them to persons of distinction on special occasions.
When Queen Elizabeth visited Cambridge in 1578 the vice-
chancellor offered her a " paire of gloves, perfumed and garnished
with embroiderie and goldsmithe's wourke, price 60s.," and at
the visit of James I. there in 161 5 the mayor and corporation
of the town " delivered His Majesty a fair pair of perfumed
gloves with gold laces." It was formerly the custom in England
for bishops at their consecrations to make presents of gloves to
those who came to their consecration dinners and others, but this
gift became such a burden to them that by an order in council
in 1678 it was commuted for the payment of a sum of £50 towards
the rebuilding of St Paul's. Serjeants at law, on their appoint-
ment, were given a pair of gloves containing a sum of money
which was termed " regards "; this custom is recorded as early
as 1495, when according to the Black Book of Lincoln's Inn
each of the new Serjeants received £6, 13s. 4d. and a pair of
gloves costing 4d., and it persisted to a late period. At one time
it was the practice for a prisoner who pleaded the king's pardon
on his discharge to present the judges with gloves by way of a
fee. Glove-silver, according to Jacob's Law Dictionary, was a
name used of extraordinary rewards formerly given to officers of
courts, &c, or of money given by the sheriff of a county in which
no offenders were left for execution to the clerk of assize and
judge's officers; the explanation of the term is that the glove
given as a perquisite or fee was in some cases lined with money
to increase its value, and thus came to stand for money osten-
sibly given in lieu of gloves. It is still the custom in the United
Kingdom to present a pair of white gloves to a judge or magis-
trate who when he takes his seat for criminal business at the
appointed time finds no cases for trial. By ancient custom
judges are not allowed to wear gloves while actually sitting on
the bench, and a witness taking the oath must remove the glove
from the hand that holds the book. (See J. W. Norton-Kyshe,
The Law and Customs relating to Gloves, London, 1901.)
Pontifical gloves (Lat. chirothecae) are liturgical ornaments
peculiar to the Western Church and proper only to the pope, the
cardinals and bishops, though the right to wear them is often
granted by the Holy See to abbots, cathedral dignitaries and
other prelates, as in the case of the other episcopal insignia.
According to the present use the gloves are of silk and of the
liturgical colour of the day, the edge of the opening ornamented
with a narrow band of embroidery or the like, and the middle of
the back with a cross. They may be worn only at the celebra-
tion of mass (except masses for the dead). In vesting, the
gloves are put on the bishop immediately after the dalmatic, the
right hand one by the deacon, the other by the subdeacon. They
are worn only until the ablution before the canon of the mass,
after which they may not again be put on.
At the consecration of a bishop the consecrating prelate puts
the gloves on the new bishop immediately after the mitre, with
a prayer that his hands may be kept pure, so that the sacrifice he
offers may be as acceptable as the gift of venison which Jacob,
his hands wrapped in the skin of kids, brought to Isaac. This
symbolism (as in the case of the other vestments) is, however, of
late growth. The liturgical use of gloves itself cannot, according
to Father Braun, be traced beyond the beginning of the 10th
century, and their introduction was due, perhaps to the simple
desire to keep the hands clean for the holy mysteries, but more
probably merely as part of the increasing pomp with which the
Carolingian bishops were surrounding themselves. From the
Frankish kingdom the custom spread to Rome, where liturgical
gloves are first heard of in the earlier half of the nth century,
The earliest authentic instance of the right to wear them being
granted to a non-bishop is a bull of Alexander IV. in 1070, con-
ceding this to the abbot of S. Pietro in Cielo d' Oro.
During the middle ages the occasions on which pontifical gloves
(often wanti, guanti, and sometimes manicae in the inventories)
GLOVER,* 8JR.J. H.r-GLOVERSVILLE
were worn were not 90 carefully defined as now, the use varying in
different churches. Nor were the liturgical colours prescribed.
The most characteristic feature of the medieval pontifical glove
was the ornament (tasellus, fibula, moniU, paratura) set in the
middle of the back of the glove. This was usually a small plaque
of metal, enamelled or jewelled, generally round, but sometimes
square or irregular in shape. Sometimes embroidery was substi-
tuted; still more rarely the whole glove was covered, even to the
fingers, with elaborate needlework designs.
Liturgical gloves have not been worn by Anglican bishops since
the Reformation, though they are occasionally represented as
wearing them on their effigies.
See J. Braun.SJ.Jte liturgische Cewandung (Freiburg im Breisgau,
I9<>7)» PP- 359-382, where many beautiful examples are illustrated.
Manufacture of Gloves. — Three countries, according to an old
proverb, contribute to the making of a good glove — Spain
dressing the leather, France cutting it and England sewing it.
But the manufacture of gloves was not introduced into Great
Britain till the 10th or nth century. The incorporation of
glovers of Perth was chartered in 1165, and in n 90 a glove-
makers' gild was formed in France, with the object of regulating
the trade and ensuring good workmanship. The glovers of
London in 1349 framed their ordinances and had them approved
by the corporation, the city regulations at that time fixing the
price of a pair of common sheepskin gloves at id. In 1464, when
the gild received armorial bearings, they do not seem to have
been very strong, but apparently their position improved sub-
sequently and in 1638 they were incorporated as a new company.
In 1580 it is recorded that both French and Spanish gloves were
on sale in London shops, and in 166 1 a company of glovers was
incorporated at Worcester, which still remains an important seat
of the English glove industry. In America the manufacture of
gloves dates from about 1760, when Sir William Johnson brought
over several families of glove makers from Perth; these settled
in Fulton county, New York, which is now the largest seat of the
glove trade in the United States.
Gloves may be divided into two distinct categories, according as
these are made of leather or are woven or knitted from fibres such as
silk, wool or cotton. The manufacture of the latter kinds is a branch
of the hosiery industry. For leather gloves skins of various animals
are employed — deer, calves, sheep and lambs, goats and kids, &c. —
but kids have had nothing to do with the production of many of
the " kid gloves .' ' of commerce. The skins are prepared and dressed
by specialprocesses (see Leather) before going to the glove-maker
to be cut. Owing to the elastic character of the material the cutting
is a delicate operation, and long practice is required before a man
becomes expert at it. Formerly it was done by shears, the workmen
following an outline marked on the leather, but now steel dies are
universally employed not only for the bodies of the gloves but also
for the thumb-pieces and fourchettes or sides of the fingers. When
hand sewing is employed the pieces to be sewn together are placed
between a pair of jaws, the holding edges of which are serrated with
fine saw-teeth, and the sewer by passing the needle forwards and
backwards between each of these teeth secures neat uniform stitching.
But sewing machines are now widely employed on the work. The
labour of making a glove is much subdivided, different operators
sewing different pieces, and others again embroidering the back,
forming the button-holes, attaching the buttons, &c. After the gloves
are completed, they undergo the process of " laying off/' in which
they are drawn over metal forms, shaped like a hand and heated
internally by steam; in this way they are finally smoothed and
shaped before being wrapped in paper and packed in boxes.
Gloves made of thin indiarubber or of white cotton are worn by
some surgeons while performing operations, on account of the ease
with which they can be thoroughly sterilized.
GLOVER, SIR JOHN HAWLEY (1829-1885), captain in the
British navy, entered the service in 1841 and passed his examina-
tion as lieutenant in 1849, but did not receive a commission till
May 1 85 1. He served on various stations, and was wounded
severely in an action with the Burmese at Donabew (4th
February 1853). But his reputation was not gained at sea and
as a naval officer, but on shore and as an administrative official
in the colonies. During his years of service as lieutenant in the
navy he had had considerable experience of the coast of Africa,
and had taken part in the expedition of Dr W. B. Baikie (1824-
1864) up the Niger. On the 21st of April 1863 he was appointed
administrator of the government of Lagos, and in that capacity,
or as colonial secretary, he remained there till 1872. During this
137
period he had been much employed in repelling the marauding
incursions of the Ashantis. When .the Ashanti war broke out
in 1873, Captain, Glover undertook the hazardous and doubtful
task of organizing the native tribes, whom hatred oithe Ashantis
might be expected to make favourable to the British authorities —
to the extent at least to which .their fears would allow them to act.
His services were accepted, and in September of 1873 he landed at
Cape Coast, and, after forming a small trustworthy force of
Hausa, marched to Accra. His influence sufficed to gather a
numerous native force, but neither he nor anybody else could
overcome their abject terror of the ferocious Ashantis to the
extent of making them fight. In January 1874 Captain Glover
was able to render some assistance in the taking of Kumasi,
but it was at the head of a Hausa force. His services were
acknowledged by the thanks of parliament and by his creation
as G.C.M.G. In 1875 he was appointed governor of Newfound-
laud and held the post till 1881, when he was transferred to the
Leeward Islands. He returned to Newfoundland in 1883, and
died in London on the 30th September 1885.
Lady Glover's Life of her husband appeared in 1897.
GLOVER, RICHARD (1712-1785), English poet, son of Richard
Glover, a Hamburg merchant, was born in London in 1712. He
was educated at Cheam in Surrey. While there he wrote in his
sixteenth year a poem to the memory of Sir Isaac Newton, which
was prefixed by Dr Pemberton to his View of Newton 9 s Philosophy,
published in 1728. In 1737 he published an epic poem in praise
of liberty, Leonidas, which was thought to have a special reference
to the politics of the time; and being warmly commended by the
prince of Wales and his court, it soon passed through several
editions. In 1739 Glover published a poem entitled London, or
the Progress of Commerce; and in the same year, with a view to
exciting the nation against the Spaniards, he wrote a spirited
ballad, Hosier } s Ghost, very popular in its day. He was also the
author of two tragedies, Boadicea (1753) and Medea (1761),
written in close imitation of Greek models. The success of
Glover's Leonidas led him to take considerable interest in politics,
and in 1761 he entered parliament as member for Weymouth..
He died on the 25th of November 1785. The Athenaid, an epic in
thirty books, was .published in 1787, and his diary, entitled
Memoirs of a distinguished literary and political Character from
1742 to 1757* appeared fn 1813. Glover was one of the reputed
authors of Junius; but bis claims — which were advocated in an
Inquiry concerning the author, of the Letters of Junius (181 5), by
R. Duppa — rest on very slight grounds.
GLOVERSVILLE, a city of Fulton county, New York,
U.S.A., at the foat-hil}s of the Adirondack*, about 55 m. N.W.
of Albany. . Pop. (1890)- 13,864; (1900) 18,349, of whom 2542
were foreign-born; (1910 census) 20,642. It is served by
the Fonda, Johnstown & Gloversville railway (connecting
at Fonda, about 9 m. distant, with the New York Central),
and by electric lines connecting with Johnstqwn, Amsterdam
and Schenectady. The city has a public library (26,000
volumes in 1908), the Nathan Littajier memorial hospital,
a state armoury and a fine government building. Gloversville
is the principal glove-manufacturing centre in the United
States. In 1900 Fulton county produced more than 57%,
and Gloversville 38- 8%, of all the leather gloves and mittens
made in the United States; in 1905 Gloversville produced 29*9%
of the leather gloves and mittens made in the United States,
its products being valued at $5,302,196. Gloversville has more
than a score of tanneries and leather-finishing factories, and
manufactures fur goods. In 1905 the city's total factory product
was valued at $9,340,763. The extraordinary localization of the
glove-making industry in Gloversville, Johnstown and other
parts of Fulton county, is an incident of much interest in the
economic history of the United States. The industry seems to
have had its origin among a colony of Perthshire families,
including many glove-makers, who were settled in this region by
Sir William Johnson about 1760. For many years the entire
product seems to have been disposed of in the neighbourhood,
but about 1809 the goods began to mid more distant markets,
and by 1825 the industry was firmly established on a prosperous
xn. 5 a
138
GLOW-WORM— GLUCK
basis, the trade being banded down from father to son. An
interesting phase of the development is that, in addition to the
factory work, a large amount of the industry is in the hands of
" home workers " both in the town and country districts.
Gloversville, settled originally about 1770, was known for some
time as Stump City, its present name being adopted in 1832.
It was incorporated as a village in 185 1 and was chartered as a
city in 1890.
GLOW-WORM, the popular name of the wingless female of
the beetle Lampyris nectiluca, whose power of emitting light has
been familiar for many centuries. The luminous organs of the
glow-worm consist of cells similar to those of the fat-body,
grouped into paired masses in the ventral region of the hinder
abdominal segments. The light given out by the wingless
female insect is believed to serve as an attraction to the flying
male, whose luminous organs remain in a rudimentary condition.
The common glow-worm is a widespread European and Siberian
insect, generally distributed in England and ranging in Scotland
northwards to the Tay, but unknown in Ireland. Exotic species
of Lampyris are similarly luminous, and light-giving organs are
present in many genera of the family Lampyridae from various
parts of the world. Frequently — as in the south European Luciola
Ualica — both sexes of the beetle are provided with wings, and both
male and female emit light. These luminous, winged Lampyrids
are generally known as " fire-flies. " In correspondence with their
power of emitting light, the insects are nocturnal in habit.
Elongate centipedes of the family Geophilidae, certain species
of which are luminous, are sometimes mistaken for the true
glow-worm.
GLOXINIA, a charming decorative plant, botanically a species
of Sinningia (5. speciosa) f a member of the natural order Ges-
neraceae and a native of Brazil. The species has given rise under
Cultivation to numerous forms showing a wonderful variety of
colour, and hybrid forms have also been obtained between these
and other species of Smningia. A good strain of seed will
produce many superb and charmingly coloured varieties, and
if sown early in spring, in a temperature of 65 at night, they
may be shifted on into 6-in. pots, and in these may be flowered
during the summer. The bulbs are kept at rest through the
winter in dry sand, inatemperatureof 50°, and to yield a succession
should be started at intervals, say at the end of February and
the beginning of April. To prolong the blooming season, use
weak manure water when the flower-buds show themselves.
GLUCINUM, an alternative name for Beryllium (q.v.). When
L. N. Vauquelin in 1798 published in the Annates de cktmie an
account of a new earth obtained by him from beryl he refrained
from giving the substance a name, but in a note to his paper
the editors suggested glucine, from yXvxbs, sweet, in reference
to the taste of its salts, whence the name Glucinum or Glucinium
(symbo Gl. or sometimes G). The name beryllium was given
to the metal by German chemists and was generally used until
recently, when the earlier name was adopted.
GLUCK, 1 CHRISTOPH WILLIBALD (1714-1787), operatic
composer, German by his nationality, French by his place in art,
was born at Weidenwang, near Neumarkt, in the upper
Palatinate, on the 2nd of July 1714. He belonged to the lower
middle class, his father being gamekeeper to Prince Lobkowitz;
but the boy's education was not neglected on that account.
From his twelfth to his eighteenth year he frequented the
Jesuit school of Kommotau in the neighbourhood of Prince
Lobkowitz's estate in Bohemia, where he not only received a
good general education, but also had lessons in music. At the
age of eighteen Gluck went to Prague, where he continued his
musical studies under Gzernohorsky, and maintained himself
by the exercise of his art, sometimes in the very humble capacity
of fiddler at village fairs and dances. Through the introductions
of Prince Lobkowitz, however, he soon gained access to the best
families of the Austrian nobility ; and when in 1736 he proceeded
to Vienna he was hospitably received at his protector's palace.
Here he met Prince Melzi, an ardent lover of music, whom he
accompanied to Milan, continuing his education under Giovanni
1 Not, as frequently spelt, Gltick.
Battista San Martini, a great musical historian and contra-
puntist, who was also famous in his own day as a composer of
church and chamber music. We soon find Gluck producing
operas at the rapid rate necessitated by the omnivorous taste
of the Italian public in those days. Nine of these works were
produced at various Italian theatres between 1741 and 1745.
Although their artistic value was small, they were so favourably
received that in 1745 Gluck was invited to London to compose
for the Haymarket. The first opera produced there was called
La Caduta dei giganti; it was followed by a revised version of
one of his earlier operas. Gluck also appeared in London as a
performer on the musical glasses (see Harmonica).
The success of his two operas, as well as that of a pasticcio
(ue. a collection of favourite arias set to a new libretto) entitled
Piramo e Tisbe, was anything but brilliant, and he accordingly
left London. But his stay in England was not without important
consequences for his subsequent career. Gluck at this time was
rather less than an ordinary producer of Italian opera. Handel's
well-known saying that Gluck "knew no more counterpoint
than his cook " must be taken in connexion with the Jess well-
known fact that that cook was an excellent bass singer who
performed in many of Handel's own operas. But it indicates
the musical reason of Gluck's failure, while Gluck himself learnt
the dramatic reason through his surprise at finding that arias
which in their original setting had been much applauded lost
all effect when adapted to new words in the pasticcio. Irrelevant
as Handel's criticism appears, it was not without bearing on
Gluck's difficulties. The use of counterpoint has very little
necessary connexion with contrapuntal display; its real and
final cause is a certain depth of harmonic expression which Gluck
attained only in his most dramatic moments, and for want of
which he, even in his finest works, sometimes moved very lamely.
And in later years his own mature view of the importance of
harmony, which he upheld in long arguments with Gr6try, who
believed only in melody, shows that he knew that the dramatic
expression of music must strike below the surface. At this
early period he was simply producing Handelian opera in an
amateurish style, suggesting an unsuccessful imitation of Hasse;
but the failure of his pasticcio is as significant to us as it was to
him, since it shows that already the effect of his music depended
upon its characteristic treatment of dramatic situations. This
characterizing power was as yet not directly evident, and it
needed all the influence of the new instrumental resources of
the rising sonata-forms before music could pass out of what we
may call its architectural and decorative period and enter into
dramatic regions at all.
It is highly probable that the chamber music of his master,
San Martini, had already indicated to Gluck a new direction
which was more or less incompatible with the older art; and
there is nothing discreditable either to Gluck or to his con-
temporaries in the failure of his earlier works. Had the younjj
composer been successful in the ordinary opera seria, there is
reason to fear that the great dramatic reform, initiated by him,
might not have taken place. The critical temper of the London
public fortunately averted this calamity. It may also be assumed
that the musical atmosphere of the English capital, and especially
the great works of Handel, were not without beneficial influence
upon the young composer. But of still greater importance in
this respect was a short trip to Paris, where Gluck became for
the first time acquainted with the classic traditions and the
declamatory style of the French opera — a sphere of music in
which his own greatest, triumphs were to be achieved. Of
these great issues little trace, however, is to be found in the works
produced by Gluck during the fifteen years after his return from
England. In this period Gluck, in a long course of works by
no means free from the futile old traditions, gained technical
experience and important patronage, though his success was
not uniform. His first opera written for Vienna, La Semiramide
riconosciitta, is again an ordinary opera seria, and little more
can be said of Teletnacco, although thirty years later Gluck was
able to use most of its overture and an energetic duet in one of
his greatest works, Artnide.
GLUCK
139
Gluck settled permanently at Vienna in 1756, having two
years previously been appointed court chapel-master, with a
salary of 2000 florins, by the empress Maria Theresa. He had
already received the order of knighthood from the pope in conse-
quence of the successful production of two of his works in Rome.
During the long interval from 1756 to 1762 Gluck seems to have
matured his plans for the reform of the opera; and, barring a
ballet named Don Giovanni, and some airs nouveaux to French
words with pianoforte accompaniment, no compositions of any
importance have to be recorded. Several later pieces d 1 occasion,
such as // Trionfo di Clelia (1763), are still written in the old
manner, though already in 1762 Orfeo ed Euridice shows that the
composer had entered upon a new career. Gluck had for the
first time deserted Metastasio for Raniero Calzabigi, who, as
Vernon Lee suggests, was in all probability the immediate cause
of the formation of Gluck's new ideas, as he was a hot-headed
dramatic theorist with a violent dislike for Metastasio, who had
hitherto dominated the whole sphere of operatic libretto.
Quite apart from its significance in the history of dramatic
music, Orpheus is a work which, by its intrinsic beauty, commands
the highest admiration. Orpheus's air, Che faro, is known to
every one; but still finer is the great scena in which the poet's
song softens even the ombre sdegnose of Tartarus. The ascending
passion of the entries of the solo (Dehl placatevi; Mille pene;
Men tiranne), interrupted by the harsh but gradually softening
exclamations of the Furies, is of the highest dramatic effect.
These melodies, moreover, as well as every declamatory passage
assigned to Orpheus, are made subservient to the purposes of
dramatic characterization; that is, they could not possibly
be assigned to any other person in the drama, any more than
Hamlet's monologue could be spoken by Polonius. It is in this
power of musically realizing a character — a power all but un-
known in the serious opera of his day — that Gluck's genius
as a dramatic composer is chiefly shown. After a short relapse
into his earlier manner, Gluck followed up his Orpheus by a
second classical music-drama (1767) named Alceste. In his
dedication of the score to the grand-duke of Tuscany, he fully
expressed his aims, as well as the reasons for his total breach with
the old traditions. " I shall try," he wrote, " to reduce music
to its real function, that of seconding poetry by intensifying
the expression of sentiments and the interest of situations
without interrupting the action by needless ornament. I have
accordingly taken care not to interrupt the singer in the heat of
the dialogue, to wait for a tedious ritornel, nor do I allow him to
stop on a sonorous vowel, in the middle of a phrase, in order to
show the nhnbkness of a beautiful voice in a long cadenza"
Such theories, and the stem consistency with which they were
carried out, were little to the taste of the pleasure-loving
Viennese; and the success of Alceste^ as well as that of Paris
and Helena, which followed two years later, was not such as
Gluck had desired and expected. He therefore eagerly accepted
the chance of finding a home for his art in the centre of intellectual
and more especially dramatic life, Paris. Such a chance was
opened to him through the bailli Le Blanc du Roullet, attache of
the French embassy at Vienna, and a musical amateur who
entered into Gluck's ideas with enthusiasm. A classic opera
for the Paris stage was accordingly projected, and the friends
fixed upon Racine's Ipkigeme en Aulide. After some difficulties,
overcome chiefly by the intervention of Gluok's farmer pupil
the dauphiness Marie Antoinette, the opera was at last accepted
and performed at the Academic- de Musique, on the 19th of
April 1774.
The great importance of the new work was at once perceived
by the musical amateurs of the French capital, and a hot con-
troversy on the merits of Iphiginie ensued, in which some of the
leading literary men of France took part. Amongst the opponents
of Gluck were not only the admirers of Italian vocalization and
sweetness, but also the adherents of the earlier French school, who
; refused to see in the new composer the legitimate successor of
Lulli and Rameau. Marmontel, Laharpe and D'Alembert were
his opponents, the Abb6 Arnaud and others his enthusiastic
friends. Rousseau took a peculiar position in the struggle.
In his early writings he is a violent partisan of Italian music,
but when Gluck himself appeared as the French champion
Rousseau acknowledged the great composer !s genius; although
he did not always understand it, as for example when he suggested
that in Alceste, " Divinites du Styx," perhaps, the most majestic
of all Gluck's arias, ought to have been set as a rondo. Neverthe-
less in a letter to Dr Burney, written shortly before his death,
Rousseau gives a close and appreciative analysis of Alceste,
the first Italian version of which Gluck had submitted to him
for suggestions; and when, on the first performance of the
piece not being received favourably by the Parisian audience,
the composer exclaimed, " Alceste est tomb&e" Rousseau is said
to have comforted him with the flattering bornnot, " Oui, mais
eUe est tombie du del" The contest received a still more personal
character when Piccinni, a celebrated and by no means incapable
composer, came to Paris as the champion of the Italian party
at the invitation of Madame du Barry, who held a rival court to
that of the young princess (see Opera). As a dramatic contro-
versy it suggests a parallel with the Wagnerian and anti-
Wagnerian warfare of a later age; but there is no such radical
difference between Gluck's and Piccinni's musical methods as
the comparison would suggest. Gluck was by far the better
musician, but his deficiencies in musical technique were of a
kind which contemporaries could perceive as easily as they could
perceive Piccinni's. Both composers were remarkable inventors
of melody, and both had the gift of making . incorrect music
sound agreeable. Gluck's indisputable dramatic power might
be plausibly dismissed as irrelevant by upholders of music for
music's sake, even if Piccinni himself had not chosen, as he
did, to assimilate every feature in Gluck's style that he could
understand. The rivalry between the two composers was. soon
developed into a quarrel by the skilful engineering of Gluck's
enemies. In 1777 Piccinni was given a libretto by Marmontel
on the subject of Roland, to Gluck's intense disgust, as he had
already begun an opera on that subject himself. This,, and the
failure of an attempt to show his command of a lighter style by
furbishing up some earlier works at the instigation of Marie
Antoinette, inspired Gluck to produce his Artnide, which appeared
four months befoife Piccinni's Roland was ready, and raised a
storm of controversy, admiration and abuse. Gluck did not
anticipate Wagner more clearly in his dramatic reforms than in
his caustic temper; and, as in Gluck's own estimation the
difference between Armide and Alceste is that " Vun {Alceste)
doit f aire pleurer ei l' autre f aire iprouverune vohtptueuse sensation,"
it was extremely annoying for him to be told by Laharpe that
he had made Armide a sorceress instead of an enchantress, and
that her part was " une criaillerie monotone ei fatiguante" He
replied to Laharpe in a long public letter worthy of Wagner in
its venomous sarcasm and its tremendous value as an advertise-
ment for its recipient.
Gluck's next work was Iphiginie en Tawide, the success
of which finally disposed of Piccinni, who produced a work
on the same subject at the same time and who is said to have
acknowledged Gluck's superiority. Gluck's next work was
Echo et Narcisse, the comparative failure of which greatly
disappointed him; and during the composition of another opera,
Les DanaHdes, an attack of apoplexy compelled him to give up
work. He left Paris for Vienna, where he lived for several
years in dignified leisure, disturbed only by his declining health.
He died on the 15th of November 17&7. (F. H.; D. F. T.)
The great interest of the dramatic aspect of Gluck's reforms
is apt to overshadow his merit as a musician, and yet in some
ways to idealize it. One is tempted to regard him as condoning
for technical musical deficiencies by sheer dramatic power,
whereas unprejudiced study of his work shows that where his
dramatic power asserts itself there is no lack of musical technique.
Indeed only a great musician could so reform opera as to give it
scope for dramatic power at all. Where Gluck differs from the
greatest musicians is in his absolute dependence on literature
for his inspiration. Where his librettist failed him (as in his
last complete work, £cko et Narcisse), he could hardly write
tolerably good music; and, even in the finest works of his French
140
GLUCK
period, the less emotional situations are sometimes set to music
which has little interest except as a document in the history of
the art. This must not be taken to mean merely that Ghick
could not, like Mozart and nearly all the great song-writers,
set good music to a bad text. Such inability would prove
Gluck's superior literary taste without casting a slur on his
musicianship. But it points to a certain weakness as a musician
that Gluck could not be inspired except by the more thrilling
portions of his libretti. When he was inspired there was no
question that he was the first and greatest writer of dramatic
music before Mozart. To begin with, he could invent sublime
melodies; and his power of producing great musical effects by
the simplest means was nothing short of Handelian. Moreover,
in his peculiar sphere he deserves" the title generally accorded
to Haydn of " father of modern orchestration." It is misleading
to say that he was the first to use the timbre of instruments
with a sense of emotional effect, for Bach and Handel well knew
how to give a whole aria or whole chorus peculiar tone by means
of a definite scheme of instrumentation. But Gluck did not treat
instruments as part of a decorative design, any more than he so
treated musical forms. Just as his sense of musical form is that
of Philipp Emmanuel Bach and of Mozart, so is his treatment
of instrumental tone-colour a thing that changes with every
shade of feeling in the dramatic situation, and not in accordance
with any purely decorative scheme. To accompany an aria
wrth strings, oboes and flutes, was, for example, a perfectly
ordinary procedure; nor was there anything unusual in making
the wind instruments play in unison with the strings for the
first part of the aria, and writing a passage for one or more of
them in the middle section. But it was an unheard-of thing to
make this passage consist of long appoggiaturas once every two
bars in rising sequence on the first oboe, answered by deep
pizzicato bass notes, while Agamemnon in despair cries:
" J'entends retentir dans mon sein le cri plaintif de la nature."
Some of Gluck's most forcible effects are of great subtlety, as,
for instance, in Iphigenie en Tauride, where Orestes tries to
reassure himself by saying: " Le calme ventre dans mon cocur,"
while the intensely agitated accompaniment of the strings
belies him. Again, the sense of orchestral climax shown in the
oracle scene in Alceste was a thing inconceivable in older music,
and unsurpassed in artistic and dramatic spirit by any modern
composer. Its influence in Mozart's Idomeneo is obvious at a
first glance.
The capacity for broad melody always implies a true sense
of form, whether that be developed by skill or not; and thus
Ghick, in rejecting the convenient formalities of older styles
of opera, was not, like some reformers, without something
better to substitute for them. Moreover he, in consultation with
his librettist, achieved great skill in holding together entire
scenes, or even entire acts, by dramatically apposite repetitions
of short arias and choruses. And thus in large portions of his
finest works the music, in spite of frequent full closes, seems to
move pari passu with the drama in a manner which for natural-
ness and continuity is surpassed only by the finales of Mozart
and the entire operas of Wagner. This is perhaps most noticeable
in the second act of Orfeo. In its original Italian version both
scenes, that in Hades and that in Elysium, are indivisible wholes,
and the division into single movements, though technically
obvious, .is aesthetically only a natural means of articulating
the structure. The unity of the scene in Hades extends, in the
original version, even to the key-system. This was damaged
when Gluck had to transpose the part of Orpheus from an alto
to a tenor in the French version* And here we have one of
many instances in which the improvements his French experience
enabled him to make in his great Italian works were not alto-
gether unmixed. Little harm, however, was done to Orfeo
which has not been easily remedied by transposing Orpheus's
part back again; and in a suitable compromise between the
two versions Orfeo remains Gluck's most perfect and inspired
work. The ernotional power of the music is such that the
inevitable spoiling of the story by a happy ending has not the
aspect of mere conventionality which it had in cases where the
music produced no more than the normal effect upon 18th-
century audiences. Moreover Gluck's genius was of too high
an order for him to be less successful in portraying a sufficiently
intense happiness than in portraying grief. He failed only in
what may be called the business capacities of artistic technique;
and there is less " business " in Orfeo than in almost any other
music-drama. It was Gluck's first great inspiration, and his
theories had not had time to take action in paper warfare.
Alceste contains his grandest music and is also very free from
weak pages; but in its original Italian version the third act
did not give Gluck scope for an adequate climax. This difficulty
so accentuated itself in the French version that after continual
retouchings a part for Hercules was, in Gluck's absence, added
by Gossec; and three pages of Gluck's music, dealing with the
supreme crisis where Alceste is rescued from Hades (either by
Apollo or by Hercules) were no longer required in performance
and have been lost. The Italian version is so different from the
French that it cannot help us to restore this passage, in which
Gluck's music now stops short just at the point where we realize
the full height of his power. The comparison between the
Italian and French Alceste is one of the most interesting that can
be made in the study of a musician's development. It would have
been far easier for Gluck to write a new opera if he had not
been so justly attached to his second Italian masterpiece. So
radical are the differences that in retranslating the French
libretto into Italian for performance with the French music
not one line of Calzabigi's original text can be retained.
In Iphigenie en Aulide and I phi genie en Tauride, Gluck
shows signs that the controversies aroused by his methods
began to interfere with his musical spontaneity. He had not,
in Orfeo , gone out of his way to avoid rondos, or we should have
had no " Che faro senta Euridice" We read with a respectful
smile Gluck's assurance to the bailli Le Bianc du Roullet that
" you would not believe Armide to be by the same composer "
as Alceste. But there is no question that Armide is a very great
work, full of melody, colour and dramatic point; and that Gluck
has availed himself of every suggestion that his libretto afforded
for orchestral and emotional effects of an entirely different type
from any that he had attempted before. And it is hardly
relevant to blame him for his inability to write erotic music.
In the first place, the libretto is not erotic, though the subject
would no doubt become so if treated by a modern poet. In the
second place a conflict of passions (as, for instance, where Armide
summons the demons of Hate to exorcise love from her heart,
and her courage fails her as soon as they begin) has never, even
in Alceste, been treated with more dramatic musical force.
The work as a whole is unequal, partly because there is a little
too much action in it to suit Gluck's methods; but it shows,
as does no other opera until Mozart's Don Giovanni, a sense of
the development of characters, as distinguished from the mere
presentation of them as already fixed.
In Iphigenie en Aulide and Iphigenie en Tauride, the very
subtlety of the finest features indicates a certain self-conscious-
ness which, when inspiration is lacking, becomes mannerism.
Moreover, in both cases the libretti, though skilfully managed,
tell a rather more complicated story than those which Gluck
had hitherto so successfully treated; and, where inspiration
fails, the musical technique becomes curiously amateurish
without any corresponding naivete. Still these works are
immortal, and their finest passages are equal to anything in
Alceste and Orfeo. £cho et Narcisse we must, like Gluck's
contemporaries, regard as a failure. As in Orfeo, the pathetic
story is ruined by a violent happy ending, but here this artistic
disaster takes place before the pathos has had time to assert
itself. Ghick had no opportunities in this work for any higher
qualities, musical or dramatic, than prettiness; and with him
beauty, without visible emotion, was indeed skin-deep. It is
a pity that the plan of the great Pelletan-Damcke critical
Edition de luxe of Gluck's French operas forbids the inclusion
of his Italian Paride e Elena, his third opera to Calzabigi's
libretto, which was never given in a French version; for there
can be no question that, whatever he owed to France, the
GLUCKSBURG— GLUCOSE
141
period of his greatness began with his collaboration with
Calzabigi. (D. F. T.)
GLttCKSBTJRG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Schleswig-Holstein, romantically situated among pine woods
on the Flensburg Fjord off the Baltic, 6 m. N.E. from Flensburg
by rail. Pop. (1905) 1551. It has a Protestant church and some
small manufactures and is a favourite sea-bathing resort. The
castle, which occupies the site of a former Cistercian monastery,
was, from 1622 to 1779, the residence of the dukes of Holstein-
Sonderburg-Glticksburg, passing then to the king of Denmark
and in 1866 to Prussia. King Frederick VII. of Denmark died
here on the 15th of November 1863.
GLtiCKSTADT, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Schleswig-Holstein, on the right bank of the Elbe, at the
confluence of the small river Rhin, and 28 m. N.W. of Altona,
on the railway from Itzehoe to Elmshorn. Pop. (1905) 6586.
It has a Protestant and a Roman Catholic church, a handsome
town-hall (restored in 1 873-1 874), a gymnasium, a provincial
prison and a penitentiary. The inhabitants are chiefly engaged
in commerce and Ashing; but the frequent losses from inunda-
tions have greatly retarded the prosperity of the town. Gluck-
stadt was founded by Christian IV. of Denmark in 161 7, and
fortified in 1620. It soon became an important trading centre.
In 1627-28 it was besieged for fifteen weeks by the imperialists
under Tilly, without success. In 18 14 it was blockaded by the
allies and capitulated, whereupon its fortifications were de-
molished. In 1830 it was made a free port. It came into the
possession of Prussia together with the rest of Schleswig-Holstein
in 1866.
See Lucht, GlXckstadt. Beitrage sur Geschichte dieser Stadt (Kiel,
1854).
GLUCOSE (from Gr. ykvicbs, sweet), a carbohydrate of the
formula CeHuOe; it may be regarded as the aldehyde of sorbite.
The name is applied in commerce to a complex mixture of
carbohydrates obtained by boiling starch with dilute mineral
acids; in chemistry, it denotes, with the prefixes d, I and
d+l (or *)» the dextro-rotatory, laevo-rotatory and inactive
forms of the definite chemical compound defined above. The
d modification is of the commonest occurrence, the other f6rms
being only known as synthetic products; for this reason it is
usually termed glucose, simply; alternative names are dextrose,
grape sugar and diabetic sugar, in allusion to its right-handed
optical rotation, its occurrence in large quantity in grapes, and
in the urine of diabetic patients respectively. In the vegetable
kingdom glucose occurs, always in admixture with fructose,
in many fruits, especially grapes, cherries, bananas, &c; and
in combination, generally with phenols and aldehydes belonging
to the aromatic series, it forms an extensive class of compounds
termed glucosides. It appears to be synthesized in the plant
tissues from carbon dioxide and water, formaldehyde being an
intermediate product; or it may be a hydrolytic product of a
glucoside or of a polysaccharose, such as cane sugar, starch,
cellulose, &c. In the plant it is freely converted into more
complex sugars, poly-saccharoses and also proteids. In the
animal, kingdom, also, it is very widely distributed, being some-
times a ribrmal and sometimes a pathological constituent of
the fluids and tissues; in particular, it is present in large
amount in the urine of those suffering from diabetes, and
may be present in nearly all the body fluids. It also occurs in
honey, the white appearance of candied honey being due to
its separation.
Pure (/-glucose, which may be obtained synthetically (see
Sugar) or by adding crystallized cane sugar to a mixture of
80% alcohol and fa volume of fuming hydrochloric acid so
long as it dissolves on shaking, crystallizes from water or alcohol
at ordinary temperatures in nodular masses, composed of minute
six-sided plates, and containing one molecule of water of crystal-
lization. This product melts at 86° C, and becomes anhydrous
when heated to 1 io° C. The anhydrous compound can also be
prepared, as hard crusts melting at 146 , by crystallizing con-
centrated aqueous solutions at 30 to 35 . It is very soluble
in water, but only slightly soluble in strong alcohol. Its taste
is somewhat sweet, its sweetening power being estimated at
from § to i that of cane sugar. When heated to above 200 it
turns brown and produces caramel, a substance possessing a
bitter taste, and used, in its aqueous solution or otherwise, \
under various trade names, for colouring confectionery, spirits, i
&c. The specific rotation of the plane of polarized light by *
glucose solutions is characteristic. The specific rotation of a
freshly prepared solution is io$°, but this value gradually
diminishes to 52-5°, 24 hours sufficing for the transition in the
cold, and a few minutes when the solution is boiled. This
phenomenon has been called mutarotation by T. M. Lowry.
The specific rotation also varies with the concentration; this-,
is due to the dissociation of complex molecules into simpler •
ones, a view confirmed by cryoscopic measurements.
Glucose may be estimated by means of the polarimeter, i.e.
by determining the rotation of the plane of polarization of a
solution, or, chemically, by taking advantage of its property of
reducing alkaline copper solutions. If a glucose solution be
added to copper sulphate and much alkali added, a yellowish-red '
precipitate of cuprous hydrate separates, slowly in the cold,
but immediately when the liquid is heated; this precipitate
rapidly turns red owing to the formation of cuprous oxide. In -
1846 L. C. A. Barreswil found that a strongly alkaline solution :
of copper sulphate and potassium sodium tartrate (Rochelle •
salt) remained unchanged on boiling, but yielded an immediate ."•
precipitate of red cuprous oxide when a solution of glucose was
added. He suggested that the method was applicable for quanti-
tatively estimating glucose, but its acceptance only followed ;
after H. von Fehling's investigation. " Fehling's solution "
is prepared by dissolving separately 34-639 grammes of copper '
sulphate, 173 grammes of Rochelle salt, and 71 grammes of
caustic soda in water, mixing and making up to 1000 ccs.;
10 ccs. of this solution is completely reduced by 0-05 grammes of
hexose. Volumetric methods are used, but the uncertainty of
the end of the reaction has led to the suggestion of special
indicators, or of determining the amount of cuprous oxide
gravimetrically.
Chemistry. — In its chemical properties glucose is a typical oxyalde-
hyde or aldose. The aldehyde grdup reacts with hydrocyanic acid
to produce two stereo-isomeric cyanhydrins; this isomerism is due
to the conversion of an originally non-asymmetric carbon atom into
an asymmetric one. The cyannydrin is hydrolysable to an acid, j
the lactone of which may be reduced by sodium amalgam to a •
glucoheptose, a non-fermentable sugar containing seven carbon 7
atoms. By repeating the process a non-fermentable gluco-octose
and a fermentable glucononose may be prepared. The aldehyde
group also reacts with phenyl hydrazine to form two phenylhydra- 'X
zones; under certain conditions a hydroxyl group adjacent to the
aldehyde group is oxidized and glucosazone is produced; this •
glucosazone is decomposed by hydrochloric acid into phenyl /•
hydrazine and the keto-aldehyde glucosone. These transformations ',
are fully discussed in the article Sugar. On reduction glucose
appears to yield the hexahydric alcohol (/-sorbite, and on oxidation
(/-gluconic and (/-saccharic acids. Alkalis partially convert it into
(/-mannose and (/-fructose. Baryta and lime yield saccharates,
e.g. CeHuOe'BaO, precipitable by alcohol.
The constitution of glucose was established by H. Kiliani in 1885-
1887, who showed it to be CHjOHfCHOHVCHO. The subject
was taken up by Emil Fischer, who succeeded in synthesizing
glucose, and also several of its stereo-isomers, there being 16 accord-
ing to the Le Bel-van't Hoff theory (see Stereo- Isomerism and
Sugar). This open chain structure is challenged in the views put
forward by T. M. Lowry and E. F. Armstrong. In 1895 C. Tanret
showed that glucose existed in more than one form, and he isolated
o, and y varieties with specific rotations of 105 , 52-5° and 22 °.
It is now agreed that the variety is a mixture of the a and y.
This discovery explained tne mutarotation of glucose. In a fresh
solution a-glucose only exists, but on standing it is slowly trans-
formed into ^glucose, equilibrium
being reached when the a and y CH«OH CHjOH
forms are present in the ratio CH-OH tH-OH
0-368:0-632 (Tanret, Zeit. physikal. /«tj ^ h
Chetn., m 1905, 53. P- 692). It is 0<,£" „. 0<,a" m ■
convenient to refer to these two ^(v-fWli)s — (CW-Uri;*
forms as a and 0. Lowry and Arm- HOOH HOCH
strong represent these compounds . ci-glucose 0-glucose
by the following spatial formulae
which postulate a 7-oxidic structure, and 5 asymmetric carbon
atoms, i.e. one more than in the Fischer formulae. These formulae
are supported by many considerations, especially by the selective
142
GLUCOSIDE
action of enzymes, which follows similar lines with the a- and
0-glucosides, i.e. the compounds formed by the interaction of
glucose with substances generally containing hydroxy 1 groups (see
Glucoside).
Fermentation of Glucose. — Glucose is readily fermentable. Of
the greatest importance is the alcoholic fermentation brought about
by yeast cells (Saccharomyces cerevisiae seu vini); this follows the
equation C«HjaO#*2C»H|04-2CO», Pasteur considering 94 to 95% of
the sugar to be so changed. This character is the base of the plan of
adding glucose to wine and beer wort before fermenting, the alcohol
content of the liquid after fermentation being increased. Some
fusel oil, glycerin and succinic acid appear to be formed simultane-
ously, but in small amount. Glucose also undergoes fermentation
into lactic acid (q.v.) in the presence of the lactic acid bacillus, and
into butvric acid if the action of the preceding ferment be continued,
or by other bacilli. It also yields, by the so-called mucous fermenta-
tion, a mucous, gummy mass, mixed with mannitol and lactic
acid.
We may here notice the frequent production of glucose by the action
of enzymes upon other carbohydrates. Of especial note is the
transformation of maltose by maltase into glucose, and of cane sugar
by invertase into a mixture of glucose and fructose (invert sugar) ;
other instances are: lactose by lactase into galactose and glucose;
trehalose by trehalase into glucose; melibiose by melibiase into
galactose and glucose; and of melizitose by melizitase into touranose
f.nd glucose, touranose yielding glucose also when acted upon by the
enzyme touranase.
Commercial Glucose. — The glucose of commerce, which may be
regarded as a mixture of grape sugar, maltose and dextrins, is pre-
pared by hydrolysing starch by boiling with a dilute mineral acid.
In Europe, potato starch is generally employed; in America, corn
starch. The acid employed may be hydrochloric, which gives the
best results, or sulphuric, which is used in Germany ; sulphuric acid
is more readily separated from the product than hydrochloric, since
the addition of powdered chalk precipitates it as calcium sulphate,
which may be removed by a filter press. The processes of manu-
facture have much in common, although varying in detail. The
following is an outline of the process when hydrochloric acid is used :
Starch C green " starch in America) is made into a " milk " with
water, and the milk pumped into boiling dilute acid contained in
a closed " converter," generally made of copper or cast iron; steam
is led in at the same time, and the pressure is kept up to about 25 lb
to the sq. in. When the converter is full the pressure is raised some-
what, and the heating continued until the conversion is complete*
The liquid is now run into neutralizing tanks containing sodium
carbonate, and, after settling, the supernatant liquid, termed
'* light liquor," is run through bag filters and then on to bone-char
filters, which have been previously used for the " heavy liquor."
The colourless or amber-coloured filtrate is concentrated to 27° to
28° B., when it forms the " heavy liquor," just mentioned. Tnis is
filtered through fresh bone-char filters, from which it is discharged
as a practically colourless liquid. This liquid is concentrated in
vacuum pans to a specific gravity of 40 to 44 ° B„ a small quantity
of sodium bisulphite solution being added to bleach it, to prevent
fermentation, and to inhibit browning. " Syrup glucose is the
commercial name of the product; by continuing the concentration
further solid glucose or grape sugar is obtained.
Several brands are recognized: "Mixing glucose" is used by
syrup and molasses manufacturers, " jelly glucose " by makers of
jellies, " confecticaers' glucose " in confectionery, " brewers' glucose"
in brewing, &c
GLUCOSIDE, in chemistry, the generic name of an extensive
group of substances characterized by the property of yielding
a sugar, more commonly glucose, when hydrolysed by purely
chemical means, or decomposed by a ferment or enzyme. The
name was originally given to vegetable products of this nature,
in which the other part of the molecule was, in the greater
number of cases, an aromatic aldehydic or phenolic compound
(exceptions arc sinigrin and jalapin or scammonin). It has now
been extended to include synthetic ethers, such as those obtained
by acting on alcoholic glucose solutions with hydrochloric acid,
and also the polysaccharoscs, e.g. cane sugar, which appear
to be ethers also. Although glucose is the commonest sugar
present in glucosides, many are known which yield rhamnose
or iso-dukite; these may be termed pentosides. Much attention
has been given to the non-sugar parts of the molecules; the
constitutions of many have been determined, and the compounds
synthesized; and in some cases the preparation of the synthetic
glucoside effected.
The simplest glucosides are the alkyl esters which £. Fischer
(Ber. % 2$. pp. 1151, 30S1) obtained by acting with hydrochloric
acid on alcoholic glucose solutions. A better method of pre-
paration is due to E. F. Armstrong and S. L. Courtauld (Proc.
Phys. Soc, 1005, July 1), who dissolve solid anhydrous glucose
in methyl alcohol containing hydrochloric acid. A mixture
of a- and 0-glucose result, which are then etherified, and if the
solution be neutralized before the 0-form isomerizes and the
solvent removed, a mixture of the a- and jS-methyl ethers is
obtained. These may be separated by the action of suitable
ferments. Fischer found that these ethers did not reduce
Fehling's solution, neither did they combine with phenyl hydra-
zine at ioo°; they appear to be stereo-isomeric 7-oxidic com-
pounds of the formulae I., II. : The difference between the a- and
/S-f orms is best shown by the rH . H ru n „
selective action of enzymes. 5fJ£? gjg"
Fischer found that maltase, ^ <£ ^ £h
an enzyme occurring in yeast 0^^„ nH x 0^,£5 n w\
cells, hvdrolvsed a-iducosides ^(CHOH)i ^N,(CHOH)*
cells, hydrolysed a-glucosides
but not the fi; while emulsin,
H-C-OCHa
an enzyme occurring in bitter L £Su^2ride
almonds, hydrolyses the
CH.CH^H
II. 0-methyl
tf-glucoside.
but not the a. The ethers of non-fermentable sugars are them-
selves non-fermentable. By acting with these enzymes on the
natural glucosides, it is found that the majority are of the
fl-form; e.g. emulsin hydrolyses salicin, helicin, aesculin, coni-
ferin, syringin, &c.
Classification of the glucosides is a matter of some difficulty.
One based on the chemical constitution of the non-glucose part
of the molecules has been proposed by Umney, who framed four
groups: (1) ethylene derivatives, (2) benzene derivatives,
(3) styrolene derivatives, (4) anthracene derivatives. A group
may also be made to include the cyanogenetic glucosides, i.e.
those containing prussic acid. J. J. L. van Rijn (Die Glyko-
side, 1000) follows a botanical classification, which has several
advantages; in particular, plants of allied genera contain similar
compounds. In this article the chemical classification will be
followed. Only the more important compounds will be noticed,
the reader being referred to van Rijn (loc. cit.) and to Beilstein's
Handbuch ier organischen Chemie for further details.
1. Ethylene Derivatives.— These are generally mustard oils, and
are characterized by a burning taste; their principal occurrence is in
mustard and Tropaeolum seeds. Sinigrin or the potassium salt of
myronic acid, CioHuNSsKOrHsO, occurs in black pepper and in
horse-radish root. Hydrolysis with baryta, or decomposition by
the ferment myrosin, gives glucose, allyl mustard oil and potassium
bisulphate. Sinalbin, CjoHuNgSsOis, occurs in white pepper;
it decomposes to the mustard oil HO-CJIrCHrNCS, glucose and
sinapin, a compound of choline and sinapinic acid. Jalapin or
scammonin, C^H^Ou, occurs in scamraony ; it hydrolyses to glucose
and jalapinolic acid. The formulae of sinigrin, sinalbin, sinapin and
jalapinolic acid are; —
UHnU«bC<^ o-SO,OK UHuU, b <-V o SO,OC w H.40 t N
Sinigrin Sinalbin
(CH, $p>C«H, CH:CH CO C,H 4 O N^g^*
Sinapin
^J>CHCH(OH) CwHarCOiH.
Jalapinolic acid (Kramer)
2. Bensene Derivatives. — These are generally oxy and oxyaldehydic
compounds. Arbutin, CuHnsOr, which occurs in bearberry along
with methyl arbutin, hydrolyses to hydroquinone and glucose.
Pharmacologically it acts as a urinary antiseptic and diuretic;
the benzoyl derivative, cellotropin, has been used for tuberculosis.
Salicin, also termed " saligenin and " glucose," CuHuO?, occurs in
the willow. The enzymes ptyalin and emulsin convert it into glucose
and saligenin, ortho-oxybenzylalcohol, HO-QHrCHjOH. Oxida-
tion gives the aldehyde helicin. Populin, CsoH»0», which occurs
in the leaves and bark of Populus tremula t is benzoyl salicin.
3. Styrolene Derivatives. — This group contains a benzene and also
an ethylene group, being derived from styrolene C«HrCH:CHi.
Coniferin, CisHsd, occurs in the cambium of coniferous woods.
Emulsin converts it into glucose and coniferyl alcohol, while oxida-
tion gives glycovanillin, which yields with emulsin glucose and
vanillin (see Eugenol and Vanilla). Syringin, which occurs in the
bark of Syringa vulgaris, is methoxyconiferin. Phloridzin, CnHnOu,
occurs in the root-bark of various fruit trees; it hydrolyses to
glucose and ph lore tin, which is the phloroglucin ester of para-
oxyhydratropic acid. It is related to the pentosides naringin,
CuHttOu, which hydrolyses to rhamnose and naringenin, the
phloroglucin ester of para-oxycinnamic acid, and hesperidin,
GLUE
143
CieHffOuC?), which hydrolyses to rhamnose and hesperetin, CuHuOe,
the phloroglucin ester of meta-oxy-para-methoxycinnamic acid or,
isoferulic acid, Ci Hic£>4. We may here include various coumarin.
and benzo-7-pyrone derivatives. Aesculin,Ci 6 Hie0 9 , occurring in
horse-chestnut, and daphnin, occurring in Daphne alfrina, are iso-
meric; the former hydrolyses to glucose and aesculetin (4*5-dioxy-
coumarin), the latter to glucose and daphnetin*(3*4-dtoxycoumarin).
Fraxin, CieH u Oi 0r occurring in Fraxinus excelsior, and with aesculin
in horse-chestnut, hydrolyses to glucose and fraxetin, the mono-
methyl ester of a trioxycoumarin. Flavone or benzo-7-pyrone
derivatives are very numerous; in many cases they (or the non-
sugar part of the molecule) are vegetable dyestuns. Quercitrin,
CnHaUa, is a yellow dvestuff found m Quercus Mnctoria; it hydro-
lyses to rhamnose and quercetin, a dioxy-0-phenyl-trioxvbenzo-
7-pyrone. Rhamnetin, a splitting product or the glucosides of
Rnamnus, is monomethyl quercetin; fisetin, from Rhus cotinus,
is monoxyquercetin ; chrysin is phenyl-dioxybenzo-'y-pyrone.
Saponarin, a glucoside found in Sapoftaria officinalis, is a related
compound. Strophanthin is the name given to three different
compounds, two obtained from Strophantkus Kombe and one from
S. ktspidus.
4. Anthracene Derivatives. — These are generally substituted
anthraquinones; many have medicinal applications, being used
as purgatives, while one, ruberythric acid, yields the valuable dye-
stuff madder, the base of which is alizarin (q.v.). Chrysophanic
acid, a dioxymethylanthraquinone, occurs in rhubarb, which also
contains emodin, a trioxymethyianthraquinone ; this substance
occurs in combination with rhamnose in frangula bark.
The most important cyanogenetic glucoside is amygdalin, which
occurs in bitter almonds. The enzyme maltase decomposes it into
flucose and mandelic nitrile glucoside; the latter is broken down
y emulsin into glucose, benzaldehyde and prussic acid Emulsin
also decomposes amygdalin directly into these compounds without
the intermediate formation of mandelic nitrile glucoside. Several
other glucosides of this nature have been isolated. The saponins are
a group of substances characterized by forming a lather with water ;
they occur in soap-bark (q.v.). Mention may also be made of indican,
the glucoside of the indigo plant; this is hydrolysed by the indigo
ferment, indimulsin, to indoxyl and indiglucin.
GLUE (from the 0. Fr. glu, bird-lime, from the Late Lat.
llutem, gluSy glue), a valuable agglutinant, consisting of impure
gelatin and widely used as an adhesive medium for wood, leather,
paper and similar substances. Glues and gelatins merge into
one another by imperceptible degrees. The difference is con-
ditioned by the degree of purity: the more impure form is termed
glue and is only used as an adhesive, the purer forms, termed
gelatin, have other applications, especially in culinary operations
and confectionery. Referring to the article Gelatin for a
general account of this substance, it is only necessary to state
here that gelatigenous or glue-forming tissues occur in the bones,
skins and intestines of all animals, and that by extraction with
hot water these agglutinating materials are removed, and the
solution on evaporating and cooling yields a jelly-like substance
— gelatin or glue.
Glues may be most conveniently classified according to their
sources: bone glue, skin glue and fish glue; these may be
regarded severally as impure forms of bone gelatin, skin gelatin
and isinglass.
Bone Glue. — For the manufacture of glue the bones are supplied
fresh or after having been used for making soups; Indian and
South American bones are unsuitable, since, by reason of their
previous treatment with steam, both their fatty and glue-forming
constituents have been already removed (to a great extent).
On the average, fresh bones contain about 50% of mineral
matter, mainly calcium and magnesium phosphates, about
12% each of moisture and fat, the remainder being other
organic matter. The mineral matter reappears in commerce
chiefly as artificial manure; the fat is employed in the candle,
soap and glycerin industries, while the other organic matter
supplies glue.
The separation of the fat, or " de-greasing of the bones "
is effected (1) by boiling the bones with water in open vessels;
(2) by treatment with steam under pressure; or (3) by means
of solvents. The last process is superseding the first two, which'
give a poor return of fat — a valuable consideration — and also
involve the loss of a certain amount of glue. Many solvents
have been proposed; the greatest commercial success appears
to attend Scottish shale oil and natural petroleum (Russian or
American) boiling at about ioo° C. The vessels in which the
extraction is carried out consist of upright cylindrical boilers,
provided with manholes for charging, a false bottom on which
the bones rest, and with two steam coils — one for heating only,
the other for leading in " live " steam. There is a pipe from
the top of the vessel leading to a condensing plant. The vessels
are arranged in batteries. In the actual operation the boiler
is charged with bones, solvent is run in, and the mixture gradually
heated by means of the dry coil; the spirit distils over, carrying
with it the water present in the bones; and after a time the
extracted fat is run off from discharge cocks in the bottom of the
extractor. 1 A fresh charge of solvent is introduced, and the cycle
repeated; this is repeated a third and fourth time, after which
the bones contain only about 0-2% of fat, and a little of the
solvent, which is removed by blowing in live steam under 70 to
80 lb pressure. The de-greased bones are now cleansed from
all dirt and flesh by rotation in a horizontal cylindrical drum
covered with stout wire gauze. The attrition accompanying
this motion suffices to remove the loosely adherent matter,
which falls through the meshes of the gauze; this meal contains
a certain amount of glue-forming matter, and is generally
passed through a finer mesh, the residuum being worked up in
the glue-house, and the flour which passes through being sold
as a bone-meal, or used as a manure.
The bones, which now contain 5 to 6% of glue-forming
nitrogen and about 60% of calcium phosphate, are next treated
for glue. The most economical process consists in steaming
the bones under pressure (15 lb to start with, afterwards 5 fib)
in upright cylindrical boilers fitted with false bottoms. The
glue-liquors collect beneath the false bottoms, and when of a
strength equal to about 20% dry glue they are run off to the
clarifiers. The first runnings contain about 65 to 70% of the
total glue; a second steaming extracts another 25 to 30%. For
clarifying the solutions, ordinary alum is used, one part being
used for 200 parts of dry glue. The alum is added to the hot
liquors , and the temperature raised to ioo°; it is then allowed
to settle, and the surface scum removed by filtering through
coarse calico or fine wire filters.
The clear liquors are now concentrated to a strength of about
32 % dry glue in winter and 35 % in summer. This is invariably
effected in vacuum pans — open boiling yields a dark-coloured
and inferior product. Many types of vacuum plant are in use;
the Yaryan form, invented by H. T. Yaryan, is perhaps the best,
and the double effect system is the most efficient. After con-
centration the liquors are bleached by blowing in sulphur
dioxide, manufactured by burning sulphur; by this means the
colour can be lightened to any desired degree. The liquors are
now run into galvanized sheet-iron troughs, 2 ft. long, 6 in.
wide and 5 in. deep, where they congeal to a firm jelly, which is
subsequently removed by cutting round the edges, or by warming
with hot water, and turning the cake out. The cake is sliced
to sheets of convenient thickness, generally by means of a wire
knife, i.e. a piece of wire placed in a frame. Mechanical slicers
acting on this principle are in use. Instead of allowing the
solution to congeal in troughs, it may be " cast " on sheets of
glass, the bottoms of which are cooled by running water. After
congealing, the tremulous jelly is dried; this is an operation
of great nicety: the desiccation must be slow and is generally
effected by circulating a rapid current of air about the cakes
supported on nets set in frames; it occupies from four to five
days, and the cake contains on the average from 10 to 13 % of
water.
Skin Glue. — In the preparation of skin glue the materials
used are the parings and cuttings of hides from tan-yards, the
ears of oxen and sheep, the skins of rabbits, hares, cats, dogs
and other animals, the parings of tawed leather, parchment
and old gloves, and many other miscellaneous scraps of animal
matter. Much experience is needed in order to prepare a good
1 This fat contains a small quantity of solvent, which is removed
by heating with steam, when the solvent distils off. Hot water is
then run in to melt the fat, which rises to the surface of the water
and is floated off. Another boiling with water, and again floating
off, frees the fat from dirt and mineral matter, and the product is
ready for casking.
i 4 4
GLUTARIC ACID
glue from such heterogeneous materials; one blending may be
a success and another a failure. The raw material has been
divided into three great divisions: (i) sheep pieces and fleshings
(ears, &c); (2) ox fleshings and trimmings; (3) ox hides and
pieces; the best glue is obtained from a mixture of the hide,
ear and face clippings of the ox and calf. The raw material
or " stock " is first steeped for from two to ten weeks, according
to its nature, in wooden vats or pits with lime water, and after-
wards carefully dried and stored. The object of the lime steeping
is to remove any blood and flesh which may be attached to the
skin, and to form a lime soap with the fatty matter present.
The " scrows " or glue pieces, which may be kept a long time
without undergoing change, are washed with a dilute hydro-
chloric acid to remove all lime, and then very thoroughly with
water; they are now allowed to drain and dry. The skins
are then placed in hemp nets and introduced into an open boiler
which has a false bottom, and a tap by which liquid may be run
off. As the boiling proceeds test quantities of liquid are from
time to time examined, and when a sample is found on cooling
to form a stiff jelly, which happens when it contains about 32%
dry glue, it is ready to draw off. The solution is then run to a
clarifier, in which a temperature sufficient to keep it fluid is
maintained, and in this way any impurity is permitted to subside.
The glue solution is then run into wooden troughs or coolers in
which it sets to a firm jelly. The cakes are removed as in the
case of bone glue (see above), and, having been placed on nets,
are, in the Scottish practice, dried by exposure to open air.
This primitive method has many disadvantages: on a hot
day the cake may become unshapely, or melt and slip through
the net, or dry so rapidly as to crack; a frost may produce
fissures, while a fog or mist may precipitate moisture on the
surface and occasion a mouldy appearance. The surface of the
cake, which is generally dull after drying, is polished by washing
with water. The practice of boiling, clarification, cooling and
drying, which has been already described in the case of bone glue,
has been also applied to the separation of skin glue.
Fish Glue. — Whereas isinglass, a very pure gelatin, is yielded
by the sounds of a limited number of fish, it is found that all
fish offals yield a glue possessing considerable adhesive properties.
The manufacture consists in thoroughly washing the offal with
water, and then discharging it into extractors with live steam.
After digestion, the liquid is run off, allowed to stand, the
upper oily layer removed, and the lower gluey solution clarified
with'alum. The liquid is then filtered, concentrated in open vats,
and bleached with sulphur dioxide. 1 Fish glue is a light-brown
viscous liquid which has a distinctly disagreeable odour and
an acrid taste; these disadvantages to its use are avoided if it
be boiled with a little water and 1% of sodium phosphate, and
0-025 % of saccharine added.
Properties of Glue. — A good quality of glue should be free from
all specks and grit, have a uniform, light brownish-yellow,
transparent appearance, and should break with a glassy fracture.
Steeped for some time in cold water it softens and swells up
without dissolving, and when again dried it ought to resume its
original properties. Under the influence of heat it entirely
dissolves in water, forming a thin syrupy fluid with a not
disagreeable smell. The adhesiveness of different qualities of
glue varies considerably; the best adhesive is formed by steeping
the glue, broken in small pieces, in water until they are quite
soft, and then placing them with just sufficient water to effect
solution in the glue-pot. The hotter the glue, the better the
joint; remelted glue is not so strong as the freshly prepared;
and newly manufactured glue is inferior to that which has been
long in stock. It is therefore seen that many factors enter into
the determination of the cohesive power of glue; a well-prepared
joint may, under favourable conditions, withstand a pull of
about 700 lb per sq. in. The following table, after Kilmarsch,
~ ys the holding power of glued joints with various kinds of
idue in the extractors is usually dried in steam-heated
ixed with potassium and magnesium salts ; the product
the market as fish-potash guano.
Wood.
lb per sq. in.
With grain.
Across grain.
Beech . . .
Maple . . .
Oak . . .
Fir ... .
852
484
704
605
434'5
346
302
132
Special Kinds of Glues, Cements, &c. — By virtue of the fact that
the word " glue " is frequently used to denote many adhesives, which
may or may not contain gelatin, there will now be given an account
of some special preparations. These may be conveniently divided
into: (1) liquid glues, mixtures containing gelatin which do not
jelly at ordinary temperatures but still possess adhesive properties ;
(2) water-proof glues, including mixtures containing gelatin, and
also the " marine glues/' which contain no glue; (3) glues or cements
for special purposes, e.g. for cementing glass, pottery, leather, &c,
for cementing dissimilar materials, such as paper or leather to iron.
Liquid Glues. — The demand for liquid glues is mainly due to the
disadvantages — the necessity of dissolving and using while hot —
of ordinary glue. They are generally prepared by adding to a warm
glue solution some reagent which destroys the property of gelatinizing.
The reagents in common use are acetic acid; magnesium chloride,
used for a glue employed by printers; hydrochloric acid and zinc
sulphate; nitric acid and lead sulphate; and phosphoric acid and
ammonium carbonate.
Water-proof Glues. — Numerous recipes for water-proof glues have
been published; glue, having been swollen by soaking in water,
dissolved in four-fifths its weight of linseed oil, furnishes a good
water-proof adhesive; linseed oil varnish and litharge, added to
a glue solution, is aIso|used; resin added to a hot glue solu-
tion in water, and afterwards diluted with turpentine, is another
recipe; the best glue is said to be obtained by dissolving one
part of glue in one and a half parts of water, and then adding
one-fiftieth part of potassium bichromate. Alcoholic solutions of
various gums, and also tannic acid, confer the same property on
glue solutions. The " marine glues " are solutions of india-rubber,
shellac or asphaltum, or mixtures of these substances, in benzene or
naphtha. Jeffrey's marine glue is formed by dissolving india-rubber
in four parts of benzene and adding two parts of shellac; it is
extensively used, being easily applied and drying rapidly and hard.
Another water-proof glue which contains no gelatin is obtained by
heating linseed oil with five parts of quicklime; when coldnt forms
a hard massj which melts on heating like ordinary glue.
Special Glues. — There are innumerable recipes for adhesives
specially applicable to certain substances and under certain con-
ditions. For repairing glass, ivory, &c. isinglass (g.t>.), which may be
replaced by fine glue, yields valuable cements; bookbinders employ
an elastic glue obtained from an ordinary glue solution and glycerin,
the water being expelled by heating; an efficient cement for mounting
photographs is obtained by dissolving glue in ten parts of alcohol
and adding one part of glycerin; portable or mouth glue — so named
because it melts in the mouth — is prepared by dissolving one part of
sugar in a solution of four parts of glue. An india-rubber substitute
is obtained by adding sodium tungstate and hydrochloric acid to a
strong glue solution; this preparation may be rolled out when
heated to 60 °.
For further details see Thomas Lambert, Glue, Gelatine and their
Allied Products (London, 1905) ; R. L. Fernbach, Glues and Gelatine
(1907) ; H. C. Standage, Agglutinants of all Kinds for all Purposes
(1907).
GLUTARIC ACID, or Normal Pyrotartaric Acid,
HOsC-CHi-CEh'CHi-CQiH, an organic acid prepared by the
reduction of a-oxyglutaric acid with hydriodic acid, by reducing
glutaconic acid, H0 2 C- CH 2 « CH :CH- C0 2 H, with sodium amalgam,
by conversion of trimethylene bromide into the cyanide
and hydrolysis of this compound, or from acetoacetic ester,
which, in the form of its sodium derivative, condenses
with 0-iodopropionic ester to form acetoglutaric ester,
CH 3 COCH(C02C2H6)-CH2CH2C02C2H 6 , from which glutaric
acid is obtained by hydrolysis. It is also obtained when sebacic,
stearic and oleic acids are oxidized with nitric acid. It crystal-
lizes in large monoclinic prisms which melt at 97*5° C, and
distils between 302 and 304 C, practically without decomposi-
tion. It is soluble in water, alcohol and ether. By long heating the
acid is converted into its anhydride, which, however, is obtained
more readily by heating the silver salt of the acid with acetyl
chloride. By distillation of .the ammonium salt glutarimide,
CH 2 (CH 2 -CP)2NH, is obtained; it forms small crystals melting
at 151° to 152° C. and sublimes unchanged.
On the alkyl glutaric acids, see C. Hell (Ber., 1889, 22, pp. 48, 60),
C. A. Bischoff {Ber., 1 891, 24, p. 1041), K. Auwers (Ber. y 1891, 2±,
p. 1923) and W. H. Perkm, junr. (Journ. Chem. Soc, 1 896, 69, p. 268).
GLUTEN-^GLYCAS
i45
GLUTBN, a tough, tenacious, ductile, somewhat elastic,
nearly tasteless and greyish-yellow albuminous substance,
obtained from the flour of wheat by washing m wate*, in which
it is insoluble. Gluten, when dried, loses about two-thirds of
its weight, becoming brittle and semi-transparent; when strongly
heated it crackles and swells, and burns like feather or horn.
It is soluble in strong acetic acid, and in caustic alkalis, which
latter may be used for the purification of starch in which it is
present. When treated with *i to w 2% solution of hydrochloric
acid it swells up, and at length forms a liquid resembling a
solution of albumin, and laevorotatory as regards polarized
light. Moistened with water and exposed to the air gluten
putrefies, and evolves carbon dioxide, hydrogen and sulphuretted
hydrogen, and in the end is almost entirely resolved into a liquid,
which contains leucin and ammonium phosphate and acetate. On
analysis gluten shows a composition of about 53 % of carbon, 7 %
of hydrogen, and nitrogen 15 to 18%, besides oxygen, and about
1 % of sulphur, and a small quantity of inorganic matter. Accord-
ing to H. Ritthausen it is a mixture of gkUencaseiti (Liebig's
vegetable fibrin), glutenfibrin, gliadin (Pflanzenleim), glutin or
vegetable gelatin, and mucedin, which are all closely allied to one
another in chemical composition. It is the gliadin which confers
upon gluten its capacity of cohering to form elastic masses, and
of separating readily from associated starch. In the so-called
gluten of the flour of barley, rye and maize, this body is absent
(H. Ritthausen and U. Kreusler). The gluten yielded by wheat
which has undergone fermentation or has begun to sprout is
devoid of toughness and elasticity. These qualities can be
restored to it by kneading with salt, lime-water or alum. Gluten
is employed in the manufacture of gluten bread and biscuits
for the diabetic, and of chocolate, and also in the adulteration
of tea and coffee. For making bread it must be used fresh, as
otherwise it decomposes, and does not knead well. Granulated
gluten is a kind of vermicelli, made in some starch manufactories
by mixing fresh gluten with twice its weight of flour, and granu-
lating by means of a cylinder and contained stirrer, each armed
with spikes, and revolving in opposite directions. The process
is completed by the drying and sifting of the granules.
GLUTTON, or Wolverine (Gtdo ktscus), a carnivorous
mammal belonging to the Mustelidae, or weasel family, and the
sole representative of its genus. The legs are short and stout,
with large feet, the toes of which terminate in strong, sharp
claws considerably curved. The mode of progression is semi-
plantigrade. In size and form the glutton is something like the
badger, measuring from 2 to 3 ft. in length, exclusive of the thick
bushy tail, which is about 8 in* long^ The head is broad, the
eyes are small and the back arched. The fur consists of an tinder-
growth of short woolly hair, mixed with long straight hairs,
to the abundance and length of which on the sides and tail
the creature owes its shaggy appearance. The colour of the fur
is blackish-brown, with a broad band of chestnut stretching
from the shoulders along each side of the body, the two meeting
near the root of the tail. Unlike the majority of arctic animals,
the fur of the glutton in winter grows darker. Like other
Mustelidae, the glutton is provided with anal glands, which
secrete a yellowish fluid possessing a highly foetid odour. It
is a boreal animal, inhabiting the northern regions of both
hemispheres, but most abundant in the circumpolar area of the
New World, where it occurs throughout the British provinces
and Alaska, being specially numerous in the neighbourhood
of the Mackenzie river, and extending southwards as far as New
York and the Rocky Mountains. The wolverine is alvoracious
animal, and also one with an inquisitive disposition. It feeds
on grouse, the smaller rodents and foxes, which it digs from
their burrows during the breeding-season; but want of activity
renders it dependent for most of its food on dead carcases, which
it frequently obtains by methods that have made it peculiarly
obnoxious to the hunter and trapper. Should the hunter,
after succeeding in killing his game, leave the carcase insufficiently
protected for more than a single night, the glutton, whose fear
of snares is sufficient to prevent him from touching it during
the first night, will, if possible, get at and devour what he can
on the second, hiding the remainder beneath the snow. It
annoys the trapper by following up his lines of marten-traps,
often extending to a length of 40 to 50 m., each of which it enters
from behind, extracting the bait, pulling up the traps, and devour-
ing or concealing the entrapped martens. So persistent is the
glutton in this practice, when once it discovers a line of traps,
that its extermination along the trapper's route is a necessary
preliminary to the success of his business. This is no easy task,
as the glutton is too cunning to be caught by the methods success-
fully employed on the other members of the weasel family.
The trap generally used for this purpose is made to resemble
a cache, or hidden store of food, such as the Indians and hunters
are in the habit of forming, the discovery and rifling of which
is one of the glutton's most congenial occupations — the bait,
instead of being paraded as in most traps, being carefully con-
cealed, to lull the knowing beast's suspicions. One of the most
prominent characteristics of the wolverine is its propensity
to steal and hide things, not merely food which it might after-
wards need, or traps which it regards as enemies, but articles
which cannot possibly have any interest except that of curiosity.
The following instance of this is quoted by Dr E. Coues in his
work on the Fur-bearing Animals of North America: " A
hunter and his family having left their lodge unguarded during
1 $u3
The Glutton, or Wolverine (Gulo luscus).
their absence, on their return found it completely gutted — the
walls were there, but nothing else. Blankets, guns, kettles,
axes, cans, knives and all the other paraphernalia of a trapper's
tent had vanished, and the tracks left by the beast showed
who had been the thief. The family set to work, and, by carefully
following up all his paths, recovered, with sometriflingjexceptions,
the whole of the lost property." The cunning displayed by the
glutton in unravelling the snares set for it forms at once the
admiration and despair of every trapper, while its great strength
and ferocity render it a dangerous antagonist to animals larger
than itself, occasionally including man. The rutting-season
occurs in March, and the female, secure in her burrow, produces
her young — four or five at a birth — in June or July. In defence
of these she is exceedingly bold, and the Indians, according to
Dr Coues, " have been heard to say that they would sooner
encounter a she-bear with her cubs than a carcajou (the Indian
name of the glutton) under the same circumstances." On
catching sight of its enemy, man, the wolverine before finally
determining on flight, is said to sit on its haunches, and, in order
to get a clearer view of the danger, shade its eyes with one of
its fore-paws. When pressed for food it becomes fearless, and
has been known to come on board an ice-bound vessel, and in
presence of the crew seize a can of meat. The glutton is valuable
for its fur, which, when several skins are sewn together, forms
elegant hearth and carriage rugs. (R. L.*)
GLYCAS, MICHAEL, Byzantine historian (according to some
a Sicilian, according to others a Corfiote), flourished during the
12th century a.d. His chief work is his Chronicle of events
146
GLYCERIN
from the creation of the world to the death of Alexius I. Corn-
menus (11 18). It is extremely brief and written in a popular
style, but too much space is devoted to theological and scientific
matters. Glycas was also the author of a theological treatise
and a number of letters on theological questions. A poem of
some 600 " political " verses, written during his imprisonment
on a charge of slandering a neighbour and containing an appeal
to the emperor Manuel, is still extant. The exact nature of his
•offence is not known, but the answer to his appeal was that he
was deprived of his eyesight by the emperor's orders.
Editions: : " Chronicle and Letters," in J. P. Migne, Patrolopa
Gracca, clviii. ; poem in E. Legrand, Bibliotheque grecque vidgatre,
i. ; see also F. Hirsch, Bysantintsche Studien (1876) ; C. Krumbacher
in Sitzungsberichte bayer. Acad., 1894; C. F. Bahr in Ersch and
Gruber's AUgemeine Encyklopddie.
GLYCERIN, Glycerine or Glycerol (in pharmacy Gly-
cerinum) (from Gr. y\vKus, sweet), a trihydric alcohol,
trihydroxypropane, CjH 6 (OH)8. It is obtainable from most
natural fatty bodies by the action of alkalis and similar reagents,
whereby the fats are decomposed, water being taken up, and
glycerin being formed together with the alkaline salt of some
particular acid (varying with the nature of the fat). Owing to
their possession of this common property, these natural fatty
bodies and various artificial derivatives of glycerin, which
behave in the same way when treated with alkalis, are known
as glycerides. In the ordinary process of soap-making the
glycerin remains dissolved in the aqueous liquors from which the
soap is separated.
Glycerin was discovered in 1779 by K. W. Scheele and named
Olsilss {principe doux des huiles — sweet principle of oils), and
more fully investigated subsequently by M. E. Chevreul, who
named it glycerin, M. P. E. Berthelot, and many other chemists,
from whose researches it results that glycerin is a trihydric
alcohol indicated by the formula CjH 6 (OH) 8 , the natural fats
and oils, and the glycerides generally, being substances of the
nature of compound esters formed from glycerin by the replace-
ment of the hydrogen of the OH groups by the radicals of
certain acids, called for that reason " fatty acids." The relation-
ship of these glycerides to glycerin is shown by the series of bodies
formed from glycerin by replacement of hydrogen by " stearyl "
(CwHssO), the radical of stearic acid (CmHmO-OH) :—
Glycerin. Monostearin. Distearin. Tristearin.
CHrOH CH 2 .0(GaH M 0) CH,0(C u H M 0) CHrO(C u H M 0)
CHOH CHOH CH-0(CisHuO) CHO(Ci,H M 0)
CHrOH CHrOH CHrOH .CH,0(C„H M 0)
The process of saponification may be viewed as the gradual
progressive transformation of tristearin, or some analogously
constituted substance, into distearin, monostearin and glycerin,
or as the similar transformation of a substance analogous to
distearin or to monostearin into glycerin. If the reaction is
brought about in presence of an alkali, the acid set free becomes
transformed into the corresponding alkaline salt; but if the
decomposition is effected without the presence of an alkali
(*.«. by means of water alone or by an acid), the acid set free
and the glycerin are obtained together in a form which usually
admits of their ready separation. It is noticeable that with
few exceptions the fatty and oily matters occurring in nature
are substances analogous to tristearin, i.e. they are trebly
replaced glycerins. Amongst these glycerides may be mentioned
the following:
Tristearin — CjH*(0-CuH«0)». The chief constituent of hard
< animal fats, such as beef and mutton tallow, &c; also con-
tained in many vegetable fats in smaller quantity.
Triolein — CjH 8 (0C 18 H M 0)a. Largely present in olive oil and
other saponifiable vegetable oils and soft fats; also present
in animal fats, especially hog's lard.
Tripalmitin — C»H6(0-CmH«0)j. The chief constituent of palm
oil; also contained in greater or less quantities in human
fat, olive oil, and other animal and vegetable fats.
Triricinolein — CtH6(0-CiaH M Oa) ». The main constituent of castor
oil.
Other analogous glycerides are apparently contained in
greater or smaller quantity in certain other oils. Thus in cows'
butter, tributyrin, CsHt(0*C 4 H70)s,aad the analogous glycerides
of other readily volatile acids closely resembling butyric acid,
are present in small quantity; the production of these acids
on saponification and distillation with dilute sulphuric acid is
utilized as a test of a purity of butter as sold. Triacetin,
CtH 6 (0-CaH«0)j, is apparently contained in cod-liver oiL Some
other glycerides isolated from natural sources are analogous
in composition to tristearin, but with this difference, that the
three radicals which replace hydrogen in glycerin are not all
identical; thus kephalin, myelin and lecithin are glycerides
in which two hydrogens are replaced by fatty acid radicals,
and the third by a complex phosphoric acid derivative.
Glycerin is also a product of certain kinds of fermentation,
especially of the alcoholic fermentation of sugar; consequently
it is a constituent of many wines and other fermented liquors.
According to Louis Pasteur, about ifVth of the sugar transformed
under ordinary conditions in the fermentation of grape juice
and similar saccharine liquids into alcohol and other products
becomes converted into glycerin. In certain natural fatty
substances, e.g. palm oil, it exists in the free state, so that it can
be separated by washing with boiling water, which dissolves
the glycerin but not the fatty glycerides.
Properties. — Glycerin is a viscid, colourless liquid of sp. gr.
1-265 at 1 5 C, possessing a somewhat sweet taste; below o° C.
it solidifies to a white crystalline mass, which melts at 17 C.
When heated alone it partially volatilizes, but the greater part
decomposes; under a pressure of 12 mm. of mercury it boils
at 170 C. In an atmosphere of steam it distils without decom-
position under ordinary barometric pressure. It dissolves
readily in water and alcohol in all proportions, but is insoluble
in ether. It possesses considerable solvent powers, whence it is
employed for numerous purposes in pharmacy and the arts.
Its viscid character, and its non-liability to dry and harden by
exposure to air, also fit it for various other uses, such as lubrica-
tion, &c, whilst its peculiar physical characters, enabling it to
blend with either aqueous or oily matters under certain circum-
stances, render it a useful ingredient in a large number of products
of varied kinds.
Manufacture. — The simplest modes of preparing pure glycerin are
based on the saponification of fats, either by alkalis or by superheated
steam, and on the circumstance that, although glycerin cannot be
distilled by itself under the ordinary pressure without decomposition,
it can be readily volatilized in a current of superheated steam.
Commercial glycerin is mostly obtained from the " spent lyes "
of the soap-maker. In the van Ruymbeke process the spent lyes
are allowed to settle, and then treated with ' persulphate of iron,"
the exact composition of which is a trade secret, but it is possibly a
mixture of ferric and ferrous sulphates. Ferric hydrate, iron soaps
and all insoluble impurities are precipitated. The liquid is filter-
pressed, and any excess of iron in the filtrate is precipitated by the
careful addition of caustic soda and then removed. The liquid is then
evaporated under a vacuum of 27 to 28 in. of mercury, and, when of
specific gravity 1*295 (corresponding to about 80% of glycerin),
it is distilled under a vacuum of 28 to 29 in. In the Glatz process the
lye is treated with a little milk of lime, the liquid then neutralized
with hydrochloric acid, and the liquid filtered. Evaporation and
subsequent distillation under a high vacuum gives crude glycerin.
The impure glycerin obtained as above is purified by redistillation
in steam and evaporation in vacuum pans.
Technical Uses. — Besides its use as a starting-point in the produc-
tion of " nitroglycerin " (q.v.) and other chemical products, glycerin
is largely employed for a number of purposes in the arts, its applica-
tion thereto being due to its peculiar physical properties. Thus its
non-liability to freeze (when not absolutely anhydrous, which it
practically never is when freely exposed to the air) and its non-
volatility at ordinary temperatures, combined with its power of
always keeping fluid and not drying up and hardening, render it
valuable as a lubricating agent for clockwork, watches, &c, as a
substitute for water in wet gas-meters, and as an ingredient in
cataplasms, plasters, modelling clay, pasty colouring matters,
dyeing materials, moist colours for artists, and numerous other
analogous substances which are required to be kept in a permanently
soft condition. Glycerin acts as a preservative against decomposition,
owing to its antiseptic qualities, which also led to its being employed
to preserve un tanned leather (especially during transit when ex-
ported, the hides being, moreover, kept soft and supple); to make
solutions of gelatin, albumen, gum, paste, cements, &c. which will
keep without decomposition; to preserve meat and other edibles;
to mount anatomical preparations; to preserve vaccine lymph un-
changed; and for many similar purposes. Its solvent power is also
GLYCOLS— GLYPTOTHEK
H7
utilized in the production of various colouring fluids, where the
colouring matter would not dissolve in water alone; thus aniline
violet, the tinctorial constituents of madder, and various allied
colouring matters dissolve in glycerin, forming liquids which remain
coloured even when diluted with water, the colouring matters being
either retained in suspension or dissolved by the glycerin present
in the diluted fluid. Glycerin is also employed in the manufacture
of formic acid (q.v.). Certain kinds of copying inks are greatly
improved by the substitution of glycerin, in part or entirely, Tor the
sugar or honey usually added.
In its medicinal use glycerin is an excellent solvent for such sub-
stances as iodine, alkaloids, alkalis, &c, and is therefore used for
applying them to diseased surfaces, especially as it aids in their
absorption. It does not evaporate or turn rancid, whilst its marked
hygroscopic action ensures the moistness and softness of any surface
tnat it covers. Given by the mouth glycerin produces purging if
large doses are administered, and has the same action if only a small
quantity be introduced into the rectum. For this purpose it is
very largely used either as a suppository or in the fluid form (one
or two drachms). The result is prompt, safe and painless. Glycerin
is useless as a food and is not in any sense a substitute for cod-liver
oil. Very large doses in animals cause lethargy, collapse and death.
GLYCOLS, in organic chemistry, the generic name given
to the aliphatic dihydric alcohols. These compounds may be
obtained by heating the alkylen iodides or bromides (e.g. ethylene
dibromide) with silver acetate or with potassium acetate and
alcohol, the esters so produced being then hydrolysed with
caustic alkalis, thus:
C,H4Br 2 +2C,H302-Ag->C 2 H4(0-C 2 H,0) 2 -K: 2 H4(OH) 2 +2K.C 2 HsO l ;
by the direct union of water with the alkylen oxides; by oxida-
tion of the olefines with cold potassium permanganate solution
(G. Wagner, Ber., 1888, 21, p. 1 231), or by the action of nitrous
acid on the diamines.
Glycols may be classified as primary, containing two— (JH 2 OH
groups; primary-secondary, containing the grouping— CH(OH)-
CH2OH; secondary, with the grouping - CH(OH)-CH (OH) - ; and
tertiary, with the grouping >C(OH)(OH)C<. The secondary
glycols are prepared by the action of alcoholic potash on alde-
hydes, thus:
3(CH 3 ) 2 CHCHO-|-KHO = (CH 8 ) 2 CHC0 2 K+
(CH 3 ) 2 CHCH(OH)-CH(OH)-CH(CH 8 ) 2 .
The tertiary glycols are known as pinacones and are formed
on the reduction of ketones with sodium amalgam.
The glycols are somewhat thick liquids, of high boiling point,
the pinacones only being crystalline solids; they are readily
soluble in water and alcohol, but are insoluble in ether. By the
action of dehydrating agents they are converted into aldehydes
or ketones. In their general behaviour towards oxidizing agents
the primary glycols behave very similarly to the ordinary
primary alcohols (q.v.), but the secondary and tertiary glycols
break down, yielding compounds with a smaller carbon content.
Ethylene glycol, CjH^OHJa, was first prepared by A. Wurtz
(Ann. ckim., 1859 [3], 55, p. 400) from ethylene dibromide and
silver acetate. It is a somewhat pleasant smelling liquid, boiling
at 197 to 197*5° C., and having a specific gravity 0*1*125 (0°).^ On
fusion with solid potash at 250 C. it completely decomposes, giving
potassium oxalate and hydrogen,
C 2 H fi 2 +2KHO = K 2 C 2 4 +4H 2 .
Two propylene glycols, CtHgOj, are known, viz. a-propylene
glycol, CHrCHtOHyCHjOH, a liquid boiling at 188° to ife) , and
obtained by heating glycerin with sodium hydroxide and distilling
the mixture; and trimethylene glycol, CH 2 OH-CH 2 'CHiOH, a
liquid boiling at 214 C. and prepared by boiling trimethylene bro-
mide with potash solution (A. Zander, Arm., 1882, 214, p. 178).
GLY CONIC (from Glycon, a Greek lyric poet), a form of verse,
best known in Catullus and Horace (usually in the catalectic
variety -ii-uu-v4, with three feet — a spondee and two dac-
tyls; or four — three trochees and a dactyl, or a dactyl and three
chorees. Sir R. Jebb pointed out that the last form might be
varied by placing the dactyl second or third, and according to its
place this verse was called a First, Second or Third Glyconic.
Cf. J. W. White, in Classical Quarterly (Oct. 1909),
GLYPH (from Gr. y}ii<fmv, to carve), in architecture, a vertical
channel in a frieze (see Tmglyph).
GLYPTODON (Greek for " fluted-tooth "), a name applied
by Sir R. Owen to the typical representative of a group of
gigantic, armadillo-like, South American, extinct Edentata,
II j
*
characterized by having the carapace composed of a solid piece
(formed by the union of a multitude of bony dermal plates)
without any movable rings. The facial portion of the skull is
very short; a long process of the maxillary bone descends
from the anterior part of the zygomatic arch; and the ascending
ramus of the mandible is remarkably high. The teeth, # in the
later species, are much alike, having two deep grooves or flutings
on each side, so as to divide them into three distinct lobes (fig.).
They are very tall and grew throughout
life. The vertebral column is almost
entirely welded into a solid tube, but
there is a complex joint at the base of the
neck, to allow the head being retracted
within the carapace. The limbs are very
strong, and the feet short and broad, re-
sembling externally those of an elephant
or tortois
Glyptodonts constitute a family, the Glypto-
donHaae, whose position is next to the
armadillos (Dasypodidae) ; the group being
represented by a number of generic types.
The Pleistocene forms, whose remains occur
abundantly in the silt of the Buenos Aires
pampas, are by far the largest, the skull and
tail-sheath in some instances having a length
of from 12 to 16 ft. In Glyptodon (with
which Sckistopleurum is identical) the tail-
sheath consists of a series of coronet-like
rings, gradually diminishing in diameter from
base to tip* Daedicurus, in which the tail-
sheath is in the form of a huge solid club, is
the largest member of the family; in Pano-
chthus and Sclerocalyptus (Hoplophorus) the
tail-sheath consists basally of a small number
of smooth rings, and terminally of a tube.
In some specimens of these genera the horny
shields covering the bony scutes of the cara-
pace have been preserved, and since the Two views of the
foramina, which often pierce the latter, stop tooth of a Glyptodon;
short of the former, it is evident that these the upper figure show-
were for the passage of blood-vessels and ing one side, and the
not receptacles for bristles. In the early lower the crown.
Pleistocene epoch, when South America
became connected with North America, some of the glyptodonts
found their way into the latter continent. Among these northern
forms some from Texas and Florida have been referred to
Glyptodon. One large species from Texas has, however, been
made the type of a separate genus, under the name of Glypto-
therium texanum. In some respects it shows affinity with Pano-
chtkus, although in the simple structure of the tail-sheath it
recalls the undermentioned Propalaeohoplopkorus. All the above
are of Pleistocene and perhaps Pliocene age, but in the Santa Cruz
freds of Patagonia there occur the two curious genera Propalaeohoplo-
pkorus and Peltepkilus, the former of which is a primitive and
generalised type of jzlyptodont, while the latter seems to come
nearer to the armadillos. Both are represented by species of com-
paratively small size. In Propalaeohoplopkorus the scutes of the
carapace, which are less deeply sculptured than in the larger glypto-
donts, are arranged in distinct transverse rows, in three of which
they partially overlap near the border of the carapace after the
fashion of the armadillos. The skull and limb-bones exhibit several
features met with in the latter, and the vertebrae of the back are not
welded into a continuous tube. There are eight pairs of teeth, the
first four of which are simpler than the rest, and may perhaps there-
fore be regarded as premolars. More remarkable is Peltepkilus, on
account of the fact tnat the teeth, which are simple, with a chevron-
shaped section, form a continuous series from tne front of the jaw
backwards, the number of pairs being seven. Accordingly* a
modification of the character, even of the true Edentata, as given
in the earlier article, is rendered necessary. The head bears a pair
of horn-like scutes, and the scutes of the carapace and tail, which
are loosely opposed or slightly overlapping, form a number of trans-
verse rows.
Literature.— R. Lydekker, " The Extinct Edentates of Ar-
gentina," An. Mus. La Plata — Pal. Argent, vol. iii. p. 2 (190^);
H. F. Osborn, " 4 Glyptotherium texanum,' a Glyptodont from the
Lower Pleistocene of Texas," Bull. Amer. Mus., vol. xvii. p. 491
(1903) ; W. B. Scott, " Mammalia of the Santa Cruz Beds— Edentata,"
Rep. Princeton Exped. to Patagonia, vol. v. (1903-1904). (R. L.*)
GLYPTOTHEK (from Gr. yXwrrk, carved, and d-fjicn, a place
of storage), an architectural term given to a gallery for the
exhibition of sculpture, and first employed at Munich, where it
was built to exhibit the sculptures from the temple of Aegina.
148
GMELIN— GNEISENAU
GMBLIN, the name of several distinguished German scientists,
of a Tubingen family. Johann Georg Gmelin (1674-1728),
an apothecary in Tubingen, and an accomplished chemist for
the times in which he lived, had three sons. The first, Johann
Conrad ( 1 702-1 759), was an apothecary and surgeon in Tubingen.
The second, Johann Georg (1709-1755), was appointed professor
of chemistry and natural history in St Petersburg in 1731, and
from 1733 to 1743 wa » engaged in travelling through Siberia.
The fruits of his journey were Flora Sibirica (4 vols., 1740-
1750) and Reisen dutch Sibirien (4 vols., 1753). He ended his
days as professor of medicine at Tubingen, a post to which he
was appointed in 1749. The third son, Philipp Friedrich (1721-
1768), was extraordinary professor of medicine at Tubingen
in 1750, and in 1755 became ordinary professor of botany and
chemistry. In the second generation Samuel Gottlieb (1743-
1774), the son of Johann Conrad, was appointed professor of
natural history at St Petersburg in 1766, and in the following
year started on a journey through south Russia and the regions
round the Caspian Sea. On his way back he was captured by
Usmey Khan, of the Kaitak tribe, and died from the ill-treatment
ho suffered, on the 27th of July 1774. One of his nephews,
Ferdinand Gottlob von Gmelin (1782-1848), became professor of
medicine and natural history at Tubingen in 1805, and another,
Christian Gottlob (1792-1860), who in 1828 was one of the
first to devise a process for the artificial manufacture of ultra-
marine, was professor of chemistry and pharmacy in the same
university. In the youngest branch of the family, Philipp
Friedrich had a son, Johann Friedrich (1 748-1 804), who was
appointed professor of medicine in Tubingen in 1772, and in
1775 accepted the chair of medicine and chemistry at GSttingen.
In 1788 he published the 13th edition of Linnaeus' Systema
Naturae with many additions and alterations. His. son Leopold
(1788-1853), was the best-known member of the family. He
studied medicine and chemistry at Gdttingen, Tubingen and
Vienna, and in 1813 began to lecture on chemistry at Heidelberg,
where in 1814 he was appointed extraordinary, and in 18x7
ordinary, professor of chemistry and medicine. He was the
discoverer of potassium ferricyanide (1822), and wrote the
Handbuck der Chemic (1st ed. 1817-1819, 4th ed. 1843-1855),
an important work in its day, which was translated into English
for the Cavendish Society by H. Watts (181 5-1884) in 1848-
1859. He resigned his chair in 1852, and died on the 13th of
April in the following year at Heidelberg.
GlftlND, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Wtirttemberg, 1
in a charming and fruitful valley on the Rems, here spanned by
a beautiful bridge, 31 m. E.N.E. of Stuttgart on the railway
to NcVrdlingcn, Pop. (1905) 18,699, It is surrounded by old
walls, flanked with towers, and has a considerable number of
ancient buildings, among which are the fine church of the Holy
Cross; St John's church, which dates from the time of the
Hohenstaufen; and, situated on a height near the town, partly
hewn out of the rock, the pilgrimage church of the Saviour.
Among the modern buildings are the gymnasium, the drawing
and trade schools, the Roman Catholic seminary, the town
hall and the industrial art museum. Clocks and watches are
manufactured here and also other articles of silver, while the
town has a considerable trade in corn, hops and fruit. The
scenery in the neighbourhood is very beautiful, near the town
being the district called Little Switzerland.
GmUnd was surrounded by walls in the beginning of the 12th
century by Duke Frederick of Swabia. It received town rights
from Frederick Barbarossa, and after the extinction of the
Hohenstaufen became a free imperial town. It retained its
independence till 1S03, when it came into the possession of
WUrttemberg. GmUnd is the birth-place of the painter Hans
Baldung (1475-1 545) and of the architect Heinrich Arler or Parlor
{& 1350), In the middle ages the population was about 10,000.
See kaiser, Gmund *nd seine Umgebung (18SS).
1 There arc two places of this name in Austria. (1) Gmund,
a town in Lower Austria, containing a palace belonging to the
imperial family. ^ a town in Carinthia, with a beautiful Gothic
church and some interesting ruins.
GMUNDEN, a town and summer resort of Austria, in Upper
Austria, 40 m. S.S.W. of Linz by rail. Pop. (1000) 7126. It
is situated at the efflux of the Traun river from the lake of the
same name and is surrounded by high mountains, as the Traun-
stein (5446 ft.), the Erlakogel (5150 ft.), the Wilde Kogel (6860
ft.) and the Hflllen Gebirge. It is much frequented as a health
and summer resort, and has a variety of lake, brine, vegetable
and pine-cone baths, a hydropathic establishment, inhalation
chambers, whey cure, &c. There are a great number of ex-
cursions and points of interest round Gmunden, specially worth
mentioning being the Traun Fall, 10 m. N. of Gmunden. It is
also an important centre of the salt industry in Salzkammergut.
Gmunden was a town encircled with walls already in 1186. On
the 14th of November 1626, Pappenheim completely defeated
here the army of the rebellious peasants.
See F. Krackowizer, Geschichte der Stadt Gmunden in Oberosterreick
(Gmunden, 1 898-1901, 3 vols.).
GNAT (0. Eng. gnat), the common English name for the
smaller dipterous flies (see Diptera) of the family Culicidae,
which are now included among " mosquitoes " (see Mosquito).
The distinctive term has no zoological significance, but in
England the " mosquito " has commonly been distinguished
from the " gnat " as a variety of larger size and more poisonous
bite.
GNATHOPODA, a term in zoological classification, suggested
as an alternative name for the group Arthropoda (q.v.). The
word, which means " jaw-footed," refers to the fact that in the
members of the group, some of the lateral appendages or " feet "
in the region of the mouth act as jaws.
GNATIA (also Egnatia or Ignatia, mod. Anazzo, near
Fasano), an ancient city of the Peucetii, and their frontier town
towards the Sallentini (i.e. of Apulia towards Calabria), in
Roman times of importance for its trade, lying as it did on the
sea, at the point where the Via Traiana joined the coast road, 1
38 m. S.E. of Barium. The ancient city walls have been almost
entirely destroyed in recent times to provide building material, 8
and the place is famous for the discoveries made in its tombs.
A considerable collection of antiquities from Gnatia is preserved
at Fasano, though the best are in the museum at Ban. Gnatia
was the scene of the prodigy at which Horace mocks (Sal. i.
5. 97). Near Fasano are two small subterranean chapels with
paintings of the nth century a.d. (E. Bertaux, UArt dans
riialie meridionale, Paris, 1904, 135). (T. As.)
GNEISENAU, AUGUST WILHELM ANTON, Count Neit-
hardt von (1760-1831), Prussian field marshal, was the son
of a Saxon officer named Neithardt. Born in 1760 at Schildau,
near Torgau, he was brought up in great poverty there, and
subsequently at Wiirzburg and Erfurt. In 1777 he entered
Erfurt university; but two years later joined an Austrian
regiment there quartered. In 1782 taking the additional name
of Gneisenau from some lost estates of his family in Austria,
he entered as an officer the service of the margrave of Baireuth-
Anspach. With one of that prince's mercenary regiments in
English pay he saw active service and gained valuable experi-
ence in the War of American Independence, and returning
in 1786, applied for Prussian service. Frederick the Great gave
him a commission as first lieutenant in the infantry. Made
Stabskapit&n in 1790, Gneisenau served in Poland, 1 793-1 794,
and, subsequently to this, ten years of quiet garrison life in
Jauer enabled him to undertake a wide range of military studies.
In 1706 he married Caroline von Kottwitz. In 1806 he was
one of Hohenlohe's staff-officers, fought at Jena, and a little
later commanded a provisional infantry brigade which fought
under Lestocq in the Lithuanian campaign. Early in 1807
Major von Gneisenau was sent as commandant to Colberg, which,
small and ill-protected as it was, succeeded in holding out until
the peace of Tilsit. The commandant received the much-prized
order " pour le merite," and was promoted lieutenant-colonel.
A wider sphere of work was now opened to him. As chief of
1 There is no authority for calling the latter Via Egnatia.
* H. Swinburne, Travels in the Two Sicilies (London, 1790), iL 15,
mentions the walls as being 8 yds. thick and 16 courses high.
GNEISS
149
engineers, and a member of the reorganizing committee, he
played a great part, along with Scharnhorst, in the work of re-
constructing the Prussian army. A colonel in 1809, he soon drew
upon himself, by his energy, the suspicion of the dominant French,
and Stein's fall was soon followed by Gneisenau's retirement.
But, after visiting Russia, Sweden and England, he returned
to Berlin and resumed his place as a leader of the patriotic
party. In open military work and secret machinations his
energy and patriotism were equally tested, and with the out-
break of the War of Liberation, Major-General Gneisenau
became Blucher's quartermaster-general. Thus began the
connexion between these two soldiers which has furnished
military history with its best example of the harmonious co-
operation between the general and his chief-of-staff. With
Blucher, Gneisenau served to the capture of Paris; his military
character was the exact complement of Blucher's, -and under ,
this happy guidance the young troops of Prussia, often defeated
but never discouraged, fought their way into the heart of France.
The plan of the march on Paris, which led directly to the fall
of Napoleon, was specifically the work of the chief-of-staff.
In reward for his distinguished service he was in 18 14, along
with York, Kleist and Billow, made count at the same time as
Blucher became prince of Wahlstatt; an annuity was also
assigned to him.
In 1815, once more chief of Bluchers staff, Gneisenau played
a very conspicuous part in the Waterloo campaign (q.v.). Senior
generals, such as York and Kleist, had been set aside in order
that the chief-of-staff should have the command in case of need,
and when on the field of Ligny the old field marshal was disabled,
Gneisenau at once assumed the control of the Prussian army.
Even in the light of the evidence that many years' research
has collected, the precise part taken by Gneisenau in the events
which followed is much debated. It is known that Gneisenau
had the deepest distrust of the British commander, who, he
considered, had left the Prussians in the lurch at Ligny, and that
to the hour of victory he had grave doubts as to whether he ought
not to fall back on the Rhine. Blucher, however, soon recovered
from his injuries, and, with Grolmann, the quartermaster-
general, he managed to convince Gneisenau. The relations of
the two may be illustrated by Brigadier-General Hardinge's
report. Blucher burst into Hardinge's room at Wavre, saying
" Gneisenau has given my, and we are to march at once to your
chief."
On the field of Waterloo, however, Gneisenau was quick to
realize the magnitude of the victory, and he carried out the
pursuit with a relentless vigour which has few parallels in
history. His reward was further promotion and the insignia
of the "Black Eagle" which had been taken in Napoleon's
coach. In 1816 he 'was appointed to command the VHIth
Prussian Corps, but soon retired from the service, both because
of ill-health and for political reasons. For two years he lived in
retirement on his estate, Erdmannsdorf in Silesia, but in 1818
he was made governor of Berlin in succession to Kalkrenth, and
member of the Siaaisrath. In 18125 he became general field
marshal. In ^85 r he was appointed to the command of the
Army of Observation on the Polish frontier, with Qatxsewftz
as his chief-of-staff. AfcPosen he was struck down by
cholera and died on the a^h of August 1831, soon followed
by his chief-of-staff, who fell a victim to the same disease in
November.
As a soldier, Gneisenau was the greatest Prussian general
since Frederick; as a man, his noble character and virtuous life
secured him the affection and reverence, not only of his superiofs
and subordinates in the service, but of the whole Prussian
nation. A statue by Ranch was erected in Berlin in 1855, and
in memory of the siege of 1807 the Colberg grenadiers received
his name in 1889. One of his sons led a brigade of the Vlllth
Army Corps in the war of 1870.
See G. H. Pertz, Das Leben des Feldmarschalls Grafm Netikardt
von Gneisenau, vols. 1-3 (Berlin, 1 864-1 869); vols. 4 and 5,
G. Delbruck (ib. 1879, 1880), with numerous documents and letters;
H. Delbruck, Das Leben des G. F. M. Graf en von Gneisenau (2 vols.,
2nd ed. f Berlin, 1894), based on Pertz's work, but containing much
new material; Frau von Beguelin, Denkwurdigkeiten (Berlin, 1892);
Hormayr, Lebensbilder aus den Befreiungskriegen (Jena, 1841);
Pick, Aus dem brieflichen Nachlass Gneisenaus; also the histories of
the campaigns of 1807 and 1813-15.
GNEISS, a term long used by the miners of the Harz Mountains
to designate the country rock in which the mineral veins occur;
it is believed to be a word of Slavonic origin meaning " rotted "
or " decomposed." It has gradually passed into acceptance as a
generic term signifying a large and varied series of metamorphic
rocks, which mostly consist of quartz and felspar (orthoclase
and plagioclase) with muscovite and biotite, hornblende or
augite, iron oxides, zircon and apatite. There is also a long
list of accessory minerals which are present in gneisses with more
or less frequency, but not invariably, as garnet, sillimanite,
cordierite, graphite and graphitoid, epidote, calcite, orthite,
tourmaline and andalusite. The gneisses all possess a more
or less marked parallel structure or foliation, which is the main
feature by which many of them are separated from the granites,
a group of rocks having nearly the same mineralogical composi-
tion and closely allied to many gneisses.
The felspars of the gneisses are predominantly orthoclase
(often perthitic), but microcline is common in the more acid
types and oligoclase occurs also very frequently, especially in
certain sedimentary gneisses, while more basic varieties of
plagioclase are rare. Quartz is very seldom absent and may be
blue or milky and opalescent. Muscovite and biotite may both
occur in the same rock; in other cases only one of them is present.
The commonest and most important types of gneiss are the mica-
gneisses. Hornblende is green, rarely brownish; augite pale
green or nearly colourless; enstatite appears in some granulite-
gneisses. Epidote, often with enclosures of orthite, is by no
means rare in gneisses from many different parts of the world.
Sillimanite and andalusite are not infrequent ingredients of
gneiss, and their presence has been accounted for in more than
one way. Cordierite-gneisses are a special group of great interest
and possessing many peculiarities; they are partly, if not
entirely, foliated contact-altered sedimentary rocks. Kyanite
and staurolite may also be mentioned as occasionally occurring.
Many varieties of gneiss have received specific names according
to the minerals they consist of and the structural peculiarities
they exhibit. Muscovite-gneiss, biotite-gneiss and muscovite-
biotite-gneiss, more common perhaps than all the others taken
together, are grey or pinkish rocks according to the colour of
their prevalent felspar, not unlike granites, but on the whole
more often fine-grained (though coarse-grained types occur) and
possessing a gneissose or foliated structure. The latter consists
in the arrangement of the flakes of mica in such a way that
their faces are parallel, and hence the rock has the property of
splitting more readily in the direction in which the mica plates
are disposed. This fissility, though usually marked, is not so
great as in the schists or slates, and the split faces are not so
smooth as in these latter rocks. The films of mica may be k
continuous and are usually not flat, but irregularly curved.
In some gneisses the, parallel flakes of mica are scattered through j
the quartz and felspar; in others these minerals form discrete
bands, the quartz and felspar being grouped into lenticles
separated by thin films of mica. When large felspars, of rounded
or elliptical form, are visible in the gneiss, it is said to have
augen structure (Ger. Augen^ eyes). It should also be remarked
that the essential component minerals of the rocks of this family
are practically always determinable by naked eye inspection or
with the aid of a simple lens- If the rock is too fine grained
for this it is generally relegated to the schists. When the
bands of folia are very fine and tortuous the structure is called
helizitic. '«.... ^ ;
In mica-gneisses sillimanite, kyanite, andalusite and garnet
may occur. The significance of these minerals is variously
interpreted; they may indicate that the gneiss consists wholly
or in part of sedimentary material which has been contact -
altered, but they have also been regarded as having been
developed by metamorphic action out of biotite or other primary
ingredients of the rock.
150
GNEIST
Hornblende-gneisses are usually darker in colour and le9S
fissile than mica-gneisses; they contain more plagioclase, less
orthoclase and microcline, and more sphene and epidote. Many
of them are rich in hornblende and thus form transitions to
amphiboHtes. Pyroxene-gneisses are less frequent but occur
in many parts of both hemispheres. The " charnockite " series
are very closely allied to the pyroxene-gneisses. Hypersthene
and scapob'te both may occur in these rocks and they are some-
times garnetiferous.
In every country where the lowest and oldest rocks have come to
the surface and been exposed by the long continued action of denuda-
tion in stripping away the overlying formations, gneisses are found in
great abundance and of many different kinds. They are in fact the
typical rocks of the Archean (Lewisian, Laurentian, &c.) series.
In the Alps, Harz, Scotland, Norway and Sweden, Canada, South
America, Peninsular India, Himalayas (to mention only a few
localities) they occupy wide areas and exhibit a rich diversity of
types. From this it has been inferred that they are of great geological
age, and in fact this can be definitely proved in many cases, for the
oldest known fossiliferous formations may be seen to rest uncon-
formably on these gneisses and are made up of their debris. It was
for a long time believed that they represented the primitive crust of
the earth, and while this is no longer generally taught there are
still geologists who hold that these gneisses are necessarily of pre-
Cambrian age. Others, while admitting the general truth of this
hypothesis, consider that there are localities in which typical gneisses
can be shown to penetrate into rocks which may be as recent as the
Tertiary period, or to pass into these rocks so gradually and in such
a way as to make it certain that the gneisses are merely altered
states of comparatively recent sedimentary or igneous rocks. Much
controversy has arisen on these points; but this is certain, that
gneisses are far the most common among Archean rocks, and where
their age is not known the presumption is strong that they are at
least pre-Cambrian.
Many gneisses are undoubtedly sedimentary rocks that have been
brought to their present state by such agents of metamorphism as
heat, movement, crushing and recrystallization. This may be
demonstrated partly by their mode of occurrence : they accompany
limestones, graphitic schists, quartzites and other rocks of sedimentary
type ; some of them where least altered may even show remains of
bedding or of original pebbly character (conglomerate gneisses).
More conclusive, however, is the chemical composition of these rocks,
which often is such as no igneous masses possess, but resembles that
of many impure argillaceous sediments. These sedimentary gneisses
(or paragneisses, as they are often called) are often rich in biotite
and garnet and may contain kyanite and siilimanite, or less frequently
calcitc. Some of them, however, are rich in felspar and auartz, with
rauscovitc and biotite; others may even contain hornblende and
augitc, and all these may bear so close a resemblance to gneisses of
igneous origin that by no single character, chemical or mineralogical,
can their original nature be definitely established. In these cases,
however, a careful study of the relations of the rock in the field and
of the different types which occur together will generally lead to some
positive conclusion.
Other gneisses are igneous (orthogneisses). These have very much
the same composition as acid igneous rocks such as granite, aplite,
hornblende granite, or intermediate rocks such as syenite and auartz
diorite. Many of these orthogneisses are not equally well foliated
throughout, but are massive or granitoid in places. They are some-
times subdivided into granite gneiss, diorite gneiss, syenite gneiss
and so on. The sedimentary schists into which these rocks have
been intruded may show contact alteration by the development of
such minerals as cordierite, andalusite and siilimanite. In many
of these orthogneisses the foliation is primitive, being an original
character of the rock which was produced either by nuxion move-
ments in a highly viscous, semi-solid mass injected at great pressure
into the surrounding strata, or by folding stresses acting immediately
after consolidation. That the foliation in other orthogneisses is
subsequent or superinduced, having been occasioned by pressure
and deformation of the solid mass long after it had consolidated and
cooled, admits of no doubt, but it is very difficult to establish criteria
by which t hose types may be differentiated. Those gneisses in which
the minerals have been crushed and broken by fluxion or injection
movements have been called protoclastic, while those which have
attained their gneissose state by crushing long after consolidation
are distinguished as cataclastic. There are also many examples of
gneisses 01 mixed or synthetic origin. They may be metamorphosed
sediments (granulites and schists) into which tongues and thin
veins of granitic character have been intruded, following the more
or less parallel foliation planes already present in the country rock.
These vein lets produce tnat alternation in mineral composition and
banded structure which are essential in gneisses. This intermixture
of igneous and sedimentary material may take place on the finest scale
ana in the roost intricate manner. Often there has been resorption
of the older rocks, whether sedimentary or igneous, by those which
have invaded them, and movement has gone on both during injection
a nd at a later period, so that the whole complex becomes amalgamated
and its elements are so completely confused that the geologist can
no longer disentangle them.
When we remember that in the earlier stages of the earth's history,
to which most gneisses belong, and in the relatively deep parts of
the earth's crust, where they usually occur, there has been most
igneous injection and greatest frequency of earth movements, it
is not difficult to understand the geological distribution of jgneissose
rocks. All the factors which are required for their production, heat,
movement, plutonic intrusions, contact alteration, interstitial
moisture at high temperatures, are found at great depths and have
acted most frequently and with greatest power on the older rock
masses. But locally, where the conditions were favourable, the
same processes may have gone on in comparatively recent times.
Hence, though most gneisses are Archean, all gneisses are not
necessarily so. (J. S. F.)
GNEIST, HEINRICH RUDOLF HERMANN FRIEDRICH
VON (1816-1895), German jurist and politician, was born at
Berlin on the 13th of August 1816, the son of a judge attached
to the " Kammergericht " (court of appeal) in that city. After
receiving his school education at the gymnasium at Eisleben
in Prussian Saxony, he entered the university of Berlin in 1833
as a student of jurisprudence, and became a pupil of the famous
Roman law teacher von Savigny. Proceeding to the degree
of doctor juris in 1838, young Gneist immediately established
himself as a Privatdozent in the faculty of law. He had, however,
already chosen the judicial branch of the legal profession as a
career, and having while yet a student acted as Auscultatory
was admitted Assessor in 1841. He soon found leisure and
opportunity to fulfil a much-cherished wish, and spent the
next few years on a lengthened tour in Italy, France and
England. He utilized his Wanderjahre for the purposes of
comparative study, and on his return in 1844 was appointed
extraordinary professor of Roman law in Berlin university,
and thus began a professorial connexion which ended only with
his death. The first-fruits of his activity as a teacher were
seen in his brilliant work, Die formellen Vertrdge des keuiigen
rdmischen Obligationen-Recktes (Berlin, 1845). Pari passu
with his academic labours he continued his judicial career,
and became in due course successively assistant judge of the
superior court and of the supreme tribunal. But to a mind
constituted such as his, the want of elasticity in the procedure
of the courts was galling. " Brought up," he tells, in the preface
to his Engliscke Verfassungsgeschickle, " in the laborious and
rigid school of Prussian judges, at a time when the duty of
formulating the matter in litigation was entailed upon the judge
who personally conducted the pleadings, I became acquainted
both with the advantages possessed by the Prussian bureau
system as also with its weak points." Feeling the necessity
for fundamental reforms in legal procedure, he published, in
1849, his Trial by Jury, in which, after pointing out that the
origin of that institution was common to both Germany and
England, and showing in a masterly way the benefits which had
accrued to the latter country through its more extended applica-
tion, he pleaded for its freer admission in the tribunals of his
own country.
The period of " storm and stress " in 1848 afforded Gneist an
opportunity for which he had yearned, and he threw himself
with ardour into the constitutional struggles of Prussia. Al-
though his candidature for election to the National Assembly
of that year was unsuccessful, he felt that " the die was cast,"
and deciding for a political career, retired in 1850 from his judicial
position. Entering the ranks of the National Liberal party,
he began both in writing and speeches actively to champion
their cause, now busying himself pre-eminently with the study
of constitutional law and history. In 1853 appeared his Add
und Rilterschaft in England, and in 1857 the GesckickU und
heuiige GtsiaU der Amter in England, a pamphlet primarily
written to combat the Prussian abuses of administration, but
for which the author also claimed that it had not been without
its effect in modifying certain views that had until then ruled
in England itself. In 1858 Gneist was appointed ordinary
professor of Roman law, and in the same year commenced his
parliamentary career by his election for Stettin to the Abgeord-
netenhaus (House of Deputies) of the Prussian Landtag, in which
assembly he sat thenceforward uninterruptedly until 1893.
GNESEN— GNOME, AND GNOMIC POETRY
151
Joining the Left, he at once became one of its leading spokesmen.
His chief oratorical triumphs ate associated with the early period
of his membership of the House; two noteworthy occasions
being his violent attack (September 1862) upon the government
budget in connexion with the reorganization of the Prussian
army, and his defence (1864) of the Polish chiefs of the (then)
grand-duchy of Posen, who were accused of high treason. In
1 85 7-1 863 was published Das heutige engHscke Verfassungs-
und Ventmltungsrecht, a work which, contrasting English and
German constitutional law and administration, aimed at exercis-
ing political pressure upon the government of the day. In
1868 Gneist became a member of the North German parliament,
and acted as a member of the commission for organizing the
federal army, and also of that for the settlement of ecclesiastical
controversial questions. On the establishment of German
unity his mandate was renewed for the Reichstag, and in this
he sat, an active and prominent member of the National Liberal
party, until 1884. In the Kulturkampf he sided with the
government against the attacks of the Clericals; whom he bitterly
denounced, and whose implacable enemy he ever showed himself.
In 1879, together with his colleague, von H&nel, he violently
attacked the modern for the prosecution of certain Socialist
members, which as a result of the vigour of his opposition was
almost unanimously rejected. He was parliamentary reporter
for the committees on all great financial and administrative
questions, and his profound acquaintance with constitutional
law caused his advice to be frequently sought, not only in his
own but also in other countries. In Prussia he largely influenced
legislation, the reform of the judicial and penal systems and the
new constitution of the Evangelical Church being largely his
work. He was also consulted by the Japanese government when
a constitution was being introduced into that country. In
1875 he was appointed a member of the supreme administrative
court (Obervenvaltungsgericht) of Prussia, but only held office
for two years. In 1882 was published his EngHscke Verfassungs-
geschichte (trans. History of the English Constitution, London,
1886), which may perhaps be described as his magnum opus.
It placed the author at once on the level of such writers
on English constitutional history as Hallam and Stubbs, and
supplied English literature with a textbook almost unrivalled
in point of historical research. In 1888 one of the first acts
of the ill-fated emperor Frederick HI., who had always, as
crown prince, shown great admiration for him, was to ennoble
Gneist, and attach him as instructor in constitutional law to his
son, the emperor William IL, a charge of which he worthily
acquitted himself. The last years of his life were full of energy,
and, in the possession of all his faculties, he continued his wonted
academic labours until a short time before his death, which
occurred at Berlin on the 22nd of July 1805;
As a politician, Gneist's career cannot perhaps, be said to have
been entirely successful. In a country where parliamentary
institutions are the living exponents of the popular will he might
have risen to a foremost position in the state; as it was, the
party to which he allied himself could never hope to become
more than what it remained, a parliamentary faction, and the
influence it for a time wielded in the counsels of the state waned
as soon as the Social-Democratic party grew to be a force to be
reckoned with. It is as a writer and a teacher that Gneist is
best known to fame. He was a jurist of a special type. To him
law was not mere theory, but living force; and this conception
of its power animates all his schemes of practical reform. As
a teacher he exercised a magnetic influence, not only by reason
of the clearness and cogency of his exposition, but also because
of the success with which he developed the talents and guided
the aspirations of his pupils. He was a man of noble bearing,
religious, and imbued with a stern sense of duty. He was proud
of being a " Preussischer Junker " (a member of the Prussian
squirearchy), and throughout his writings, despite their liberal
tendencies, may be perceived the loyalty and affection with which
he clung to monarchical institutions. A great admirer and a true
friend of England, to which country he was attached by many
personal ties, he surpassed all other Germans in his efforts to
make her free institutions, in which he found his ideal, the
common heritage of the two great nations of the Teutonic race.
Gneist was a prolific writer, especially on the subject he had made
peculiarly his own, that of constitutional law and history, and among
his works, other than those above named, may be mentioned the
folio wink: Budget und Gesetz nach dem constitutionellen Staatsrecht
Engfanas (Berlin, 1867); Freie Advocator (ib., 1867); Der Rechts-
stoat (ib., 1872, and 2nd edition, 1879); Zur Verwaltungsreform
in Preussen (Leipzig, 1880); Das englische Parlament (Berlin, 1886);
in English translation, The English Parliament (London, 1886; 3rd
edition, 1889); Die MiUtar«Vorlaee von 1892 und der preussische
Vcrfassungsconflikt von 1862 bis i$66 (Berlin, 1893); Die nalionale
Rechtsidee von den Standen und das preussische DreiklassenwahU
system (ib., 1895); Die verfassungsm&ssige Stellung despreussischen
Gesamtministeriums (ib., 1895). See O. Gierke, Rudolph von
Gneist, Gedachtnisrede (Berlin, 1895), an In Memoriam address
delivered in Berlin. . (P. A. A.)
GNESEN (Polish, Gnietmo), a town of Germany, in the Prussian
province of Posen, in an undulating and fertile country, on the
Wrzesniat, 30 m. E.N.E. of Posen by the railway to Thorn.
Pop. (1905) 23,727. Besides the cathedral, a handsome Gothic
edifice with twin towers, which contains the remains of St
Adalbert, there aire eight Roman Catholic churches, a Protestant
church, a synagogue, a clerical seminary and a convent of the
Franciscan nuns. Among the industries are cloth and linen
weaving, brewing and distilling. A great horse and cattle
market is held here annually. Gnesen is one of the oldest towns
in the former kingdom of Poland. Its name, Gniezno, signifies
" nest," and points to early Polish traditions. The cathedral is
believed to have been founded towards the close of the 9th
century, and, having received the bones of St Adalbert, it was
visited in 1000 by the emperor Otto III., who made it the seat
of an archbishop. Here, until 1320, the kings of Poland were
crowned; and the archbishop, since 141 6 primate of Poland,
acted as protector pending the appointment of a new king.
In 183 1 the see of Posen was founded and the archbishop
removed his residence thither, though its cathedral chapter
still remains at Gnesen. After a long period of decay the town
revived after 1815, when it came under the rule of Prussia.
See S. Karwowski, Gniezno (Posen, 1892).
GNOME, and 0NOMIC POETRY. Sententious maxims, put
into verse for the better aid of the memory, were known by the
Greeks as gnomes, yv&tiai, from yv&ffl, an opinion. A gnome
is defined by the Elizabethan critic Henry Peacham (1576?-
1643 ?) as "a saying pertaining to the manners and common
practices of men, which declareth, with an apt brevity, what
in this our life ought to be done, or not done." The Gnomic
Poets of Greece, who flourished in the 6th century B.C., were
those who arranged series of sententious maxims in verse.
These were collected in the 4th eentury, by Lobon of Argos,
an orator, but his collection has disappeared. The chief gnomic
poets were Theognis* Sblon, Phocylides, Simonides of Amorgos,
Demodocus, Xendphanes and Euenus. With the exception of
Theognis, whose gnomes were fortunately preserved by some
schoolmaster about 300 B.C., only fragments of the Gnomic
Pbets have come down to us. The moral poem attributed to
Phocylides, long supposed to be a masterpiece of the school,
is now known to have been written by a Jew in Alexandria.
Of the gnomic movement typified by the moral works of the
poets named above, Prof. Gilbert Murray has remarked that
it receives its special expression in the conception of the Seven
Wise Men, to whom such proverbs as " Know thyself " and
" Nothing too much " were popularly attributed, and whose
names differed in different lists. These gnomes or maxims
were extended and put into literary shape by the poets.
Fragments of Solon, Euenus and Mimnermus have been pre-
served, in a very confused state, from having been written,
for purposes of comparison, on the margins of the MSS. of
Theognis, whence they have often slipped into the text of that
poet. Theognis enshrines his moral precepts in his elegies, and
this was probably the custom of the rest; it is improbable
that there ever existed a species of ! poetry made up entirely of
successive gnomes. But the title " gnomic " came to be given
to all poetry which dealt in a sententious way with questions
152
GNOMES— GNOSTICISM
of ethics. It was, unquestionably, the source from which moral
philosophy was directly developed, and theorists upon life and
infinity, such as Pythagoras and Xenophanes, seem to have
begun their career as gnomic poets. By the very nature of
things, gnomes, in their literary sense, belong exclusively to the
dawn of literature; their naivete* and their simplicity in moraliz-
ing betray it. But it has been observed that many of the ethical
reflections of the great dramatists, and in particular of Sophocles
and Euripides, are gnomic distiches expanded. It would be an
error to suppose that the ancient Greek gnomes are all of a
solemn character; some are voluptuous and some chivalrous;
those of Demodocus of Leros had the reputation of being droll.
In modern times, the gnomic spirit has occasionally been dis-
played by poets of a homely philosophy, such as Francis Quarles
(1592-1644) in England and Gui de Pibrac (1529-1584) in
France. The once-celebrated Quatrains of the latter, published
in 1574, enjoyed an immense success throughout Europe; they
were composed in deliberate imitation of the Greek gnomic
writers of the 6th century B.C. These modern effusions are
rarely literature and perhaps never poetry. With the gnomic
writings of Pibrac it was long customary to bind up those of
Antoine Favre (or Faber) (1 557-1624) and of Pierre Mathieu
( 1 563-1621). Gnomes are frequently to be found in the ancient
literatures of Arabia, Persia and India, and in the Icelandic
staves. The priamel, a brief, sententious kind of poem, which
was in favour in Germany from the 12th to the 16th century,
belonged to the true gnomic class, and was cultivated with
particular success by Hans Rosenblut, the lyrical goldsmith
of Nuremberg, in the 15th century. (E. G.)
QNOMES (Fr. gnomes, Ger. Gnomen), in folk-lore, the name
now commonly given to the earth and mountain spirits who are
supposed to watch over veins of precious metals and other
hidden treasures. They are usually pictured as bearded dwarfs
clad in brown close-fitting garments with hoods. The word
" gnome " as applied to these is of comparatively modern
and somewhat uncertain origin. By some it is said to have
been coined by Paracelsus (so HaUfeld and Darmesteter,
Dictionnairc), who uses Gnotni as a synonym of Pygmaei, from
the Greek 7wi/*i?, intelligence. The New English Dictionary,
however, suggests a derivation from genomus, *.e, a Greek type
7V*pos, " earth-dweller," on the analogy of 0aXa<row6/ios,
14 dwelling in the sea," adding, however, that though there is
no evidence that the term was not used before Paracelsus,
it is possibly " a mere arbitrary invention, like so many others
found in Paracelsus " (N.RD. s.v.).
GNOMON, the Greek word for the style of a sundial, or any
object, commonly a vertical column, the shadow of which was
observed in former times in order to learn
the altitude of the sun, especially when on
the meridian. The art of constructing a
sundial is sometimes termed gnomonies.
In geometry, a gnomon is a plane figure
formed by removing a parallelogram from
a corner of a larger parallelogram; in the
figure ABCDEFA is a gnomon. Gnomonic projection is a pro-
jection of a sphere in which the centre of sight is the centre of
the sphere.
GNOSTICISM (Gr. 7»ctas, knowledge), the name generally
applied to that spiritual movement existing side by side with
genuine Christianity, as it gradually crystallized into the old
Catholic Church, which may roughly be defined as a distinct religi-
ous syncretism bearing the strong impress of Christian influences.
I. The term " Gnosis " first appears in a technical sense in
1 Tim. vi. 20 (4 ^utorvpos yy&ns). It seems to have at first
been applied cxciusively/or at any rate principally, to a particular
tendency within the movement as a whole, i.e. to those sections of
(the Syrian) Gnostics otherwise generally known as Ophites or
Naasseni (see Hippolytus, Philosophumemh v. 2: NacuHnpot
. . , 04 4ai»roC* Tpoxttuoo^ dnwaAowrej ; Irenaeus i. n. 1;
Epiphanius, Haeres. xxvi. Cf . also the self-assumed name of the
Carpocratiani, Iron. i. 2s. 6>. But in Irenaeus the term has
already come to designate the whole movement* This first came
into prominence in the opening decades of the 2nd tentury a.d.,
but is certainly older; it reached its height in the second third of
the same century, and began to wane about the 3rd century* and
from the second half of the 3rd century onwards was replaced by
the closely-related and more powerful Manichaean movement.
Offshoots of it, however, continued on into the 4th and 5th
centuries. Epiphanius still had the opportunity of making
personal acquaintance with Gnostic sects.
II. Of the actual writings of the Gnostics, which were extra-
ordinarily numerous, 1 very little has survived; they were
sacrificed to the destructive zeal of their ecclesiastical opponents.
Numerous fragments and extracts from Gnostic writings are to be
found in the works of the Fathers who attacked Gnosticism.
Most valuable of all are the long extracts in the 5th and 6th books
of the Philosophumena of Hippolytus. The most accessible and
best critical edition of the fragments which have been preserved
word for word is to be found in Hilgenfeld's Ketzergeschichte des
Urchristentums. One of the most important of these fragments is
the letter of Ptolemaeus to Flora, preserved in Epiphanius, Haeres.
xxxiii. 3-7 (see on this point Harnack in the Sitzungsberichte der
Berliner Akademie, 1902, pp. 507-545). Gnostic fragments are
certainly also preserved for us in the Acts of Thomas. Here we
should especially mention the beautiful and much-discussed
Song of the Pearly or Song of the Soul, which is generally, though
without absolute clear proof, attributed to the Gnostic Bardesanes
(till lately- it was known only in the Syrian text; edited and
translated by Bevan, Texts and Studies* v. 3, 1897; Hofmann,
Zeitschrift fUr neutestatnentliche Wissenschaft, iv.; for the
newly-found Greek text see Acta apostolorum, ed. Bonnet, ii. 2,
c. 108, p. 219). Generally also much Gnostic matter is contained
in the apocryphal histories of the Apostles. To the school of
Bardesanes belongs the " Book of the Laws of the Lands/' which
does not, however, contribute much to our knowledge of Gnos-
ticism. Finally, we should mention in this connexion the text on
which are based the pseudo-Clementine Homilies and Recogni-
tions (beginning of the 3rd century). It is, of course, already
permeated with the Catholic spirit, but has drawn so largely upon
sources of a Judaeo-Christian Gnostic character that it comes to
a great extent within the category of sources for Gnosticism.
Complete original Gnostic works have unfortunately survived to
us only from the period of the decadence of Gnosticism. Of
these we should mention the comprehensive Work called the
Pistis-Sophia, probably belonging to the second half of the 3rd
century.* Further, the Coptic-Gnostic texts of the Codex
Bruciahus; both the books of leu, and an anonymous third
work (edited and translated by C. Schmidt, Texte mnd Unter-
suchungen, vol. viii., 1892; and a new translation by the same in
KopHsche-gnostische Schriften, i.) which, contrary to the opinion
of their editor and translator, the present writer believes to
represent, in their existing form, a still later period and a
still more advanced stage in the decadence of Gnosticism.
For other and older Coptic-Gnostic texts, in one of whkh is con-
tained the source of Irenaeus's treatises on the Barbelognostics,
but which have unfortunately not yet been made completely
accessible, see C. Schmidt in Sitzungsberichte der BerL Akad.
(1896), p. 839 seq., and " Philotesia," dedicated to Paul Kleinert
(1907), p. 315 seq.
On the whole, then, for an exposition of Gnosticism we are
thrown back upon the polemical writings of the Fathers in their
controversy with heresy. The most ancient of these is Justin,
who according to his Apol, i. 26 wrote a Syntagma against all
heresies (c. aj>. 150), and also, probably, a special polemic against
l See the list of their titles in A. Harnack, Gesckickte der atickrisl-
lichen Litcratur, Teil L v. 171 ; ib. Teil II. Chronology der atickristl.
Literature i. 533 seq.; also Liechtenhahn, Die Offenbarung im
Gnosticismus (1901).
■ For the text see A. Menc, Bardesanes von Edessa (1863), and A.
Hileenfeld, Bardesanes der Utile GnosUher (1864).
* Ed. Petermann-Schwartxe; newly translated by C. Schmidt,
KoMisch-gnostische Schriften, I. (1905), in the series Die gjriechischen
chrtstlichen SchriflstelUr der ersten drei Jahrhunderte; see also
A. Harnack, Texte und Untersuchungen, Bd. vii. Heft 2 (1891), and
Chronotogie der altchrisUicken Literatur, ii. I93~*95«
GNOSTICISM
153
Marcion (fragment in Irenaeus iv. 6.2). Both these writings axe
lost. He was followed by Irenaeus, who, especially in the first
book of his treatise Adversus haereses (tkkyxov **l AwMTxwriJs
rip favtkavbpvov ywMrews /3<0\ia irkrre, c. a.d. 180), gives a
detailed account of the Gnostic heresies. He founds his work
upon that of his master Justin, but adds from his own knowledge
among many other things, notably the detailed account of
Valentinianism at the beginning of the book. On Irenaeus, and
probably also on Justin, Hippolytus drew for his Syntagma
(beginning of the 3rd century), a work which is also lost, but can,
with great certainty, be reconstructed from three recensions of it :
in the Panarion of Epiphanius (after 3 74) , in Philaster of Brescia,
Adversus haereses, and the Pseudo-Tertullian, Liber adversus
omnes haereses. A second work of Hippolytus (Kard rao&v
atafereci* IXeyxos) is preserved in the so-called Philosophumena
which survives under the name of Origen. Here Hippolytus
gave a second exposition supplemented by fresh Gnostic original
sources with which he had become acquainted in the meanwhile.
These sources quoted in Hippolytus have lately met with very
unfavourable criticisms. The opinion has been advanced that
Hippolytus has here fallen a victim to the mystification of [a
forger. The truth of the matter must be that Hippolytus
probably made use of a collection of Gnostic texts, put together
by a Gnostic, in which were already represented various secondary
developments of the genuine Gnostic schools. It is also possible
that the compiler has himself attempted here and there to
harmonize to a certain extent the various Gnostic doctrines, yet
in no case is this collection of sources given by Hippolytus to be
passed over; it should rather be considered as important evidence
for the beginnings of the decay of Gnosticism* Very noteworthy
references to Gnosticism are also to be found scattered up and
down the Stromateis of Clement of Alexandria. Especially
important are the Excerpta ex Theodoto, the author of which is
certainly Clement, which are verbally extracted from Gnostic
writings, and have almost the value of original sources. The
writings of Origen also contain a wealth of material. In the
first place should be mentioned the treatise Contra Celsum, in
which the expositions of Gnosticism by both Origen and Celsus
are of interest (see especially v. 61 seq. and vi. 25 seq.). Of
Tertullian's works should be mentioned: De praescriptione
haereticorum, especially Adversus Marcionem, Adversus Her mo-
genem, and finally Adversus Valentinianos (entirely founded on
Irenaeus). Here must also be mentioned the dialogue of Ada-
mantius with the Gnostics, De recta in deumfide (beginning of 4th
century) . Among the followers of Hippolytus, Epiphanius in his
Panarion gives much independent and valuable information
from his own knowledge of contemporary Gnosticism. But
Theodoret of Cyrus (d. 455) is already entirely dependent on
previous works and has nothing new to add. With the 4th
century both Gnosticism and the polemical literature directed
against it die out. 1
HI. If we wish to grasp the peculiar character of the great
Gnostic movement, we must take care not to be led astray by
the catchword ' ' Gnosis/' It is a mistake to regard the Gnostics
as pre-eminently therepresentativesof intellect amongChristians,
and Gnosticism as an intellectual tendency chiefly concerned
with philosophical speculation, the reconciliation of religion
with philosophy and theology. It is true that when Gnosticism
was at its height it numbered amongst its followers both theo-
logians and men of science, but that is not its main characteristic.
Among the majority of the followers of the movement " Gnosis "
was understood not as meaning " knowledge " or " understand-
ing," in our sense of the word, but " revelation." These little
Gnostic .sects and groups all lived in the conviction that they
1 See R. A. Lipsius, Die Quellen der Sllesten Ketzergeschichte (1875) ;
A. Harnack, Zur QueUenkrtHk der Geschichte des Gnosticismus (1873) *
A Hilgenfeld, Keteerg/esckichte, pp. 1-83 ; Harnack, Geschichte der
altchristlich. JMeratur, i. 171 seq., ii. 533 sea., 712 seq.; J. Kunze,
De historiae Gnostic, fontibus (1894).,. On tne Philosophumena of
Hippolytus see G. Salmon, the cross-references in the Philo-
sophumena, Hermathena, vol. xi. (1885) p. 5389 seq.; H. Staehelin,
Die gnostischen Quellen Hippolyts, Texte una Unters. Bd. vi. Hft.
3 (1890).
possessed a secret and mysterious knowledge, in no way accessible
to those outside, which was not to be proved or propagated,
but believed in by the initiated, and anxiously guarded as a
secret. This knowledge of theirs was not based on reflection,
on scientific inquiry and proof, but on revelation. It was
derived directly from the times of primitive Christianity; from
the Saviour himself and his disciples and friends, with whom
they claimed to be connected by a secret tradition, or else from
later prophets, of whom many sects boasted. It was laid down
in wonderful mystic writings, which were in the possession of the
various circles (liechtenhahn, Die Offenbarung im Gnosticismus,
1901).
In short, Gnosticism, in all its various sections, its form and
its character, falls under the great category of mystic religions,
which were so characteristic of the religious life of decadent
antiquity. In Gnosticism as in the other mystic religions we
find the same contrast of the initiated and the uninitiated, the
same loose organization, the same kind of petty sectarianism
and mystery-mongering. All alike boast a mystic revelation
and a deeply-veiled wisdom. As in many mystical religions,
so in Gnosticism, the ultimate object is individual salvation,
the assurance of a fortunate destiny for the soul after death.
As in the others, so in this the central object of worship is a
redeemer-deity who has already trodden the difficult way which
the faithful have to follow. And finally, as in all mystical
religions, so here too, holy rites and formulas, acts of initiation
and consecration, all those things which we call sacraments,
play a very prominent part. The Gnostic religion is full of such
sacraments. In the accounts of the Fathers we find less about
them; yet here Irenaeus 1 account of the Marcosians is of the
highest significance (i. 21 seq.). Much more material is to be
found in the original Gnostic writings, especially in the Pislis-
Sophia and the two books of leu, and again in the Excerpta ex
Theodoto, the Ads of Thomas, and here and there also in the
pseudo-Clementine writings. Above all we can see from the
original sources of the Mandaean religion, which also represents
a branch of Gnosticism, how great a part the sacraments played
in the Gnostic sects (Brandt, Manddische Religion, p. 96 seq.).
Everywhere we are met with the most varied forms of holy rites
— the various baptisms, by water, by fire, by the spirit, the
baptism for protection against demons, anointing with oil,
sealing and stigmatizing, piercing the ears, leading into the
bridal chamber, partaking of holy food and drink. Finally,
sacred formulas, names and symbols are of the highest import-
ance among the Gnostic sects. We constantly meet with the
idea that the soul, on leaving the body, finds its path to the •
highest heaven opposed by the deities and demons of the lower
realms of heaven, and only when it is in possession of the names
of these demons, and can repeat the proper holy formula, or is
prepared with the right symbol, or has been anointed with the
holy oil, finds its way unhindered to the heavenly home. Hence
the Gnostic must above all things learn the names of the demons,
and equip himself with the sacred formulas and symbols, in
order to be certain of a good destiny after death. The exposition
of the system of the Ophites given by Celsus (in Origen vi. 25 seq.) ,
and, in connexion with Celsus, by Origen, is particularly instruc-
tive on this point. The two " Coptic leu " books unfold an
immense system of napies and symbols. This system again was
simplified, and as the supreme secret was taught in a single
name or a single formula, by means of which the happy possessor
was able to penetrate through all the spaces of heaven (cf. the
name " Caulacau " among the Basilidians; Irenaeus, Adv. haer.
i. 24. 5, and among other sects). It was taught that even the
redeemer-god, when he once descended on to this earth, to rise
from it again, availed himself of these names and formulas on his
descent and ascent through the world of demons. Traces of
ideas of this kind are to be met with almost everywhere. They
have been most carefully collected by Anz ( Ur sprung des Gnosti-
cismus, Texte und Untersuchungen xv. 4 passim) who would see
in them the central doctrine of Gnosticism.
IV. All these investigations point clearly to the fact that
Gnosticism belongs to the group of mystical religions. We must
154
GNOSTICISM
now proceed to define more exactly the peculiar and distinctive
character of the Gnostic system. The basis of the Gnostic
religion and world-philosophy lies in a decided Oriental dualism.
In sharp contrast arc opposed the two worlds of the good and of
the evil, the divine world and the material world (tf\?y), the
worlds of light and of darkness. In many systems there seems
to be no attempt to derive the one world from the other. The
true Basilidcs (q.v.), perhaps also Satornil, Marcion and a part
of his disciples, Bardcsanes and others, were frankly dualists.
In the case of other systems, owing to the inexactness of our
information, we are unable to decide; the later systems of
Mandacism and Manichaeanism, so closely related to Gnosticism,
are also based upon a decided dualism. And even when there
is an attempt at reconciliation, it is still quite clear how strong
was the original dualism which has to be overcome. Thus the
Gnostic systems make great use of the idea of a fall of the Deity
himself; by the fall of the Godhead into the world of matter,
this matter, previously insensible, is animated into life and
activity, and then arise the powers, both partly and wholly
hostile, who hold sway over this world. Such figures of fallen
divinities, sinking down into the world of matter are those of
Sophia (i.e. Aljamoth) among the Gnostics (Ophites) in
the narrower sense of the word, the Simoniani (the figure of
Helena), the Barbelognostics, and in the system of the Pistis-
Sophia or the Primal Man, among the Naasseni and the sect,
related to them, as described byHippolytus. 1 A further weaken-
ing of the dualism is indicated when, in the systems of the
Valentinian school, the fall of Sophia takes place within the
godhead, and Sophia, inflamed with love, plunges into the Bythos,
the highest divinity, and when the attempt is thus made genetic-
ally to derive the lower world from the sufferings and passions
of fallen divinity. Another attempt at reconciliation is set
forth in the so-called " system of emanations " in which it is
assumed that from the supreme divinity emanated a somewhat
lesser world, from this world a second, and so on, until the
divine clement (of life) became so far weakened and attenuated,
that the genesis of a partly, or even wholly, evil world appears
both possible and comprehensible. A system of emanations
of this kind, in its purest form, is set forth in the expositions
coming from the school of Basilides, which are handed down by
Ircnacus, while the propositions which are set forth in the
Philosophumena of Hippolytus as being doctrines of Basilides
represent a still closer approach to a monistic philosophy.
Occasionally, too, there is an attempt to establish at any rate a
threefold division of the world, and to assume between the
worlds of light and darkness a middle world connecting the two;
this is clearest among the Scthiani mentioned by Hippolytus
(and cf. the Gnostics in Irenaeus i. 30. 1). Quite peculiar in
this connexion are the accounts in Books xix. and xx. of the
Clementine Homilies. After a preliminary examination of all
possible different attempts at a solution of the problem of evil,
the attempt is here made to represent the devil as an instrument
of God. Christ and the devil are the two hands of God, Christ
the right hand, and the devil the left, the devil having power
over this world-epoch and Christ over the next. The devil here
assumes very much the characteristics of the punishing and just
God of the Old Testament, and the prospect is even held out of
his ultimate pardon. All these efforts at reconciliation show
how clearly the problem of evil was realized in these Gnostic
and h:tlf-Gnostic sects, and how deeply they meditated on the
subject ; it was not altogether without reason that in the ranks
of its opponents Gnosticism was judged to have arisen out of the
question, icd&tv to kclkov;
This dualism had not its origin in Hellenic soil, neither is it
related to that dualism which to a certain extent existed also in
late Greek religion. For the lower and imperfect world, which
in that system too is conceived and assumed, is the nebulous
world of the non-existent and the formless, which is the
1 Cf. the same idea of the fall of mankind in the pagan Gnosticism
of " Poimandres M : see Reitzctistein. Poimandres (1004); and the
position of the Primal Man {Urmensch) among the Manichaeans is
similar.
necessary accompaniment of that which exists, as shadow is »f
light.
In Gnosticism, on the contrary, the world of evil is full of
active energy and hostile powers. It is an Oriental (Iranian)
dualism which here finds expression, though in one point, it is
true, the mark of Greek influence is quite clear. When Gnosticism
recognizes in this corporeal and material world the true seat of
evil, consistently treating the bodily existence of mankind as
essentially evil and the separation of the spiritual from the
corporeal being as the object of salvation, this is an outcome
of the contrast in Greek dualism between spirit and matter, soul
and body. For in Oriental (Persian) dualism it is within this
material world that the good and evil powers are at war, and this
world beneath the stars is by no means conceived as entirely
subject to the influence of evil. Gnosticism has combined the
two, the Greek opposition between spirit arid matter, and the
sharp Zoroastrian dualism, which, where the Greek mind con-
ceived of a higher and a lower world, saw instead two hostile
worlds, standing in contrast to each other like light and darkness.
And out of the combination of these two dualisms arose the
teaching of Gnosticism, with its thoroughgoing pessimism and
fundamental asceticism.
Another characteristic feature of the Gnostic conception of
the universe is the role played in almost all Gnostic systems
by the seven world-creating powers. There are indeed certain
exceptions; for instance, in the systems of the Valentinian schools
there is the figure of the one Demiurge who takes the place of
the Seven. But how widespread was the idea of seven powers,
who created this lower material world and rule over it, has
been clearly proved, especially by the systematic examination
of the subject by Anz (Ursprung des Gn&sticismus). These
Seven, then, are in most systems half-evil, half-hostile powers;
they are frequently characterized as " angels," and are reckoned
as the last and lowest emanations of the Godhead; below them
— and frequently considered as derived from them — comes the
world of the actually devilish powers. On the other hand , among
the speculations of the Mandaeans, we find a different and perhaps
more primitive conception of the Seven, according to which
they, together with their mother Namrus (RQha) and their
father (Ur), belong entirely to the world of darkness. They
and their family are looked upon as captives of the god of light
(Mandft-d'hayye*, Hibil-ZIva), who pardons them, sets them on
chariots of light, and appoints them as rulers of the world
(cf. chiefly Genza, in Tractat 6 and 8; W. Brandt, Mandaische
Schriften, 125 seq. and 137 seq.; Mandtiische Religion, 34 seq.,
&c). In the Manichaean system it is related how the helper of
the Primal Man, the spirit of life, captured the evil archontes, and
fastened them to the firmament, or according to another account,
flayed them, and formed the firmament from their skin (F. C.
Baur, Das manichaische Religionssy$tem,v. 65) , and this conception
is closely related to the other, though in this tradition the number
(seven) of the archontes is lost. Similarly, the last book of the
Pistis-Sophia contains the myth of the capture of the rebellious
archontes, whose leaders here appear as five in number (Schmidt,
Koptisch-gnostische Schriften, p. 234 seq.)* There can scarcely
be any doubt as to the origin of these seven (five) powers; they
are the seven planetary divinities, the sun, moon and five planets.
In the Mandaean speculations the Seven are introduced with
the Babylonian names of the planets. The connexion of the
Seven with the planets is also clearly established by the exposi-
tions of Celsusand Origen (Contra Celsum, vi. 22 seq.) and similarly
by the above-quoted passage in the Pislis-Scphia, where the
archontes, who are here mentioned as five, are identified with
the five planets (excluding the sun and moon). This collective
grouping of the seven (five) planetary divinities is derived from
the late Babylonian religion, which can definitely be indicated
as the home of these ideas (Zimmern, Ketiinschriften in dem
alten Testament, ii. p. 620 seq.; cf. particularly Diodorus ii. 30).
And if in the old sources it is only the first beginnings of this
development that can be traced, we must assume that at a later
* These ideas may possibly be traced still further back, and perhaps
even underlie St Paul's exposition in Col. ii. 15.
GNOSTICISM
155
period the Babylonian religion centred in the adoration of the
seven planetary deities. Very instructive in this connexion
is the later (Arabian) account of the religion of the Mesopotamian
Sabaeans. The religion of the Sabaeans, evidently a later
offshoot from the stock of the old Babylonian religion, actually
consists in the cult of the seven planets (cf . the great work of
Daniel Chwolsohn, Die Ssabier u. der Ssabismus)* But this
reference to Babylonian religion does not solve the problem
which is here in question. For in the Babylonian religion the
planetary constellations are reckoned as the supreme deities.
And here the question arises, how it came about that in the
Gnostic systems the Seven appear as subordinate, half-daemonic
powers, or even completely as powers of darkness. This can
only be explained on the assumption that some religion hostile
to, and stronger than the Babylonian, has superimposed itself
upon this, and has degraded its principal deities into daemons.
Which religion can this have been ? We are at first inclined to
think of Christianity itself, but it is certainly most improbable
that at the time of the rise of Christianity the Babylonian teaching
about the seven planet-deities governing the world should have
played so great a part throughout all. Syria, Asia Minor and
Egypt, that the most varying sections of syncretic Christianity
should over and over again adopt this doctrine and work it up
into their system. It is far more probable that the combination
which we meet with in Gnosticism is older than Christianity,
and was found already in existence by Christianity and its sects.
We must also reject the theory that this degradation of the
planetary deities into daemons is due to the influence of Hebrew
monotheism, for almost all the Gnostic sects take up a definitely
hostile attitude towards the Jewish religion, and almost always
the highest divinity among the Seven is actually the creator-God
of the Old Testament. There remains, then, only one religion
which can be used as an explanation, namely the Persian, which
in fact fulfils all the necessary conditions. The Persian religion
was at an early period brought into contact with the Babylonian,
through the triumphant progress oi Persian culture towards
the West; at the time of Alexander the Great it was. already the
prevailing religion in the Babylonian plain (cf. F. Cumont,
Tcxtes et monuments rel. aux mysleres de Mithra, i. 5, 8-10, 14,
223 seq., 233). It was characterized by a main belief ,, tending
towards monotheism, in the Light>deity Ahuramazda and his
satellites, who appeared in contrast with him as powers of the
nature of angels.
'. A combination of the Babylonian with the Persian religion
could only be effected by the degradation of the Babylonian
deities into half-divine, half-daemonic beings, infinitely remote
from the supreme God of light and of heaven, or even into
powers of darkness. Even the characteristic dualism of Gnostic*
ism has already proved to be in part of Iranian origin; and now
it becomes clear how from that mingling of late Greek and
Persian dualism the idea could arise that these seven half-
daemonic powers are the creators or rulers of this material
world, which is separated infinitely from the light-world of the
good God. Definite confirmation of this conjecture is afforded
us by later sources of the Iranian religion, in which we likewise
meet with the characteristic fundamental doctrine of Gnosticism*
Thus the Bundahish (iii. 25, v. 1) is able to inform us that in the
primeval strife of Satan against the light-world, seven hostile
powers were captured and set as constellations in the heavens,
where they are guarded by good star-powers and prevented
from doing harm. Five of the evil powers are the planets,
while here the sun and moon are of course not reckoned among
the evil powers — for the obvious reason that in the Persian
official religion they invariably appear as good divinities (cf*
similar ideas in the Arabic treatise on Persian religion Ulema-i-
Islam, Vullers, Fragments iiber die Religion Zoroaster**, p. 40,
and in other later sources for Persian religion, put together
in Spiegel, Eraniscke Altertumskunde, Bd. ii. p. 180). These
Persian fancies can hardly be borrowed from the Christian
Onostic systems, their definiteness and much more strongly
dualistic character recalling the exposition of the Mandaean
(and Manichaean) system, are proofs to the contrary. They are
derived from the same period in which the underlying idea
of the Gnostic systems also originated, namely, the time at which
the ideas of the Persian and Babylonian religions came into
contact, the remarkable results of which have thus partly found
their way into the official documents of Parsiism.
With this fundamental doctrine of Gnosticism is connected,
as Anz has shown in his book which we have so often quoted,
a side of their religious practices to which we have already
alluded. Gnosticism is to a great extent dominated by the idea
that it is above all and in the highest degree important for the
Gnostic's soul to be enabled to find its way back through the
lower worlds and spheres of heaven ruled by the Seven to the
kingdom of light of the supreme deity of heaven. Hence, a
principal item in their religious practice consisted in communica-
tions about the being, nature and names of the Seven (or of
any other hostile daemons barring the way to heaven), the
formulas with which they must be addressed, and the symbols
which must be shown to them. But names, symbols and
formulas are not efficacious by themselves: the Gnostic must
lead a life having no part in the lower world ruled by these
spirits, and by his knowledge he must raise himself above
them to the God of the world of light. Throughout this mystic
religious world it was above all the influence of the late Greek
religion, derived from Plato, that also continued to operate;
it is filled with the echo of the song, the first note of which was
sounded by the Platonists, about the heavenly home of the
soul and the homeward journey of the wise to the higher world
of light.
But the form in which the whole is set forth is Oriental, and
it must be carefully noted that the Mithras mysteries, so closely
connected with the Persian religion, are acquainted with this
doctrine of the ascent of the soul through the planetary spheres
(Origen, Contra Celsum, vi. 22).
V. We cannot here undertake to set forth and explain in detail
all the complex varieties of the Gnostic systems; but it will
be useful to take a nearer view of certain principal figures which
have had an influence upon at least one series of Gnostic systems,
and to examine their origins in the history of religion. In
almost all systems an important part is played by the Great
Mother (fiqrVP) who appears under the most varied forms (cf .
Gjubat Mother or the Gods). At an early period, and notably '
in the older systems of the Ophites (a fairly exact account of
which has been preserved for us by Epiphanius and Hippolytus),
among the Gnostics in the narrower sense of the word, the Archon-
tici, the Sethites (there are also traces among the Naasseni,
ct the Philosofhumena of Hippolytus), the ivfrniP is the most
prominent figure in the light^world, elevated above the iftoopds,
and the great mother of the faithful. The sect of the Barbelo-
gnostics takes its name from the female figure of the Barbelo
(perhaps a corruption of UapSkvos; cf. the form BapSev&s for
" virgin " in Epiphanius, H aer. xxvi. 1). But Gnostic speculation
gives various accounts of the descent or fall of this goddess of
heaven. Thus the " Helena " of the Simoniani descends to this
world in order by means of her beauty to provoke to sensual
passion and mutual strife the angels who rule the world, and
thus again to deprive them of the powers of light, stolen from
heaven, by means of which they rule over the world. She is
then held captive by them in extreme degradation. Similar
ideas are to be found among the " Gnostics " of Epiphanius.
The kindred idea of the light-maiden, who, by exciting the sensual
passions of the rulers (apxwrft), takes from them those powers
of light which still remain to them, has also a central place
in the Manichaean scheme of salvation (F. C. Baur, Das mani-
chUische Religionssystem, pp. 219, 315, 321). The light-maiden
also plays a prominent part in the Pistis-Sophia (cf. the index
to the translation by C. Schmidt). With this figure of the mother-
goddess who descends into the lower world seems to be closely
connected the idea of the fallen Sophia, which is so widespread
among the Gnostic systems. This Sophia then is certainly
no longer the dominating figure of the light- world, she is a lower
aeon at the extreme limit of the world of light, who sinks down
into matter (Barbelognostics, the anonymous Gnostic of Irenaeus,
i 5 6
GNOSTICISM
Bardesanes, Pistis-Sophia) , or turns in presumptuous love to-
wards the supreme God (Bv$6s), and thus brings the Fall into
the world of the aeons (Valentinians). This Sophia then appears
as the mother of the " seven " gods (see above).
The origin of this figure is not far to seek. It is certainly
not derived from the Persian religious system, to the spirit of
which it is entirely opposed. Neither would it be correct to
identify her entirely with the great goddess Ishtar of the old
Babylonian religion. But there can hardly be any doubt that
the figure of the great mother-goddess or goddess of heaven,
who was worshipped throughout Asia under various forms and
names (Astarte, Beltis, Atargatis, Cybele, the Syrian Aphrodite),
was the prototype of the fiifTVP of ^ e Gnostics (cf. Great
Mother of the Gods). The character of the great goddess of
heaven is still in many places fairly exactly preserved in the
Gnostic speculations. Hence we are able to understand how the
Gnostic irfrrqp, the Sophia, appears as the mother of the Heb-
domas (i&dofias). The great goddess of heaven is the mother of
the stars. Particularly instructive in this connexion is the fact
that in those very sects, in the systems of which the figure of the
nijrrjp plays a special part, unbridled prostitution appears as a
distinct and essential part of the cult (cf. the accounts of par-
ticular branches of the Gnostics, Nicolaitans, Philionites, Bor-
borites, &c. in Epiphanius, Haer. xxv., xxvi.). The meaning of
this cult is, of course, reinterpreted in the Gnostic sense: by this
unbridled prostitution the Gnostic sects desired to prevent the
sexual propagation of mankind, the origin of all evil. But the
connexion is clear, and hence it also explained the curious Gnostic
myth mentioned above, namely that the fiijrrjp (the light-maiden)
by appearing to the archontes (&pxovr€s), the lower powers of
this world, inflames them to sexual lusts, in order to take from
them that share of light which they have stolen from the upper
world. This is a Gnostic interpretation of the various myths of
the great mother-goddess's many loves and love-adventures with
other gods and heroes. And when the pagan legend of the Syrian
Astarte tells how she lived for ten years in Tyre as a prostitute,
this directly recalls the Gnostic myth of how Simon found
Helena in a brothel in Tyre (Epiphanius, Ancoratus, c. 104).
From the same group of myths must be derived the idea of the
goddess who descends to the under-world, and is there taken
prisoner against her will by the lower powers; the direct proto-
type of this myth is to be found, e.g. in Ishtar's journey to hell.
And finally, just as the mother-goddess of south-western Asia
stands in particularly intimate connexion with the youthful
god of spring (Tammuz, Adonis, Attis), so we ought perhaps to
compare here as a parallel the relation of Sophia with the Soter
in certain Gnostic systems (see below).
Another characteristic figure of Gnosticism is that of the
Primal Man (wp&ros fiyflpwrros). In many systems, certainly,
it has already been forced quite into the background. But on
closer examination we can clearly see that it has a wide influence
on Gnosticism. Thus in the system of the Naasseni (see Hip-
polytus, Philosophumena), and in certain related sects there
enumerated, the Primal Man has a central and predominant
position. Again, in the text on which are based the pseudo-
Clementine writings (Recognitions, i. 16, 32, 45-47> 52, ii. 47; and
Homilies, iii. 17 seq. xviii. 14), as in the closely related system
of the Ebionites in Epiphanius (Haer. xxx. 3-16; cf. liii. 1), we
meet with the man who existed before the world, the prophet
who goes through the world in various forms, and finally reveals
himself in Christ. Among the Barbelognostics (Irenaeus i.
29. 3), the Primal Man (Adamas, homo perfec&us et verus) and
Gnosis appear as a pair of aeons, occupying a prominent place
in the whole series. In the Valentinian systems the pair of
aeons, Anthropos and Ekklesia, occupy the third or fourth
place within the Oydods, but incidentally we learn that with
some representatives of this school the Anthropos took a still
more prominent place (first or second; Hilgenfeld, Ketzer-
geschichte, p. 294 seq.). And even in the Pistis-Sophia the
Primal Man " leu " is frequently alluded to as the King of the
Luminaries (cf. index to C. Schmidt's translation). We also
meet with speculations of this kind about man in the circles
of non-Christian Gnosis. Thus in the Poimandres of Hermes
man is the most prominent figure in the speculation; numerous
pagan and half-pagan parallels (the " Gnostics " of Plotinus,
Zosimus, Bitys) have been collected by Reitzenstein in his
work Poimandres (pp. 81-116). Reitzenstein has shown (p.
81 seq.) that very probably the system of the Naasseni described
by Hippolytus was originally derived from purely pagan circles,
which are probably connected in some way with the mysteries
of the Attis cult. The figure in the Mandaean system most
closely corresponding to the Primal Man; though this figure
also actually occurs in another part of thd system (cf. the figure
of Adakas Mana; Brandt, Mand&isehe Religion, p. 36 seq.) is
that of Manda d'hayyg (yvwrts rfa fcrijs; cf. the pair of aeons,
Adamas and Gnosis, among the Barbelognostics, in Irenaeus
i. 29. 3). Finally, in the Manichaean system, as is well known,
the Primal Man again assumes the predominant place (Baur,
Manich, Religionssystem, 49 seq.). ;„^; :x2:a { ^ c - - '»••»-'" ••'
This figure of the Primal Man can particularly be compared
with that of the Gnostic Sophia. Wherever this figure has not
become quite obscure, it represents that divine power which,
whether simply owing to a fall, or as the hero who makes war
on, and is partly vanquished by darkness, descends into the
darkness of the material world, and with whose descent begins
the great drama of the world's development. From this power
are derived those portions of light existing and held prisoner
in this lower world. And as he has raised himself again out of
the material world, or has been set free by higher powers, so
shall also the members of the Primal Man, the portions of .
light still imprisoned in matter, be set free.
The question of the derivation of the myth of the Primal
Man is still one of the unsolved problems of religious history.
It is worthy of notice that according to the old Persian myth
also, the development of the world begins with the slaying of
the primal man Gayomart by Angra-Mainyu (Ahriman);
further, that the Primal Man ("son of man"*: man) also
plays a part in Jewish apocalyptic literature (Daniel, Enoch,
iv. Ezra), whence this figure passes into the Gospels; and again,
that the dogma of Christ's descent into hell is directly connected
with this myth. But these parallels do not carry us much further.
Even the Persian myth is entirely obscure, and has hitherto
defied interpretation. It is certainly true that in some way
an essential part in the formation of the myth has been played
by the sun-god, who daily descends into darkness^ to rise from
it again victoriously. But how to explain the combination of
the figure of the sun-god with that of the Primal Man is an
unsolved riddle. The meaning of this figure in the Gnostic
speculations is, however, clear. It answers the question: how
did the portions of light to be found in this lower world, among
which certainly belong the souls of the Gnostics, enter into it?
A parallel myth to that of the Primal Man axe the accounts
to be found in most of the Gnostic systems of the creation of
the first man. In all these accounts the idea is expressed that
so far as his body is concerned man is the work of the angels
who created the world. So e.g. Satornil related (Irenaeus u
24. 1) that a brilliant vision appeared from above to the world-
creating angels; they were unable to hold it fast, but formed
man after its image. And as the man thus formed was unable
to move, but could only crawl like a worm,- the supreme Power
put into him a spark of life, and man came into existence.
Imaginations of the same sort are also to be found, e.g. in the
genuine fragments of Valentinus (Hilgenfeld, Ketzergeschickte,
p. 293), the Gnostics of Irenaeus i. 30. 6, the Mandaeans
(Brandt, Religion der Mandaer, p. 36), and the Manichaeans
(Baur, Religionssystem, p. 1 18 seq.). The Naasseni (Hippolytus,
Philosophumena, v. 7) expressly characterize the myth as
Chaldean (cf. the passage from Zosimus, in Reitzenstein's
Poimandres, p. 104) . Clearly then the question which the myth
of the Primal Man is intended to answer in relation to the
whole universe is answered in relation to the nature of man by
this account of the coming into being of the first man, which
may, moreover, have been influenced by the account in the Old
Testament. That question is: how does it happen that in this
GNOSTICISM
157
inferior body of man; fallen a prey to corruption, there dwells
a higher spark of the divine Being, or in other words, how are
we to explain the double nature of man?
VI. Of all the fundamental ideas of Gnosticism of which we
have so far treated, it can with some certainty be assumed that
they were in existence before the rise of Christianity and the
influence of Christian ideas on the development of Gnosticism.
The main question with which we have now to deal is that of
whether the dominant figure of the Saviour (Scor^p) in Gnosticism
is of specifically Christian derivation, or whether this can also
be explained apart from the assumption of Christian influence.
And here it must be premised that, intimately as the conception
of salvation is bound up with the Gnostic religion, the idea of
salvation accomplished in a definite historical moment to a
certain extent remained foreign to it. Indeed, nearly all the
Christian Gnostic systems clearly exhibit the great difficulty
with which they had to contend in order to reconcile the idea
of an historical redeemer, actually occurring in the form of a
definite person, with their conceptions of salvation. In Gnosticism
salvation always lies at the root of all existence and all history.
The fundamental conception varies greatly. At one time the
Primal Man, who sank down into matter, has freed himself
and risen out of it again, and like him his members will rise out
of darkness into the light (Potmandres); at another time the
Primal Man who was conquered by the powers of darkness
has been saved by the powers of light, and thus too all his race
will be saved (Manichaeism) ; at another time the fallen Sophia
is purified by her passions and sorrows and has f ound her Syzygos,
the Soter, and wedded him, and thus all the souls of the Gnostics
who still languish in matter will become the brides of the angels
of the Soter (Valentinus). In fact salvation, as conceived in
Gnosticism, is always a myth, a history of bygone events, an
allegory or figure, but not an historical event. And this decision
is not affected by the fact that in certain Gnostic sects figured
historical personages such as Simon Magus and Menander.
The Gnostic ideas of salvation were in the later schools and sects
transferred to these persons whom we must consider as rather
obscure charlatans and miracle-mongers, just as in other cases
they were transferred to the person of Christ. The " Helena "
of the Simonian system was certainly not an historical but a
mythical figure. This explains the laborious and artificial way
in which the person of Jesus is connected in many Gnostic systems
with the original Gnostic conception of redemption. In this
patchwork the joins are everywhere still clearly to be recognized.
Thus, e.g. in the Valentinian system, the myth of the fallen
Sophia and the Soter, of their ultimate union, their marriage
and their 70 sons (Irenaeus i. 4. 5; Hippolytus, PhUos. vi.
34), has absolutely nothing to do with the Christian conceptions
of salvation. The subject is here that of a high goddess of heaven
(she has 70 sons) whose friend and lover finds her in the misery
of deepest degradation, frees her, and bears her home as his
bride. To this myth the idea of salvation through the earthly
Christ can only be attached with difficulty. And it was openly
maintained that the Soter only existed for the Gnostic, the
Saviour Jesus who appeared on earth only for the " Psychicus "
(Irenaeus i. 6. 1).
VII. Thus the essential part of most of the conceptions of
what we call Gnosticism was already in existence and fully
developed before the rise of Christianity. But the fundamental
ideas of Gnosticism and of early Christianity had a kind of
magnetic attraction for each other. What drew these two
forces together was the energy exerted by the universal idea of
salvation in both systems. Christian Gnosticism actually
introduced only one new figure into the already existing Gnostic
theories, namely that of the historical Saviour Jesus Christ.
This figure afforded, as it were, a new point of crystallization
for the existing Gnostic ideas, which now grouped themselves
round this point in all their manifold diversity. Thus there
came into the fluctuating mass a strong movement and formative
impulse, and the individual systems and sects sprang up like
mushrooms from this soil.
It must now be our task to make plain the position of Gnosti-
cism within the Christian religion, and its significance for the
development of the latter. Above all the Gnostics represented
and developed the distinctly anti- Jewish tendency in Christianity.
Paul was the apostle whom they reverenced, and his spiritual
influence on them is quite unmistakable. The Gnostic Marcion
has been rightly characterized as a direct disciple of Paul.
Paul's battle against the law and the narrow national conception
of Christianity found a willing following in a movement, the
syncretic origin of which directed it towards a universal religion.
St Paul's ideas were here developed to their extremest conse-
quences, and in an entirely one-sided fashion such as was far
from being in his intention. In nearly all the Gnostic systems
the doctrine of the seven world-creating spirits is given an
anti- Jewish tendency, the god of the Jews and of the Old
Testament appearing as the highest of the seven. The demiurge
of the Valentinians always clearly bears the features of the Old
Testament creator-God.
The Old Testament was absolutely rejected by most
of the Gnostics. Even the so-called Judaeo-Christian Gnostics
(Cerinthus), the Ebionite (Essenian) sect of the Pseudo-
Clementine writings (the Elkesaites), take up an inconsistent
attitude towards Jewish antiquity and the Old Testament.
In this repect the opposition to Gnosticism led to a reactionary
movement. If the growing Christian Church, in quite a different
fashion from Paul, laid stress on the literal authority of the Old
Testament, interpreted, it is true, allegoricaUy; if it took up a
much more friendly and definite attitude towards the Old
Testament, and gave wider scope to the legal conception of
religion, this must be in part ascribed to the involuntary reaction
upon it of Gnosticism.
The attitude of Gnosticism to the Old Testament and to the
creator-god proclaimed in it had its deeper roots, as we have
already seen, in the dualism by which it was dominated. With
this dualism and the recognition of the worthlessness and
absolutely vicious nature of the material world is combined a
decided spiritualism. The conception of a resurrection of the
body, of a further existence for the body after death, was unattain-
able by almost all of the Gnostics, with the possible exception of
a few Gnostic sects dominated by Judaeo-Christian tendencies.
With the dualistic philosophy is further connected an attitude
of absolute indifference towards this lower and material world,
and the practice of asceticism. Marriage and sexual propagation
are considered either as absolute Evil or as altogether worthless,
and carnal pleasure is frequently looked upon as forbidden.
Then again asceticism sometimes changes into wild libertinism.
Here again Gnosticism has exercised an influence on the develop-
ment of the Church by way of contrast and opposition. If here
a return was made to the old material view of the resurrection
(the apostolic Avbaratrts rijs <rap«6s), entirely abandoning the
more spiritual conception which had been arrived at as a com-
promise by Paul, this is probably the result of a reaction front
the views of Gnosticism. It was just at this point, too, that
Gnosticism started a development which was followed later by
the Catholic Church. In spite of the rejection of the ascetic
attitude of the Gnostics, as a blasphemy against the Creator,
a part of this ascetic principle became at a later date dominant
throughout all Christendom. And it is interesting to observe
how, e.g., St Augustine, though desperately combating the
dualism of the Manichaeans, yet afterwards introduced a number
of dualistic ideas into Christianity, which are distinguishable
from those of Manichaeism only by a very keen eye, and even
then with difficulty.
The Gnostic religion also anticipated other tendencies. As
we have seen, it is above all things a religion of sacraments and
mysteries. Through its syncretic origin Gnosticism introduced
for the first time into Christianity a whole mass of sacramental,
mystical ideas, which had hitherto existed in it only in its
earliest phases. But in the long run even genuine Christianity
has been unable to free itself from the magic of the sacraments;
and the Eastern Church especially has taken the same direction
as Gnosticism. Gnosticism was also the pioneer of the Christian
Church in the strong emphasis laid on the idea of salvation in
i5«
GNOSTICISM
religion. And since the Gnostics were compelled to draw the
figure of the Saviour into a world of quite alien myths, their
Christology became so complicated in character that it frequently
recalls the Christology of the later dogmatic of the Greek Fathers*
Finally, it was Gnosticism which gave the most decided
Impulse to the consolidation of the Christian Church as a church.
Gnosticism itself is a free, naturally-growing religion, the religion
of isolated minds, of separate little circles and minute sects.
The homogeneity of wide circles, the sense of responsibility
engendered by it, and continuity with the past are almost
entirely lacking in it. It is based upon revelation, which even
at the present time is imparted to the individual, upon the more
«r less convincing force of the religious imagination and specula-
tions of a few leaders, upon the voluntary and unstable grouping
of the schools round the master. Its adherents feel themselves
to be the isolated, the few, the free and the enlightened, as
opposed to the sluggish and inert masses of mankind degraded
into matter, or the initiated as opposed to the uninitiated, the
Gnostics as opposed to the " Nylici " (uXt/coO; at most in the
later and more moderate schools a middle place was given to
the adherents of the Church as Psychici (^vxikoI).
This freely-growing Gnostic religiosity aroused in the Church
an increasingly strong movement towards unity and a firm
and inelastic organization, towards authority and tradition. An
organized hierarchy, a definitive canon of the Holy Scriptures,
a confession of faith and rule of faith, and unbending doctrinal
discipline, these were the means employed. A part was also
played in this movement by a free theology which arose within
the Church, itself a kind of Gnosticism which aimed at holding
fast whatever was good in the Gnostic movement, and obtaining
its recognition within the limits of the Church (Clement of
Alexandria, Origen). But the mightiest forces, to which in the
end this theology too had absolutely to give way, were outward
organization and tradition.
It must be considered as an unqualified advantage for the
further development of Christianity, as a universal religion, that
at its very outset it prevailed against the great movement of
Gnosticism. In spite of the fact that in a few of its later repre-
sentatives Gnosticism assumed a more refined and spiritual
aspect, and even produced blossoms of a true and beautiful piety,
it is fundamentally and essentially an unstable religious syn-
cretism, a religion in which the determining forces were a fantastic
•riental imagination and a sacramentalism which degenerated
into the wildest superstitions, a weak dualism fluctuating
unsteadily between asce ticism and libertinism. Indirectly, how-
ever, Gnosticism was certainly one of the most powerful factors
in the development of Christianity in the ist century.
VIII. This sketch may be completed by a short review of the
various separate sects and their probable connexion with each
•ther. As a point of departure for the history of the develop-
ment of Gnosticism may be taken the numerous little sects
which were apparently first included under the name of " Gnos-
tics " in the narrower sense. Among these probably belong the
Ophites of Cclsus (in Origen), the many little sects included by
Epiphanius under the name of Nicolaitans and Gnostics (Hoar.
as. jo); the Archontici (.Epiphanius, Hocr. xl.), Sethites (Cain-
ites) should also here be mentioned, and finally the Carpocratians.
Common to all these is the dominant position assumed by the
%% Seven " (headed by laldabaoth); the heavenly world lying
above the spheres of the Seven is occupied by comparatively
few figures, among which the most important part is played by
the jflfrntp, who is sometimes enthroned as the supreme
goddess in heaven, but in a few systems has already descended
from there into matter, been taken prisoner, &c. Numerous
little groups are distinguished from the mass, sometimes by one
peculiarity, sometimes by another. On the one hand we have
sects with a strongly ascetic tendency, on the other we find some
characterised by unbridled libertinism; in some the most
abandoned prostitution has come to be the most sacred mystery;
in others again appears the worship of serpents, which here
appears to be connected in various and often very loose ways
with the other ideas of these Gnostics — hence the names of the
"Ophites," "Naasseni. ,, To this class also fundamentally
belong the Simoniani, who have included the probably historical
figure of Simon Magus in a system which seems to be closely
connected with those we have mentioned, especially if we look
upon the " Helena " of this system as a mythical figure. A
particular branch of the " Gnostic " sects is represented by those
systems in which the figure of Sophia sinking down into matter
already appears. To these belong the Barbelognostics (in the
description given by Irenaeus the figure of the Spirit takes the
place of that of Sophia), and the Gnostics whom Irenaeus (i. 30)
describes (cf. Epiphanius, Haer. xxvi.). And here may best be
included Bardesanes, a famous leader of a Gnostic school of
the end of the 2nd century. Most scholars, it is true, followiag
an old tradition, reckon Bardesanes among the Valentinians.
But from the little we know of Bardesanes, his system bears no
trace of relationship with the complicated Valentinian system,
but is rather completely derived from the ordinary Gnosticism,
and is distinguished from it apparently only by its more strongly
dualistic character. The systems of Valentinus and his disciples
must be considered as a further development of what we have
just characterized as the popular Gnosticism, and especially of
that branch of it to which the figure of Sophia is already known.
In them above all the world of the higher aeons is further ex-
tended and filled with a throng of varied figures. They also
exhibit a variation from the characteristic dualism of Gnosticism
into monism, in their conception of the fall of Sophia and their
derivation of matter from the passions of the fallen Sophia. The
figures of the Seven have here entirely disappeared, the remem-
brance of them being merely preserved in the name of the
Ar)fiu>vpy6s (tffionas). In general, Valentinianism displays a
particular resemblance to the dominant ideas of the Church,
both in its complicated Christology, its triple division of mankind
into TcvtviiaTiKol, j/wxucol and uXtaol, and its far-fetched
interpretation of texts. 1 A quite different position from those
mentioned above is taken by Basilides (?.».). From what little
we know of him he was an uncompromising dualist. Both the
systems which are handed down under his name by Irenaeus and
Hippolytus, that of emanations and the monistic-evolutionary
system, represent further developments of his ideas with a
tendency away from dualism towards monism. Characteristic-
ally, in these Basilidian systems the figure of the " Mother " or
of Sophia does not appear. This peculiarity the Basilidian
system shares with that of Satornil of Antioch, which has only
come down to us in a very fragmentary state, and in other
respects recalls in many ways the popular Gnosticism. By
itself, on the other hand, stands the system preserved for us by
Hippolytus in the Philosophumena under the name of the
Naasseni, with its central figure of " the Man," which, as we
have seen, is very closely related with certain specifically pagan
Gnostic speculations which have come down to us (in the Pop-
mandres, in Zosimus and Flotinus, Ennead ii. 9). With the
Naasseni, moreover, are related also the other sects of which
Hippolytus alone gives us a notice in his Philosophumena
(Docetae, Perates, Sethiani, the adherents of Justin, the Gnostic
of Monoimos). Finally, apart from all other Gnostics stands
Marcion. With him, as far as we are able to conclude from the
scanty notices of him, the manifold Gnostic speculations are
reduced essentially to the one problem of the good and the just
God, the God of the Christians and the God of the Old Testament.
Between these two powers Marcion affirms a sharp and, as it
appears, originally irreconcilable dualism which with him rests
moreover on a speculative basis. Thanks to the noble simplicity
and specifically religious character of his ideas, Marcion was
able to found not only schools, but a community, a church of
his own, which gave trouble to the Church longer than any
other Gnostic sect. Among his disciples the speculative and
fantastic element of Gnosticism again became more apparent.
As we have already intimated, Gnosticism had such a power
* For the disciples of Valentinus, especially Marcus, after whom
was named a separate sect, the Marcosians, with their Pythagorean
theories of numbers and their strong tincture of the mystical, magic*
and sacramental, see Valentinus and Valentinians.
GNU— GOA
iS9
•f attraction that it now drew within its limits even Judaeo-
Christian sects. Among these we must mention the Judaeo-
Christian Gnostic Cerinthus, also the Gnostic Ebionites, of
whom Epiphanius (H aer.) gives us an account, and whose writings
are to be found in a recension in the collected works of the
Pseudo- Clementine Recognitions and Homilies; to the same class
belong the Elkesaites with their mystical scripture, the Elxai,
extracts of which are given by Hippolytus in the Philos. (ix. 13).
Later evidence of the decadence of Gnosticism occurs in the
Pistis-Sophia and the Coptic Gnostic writings discovered and
edited by Schmidt. In these confused records of human imagina-
tion gone mad, we possess a veritable herbarium of all possible
Gnostic ideas, which were once active and now rest peacefully
side by side. None the less, the stream of the Gnostic religion
is not yet dried up, but continues on its way; and it is beyond
a doubt that the later Mandaeanism and the great religious
movement of Mani are most closely connected with Gnosticism.
These manifestations are all the more characteristic since in
them we meet with a Gnosticism which remained essentially
more untouched by Christian influences than the Gnostic
systems of the 2nd century a.d. Thus these systems throw an
important light on the past, and a true perception of the nature
and purpose of Gnosticism is not to be obtained without taking
them into consideration.
Bibliography. — A. Neander, Genetische Entwicklung d. vornehm-
sten pwstischen Systeme (Berlin, 181 8); F. Chr. Baur, Die christl.
Gnosis in ihrer geschichtl. Entwicklung (Tubingen, 1835); E. W.
Moller, Gesch. der Kosmolo^ie in der gmchischen Kirche bis Origenes
(Halle, i860); R. A. Lipsius, Der Gnosticismus (Leipzig, i860;
originally in Ersch and Gruber's Encyclopddie) ; H. L. Mansel,
The Gnostic Heresies of the 1st and 2nd Centuries (London, 1875);
K. Kepler, Vber Gnosis und altbabylonische Religion, a lecture
delivered at the Congress of Orientalists (Berlin, 1 881); A. Hilgen-
feld, Ketzergeschichte des Urchristentums (Leipzig, 1884); and in
Ztschr. fUr wissenschaftl. Theol. 1890, i. "Der Gnosticismus";
A. Harnack, Dogmengeschichte, i. 271 seq. (cf. the corresponding
sections of the Dogmemeschichten of Loofs and Seeberg) ; W. Anz,
" Zur Frage nach dera Ursprung des Gnosticismus," Texte u. Untcr-
suchungen, xv. 4 (Leipzig, 1897); R. Liechtenhahn, Die Offenbarung
im Gnosticismus (G6ttingen, 1901) ; C. Schmidt, " Plotins Stellung
zum Gnosticismus u. kirchl. Christentum " Texte u. Untersuch.
xx. 4 (1902) ; E. de Faye, Introduction & VUude du Gnosticisme (Paris,
1903); R. Reitzenstem, Poimandres (Leipzig, 1004); G. Kriiger,
article *' Gnosticismus " in Herzog-Hauclc's Reaiencyklopddie (3rd
ed.) vi. 728 fF. ; Bousset, " Hauptprobleme der Gnosis," Forschungen
z. Reli%. u. Lit. d. alien- u. neuen Testaments, 10 (1907) ; T. Wendland,
HeUemstisch-romische Kultur in ihren Beziekungen zu Judentum
und Christentum (1907), p. 161 seq. See further among important
monographs on the individual Gnostic systems, R. A. Lipsius,
" Die ophitischen Systeme," Ztschr. f. tvissensch. Theologie (1863) ;
G. Heinrici, Die valentinianische Gnosis u. d. HeiHge Schrift (Berlin,
1871); A. Merx, Bardesanes von Edessa (Halle, 1863); A. Hilgenfeld,
Bardesanes, der letzte Gnostiker (Leipzig, 1864); A. Harnack, " tJber
das gnostische Buch Pistis-Sophia," Texte u. Untersuch. vii. 2;
C. Schmidt, " Gnostische Schriften," Texte u. Untersuch. viii. 1, 2;
and also the works mentioned under § II. of this article. (W. Bo.)
White-tailed Gnu, or Black Wildebeest (Connochaetes gnu).
GNU, the Hottentot name for the large white-tailed South
African antelope (q.v.), now nearly extinct, know to the Boers
as the black wildebeest, and to naturalists as Connochaetes (or
Catoblepas) gnu. A second and larger species is the brindled
gnu or blue wildebeest (C. taurinus or Catoblepas gorgon), also
known by the Bechuana name kokon or kokoon; and there are
several East African forms more or less closely related to the
latter which have received distinct names.
GO, or Go-Bang (Jap. Go-ban, board for playing Go), a popular
table game. It is of great antiquity, having been invented in
Japan, according to tradition, by the emperor Yao, 2350 B.C.,
but it is probably of Chinese origin. According to Falkener the
first historical mention of it was made about the year 300 B.C.,
but there is abundant evidence that it was a popular game
long before that period. The original Japanese Go is played on
a board divided into squares by 19 horizontal and 19 vertical
lines, making 361 intersections, upon which the fiat round men,
181 white and 181 black, are placed one by one as the game
proceeds. The men are placed by the two players on any inter-
sections (me) that may seem advantageous, the object being te
surround with one's men as many unoccupied intersections as
possible, the player enclosing the greater number of vacant
points being the winner. Completely surrounded men are
captured and removed from the board. This game is played in
England upon a board divided into 361 squares, the men being
placed upon these instead of upon the intersections.
A much simpler variety of Go, mostly played by foreigners,
has for its object to get five men into line. This may have beea
the earliest form of the game, as the word go means five. Except
in Japan it is often played on an ordinary draughts-board, and
the winner is he who first gets five men into line, either vertically,
horizontally or diagonally.
See Go-Bang, by A. Howard Cady, in Spalding's Home Library
(New York, 1 806) ; Games Ancient and Oriental, by Edward Falkener
(London, 1892) ; Das japan.-chinesische Spiel Co, by O. Korschelt
(Yokohama, 1881); Das Nationalspiel der Japanesen, by G. Schurig
(Leipzig, 1888).
GOA, the name of the past and present capitals of Portuguese
India, and of the surrounding territory more exactly described
as Goa settlement, which is situated on the western coast of
India, between 15 44' and 14 53' N., and between 73 45' and
74 26' E. Pop. (1900) 475,513, area 1301 sq. m.
Goa Settlement. — With Damaun (q.v.) and Diu (q.v.) Goa
settlement forms a single administrative province ruled by a
governor-general, and a single ecclesiastical province subject
to the archbishop of Goa; for judicial purposes the province
includes Macao in China, and Timor in the Malay Archipelago.
It is bounded on the N. by the river Terakhul or Araundem,
which divides it from the Sawantwari state, E. by the Western
Ghats, S. by Kanara district, and W. by the Arabian Sea. It
comprises the three districts of Ilhas, Bardez and Salsette,
conquered early in the 16th century and therefore known as the
Velhas Conquistas (Old Conquests), seven districts acquired
later and known as the Novas Conquistas, and the island of
Anjidiv or Anjadiva. The settlement, which has a* coast-line
of 62 m., is a hilly region, especially the Novas Conquistas; its
distinguishing features are the Western Ghats, though the highest
summits nowhere reach an altitude of 4000 ft., and the island
of Goa. Numerous short but navigable rivers water the lowlands
skirting the coast. The two largest rivers are the Mandavi and
the Juari, which together encircle the island of Goa (Ilhas),
being connected on the landward side by a creek. The island
(native name TisvSdi, Tissuvaddy, Tissuary) is a triangular
territory, the apex of which, called the cabo or cape, is a rocky
headland separating the harbour of Goa into two anchorages —
Agoada or Aguada at the mouth of the Mandavi, on the north,
and Mormugao or Marmagao at the mouth of the Juari, on the
south. The northern haven is exposed to the full force of the
south-west monsoon, and is liable to silt up during the rains.
The southern, sheltered by the promontory of Salsette, is always
open, but is less used, owing to its greater distance from the city
of Goa, which is built on the island. A railway connects Mor-
magao, south of the Juari estuary, with Castle Rock on the
i6o
GOA
Western Ghats. Goa imports textiles and foodstuffs, and exports
coco-nuts, areca-mits, spices, fish, poultry and timber. Its
trade is carried on almost entirely with Bombay, Madras,
Kathiawar and Portugal. Manganese is[mined in large quantities,
some iron is obtained, and other products are salt, palm-spirit,
betel and bananas.
Cities of Goa. — i. The ancient Hindu city of Goa, of which
hardly a fragment survives, was built at the southernmost point
of the island, and was famous in early Hindu legend and history
for its learning, wealth and beauty. In the Puranas and certain
inscriptions its name appears as. Gove, Govapuri, Gomant, &c;
the medieval Arabian geographers knew it as Sindabur or Sanda-
bur, and the Portuguese as Goa Velha. It was ruled by the
Kadamba dynasty from the 2nd century a.d. to 131 2, and by
Mahommedan invaders of the Deccan from 13 12 until about
1370, during which period it was visited and described by Ibn
Batuta. It was then annexed to the Hindu kingdom of
Vijayanagar, of which, according to Ferishta, it still formed part
in 1469, when it was conquered by the Bahmani sultan of the
Deccan; but two of the best Portuguese chroniclers state that
it became independent in 1440, when the second city (Old Goa)
was founded.
2. Old Goa is, for the most part, a city of ruins without
inhabitants other than ecclesiastics and their dependents. The
chief surviving buildings are the cathedral, founded by Albu-
querque in 151 1 to commemorate his entry into Goa on St
Catherine's day 1510, and rebuilt in 1623, and still used for
public worship; the convent of St Francis (15 17), a converted
mosque rebuilt in 1661, with a portal of carved black stone,
which is the only relic of Portuguese architecture in India dating
from the first quarter of the 16th century; the chapel of St
Catherine (1551); the church of Bom Jesus (1594-1603), a
superb example of Renaissance architecture as developed by the
Jesuits, containing the magnificent shrine and tomb of St
Francis Xavier (see Xavier, Francisco de) ; and the 17th-century
convents of St Monica and St Cajetan. The college of St Paul
(see below) is in ruins.
3. Panjim, Pangim or New Goa originally a suburb of Old
Goa, is, like the parent city, built on the left bank of the Mandavi
estuary, in 15 30' N. and 73 33' E. Pop. (1901) 9500. It is
a modern port with few pretensions to architectural beauty.
Ships of the largest size can anchor in the river, but only small
vessels can load or discharge at the quay. Panjim became the
residence of the viceroy in 1759 and the capital of Portuguese
India in 1843. It possesses a lyceum, a school for teachers, a
seminary, a technical school and an experimental agricultural
station.
Political History. — With the subdivision of the Bahmani
kingdom, after 1482, Goa passed into the power of Yusuf Adil
Shah, king of Bijapur, who was its ruler when the Portuguese
first reached India. At this time Goa was important as the
starting-point of pilgrims from India to Mecca, as a mart with
no rival except Calicut on the west coast, and especially as the
centre of the import trade in horses (Gulf Arabs) from Hormuz,
the control of which was a vital matter to the kingdoms warring
in the Deccan. It was easily defensible by any power with
command of the sea, as the encircling rivers could only be forded
at one spot, and had been deliberately stocked with crocodiles.
It was attacked on the 10th of February 1510 by the Portuguese
under Albuquerque. As a Hindu ascetic had foretold its downfall
and the garrison of Ottoman mercenaries was outnumbered,
the city surrendered without a struggle, and Albuquerque entered
it in triumph, while the Hindu townsfolk strewed filagree flowers
of gold and silver before his feet. Three months later Yusuf
Adil Shah returned with 60,000 troops, forced the passage of the
ford, and blockaded the Portuguese in their ships from May to
August, when the cessation of the monsoon enabled them to put
to sea. In November Albuquerque returned with a larger force,
and after overcoming a desperate resistance, recaptured the city,
permitted his soldiers to, j^uj^ie* it for three days, and massacred
the entire Ma^Q^^^aj^y^^jpjO^
Goa was ^4BM4W*l3j^^ o£ the Portuguese in
Asia. Albuquerque intended it to be a colony and a naval base,
as distinct from the fortified factories which had been established
in certain Indian seaports. He encouraged his men to marry
native women, and to settle in Goa as farmers, retail traders or
artisans. These married men soon became a privileged caste,
and Goa acquired a large Eurasian population. Albuquerque
and his successors left almost untouched the customs and con-
stitutions of the 30 village communities on the island, only
abolishing the rite of suttee. A register of these customs (Foral
de usos e costumes) was published in 1526, and is an historical
document of much value; an abstract of it is given in R. S.
Whiteway's Rise of the Portuguese Empire in India (London,
1898).
Goa became the capital of the whole Portuguese empire in the
East. It was granted the same civic privileges as Lisbon. Its
senate or municipal chamber maintained direct communications
with the king and paid a special representative to attend to its
interests at court. In 1563 the governor even proposed to make
Goa the seat of a parliament, in which all parts of the Portuguese
east were to be represented; this was vetoed by the king.
In 1542 St Francis Xavier mentions the architectural splendour
of the city; but it reached the climax of its prosperity between
1575 and 1625. Goa Dourada, or Golden Goa, was then the
wonder of all travellers, and there was a Portuguese proverb,
" He who has seen Goa need not see Lisbon." Merchandise from
all parts of the East was displayed in its bazaar, and separate
streets were set aside for the sale of different classes of goods —
Bahrein pearls and coral, Chinese porcelain and silk, Portuguese
velvet and piece-goods, drugs and spices from the Malay Archi-
pelago. In the main street slaves were sold by auction. The
houses of the rich were surrounded by gardens and palm groves;
they were built of stone and painted red or white. Instead of
glass, their balconied windows had thin polished oyster-shells set
in lattice-work.
The social life of Goa was brilliant, as befitted the headquarters
of the viceregal court, the army and navy, and the church; but
the luxury and ostentation of all classes had become a byword
before the end of the 1 6th century. Almost all manual labour was
done by slaves; common soldiers assumed high-sounding titles,
and it was even customary for the poor noblemen who congregated
together in boarding-houses to subscribe for a few silken cloaks, a
silken umbrella and a common man-servant, so that each could
take his turn to promenade the streets, fashionably attired and
with a proper escort. There were huge gambling saloons,
licensed by the municipality, where determined players lodged
for weeks together; and every form of vice, except drunkenness,
was practised by both sexes, although European women were
forced to lead a kind of zenana life, and never ventured unveiled
into the streets; they even attended at church in their palanquins,
so as to avoid observation.
The appearance of the Dutch in Indian waters was followed by
the gradual ruin of Goa. In 1 603 and 1 639 the city was blockaded
by Dutch fleets, though never captured, and in 1635 it was
ravaged by an epidemic. Its trade was gradually monopolized
by the Jesuits. Thevenot in 1666, Baldaeus in 1672, Fryer in
1675 describe its ever-increasing poverty and decay. In 1683 only
the timely appearance of a Mogul army saved it from capture by
a horde of Mahratta raiders, and in 1739 the whole territory was
attacked by the same enemies, and only saved by the unexpected
arrival of a new viceroy with a fleet. This peril was always
imminent until 1759, when a peace with the Mahrattas was con-
cluded. In the same year the proposal to remove the seat of
government to Panjim was carried out; it had been discussed as
early as 1684. Between 1695 an d 1775 the population dwindled
from 20,000 to 1600, and in 1835 Goa was only inhabited by a few
priests, monks and nuns.
Ecclesiastical History. — Some Dominican friars came out to
Goa in 1510, but no large missionary enterprise was undertaken
before the arrival of the Franciscans in 1517. From their head-
quarters in Goa the Franciscan preachers visited many parts of
western India, and even journeyed to Ceylon, Pegu and the
I Malay Archipelago. For nearly twenty-five years they carried on
__*_.__
GOAL— GOAT
161
the work of evangelization almost alone, with such success that in
1534 Pope Paul III. made Goa a bishopric, with spiritual jurisdic-
tion over all Portuguese possessions between China and the Cape
of Good Hope, though itself suffragan to the archbishopric of
Funchal in Madeira. A Franciscan friar, Joao de Albuquerque,
came to Goa as its first bishop in 1538. In 1542 St Francis
Xavier came to Goa, and took over the Franciscan college of
Santa Fe, for the training of native missionaries; this was re-
named the College of St Paul, and became the headquarters of all
Jesuit missions in the East, where the Jesuits were commonly
styled Paulistas. By a Bull dated the 4th of February 1557
Goa was made an archbishopric, with jurisdiction over the sees of
Malacca and Cochin, to which were added Macao (1575), Japan
(1588), Angamale or Cranganore (1600), Meliapur (Mylapur)
(1606), Peking and Nanking (1610), together with the bishopric of
Mozambique, which included the entire coast of East Africa. In
1606 the archbishop received the title of Primate of the East, and
the king of Portugal was named Patron of the Catholic Missions
in the East; his right of patronage was limited by the Concordat
of 1857 to Goa, Malacca, Macao and certain parts of British India.
The Inquisition was introduced into Goa in 1560: a vivid
account of its proceedings is given by C. Dellon, Relation de
Y inquisition de Goa (1688). Five ecclesiastical councils, which
dealt with matters of discipline, were held at Goa — in 1567,
1575, 1585, 1592 and 1606; the archbishop of Goa also presided
over the more important synod of Diamper (Udayamperur,
about 12 m. S.E. of Cochin), which in 1599 condemned as
heretical the tenets and liturgy of the Indian Nestorians, or
Christians of St Thomas {q.v.). In 1675 Fryer described Goa as
" a Rome in India, both for absoluteness and fabrics," and
Hamilton states that early in the 18th century the number of
ecclesiastics in the settlement had reached the extraordinary
total of 30,000. But the Jesuits were expelled in 1759 , and by
1800 Goa had lost much even of its ecclesiastical importance.
The Inquisition was abolished in 18 14 and the religious orders
were secularized in 1835.
Bibliography. — J. N. da Fonseca, An Historical and Archaeo-
logical Sketch of Goa (Bombay, 1878) is a minute study of the city
from the earliest times, illustrated. For the early history of Portu-
guese rule the chief authorities are The Commentaries ... 0/
Dalboquerque (Hakluyt Society's translation, London, 1877), the
Cartas of Albuquerque (Lisbon, 1884), the Historia . . . da India
of F. L. de Castanheda (Lisbon, 1833, written before 1552), the
Lendas da India of G. Correa (Lisbon, i860, written 15IA-1566),
and the Decadas da India of Joao de Barros and D. do Couto (Lisbon,
1778-1788, written about 1 530-1616). Couto's Soldado pratico
(Lisbon, 1790) andS. Botelho's Cartas and Tombo, written 1 547-1 554.,
published in " Subsidios " of the Lisbon Academy (1868), are valuable
studies of military life and administration. The Archivo Portuguez
oriental (6 parts, New Goa, 1857-1877) is a most useful collection
of documents dating from 151 5; part 2 contains the privileges, &c.
of the city of Goa, and part 4 contains the minutes of the ecclesiasti-
cal councils and of the synod of Diamper. The social life of Goa has
been graphically described by many writers; see especially the
travels ot Varthema (c. 1505), Linschoten (c. 1580), Pyrard (1608)
in the Hakluyt Society's translations ; J. Mocquet, Voyages (Paris,
1830, written 1608-16 10); P. Baldaeus, in Churchill's Voyages,
vol. 3 (London, 1732); J. Fryer, A New Account of East India
and Persia (London, 1698); A. de Mandelslo, Voyages (London,
1669) ; Les Voyages deM.de Thevenot aux Indes Orientates (Amster-
dam, 1779), and A. Hamilton, A New Account of the East Indies
(London, 1774). For Goa in the 20th century see The Imperial
Gazetteer of India. (K. G. J.)
* GOAL, originally an object set up as the place where a race
ends, the winning-post, and so used figuratively of the end to
which any effort is directed. It is thus used to translate the
Lat. meta, the boundary pillar, set one at each end of the circus
to mark the turning-point. The word was quite early used in
various games for the two posts, with or without a cross-bar,
through or over which the ball has to be driven to score a point
towards winning the game. The New English Dictionary quotes
the use in Richard Stanyhurst's Description of Ireland (1577);
but the word got in the sense of a boundary appears as early as the
beginning of the 14th century in the religious poems of William de
Shoreham (c. 1315). The origin of the word is obscure. It is
usually taken to be derived from a French word gaule t meaning a
pole or stick, but this meaning does not appear in the English
usage, nor does the usual English meaning appear in the French.
There is an O. Eng. gatlan, to hinder, which may point to a lost
gdl, barrier, but there is no evidence in other Teutonic languages
for such a word.
GOALPARA, a town and district of British India, in the
Brahmaputra valley division of eastern Bengal and Assam.
The town (pop. 6287) overlooks the Brahmaputra. It was the
frontier outpost of the Mahommedan power, and has long been a
flourishing seat of river trade. The civil station is built on the
summit of a small hill commanding a magnificent view of the
valley of the Brahmaputra, bounded on the north by the snowy
ranges of the Himalayas and on the south by the Garo hills.
The native town is built on the western slope of the hill, and the
lower portion is subject to inundation from the marshy land
which extends in every direction. It has declined in importance
since the district headquarters were removed to Dhubri in 1879,
and it suffered severely from the earthquake of the 12th of June
1897.
The District comprises an area of 3961 sq. m. It is situated
along the Brahmaputra, at the corner where the river takes its
southerly course from Assam into Bengal. The scenery is
striking. Along the banks of the river grow clumps of cane and
reed; farther back stretch fields of rice cultivation, broken only
by the fruit trees surrounding the villages, and in the background
rise the forest-clad hills overtopped by the white peaks of the
Himalayas. The soil of the hills is of a red ochreous earth,
with blocks of granite and sandstone interspersed; that of the
plains is of alluvial formation. Earthquakes are common and
occasionally severe shocks have been experienced. The Brahma-
putra annually inundates vast tracts of country. Numerous
extensive forests yield valuable timber. Wild animals of all
kinds are found. In 1901 the population was 462,083, showing
an increase of 2% in the decade. Rice forms the staple crop.
Mustard and jute are also largely grown. The manufactures
consist of the making of brass and iron utensils and of gold and
silver ornaments, weaving of silk cloth, basket-work and pottery.
The cultivation of tea has been introduced but does not flourish
anywhere in the district. Local trade is in the hands of Marwari
merchants, and is carried on at the bazars, weekly hats or markets
and periodical fairs. The chief exports are mustard-seed, jute,
cotton, timber, lac, silk cloth, india-rubber and tea; the imports,
Bengal rice, European piece goods, salt, hardware, oil and
tobacco.
Dhubri (pop. 3737), the administrative headquarters of the
district, stands on the Brahmaputra where that river takes its
great bend south. It is the termination of the emigration road
from North Bengal and of the river steamers that connect with
the North Bengal railway. It is also served by the eastern
Bengal State railway.
GOAT (a common Teut. word; O. Eng. gdt, Goth, gaits , Mod.
Ger. Geiss, cognate with Lat. haedus, a kid), properly the name of
the well-known domesticated European ruminant (Capra hircus),
which has for all time been regarded as the emblem of everything
that is evil, in contradistinction to the sheep, which is the symbol
of excellence and purity. Although the more typical goats are
markedly distinct from sheep, there is, both as regards wild and
domesticated forms, an almost complete gradation from goats
to sheep, so that it is exceedingly difficult to define either group.
The position of the genus Capra (to all the members of which,
as well as some allied species, the name " goat " in its wider sense
is applicable) in the family Bovidae is indicated in the article
Bovidae, and some of the distinctions between goats and sheep
are mentioned in the article Sheep. Here then it will suffice
to mention that goats are characterized by the strong and offen-
sive odour of the males, which are furnished with a beard on
the chin; while as a general rule glands are present between the
middle toes of the fore feet only.
Goats, in the wild state, are an exclusively old-world group,
of which the more typical forms are confined to Europe and
south-western and central Asia, although there are two outlying
species in northern Africa. The wild goat, or pasang, is repre-
sented in Europe in the Cyclades and Crete by rather small races,
xn. 6
l62
GOAT
more or less mingled with domesticated breeds, the Cretan
animal being distinguished as Capra kircus creticus; but the
large typical race C. k. aegagrus is met with in the mountains of
Asia Minor and Persia, whence it extends to Sind, where it is
represented by a somewhat different race known as C. h. blythi.
The horns of the old bucks are of great length and beauty, and
characterized by their bold scimitar-like backward sweep and
sharp front edge, interrupted at irregular intervals by knots or
bosses. Domesticated goats have run wild in many islands,
such as the Hebrides, Shetland, Canaries, Azores, Ascension and
Juan Fernandez. Some of these reverted breeds have developed
horns of considerable size, although not showing that regularity
of curve distinctive of the wild race. In the Azores the horns are
remarkably upright and straight, whence the name of " antelope-
goat " which has been given to these animals. The concretions
known as bezoar-stones, formerly much used in medicine and as
antidotes of poison, are obtained from the stomach of the wild
goat.
Although there have in all probability been more or less
important local crosses with other wild species, there can be
no doubt that domesticated goats generally are descended from
the wild goat. It is true that many tame goats show spirally
twisted horns recalling those of the under-mentioned Asiatic
markhor; but in nearly all such instances it will be found that
the spiral twists in the opposite direction. Among the domesti-
cated breeds the following are some of the more •important.
Firstly, we have the common or European goats, of which
there are several more or less well-marked breeds, differing
from each other in length of hair, in colour and slightly in the
configuration of the horns. The ears are more or less upright,
sometimes horizontal, but never actually pendent, as in some
Asiatic breeds. The horns are rather flat at the base and not
unfrequently corrugated; they rise vertically from the head,
curving to the rear, and are more or less laterally inclined.
The colour varies from dirty white to dark-brown, but when
pure-bred is never black, which indicates eastern blood. Most
European countries possess more than one description of the
common goat. In the British Isles there are two distinct types,
one short and the other long haired. In the former the hair is
thick and close, with frequently an under-coat resembling wool.
The horns are large in the male, and of moderate size in the female,
flat at the base and inclining outwards. The head is short and
tapering, the forehead flat and wide, and the nose small; while
the legs are strong, thick and well covered with hair. The colour
varies from white or grey to black, but is frequently fawn, with
a dark line down the spine and another across the shoulders.
The other variety has a shaggy coat, generally reddish-black,
though sometimes grey or pied and occasionally white. The head
is long, heavy and ugly, the nose coarse and prominent, with the
horns situated close together, often continuing parallel almost
to the extremities, being also large, corrugated and pointed.
The legs are long and the sides flat, the animal itself being gener-
ally gaunt and thin. This breed is peculiar to Ireland, the
Welsh being of a similar type, but more often white. The short-
haired goat is the English goat proper. Both British breeds,
as well as those from abroad, are frequently ornamented with
two tassel-like appendages, hanging near together under the
throat. It has been supposed by many that these are traceable
to foreign blood; but although there are foreign breeds that
possess them, they appear to pertain quite as much to the English
native breeds as to those of distant countries, the peculiarity
being mentioned in very old works on the goats of the British
Islands. The milk-produce in the common goat as well as other
kinds varies greatly with individuals. Irish goats often yield a
quantity of milk, but the quality is poor. The goats of France
are similar to those of Britain, varying in length of hair, colour
and character of horns. The Norway breed is frequently white
with long hair; it is rather small in size, with small bones, a
short rounded body, head small with a prominent forehead, and
short, straight, corrugated horns. The facial line is concave.
The horns of the males are very large, and curve round after the
manner of the wild goat, with a tuft of hair between and in front.
The Maltese goat has the ears long, wide and hanging down
below the jaw. The hair is long and cream-coloured. The breed
is usually hornless.
The Syrian goat is met with in various parts of the East, in
Lower Egypt, on the shores of the Indian Ocean and in Mada-
gascar. The hair and ears are excessively long, the latter so
much so that they are sometimes clipped to prevent their being
torn by stones or thorny shrubs. The horns are somewhat erect
and spiral, with an outward bend.
The Angora goat is often confounded with the Kashmir, but
is in reality quite distinct. The principal feature of this breed,
of which there are two or three varieties, is the length and
quantity of the hair, which has a particularly soft and silky
texture, covering the whole body arid a great part of the legs
with close matted ringlets. The horns of the male differ from
those of the female, being directed vertically and in shape spiral,
whilst in the female they have a horizontal tendency, somewhat
like those of a ram. The coat is composed of two kinds of hair,
the one short and coarse and of the character of hair, which lies
close to the skin, the other long and curly and of the nature of
wool, forming the outer covering. Both are used by the manu-
facturer, but the exterior portion, which makes up by far the
greater bulk, is much the more valuable. The process of shearing
takes place in early spring, the average amount of wool yielded
Fig. i. — Male Angora Goat.
by each animal being about 2\ lb. The best quality comes
from castrated males, females producing the next best.
The breed was introduced at the Cape about 1864. The
Angora is a bad milker and an indifferent mother, but its flesh
is better than that of any other breed, and in its native country
is preferred to mutton. The kids are born small, but grow fast,
and arrive early at maturity. The Kashmir, or rather Tibet,
goat has a delicate head, with semi-pendulous ears, which are
both long and wide. The hair varies in length, and is coarse
and of different colours according to the individual. The horns
are very erect, and sometimes slightly spiral, inclining inwards
and to such an extent in some cases as to cross. The coat is
composed, as in the Angora, of two materials; but in this
breed it is the under-coat that partakes of the nature of wool and
is valued as an article of commerce. This under-coat, or pushtn,
which is of a uniform greyish-white tint, whatever the colour
of the hair may be, is beautifully soft and silky, and of a fluffy
description resembling down. It makes its appearance in the
autumn, and continues to grow until the following spring, when,
if not removed, it falls off naturally; its collection then
commences, occupying from eight to ten days. The animal
undergoes during that time a process of combing by which all
the wool and a portion of the hair, which of necessity comes
with it, is removed. The latter is afterwards carefully separated,
when the fleece in a good specimen weighs about half a pound.
This is the material of which the far-famed and costly shawls
are made, which at one time had such a demand that, it is stated,
16,000 looms were kept in constant work at Kashmir in their
manufacture. Those goats having a short, neat head, long, thin,
ears, a delicate skin, small bones, and a long heavy coat, are
for this purpose deemed the best. There are several varieties
GOATSUCKER
163
possessing this valuable quality, but those of Kashmir, Tibet
and Mongolia are the most esteemed.
The Nubian goat, which is met with in Nubia, Upper Egypt
and Abyssinia, differs greatly in appearance from those previously
described. The coat of the female is extremely short, almost
like that of a race-horse, and the legs are long. This breed
therefore stands considerably higher than the common goat.
One of its peculiarities is the convex profile of the face, the
forehead being prominent and the nostrils sunk in, the nose itself
extremely small, and the lower lip projecting from the upper.
The ears are long, broad and thin, and hang down by the side
Fig. 2. — Nubian Goat.
of the head like a lop-eared rabbit. The horns are black, slightly
twisted and very short, flat at the base, pointed at the tips,
and recumbent on the head. Among goats met with in England
a good many show signs of a more or less remote cross with this
breed, derived probably from specimens brought from the East
on board ships for supplying milk during the voyage.
The Theban goat, of the Sudan, which is hornless, displays
the characteristic features of the last in an exaggerated degree,
and in the form of the head and skull is very sheep-like.
The Nepal goat appears to be a variety of the Nubian breed,
having the same arched facial line, pendulous ears and long
legs. The horns, however, are more spiral. The colour of the
hair, which is longer than in the Nubian, is black, grey or white,
with black blotches.
Lastly the Guinea goat is a dwarf breed originally from the
coast whence its name is derived. There are three varieties.
Besides the commonest Capra recurva, there is a rarer breed,
Capra depressa, inhabiting the Mauritius and the islands of
Bourbon and Madagascar. The other variety is met with along
the White Nile, in Lower Egypt, and at various points on the
African coast of the Mediterranean.
As regards wild goats other than the representatives of Capra
kircus, the members of the ibex-group are noticed under Ibex,
while another distinctive type receives mention under Markhor.
The ibex are connected with the wild goat by means of Capra
nubiana, in which the front edge of the horns is thinner than in
either the European C. ibex or the Asiatic C. sibirica; while
the Spanish C. pyrenaica shows how the ibex-type of horn may
pass into the spirally twisted one distinctive of the markhor,
C. falconeri. In the article Ibex mention is made of the Caucasus
ibex, or tur, C. caucasica, as an aberrant member of that group;
but beside this animal the Caucasus is the home of another very
remarkable goat, or tur, known as C. pallasi. In this ruminant,
which is of a dark-brown colour, the relatively smooth black
horns diverge outwards in a manner resembling those of the
bharal among the sheep rather than in goat-fashion; and, in
fact, this tur, which has only a very short beard, is so bharal-like
that it is commonly called by sportsmen the Caucasian bharal.
It is one of the species which render it so difficult to give a precise
definition of either sheep or goats.
The short-horned Asiatic goats of the genus Hemitragus
receive mention in the article Tahr; but it may be added that
fossil species of the same genus are known from the Lower
Pliocene formations of India, which have also yielded remains
of a goat allied to the markhor of the Himalayas. The Rocky
Mountain goat (q.v.) of America has no claim to be regarded as a
member of the goat-group.
For full descriptions of the various wild species, see R. Lydekker,
Wild Oxen, Sheep, and Goats (London, 1898). (R. L.*)
GOATSUCKER, a bird from very ancient times absurdly
believed to have the habit implied by the common name it bears
in many European tongues besides English — as testified by
the Gr. aiyo&ifKas, the Lat. caprimulgus, Ital. succiacapre,
Span, chotacabras, Fr. teltechevre, and Ger. Zeigenmelker.
The common goatsucker (Capritnulgus europaeus, Linn.), is
admittedly the type of a very peculiar and distinct family,
Caprimulgidae, a group remarkable for the flat head, enormously
wide mouth, large eyes, and soft, pencilled plumage of its members,
which vary in size from a lark to a crow. Its position has been
variously assigned by systematists. Though now judiciously
removed from the Passeres, in which Linnaeus placed all the
species known to him, Huxley considered it to form, with two
other families — the swifts (Cypselidae) and humming-birds
(Trochilidae) — the division Cypselomorphae of his larger group
Aegithognathae, which is equivalent in the main to the Linnaean
Passeres. There are two ways of regarding the Caprimulgidae-
one including the genus Podargus and its allies, the other recogniz-
ing them as a distinct family, Podargidae. As a matter of
convenience we shall here comprehend these last in the Capri —
mulgidat, which will then contain two subfamilies, Caprimulginae
and Podarginae; for what, according to older authors, constitutes
a third, though represented only by Steatornis, the singular
oil-bird, or guacharo, certainly seems to require separation as an
independent family (see Guacharo).
Some of the differences between the Caprimulginae and
Podarginae have been pointed out by Sclater (Proc. Zool. Soc,
1866, p. 1 23) , and are very obvious. In the former, the outer toes
have four phalanges only, thus presenting a very uncommon
character among birds, and the middle claws are pectinated;
while in the latter the normal number of five phalanges is found,
Common Goatsucker,
and the claws are smooth, and other distinctions more recondite
have also been indicated by him (torn. cit. p. 582). The Capri-
mulginae may be further divided into those having the gape
thickly beset by strong bristles, and those in which there are few
such bristles or none — the former containing the genera Capri-
mulgus, Antrostomus, Nyctidromus and others, and the latter
Podargus, Chordiles, Lyncomis and a few more.
The common goatsucker of Europe (C. europaeus) arrives
late in spring from its winter-retreat in Africa, and its presence
is soon made known by its habit of chasing its prey, consisting
chiefly of moths and cockchafers, in the evening-twilight. As
164
GOATSUCKER
the season advances the song of the cock, from its singularity,
attracts attention amid all rural sounds. This song seems to be
always uttered when the bird is at rest, though the contrary has
been asserted, and is the continuous repetition of a single burring
note, as of a thin lath fixed at one end and in a state of vibration
at the other, and loud enough to reach in still weather a distance
of half-a-mile or more. On the wing, while toying with its mate,
or performing its rapid evolutions round the trees where it
finds its food, it has the habit of occasionally producing another
and equally extraordinary sound, sudden and short, but some-
what resembling that made by swinging a thong in the air,
though whether this noise proceeds from its mouth is not ascer-
tained. In general its flight is silent, but at times when disturbed
from its repose, its wings may be heard to smite together. The
goatsucker, or, to use perhaps its commoner English name,
nightjar, 1 passes the day in slumber, crouching on the ground
or perching on a tree — in the latter case sitting not across the
branch but lengthways, with its head lower than its body. In
hot weather, however, its song may sometimes be heard by day
and even at noontide, but it is then uttered, as it were, drowsily,
and without the vigour that characterizes its crepuscular or
nocturnal performance. Towards evening the bird becomes
active, and it seems to pursue its prey throughout the night
uninterruptedly, or only occasionally pausing for a few seconds
to alight on a bare spot — a pathway or road — and then resuming
its career. It is one of the few birds that absolutely make no
nest, but lays its pair of beautifully-marbled eggs on the ground,
generally where the herbage is short, and often actually on the
soil. So light is it that the act of brooding, even where there is
some vegetable growth, produces no visible depression of the
grass, moss or lichens on which the eggs rest, and the finest
sand equally fails to exhibit a trace of the parental act. Yet
scarcely any bird shows greater local attachment, and the
precise site chosen one year is almost certain to be occupied
the next. The young, covered when hatched with dark-spotted
down, are not easily found, nor are they more easily discovered
on becoming fledged, for their plumage almost entirely resembles
that of the adults, being a mixture of reddish-brown, grey and
black, blended and mottled in a manner that passes description.
They soon attain their full size and power of flight, and then take
to the same manner of life as their parents. In autumn all
leave their summer haunts for the south, but the exact time of
their departure has hardly been ascertained. The habits of the
nightjar, as thus described, seem to be more or less essentially
those of the whole subfamily — the differences observable being
apparently less than are found in other groups of birds of similar
extent.
.A second species of goatsucker (C. ruficollis), which is some-
what larger, and has the neck distinctly marked with rufous,
is a summer visitant to the south-western parts of Europe, and
especially to Spain and Portugal. The occurrence of a single
example of this bird at Killingworth, near Newcastle-on-Tyne,
in October 1856, has been recorded by Mr Hancock (Ibis, 1862,
p. 39) ; but the season of its appearance argues the probability of
its being but a casual straggler from its proper home. Many other
species of Caprimulgus inhabit Africa, Asia and their islands,
while one (C. macrurus) is found in Australia. Very nearly allied
to this genus is Antrostomus, an American group containing
many species, of which the chuck- will's- widow (A. carolinensis)
and the whip-poor-will (A, vociferus) of the eastern United States
(the latter also reaching Canada) are familiar examples. Both
these birds take their common name from the cry they utter,
and their habits seem to be almost identical with those of the
old world goatsuckers. Passing over some other forms which
need not here be mentioned, the genus Nyctidromus, though
consisting of only one species (N. albicollis) which inhabits
Central and part of South America, requires remark, since it has
tarsi of sufficient length to enable it to run swiftly on the ground,
while the legs of most birds of the family are so short that they can
1 Other English names of the bird are evejar, fern-owl, churn-owl
and wheel-bird — the last from the bird's song resembling the noise
made by a spinning-wheel in motion.
make but a shuffling progress. Heleothreptes, with the unique
form of wing possessed by the male, needs mention. Notice
must also be taken of two African species, referred by some
ornithologists to as many genera (Macrodipteryx and Cos-
metornis), though probably one genus would suffice for both.
The males of each of them are characterized by the wonderful
development of the ninth primary in either wing, which reaches
in fully adult specimens the extraordinary length of 17 in. or
more. The former of these birds, the Caprimulgus macrodipterus
of Adam Afzelius, is considered to belong to the west coast of
Africa, and the shaft of the elongated remiges is bare for the
greater part of its length, retaining the web, in a spatulate form,
only near the tip. The latter, to which the specific name of
vexillarius was given by John Gould, has been found on the
east coast of that continent, and is reported to have occurred in
Madagascar and Socotra. In this the remigial streamers do
not lose their barbs, and as a few of the next quills are also to
some extent elongated, the bird, when flying, is said to look as
though it had four wings. Specimens of both are rare in collec-
tions, and no traveller seems to have had the opportunity of
studying the habits of either so as to suggest a reason for this
marvellous sexual development.
The second group of Caprimulginae, those which are but
poorly or not at all furnished with rictal bristles, contains about
five genera, of which we may particularize Lyncornis of the old
world and Chordiles of the new. The species of the former are
remarkable for the tuft of feathers which springs from each side
of the head, above and behind the ears, so as to give the bird an
appearance like some of the " horned " owls — those of the genus
Scops, for example; and remarkable as it is to find certain forms
of two families, so distinct as are the Strigidae and the Capri-
mulgidae, resembling each other in this singular external feature,
it is yet more remarkable to note that in some groups of the
latter, as in some of the former, a very curious kind of dimorphism
takes place. In either case this has been frequently asserted
to be sexual, but on that point doubt may fairly be entertained.
Certain it is that in some groups of goatsuckers, as in some groups
of owls, individuals of the same species are found in plumage of
two entirely different hues — rufous and grey. The only explana-
tion as yet offered of this fact is that the difference is sexual,
but evidence to that effect is conflicting. It must not, however,
be supposed that this common feature, any more than that of
the existence of tufted forms in each group, indicates any close
relationship between them. The resemblances may be due to
the same causes, concerning which future observers may possibly
enlighten us, but at present we must regard them as analogies,
not homologies. The species of Lyncornis inhabit the Malay
Archipelago, one, however, occurring also in China. Of Chordiles
the best-known species is the night-hawk of North America
(C virginianus or C. popetue), which has a wide range from
Canada to Brazil. Others are found in the Antilles and in South
America. ' The general habits of all these birds agree with those
of the typical goatsuckers.
We have next to consider the birds forming the genus Podargus
and those allied to it, whether they be regarded as a distinct
family, or as a subfamily of Caprimulgidae. As above stated,
they have feet constructed as those of birds normally are, and
their sternum seems to present the constant though compara-
tively trivial difference of having its posterior margin elongated
into two pairs of processes, while only one pair is found in the
true goatsuckers. Podargus includes the bird (P. cuvieri) known
from its cry as morepork to the Tasmanians, 2 and several other
species, the number of which is doubtful, from Australia and
New Guinea. They have comparatively powerful bills, and it
would seem feed to some extent on fruits and berries, though they
mainly subsist on insects, chiefly Cicadae and Phasmidae. They
also differ from the true goatsuckers in having the outer toes
partially reversible, and they build a flat nest on the horizontal
branch of a tree for the reception of their eggs, which are of a
spotless white. Apparently allied to Podargus, but differing
* In New Zealand, however, this name is given to an owl (Scehglaux
novae-zelandiae).
GOBAT— GOBI
165
among other respects in its mode of nidification, is Aegotheles,
which belongs also to the Australian sub-region; and farther
to the northward, extending throughout the Malay Archipelago
and into India, comes Batrackostomus, wherein we again meet
with species having aural tufts somewhat like Lyncornis. The
Podarginae are thought by some to be represented in the new
world by the genus Nyctibius, of which several species occur
from the Antilles and Central America to Brazil. Finally, it may
be stated that none of the Caprimulgidae seem to occur in
Polynesia or in New Zealand, though there is scarcely any other
part of the world suited to their habits in which members of the
family are not found. (A. N.)
GOBAT, SAMUEL (1790-1879), bishop of Jerusalem, was born
at Cremine, Bern, Switzerland, on the 26th of January 1799.
After serving in the mission house at Basel from 1823 to 1826,
he went to Paris and London, whence, having acquired some
knowledge of Arabic and Ethiopic, he went out to Abyssinia
under the auspices of the Church Missionary Society. The
unsettled state of the country and his own ill health prevented
his making much headway; he returned to Europe in 1835 and
from 1839 to 1842 lived in Malta, where he supervised an Arabic
translation of the Bible. In 1846 he was consecrated Protestant
bishop of Jerusalem, under the agreement between the British
and Prussian governments (1841) for the establishment of a
joint bishopric for Lutherans and Anglicans in the Holy Land.
He carried on a vigorous mission as bishop for over thirty years,
his diocesan school and orphanage on Mount Zion being specially
noteworthy. He died on the nth of May 1879.
A record of his life, largely autobiographical, was published at
Basel in 1884, and an English translation at London in the same year.
GOBEL, JEAN BAPTISTE JOSEPH (1727-1794), French
ecclesiastic and politician, was born at Thann, in Alsace, on the
1st of September 1727. He studied theology in the German
College at Rome, and then became successively a member of
the chapter of Porrentruy, bishop in partibus of Lydda, and
finally suffragan of Basel for that part of the diocese situated
in French territory. His political life began when he was elected
deputy to the states-general of 1789 by the clergy of the bailliage
of Huningue. The turning-point of his life was his action in
taking the oath of the civil constitution of the clergy (Jan. 3rd,
1 791); in favour of which he had declared himself since the 5th
of May 1790. The civil constitution of the clergy gave the
appointment of priests to the electoral assemblies, and since
taking the oath Gobel had become so popular that he was elected
bishop in several dioceses. He chose Paris, and in spite of the
difficulties which he had to encounter before he could enter into
possession, was consecrated on the 27th of March 1791 by eight
bishops, including Talleyrand. On the 8th of November 1792,
Gobel was appointed administrator of Paris. He was careful
to flatter the politicians by professing anti-clerical opinions,
declaring himself, among other things, opposed to the celibacy
of the clergy; and on the 17th Brumaire in the year II. (7th
November 1793), he came before the bar of the Convention, and,
in a famous scene, resigned his episcopal functions, proclaiming
that he did so for love of the people, and through respect for
their wishes. The followers of Hebert, who were then pursuing
their anti-Christian policy, claimed Gobel as one of themselves;
while, on the other hand, Robespierre looked upon him as an
atheist, though apostasy cannot strictly speaking be laid to the
charge of the ex-bishop, nor did he ever make any actual pro-
fession of atheism. Robespierre, however, found him an obstacle
to his religious schemes, and involved him in the fate of the
Hebertists. Gobel was condemned to death, with Chaumette,
Hebert and Anacharsis Cloots, and was guillotined on the 12th
of April 1794.
See E. Charavay, Assemble electorate de Paris (Paris, 1890);
H. Monin, La Chanson et Vltglise sous la Revolution (Paris, 1892) ;
A. Aulard, " La Culte de la raison " in the review, La Revolution
Francaise (1891). For a bibliography of documents relating to
his episcopate see " Episcopat de Gobel " in vol. iii. (1900) of
M. Tourneux's Bibliographie de Vhistoire de Paris pendant la Rev. Fr.
GOBELIN, the name of a family of dyers, who in all probability
came originally from Reims, and who in the middle of the 15th
century established themselves in the Faubourg Saint Marcel,
Paris, on the banks of the Bidvre. The first head of the firm
was named Jehan (d. 1476). He discovered a peculiar kind of
scarlet dyestuff, and he expended so much money on his
establishment that it was named by the common people la folie
Gobelin. To the dye-works there was added in the 16th century
a manufactory of tapestry (q.v.). So rapidly did the wealth
of the family increase, that in the third or fourth generation
some of them forsook their trade and purchased titles of nobility.
More than one of their number held offices of state, among
others Balthasar, who became successively treasurer general of
artillery, treasurer extraordinary of war, councillor secretary of
the king, chancellor of the exchequer, councillor of state and
president of the chamber of accounts, and who in 1601 received
from Henry IV. the lands and lordship of Briecomte-Robert.
He died in 1603. The name of the Gobelins as dyers cannot be
found later than the end of the 17th century. In 1662 the works
in the Faubourg Saint Marcel, with the adjoining grounds, were
purchased by Colbert on behalf of Louis XIV., and transformed
into a general upholstery manufactory, in which designs both
in tapestry and in all kinds of furniture were executed under the
superintendence of the royal painter, Le Brun. On account of
the pecuniary embarrassments of Louis XIV., the establishment
was closed in 1694, but it was reopened in 1697 for the manu-
facture of tapestry, chiefly for royal use and for presentation.
During the Revolution and the reign of Napoleon the manufacture
was suspended, but it was revived by the Bourbons, and in 1826
the manufacture of carpets was added to that of tapestry. In
187 1 the building was partly burned by the Communists. The
manufacture is still carried on under the state.
See Lacordaire, Notice historique sur les manufactures imperiales
de tapisserie des Gobelin et de tapis de la Savonnerie, pricidie au cata-
logue des tapisseries qui y sont exposes (Paris, 1853); Genspach,
Repertoire dkaiM des tapisseries extcuties aux Gobehns, 2662-1S92
(Paris, 1803); Guiffrey, Histoire de la tapisserie en France (Paris,
1 878- 1 885). The two last-named authors were directors of the
manufactory.
GOBI (for which alternative Chinese names are Sha-mo,
" sand desert," and Han-hai, " dry sea "), a term which in its
widest significance means the long stretch of desert country that
extends from the foot of the Pamirs, in about 77 E., eastward
to the Great Khingan Mountains, in ii6°-ii8° E., on the border
of Manchuria, and from the foothills of the Altai, the Sayan
and the Yablonoi Mountains on the N. to the Astin-tagh or
Altyn-tagh and the Nan-shan, the northernmost constituent
ranges of the Kuen-lun Mountains, on the south. By conven-
tional usage a relatively small area on the east side of the Great
Khingan, between the upper waters of the Sungari and the upper
waters of the Liao-ho, is also reckoned to belong to the Gobi.
On the other hand, geographers and Asiatic explorers prefer to
regard the W. extremity of the Gobi region (as defined above),
namely, the basin of the Tarim in E. Turkestan, as forming a
separate and independent desert, to which they have given the
name of Takla-makan. The latter restriction governs the present
article, which accordingly excludes the Takla-makan, leaving it
for separate treatment. The desert of Gobi as a whole is only
very imperfectly known, information being confined to the
observations which individual travellers have made from their
respective itineraries across the desert. Amongst the explorers
to whom we owe such knowledge as we possess about the Gobi,
the most important have been Marco Polo (1273-12 75), Gerbillon
(1688-1698), Ijsbrand Ides (1692-1694), Lange (1727-1728 and
1736), Fuss and Bunge (1830-1831), Fritsche (1868-1873),
Pavlinov and Matusovski (1870), Ney Elias (1872-1873), N. M.
Przhevalsky (1870-1872 and 1876-1877), Zosnovsky (1875),
M. V. Pjevtsov (1878), G. N. Potanin (1877 and 1884-1886),
Count Sz6chenyi and L. von Loczy (1879-1880), the brothers
Grum-Grzhimailo (1880-1890), P. K. Kozlov (1893-1894 and
1890-1900), V. I. Roborovsky (1894), V. A. Obruchev (1894-
1896), Futterer and Holderer (1896), C. E. Bonin (1896 and 1899),
Sven Hedin (1897 and 1000-1901), K. Bogdanovich (1898),
Ladyghin (1 890-1 900) and Katsnakov (1 899-1 900).
Geographically the Gobi (a Mongol word meaning " desert ")
1 66
GOBI
is the deeper part of the gigantic depression which fills the
interior of the lower terrace of the vast Mongolian plateau, and
measures over iooo m. from S.W. to N.E. and 450 to 600 m.
from N. to S., being widest in the west, along the line joining
the Baghrash-kol and the Lop-nor (87°-8o° E.). Owing to the
immense area covered, and the piecemeal character of the
information, no general description can be made applicable to
the whole of the Gobi. It will be more convenient, therefore, to
describe its principal distinctive sections seriatim, beginning in
the west.
Ghashiun-Gobi and Kuruk-tagh. — The Yulduz valley or valley of
the Kha'idyk-gol (83°-86° E., 43 N.) is enclosed by two prominent
members of the Tian-shan system, namely the Chol-tagh and the
Kuruk-tagh, running parallel and close to one another. As they pro-
ceed eastward they diverge, sweeping back on N. and S. respectively
so as to leave room for the Baghrash-kol. These two ranges mark
the northern and the southern edges respectively of a great swelling,
which extends eastward for nearly twenty degrees of longitude. On
its northern side the Chol-tagh descends steeply, and its foot is fringed
by a string of deep depressions, ranging from Lukchun (425 ft. below
the level of the sea) to Hami (2800 ft. above sea-level). To the south
of the Kuruk-tagh lie the desert of Lop, the desert of Kum-tagh, and
the valley of the Bulunzir-gol. To this great swelling, which arches
up between the two border-ranges of the Chol-tagh and Kuruk-tagh,
the Mongols give the name of Ghashiun-Gobi or Salt Desert. It is
some 80 to 100 m. across from N. to S., and is traversed by a number
of minor parallel ranges, ridges and chains of hills, and down its
middle runs a broad stony valley, 25 to 50 m. wide, at an elevation of
3000 to 4500 ft. The Chol-tagh, which reaches an average altitude
of 6000 ft., is absolutely sterile, and its northern foot rests upon a
narrow belt of barren sand, which leads down to the depressions
mentioned above.
The Kuruk-tagh is the greatly disintegrated, denuded and wasted
relic of a mountain range which formerly was of incomparably
greater magnitude. In the west, between Baghrash-kol and the
Tarim, it consists of two, possibly of three, principal ranges, which,
although broken in continuity, run generally parallel to one another,
and embrace between them numerous minor chains of heights.
These minor ranges, together with the principal ranges, divide the
region into a series of long, narrow valleys, mostly parallel to one
another and to the enclosing mountain chains, which descend like
terraced steps, on the one side towards the depression of Lukchun
and on the other towards the desert of Lop. In many cases these
latitudinal valleys are barred transversely by ridges or spurs,
generally elevations en masse of the bottom of the valley. Where
such elevations exist, there is generally found, on the E. side of the
transverse ridge, a cauldron-shaped depression, which some time
or other has been the bottom of a former lake, but is now nearly a
dry salt-basin. The surface configuration is in fact markedly
similar to that which occurs in the inter-mont latitudinal valleys of
the Kuen-lun. The hydrography of the Ghashiun-Gobi ancl the
Kuruk-tagh is determined by these chequered arrangements of the
latitudinal valleys. Most of the principal streams, instead of flowing
straight down these valleys, cross them diagonally and only turn
west after they have cut their way through one or more of the trans-
verse barrier ranges. 1 To the highest range on the great swelling
Grum-Grzhimailo gives the name of Tuge-tau, its altitude being
9000 ft. above the level of the sea and some 4000 ft. above the crown
of the swelling itself. This range he considers to belong to the Chol-
tagh system, whereas Sven Hedin would assign it to the Kuruk-tagh.
This last, which is pretty certainly identical with the range of Khara-
teken-ula (also known as the Kyzyl-sanghir, Sinir, and Singher
Mountains), that overlooks the southern shore of the Baghrash-kol,
though parted from it by the drift-sand desert of Ak-bel-kum (White
Pass Sands), has at first a W.N.W. to E.S.E. strike, but it gradually
curves round like a scimitar towards the E.N.E. and at the same
time gradually decreases in elevation. In 91 ° E., while the principal
range of the Kuruk-tagh system wheels to the E.N.E., four of its
subsidiary ranges terminate, or rather die away somewhat suddenly,
on the brink of a long narrow depression (in which Sven Hedin sees
a N . E. bay of the former great Central Asian lake of Lop-nor) , having
over against them the echeloned terminals of similar subordinate
ranges of the Pe-shan (Bey-san) system (see below). The Kuruk-tagh
is throughout a relatively low, but almost completely barren range,
being entirely destitute of animal life, save for hares, antelopes and
wild camels, which frequent its few small, widely scattered oases.
The vegetation, which is confined to these same relatively favoured
spots, is of the scantiest and is mainly confined to bushes of saxaul
(Anabasis Ammodendron) , reeds (kamish), tamarisks, poplars,
Kalidium and Ephedra.
Desert of Lop. — This section of the Gobi extends south-eastward
from the foot of the Kuruk-tagh as far as the present terminal basin
of the Tarim, namely Kara-koshun (Przhevalsky's Lop-nor), and is an
almost perfectly horizontal expanse, for, while the Baghrash-kol
in the N. lies at an altitude of 2940 ft., the Kara-koshun, over 200 m
1 Cf. G. E. Grum-Grzhimailo, Opisaniye Puteshestoiya, i. 381-417.
to the S., is only 300 ft. lower. The characteristic features of this
almost dead level or but slightly undulating region are: (i.) broad,
unbroken expanses of clay intermingled with sand, the clay (shor)
being indurated and saliferous and often arranged in terraces; (ii.)
hard, level, clay expanses, more or less thickly sprinkled with fine
gravel (say), the clay being mostly of a yellow or yellow-grey colour;
(iii.) benches, flattened ridges and tabular masses of consolidated
clay (jardangs), arranged in distinctly defined laminae, three stories
being sometimes superimposed one upon the other, and their vertical
faces being abraded, and often undercut, by the wind, while the
formations themselves are separated by parallel gullies or wind-
furrows, 6 to 20 ft. deep, all sculptured in the direction of the pre-
vailing wind, that is, from N.E. to S.W. ; and (iv.) the absence of
drift-sand and sand-dunes, except in the south, towards the out-
lying foothills of the Ast in-tagh . Perhaps the most striking character-
istic, after the jardangs or clay terraces, is the fact that the whole
of this region is not only swept bare of sand by the terrific sand-
storms (burans) of the spring months, the particles of sand with
which the wind is laden acting like a sand-blast, but the actual
substantive materials of the desert itself are abraded, filed, eroded
and carried bodily away into the network of lakes in which the Tarim
loses itself, or are even blown across the lower, constantly shifting
watercourses of that river and deposited on or among the gigantic
dunes which choke the eastern end of the desert of Takla-makan.
Numerous indications, such as salt-stained depressions of a lacustrine
appearance, traces of former lacustrine shore-lines, more or less
parallel and concentric, the presence in places of vast quantities of
fresh- water mollusc shells (species of Limnaea and Planorbis), the
existence of belts of dead poplars, patches of dead tamarisks and
extensive beds of withered reeds, all these always on top of the
jardangs, never in the wind-etched furrows, together with a few
scrubby poplars and Elaeagnus, still struggling hard not to die, the
presence of ripple marks of aqueous origin on the leeward sides of the
clay terraces and in other wind-sheltered situations, all testify to
the former existence in this region of more or less extensive fresh-
water lakes, now of course completely desiccated. During the
prevalence of the spring storms the atmosphere that overhangs
the immediate surface of the desert is so heavily charged with dust
as to be a veritable pall of desolation. Except for the wild camel
which frequents the reed oases on the N. edge of the desert, animal
life is even less abundant than in the Ghashiun-Gobi, and the same
is true as regards the vegetation.
Desert of Kum-tagh. — This section lies E.S.E. of the desert of Lop,
on the other side of the Kara-koshun and its more or less temporary
continuations, and reaches north-eastwards as far as the vicinity of
the town of Sa-chow and the lake of Kara-nor or Kala-chi. Its
southern rim is marked by a labyrinth of hills, dotted in groups and
irregular clusters, but evidently survivals of two parallel ranges
which are now worn down as it were to mere fragments of their
former skeletal structure. Between these and the Astin-tagh inter-
venes a broad latitudinal valley, seamed with watercourses which
come down from the foothills of the Astin-tagh and beside which
scrubby desert plants of the usual character maintain a precarious
existence, water reaching them in some instances at intervals of years
only. This part of the desert has a general slope N.W. towards the
relative depression of the Kara-koshun. A noticeable feature of the
Kum-tagh is the presence of large accumulations of drift-sand,
especially along the foot of the crumbling desert ranges, where it
rises into dunes sometimes as much as 250 ft. in height and climbs
half-way up the flanks of ranges themselves. The prevailing winds
in this region would appear to blow from the W. and N.W. during
the summer, winter and autumn, though in spring, when they certainly
are more violent, they no doubt come from the N.E., as in the desert
of Lop. Anyway, the arrangement of the sand here " agrees per-
fectly with the law laid down by Potanin, that in the basins of Central
Asia the sand is heaped up in greater mass on the south, all along
the bordering mountain ranges where the floor of the depressions
lies at the highest level." * The country to the north of the desert
ranges is thus summarily described by Sven Hedin :* " The first zone
of drift-sand is succeeded by a region which exhibits proofs of wind-
modelling on an extraordinarily energetic and well developed scale,
the results corresponding to the jardangs and the wind-eroded
gullies of the desert of Lop. Both sets of phenomena lie parallel
to one another; from this we may infer that the winds which prevail
in the two deserts are the same. Next comes, sharply demarcated
from the zone iust described, a more or less thin kamish steppe
growing on level ground ; and this in turn is followed by another very
narrow belt of sand, immediately south of Achik-kuduk
Finally in the extreme north we have the characteristic and sharply
defined belt of kamish steppe, stretching from E.N.E. to W.S.W.
and bounded on N. and S. by high, sharp-cut clay terraces. . . .
At the points where we measured them the northern terrace was
113 ft. nigh and the southern 85 J ft. . . . Both terraces belong to
the same level, and would appear to correspond to the shore lines of a
big bay of the last surviving remnant of the Central Asian Mediter-
ranean. At the point where I crossed it the depression was 6 to 7 m.
wide, and thus resembled a flat valley or immense river-bed.' '
1 Quoted in Sven Hedin, Scientific Results, ii. 499.
1 Op. cit. ii. 499-500.
GOBI
167
Desert of Hami and the Pe-shan Mountains. — This section occupies
the space between the Tian-shan system on the N. and the Nan-shan
Mountains on the S., and is connected on the W. with the desert of
Lop. The classic account is that of Przhevalsky, who crossed the
desert from Hami (or Khami) to Su-chow (not Sa-chow)in the summer
of 1879. In the middle this desert rises into a vast swelling, 80 m.
across, which reaches an average elevation of 5000 ft. and a maximum
elevation of 5500 ft. On its northern and southern borders it is
overtopped by two divisions of the Bey-san ( = Pe-shan) Mountains,
neither of which attains any great relative altitude. Between the
northern division and the Karlyk-tagh range or E. Tian-shan
intervenes a somewhat undulating barren plain, 3900 ft. in altitude
and 40 m. from N. to S., sloping downwards from both N. and S.
towards the middle, where lies the oasis of Hami (2800 ft.). Similarly
from the southern division of the Bey-san a second plain slopes down
for 1000 ft. to the valley of the river Bulunzir or Su-lai-ho, which
comes out of China, from the south side of the Great Wall, and finally
empties itself into the lake of Kalachi or Kara-nor. From the
Bulunzir the same plain continues southwards at a level of 3700 ft.
to the foot of the Nan-shan Mountains. The total breadth of the
desert from N. to S. is here 200 m. Its general character is that of an
undulating plain, dotted over with occasional elevations of clay,
which present the appearance of walls, table-topped mounds and
broken towers (jardangs), the surface of the plain being strewn with
gravel and absolutely destitute of vegetation. Generally speaking,
the Bey-san ranges consist of isolated hills or groups of hills, of low
relative elevation (100 to 300 ft.), scattered without any regard to
order over the arch of J:he swelling. They nowhere rise into well-
defined peaks. Their axis runs from W.S.W. to E.N.E. But whereas
Przhevalsky and Sven Hedin consider them to be a continuation of
the Kuruk-tagh, though the latter regards them as separated from
the Kuruk-tagh by a well-marked bay of the former Central Asian
Mediterranean (Lop-nor), Futterer declares they are a continuation
of the Chol-tagh. The swelling or undulating plain between these
two ranges of the Bey-san measures about 70 m. across and is
traversed by several stretches of high ground having generally an
east-west direction. 1 Futterer, who crossed the same desert twenty
years after Przhevalsky, agrees generally in his description of it,
but supplements the account of the latter explorer with several
particulars. He observes that the ranges in this part of the Gobi
are much worn down and wasted, like the Kuruk-tagh farther west
and the tablelands of S.E. Mongolia farther east, through the effects
of century-long insolation, wind erosion, great and sudden changes
of temperature, chemical action and occasional water erosion.
Vast areas towards the N. consist of expanses of gently sloping (at
a mean slope of 3 ) clay, intermingled with gravel. He points out
also that the greatest accumulations of sand and other products of
aerial denudation do not occur in the deepest parts of the depressions
but at the outlets of the valleys and glens, and along the foot of the
ranges which flank the depressions on the S. Wherever water has
been, desert scrub is found, such as tamarisks, Dodartia orienkUis,
Agriophyllum gobicum, Calligonium sinnex, and Lycium ruthenieum,
but all with their roots elevated on little mounds in the same way
as the tamarisks grow in the Takla-makan and desert of Lop.
Farther east, towards central Mongolia, the relations, says Futterer,
are the same as along the Hami-Su-chow route, except that the ranges
have lower and broader crests, and the detached hills are more
denuded and more disintegrated. Between the ranges occur broad,
flat, cauldron-shaped valleys and basins, almost destitute of life
except for a few nares and a few birds, such as the crow and the
pheasant, and with scanty vegetation, but no great accumulations
of drift-sand. The rocks are severely weathered on the surface, a
thick layer of the coarser products of denudation covers the flat parts
and climbs a good way up the flanks of the mountain ranges, but all
the finer material, sand and clay has been blown away partly S.E. into
Ordos, partly into the Chinese provinces of Shen-si and Shan-si, where
it is deposited as loess, and partly W., where it chokes all the southern
parts of the basin of the Tarim. In these central parts of the Gobi,
as indeed in all other parts except the desert of Lop and Ordos, the
prevailing winds blow from the W. and N.W. These winds are warm
in summer, and it is they which in the desert of Hami bring the fierce
sandstorms or burans. The wind does blow also from the N.E., but
it is then cold and often brings snow, though it speedily clears the
air of the everlasting dust haze. In summer great heat is encountered
here on the relatively low (3000-4600 ft), gravelly expanses (say)
on the N. and on those of the S. (4000-5000 ft.) ; but on the higher
swelling between, which in the Pe-shan ranges ascends to 7550 ft.,
there is great cold even in summer, and a wide daily range of tempera-
ture. Above the broad and deep accumulations of the products of
denudation which have been brought down by the rivers from the
Tian-shan ranges (e.g. the Karlyk-tagh) on the N. and from the Nan-
shan on the S., and nave filled up the cauldron-shaped valleys, there
rises a broad swelling, built up of granitic rocks, crystalline schists
and metamorphosed sedimentary rocks of both Archaic and Palaeo-
zoic age, all greatly folded and tilted up, and shot through with
numerous irruptions of volcanic rocks, predominantly porphyritic
and dioritic. On this swelling rise four more or less parallel mountain
1 Przhevalsky, Iz Zayana cherez Hami v Tibet na Vershovya
Sholtoy Reki, pp. 84-91.
ranges of the Pe-shan system, together with a fifth chain of hills
farther S., all having a strike from W.N.W. to E.N.E. The range
farthest N. rises to 1000 ft. above the desert and 7550 ft. above
sea-level, the next two ranges reach 1300 ft. above the general level
of the desert, and the range farthest south 1475 ft. or an absolute
altitude of 7200 ft., while the fifth chain of hills does not exceed
650 ft. in relative elevation. All these ranges decrease in altitude
from W. to E. In the depressions which border the Pe-shan swelling
on N. and S. are found the sedimentary deposits of the Tertiary
sea of the Han-hai; but no traces of those deposits have been found
on the swelling itself at altitudes of 5600 to 5700 ft. Hence, Futterer
infers, in recent geological times no large sea has occupied the central
part of the Gobi. Beyond an occasional visit from a band of nomad
Mongols, this region of the Pe-shan swelling is entirely uninhabited. 8
And yet it was from this very region, avers G. E. Grum-Grzhimailo,
that the Yue-chi, a nomad race akin to the Tibetans, proceeded
when, towards the middle of the 2nd century B.C., they moved
westwards and settled near Lake Issyk-kul ; and from here proceeded
also the Shanshani, or people who some two thousand years ago
founded the state of Shanshan or Loti-Ian, ruins of the chief town of
which Sven Hedin discovered in the desert of Lop in 1901. Here,
says the Russian explorer, the Huns gathered strength, as also did
the Tukiu (Turks) in the 6th century, and the Uighur tribes and the
rulers of the Tangut kingdom. But after Jenghiz Khan in the 12th
century drew away the peoples of this region, and no others came
to take their place, the country went out of cultivation and eventu-
ally became the barren desert it now is. 8
Ala-shan. — This division of the great desert, known also as the
Hsi-tau and the Little Gobi, fills the space between the great N.
loop of the Hwang-ho or Yellow river on the E., the Edzin-gol on
the W.,and the Nan-shan Mountains on the S. W., where it is separated
from the Chinese province of Kan-suh by the narrow rocky chain
of Lung-shan (Ala-shan), 10,500 to 1 i,6oo ft. in altitude. It belongs
to the middle basin of the three great depressions into which Potamn
divides the Gobi as a whole. " Topographically," says Przhevalsky,
" it is a perfectly level plain, which in all probability once formed the
bed of a huge lake or inland sea." The data upon which he bases this
conclusion are the level area of the region as a whole, the hard saline
clay and the sand-streWn surface, and lastly the salt lakes which
occupy its lowest parts. For hundreds of miles there is nothing to be
seen but bare sands; in some places they continue so far without
a break that the Mongols call them Tyngheri (i.e. sky). These vast
expanses are absolutely waterless, nor do any oases relieve the un-
broken stretches of yellow sand which alternate with equally vast
areas of saline clay or, nearer the foot of the mountains, with barren
shingle. Although on the whole a level country with a general
altitude of 3300 to 5000 ft., this section, like most other parts of the
Gobi, is crowned by a chequered network of hills and broken ranges
going up 1000 ft. higher. The vegetation is confined to a few
varieties of bushes and a dozen kinds of grasses, the most conspicuous
being saxaul and AgriophyUum gobicum* (a grass). The others
include prickly convolvulus, field wormwood, acacia, Inula ammo-
phila, Sophora flavescens, Convolvulus Ammani, Peganum and
Astragalus, but all dwarfed, deformed and starved. The fauna
consists of little else except antelopes, the wolf, fox, hare, hedge-
hog, marten, numerous lizards and a few birds, e.g. the sand-
grouse, lark, stonechat, sparrow, crane, Podoces Hendersoni, Otocorys
albigula and Galerita cristata. 6 The only human inhabitants of
Ala-shan are the Torgod Mongols.
Ordos. — East of the desert of Ala-shan, and only separated from
it by the Hwang-ho, is the desert of Ordos or Ho-tau, " a level
steppe, partly bordered by low hills. The soil is altogether sandy
or a mixture of clay and sand, ill adapted for agriculture. The
absolute height of this country is between 3000 and 3500 ft., so that
Ordos forms an intermediate step in the descent to China from the
Gobi, separated from the latter by the mountain ranges lying on
the N. and E. of the Hwang-ho or Yellow river." 8 Towards the
south Ordos rises to an altitude of over 5000 ft., and in the W., along
the right bank of the Hwang-ho, the Arbus or Arbiso Mountains,
which overtop the steppe by some 3000 ft., serve to link the Ala-shan
Mountains with the in-shan. The northern part of the great loop
of the river is filled with the sands of Kuzupchi, a succession of dunes,
40 to 50 ft. high. Amongst them in scattered patches grow the shrub
Hedysarum and the trees Calligonium Tragopyrum and Pugionium
cornutum. In some places these sand-dunes approach close to the
great river, in others they are parted from it by a belt of sand,
intermingled with clay, which terminates in a steep escarpment,
50 ft. and in some localities 100 ft. above the river. This belt is
studded with little mounds (7 to 10 ft. high), mostly overgrown with
wormwood (Artemisia campestris) and the Siberian pea- tree (Car a-
gana); and here too grows one of the most characteristic plants
of Ordos, the liquorice root (Glycyrrhiza uralensis). Eventually
2 Futterer, Durch Asien, i. pp. 206-211.
1 G. E. Grum-Grzhimailo, Opisanie Puteshestviya v Sapadniy
Kitai, ii. p. 127.
4 Its seeds are pounded by the Mongols to flour and mixed with
their tea.
8 Przhevalsky, Mon$olia(Eng. trans, ed. by Sir H. Yule).
6 Przhevalsky; op. ctt. p. 183.
i68
GOBI
the sand-dunes cross over to the left bank of the Hwang-ho, and
are threaded by the beds of dry watercourses, while the level spaces
amongst them are studded with little mounds (3 to 6 ft. high),
on which grow stunted Nitraria Scoberi and ZygophyUum. Ordos,
which was anciently known as Ho-nan (" the country south of the
river ") and still farther back in time as Ho-tau, was occupied by the
Hiong-nu in the 1st and 2nd centuries a.d., but was almost de-
populated during and after the Dungan revolt of 1869. North of the
big loop of the Hwang-ho Ordos is separated from the central Gobi
by a succession of mountain chains, the Kara-naryn-ula, the Sheiten-
ula, and the In-shan Mountains, which link on to the south end of the
Great Khingan Mountains. The In-shan Mountains, which stretch
from 108 to 112 E., have a wild Alpine character and are dis-
tinguished from other mountains in the S.E. of Mongolia by an
abundance of both water and vegetation. In one of their constituent
ranges, the bold Munni-ula, 70 m. long and nearly 20 m. wide, they
attain elevations of 7500 to 8500 ft., and have steep flanks, slashed
with rugged gorges and narrow glens. Forests begin on them at
5300 ft. and wild flowers grow in great profusion and variety in
summer, though with a striking lack of brilliancy in colouring.
In this same border range there is also a much greater abundance
and variety of animal life, especially amongst the avifauna.
Eastern Gobi. — Here the surface is extremely diversified, although
there are no great differences in vertical elevation. Between Urga
(48°N. and 107 °E.) and the little lake of Iren-dubasu-nor (1 1 1 °*o' E.
and 43 45' N.) the surface is greatly eroded, and consists of broad
flat depressions and basins separated by groups of flat-topped
mountains of relatively low elevation (500 to 600 ft.), through
which archaic rocks crop out as crags and isolated rugged masses.
The floors of the depressions lie mostly between 2900 and 3200 ft.
above sea-level. Farther south, between Iren-dubasu-nor and the
Hwang-ho comes a region of broad tablelands alternating with
flat plains, the latter ranging at altitudes of 3300 to 3600 ft. and
the former at 3500 to 4000 ft. The slopes of the plateaus are more
or less steep, and are sometimes penetrated by " bays " of the low-
lands. As the border-range of the Khingan is approached the
country steadily rises up to ^500 ft. and then to 5350 ft. Here
small lakes frequently fill the depressions, though the water in them
is generally salt or brackish. And both here, and for 200 m. south
of Urga, streams are frequent, and grass grows moreorlessabundantly.
There is, however, through all the central parts, until the bordering
mountains are reached, an utter absence of trees and shrubs. Clay
and sand are the predominant formations, the watercourses, especi-
ally in the north, being frequently excavated 6 to 8 ft. deep, and in
many places in the flat, dry valleys or depressions farther south
beds of loess, 15 to 20 ft. thick, are exposed. West of the route
from Urea to Kalgan the country presents approximately the same
general features, except that the mountains are not so irregularly
scattered in groups but have more strongly defined strikes, mostly
E. to W. f W.N.W. to E.S.E., and W.S.W. to E.N.E. The altitudes
too are higher, those of the lowlands ranging from 3300 to 5600 ft.,
and those of the ranges from 650 to 1650 ft. higher, though in a few
cases they reach altitudes of 8000 ft. above sea-level. The elevations
do not, however, as a rule form continuous chains, but make up a
congeries of short ridges and groups rising from a common base and
intersected by a labyrinth of ravines, gullies, glens and basins.
But the tablelands, built up of the horizontal red deposits of the
Han-hai (Obruchev's Gobi formation) which are characteristic of
the southern parts of eastern Mongolia, are absent here or occur
only in one locality, near the Shara-muren river, and are then greatly
intersected by gullies or dry watercourses. 1 Here there is, however,
a great dearth of water, no streams, no lakes, no wells, and precipita-
tion falls but seldom. The prevailing winds blow from the W. and
N.W. and the pall of dust overhangs the country as in the Takla-
makan and the desert of Lop. Characteristic of the flora are wild
garlic, Kalidium gracile, wormwood, saxaul, Nitraria Scoberi,
Caragana, Ephedra, saltwort and dirisun (Lasiagrostis splendens).
This great dtaert country of Gobi is crossed by several trade routes,
some of which have been in use for thousands of years. Among the
most important are those from Kalgan on the frontier of China to
Urga (600 m.), from Su-chow (in Kan-suh) to Hami (420 m.) from
Hami to Peking (1300 m.), from Kwei-hwa-cheng (or Kuku-khoto)
to Hami and Barkul, and from Lanchow (in Kan-suh) to Hami.
Climate. — The climate of the Gobi is one of great extremes, com-
bined with rapid changes of temperature, not only at all seasons of
the year but even within 24 hours (as much as 58 °F.). For instance,
at Urea (3770 ft.) the annual mean is 275°F., the January mean
-15-7 , and the July mean 63-5°, the extremes being 100-5° and
-44-5°; while at Sivantse (3905 ft.) the annual mean is 37°, the
January mean 2-3°, and the July mean 66-3°, the range being from
a recorded maximum of 93° to a recorded minimum of -53 °. Even
in southern Mongolia the thermometer goes down as low as -2 7°,
and in Ala-shan it rises day after day in July as high as 99°. Although
the south-east monsoons reach the S.E. parts of the Gobi, the air
generally throughout this region is characterized by extreme dryness,
especially during the winter. Hence the icy sandstorms and snow-
storms of spring and early summer. The rainfall at Urga for the year
amounts to only 9-7 in. _
1 Obruchev, in Izuestia of Russ. Geogr. Soc. (1895).
Sands of the Gobi Deserts. — With regard to the origin of the masses
of sand out of which the dunes and chains of dunes (barkhans) are
built up in the several deserts of the Gobi, opinions differ. While
some explorers consider them to be the product of marine, or at any
rate lacustrine, denudation (the Central Asian Mediterranean),
others — and this is not only the more reasonable view, but it is the
view which is gaining most ground — consider that they are the pro-
ducts of the aerial denudation of the border ranges (e.g. Nan-shan,
Karlyk-tagh, &c), and more especially of the terribly wasted ranges
and chains of hills, which, like the gaunt fragments of montane
skeletal remains, lie littered all over the swelling uplands and
tablelands of the Gobi, and that they have been transported by the
prevailing winds to the localities in which they are now accumulated,
the winds obeying similar transportation laws to the rivers and
streams which carry down sediment in moister parts of the world.
Potanin points out 2 that " there is a certain amount of regularity
observable in the distribution of the sandy deserts over the vast
uplands of central Asia. Two agencies are represented in the dis-
tribution of the sands, though what they really are is not quite clear;
and of these two agencies one prevails in the north-west, the other
in the south-east, so that the whole of Central Asia may be divided
into two regions, the dividing line between them being drawn from
north-east to south-west, from Urga via the eastern end of the
Tian-shan to the city of Kashgar. North-west of this line the sandy
masses are broken up into detached and disconnected areas, and are
almost without exception heaped up around the lakes, and con-
sequently in the lowest parts of the several districts in which they
exist. Moreover, we find also that these sandy tracts always occur
on the western or south-western shores of the lakes ; this is the case
with the lakes of Balkash, Ala-kul, Ebi-nor, Ayar-nor (or Telli-nor),
Orku-nor, Zaisan-nor, Ulungur-nor, Ubsa-nor, Durga-nor and
Kara-nor lying E. of Kirghiz-nor. South-east of the line the arrange-
ment of the sand is quite different. In that part of Asia we have
three gigantic but disconnected basins. The first, lying farthest east,
is embraced on the one side by the ramifications of the Kentei and
Khangai Mountains and on the other by the In-shan Mountains.
The second or middle division is contained between the Altai of the
Gobi and the Ala-shan. The third basin, in the west, lies between
the Tian-shan and the border ranges of western Tibet. . . . The
deepest parts of each of these three depressions occur near their
northern borders; towards their southern boundaries they are all
alike very much higher. . . . However, the sandy deserts are not
found in the low-lying tracts but occur on the higher uplands which
foot the southern mountain ranges, the In-shan and the Nan-shan.
Our maps show an immense expanse of sand south of the Tarim
in the western basin ; beginning in the neighbourhood of the city
of Yarkent (Yarkand), it extends eastwards past the towns of Khotan,
Keriya and Cherchen to Sa-chow. Along this stretch there is only
one locality which forms an exception to the rule we have indicated,
namely, the region round the lake of Lop-nor. In the middle basin the
widest expanse of sand occurs between the Edzin-gol and the range
of Ala-shan. On the south it extends nearly as far as a line drawn
through the towns of Lian-chow, Kan-chow and Kao-tai at the foot
of the Nan-shan; but on the south it does not approach anything
like so far as the latitude (42 ° N.) of the lake of Ghashiun-nor. Still
farther east come the sandy deserts of Ordos, extending south-
eastward as far as the mountain range which separates Ordos
from the (Chinese) provinces of Shan-si and Shen-si. In the eastern
basin drift-sand is encountered between the district of Ude in the
north (44 30' N.) and the foot of the In-shan in the south." In
two regions, if not in three, the sands have overwhelmed large
tracts of once cultivated country, and even buried the cities in
which men formerly dwelt. These regions are the southern parts
of the desert of Takla-makan (where Sven Hedin and M. A. Stein *
have discovered the ruins under the desert sands), along the N.
foot of the Nan-shan, and probably in part (other agencies having
helped) in the north of the desert of Lop, where Sven Hedin
discovered the ruins of Lou-Ian and of other towns or villages.
For these vast accumulations of sand are constantly in movement;
though the movement is slow, it has nevertheless been calcu-
lated that in the south of the Takla-makan the sand-dunes travel
bodily at the rate of roughly something like 160 ft. in the course of a
year. The shape and arrangement of the individual sand-dunes,
and of the barkhans, generally indicate from which direction the
predominant winds blow. On the windward side of the dune the
slope is long and gentle, while the leeward side is steep and in outline
concave like a horse-shoe. The dunes vary in height from 30 up to
300 ft., and in some places mount as it were upon one another's
shoulders, and in some localities it is even said that a third tier is
sometimes superimposed.
Authorities.— See N. M. Przhevalsky, Mongolia, the Tangut
Country, &c. (Eng. trans., ed. by Sir H. Yule, London, 1876), and
From Kulja across the Tian Shan to Lob Nor (Eng. trans, by Delmar
Morgan, London, 1879); G. N. Potanin, Tangutsko-Tibetskaya
Okraina Kitaya i Centralnaya Mongoliya, 1884-1886 (1893, &c);
M. V. Pjevtsov, Sketch of a Journey to Mongolia (in Russian, Omsk,
2 In Tangutsko-Tibetskaya Okraina Kitaya i Centralnaya Mon~
goliya, i. pp. 96, &c.
1 See Sand-buried Cities of Khotan (London, 1902).
GOBLET— GODALMING
169
1883) ; G. £. Grum-Grzhimailo, Opisanie Puteshestviya v Sapadniy
Kitai (1898-1899); V. A. Obruchev, Centralnaya Asiya, Severniy
Kitai i Nan-schan, 1892-1894 (1900-1901); V. I. Roborovsky and
P. K. Kozlov, Trudy Ekspeditsiy Imp. Russ. Geog. Obshchestoa Po
Centralnoy Asiy, 1893-189$ (1900, &c); Roborovsky, Trudy
Tibetskoi Ekspeditsiy, 1 889-1890; Sven Hedin, Scientific Results
of a Journey in Central Asia, 1899-1902 (6 vols., 1905-1907);
Futterer, Durch Asien (1901, &c.); K. Bogdanovich, Geotogtchesktya
Isledovaniya v Vostochnom Turkestane and Trudiy Tibetskoy Ekspe-
ditsiy, 18S9-1890; L. von Loczy, Die wissenschaftlicken Ergebntsse
der Keise des Graf en Szichenyi %n Ostasien, 1877-1880 (1883) ; Ney
Elias, in Journ, Roy. Geog. Soc. (1873) ; C. W. Campbell's " Tourneys
in Mongolia/' in Geographical Journal (Nov. 1903); Pozdnievym,
Mongolia and the Mongols (in Russian, St Petersburg, 1897 &c);
Deniker's summary of Kozlov's latest journeys in La Geographic
(1901, &c.) ; F. von Richthofen, China (1877). (J. T. Be.)
GOBLET, REN£ (1828-1905), French politician, was born at
Aire-sur-la-Lys, in the Pas de Calais, on the 26th of November
1828, and was educated for the law. Under the Second Empire,
he helped to found a Liberal journal, Le Progres de la Somme,
and in July 187 1 was sent by the department of the Somme to
the National Assembly, where he took his place on the extreme
left. He failed to secure election in 1876, but next year was
returned for Amiens. He held a minor government office in
1879, and in 1882 became minister of the interior in the Freycinet
cabinet. He was minister of education, fine arts and religion in
Henri Brisson's first cabinet in 1885, and again under Freycinet
in 1886, when he greatly increased his reputation by an able
defence of the government's education proposals. Meanwhile
his extreme independence and excessive candour had alienated
him from many of his party, and all through his life he was
frequently in conflict with his political associates, from Gambetta
downwards. On the fall of the Freycinet cabinet in December
he formed a cabinet in which he reserved for himself the portfolios
of the interior and of religion. The Goblet cabinet was unpopular
from the outset, and it was with difficulty that anybody could
be found to accept the ministry of foreign affairs, which was
finally given to M. Flourens. Then came what is known as the
Schnaebele incident, the arrest on the German frontier of a
French official named Schnaebele, which caused immense excite-
ment in France. For some days Goblet took no definite decision,
but left Flourens, who stood for peace, to fight it out with
General Boulanger, then minister of war, who was for the
despatch of an ultimatum. Although he finally intervened on
the side of Flourens, and peace was preserved, his weakness in
face of the Boulangist propaganda became a national danger.
Defeated on the budget in May 1887, his government resigned;
but he returned to office next year as foreign minister in the
radical administration of Charles Floquet. He was defeated at
the polls by a Boulangist candidate in 1889, and sat in the senate
from 1891 to 1893, when he returned to the popular chamber.
In association with MM. £. Lockroy, Ferdinand Sarrien and
P. L. Peytral he drew up a republican programme which they
put forward in the Petite Ripublique francaise. At the elections
of 1898 he was defeated, and thenceforward took little part in
public affairs. He died in Paris on the 13th of September
1905-
GOBLET, a large type of drinking-vessel, particularly one
shaped like a cup, without handles, and mounted on a shank
with a foot. The word is derived from the O. Fr. gobelet, diminu-
tive of gobel, gobeau, which Skeat takes to be formed from Low
Lat. cupellus, cup, diminutive of cupa, tub, cask (see Drinking-
Vessels).
GOBY. The gobies (Gobius) are small fishes readily recognized
by their ventrals (the fins on the lower surface of the chest) being
united into one fin, forming a suctorial disk, by which these fishes
are enabled to attach themselves in every possible position to a
rock or other firm substances. They are essentially coast-fishes,
inhabiting nearly all seas, but disappearing towards the Arctic
and Antarctic Oceans. Many enter, or live exclusively in, such
fresh waters as are at no great distance from the sea. Nearly 500
different kinds are known. The largest British species, Gobius
capito, occurring in the rock-pools of Cornwall, measures 10
in. Gobius alcocki, from brackish and fresh waters of Lower
Bengal, is one of the very smallest of fishes, not measuring over
16 millimetres ( = 7 lines). The males are usually more brilliantly
coloured than the females, and guard the eggs, which are often
placed in a sort of nest made of the shell of some bivalve or of the
carapace of a crab, with the convexity turned upwards and
Fig. 1. — Gobius lentiginosus. Fig. 2. — United
Ventrals of Goby.
covered with sand, the eggs being stuck to the inner surface of
this roof.
Close allies of the gobies are the walking fish or jumping fish
(Periophthalmus), of which various species are found in great
Fig. 3. — Periophthalmus koelreuteri.
numbers on the mud fiats at the mouths of rivers in the tropics,
skipping about by means of the muscular, scaly base of their
pectoral fins, with the head raised and bearing a pair of strongly
projecting versatile eyes close together.
GOCH, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province, on
the Niers, 8 m. S. of Cleves at the junction of the railways Cologne-
Zevenaar and Boxtel-Wesel. Pop. (1905) 10,232. It has a
Protestant and a Roman Catholic church and manufactures of
brushes, plush goods, cigars and margarine. In the middle ages
it was the seat of a large trade in linen. Goch became a town in
1 23 1 and belonged to the dukes of Gelderland and later to the
dukes of Cleves.
GOD, the common Teutonic word for a personalobject of
religious worship. It is thus, like the Gr. debs and tat. deus 9
applied to all those superhuman beings of the heathen mythologies
who exercise power over nature and man and are often identified
with some particular sphere of activity; and also to the visible
material objects, whether an image of the supernatural being or a
tree, pillar, &c. used as a symbol, an idol The word " god," on
the conversion of the Teutonic races to Christianity, was
adopted as the name of the one Supreme Being, the Creator of the
universe, and of the Persons of the Trinity. The New English
Dictionary points out that whereas the old Teutonic type of the
word is neuter, corresponding to the Latin numen, in the Christian
applications it becomes masculine, and that even where the
earlier neuter form is still kept, as in Gothic and Old Norwegian,
the construction is masculine. Popular etymology has connected
the word with " good "; this is exemplified by the corruption of
" God be with you " into " good-bye." " God " is a word
common to all Teutonic languages. In Gothic it is Gulh; Dutch
has the same form as English; Danish and Swedish have Gud r
German Gott. According to the New English Dictionary, the
original may be found in two Aryan roots, both of the form gheu,
one of which means " to invoke," the other " to pour " (cf. Gr.
X&«0; the last is used of sacrificial offerings. The word would
thus mean the object either of religious invocation or of religious
worship by sacrifice. It has been also suggested that the word
might mean a " molten image " from the sense of " pour."
See Religion; Hebrew Religion; Theism, &c.
GODALMING, a market-town and municipal borough in the
Guildford parliamentary division of Surrey, England, 34 m. S.W.
of London by the London & South- Western railway. Pop. (1901)
8748. It is beautifully situated on the right bank of the Wey,
xn. 6 a
170
GODARD— GODAVARI
which is navigable thence to the Thames, and on the high road
between London and Portsmouth. Steep hills, finely wooded,
enclose the valley. The chief public buildings are the church of
SS. Peter and Paul, a cruciform building of mixed architecture,
but principally Early English and Perpendicular; the town-hall,
Victoria hall, and market-house, and a technical institute and
school of science and art. Charterhouse School, one of the
principal English public schools, originally founded in 161 1, was
transferred from Charterhouse Square, London, to Godalming in
1872. It stands within grounds 92 acres in extent, half a mile
north of Godalming, and consists of spacious buildings in Gothic
style, with a chapel, library and hall, besides boarding-houses,
masters' houses and sanatoria. (See Charterhouse.) Godalming
has manufactures of paper, leather, parchment and hosiery, and
some trade in corn, malt, bark, hoops and timber; and the
Bargate stone, of which the parish church is built, is still quarried.
The borough is under a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors.
Area, 812 acres.
Godalming (Godelminge) belonged to King Alfred, and was a
royal manor at the time of Domesday. The manor belonged to
the see of Salisbury in the middle ages, but reverted to the crown
in the time of Henry VIII. Godalming was incorporated by
Elizabeth in 1574, when the borough originated. The charter
was confirmed by James I. in 1620, and a fresh charter was
granted by Charles II. in 1666. The borough was never repre-
sented in parliament. The bishop of Salisbury in 1300 received the
grant of a weekly market to be held on Mondays: the day was
altered to Wednesday by Elizabeth's charter. The bishop's
grant included a fair at the feast of St Peter and St Paul (29th of
June). Another fair at Candlemas (2nd of February) was granted
by Elizabeth. The market is still held. The making of cloth,
particularly Hampshire kerseys, was the staple industry of
Godalming in the middle ages, but it began to decay early in the
17th century and by 1850 was practically extinct. As in other
cases, dyeing was subsidiary to the cloth industry. Tanning,
introduced in the 15th century, survives. The present manu-
facture of fleecy hosiery dates from the end of the 18th century.
GODARD, BENJAMIN LOUIS PAUL (1849-1895), French
composer, was born in Paris, on the 18th of August 1849. He
studied at the Conservatoire, and competed for the Prix de
Rome without success in 1866 and 1867. He began by publishing
a number of songs, many of which are charming, such as " Je
ne veux pas d'autres choses," " Ninon," " Chanson de Florian,"
also a quantity of piano pieces, some chamber music, including
several violin sonatas, a trio for piano and strings, a quartet for
strings, a violin concerto and a second work of the same kind
entitled " Concerto Romantique." Godard's chance arrived in
the year 1878, when with his dramatic cantata, Le Tasse, he shared
with M. Theodore Dubois the honour of winning the musical
competition instituted by the city of Paris. From that time
until his death Godard composed a surprisingly large number of
works, including four operas, Pedro de Zalamea, produced at
Antwerp in 1884; Jocelyn, given in Paris at the Th&ttre du
Ch&teau d'Eau, in 1888; Dante, played at the OpSra Comique
two years later; and La Vivandiere, left unfinished and partly
scored by another hand. This last work was heard at the Opera
Comique in 1895, and has been played in England by the Carl
Rosa Opera Company. His other works include the " Symphonie
16gendaire," " Symphonie gothique," " Diane " and various
orchestral works. Godard's productivity was enormous, and his
compositions are, for this reason only, decidedly unequal. He
was at his best in works of smaller dimensions, and has left many
exquisite songs. Among his more ambitious works the " Sym-
phonie 16gendaire " may be singled out as being one of the most
distinctive. He had a decided individuality, and his premature
death at Cannes on the 10th of January 1895 was a loss to
French art.
GODAVARI, a river of central and western India. It flows
across the Deccan from the Western to the Eastern Ghats; its
total length is 900 m., the estimated area of its drainage basin,
112,200 sq. m. Its traditional source is on the side of a hill
behind the village of Trimbak in Nasik district, Bombay, where
the water runs into a reservoir from the lips of an image. But
according to popular legend it proceeds from the same ultimate
source as the Ganges, though underground. Its course is gener-
ally south-easterly. After passing through Nasik district, it
crosses into the dominions of the nizam of Hyderabad. When
it again strikes British territory it is joined by the Pranhita,
with its tributaries the Wardha, the Penganga and Wainganga.
For some distance it flows between the nizam's dominions and
the Upper Godavari district, and receives the Indravati, the Tal
and the Sabari. The stream has here a channel varying from
1 to 2 m. in breadth, occasionally broken by alluvial islands.
Parallel to the river stretch long ranges of hills. Below the
junction of the Sabari the channel begins to contract. The
flanking hills gradually close in on both sides, and the result is
a magnificent gorge only 200 yds. wide through which the water
flows into the plain of the delta, about 60 m. from the sea. The
head of the delta is at the village of Dowlaishweram, where the
main stream is crossed by the irrigation anicut. The river has
seven mouths, the largest being the Gautami Godavari. The
Godavari is regarded as peculiarly sacred, and once every twelve
years the great bathing festival called Pushkaram is held on its
banks at Rajahmundry.
The upper waters of the Godavari are scarcely utilized for
irrigation, but the entire delta has been turned into a garden of
perennial crops by means of the anicut at Dowlaishweram,
constructed by Sir Arthur Cotton, from which three main canals
are drawn off. The river channel here is 3 J m. wide. The anicut
is a substantial mass of stone, bedded in lime cement, about
2 J m. long, 130 ft. broad at the base, and 12 ft. high. The
stream is thus pent back so as to supply a volume of 3000 cubic ft.
of water per second during its low season, and 12,000 cubic ft.
at time of flood. The main canals have a total length of 493 m.,
irrigating 662,000 acres, and all navigable; and there are 1929 m.
of distributary channels. In 1864 water-communication was
opened between the deltas of the Godavari and Kistna. Rocky
barriers and rapids obstruct navigation in the upper portion of
the Godavari. Attempts have been made to construct canals
round these barriers with little success, and the undertaking has
been abandoned.
GODAVARI, a district of British India, in the north-east
of the Madras presidency. It was remodelled in 1 907-1 908,
when part of it was transferred to Kistna district. Its present
area is 5634 sq. m. Its territory now lies mainly east of
the Godavari river, including the entire delta, with a long
narrow strip extending up its valley. The apex of the delta
is at Dowlaishweram, where a great dam renders the waters
available for irrigation. Between this point and the coast
there is a vast extent of rice fields. Farther inland, and
enclosing the valley of the great river, are low hills, steep and
forest-clad. The north-eastern part, known as the Agency
tract, is occupied by spurs of the Eastern Ghats. The coast is
low, sandy and swampy, the sea very shallow, so that vessels
must lie nearly 5 m. from Cocanada, the chief port. The Sabari
is the principal tributary of the Godavari within the district.
The Godavari often rises in destructive floods. The population
of the present area in 1901 was 1,445,961. In the old district
the increase during the last decade was 11 %. The chief towns
are Cocanada and Rajahmundry. The forests are of great value;
coal is known, and graphite is worked. The population is
principally occupied in agriculture, the principal crops being
rice, oil-seeds, tobacco and sugar. The cigars known in England
as Lunkas are partly made from tobacco grown on lankas or
islands in the river Godavari. Sugar (from the juice of the
palmyra palm) and rum are made by European processes at
Samalkot. The administrative headquarters are now at Coca-
nada, the chief seaport; but Rajahmundry, at the head of the
delta, is the old capital. A large but decreasing trade is conducted
at Cocanada, rice being shipped to Mauritius and Ceylon, and
cotton and oil-seeds to Europe. Rice-cleaning mills have been
established here and at other places. The district is traversed
by the main line of the East Coast railway, with a branch to
Cocanada; the iron girder bridge of forty-two spans over the
GODEFROY— GODET
171
Godavari river near Rajahmundry was opened in 1900. There
is a government college at Rajahmundry, with a training college
attached, and an aided college at Cocanada.
The Godavari district formed part of the Andhra division of
Dravida, the north-west portion being subject to the Orissa
kings, and the south-western belonging to the Vengi kingdom.
For centuries it was the battlefield on which various chiefs
fought for independence with varying success till the beginning
of the 16th century, when the whole country may be said to have
passed under Mahommedan power. At the conclusion of the
struggle with the French in the Carnatic, Godavari with the
Northern Circars was conquered by the English, and finally
ceded by imperial sanad in 1765. The district was constituted
in 1859, by the redistribution of the territory comprising the
former districts of Guntur, Rajahmundry and Masulipatam,
into what are now the Kistna and Godavari districts.
See H. Morris, District Manual (1878); District Gazetteer (1906).
GODEFROT (Gothofredus), a French noble family, which
numbered among its members several distinguished jurists and
historians. The family claimed descent from Symon Godefroy,
who was born at Mons about 1320 and was lord of Sapigneulx
near Berry-au-bac, now in the department of Aisne.
Denis Godefroy (Dionysius Gothofredus) (1 549-1622),
jurist, son of Leon Godefroy, lord of Guignecourt, was born in
Paris on the 17th of October 1549. He was educated at the
College de Navarre, and studied law at Louvain, Cologne and
Heidelberg, returning to Paris in 1573. He embraced the
reformed religion, and in 1579 left Paris, where his abilities and
connexions promised a brilliant career, to establish himself at
Geneva. He became professor of law there, received the freedom
of the city in 1580, and in 1587 became a member of the Council
of the Two Hundred. Henry IV. induced him to return to France
by making him grand bailli of Gex,but no sooner had he installed
himself than the town was sacked and his library burnt by the
troops of the duke of Savoy. In 1591 he became professor of
Roman law at Strassburg, where he remained until April 1600,
when in response to an invitation from Frederick IV., elector
palatine, he removed to Heidelberg. The difficulties of his
position led to his return to Strassburg for a short time, but in
November 1604 he definitely settled at Heidelberg. He was
made head of the faculty of law in the university, and was from
time to time employed on missions to the French court. His
repeated refusal of offers of advancement in his own country
was due to his Calvinism. He died at Strassburg on the 7th of
September 1622, having left Heidelberg before the city was
sacked by the imperial troops in 162 1. His most important work
was the Corpus juris civilis, originally published at Geneva in
x 583, which went through some twenty editions, the most
valuable of them being that printed by the Elzevirs at Amster-
dam in 1633 and the Leipzig edition of 1740.
Lists of his other learned works may be found in Senebier's Hist,
litt. de Geneve, vol. ii., and in Nic^ron's Mimoires, vol. xvii. Some of
his correspondence with his learned friends, with his kinsman
President de Thou, Isaac Casaubon, Jean Jacques Grynaeus and
others, is preserved in the libraries of the Bntish Museum, of Basel
and Paris.
His eldest son, Theodore Godefroy (1 580-1649), was born
at Geneva on the 14th of July 1580. He abjured Calvinism,
and was called to the bar in Paris. He became historiographer
of France in 1613, and was employed from time to time on
diplomatic missions. He was employed at the congress of
Miinster, where he remained after the signing of peace in 1648
as charg6 d'affaires until his death on the 5th of October of the
next year. His most important work is Le CMmonial de France
. . . (1619), a work which became a classic on the subject of
royal ceremonial, and was re-edited by his son in an enlarged
edition in 1649.
Besides his printed works he made vast collections of historical
material which remains in MS. and fills the greater part of the
Godefroy collection of over five hundred portfolios in the Library
of the Institute in Paris. These were catalogued by Ludovic
Lalanne in the Annuaire Bulletin (1865-1866 and 1892) of the
Sociite de Vhistoire de France.
The second son of Denis, Jacques Godefroy (1587-1652),
jurist, was born at Geneva on the 13th of September 1587. He
was sent to France in 161 1, and studied law and history at
Bourges and Paris. He remained faithful to the Calvinist
persuasion, and soon returned to Geneva, where he became active
m public affairs. He was secretary of state from 1632 to 1636,
and syndic or chief magistrate in 1637, 1641, 1645 and 1649.
He died on the 23rd of June 1652. In addition to his civic and
political work he lectured on law, and produced, after thirty
years of labour, his edition of the Codex Theodosianus. This
code formed the principal, though not the only, source of the
legal systems of the countries formed from the Western Empire.
Godefroy's edition was enriched with a multitude of important
notes and historical comments, and became a standard authority
on the decadent period of the Western Empire. It was only
printed thirteen years after his death under the care of his
friend Antoine Marville at Lyons (4 vols. 1665), and was reprinted
at Leipzig (6 vols.) in 1 736-1 745. Of his numerous other works
the most important was the reconstruction of the twelve tables
of early Roman law.
See also the dictionary of Moreri, Niceron's MSmoires (vol. 17)
and a notice in the Bibliotheque universale de Geneve (Dec. 1837).
Denis Godefroy (1615-1681), eldest son of Theodore,
succeeded his father as historiographer of France, and re-edited
various chronicles which had been published by him. He was
entrusted by Colbert with the care and investigation of the
records concerning the Low Countries preserved at Lille, where
great part of his life was spent. He was also the historian of
the reigns of Charles VII. and Charles VIII.
Other members of the family who attained distinction in the
same branch of learning were the two sons of Denis Godefroi —
Denis (1653-1719), also an historian, and Jean, sieur d'Aumont
(1656-1732), who edited the letters of Louis XII., the memoirs
of Marguerite de Valois, of Castelnau and Pierre de l'Estoile,
and left some useful material for the history of the Low Countries;
Jean Baptiste Achille Godefroy, sieur de Maillart (1697-1759),
and Denis Joseph Godefroy, sieur de Maillart (1 740-1819), son
and grandson of Jean Godefroy, who were both officials at
Lille, and left valuable historical documents which have remained
in MS.
For further details see Les Savants Godefroy (Paris, 1873) by the
marquis de Godefroy-Menilglaise, son of Denis Joseph Godefroy.
GODESBERG, a spa of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province,
on the left bank of the Rhine, almost opposite Konigswinter,
and 4 m. S. of Bonn, on the railway to Coblenz. It is a fashion-
able summer resort, and contains numerous pretty villas, the
residences of merchants from Cologne, Elberfeld, Crefeld and
other Rhenish manufacturing centres. It has an Evangelical
and three Roman Catholic churches, a synagogue and several
educational establishments. Its chalybeate springs annually
attract a large number of visitors, and the pump-room, baths
and public grounds are arranged on a sumptuous scale. On a
conical basalt hill, close by, are the ruins, surmounted by a
picturesque round tower, of Godesberg castle. Built by Arch-
bishop Dietrich I. of Cologne in the 13th century, it was destroyed
by the Bavarians in 1583.
See Dennert, Godesberg, eine Perle des Rheins (Godesberg, 1900).
GODET, FRfiDtiRIC LOUIS (181 2-1 900), Swiss Protestant
theologian, was born at Neuchatel on the 25th of October 181 2.
After studying theology at Neuchatel, Bonn and Berlin, he was
in 1850 appointed professor of theology at Neuchatel. From
1851 to 1866 he also held a pastorate. In 1873 he became one
of the founders of the free Evangelical Church of Neuchatel, and
professor in its theological faculty. He died there on the 29th of
October 1900. A conservative scholar, Godet was the author
of some of the most noteworthy French commentaries published
in recent times.
His commentaries are on the Gospel of St John (2 vols., 1 863-1 865 ;
3rd ed., 1881-1888; Eng. trans. 1886, &c); St Luke (2 vols., 1871;
3rd ed., 1888; Eng. trans. 1875, &c); the Epistle to the Romans (2
vols., 1879-1880; 2nd ed., 1883-1890; Eng. trans., 1880, &c);
Corinthians (2 vols., 1 886-1 887; Eng. trans. 1886, &c). His other
172 GODFREY, SIR E. B.— GODFREY OF BOUILLON
works include &tudes bibUques (2 vols., 1 873-1 874; 4th ed., 1880;
Kng. tran*. 1875 f.), and Introduction au Nouveau Testament (1893 f. ;
Kntf. tranu., 1894, &c.); Lectures in Defence of the Christian faith
(Eng. tran*. 4th ed., 1900).
GODFREY, SIR EDMUND BERRY (1621-1678), English
magistrate and politician, younger son of Thomas Godfrey
(1586*1664), a member of an old Kentish family, was born on
the 23rd of December 1621. He was educated at Westminster
school and at Christ Church, Oxford, and after entering Gray's
Inn became a dealer in wood. His business prospered. He was
made a justice of the peace for the city of Westminster, and in
September 1666 was knighted as a reward for his services as
magistrate and citizen during the great plague in London; but
in 1669 he was imprisoned for a few days for instituting the
arrest of the king's physician, Sir Alexander Fraizer (d. 1681),
who owed him money. The tragic events in Godfrey's life began
in September 1678 when Titus Oatcs and two other men appeared
before him with written information about the Popish Plot, and
swore to the truth of their statements. During the intense
excitement which followed the magistrate expressed a fear that
his life was in danger, but took no extra precautions for safety.
On the 1 2th of October he did not return home as usual, and on
the 17th his body was found on Primrose Hill, Hampstead.
Medical and other evidence made it certain that he had been
murdered, and the excited populace regarded the deed as the
work of the Roman Catholics. Two committees investigated
the occurrence without definite result, but in December 1678
a certain Miles Prance, who had been arrested for conspiracy,
confessed that he had shared in the murder. According to
Prance the deed was instigated by some Roman Catholic priests,
three of whom witnessed the murder, and was committed in the
courtyard of Somerset House, where Godfrey was strangled by
Robert Green, Lawrence Hill and Henry Berry, the body being
afterwards taken to Hampstead. The three men were promptly
arrested ; the evidence of the informer William Bedloe, although
contradictory, was similar on a few points to that of Prance, and
in February 1679 they were hanged. Soon afterwards, however,
some doubt was cast upon this story; a war of words ensued
between Prance and others, and it was freely asserted that
Godfrey had committed suicide. Later the falsehood of Prance's
confession was proved and Prance pleaded guilty to perjury;
but the fact remains that Godfrey was murdered. Godfrey
was an excellent magistrate, and was very charitable both in
public and in private life. Mr John Pollock, in the Popish Plot
(London, 1003), confirms the view that the three men, Green,
Hill and Berry, were wrongfully executed, and thinks the
murder was committed by some Jesuits aided by Prance.
Godfrey was feared by the Jesuits because he knew, through
Oates, that on the 24th of April 1678 a Jesuit congregation had
met at the residence of the duke of York to concert plans for the
king's murder. He concludes thus: " The success of Godfrey's
murder as a political move is indubitable. The duke of York
was the pivot of the Roman Catholic scheme in England, and
Godfrey's death saved both from utter ruin." On the other hand
Mr Alfred Marks in his Who killed Sir E. B. Godfrey? (1005)
maintains that suicide was the cause of Godfrey's death.
Sec the article Oates, Titus, also R. Tuke, Memoirs of the Life
and Death of Sir Edmondbury Godfrey (London, 1682); and G.
Burnet, History of my Own Time; The Reign of Charles //., edited by
O. Airy (Oxford, 1900).
GODFREY OF BOUILLON (c. 1060-1100), a leader in the First
Crusade, was the second son of Eustace II., count of Boulogne,
by his marriage with Ida, daughter of Duke Godfrey II. of
Lower Lorraine. He was designated by Duke Godfrey as his
successor; but the emperor Henry IV. gave him only the mark
of Antwerp, in which the lordship of Bouillon was included
(1076), He fought for Henry, however, both on the Elster and
in the siege of Rome; and he was invested in 1082 with the duchy
of Lower Lorraine. Lorraine had been penetrated by Cluniac
influences, and Godfrey would seem to have been a man of
notable piety. Accordingly, though he had himself served as
an imperialist, and though the Germans in general had little
sympathy with the Crusaders {subsannabant . . . quasi delirantes),
Godfrey, nevertheless, when the call came " to follow Christ/'
almost literally sold all that he had, and foMowed. Along with
his brothers Eustace and Baldwin (the future Baldwin I. of
Jerusalem) he led a German contingent, some 40,000 strong,
alongj"Charlemagne's road," through Hungary to Constantinople,
starting in August 1096, and arriving at Constantinople, after
some difficulties in Hungary, in November. He was the first
of the crusading princes to arrive, and on him fell the duty of
deciding what the relations of the princes te the eastern emperor
Alexius were to be. Eventually, after several disputes and
some fighting, he did homage to Alexius in January 1097; and
his example was followed by the other princes. From this time
until the beginning of 1099 Godfrey appears as one of the
minor princes, plodding onwards, and steadily fighting, while
men like Bohemund and Raymund, Baldwin and Tancred were
determining the course of events.
In 1099 he came once more to the front. The mass of the
crusaders became weary of the political factions which divided
some of their leaders; and Godfrey, who was more of a pilgrim
than a politician, becomes the natural representative of this
feeling. He was thus able to force the reluctant Raymund to
march southward to Jerusalem; and he took a prominent
part in the siege, his division being the first to enter when the
city was captured. It was natural therefore that, when Raymund
of Provence refused the offered dignity, Godfrey should be elected
ruler of Jerusalem (July 22, 1099). He assumed the title not of
king, but of " advocate " i of the Holy Sepulchre. The new
dignity proved still more onerous than honourable; and during
his short reign of a year Godfrey had to combat the Arabs of
Egypt, and the opposition of Raymund and the patriarch
Dagobert. He was successful in repelling the Egyptian attack
at the battle of Ascalon (August 1099) ; but he failed, owing to
Raymund's obstinacy and greed, to acquire the town of Ascalon
after the battle. Left alone, at the end of the autumn, with an
army of some 2000 men, Godfrey was yet able, in the spring of
1 100, probably with the aid of new pilgrims, to exact tribute
from towns like Acre, Ascalon, Arsuf and Caesarea. But already,
at the end of 1099 Dagobert, archbishop of Pisa, had been
substituted as patriarch for Arnulf (who had been acting as vicar)
by the influence of Bohemund; and Dagobert, whose vassal
Godfrey had at once piously acknowledged himself, seems to
have forced him to an agreement in April 1100, by which he
promised Jerusalem and Jaffa to the patriarch, in case he should
acquire in their place Cairo or some other town, or should die
without issue. Thus were the foundations of a theocracy laid
in Jerusalem; and when Godfrey died (July 1100) he left the
question to be decided, whether a theocracy or a monarchy
should be the government of the Holy Land.
Because he had been the first ruler in Jerusalem Godfrey
was idolized in later saga. He was depicted as the leader of
the crusades, the king of Jerusalem, the legislator who laid
down the assizes of Jerusalem. He was none of these things.
Bohemund was the leader of the crusades; Baldwin was first
king; the assizes were the result of a gradual development.
In still other ways was the figure of Godfrey idealized by the
grateful tradition of later days; but in reality he would seem to
have been a quiet, pious, hard-fighting knight, who was chosen
to rule in Jerusalem because he had no dangerous qualities,
and no obvious defects.
Literature. — The narrative of Albert of Aix may be regarded
as presenting the Lotharingian point of view, as the Gesta presents
the Norman, and Raymund of Agiles the Provencal. The career
of Godfrey has been discussed in modern times by R. Rohricht,
Die Deutschen im heiligen Lande, Band ii. f and Geschichte des ersien
Kreusxuges, passim (Innsbruck, 1901). (E. Br.)
Romances. — Godfrey was the principal hero of two French
chansons de geste dealing with the Crusade, the Chanson d'Antiocke
(ed. P. Paris, 2 vols., 1848) and the Chanson de Jerusalem (ed.
C. Hippeau, 1868) , and other poems, containing less historical
1 An " advocate " was a layman who had been invested with part
of an ecclesiastic estate, on condition that he defended the rest, and
exercised the blood-ban in lieu of the ecclesiastical owner (see
Advocate, sec. Advocatus ecclesiae).
GODFREY OF VITERBO— GODIVA
173
material, were subsequently added. In addition the parentage
and early exploits of Godfrey were made the subject of legend.
His grandfather was said to be Helias, knight of the Swan, one
of the brothers whose adventures are well known, though with
some variation, in the familiar fairytale of "The Seven Swans."
Helias, drawn by the swan, one day disembarked at Nijmwegen,
and reconquered her territory for the duchess of Bouillon.
Marrying her daughter he exacted a promise that his wife should
not inquire into his origin. The tale, which is almost identical
with the Lohengrin legend, belongs to the class of the Cupid and
Psyche narratives. See Lohengrin.
See also C. Hippeau, Le Chevalier au cygne (Paris, 2 vols., 1874-
1877) ; H. Pigeonneau, Le Cycle de la croisade et de la famille de
Bouillon (1877) ; W. Golther, "Lohengrin," in Roman. For sen. (vol. v.,
1889); Hist. Utt. de la France, vol. xxii. pp. 350-402; the English
romance of Helyas, Knygkte of ike Swanne was printed by W. Copland
about 1550.
GODFREY OF VITERBO (c. 1120-c. 1196), chronicler, was
probably an Italian by birth, although some authorities assert
that he was a Saxon. He evidently passed some of his early life
at Viterbo, where also he spent his concluding days, but he was
educated at Bamberg, gaining a good knowledge of Latin.
About 1 140 he became chaplain to the German king, Conrad III. ;
but the greater part of his life was spent as secretary (notarius)
in the service of the emperor Frederick L, who appears to have
thoroughly trusted him, and who employed him on many
diplomatic errands. Incessantly occupied, he visited Sicily,
France and Spain, in addition to many of the German cities, in
the emperor's interests, and was by his side during several of
the Italian campaigns. Both before and after Frederick's death
in 1 190 he enjoyed the favour of his son, the emperor Henry VI.,
for whom he wrote his Speculum regum, a work of very little
value. Godfrey also wrote Memoria sectdorum, or Liber memo-
rialise a chronicle dedicated to Henry VI., which professes to
record the history of the world from the creation until 1185.
It is written partly in prose and partly in verse. A revision of
this work was drawn up by Godfrey himself as Pantheon, or
Universitatis libri qui chronici appeUantur. The author borrowed
from Otto of Freising, but the earlier part of his chronicle is full
of imaginary occurrences. Pantheon was first printed in 1559,
and extracts from it are published by L. A. Muratori in the
Return Italicarum scriptores, tome vii. (Milan, 1725). The only
part of Godfrey's work which is valuable is the Gesta Friderici /.,
verses relating events in the emperor's career from 1155 to 1 180.
Concerned mainly with affairs in Italy, the poem tells of the sieges
of Milan, of Frederick's flight to Pavia in 1167, of the treaty with
Pope Alexander III. at Venice, and of other stirring episodes
with which the author was intimately acquainted, and many of
which he had witnessed. Attached to the Gesta Friderici is the
Gesta Heinrici VI., a shorter poem which is often attributed to
Godfrey, although W. Wattenbach and other authorities think
it was not written by him. The Memoria seculorum was very
popular during the middle ages, and has been continued by
several writers.
Godfrey's works are found in the Monumenta Gertnaniae historica,
Band xxii. (Hanover, 18^2}. The Gesta Friderici I. et Heinrici VI.
is published separately with an introduction by G. Waitz (Hanover,
1872). See also H. Ulmann, Gotfried von Viterbo (Gottingen, 1863),
and W. Wattenbach, Deutschlands Geschichtsquellen, Band ii.
(Berlin, 1894). (A. W. H.*)
GODHRA, a town of British India, administrative head-
quarters of the Panch Mahals district of Bombay, and also of
the Rewa Kantha political agency; situated 52 m. N.E. of
Baroda on the railway from Anand to Ratlam. Pop. (1901)
20,915. It has a trade in timber from the neighbouring forests.
GODIN, JEAN BAPTISTS ANDRfi (181 7-1888), French
socialist, was born on the 26th of January 181 7 at Esqueh6ries
(Aisne). The son of an artisan, he entered an iron-works at an
early age, and at seventeen made a tour of France as journeyman.
Returning to Esqueheries in 1837, he started a small factory for
the manufacture of castings for heating-stoves. The business
increased rapidly, and for the purpose of railway facilities was
transferred to Guise in 1846. At the time of Godin's death in
1888 the annual output was over four millions of francs (£160,000),
and in 1908 the employees numbered over 2000 and the output
was over £280,000. An ardent disciple of Fourier, he advanced
a considerable sum of money towards the disastrous Fourierist
experiment of V. P. Considlrant (q.v.) in Texas. He profited,
however, by its failure, and in 1859 started the familistere or
community settlement of Guise on more carefully laid plans.
It comprises, in addition to the workshops, three large buildings,
four storeys high, capable of housing all the work-people, each
family having two or three rooms. Attached to each building
is a vast central court, covered with a glass roof, under which the
children can play in all weathers. There are also creches,
nurseries, hospital, refreshment rooms and recreation rooms of
various kinds, stores for the purchase of groceries, drapery and
every necessity, and a large theatre for concerts and dramatic
entertainments. In 1880 the whole was turned into a co-opera-
tive society, with provision by which it eventually became the
property of the workers. In 187 1 Godin was elected deputy for
Aisne, but retired in 1876 to devote himself to the management
of the familistere. In 1882 he was created a knight of the legion
of honour.
Godin was the author of Solutions sociales (1871); Les Socialises
et les droits du travail (1874); MutuaUU sociale (1880); La Re-
publique du travail et la riforme parlementaire ( 1 889) . See Bernardot ,
Le Familistere de Guise et son fondateur (Paris, 1887); Fischer,
Die Familistere Godin's (Berlin, 1890); Lestelle, Htude sur le familis-
tere de Guise (Paris, 1904) ; D. F. P., Le Familistere illustrb, rSsultats
de vingt ans d' association, 1880-1000 (Eng. trans., Twenty-eight years
of co-partnership at Guise, by A. Williams, 1908).
GODIVA, a Saxon lady, who, according to the legend, rode
naked through the streets of Coventry to gain from her husband
a remission of the oppressive toll imposed on his tenants. The
story is that she was the beautiful wife of Leofric, earl of Mercia
and lord of Coventry. The people of that city suffering griev-
ously under the earl's oppressive taxation, Lady Godiva appealed
again and again to her husband, who obstinately refused to remit
the tolls. At last, weary of her entreaties, he said he would grant
her request if she would ride naked through the streets of the
town. Lady Godiva took him at his word, and after issuing a
proclamation that all persons should keep within doors or shut
their windows, she rode through, clothed only in her long hair.
One person disobeyed her proclamation, a tailor, ever afterwards
known as Peeping Tom. He bored a hole in his shutters that he
might see Godiva pass, and is said to have been struck blind.
Her husband kept his word and abolished the obnoxious taxes.
The oldest form of the legend makes Godiva pass through
Coventry market from one end to the other when the people
were assembled, attended only by two soldiers, her long hair
down so that none saw her, " apparentibus cruribus tamen
candidissimis." This version is given in Flores historiarum by
Roger of Wendover, who quoted from an earlier writer. The
later story, with its episode of Peeping Tom, has been evolved
by later chroniclers. Whether the lady Godiva of this story is
the Godiva or Godgifu of history is undecided. That a lady of
this name existed in the early part of the nth century is certain,
as evidenced by several ancient documents, such as the Stow
charter, the Spalding charter and the Domesday survey, though
the spelling of the name varies considerably. It would appear
from Liber Eliensis (end of 12th century) that she was a widow
when Leofric married her in 1040. In or about that year she
aided in the founding of a monastery at Stow, Lincolnshire.
In 1043 she persuaded her husband to build and endow a Bene-
dictine monastery at Coventry. Her mark, "^ Ego Godiva
Comitissa diu istud desideravi," was found on the charter given
by her brother, Thorold of Bucknall — sheriff of Lincolnshire —
to the Benedictine monastery of Spalding in 105 1; and she is
commemorated as benefactress of other monasteries at Leo-
minster, Chester, Wenlock, Worcester and Evesham. She
probably died a few years before the Domesday survey (1085-
1086), and was buried in one of the porches of the abbey church.
Dugdale (1656) says that a window, with representations of
Leofric and Godiva, was placed in Trinity Church, Coventry,
about the time of Richard II. The Godiva procession, a com-
memoration of the legendary ride instituted on the 31st of May
174
GODKIN— GODOLPHIN
1678 as part of Coventry fair, was celebrated at intervals until
1826. From 1848 to 1887 it was revived, and recently further
attempts have been made to popularize the pageant. The
wooden effigy of Peeping Tom which, since 181 2, has looked
out on the world from a house at the north-west corner of
Hertford Street, Coventry, represents a man in armour, and
was probably an image of St George. It was removed from
another part of the town to its present position.
GODKIN, EDWIN LAWRENCE (1 831-1002), American
publicist, was born in Moyne, county Wicklow, Ireland, on the
2nd of October 1831. His father, James Godkin, was a Presby-
terian minister and a journalist, and the son, after graduating
in 1851 at Queen's College, Belfast, and studying law in London,
was in 1853-1855 war correspondent for the London Daily News
in Turkey and Russia, being present at the capture of Sevastopol,
and late in 1856 went to America and wrote letters to the same
journal, giving his impressions of a tour of the southern states of
the American Union. He studied law in New York City, was
admitted to the bar in 1859, travelled in Europe in 1860-186 2,
wrote for the London News and the New York Times in 1862-
1865, and in 1865 founded in New York City the Nation, a
weekly projected by him long before, for which Charles Eliot
Norton gained friends in Boston and James Miller McKim (1810-
1874) in Philadelphia, and which Godkin edited until the end of
the year 1899. In 1881 he sold the Nation to the New York
Evening Post, and became an associate editor of the Post, of
which he was editor-in-chief in 1 883-1 899, succeeding Carl
Schurz. In the 'eighties he engaged in a controversy with
Goldwin Smith over the Irish question. Under his leadership the
Post broke with the Republican party in the presidential cam-
paign of 1884, when Godkin's opposition to Blaine did much to
create the so-called Mugwump party (see Mugwump), and his
organ became thoroughly independent, as was seen when it
attacked the Venezuelan policy of President Cleveland, who had
in so many ways approximated the ideal of the Post and Nation.
He consistently advocated currency reform, the gold basis, a tariff
for revenue only, and civil service reform, rendering the greatest
aid to the last cause. His attacks on Tammany Hall were
so frequent and so virulent that in 1894 he was sued for libel
because of biographical sketches of certain leaders in that
organization — cases which never came up for trial. His opposi-
tion to the war with Spain and to imperialism was able and
forcible. He retired from his editorial duties on the 30th of
December 1899, and sketched his career in the Evening Post
of that date. Although he recovered from a severe apoplectic
stroke early in 1900, his health was shattered, and he died in
Green way, Devonshire, England, on the 21st of May 1902.
Godkin shaped the lofty and independent policy of the Post
and the Nation, which had a small but influential and intellectual
class of readers. But as editor he had none of the personal
magnetism of Greeley, for instance, and his superiority to the
influence of popular feeling made Charles Dudley Warner style
the Nation the " weekly judgment day." He was an economist
of the school of Mill, urged the necessity of the abstraction
called " economic man," and insisted that socialism put in
practice would not improve social and economic conditions
in general. In politics he was an enemy of sentimentalism and
loose theories in government. He published A History of
Hungary, A.D. 300-1850 (1856), Government (1871, in the
American Science Series), Reflections and Comments (1895),
Problems of Modern Democracy (1896) and Unforeseen Tendencies
of Democracy (1898).
See Life and Letters of E. L. Godkin, edited by Rollo Ogden (2 vols.,
New York, 1907).
OODM ANCHESTER, a municipal borough in the southern
parliamentary division of Huntingdonshire, England, on the
right bank of the Ouse, 1 m. S.S.E. of Huntingdon, on a branch
of the Great Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 2017. It has a
beautiful Perpendicular church (St Mary's) and an agricultural
trade, with flour mills. The town is governed by a mayor, 4'
aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 4907 acres.
A Romano-British village occupied the site of Godmanchester.
The town (Gumencestre, Gotnecestre) belonged to the king before
the Conquest and at the time of the Domesday survey. In 12 13
King John granted the manor to the men of the town at a fee-
farm of £120 yearly, and confirmation charters were granted
by several succeeding kings, Richard II. in 1 391-1392 adding
exemption from toll, pannage, &c. James I. granted an in-
corporation charter in 1605 under the title of bailiffs, assistants
and commonalty, but under the Municipal Reform Act of 1835
the corporation was changed to a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12
councillors. Godmanchester was formerly included for parlia-
mentary purposes in the borough of Huntingdon, which has
ceased to be separately represented since 1885. The incorpora-
tion charter of 1605 recites* that the burgesses are chiefly engaged
in agriculture, and grants them a fair, which still continues
every year on Tuesday in Easter week.
See Victoria County History, Huntingdon; Robert Fox, The
History of Godmanchester (1831).
OODftLLt), a market town of Hungary, in the county of Pest-
Pilis-Solt-Kiskun, 23 m. N.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900)
5875. G6doll6 is the summer residence of the Hungarian royal
family, and the royal castle, built in the second half of the 18th
century by Prince Anton Grassalkovich, was, with the beautiful
domain, presented by the Hungarian nation to King Francis
Joseph I. after the coronation in 1867. In its park there are a
great number of stags and wild boars. G6doll6 is a favourite
summer resort of the inhabitants of Budapest. In its vicinity
is the famous place of pilgrimage Miria-BesnyQ, with a fine
Franciscan monastery, which contains the tombs of the Grassal-
kovich family.
GODOLPHIN, SIDNEY GODOLPHIN, Earl of (c. 1645-
171 2), was a cadet of an ancient family of Cornwall. At the
Restoration he was introduced into the royal household by
Charles II., with whom he had previously become a favourite,
and he also at the same period entered the House of Commons as
member for Helston. Although he very seldom addressed the
House, and, when he did so, only in the briefest manner, he
gradually acquired a reputation as its chief if not its only financial
authority. In March 1679 he was appointed a member of the
privy council, and in the September following he was promoted,
along with Viscount Hyde (afterwards earl of Rochester) and
the earl of Sunderland, to the chief management of affairs.
Though he voted for the Exclusion Bill in 1680, he was continued
in office after the dismissal of Sunderland, and in September
1684 he was created Baron Godolphin of Rialton, and succeeded
Rochester as first lord of the treasury. After the accession of
James II. he was made chamberlain to the queen, and, along
with Rochester and Sunderland, enjoyed the king's special
confidence. In 1687 he was named commissioner of the treasury.
He was one of the council of five appointed by King James to
represent him in London, when he went .to join the army after
the landing of William, prince of Orange, in England, and, along
with Halifax and Nottingham, he was afterwards appointed a
commissioner to treat with the prince. On the accession of
William, though he only obtained the third seat at the treasury
board, he had virtually the chief control of affairs. He retired
in March 1690, but was recalled on the November following
and appointed first lord. While holding this office he for several
years continued, in conjunction with Marlborough, a treacherous
intercourse with James II., and is said even to have anticipated
Marlborough in disclosing to James intelligence regarding the
intended expedition against Brest. Godolphin was not only a
Tory by inheritance, but had a romantic admiration for the wife
of James II. He also wished to be safe whatever happened,
and his treachery in this case was mostly due to caution. After
Fen wick's confession in 1696 regarding the attempted assassina-
tion of William III., Godolphin, who was compromised, was in-
duced to tender his resignation; but when the Tories came into
power in 1700, he was again appointed lord treasurer and
retained office for about a year. Though not a favourite with
Queen Anne, he was, after her accession, appointed to his old
office, on the strong recommendation of Marlborough. He also
in 1704 received the honour of knighthood, and in December
GODOY
175
1706 he was created Viscount Rialton and earl of Godolphin.
Though a Tory he had an active share in the intrigues which
gradually led to the predominance of the Whigs in alliance
with Marlborough. The influence of the Marlboroughs with the
queen was, however, gradually supplanted by that of Mrs
Masham and Harley, earl of Oxford, and with the fortunes of
the Marlboroughs those of Godolphin were indissolubly united.
The services of both were so appreciated by the nation that
they were able for a time to regard the loss of the queen's favour
with indifference, and even in 1708 to procure the expulsion of
Harley from office; but after the Tory reaction which followed
the impeachment of Dr Sacheverel, who abused Godolphin under
the name of Volpone, the queen made use of the opportunity
to take the initiatory step towards delivering herself from
the irksome thraldom of Marlborough by abruptly dismissing
Godolphin from office on the 7 th of August 17 10. He died on
the 15th of September 17 12.
Godolphin owed his rise to power and his continuance in it
under four sovereigns chiefly to his exceptional mastery of financial
matters; for if latterly he was in some degree indebted for his
promotion to the support of Marlborough, he received that
support mainly because Marlborough recognized that for the
prosecution of England's foreign wars his financial abilities were
an indispensable necessity. He was cool, reserved and cautious,
but his prudence was less associated with high sagacity than
traceable to the weakness of his personal antipathies and pre-
judices, and his freedom from political predilections. Perhaps
it was his unlikeness to Marlborough in that moral characteristic
which so tainted Marlborough's greatness that rendered possible
between them a friendship so intimate and undisturbed: he
was, it would appear, exceptionally devoid of the passion of
avarice; and so little advantage did he take of his opportunities
of aggrandizement that, though his style of living was un-
ostentatious, — and in connexion with his favourite pastimes
of horse-racing, card-playing and cock-fighting he gained
perhaps more than he lost, — all that he left behind him did not,
according to the duchess of Marlborough, amount to more than
£12,000.
Godolpnin married Margaret Blagge, the pious lady whose
life was written by Evelyn, on the 16th of May 1675, and married
again after her death in 1678. His son and successor, Francis
(1678-1766), held various offices at court, and was lord privy
seal from 1735 to 1740. He married Henrietta Churchill (d.
1733), daughter of the duke of Marlborough, who in 1722 became
in her own right duchess of Marlborough. He died without male
issue in January 1766, when the earldom became extinct, and
the estates passed to Thomas Osborne, 4th duke of Leeds, the
husband of the earl's daughter Mary, whose descendant is the
present representative of the Godolphins.
A life of Godolphin was published in 1888 in London by the Hon.
H. Elliot.
GODOY, ALVAREZ DE FARIA, RIOS SANCHEZ Y ZARZOSA,
MANUEL DE (1 767-1851), duke of El Alcudia and prince of the
Peace, Spanish royal favourite and minister, was born at Badajoz
on the 1 2th of May 1767. His father, Don Jose* de Godoy, was
the head of a very ancient but impoverished family of nobles
in Estremadura. His mother, whose maiden name was Maria
Antonia Alvarez de Faria, belonged to a Portuguese noble family.
Manuel boasts in his memoirs that he had the best masters, but
it is certain that he received only the very slight education
usually given at that time to the sons of provincial nobles.
In 1784 he entered the Guardia de Corps, a body of gentlemen
who acted as the immediate body-guard of the king. His well-
built and stalwart person, his handsome foolish face, together
with a certain geniality of character which he must have
possessed, earned him the favour of Maria Luisa of Parma, the
princess of Asturias, a coarse, passionate woman who was much
neglected by her husband, who on his part cared for nothing but
hunting.
When King Charles HI. died in 1788, Godoy 's fortune was
soon made. The princess of Asturias, now queen, understood
how to manage her husband Charles IV. Godoy says in his
memoirs that the king, who had been carefully kept apart from
affairs during his father's life, and who disliked his father's
favourite minister Floridablanca, wished to have a creature of
his own. This statement is no doubt true as far as it goes. But
it requires to be completed by the further detail that the queen
put her lover in her husband's way, and that the king was guided
by them, when he thought he was ruling for himself through
a subservient minister. In some respects King Charles was
obstinate, and Godoy is probably right in saying that he never
was an absolute " viceroy," and that he could not always secure
the removal of colleagues whom he knew to be his enemies.
He could only rule by obeying. Godoy adopted without scruple
this method of pushing his fortunes. When the king was set on a
particular course, he followed it; the execution was left to him
and the queen. His pliability endeared him to his master,
whose lasting affection he earned. In practice he commonly
succeeded in inspiring the wishes which he then proceeded to
gratify. From the very beginning of the new reign he was
promoted in the army with scandalous rapidity, made duke of
El Alcudia, and in 1792 minister under the premiership of
Aranda, whom he succeeded in displacing by the close of the
year.
His official life is fairly divided by himself into three periods.
From 1792 to 1798 he was premier. In the latter year his un-
popularity and the intrigues of the French government, which
had taken a dislike to him, led to his temporary retirement,
without, however, any diminution of the king's personal favour.
He asserts that he had no wish to return to office, but letters
sent by him to the queen show that he begged for employment.
They are written in a very unpleasant mixture of gush and
vulgar familiarity. In 1801 he returned to office, and until
1807 he was the executant of the disastrous policy of the court.
The third period of his public life is the last year, 1 807-1 808,
when he was desperately striving for his place between the
aggressive intervention of Napoleon on the one hand, and the
growing hatred of the nation, organized behind, and about, the
prince of Asturias, Ferdinand. On the 17 th of March 1808 a
popular outbreak at Aranjuez drove him into hiding. When
driven out by hunger and thirst he was recognized and arrested.
By Ferdinand's order he was kept in prison, till Napoleon
demanded that he should be sent to Bayonne. Here he rejoined
his master and mistress. He remained with them till Charles IV.
died at Rome in 1819, having survived his queen. The rest of
Godoy's life was spent in poverty and obscurity. After the
death of Ferdinand VII., in 1833, he returned to Madrid, and
endeavoured to secure the restoration of his property confiscated
in 1808. Part of it was the estate of the Soto de Roma, granted
by the cortes to the duke of Wellington. He failed, and during
his last years lived on a small pension granted him by Louis
Philippe. He died in Paris on the 4th of October 1851.
As a favourite Godoy is remarkable for the length of his
hold on the affection of his sovereigns, and for its completeness.
Latterly he was supported rather by the husband than by the
wife. He got rid of Aranda by adopting, in order to please the
king, a policy which tended to bring on war with France. When
the war proved disastrous, he made the peace of Basel, and was
created prince of the Peace for his services. Then he helped to
make war with England, and the disasters which followed only
made him dearer to the king. Indeed it became a main object
with Charles IV. to protect " Manuelito " from popular hatred,
and if possible secure him a principality. The queen endured
his infidelities to her, which were flagrant. The king arranged
a marriage for him with Dona Teresa de Bourbon, daughter of the
infante Don Luis by a morganatic marriage, though he was
probably already married to Dona Josefa Tud6, and certainly
continued to live with her. Godoy, in his memoirs, lays claim
to have done much for Spanish agriculture and industry, but
he did little more than issue proclamations and appoint officers.
His intentions may have been good, but the policy of his govern-
ment was financially ruinous. In his private life he was not
only profligate and profuse, but childishly ostentatious. The
best that can be said for him is that he was good-natured, and
176
GODROON— GODWIN, MARY
did his best to restrain the Inquisition and the purely reactionary
parties.
Authorities. — Godoy's Memoirs were published in Spanish,
English and French in 1836. A general account of his career will
be found in the Mhnoires sur la Involution d'Espagne, by the Abbe
de Pradt (1816).
GODROON, or Gadroon (Fr. godron, of unknown etymology),
in architecture, a convex decoration (said to be derived from
raised work on linen) applied in France to varieties of the bead
and reel, in which the bead is often carved with ornament.
In England the term is constantly used by auctioneers to describe
the raised convex decorations under the bowl of stone or terra-
cotta vases. The godroons radiate from the vertical support
of the vase and rise half-way up the bowl.
GODWIN, FRANCIS (1 562-1633), English divine, son of
Thomas Godwin, bishop of Bath and Wells, was born at Hanning-
ton, Northamptonshire, in 1562. He was elected student of
Christ Church, Oxford, in 1578, took his bachelor's degree in
1580, and that of master in 1583. After holding two Somerset-
shire livings he was in 1587 appointed subdean of Exeter. In
1590 he accompanied William Camden on an antiquarian tour
through Wales. He was created bachelor of divinity in 1 593 , and
doctor in 1595. In 1601 he published his Catalogue of the Bishops
of England since the first planting of the Christian Religion in this
Island j a work which procured him in the same year the bishopric
of Llandaff. A second edition appeared in 161 5, and in 1616 he
published an edition in Latin with a dedication to King James,
who in the following year conferred upon him the bishopric of
Hereford. The work was republished, with a continuation by
William Richardson, in 1 743. In 1616 Godwin published Rerum
Anglicarum, Henrico VIII., Edwardo VI. et Maria regnantibus,
Annates , which was afterwards translated and published by his
son Morgan under the title A nnales of England ( 1 630) . He is also
the author of a somewhat remarkable story, published posthum-
ously in 1638, and entitled The Man in the Mo one, or a Discourse
of a Voyage thither, by Domingo Gonsales, written apparently
some time between the years 1599 and 1603. In this production
Godwin not only declares himself a believer in the Copernican
system, but adopts so far the principles of the law of gravitation
as to suppose that the earth's attraction diminishes with the
distance. The work, which displays considerable fancy and wit,
was translated into French, and was imitated in several important
particulars by Cyrano de Bergerac, from whom (if not from
Godwin direct) Swift obtained valuable hints in writing of
Gulliver's voyage to Laputa. Another work of Godwin's, Nuncius
inanimatus Utopiae, originally published in 1629 and again in
1657, seems to have been the prototype of John Wilkins's
Mercury, or the Secret and Swift Messenger, which appeared in
1641. He died, after a lingering illness, in April 1633.
GODWIN, MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT (1750-1707), English
miscellaneous writer, was born at Hoxton, on the 27 th of April
1759. Her family was of Irish extraction, and Mary's grand-
father, who was a respectable manufacturer in Spitalfields,
realized the property which his son squandered. Her mother,
Elizabeth Dixon, was Irish, and of good family. Her father,
Edward John Wollstonecraf t, after dissipating the greater part of
his patrimony, tried to earn a living by farming, which only
plunged him into deeper difficulties, and he led a wandering,
shifty life. The family roamed from Hoxton to Edmonton, to
Essex, to Beverley in Yorkshire, to Laugharne, Pembrokeshire,
and back to London again.
After Mrs Wollstonecraf t's death in 1780, soon followed by her
husband's second marriage, the three daughters, Mary, Everina
and Eliza, sought to earn their own livelihood. The sisters
were all clever women — Mary and Eliza far above the average
— but their opportunities of culture had been few. Mary,
the eldest, went in the first instance to live with her friend
Fanny Blood, a girl of her own age, whose father, like
Wollstonecraft, was addicted to drink and dissipation. As long
as she lived with the Bloods, Mary helped Mrs Blood to earn
money by taking in needlework, while Fanny painted in water-
colours. Everina went to live with her brother Edward, and
Eliza made a hasty and, as it proved, unhappy marriage with a
Mr Bishop. A legal separation was afterwards obtained, and the
sisters, together with Fanny Blood, took a house, first at Islington,
afterwards at Newington Green, and opened a school, which was
carried on with indifferent success for nearly two years. During
their residence at Newington Green, Mary was introduced to Dr
Johnson, who, as Godwin tells us, " treated her with particular
kindness and attention."
In 1 785 Fanny Blood married Hugh Skeys, a merchant, and went
with him to Lisbon, where she died in childbed after sending for
Mary to nurse her. "The lossof Fanny, "as she said in a letter to
Mrs Skeys's brother, George Blood, " was sufficient of itself to have
cast a cloud over my brightest days I have lost all relish for
pleasure, and life seems a burden almost too heavy to be endured."
Her first novel, Mary, a Fiction (1788), was intended to com-
memorate her friendship with Fanny. After closing the school at
Newington Green, Mary became governess in the family of Lord
Kingsborough, in Ireland. Her pupils were much attached to her,
especially Margaret King, afterwards Lady Mountcashel; and
indeed, Lady Kingsborough gave the reason for dismissing her
after one year's service that the children loved their governess
better than their mother. Mary now resolved to devote herself
to literary work, and she was encouraged by Johnson, the
publisher in St Paul's churchyard, for whom she acted as literary
adviser. She also undertook translations, chiefly from the French.
The Elements of Morality (1790) from the German of Salzmann,
illustrated by Blake, an old-fashioned book for children, and
Lavater's Physiognomy were among her translations. Her
Original Stories from Real Life were published in 179 1, and, with
illustrations by Blake, in 1796. In 1792 appeared A Vindication
of the Rights of Woman, the work with which her name is always
associated.
It is not among the least oddities of this book that it is dedicated
to M. Talleyrand P6rigord, late bishop of Autun. Mary Wollstone-
craft still believed him to be sincere, and working in the same
direction as herself. In the dedication she states the " main
argument " of the work, " built on this simple principle that, if
woman be not prepared by education to become the companion
of man, she will stop the progress of knowledge, for truth must
be common to all, or it will be inefficacious with respect to its
influence or general practice. ' ' In carrying out this argument she
used great plainness of speech, and it was this that caused all, or
nearly all, the outcry. For she did not attack the institution of
marriage, nor assail orthodox religion; her book was really a plea
for equality of education, passing into one for state education and
for the joint education of the sexes. It was a protest against the
assumption that woman was only the plaything of man, and she
asserted that intellectual companionship was the chief, as it is
the lasting, happiness of marriage. She thus directly opposed the
teaching of Rousseau, of whom she was in other respects an
ardent disciple.
Mrs Wollstonecraf tj* as she now styled herself, desired to watch
the progress of the Revolution in France, and went to Paris in
1792. Godwin, in his memoir of his wife, considers that the
change of residence may have been prompted by the discovery
that she was becoming attached to Henry Fuseli, but there is
little to confirm this surmise; indeed, it was first proposed that
she should go to Paris in company with him and his wife, nor
was there any subsequent breach in their friendship. She re-
mained in Paris during the Reign of Terror, when communication
with England was difficult or almost impossible. Some time in
the spring or summer of 1 793 Captain Gilbert Imlay, an American,
became acquainted with Mary — an acquaintance which ended in
a more intimate connexion. There was no legal ceremony of
marriage, and it is doubtful whether such a marriage would have
been valid at the time; but she passed as Imlay 's wife, and
Imlay himself terms her in a legal document, " Mary Imlay, my
best friend and wife." In August 1 793 Imlay was called to Havre
on business, and was absent for some months, during which
time most of the letters published after her death by Godwin
were written. Towards the end of the year she joined Imlay at
Havre, and there in the spring of 1794 she gave birth to a girl,
GODWIN, W.
who received the name of Fanny, in memory of the dear friend of
her youth. In this year she published the first volume of a never
completed Historical and Moral View of the French Revolution.
Imlay became involved in a multitude of speculations, and his
affection for Mary and their child was already waning. He left
Mary for some months at Havre. In June 1795, after joining
him in England, Mary left for Norway on business for Imlay.
Her letters from Norway, divested of all personal details, were
afterwards published. She returned to England late in 1795,
and found letters awaiting her from Imlay, intimating his inten-
tion to separate from her, and offering to settle an annuity on her
and her child. For herself she rejected this offer with scorn:
" From you," she wrote, " I will not receive anything more. I
am not sufficiently humbled to depend on your beneficence."
They met again, and for a short time lived together, until the
discovery that he was carrying on an intrigue under her own
roof drove her to despair, and she attempted to drown herself
by leaping from Putney bridge, but was rescued by watermen.
Imlay now completely deserted her, although she continued to
bear his name.
In 1796, when Mary Wollstonecraft was living in London,
supporting herself and her child by working, as before, for Mr
Johnson, she met William Godwin. A friendship sprang up
between them, — a friendship, as he himself says, which " melted
into love." Godwin states that " ideas which he is now willing
to denominate prejudices made him by no means willing to
conform to the ceremony of marriage "; but these prejudices
were overcome, and they were married at St Pancras church on
the 29th of March 1797. And now Mary had a season of real
calm in her stormy existence. Godwin, for once only in his life,
was stirred by passion, and his admiration for his wife equalled
his affection. But their happiness was of short duration. The
birth of her daughter Mary, afterwards the wife of Percy Bysshe
Shelley, on the 30th of August 1797, proved fatal, and Mrs
Godwin died on the 10th of September following. She was
buried in the churchyard of Old St Pancras, but her remains
were afterwards removed by Sir Percy Shelley to the churchyard
of St Peter's, Bournemouth.
Her principal published works are as follows: — Thoughts on the
Education of Daughters,, . . (1787) ; The Female Reader (selections)
(1789); Original Stories from Real Life (1791); An Historical and
Moral View of the Origin and Progress of the French Revolution, and
the effects it has produced in Europe, vol. i. (no more published)
(1790); Vindication of the Rights of Woman (179 2 ); Vindication
of the Rights of Man (1795); Mary, a Fiction (1788); Letters written
during a Short Residence in Sweden, Norway and Denmark (1796) ;
Posthumous Works U vols. , 1 798) . 1 1 is impossible to trace the many
articles contributed by her to periodical literature.
A memoir of her life was published by Godwin in 1798. A large
portion of C. Kegan Paul's work, William Godwin, his Friends and
Contemporaries, was devoted to her, and an edition of the letters to
Imlay (1879), °f which the first edition was published by Godwin,
is prefaced by a somewhat fuller memoir. See also E. Dowden,
The French Revolution and English Literature (1897) pp. 82 et seq.;
E. R. Pennell, Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin (1885), in the Eminent
Women Series; E. R. Clough, A Study of Mary Wollstonecraft and
the Rights of Woman (1898) ; an edition of her Original Stories (1906),
with William Blake's illustrations and an introduction by E. V.
Lucas; and the Love Letters of Mary Wollstonecraft to Gilbert Imlay
(1908), with an introduction by Roger Ingpen.
GODWIN, WILLIAM (1756-1836), English political and
miscellaneous writer, son of a Nonconformist minister, was born
on the 3rd of March 1756, at Wisbeach in Cambridgeshire. His
family came on both sides of middle-class people, and it was
probably only as a joke that Godwin, a stern political reformer
and philosophical radical, attempted to trace his pedigree to a
time before the Norman conquest and the great earl Godwine.
Both parents were strict Calvinists. The father died young, and
never inspired love or much regret in his son; but in spite of
wide differences of opinion, tender affection always subsisted
between William Godwin and his mother, until her death at an
advanced age.
William Godwin was educated for his father's profession at
Hoxton Academy, where he was under Andrew Kippis the
biographer and Dr Abraham Rees of the Cyclopaedia, and was
at first more Calvinistic than his teachers, becoming a Sande-
177
manian, or follower of John Glas (q.v.), whom he describes as
" a celebrated north-country apostle who, after Calvin had
damned ninety-nine in a hundred of mankind, has contrived a
scheme for damning ninety-nine in a hundred of the followers
of Calvin." He then acted as a minister at Ware, Stowmarket
and Beaconsfield. At Stowmarket the teachings of the French
philosophers were brought before him by a friend, Joseph Fawcet,
who held strong republican opinions. He came to London in
1782, still nominally a minister, to regenerate society with his
pen — a real enthusiast, who shrank theoretically from no con-
clusions from the premises which he laid down. He adopted
the principles of the Encyclopaedists, and his own aim was the
complete overthrow of all existing institutions, political, social
and religious. He believed, however, that calm discussion was
the only thing needful to carry every change, and from the
beginning to the end of his career he deprecated every approach
to violence. He was a philosophic radical in the strictest sense
of the term.
His first published work was an anonymous Life of Lord
Chatham (1783). Under the inappropriate title Sketches of
History (1784) he published under his own name six sermons
on the characters of Aaron, Hazael and Jesus, in which, though
writing in the character of an orthodox Calvinist, he enunciates
the proposition " God Himself has no right to be a tyrant."
Introduced by Andrew Kippis, he began to write in 1785 for the
Annual Register and other periodicals, producing also three
novels now forgotten. The " Sketches of English History "
written for the Annual Register from 1785 onward still deserve
study. He joined a club called the " Revolutionists," and
associated much with Lord Stanhope, Home Tooke and Hol-
croft. His clerical character was now completely dropped.
In 1793 Godwin published his great work on political science,
The Inquiry concerning Political Justice, and its Influence on
General Virtue and Happiness. Although this work is little
known and less read now, it marks a phase in English thought.
Godwin could never have been himself a worker on the active
stage of life. But he was none the less a power behind the
workers, and for its political effect, Political Justice takes its
place with Milton's Areopagitica, with Locke's Essay on Educa-
tion and with Rousseau's £mile. By the words "political
justice " the author meant " the adoption of any principle of
morality and truth into the practice of a community," and the
work was therefore an inquiry into the principles of society, of
government and of morals. For many years Godwin had been
" satisfied that monarchy was a species of government unavoid-
ably corrupt," and from desiring a government of the simplest
construction, he gradually came to consider that " government
by its very nature counteracts the improvement of original
mind." Believing in the perfectibility of the race, that there are
no innate principles, and therefore no original propensity to evil,
he considered that " our virtues and our vices may be traced
to the incidents which make the history of our lives, and if these
incidents could be divested of every improper tendency, vice
would be extirpated from the world." All control of man by man
was more or less intolerable, and the day would come when each
man, doing what seems right in his own eyes, would also be
doing what is in fact best for the community, because all will be
guided by principles of pure reason. But all was to be done by
discussion, and matured change resulting from discussion.
Hence, while Godwin thoroughly approved of the philosophic
schemes of the precursors of the Revolution, he was as far
removed as Burke himself from agreeing with the way in which
they were carried out. So logical and uncompromising a thinker
as Godwin could not go far in the discussion of abstract questions
without exciting the most lively opposition in matters of detailed
opinion. An affectionate son, and ever ready to give of his
hard-earned income to more than one ne'er-do-well brother, he
maintained that natural relationship had no claim on man, nor
was gratitude to parents or benefactors any part of justice or
virtue. In a day when the penal code was still extremely severe,
he argued gravely against all punishments, not only that of
death. Property was to belong to him who most wanted it;
178
GODWIN-AUSTEN
accumulated property was a monstrous injustice. Hence
marriage, which is law, is the worst of all laws, and as property
the worst of all properties. A man so passionless as Godwin
could venture thus to argue without suspicion that he did so only
to gratify his wayward desires. Portions of this treatise, and
only portions, found ready acceptance in those minds which were
prepared to receive them. Perhaps no one received the whole
teaching of the book. But it gave cohesion and voice to philo-
sophic radicalism; it was the manifesto of a school without
which liberalism of the present day had not been. Godwin
himself in after days modified his communistic views, but his
strong feeling for individualism, his hatred of all restrictions on
liberty, his trust in man, his faith in the power of reason remained;
it was a manifesto which enunciated principles modifying action,
even when not wholly ruling it.
In May 1794 Godwin published the novel of Caleb Williams,
or Things as they are, a book of which the political object is
overlooked by many readers in the strong interest of the story.
The book was dramatized by the younger Colman as The Iron
Chest. It is one of the few novels of that time which may be said
still to live. 1 A theorist who lived mainly in his study, Godwin
yet came forward boldly to stand by prisoners arraigned of high
treason in that same year — 1794. The danger to persons so
charged was then great, and he deliberately put himself into
this same danger for his friends. But when his own trial was
discussed in the privy council, Pitt sensibly held that Political
Justice, the work on which the charge could best have been
founded, was priced at three guineas, and could never do much
harm among those who had not three shillings to spare.
From this time Godwin became a notable figure in London
society, and there was scarcely an important person in politics,
on the Liberal side, in literature, art or science, who does not
appear familiarly in the pages of Godwin's singular diary. For
forty-eight years, beginning in 1788, and continuing to the very
end of his life, Godwin kept a record of every day, of the work
he did, the books he read, the friends he saw. Condensed in the
highest degree, the diary is yet easy to read when the style is
once mastered, and it is a great help to the understanding of his
cold, methodical, unimpassioned character. He carried his
method into every detail of life, and lived on his earnings with
extreme frugality. Until he made a large sum by the publication
of Political Justice, he lived on an average of £120 a year.
In 1797, the intervening years having been spent in strenuous
literary labour, Godwin married Mary Wollstonecraft (see
Godwin, Mary Wollstonecraft). Since both held the same
views regarding the slavery of marriage, and since they only
married at all for the sake of possible offspring, the marriage
was concealed for some time, and the happiness of the avowed
married life was very brief; his wife's death on the 10th of
September left Godwin prostrated by affliction, and with a
charge for which he was wholly unfit — his infant daughter Mary,
and her stepsister, Fanny Imlay, who from that time bore the
name of Godwin. His unfitness for the cares of a family, far
more than love, led him to contract a second marriage with
Mary Jane Clairmont in 1801. She was a widow with two
children, one of whom, Clara Mary Jane Clairmont, became the
mistress of Lord Byron. The second Mrs Godwin was energetic
and painstaking, but a harsh stepmother; and it may be
doubted whether the children were not worse off under her care
than they would have been under Godwin's neglect.
The second novel which proceeded from Godwin's pen was
called St Leon, and published in 1799. It is chiefly remarkable
for the beautiful portrait of Marguerite, the heroine, drawn from
the character of his own wife. His opinions underwent a change
in the direction of theism, influenced, he says, by his acquaintance
with Coleridge. He also became known to Wordsworth and
Lamb. Study of the Elizabethan dramatists led to the produc-
tion in 1800 of the Tragedy of Antonio. Kemble brought it out
at Drury Lane, but the failure of this attempt made him refuse
1 For an analysis of Caleb Williams see the chapter on " Theorists
of Revolution " in Professor E. Dowden's The French Revolution
and English Literature (1897).
Abbas, King of Persia, which Godwin offered him in the next
year. He was more successful with his Life of Chaucer, for which
he received £600.
The events of Godwin's life were few. Under the advice of
the second Mrs Godwin, and with her active co-operation, he
carried on business as a bookseller under the pseudonym of
Edward Baldwin, publishing several useful school books and
books for children, among them Charles and Mary Lamb's Tales
from Shakespeare. But the speculation was unsuccessful, and
for many years Godwin struggled with constant pecuniary
difficulties, for which more than one subscription was raised
by the leaders of the Liberal party and by literary men. He
became bankrupt in 1822, but during the following years he
accomplished one of his best pieces of work, The History of the
Commonwealth, founded on pamphlets and original documents,
which still retains considerable value. In 1833 the government
of Earl Grey conferred upon him the office known as yeoman
usher of the exchequer, to which were attached apartments in
Palace Yard, where he died on the 7th of April 1836.
In his own time, by his writings and by his conversation,
Godwin had a great power of influencing men, and especially
young men. Though his character would seem, from much
which is found in his writings, and from anecdotes told by those
who still remember him, to have been unsympathetic, it was not
so understood by enthusiastic young people, who hung on his
words as those of a prophet. The most remarkable of these was
Percy Bysshe Shelley, who in the glowing dawn of his genius
turned to Godwin as his teacher and guide. The last of the long
series of young men who sat at Godwin's feet was Edward Ly tton
Bulwer, afterwards Lord Lytton, whose early romances were
formed after those of Godwin, and who, in Eugene Aram, suc-
ceeded to the story as arranged, and the plan to a considerable
extent sketched out, by Godwin, whose age and failing health
prevented him from completing it. Godwin's character appears
in the worst light in connexion with Shelley. His early corre-
spondence with Shelley, which began in 181 1, is remarkable for
its genuine good sense and kindness; but when Shelley carried
out the principles of the author of Political Justice in eloping
with Mary Godwin, Godwin assumed a hostile attitude that
would have been unjustifiable in a man of ordinary views, and
was ridiculous in the light of his professions. He was not, more-
over, too proud to accept £1000 from his son-in-law, and after
the reconciliation following on Shelley's marriage in 18 16, he
continued to demand money until Shelley's death. His character
had no doubt suffered under his long embarrassments and his
unhappy marriage.
Godwin's more important works are — The Inquiry concerning
Political Justice, and its Influence on General Virtue and Happiness
(1793); Things as they are, or the Adventures of Caleb Williams
(1794); The Inquirer, a series of Essays (1797); Memoirs of the
Author of the Rights of Woman (1798) ; St Leon, a Tale of the Sixteenth
Century (1709); Antonio, a Tragedy (1800); The Life of Chaucer
(1803); Fleetwood, a Novel (1805); Faulkner, a Tragedy (1807);
Essay on Sepulchres (1809); Lives of Edward and John Philips, the
Nephews of Milton (18 15) ; Mandevtlle, a Tale of the Times of Crom-
well (1817); Of Population, an answer to Malthus (1820); History
of the Commonwealth (1 824-1 828); Cloudesley, a Novel (1830)^
Thoughts on Man, a series of Essays (1831) ; Lives of the Necromancers
(1834). A volume of essays was also collected from his papers and
published in 1873, as left for publication by his dauehter Mrs Shelley.
Many other short and anonymous works proceeded from his ever
busy pen, but many are irrecoverable, and all are forgotten. Godwin's
life was published in 1876 in two volumes, under the title William
Godwin, his Friends ana Contemporaries, by C. Kegan Paul. The
best estimate of his literary position is that given by Sir Leslie
Stephen in his English Thought in the 18th Century (ii. 264-281 ; ed. f
1902). See also the article on William Godwin in W. Hazlitt's
The Spirit of the Age (1825), and " Godwin and Shelley " in Sir L.
Stephen's Hours in a Library (vol. iii., ed. 1892).
GODWIN-AUSTEN, ROBERT ALFRED CLOYNE (1808- 1884),
English geologist, the eldest son of Sir Henry E. Austen, was
born on the 17th of March 1808. He was educated at Oriel
College, Oxford, of which he became a fellow in 1830. He
afterwards entered Lincoln's Inn. In 1833 he married the only
daughter and heiress of General Sir Henry T. Godwin, K.C.B.,
and he took the additional name of Godwin by Royal licence
GODWINE— GODWIT
179
in 1854. At Oxford as a pupil of William Buckland he became
deeply interested in geology, and soon afterwards becoming
acquainted with De la Beche, he was inspired by that great
master, and assisted him by making a geological map of the
neighbourhood of Newton Abbot, which was embodied in the
Geological Survey map. He also published an elaborate memoir
"On the Geology of the South-East of Devonshire" (Trans.
Geol. Soc. ser. 2, vol. viii.). His attention was next directed to
the Cretaceous rocks of Surrey, his home-county, his estates
being situated at Chilworth and Shalford near Guildford. Later
he dealt with the superficial accumulations bordering the English
Channel, and with the erratic boulders of Selsea. In 1855 he
brought before the Geological Society of London his celebrated
paper " On the possible Extension of the Coal-Measures beneath
the South-Eastern part of England," in which he pointed out
on well-considered theoretical grounds the likelihood of coal-
measures being some day reached in that area. In this article
he also advocated the freshwater origin of the Old Red Sand-
stone, and discussed the relations of that formation, and of the
Devonian, to the Silurian and Carboniferous. He was elected
F.R.S. in 1849, and in 1862 he was awarded the Wollaston medal
by the Geological Society of London, on which occasion he was
styled by Sir R. I. Murchison "pre-eminently the physical
geographer of bygone periods." He died at Shalford House
near Guildford on the 25th of November 1884.
His son, Lieut.-Colonel Henry Haversham Godwin-Austen
(b. 1834), entered the army in 1851, and served for many years
on the Trigonometrical Survey of India, retiring in 1877. He
gave much attention to geology, but is more especially dis-
tinguished for his researches on the natural history of India
and as the author of The Land and Freshwater Mollusca of India
(1882-1887).
GODWINE (d. 1053), son of Wulfnoth, earl of the West-
Saxons, the leading Englishman in the first half of the nth
century. His birth and origin are utterly uncertain; but he
rose to power early in Canute's reign and was an earl in 1018.
He received in marriage Gytha, a connexion of the king's, and
in 1020 became earl of the West-Saxons. On the death of Canute
in 1035 he joined with Queen Emma in supporting the claim
of Hardicanute, the son of Canute and Emma, to the crown of
his father, in opposition to Leofric and the northern party who
supported Harold Harefoot (see Hardicanute). While together
they held Wessex for Hardicanute, the aetheling Alfred, son of
Emma by her former husband iEthelred II., landed in England
in the hope of winning back his father's crown; but falling into
the hands of Godwine, he and his followers were cruelly done to
death. On the death of Hardicanute in 1042 Godwine was
foremost in promoting the election of Edward (the Confessor)
to the vacant throne. He was now the first man in the kingdom,
though his power was still balanced by that of the other great
earls, Leofric of Mercia and Siward of Northumberland. His
sons Sweyn and Harold were promoted to earldoms; and his
daughter Eadgyth was married to the king (1045). His policy
was strongly national in opposition to the marked Normanizing
tendencies of the king. Between him and Edward's foreign
favourites, particularly Robert of Jumieges, there was deadly
feud. The appointment of Robert to the archbishopric of Canter-
bury in 1051 marks the decline of God wine's power; and in the
same year a series of outrages committed by one of the king's
foreign favourites led to a breach between the king and the earl,
which culminated in the exile of the latter with all his family (see
Edward the Conpessor). But next year Godwine returned in
triumph; and at a great meeting held outside London he and
his family were restored to all their offices and possessions,
and the archbishop and many other Normans were banished.
In the following year Godwine was smitten with a fit at the
king's table, and died three days later on the 15th of April 1053.
Godwine appears to have had seven sons, three of whom —
King Harold, Gyrth and Leofwine — were killed at Hastings;
two others, Wulfnoth and ^Elfgar, are of little importance;
another was Earl Tostig (q.v.). The eldest son was Sweyn, or
Swegen (d. 1052), who was outlawed for seducing Eadgifu
abbess of Leominster. After fighting for the king of Denmark
he returned to England in 1049, when his murder of his cousin
Beorn compelled him to leave England for the second time.
In 1050, however, he regained his earldom, and in 105 1 he shared
his father's exile. To atone for the murder of Beorn, Sweyn
went on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and on the return journey
he died on the 29th of September 1052, meeting his death,
according to one account, at the hands of the Saracens.
GODWIT, a word of unknown origin, the name commonly
applied to a marsh-bird in great repute, when fattened, for the
table, and formerly abundant in the fens of Norfolk, the Isle
of Ely and Lincolnshire. In Turner's days (1544) it was worth
three times as much as a snipe, and at the same peroid Belon
said of it — " C'est vn Oyseau es delices des Francoys." Casaubon,
who Latinized its name " Dei ingenium (Ephemerides, 19th
September 161 1), was told by the " ornithotrophaeus " he visited
at Wisbech that in London it fetched twenty pence. Its fame
as a delicacy is perpetuated by many later writers, Ben Jonson
among them, and Pennant says that in his time (1766) it sold for
half-a-crown or five shillings. Under the name godwit two
perfectly distinct species of British birds were included, but that
which seems to have been especially prized is known to modern
ornithologists as the black-tailed godwit, Limosa aegocephala,
formerly called, from its loud cry, a yar whelp, 1 shrieker or
barker, in the districts it inhabited. The practice of netting
this bird in large numbers during the spring and summer, coupled
with the gradual reclamation of the fens, to which it resorted,
has now rendered it but a visitor in England; and it probably
ceased from breeding regularly in England in 1824 or thereabouts,
though under favourable conditions it may have occasionally
laid its eggs for some thirty years later or more (Stevenson,
Birds of Norfolk, ii. 250). This godwit is a species of wide
range, reaching Iceland, where it is called Jardraeka ( = earth-
raker), in summer, and occurring numerously in India in winter.
Its chief breeding-quarters seem to extend from Holland east-
wards to the south of Russia. The second British species is that
which is known as the bar-tailed godwit, L. lapponica, and this
seems to have never been more than a bird of double passage
in the United Kingdom, arriving in large flocks on the south
coast about the 12th of May, and, after staying a few days,
proceeding to the north-eastward. It is known to breed in
Lapland, but its eggs are of great rarity. Towards autumn
the young visit the English coasts, and a few of them remain,
together with some of the other species, in favourable situations
throughout the winter. One of the local names by which the
bar-tailed godwit is known to the Norfolk gunners is scamell,
a word which, in the mouth of Caliban (Tempest, n. ii.), has been
the cause of much perplexity to Shakespearian critics.
The godwits belong to the group Limicolae, and are about as
big as a tame pigeon, but possess long legs, and a long bill with
a slight upward turn. It is believed that in the genus Limosa
the female is larger than the male. While the winter plumage
is of a sober greyish-brown, the breeding-dress is marked by a
predominance of bright bay or chestnut, rendering the wearer
a very beautiful object. The black-tailed godwit, though varying
a good deal in size, is constantly larger than the bar-tailed, and
especially longer in the legs. The species may be further distin-
guished by the former having the proximal third of the tail-quills
pure white, and the distal two-thirds black, with a narrow white
margin, while the latter has the same feathers barred with
black and white alternately for nearly their whole length.
America possesses two species of the genus, the very large
marbled godwit or marlin, L. fedoa, easily recognized by its size
and the buff colour of its axillaries, and the smaller Hudsonian
godwit, L. hudsonica, which has its axillaries of a deep black.
This last, though less numerous than its congener, seems to
range over the whole of the continent, breeding in the extreme
north, while it has been obtained also in the Strait of Magellan
and the Falkland Islands. The first seems not to go farther
southward than the Antilles and the Isthmus of Panama.
1 This name seems to have survived in Whelp Moor, near Brandon,
in Suffolk.
i8o
GOEBEN— GOES, D. DE
From Asia, or at least its eastern part, two species have
been described. One of them, L. tnelanuroides, differs only
from L. aegocephala in its smaller size, and is believed to breed
in Amurland, wintering in the islands of the Pacific, New
Zealand and Australia. The other, L. uropygialis, is closely
allied to and often mistaken for L. lapponica, from which it
chiefly differs by having the rump barred like the tail. This
was found breeding in the extreme north of Siberia by Dr von
Middendorff, and ranges to Australia, whence it was, like the
last, first described by Gould. (A. N.)
GOEBEN, AUGUST KARL VON (1816-1880), Prussian
general of infantry, came of old Hanoverian stock. Born at
Stade on the 10th of December 1816, he aspired from his earliest
years to the Prussian service rather than that of his own country,
and at the age of seventeen obtained a commission in the 24th
regiment of Prussian infantry. But there was little scope there
for the activities of a young and energetic subaltern, and, leaving
the service in 1836, he entered the Carlist army campaigning in
Spain. In the five campaigns which he made in the service of
Don Carlos he had many and various vicissitudes of fortune.
He had not fought for two months when he fell, severely wounded,
into the hands of the Spanish Royal troops. After eight months 7
detention he escaped, but it was not long before he was captured
again. This time his imprisonment was long and painful, and
on two occasions he was compelled to draw lots for his life with
his fellow-captives. When released, he served till 1840 with
distinction. In that year he made his way back, a beggar
without means or clothing, to Prussia. The Carlist lieutenant-
colonel was glad to be re-admitted into the Prussian service as a
second lieutenant, but he was still young, and few subalterns
could at the age of twenty-four claim five years' meritorious
war service. In a few years we find him serving as captain on the
Great General Staff, and in 1848 he had the good fortune to be
transferred to the staff of the IV. army corps, his immediate
superior being Major von Moltke. The two " coming men "
became fast friends, and their mutual esteem was never disturbed.
In the Baden insurrection Goeben served with distinction on the
staff of Prince William, the future emperor. Staff and regimental
duty (as usual in the Prussian service) alternated for some years
after this, till in 1863 he became major-general commanding the
26th infantry brigade. In i860, it should be mentioned, he
was present with the Spanish troops in Morocco, and took part
in the battle of Tetuan.
In the first of Prussia's great wars (1864) he distinguished
himself at the head of his brigade at Rackebull and Sonderburg.
In the war of 1866 Lieutenant-General von Goeben commanded
the 13th division, of which his old brigade formed part, and,
in this higher sphere, once more displayed the qualities of a born
leader and skilful tactician. He held almost independent
command with conspicuous success in the actions of Dermbach,
Laufach, Kissingen, Aschaffenburg, Gerchsheim, Tauber-
Bischofsheim and Wiirzburg. The mobilization of 1870 placed
him at the head of the VIII. (Rhineland) army corps, forming
part of the First Army under Steinmetz. It was his resolute and
energetic leading that contributed mainly to the victory of
Spicheren (6th August), and won the only laurels gained on the
Prussian right wing at Gravelotte (1 8th August) . Under Manteuffel
the VIII. corps took part in the operations about Amiens and
Bapaume, and on the 8th of January 187 1 Goeben succeeded
that general in the command of the First Army, with which he
had served throughout the campaign as a corps commander.
A fortnight later he had brought the war in northern France
to a brilliant conclusion, by the decisive victory of St Quentin
(18th and 19th January 1871). The close of the Franco-German
War left Goeben one of the most distinguished men in the
victorious army. He was colonel of the 28th infantry, and had
the grand cross of the Iron Cross. He commanded the VIII.
corps at Coblenz until his death in 1880.
General von Goeben left many writings. His memoirs are to
be found in his works Vier Jahre in Spanien (Hanover, 1841),
Reise-und Lagerbriefe aus Spanien und vom spanischen Heere in
Uarokko (Hanover, 1863) and in the Darmstadt Allgemeine
MUiiUrzeitung. The former French port (Queuleu) at Metz was
renamed Goeben after him, and the 28th infantry bears his name.
A statue of Goeben by Schaper was erected at Coblenz in 1884.
See G. Zemin, Das Leben des Generals August von Goeben (2 vols.,
Berlin, 1 895-1 897) ; H. Barth, A. von Goeben (Berlin, 1906); and, for
his share in the war of 1870-71 ; H. Kunz, Der Feldzug im N. und
N.W. Frankreichs 1870-1871 (Berlin, 1889), and the 14th Monograph
of the Great General Staff (1891).
GOEJE, MICHAEL JAN DE (1836- 1909), Dutch orientalist,
was born in Friesland in 1836. He devoted himself at an early
age to the study of oriental languages and became especially
proficient in Arabic, under the guidance of Dozy and Juynboll,
to whom he was afterwards an intimate friend and colleague.
He took his degree of doctor at Leiden in i860, and then studied
for a year in Oxford, where he examined and collated the Bodleian
MSS. of Idrisi (part being published in 1866, in collaboration
with R. P. Dozy, as Description de VAfrique et de VEspagne).
About the same time he wrote Memoir es de Vhistoire et de la
geographic orientates, and edited Expugnatio regionum. In
1883, on the death of Dozy, he became Arabic professor at Leiden,
retiring in 1906. He died on the 17th of May 1909. Though
perhaps not a teacher of the first order, he wielded a great
influence during his long professoriate not only over his pupils,
but over theologians and eastern administrators who attended
his lectures, and his many editions of Arabic texts have been of
the highest value to scholars, the most important being his great
edition of Tabari. Though entirely averse from politics, he took
a keen interest in the municipal affairs of Leiden and made a
special study of elementary education. He took the leading part
in the International Congress of Orientalists at Algiers in 1905.
He was a member of the Institut de France, was awarded the
German Order of Merit, and received an honorary doctorate of
Cambridge University. At his death he was president of the
newly formed International Association of Academies of Science.
Among his chief works are Fragmenta historicorum Arabic or urn
(1869-1871); Diwan of Moslim ibn al-Wdlid (1875); Bibliotheca
geographorum Arabicorum (1870-1894); Annals of Jabari
(1879-1901); edition of Ibn Qutaiba's biographies (1904);
of the travels of Ibn Jubaye (1907, 5th vol. of Gibb Memorial).
He was also the chief editor of the Encyclopaedia of Islam (vols,
i.-iii.), and contributed many articles to periodicals. He wrote
for the 9th and the present edition of the Encyclopaedia
Britannica.
GOES, DAMllO DE (1 502-1 574), Portuguese humanist, was
born of a patrician family at Alemquer, in February 1502.
Under King John IH. he was employed abroad for many years
from 1523 on diplomatic and commercial missions, and he
travelled over the greater part of Europe. He was intimate
with the leading scholars of the time, was acquainted with Luther
and other Protestant divines, and in 1532 became the pupil and
friend of Erasmus. Goes took his degree at Padua in 1538 after
a four years' course. In 1 53 7 , at the instance of his friend Cardinal
Sadoleto, he undertook to mediate between the Church and the
Lutherans, but failed through the attitude of the Protestants.
He married in Flanders a rich and noble Dutch lady, D. Joanna
de Hargen, and settled at Louvain, then the literary centre of
the Low Countries, where he was living in 1542 when the French
besieged the town. He was given the command of the defending
forces, and saved Louvain, but was taken prisoner and confined
for nine months in France, till he obtained his freedom by a
heavy ransom. He was rewarded, however, by a grant of arms
from Charles V. He finally returned to Portugal in 1545, with
a view of becoming tutor to the king's son, but he failed to
obtain this post, owing to the denunciations of Father Simon
Rodriguez, provincial of the Jesuits, who accused Goes of
favouring the Lutheran doctrines and of being a disciple of
Erasmus. Nevertheless in 1548 he was appointed chief keeper
of the archives and royal chronicler, and at once introduced
some much-needed reforms into the administration of his office.
In 1558 he was given a commission to write a history of the
reign of King Manoel, a task previously confided to Jofto de
Barros, but relinquished by him. It was an onerous undertaking
for a conscientious historian, since it was necessary to expose
GOES, H. VAN DER— GOES
181
the miseries as well as relate the glories of the period, and so to
offend some of the most powerful families. Goes had already
written a Chronicle of Prince John (afterwards John II.), and
when, after more than eight years 1 labour, he produced the First
Part of his Chronicle of King Manoel (1566), a chorus of attacks
greeted it, the edition was destroyed, and he was compelled to
issue a revised version. He brought out the three other parts
in 1566-1567, though chapters 23 to 27 of the Third Part were
so mutilated by the censorship that the printed text differs
largely from the MS. Hitherto Goes, notwithstanding his Liberal-
ism, had escaped the Inquisition, though in 1540 his Fides,
religio, moresque Aethiopum had been prohibited by the chief
inquisitor, Cardinal D. Henrique; but the denunciation of
Father Rodriguez in 1545, which had been vainly renewed in
1550, was now brought into action, and in 1571 he was arrested
to stand his trial. There seems to be no doubt that the Inquisi-
tion made itself on this occasion, as on others, the instrument of
private enmity; for eighteen months Goes lay ill in prison, and
then he was condemned, though he had lived for thirty years as
a faithful Catholic, and the worst that could be proved against
him was that in his youth he had spoken against Indulgences,
disbelieved in auricular confession, and consorted with heretics.
He was sentenced to a term of reclusion, and his property was
confiscated to the crown. After he had abjured his errors in
private, he was sent at the end of 1572 to do penance at the
monastery of Batalha. Later he was allowed to return home
to Alemquer, where he died on the 30th of January 1574. He
was buried in the church of Nossa Senhora da Varzea.
Damiao de Goes was a man of wide culture and genial and
courtly manners, a skilled musician and a good linguist. He
wrote both Portuguese and Latin with classic strength and
simplicity, and his style is free from affectation and rhetorical
ornaments. His portrait by Albrecht Durer shows an open,
intelligent face, and the record of his life proves him to have
been upright and fearless. His prosperity doubtless excited
ill-will, but above all, his ideas, advanced for Portugal, his foreign
ways, outspokenness and honesty contributed to the tragedy
of his end, at a time when the forces of ignorant reaction held
the ascendant. He had, it may be presumed, given some um-
brage to the court by condemning, in the Chronicle of King
Manoel, the royal ingratitude to distinguished public servants,
though he received a pension and other rewards for that work,
and he had certainly offended the nobility by his administration
of the archive office and by exposing false genealogical claims
in his Nobiliario. He paid the penalty for telling the truth, as
he knew it, in an age when an historian had to choose between
flattery of the great and silence. The Chronicle of King Manoel
was the first official history of a Portuguese reign to be written
in a critical spirit, and Damiao de Goes has the honour of having
been the first Portuguese royal chronicler to deserve the name
of an historian.
His Portuguese works include Chronica do felidssimo ret Dom
Emanuel (parts i. {and ii., Lisbon, 1566, parts iii. and iv., ib.
1567). Other editions appeared in Lisbon in 16 19 and 1749 and in
Coimbra in 1790. Chronica do principe Dom Joatn (Lisbon, 1558),
with subsequent editions in 1567 and 1724 in Lisbon and in 1790 in
Coimbra. Livro de Marco Tullio Ciceram chamado Catam Mayor
(Venice, 1538). This is a translation of Cicero's De senectute. His
Latin works, published separately, comprise: (1) Legatio magni im-
peratoris Presbiteri Joannis, &c. (Antwerp, 1532) ; (2) Legatio Davidis
Ethiopiae regis, &c. (Bologna, 1533) ; (3) Commentarii rerum gestarum
in India (Louvain, 1539); (4) Fides, religio, moresque Aethiopum
(Louvain, 1540), incorporating Nos.(i) and (2) ;(*)Hispania (Louvain,
1542) ; (6) Aliquot eptstolae Sadoleti Bembi et aliorum clarissimorum
vtrorum, 6fc. (Louvain, 1544); (7) Damiani a Goes equitis Lusitani
aliquot opuscula (Louvain, 1544) ; (8) Urbis Lovaniensis obsidia (Lisbon,
1546) ; (9) De bello Cambaico ultimo (Louvain, 1549) ; (10) Urbis Olisi-
Ponensis descriptio (Evora, 1554) ; (11) Epistola ad Hieronymum Car do-
sum (Lisbon, 1556). Most of the above went through several editions,
and many were afterwards included with new works in such collections
as No. (7), and seven sets of Opuscula appeared, all incomplete.
Nos. (5), (4) and (5) suffered mutilation in subsequent editions,
at the hands of the censors, because they offended against religious
orthodoxy or family pride.
Authorities. — (A) Joaquim de Vasconcellos, Goesiana (5 vols.),
with the following sub-titles: (1) O Retrato de Albrecht DUrer
(Porto, 1879); (2) Bibliographia (Porto, 1879), which describes 67
numbers of books by Goes; (3) As Variantes das Chronicas Portu-
guezas (Porto, 1881); (4) Damiao de Goes: Novos Estudos (Porto,
l8 97) J (5) As Cartas Latinos — in the press (1906). Snr. Vasconcellos
only printed a very limited number of copies of these studies for
distribution among friends, so that they are rare. (B) Guilherme
J. C. Henriques, Ineditos Goesianos, vol. i. (Lisbon, 1896), vol. ii.
(containing the proceedings at the trial by the Inquisition) (Lisbon,
1898). (C) A. P. Lopes de Mendonca, Damiao de Goes e a Inquisic&o
de Portugal (Lisbon, 1859). (D) Dr Sousa Viterbo, Damiao de Goes
e D. Antonio Pinheiro (Coimbra, 1895). (E) Dr Theophilo Braga,
Historia da Universidade de Coimbra (Lisbon, 1892), i. 374-380.
(F) Menendez y Pelayo, Historia de los Heter. Espafioles, ii.
129-143. (E. Pr.)
GOES, HUGO VAN DER (d. 1482), a painter of consider-
able celebrity at Ghent, was known to Vasari, as he is known to
us, by a single picture in a Florentine monastery. At a period
when the family of the Medici had not yet risen from the rank
of a great mercantile firm to that of a reigning dynasty, it em-
ployed as an agent at the port of Bruges Tommaso Portinari, a
lineal descendant, it was said, of Folco, the father of Dante's
Beatrix. Tommaso, at that time patron of a chapel in the hospital
of Santa Maria Nuova at Florence, ordered an altar-piece of
Hugo van der Goes, and commanded him to illustrate the sacred
theme of " Quern genuit adoravit." In the centre of a vast
triptych, comprising numerous figures of life size, Hugo repre-
sented the Virgin kneeling in adoration before the new-born
Christ attended by Shepherds and Angels. On the wings he
portrayed Tommaso and his two sons in prayer under the pro-
tection of Saint Anthony and St Matthew, and Tommaso 's
wife and two daughters supported by St Margaret and St Mary
Magdalen. The triptych, which has suffered much from decay
and restoring, was for over 400 years at Santa Maria Nuova,
and is now in the Uffizi Gallery. Imposing' because composed
of figures of unusual size, the altar-piece is more remarkable
for portrait character than for charms of ideal beauty.
There are also small pieces in public galleries which claim to
have been executed by Van der Goes. One of these pictures in
the National Gallery in London is more nearly allied to the school
of Memling than to the triptych of Santa Maria Nuova; another,
a small and very beautiful " John the Baptist," at the Pina-
kothek of Munich, is really by Memling; whilst numerous frag-
ments of an altarpiece in the Belvedere at Vienna, though
assigned to Hugo, are by his more gifted countryman of Bruges.
Van der Goes, however, was not habitually a painter of easel
pieces. He made his reputation at Bruges by producing coloured
hangings in distemper. After he settled at Ghent, and became a
master of his gild in 1465, he designed cartoons for glass windows.
He also made decorations for the wedding of Charles the Bold and N
Margaret of York in 1468, for the festivals of the Rhetoricians and
papal jubilees on repeated occasions, for the solemn entry of
Charles the Bold into Ghent in 1470-147 1, and for the funeral of
Philip the Good in 1474. The labour which he expended on
these occasions might well add to his fame without being the
less ephemeral. About the year 1475 he retired to the monastery
of Rouge Goitre near Ghent, where he took the cowl. There,
though he still clung to his profession, he seems to have
taken to drinking, and at one time to have shown decided
symptoms of insanity. But his superiors gradually cured him
of his intemperance, and he died in the odour of sanctity in
1482.
GOES, a town in the province of Zeeland, Holland, on the island
of South Beveland, 11 J m. by rail E. of Middelburg. Pop. (1900)
6919. It is connected by a short canal with the East Scheldt,
and has a good harbour (1819) defended by a fort. The principal
buildings are the interesting Gothic church (1423) and the
picturesque old town hall (restored 1771). There are various
educational and charitable institutions. Goes has preserved
for centuries its prosperous position as the market-town of the
island. The chief industries are boat-building, brewing, book-
binding and cigar-making. The town had its origin in the
castle of Oostende, built here by the noble family of Borssele.
It received a charter early in the 15th century from the
countess Jacoba of Holland, who frequently stayed at the
castle.
l82
GOETHE
GOETHE, JOHANN WOLFGANG VON (1749-1832), German
poet, dramatist and philosopher, was born at Frankfort-on-Main
on the 28th of August 1749. He came, on his father's side, of
Thuringian stock, his great-grandfather, Hans Christian Goethe,
having been a farrier at Artern-on-the-Unstrut, about the
middle of the 17th century. Hans Christian's son, Friedrich
Georg, was brought up to the trade of a tailor, and in this
capacity settled in Frankfort in 1686. A second marriage,
however, brought him into possession of the Frankfort inn,
" Zum Weidenhof," and he ended his days as a well-to-do inn-
keeper. His son, Johann Kaspar, the poet's father (17 10-1 782) ,
studied law at Leipzig, and, after going through the prescribed
courses of practical training at Wetzlar, travelled in Italy.
He hoped, on his return to Frankfort, to obtain an official
position in the government of the free city, but his personal
influence with the authorities was not sufficiently strong. In
his disappointment he resolved never again to offer his services
to his native town, and retired into private life, a course which
his ample means facilitated. In 1742 he acquired, as a consola-
tion for the public career he had missed, the title of kaiserlicher
Rat, and in 1748 married Katharina Elisabeth (1731-1808),
daughter of the Schidtheiss or BUrgermeister of Frankfort,
Johann Wolfgang Textor. The poet was the eldest son of this
union. Of the later children only one, Cornelia, born in 1750,
survived the years of childhood; she died as the wife of Goethe's
friend, J. G. Schlosser, in 1777. The best elements in Goethe's
genius came from his mother's side; of a lively, impulsive
disposition, and gifted with remarkable imaginative power,
Frau Rat was the ideal mother of a poet; moreover, being
hardly eighteen at the time of her son's birth, she was herself
able to be the companion of his childhood. From his father,
whose stern, somewhat pedantic nature repelled warmer feelings
on the part of the children, Goethe inherited that "holy earnest-
ness " and stability of character which brought him unscathed
through temptations and passions, and held the balance to his
all too powerful imagination.
Unforgettable is the picture which the poet subsequently
drew of his childhood spent in the large house with its many
nooks and crannies, in the Grosse Hirschgraben at Frankfort.
Books, pictures, objects of art, antiquities, reminiscences of
Rat Goethe's visit to Italy, above all a marionette theatre,
kindled the child's quick intellect and imagination. His training
was conducted in its early stages by his father, and was later
supplemented by tutors. Meanwhile the varied and picturesque
life of Frankfort was in itself an education. In 1759, during the
Seven Years' War, the French, as Maria Theresa's allies, occupied
the town, and, much to the irritation of Goethe's father, who
was a stanch partisan of Frederick the Great, a French lieu-
tenant, Count Thoranc, was quartered on the Goethe household.
The foreign occupation also led to the establishment of a French
troupe of actors, and to their performances the boy, through his
grandfather's influence, had free access. Goethe has also recorded
his memories of another picturesque event, the coronation of the
emperor Joseph II. in the Frankfort Romer or town hall in 1764;
but these memories were darkened by being associated in his
mind with the tragic denouement of his first love affair. The
object of this passion was a certain Gretchen, who seems to have
taken advantage of the boy's interest in her to further the
dishonest ends of one of her friends. The discovery of the affair
and the investigation that followed cooled Goethe's ardour and
caused him to turn his attention seriously to the studies which
were to prepare him for the university. Meanwhile the literary
instinct had begun to show itself; we hear of a novel in letters —
a kind of linguistic exercise, in which the characters carried on
the correspondence in different languages — of a prose epic on
the subject of Joseph, and various religious poems of which one,
Die Hollenfahrt Christi, found its way in a revised form into the
poet's complete works.
In October 1765, Goethe, then a little over sixteen, left Frank-
fort for Leipzig, where a wider and, in many respects, less
provincial life awaited him. He entered upon his university
studies with zeal, but his own education in Frankfort had not
been the best preparation for the scholastic methods which still
dominated the German universities; of his professors, only
Gellert seems to have won his interest, and that interest was soon
exhausted. The literary beginnings he had made in Frankfort
now seemed to him amateurish and trivial; he felt that he had
to turn over a new leaf, and, under the guidance of E. W. Behrisch,
a genial, original comrade, he learned the art of writing those
light Anacreontic lyrics which harmonized with the tone of polite
Leipzig society. Artificial as this poetry is, Goethe was, neverthe-
less, inspired by a real passion in Leipzig, namely, for Anna
Katharina Schbnkopf , the daughter of a wine-merchant at whose
house he dined. She is the " Annette " after whom the recently
discovered collection of lyrics was named, although it must be
added that neither these lyrics nor the Neue Lieder, published in
1770, express very directly Goethe's feelings for Kathchen
Schonkopf. To his Leipzig student-days belong also two small
plays in Alexandrines, Die Laune des Verliebten, a pastoral
comedy in one act, which reflects the lighter side of the poet's
love affair, and Die Mitschuldigen (published in a revised form,
1769), a more sombre picture, in which comedy is incongruously
mingled with tragedy. In Leipzig Goethe also had time for what
remained one of the abiding interests of his life, for art; he re-
garded A. F. Oeser (17 17-1799), the director of the academy of
painting in the Pleissenburg, who had given him lessons in drawing,
as the teacher who in Leipzig had influenced him most. His art
studies were also furthered by a short visit to Dresden. His stay
in Leipzig came, however, to an abrupt conclusion; the dis-
tractions of student life proved too much for his strength; a
sudden haemorrhage supervened, and he lay long ill, first in
Leipzig, and, after it was possible to remove him, at home in
Frankfort. These months of slow recovery were a time of serious
introspection for Goethe. He still corresponded with his Leipzig
friends, but the tone of his letters changed; life had become
graver and more earnest for him. He pored over books on occult
philosophy; he busied himself with alchemy and astrology. A
friend of his mother's, Susanne Katharina von Klettenberg, who
belonged to pietist circles in Frankfort, turned the boy's thoughts
to religious mysticism. On his recovery his father resolved that
he should complete his legal studies at Strassburg, a city which,
although then outside the German empire, was, in respect of
language and culture, wholly German. From the first moment
Goethe set foot in the narrow streets of the Alsatian capital, in
April 1770, the whole current of his thought seemed to change.
The Gothic architecture of the Strassburg minster became to
him the symbol of a national and German ideal, directly anta-
gonistic to the French tastes and the classical and rationalistic
atmosphere that prevailed in Leipzig. The second moment of
importance in Goethe's Strassburg period was his meeting with
Herder, who spent some weeks in Strassburg undergoing an opera-
tion of the eye. In this thinker, who was his senior by five years,
Goethe found the master he sought; Herder taught him the
significance of Gothic architecture, revealed to him the charm
of nature's simplicity, and inspired him with enthusiasm for
Shakespeare and the Volkslied. Meanwhile Goethe's legal studies
were not neglected, and he found time to add to knowledge of
other subjects, notably that of medicine. Another factor of
importance in Goethe's Strassburg life was his love for Friederike
Brion, the daughter of an Alsatian village pastor in Sesenheim.
Even more than Herder's precept and example, this passion showed
Goethe how trivial and artificial had been the Anacreontic and
pastoral poetry with which he had occupied himself in Leipzig ;
and the lyrics inspired by Friederike, such as Kleine Blumen,
Heine Blatter and Wie herrlich leuchlet tnir die Naturl mark the
beginning of a new epoch in German lyric poetry. The idyll of
Sesenheim, as described in Dichtung und Wahrheit, is one of the
most beautiful love-stories in the literature of the world. From
the first, however, it was clear that Friederike Brion could never
become the wife of the Frankfort patrician's son; an unhappy
ending to the romance was unavoidable, and, as is to be seen in
passionate outpourings like the Wanderers Sturmlied, and in the
bitter self -accusations of Clavigo, it left deep wounds on the poet's
sensitive soul.
GOETHE
i83"
To Strassburg we owe Goethe's first important drama, Gotz
von Berlichingen, or, as it was called in its earliest form,
Gesckichte Gottfriedens von Berlichingen dramaUsiert (not published
until 1831). Revised under the now familiar title, it appeared in
1773, after Goethe's return to Frankfort. In estimating this
drama we must bear in mind Goethe's own Strassburg life, and
the turbulent spirit of his own age, rather than the historical facts,
which the poet found in the autobiography of his hero published
in 1 73 1. The latter supplied only the rough materials; the Gotz
von Berlichingen whom Goethe drew, with his lofty ideals of
right and wrong, and his enthusiasm for freedom, is a very
different personage from the unscrupulous robber-knight of the
16th century, the rough friend of Franz von Sickingen and of the
revolting peasants. Still less historical justification is to be found
for the vacillating Weisslingen in whom Goethe executed poetic
justice on himself as the lover of Friederike, or in the women of
the play, the gentle Maria, the heartless Adelheid. But there is
genial, creative power in the very subjectivity of these characters,
and a vigorous dramatic life, which is irresistible in its appeal.
With Gotz von Berlichingen, Shakespeare's art first triumphed on
the German stage, and the literary movement known as Sturm
und Drang was inaugurated.
Having received his degree in Strassburg, Goethe returned
home in August 1771, and began his initiation into the routine of
an advocate's profession. In the following year, in order to gain
insight into another side of his calling, he spent four months at
Wetzlar, where the imperial law-courts were established. But
Goethe's professional duties had only a small share in the eventful
years which lay between his return from Strassburg and that visit
to Weimar at the end of 1775, which turned the whole course of
his career, and resulted in his permanent attachment to the
Weimar court. Goethe's life in Frankfort was a round of stimulat-
ing literary intercourse; in J. H. Merck (1741-1791), an army
official in the neighbouring town of Darmstadt, he found a friend
and mentor, whose irony and common-sense served as a corrective
to his own exuberance of spirits. Wetzlar brought new friends
and another passion, that for Charlotte Buff, the daughter of the
Amimann there — a love-story which has been immortalized in
Werthers Leiden — and again the young poet's nature was obsessed
by a love which was this time strong enough to bring him to
the brink of that suicide with which the novel ends. A visit to
the Rhine, where new interests and the attractions of Maximiliane
von Laroche, a daughter of Wieland's friend, the novelist Sophie
von Laroche, brought partial healing; his intense preoccupation
with literary work on his return to Frankfort did the rest. In
1775 Goethe was attracted by still another type of woman, Lili
Schonemann, whose mother was the widow of a wealthy Frankfort
banker. A formal betrothal took place, and the beauty of the
lyrics which Lili inspired leaves no room for doubt that here was
a passion no less genuine than that for Friederike or Charlotte.
But Goethe — more worldly wise than on former occasions — felt
instinctively that the gay, social world in which Lili moved was
not really congenial to him. A visit to Switzerland in the
summer of 1775 may not have weakened his interest in her, but it
at least allowed him to regard her objectively; and, without tragic
consequences on either side, the passion was ultimately allowed to
yield to the dictates of common-sense. Goethe's departure for
Weimar in November made the final break less difficult.
The period from 177 f to 1775 was, in literary respects, the
most productive of the poet's life. It had been inaugurated
with Gotz von Berlichingen, and a few months later this tragedy
was followed by another, Clavigo, hardly less convincing in its
character-drawing, and reflecting even more faithfully than the
former the experiences Goethe had gone through in Strassburg.
Again poetic justice is effected on the unfortunate hero who
has chosen his own personal advancement in preference to his
duty to the woman he loves; more pointedly than in Gotz is
the moral enforced by Clavigo's worldly friend Carlos, that the
ground of Clavigo's tragic end lies not so much in the defiance
of a moral law as in the hero's vacillation and want of character.
With Die Leiden des jungen Werthers (1774), the literary
precipitate of the author's own experiences in Wetzlar, Goethe
succeeded in attracting, as no German had done before him,
the attention of Europe. Once more it was the gospel that the
world belongs to the strong, which lay beneath the surface of
this romance. This, however, was not the lesson which was
drawn from it by Goethe's contemporaries; they shed tears
of sympathy over the lovelorn youth whose burden becomes
too great for him to bear. While Gotz inaugurated the manlier
side of the Sturm und Drang literature, Werther was responsible
for its sentimental excesses. And to the sentimental rather
than to the heroic side belongs also Stella, " a drama for lovers,"
in which the poet again reproduced, if with less fidelity than in
Werther, certain aspects of his own love troubles. A lighter
vein is to be observed in various dramatic satires written at this
time, such as G otter, Helden und Wieland (1774), Hanswursts
Hochzeit, Fastnachtsspiel vom Pater Brey, Satyros, and in the
Singspiele, Erwin und BXmire (1775) and Claudine von Villa
Bella (1776); while in the Frankfurter Gelehrte Anzeiger (1772-
1773), Goethe drove home the principles of the new movement
of Sturm und Drang in terse and pointed criticism. The exuber-
ance of the young poet's genius is also to be seen in the many
unfinished fragments of this period; at one time we find him
occupied with dramas on Caesar and Mahomet, at another with
an epic on Der ewige Jude, and again with a tragedy on Prometheus,
of which a magnificent fragment has passed into his works.
Greatest of all the torsos of this period, however, was the drama-
tization of Faust. Thanks to a manuscript copy of the play in
its earliest form — discovered as recently as 1887 — we are now
able to distinguish how much of this tragedy was the immediate
product of the Sturm und Drang, and to understand the intentions
with which the young poet began his masterpiece. Goethe's
hero changed with the author's riper experience and with his new
conceptions of man's place and duties in the world, but the
Gretchen tragedy was taken over into the finished poem, practi-
cally unaltered, from the earliest Faust of the Sturm und Drang.
With these wonderful scenes, the most intensely tragic in all
German literature, Goethe's poetry in this period reaches its
climax. Still another important work, however, was conceived,
and in large measure written at this time, the drama of Egmont,
which was not published until 1788. This work may, to some
extent, be regarded as supplementary to Faust; it presents the
lighter, more cheerful and optimistic side of Goethe's philosophy
in these years; Graf Egmont, the most winning and fascinating
of the poet's heroes, is endowed with that " demonic " power
over the sympathies of men and women, which Goethe himself
possessed in so high a degree. But Egmont depends for its
interest almost solely on two characters, Egmont himself and
Klarchen, Gretchen's counterpart; regarded as a drama, it
demonstrates the futility of that defiance of convention and
rules with which the Sturm und Drang set out. It remained for
Goethe, in the next period of his life, to construct on classic
models a new vehicle for German dramatic poetry.
In December 1774 the young " hereditary prince " of Weimar,
Charles Augustus, passing through Frankfort on his way to Paris,
came into personal touch with Goethe, and invited the poet to
visit Weimar when, in the following year, he took up the reins
of government. In October 1775 the invitation was repeated,
and on the 7th of November of that year Goethe arrived in the
little Saxon capital which was to remain his home for the rest of
his life. During the first few months in Weimar the poet gave
himself up to the pleasures of the moment as unreservedly as
his patron; indeed, the Weimar court even looked upon him for
a time as a tempter who led the young duke astray. But the
latter, although himself a mere stripling, had implicit faith in
Goethe, and a firm conviction that his genius could be utilized
in other fields besides literature. Goethe was not long in Weimar
before he was entrusted with responsible state duties, and events
soon justified the duke's confidence. Goethe proved the soul
of the Weimar government, and a minister of state of energy
and foresight. He interested himself in agriculture, horticulture
and mining, which were of paramount importance to the welfare
of the duchy, and out of these interests sprang his own love for
the natural sciences, which took up so much of his time in later
'i8 4
GOETHE
years. The inevitable love-interest was also not wanting. As
Friederike had fitted into the background of Goethe's Strassburg
life, Lotte into that of Wetzlar, and Lili into the gaieties of
Frankfort, so now Charlotte von Stein, the wife of a Weimar
official, was the personification of the more aristocratic ideals of
Weimar society. We possess only the poet's share of his corre-
spondence with Frau von Stein, but it is possible to infer from
it that, of all Goethe's loves, this was intellectually the most
worthy of him. Frau von Stein was a woman of refined literary
taste and culture, seven years older than he and the mother of
seven children. There was something more spiritual, something
that partook rather of the passionate friendships of the 18th
century than of love in Goethe's relations with her. Frau von
Stein dominated the poet's life for twelve years, until his journey
to Italy in 1 786-1 788. Of other events of this period the most
notable were two winter journeys, the first in 1777, to the Harz
Mountains, the second, two years later, to Switzerland — journeys
which gave Goethe scope for that introspection and reflection
for which his Weimar life left him little time. On the second of
these journeys he revisited Friederike in Sesenheim, saw Lili,
who had married and settled in Strassburg, and made the
personal acquaintance of Lavater in Zurich.
The literary results of these years cannot be compared with
those of the preceding period; they are virtually limited to a
few wonderful lyrics, such as Wanderers Nachtlied, An den Mond,
Gesang der Geister ilber den Wassern, or ballads, such as Der
Erlkdnig, a charming little drama, Die Geschwister (1776), in
which the poet's relations to both Lili and Frau von Stein seem
to be reflected, a dramatic satire, Der Triumph der EmpfindsamkeU
(1778), and a number of Singspiele, Lila (1777), Die Fischerin,
Scherz, List und Roche, and Jery und BiUely (1780). But greater
works were in preparation. A religious epic, Die Geheimnisse, and
a tragedy Elpenor, did not, it is true, advance much further
than plans; but in 1777, under the influence of the theatrical
experiments at the Weimar court, Goethe conceived and in great
measure wrote a novel of the theatre, which was to have borne
the title Wilhelm Meisters theatralische Sendung; and in 1779
himself took part in a representation before the court at Etters-
burg, of his drama Iphigenie auf Tauris. This I phi genie was,
however, in prose; in the following year Goethe remoulded it
in iambics, but it was not until he went to Rome that the drama
finally received the form in which we know it.
In September, 1786 Goethe set out from Karlsbad — secretly
and stealthily, his plan known only to his servant — on that
memorable journey to Italy, to which he had looked forward
with such intense longing; he could not cross the Alps quickly
enough, so impatient was he to set foot in Italy. He travelled
by way of Munich, the Brenner and Lago di Garda to Verona
and Venice, and from thence to Rome, where he arrived on the
29th of October 1786. Here he gave himself up unreservedly
to the new impressions which crowded on him, and he was soon
at home among the German artists in Rome, who welcomed him
warmly. In the spring of 1787 he extended his journey as far
as Naples and Sicily, returning to Rome in June 1787, where he
remained until his final departure for Germany on the 2nd of
April 1788. It is difficult to exaggerate the importance of
Goethe's Italian journey. He himself regarded it as a kind of
climax to his life; never before had he attained such complete
understanding of his genius and mission in the world; it afforded
him a vantage-ground from which he could renew the past and
make plans for the future. In Weimar he had felt that he was no
longer in sympathy with the Sturm und Drang, but it was Italy
which first taught him clearly what might take the place of that
movement in German poetry. To the modern reader, who
may well be impressed by Goethe's extraordinary receptivity,
it may seem strange that his interests in Italy were so limited;
for, after all, he saw comparatively little of the art treasures of
Italy. He went to Rome in Winckelmann's footsteps; it was
the antique he sought, and his interest in the artists of the
Renaissance was virtually restricted to their imitation of classic
models. This search for the classic ideal is reflected in the works
he completed or wrote under the Italian sky. The calm beauty
of Greek tragedy is seen in the new iambic version of Iphigenie
auf Tauris (1787); the classicism of the Renaissance gives the
ground- tone to the wonderful drama of Torquato Tasso (1790),
in which the conflict of poetic genius with the prosaic world is
transmuted into imperishable poetry. Classic, too, in this
sense, were the plans of a drama on Iphigenie auf Delphos and
of an epic, Nausikaa. Most interesting of all, however, is the
reflection of the classic spirit in works already begun in earlier
days, such as Egmont and Faust. The former drama was finished
in Italy and appeared in 1788, the latter was brought a step
further forward, part of it being published as a Fragment in 1 790.
Disappointment in more senses than one awaited Goethe on
his return to Weimar. He came back from Italy with a new
philosophy of life, a philosophy at once classic and pagan, and
with very definite ideas of what constituted literary excellence.
But Germany had not advanced; in 1788 his countrymen were
still under the influence of that Sturm und Drang from which
the poet had fled. The times seemed to him more out of joint
than ever, and he withdrew into himself. Even his relations to
the old friends were changed. Frau von Stein had not known
of his flight to Italy until she received a letter from Rome; but
he looked forward to her welcome on his return. The months
of absence, however, the change he had undergone, and doubtless
those lighter loves of which the Romische Elegien bear evidence,
weakened the Weimar memories; if he left Weimar as Frau von
Stein's lover he returned only as her friend; and she naturally
resented the change. Goethe, meanwhile, satisfied to continue
the freer customs to which he had adapted himself in Rome,
found a new mistress in Christiane Vulpius (1 765-1 816), the
least interesting of all the women who attracted him. But
Christiane gradually filled up a gap in the poet's life; she gave
him, quietly, unobtrusively, without making demands on him,
the comforts of a home. She was not accepted by court society ;
it did not matter to her that even Goethe's intimate friends
ignored her; and she, who had suited the poet's whim when he
desired to shut himself off from all that might dim the recollection
of Italy, became with the years an indispensable helpmate to
him. On the birth in 1789 of his son, Goethe had some thought
of legalizing his relations with Christiane, but this intention was
not realized until 1806, when the invasion of Weimar by the
French made him fear for both life and property.
The period of Goethe's life which succeeded his return from
Italy was restless and unsettled; relieved of his state duties,
he returned in 1790 to Venice, only to be disenchanted with the
Italy he had loved so intensely a year or two before. A journey
with the duke of Weimar to Breslau followed, and in 1792 he
accompanied his master on that campaign against France which
ended so ingloriously for the German arms at Valmy. In later
years Goethe published his account both of this Campagne in
Frankreich and of the Belagerung von Mainz, at which he was
also present in 1793. His literary work naturally suffered under
these distractions. Tasso, and the edition of the Schriften in
which it was to appear, had still to be completed on his return
from Italy; the Romische Elegien, perhaps the most Latin of all
his works, were published in 1795, and the VeneHanische Epi-
gramme, the result of the second visit to Italy, in 1796. The
French Revolution, in which all Europe was engrossed, was in
Goethe's eyes only another proof that the passing of the old
regime meant the abrogation of all law and order, and he gave
voice to his antagonism to the new democratic principles in the
dramas Der Grosskophta (1792), Der BUrgergeneral (1793), and
in the unfinished fragments Die Aufgeregten and Das Mddchen
von Oberkirch. The spirited translation of the epic of Reinecke
Fuchs (1794) he took up as a relief and an antidote to the social
disruption of the time. Twojnew interests, however, strengthened
the ties between Goethe and Weimar, — ties which the Italian
journey had threatened to sever: his appointment in 1791 as
director of the ducal theatre, a post which he occupied for
twenty-two years, and his absorption in scientific studies. In
1700 he published his important Versuch, die Metamorphose der
Pfianzen zu erkldren, which was an even more fundamental
achievement for the new science of comparative morphology
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185
than his discovery some six years earlier of the existence of a
formation in the human jaw-bone analogous to the intermaxillary
bone in apes; and in 179 1 and 1792 appeared two parts of his
Beilrage zur Optik.
Meanwhile, however, Goethe had again taken up the novel
of the theatre which he had begun years before, with a view to
finishing it and including it in the edition of his Neue Schriften
( 1 792-1 800). Wilheltn Meisters theatraUsche Sendung became
Wilhelm Meisters Lehrjahre; the novel of purely theatrical
interests was widened out to embrace the history of a young
man's apprenticeship to life. The change of plan explains,
although it may not exculpate, the formlessness and loose
construction of the work, its extremes of realistic detail and
poetic allegory. A hero, who was probably originally intended
to demonstrate the failure of the vacillating temperament when
brought face to face with the problems of art, proved ill-adapted
to demonstrate those precepts for the guidance of life with which
the Lehrjahre closes; unstable of purpose, Wilhelm Meister is
not so much an illustration of the author's life-philosophy as a
lay-figure on which he demonstrates his views. Wilhelm Meister
is a work of extraordinary variety, ranging from the commonplace
realism of the troupe of strolling players to the poetic romanticism
of Mignon and the harper; its flashes of intuitive criticism and
its weighty apothegms add to its value as a BUdungsroman in
the best sense of that word. Of all Goethe's works, this exerted
the most immediate and lasting influence on German literature;
it served as a model for the best fiction of the next thirty years.
In completing Wilhelm Meister, Goethe found a sympathetic
and encouraging critic in Schiller, to whom he owed in great
measure his renewed interest in poetry. After years of tentative
approaches on Schiller's part, years in which that poet concealed
even from himself his desire for a friendly understanding with
Goethe, the favourable moment arrived; it was in June 1794,
when Schiller was seeking collaborators for his new periodical
Die Horen; and his invitation addressed to Goethe was the
beginning of a friendship which continued unbroken until the
younger poet's death. The friendship of Goethe and Schiller,
of which their correspondence is a priceless record, had its
limitations; it was purely intellectual in character, a certain
barrier of personal reserve being maintained to the last. But
for the literary life of both poets the gain was incommensurable.
As far as actual work was concerned, Goethe went his own way
as he had always been accustomed to do; but the mere fact that
he devoted himself with increasing interest to literature was due
to Schiller's stimulus. It was Schiller, too, who induced him to
undertake those studies on the nature of epic and dramatic
poetry which resulted in the epic of Hermann und Dorothea
and the fragment of the Achilleis; without the friendship there
would have been no Xenien and no ballads, and it was his younger
friend's encouragement which induced Goethe to betake himself
once more to the " misty path" of Faust, and bring the first
part of that drama to a conclusion.
Goethe's share in the Xenien (1795) may be briefly dismissed.
This collection of distichs, written in collaboration with Schiller,
was prompted by the indifference and animosity of contemporary
criticism, and its disregard for what the two poets regarded as
the higher interests of German poetry. The Xenien succeeded
as a retaliation on the critics, but the masterpieces which followed
them proved in the long run much more effective weapons
against the prevailing mediocrity. Prose works like the Unter-
hrttungen deutscher Ausgewanderten (1795) were unworthy of
the poet's genius, and the translation of Benvenuto Cellini's
Life (1 796-1 797) was only a translation. But in 1798 appeared
Hermann und Dorothea, one of Goethe's most perfect poems.
It is indeed remarkable — when we consider by how much re-
flection and theoretic discussion the composition of the poem
was preceded and accompanied — that it should make upon the
reader so simple and "naive" an impression; in this respect
it is the triumph of an art that conceals art. Goethe has here
taken a simple story of village life, mirrored in it the most
pregnant ideas of his time, and presented it with a skill which
may well be called Homeric; but he has discriminated with
the insight of genius between the Homeric method of reproduc-
ing the heroic life of primitive Greece and the same method
as adapted to the commonplace happenings of 18th-century
Germany. In this respect he was undoubtedly guided by a
forerunner who has more right than he to the attribute "naive,"
by J. H. Voss, the author of Luise, Hardly less imposing in
their calm, placid perfection are the poems with which, in
friendly rivalry, Goethe seconded the more popular ballads
of his friend; Der Zauberlehrling, Der Gott und die Bayadere,
Die Braut von Korinth, Alexis und Dora, Der neue Pausias and
Die schone MUllerin — a cycle of poems in the style of the Volkslied
— are among the masterpieces of Goethe's poetry. On the other
hand, even the friendship with Schiller did not help him
to add to his reputation as a dramatist. Die natilrliche Tochter
(1803), in which he began to embody his ideas of the Revolution
on a wide canvas, proved impossible on the stage, and the
remaining dramas, which were to have formed a trilogy, were
never written. Goethe's classic principles, when applied to
the swift, direct art of the theatre, were doomed to failure, and
Die natilrliche Tochter, notwithstanding its good theoretic in-
tention, remains the most lifeless and shadowy of all his dramas.
Even less in touch with the living present were the various
prologues and Festspiele, such as PaUtophron und Neoterpe (1800),
Was wir bringen (1802)', which in these years he composed for
the Weimar theatre.
Goethe's classicism brought him into inevitable antagonism
with the new Romantic movement which had been inaugurated
in 1798 by the Athenaeum, edited by the brothers Schlegel.
The sharpness of the conflict was, however, blunted by the fact
that, without exception, the young Romantic writers looked
up to Goethe as its master; they modelled their fiction on
Wilhelm Meister; they regarded his lyrics as the high- water
mark of German poetry; Goethe, Novalis declared, was the
" Statthalter of poetry on earth." With regard to painting and
sculpture, however, Goethe felt that a protest was necessary,
if the insidious ideas propounded in works like Wackenroder's
Herzensergiessungen were not to do irreparable harm, by bringing
back the confusion of the Sturm und Drang-, and, as a rejoinder
to the Romantic theories, Goethe, in conjunction with his friend
Heinrich Meyer (1760-1832), published from 1798 to 1800 an
art review, Die Propyl&en. Again, in Winckelmann und seine
Zeit (1805) Goethe vigorously defended the classical ideals of
which Winckelmann had been the founder. But in the end he
proved himself the greatest enemy to the strict classic doctrine by
the publication in 1808 of the completed first part of Faust, a
work which was accepted by contemporaries as a triumph of
Romantic art. Faust is a patchwork of many colours. With the
aid of the vast body of Faust literature which has sprung up in
recent years, and the many new documents bearing on its history
— above all, the so-called Urfaust, to which reference has already
been made — we are able now to ascribe to their various periods
the component parts of the work; it is possible to discriminate
between the Sturm und Drang hero of the opening scenes and
of the Gretchen tragedy — the contemporary of Gotz and Clavigo
— and the superimposed Faust of calmer moral and intellectual
ideals — a Faust who corresponds to Hermann and Wilhelm
Meister. In its original form the poem was the dramatization
of a specific and individualized story; in the years of Goethe's
friendship with Schiller it was extended to embody the higher
strivings of 18th-century humanism; ultimately, as we shall see,
it became, in the second part, a vast allegory of human life and
activity. Thus the elements of which Faust is composed were
even more difficult to blend than were those of Wilhelm Meister;
but the very want of uniformity is one source of the perennial
fascination of the tragedy, and has made it in a peculiar degree
the national poem of the German people, the mirror which
reflects the national life and poetry from the outburst of Sturm
und Drang to the well-weighed and tranquil classicism of Goethe's
old age.
The third and final period of Goethe's long life may be said
to have begun after Schiller's death. He never again lost touch
with literature as he had done in the years which preceded his
i86
GOETHE
friendship with Schiller; but he stood in no active or immediate
connexion with the literary movement of his day. His life
moved on comparatively uneventfully. Even the Napoleonic
r6gime of 1806-18 13 disturbed but little his equanimity. Goethe,
the cosmopolitan Weltbllrger of the 18th century, had himself no
very intense feelings of patriotism, and, having seen Germany
flourish as a group of small states under enlightened despotisms,
he had little confidence in the dreamers of 1813 who hoped
to see the glories of Barbarossa's empire revived. Napoleon,
moreover, he regarded not as the scourge of Europe, but as the
defender of civilization against the barbarism of the Slavs;
and in the famous interview between the two men at Erfurt the
poet's admiration was reciprocated by the French conqueror.
Thus Goethe had no great sympathy for the war of liberation
which kindled young hearts from one end of Germany to the
other; and when the national enthusiasm rose to its highest
pitch he buried himself in those optical and morphological
studies, which, with increasing years, occupied more and more
of his time and interest.
The works and events of the last twenty-five years of Goethe's
life may be briefly summarized. In 1805, as we have seen, he
suffered an irreparable loss in the death of Schiller; in 1806,
Christiane became his legal wife, and to the same year belongs
the magnificent tribute to his dead friend, the Epilog zu SchUlers
Glocke. Two new friendships about this time kindled in the
poet something of the juvenile fire and passion of younger days.
Bcttina von Arnim came into personal touch with Goethe in
1807, and her Briefwechsel Goethes mil einem Kinde (published
in 1835) is, in its mingling of truth and fiction, one of the most
delightful products of the Romantic mind; but the episode was
of less importance for Goethe's life than Bettina would have us
believe. On the other hand, his interest in Minna Herzlieb,
foster-daughter of the publisher Frommann in Jena, was of a
warmer nature, and has left its traces on his sonnets.
In 1808, as we have seen, appeared the first part of Faust, and
in 1809 it was followed by Die Wahlverwandtschaften. The novel,
hardly less than the drama, effected a change in the public
attitude towards the poet. Since the beginning of the century
the conviction had been gaining ground that Goethe's mission
was accomplished, that the day of his leadership was over;
but here were two works which not merely re-established his
ascendancy, but proved that the old poet was in sympathy with
the movement of letters, and keenly alive to the change of ideas
which the new century had brought in its train. The intimate
psychological study of four minds, which forms the subject of
the Wahlverwandtschaften, was an essay in a new type of fiction,
and pointed out the way for developments of the German novel
after the stimulus of WUhclm Meister had exhausted itself.
Less important than Die Wahlverwandtschaften was Pandora
(1810), the final product of Goethe's classicism, and the most
uncompromisingly classical and allegorical of all his works.
And in 1810, too, appeared his treatise on Farbenlehre. In the
following year the first volume of his autobiography was pub-
lished under the title Aus meinem Leben, Dicktung und Wahrheit.
The second and third volumes of this work followed in 181 2 and
1814; the fourth, bringing the story of his life up to the close
of the Frankfort period in 1833, after his death. Goethe felt,
even late in life, too intimately bound up with Weimar to discuss
in detail his early life there, and he shrank from carrying his
biography beyond the year 1775. But a number of other
publications— descriptions of travel, such as the Italienische
Reise (1816-1817), the materials for a continuation of Dicktung
und Wahrkdt collected in Tag- und Jahrcskcfte (1830) — have also
to be numbered among the writings which Goethe has left us as
documents of his life. Meanwhile no less valuable biographical
materials were accumulating in his diaries, his voluminous
correspondence and his conversations, as recorded by J. P.
Eckermann, the chancellor Muller and F. Soret. Several
periodical publications, Cher Kunst und Altcrtum (1816-1832),
Zur Satuncissensckaft uberhaupt (181 7-1824), Zur Morphologic
USi 7-1824), bear witness to the extraordinary breadth of
Goethe's interests in these years. Art, science, literature — little
escaped his ken — and that not merely in Germany: English
writers, Byron, Scott and Carlyle, Italians like Manzoni, French
scientists and poets, could all depend on friendly words of
appreciation and encouragement from Weimar.
In West-dstlicher Diwan (181 9), a collection of lyrics — matchless
in form and even more concentrated in expression than those
of earlier days — which were suggested by a German translation
of Hafiz, Goethe had another surprise in store for his contem-
poraries. And, again, it was an actual passion — that for Marianne
von Willemer, whom he met in 1814 and 1815 — which rekindled
in him the lyric fire. Meanwhile the years were thinning the
ranks of Weimar society: Wieland, the last of Goethe's greater
literary contemporaries, died in 1813, his wife in 1816, Charlotte
von Stein in 1827 and Duke Charles Augustus in 1828. Goethe's
retirement from the direction of the theatre in 181 7 meant for
him a break with the literary life of the day. In 1822 a passion
for a young girl, Ulrike von Levetzow, whom he met at Marien-
bad, inspired the fine TrUogie der Leidensckaft, and between
1 82 1 and 1829 appeared the long-expected and long-promised
continuation of Wilhelm Meister, WUhelm Meister s Wanderjahre.
The latter work, however, was a disappointment: perhaps it
could not have been otherwise. Goethe had lost the thread of
his romance and it was difficult for him to resume it. Problems
of the relation of the individual to society and industrial questions
were to have formed the theme of the Wanderjahre] but since
the French Revolution these problems had themselves entered
on a new phase and demanded a method of treatment which it
was not easy for the old poet to learn. Thus his intentions were
only partially carried out, and the volumes were filled out by
irrelevant stories, which had been written at widely different
periods.
But the crowning achievement of Goethe's literary life was
the completion of Faust. The poem had accompanied him from
early manhood to the end and was the repository for the fullest
" confession " of his life; it is the poetic epitome of his experience.
The second part' is, in form, far removed from the impressive
realism of the Urfaust. It is a phantasmagory; a drama the
actors in which are not creatures of flesh and blood, but the
shadows of an unreal world of allegory. The lover of Gretchen
had, as far as poetic continuity is concerned, disappeared with
the close of the first part. In the second part it is virtually a new
Faust who, at the hands of a new Mephistopheles, goes out into
a world that is not ours. Yet behind these unconvincing shadows
of an imperial court with its financial difficulties, of the classical
W alpurgisnacht, of the fantastic creation of the Homunculus,
the noble Helena episode and the impressive mystery-scene
of the close, where the centenarian Faust finally triumphs over
the powers of evil, there lies a philosophy of life, a ripe wisdom
born of experience, such as no European poet had given to the
world since the Renaissance. Faust has been well called the
" divine comedy " of 18th-century humanism.
The second part of Faust forms a worthy close to the life of
Germany's greatest man of letters, who died in Weimar on the
22nd of March 1832. He was the last of those universal minds
which have been able to compass all domains of human activity
and knowledge; for he stood on the brink of an era of rapidly
expanding knowledge which has made for ever impossible the
universality of interest and sympathy which distinguished him.
As a poet, his fame has undergone many vicissitudes since his
death, ranging from the indifference of the " Young German "
school to the enthusiastic admiration of the closing decades of
the 19th century — an enthusiasm to which we owe the Weimar
Goelhe-Gesellschaft (founded in 1885) and a vast literature dealing
with the poet's life and work; but the fact of his being Germany's
greatest poet and the master of her classical literature has never
been seriously put in question. The intrinsic value of his poetic
work, regarded apart from his personality, is smaller in propor-
tion to its bulk than is the case with many lesser German poets
and with the greatest poets of other literatures. But Goethe
was a type of literary man hitherto unrepresented among the
leading writers of the world's literature; he was a poet whose
supreme greatness lay in his subjectivity. Only a small fraction
GOETHE
187
of Goethe's work was written in an impersonal and objective
spirit, and sprang from what might be called a conscious artistic
impulse; by far the larger — and the better — part is the im-
mediate reflex of his feelings and experiences.
It is as a lyric poet that Goethe's supremacy is least likely
to be challenged; he has given his nation, whose highest literary
expression has in all ages been essentially lyric, its greatest songs.
No other German poet has succeeded in attuning feeling, senti-
ment and thought so perfectly to the music of words as he; none
has expressed so fully that spirituality in which the quintessence
of German lyrism lies. Goethe's dramas, on the other hand,
have not, in the eyes of his nation, succeeded in holding their
own beside Schiller's; but the reason is rather because Goethe,
from what might be called a wilful obstinacy, refused to be
bound by the conventions of the theatre, than because he was
deficient in the cunning of the dramatist. For, as an interpreter
of human character in the drama, Goethe is without a rival
among modern poets, and there is not one of his plays that does
not contain a few scenes or characters which bear indisputable
testimony to his mastery. Faust is Germany's most national
drama, and it remains perhaps for the theatre of the future to
prove itself capable of popularizing psychological masterpieces
like Tasso and Iphigenie. It is as a novelist that Goethe has
suffered most by the lapse of time. The Sorrows of Werther no
longer moves us to tears, and even WUhelm Meister and Die
Wahlverwandtschaften require more understanding for the
conditions under which they were written than do Faust or
Egmont. Goethe could fill his prose with rich wisdom, but he
was only the perfect artist in verse.
Little attention is nowadays paid to Goethe's work in other
fields, work which he himself in some cases prized more highly
than his poetry. It is only as an illustration of his many-sidedness
and his manifold activity that we now turn to his work as a
statesman, as a theatre-director, as a practical political economist.
His art-criticism is symptomatic of a phase of European taste
which tried in vain to check the growing individualism of
Romanticism. His scientific studies and discoveries awaken
only an historical interest. We marvel at the obstinacy with
which he, with inadequate mathematical knowledge, opposed
the Newtonian theory of light and colour; and at his champion-
ship of " Neptunism," the theory of aqueous origin, as opposed
to " Vulcanism," that of igneous origin of the earth's crust.
Of far-reaching importance was, on the other hand, his fore-
shadowing of the Darwinian theory in his works on the meta-
morphosis of plants and on animal morphology. Indeed, the
deduction to be drawn from Goethe's contributions to botany
and anatomy is that he, as no other of his contemporaries,
possessed that type of scientific mind which, in the 19th century,
has made for progress; he was Darwin's predecessor by virtue
of his enunciation of what has now become one of the common-
places of natural science — organic evolution. Modern, too, was
the outlook of the aging poet on the changing social conditions
of the age, wonderfully sympathetic his attitude towards modern
industry, which steam was just beginning to establish on a new
basis, and towards modern democracy. The Europe of his later
years was very different from the idyllic and enlightened
autocracy of the 18th century, in which he had spent his best
years and to which he had devoted his energies; yet Goethe
was at home in it.
From the philosophic movement, in which Schiller and the
Romanticists were so deeply involved, Goethe stood apart.
Comparatively early in life he had found in Spinoza the philo-
sopher who responded to his needs; Spinoza taught him to see
in nature the " living garment of God," and more he did not seek
or need to know. As a convinced realist he took his standpoint
on nature and experience, and could afford to look on objectively
at the controversies of the metaphysicians. Kant he by no
means ignored, and under Schiller's guidance he learned much
from him; but of the younger thinkers, only Schelling, whose
mystic nature-philosophy was a development of Spinoza's
ideas, touched a sympathetic chord in his nature. As a moralist
and a guide to the conduct of life — an aspect of Goethe's work
which Carlyle, viewing him through the coloured glasses of
Fichtean idealism, emphasized and interpreted not always
justly — Goethe was a powerful force on German life in years of
political and intellectual depression. It is difficult even still
to get beyond the maxims of practical wisdom he scattered so
liberally through his writings, the lessons to be learned from
Meister and Faust, or even that calm, optimistic fatalism which
never deserted Goethe, and was so completely justified by the
tenor of his life. If the philosophy of Spinoza provided the poet
with a religion which made individual creeds and dogmas
unnecessary and impossible, so Leibnitz's doctrine of pre-
destinism supplied the foundations for his faith in the divine
mission of human life.
This many-sided activity is a tribute to the greatness of
Goethe's mind and personality; we may regard him merely as
the embodiment of his particular age, or as a poet " for all
time "; but with one opinion all who have felt the power of
Goethe's genius are in agreement — the opinion which was con-
densed in Napoleon's often cited words, uttered after the meeting
at Erfurt: VoUa un hommel Of all modern men, Goethe is
the most universal type of genius. It is the full, rich humanity
of his life and personality — not the art behind which the artist
disappears, or the definite pronouncements of the thinker or the
teacher — that constitutes his claim to a place in the front rank
of men of letters. His life was his greatest work.
Bibliography. — (a) Collected Works, Diaries, Correspondence,
Conversations. The following authorized editions of Goethe's
writings appeared in the poet's lifetime: Schriften (8 vols., Leipzig,
1 7 87-1 790); Neue Schriften (7 vols., Berlin, 1792- 1800); Werke
(13 vols., Stuttgart, 1 806-1 8 10); Werke (20 vols., Stuttgart, 1815-
18 19); to which six volumes were added in 1 820-1 822; Werke
(Vollstandige Ausgabe letzter Hand) (40 vols., Stuttgart, 182 7- 1830).
Goethe's Nachgelassene Werke appeared as a continuation of this
edition in 15 volumes (Stuttgart, 1 832-1 834), to which five volumes
were added in 1842. These were followed by several editions of
Goethe's Sdmtliche Werke, mostly in forty volumes, published by
Cotta of Stuttgart. The first critical edition with notes was published
by Hempel, Berlin, in thirty-six volumes, 1868-1879; that in
Kiirschner's Deutsche Nationalliteratur, vols. 82-117 (1 882-1 897) is
also important. In 1887 the monumental Weimar edition, which
is now approaching completion, began to appear ; it is divided
into four sections: I. Werke (c. 56 vols.); II. Naturwissenschaftliche
Werke (12 vols.); III. TagebUcher (13 vols.); W.Briefe (c.±$ vols.).
Of other recent editions the most noteworthy are : Sdmtliche Werke
(J ubil&ums- Ausgabe) , edited by E. von der Hellen (40 vols. , Stuttgart,
1902 ff.; Werke, edited by K. Heinemann (30 vols., Leipzig,
1900 ff.), and the cheap edition of the Sdmtliche Werke, edited by
L. Geiger (44 vols., Leipzig, 190 1). There are also innumerable
editions of selected works; reference need only be made here to the
useful collection of the early writings and letters published by S.
Hirzel with an introduction by M. Bernays, Derjunge Goethe (3 vols.,
Leipzig, 1875, 2nd ed., 1887). A French translation of Goethe's
CEuvres completes, by J. Porchat, appeared in 9 vols., at Paris, in
1860-1863. There is, as yet, no uniform English edition, but Goethe's
chief works have all been frequently translated and a number of
them will be found in Bonn's standard library.
The definitive edition of Goethe's diaries and letters is that forming
Sections III. and IV. of the Weimar edition. Collections of selected
letters based on the Weimar edition have been published by E. von
der Hellen (6 vols., 1901 ff.), and by P. Stein (8 vols., 1902 ff.). Of
the many separate collections of Goethe's correspondence mention
may be made of the Briefwechsel zwischen Schiller und Goethe, edited
by Goethe himself (1 828-1 829; 4th ed., 1881; also several cheap
reprints. English translation by L. D. Schmitz, 1 877-1 879);
Briefwechsel zwischen Goethe und Zelter (6 vols., 1 833-1 834; reprint
in Reclam's Universalbibliothek, 1904; English translation by
A. D. Coleridge, 1887); Bettina von Arnim, Goethes Briefwechsel
mit einem Kinde (1835; 4th ed., 1890; English translation, 1838);
Brief e von und an Goethe, edited by F. W. Riemer (1846); Goethes
Brief e an Frau von Stein, edited by A. Scholl (1 848-1 851 ; 3rd ed.
by J. Wahle, 1 899-1900) ; Briefwechsel zwischen Goethe und K. F. von
Keinhard (1850); Briefwechsel zwischen Goethe und Knebel (2 vols.,
1851); Briefwechsel zwischen Goethe und Staatsrat Schultz (1853);
Briefwechsel des Hereogs Karl August mit Goethe (2 vols., 1863);
Briefwechsel zwischen Goethe und Kaspar Graf von Sternberg (1866);
Goethes naturwissenschaftliche Korrespondenz, and Goethes Brief-
wechsel mit den GebrUdern von Humboldt, edited by F. T. Bratranek
( 1 874-1 876); Goethes und Carlyles Briefwechsel (1887), also in
English; Goethe und die Romantik, edited by C. Schuddekopf and
0» walzel (2 vols., 1 898-1 899); Goethe und Lavater, edited by H
Funck (1901); Goethe und Usterreich, edited by A. Sauer (2 vols.,
1902-1903). Besides the correspondence with Schiller and Zelter,
Bohn's library contains a translation of Early and Miscellaneous
i88
GOETHE
Letters, by E. Bell (1884). The chief collections of Goethe's con-
versations are: J. P. Eckermann, Gesprache mil Goethe (1836;
vol. iii-, also containing conversations with Soret, 1848; 7th ed. by
H. Duntzer, 1899; also new edition by L. Geiger, 1902; English
translation by J. Oxenford, 1850). The complete conversations
with Soret have been published in German translation by C. A. H.
Burkhardt (1005) ; Goethes Unterhaltungen mil dem Kanzler F. von
Mailer (1870). Goethe's collected Gesprache were published by
W. von Biedermann in 10 vols. (1889-1896).
(b) Biography. — Goethe's autobiography, Aus meinem 'Leben:
Dichtung una Wahrheit, appeared in three parts between 181 1 and
1814, a fourth part, bringing the history of his life as far as his
departure for Weimar in 1775, in 1833 (English translation by
J. Oxenford* 1846) ; it is supplemented by other biographical writings,
as the Italienische Reise, Aus einer Reise in die Sckweiz im Jahre
1797 \ Aus einer Reise am Rhein t Main und Neckar in den Jahren
1814 und 1815, Tag- und Jahreshefte, &c, and especially by his
diaries and correspondence. The following are the more important
biographies: H. Doring, Goethes Leben (1828; subsequent editions,
1833, i849t 1856); H. Viehoff, Goethes Leben (4 vols., 1847-1854;
5th ed., 1887); J. W. Schafer, Goethes Leben (2 vols., 1851; 3rd ed.,
1877); G. H. Lewes, The Life and Works of Goethe (2 vols., 1855;
2nd ed., 1864; 3rd ed., 1875; cheap reprint, 1906; the German
translation by T. Frese is in its 18th edition, ioxx> ; a shorter biojjraphy
was published by Lewes in 1871 under the title The Story of Goethe's
Life); W. Meweres, W. Goethe, les ceuvres expliquees par la vie
y, 3rd ed., 1904); A. Bielschowsky,
Werke (vol. 1., 1895; 5th ed., 1904;
ilation by W. A. Cooper, 1905 ff.);
( 1 872-1 873); A. Bossert, Goethe (1 872-1 873); K. Goedeke, Goethes
Leben una Schriften (1874; 2nd ed., 1877); H. Grimm, Goethe:
Vorlesungen (1876; 8th ed., 1903; English translation, 1880);
A. Hay ward, Goethe (1878); H. H. Boyesen, Goethe and Schiller,
their Lives and Works (1879); H. Duntzer, Goethes Leben (1880;
2nd ed., 1883; English translation, 1883); A. Baumgartner, Goethe,
sein Leben und seine Werke (1885); J. Sime, Life of Goethe (1888);
K. Heinemann, Goethes Leben und Werke (1889; 3rd ed., 1903);
R. M. Meyer, Goethe (1894;
Goethe, sein Leben und seine I
vol. ii., 1903; English translation by W. A. Cooper, 1905 flf.J;
G. Witkowsky, Goethe (1899); H. G. Atkins, /. W. Goethe (1904);
P. Hansen and R. Meyer, Goethe, hans Liv og Vaerker (1906).
Of writings on special periods and aspects of Goethe's life the
more important are as follows (the titles are arranged as far as
possible in the chronological sequence of the poet's life) : H. Duntzer,
Goethes Stamtnbaum (1894); K. Heinemann, Goethes Mutter (1891;
6th ed., iqoo); P. Bastier, La Mere de Goethe (1902); Briefe der
Frau Rat (2 vols., 2nd ed., 1905); F. Ewart, Goethes Voter (1899);
G. Witkowski, Cornelia die Schwester Goethes (1903); P. Besson,
Goethe, sa seeur et ses amies (1898); H. Duntzer, Frauenbilder aus
Goethes Jugendzeit (1852); W. von Biedermann, Goethe und Leipzig
(1865); P. F. Lucius, Friederike Brion (1878; 3rd ed., IQ04);
A. Bielschowsky, Friederike Brion (1880); F. E. von Durckneim,
LUVs Bild geschichtlich entworfen (1879; 2nd ed., 1804); W. Herbst,
Goethe in Wetzlar (1881); A. Diezmann, Goethe una die lustiee Zeit
in Weimar (1857; 2nd ed., 1901); H. Duntzer, Goethe una Karl
August ( 1 859-1 864; 2nd ed., 1888); also, by the same author,
Aus Goethes Freundeskreise (1868) and Charlotte von Stein (2 vols.,
1874); J. Haarhuus, Auf Goethes Spuren in Italien (1896-1898);
O. Harnack, Zur Nachgeschichte der italienischen Reise (1890); H.
Grimm, Schiller und Goethe (Essays, 1858; 3rd ed., 1884); G.
Berlit, Goethe und Schiller im persdmichen Verkehre, nach brieflichen
Mittetlungen von H. Voss (1895); E. Pasque\ Goethes Theaterleitung
in Weimar (2 vols., 1863) ; C. A. H. Burkhards, Das Repertoire des
weimarischen Theaters unter Goethes Leitung (1891); J. Wahle,
Das Weimar er Hof theater unter Goethes Leitung (1892) ; O. Harnack,
Goethe in der Epoche seiner Vollendung (2nd ed., 1901); T. Barbey
d'Aurevilly, Goethe et Diderot (1880) ; A Fischer, Goethe una Napoleon
(1899; 2nd ed., 1900); R. Steig, Goethe und die Gebruder Grimm
(1892).
U) Criticism. — H. G. Graef , Goethe uber seine Dichtungen (1901 ff .) ;
J. W. Braun, Goethe im Urteile seiner Zeitgenossen (3 vols., 1883-
1885); T. Carlyle, Essays on Goethe (1828-1832); X. Marmier,
£tudcs sur Goethe (1835); W. von Biedermann, Goethe- For schungen
(1879, 1886); J. Minor and A. Sauer, Studien zur Goethe-Philologie
(1880); H. Duntzer, Abhandlungen zu Goethes Leben und Werken
(1 881); A. Scholl, Goethe in Hauptzugen seines Lebens und Wirkens
(1882); V. Hehn, Gedanken uber Goethe (1884; 4th ed. f 1900);
W. Scherer, Aufsatze uber Goethe (1886); J. R. Seeley, Goethe
reviewed after Sixty Years (1894); E. Dowden, New Studies
in Literature (1895); E. Rod, Essai sur Goethe (1898); A. Luther,
Goethe, seeks Vortrage (1905); R. Saitschik, Goethes Charakter
(1898); W. Bode, Goethes Lebenskunst (1900; 2nd ed., 1902); by
the same, Goethes Astketik (1901); T. Vollbehr, Goethe und die
bildende Kunst (1895); E. Lichtenberger, Etudes sur les poesies
lyriques de Goethe (1878); T. Achelis, Grundzuge der Lyrik Goethes
(1900); B. Litzmann, Goethes Lyrik (1903); R~ Riemann, Goethes
Romantechnik (1901); R. Virchow, Goethe als Naturforscher (1861);
E. Caro, La Philosophic de Goethe (1866; 2nd ed., 1870); R. Steiner,
Goethes Weltanschauung (1897) ; F. Siebeck, Goethe als Denker (1902) ;
F. Baldensperger, Goethe en France (1904); S. Waetzoldt, Goethe
und die Romantik (1888).
More special treatises dealing with individual works are the
following: W. Scherer, Aus Goethes Fruhzeit (1879); R - Weissen-
fels, Goethe in Sturm und Drang, vol. i. (1894); W. Wilmanns,
QueUenstudien zu Goethes Gdtz von Berlichingen (1874) ; J. Baechtold,
Goethes Gdtz von Berlichingen in dreifacher Gestalt (1882); J. W.
Appell, Werther und seine Zeit (1855; 4 tn «!•» '896); E. Schmidt,
Richardson, Rousseau und Goethe (1875); M. Herrmann, Das Jakr-
marktsfest zu Plundersweilen (1900); E. Schmidt, Goethes Faust
in ursprun^licher Gestalt (1887; 5th ed., 1901); J. Collin, Goethes
Faust %n seiner dltesten Gestalt (1896); H. Hettner, Goethes Iphigenie
in ihrem Verhdltnis zur Bildungsgeschichte des Dichters (1861; in
Kleine Schriften, 1884); K. Fischer, Goethes Iphigenie (1888);
F. T. Bratranek, Goethes Egmont und SchiUers Wallenstein (1862) ;
C. Schuchardt, Goethes italienische Reise (1862); H. Duntzer,
Iphigenie auf Tauris; die drei dltesten Bearbeitungen (1854); F.
Kern, Goethes Tasso (1890); J. Schubart, Die philosophischen
Grundgedanken in Goethes Wilhelm Meister (1896); E. Boas, Schiller
und Goethe in Xenienkampf (1851); E. Schmidt and B. Suphan,
Xenien 1796, nach den Handschriften (1893); W. von Humboldt,
Asthetische Versuche: Hermann und Dorothea (1799); V. Hehn,
Uber Goethes Hermann und Dorothea (1893); A. Fries, Quellen und
Komposiiion der Achilleis (1901); K. Alt, Studien zur Entstehungs-
ftchichte von Dichtung und Wahrheit (1898); A. Jung, Goethes
ander jahre und die wichtigsten Fragen des 19. Jahrhunderts (1854) ;
F. Kreyssig, Vorlesungen w>er Goethes Faust (1866); the editions of
Faust by G. von Loeper (2 vols., 1879), ana * K. T. Schroer (2 vols.,
3rd and 4th ed., 1 898-1903); K. Fischer, Goethes Faust (3 vols..
1893, 1902, 1903) ; O. Pniower, Goethes Faust, Zeugnisse und Excurse
zu seiner Entstehungsgeschichte (1899); I. Minor, Goethes Faust,
Entstehungsgeschichte und Erkldrung (2 vols., 1901).
(d) Bibliographical Works, Goethe-Societies, &c. — L. Unflad, Die
Goethe-Literatur in Deutschland (1878); S. Hirzel, Verzeichnis einer
Goethe-Bibliothek (1884), to which G. von Loeper and W. von Bieder-
mann have supplied supplements. F. Strehlke, Goethes Briefe:
Verzeichnis unter Angabe der Quelle (1 882-1 884); British Museum
Catalogue of Printed Books: Goethe (1888); Goedeke's Grundriss
zur Geschichte der deutschen Dichtung (2nd ed., vol. iv. 1891); and
the bibliographies in the Goethe- J ahrbuch (since 1880). Also K.
Hoyer, Zur Einfuhrung in die Goethe-Literatur (1904). On Goethe in
England see E. Oswald, Goethe in England and America (1899;
2nd ed., 1909); W. Heinemann, A Bibliographical List of the English
Translations and Annotated Editions of Goethe's Faust (1886).
Reference may also be made here to F. Zarncke's Verzeichnis der
Originalaufnahmen von Goethes Bildnissen (1888).
A Goethe-Gesellschaft was founded at Weimar in 1885, and numbers
over 2800 members; its publications include the annual Goethe*
Jahrbuch (since 1880), and a series of Goethe-Schriften. A Goethe-
Verein has existed in Vienna since 1887, and an English Goethe
society, which has also issued several volumes of publications, since
1886. Q. G. R.)
Goethe's Descendants. — Goethe's only son, August, born on
the 25th of December 1789 at Weimar, married in 181 7 Ottilie
von Pogwisch (1796-187 2), who had come as a child to Weimar
with her mother (ne'e Countess Henckel von Donnersmarck).
The marriage was a very unhappy one, the husband having no
qualities that could appeal to a woman who, whatever the
censorious might say of her moral character, was distinguished
to the last by a lively intellect and a singular charm. August
von Goethe, whose sole distinction was his birth and his position
as grand-ducal chamberlain, died in Italy, on the 27th of October
1830, leaving three children: Walther Wolfgang, born on
April 9, 1818, died on April 15, 1885; Wolfgang Maximilian,
born on September 18, 1820, died on January 20, 1883; Alma,
born on October 22, 1827, died on September 29, 1844.
Of Walther von Goethe little need be said. In youth he had
musical ambitions, studied under Mendelssohn and Weinlig
at Leipzig, under Loewe at Stettin, and afterwards at Vienna.
He published a few songs of no great merit, and had at his
death no more than the reputation among his friends of a kindly
and accomplished man.
Wolfgang or, as he was familiarly called, Wolf von Goethe,
was by far the more gifted of the two brothers, and his gloomy
destiny by so much the more tragic. A sensitive and highly
imaginative boy, he was the favourite of his grandfather, who
made him his constant companion. This fact, instead of being
to the boy's advantage, was to prove his bane. The exalted
atmosphere of the great man's ideas was too rarefied for the
child's intellectual health, and a brain well fitted to do excellent
work in the world was ruined by the effort to live up to an
impossible ideal. To maintain himself on the same height as
his grandfather, and to make the name of Goethe illustrious in
his descendants also, became Wolfgang's ambition; and his
incapacity to realize this, very soon borne in upon him, paralyzed
GOETZ
189
his efforts and plunged him at last into bitter revolt against his
fate and gloomy isolation from a world that seemed to have no
use for him but as a curiosity. From the first, too, he was
hampered by wretched health; at the age of sixteen he was
subjected to one of those terrible attacks of neuralgia which
were to torment him to the last; physically and mentally alike
he stood in tragic contrast with his grandfather, in whose
gigantic personality the vigour of his race seems to have been
exhausted.
From 1839 to 1845 Wolfgang studied law at Bonn, Jena,
Heidelberg and Berlin, taking his degree of doctor juris at Heidel-
berg in 1845. During this period he had made his first literary
efforts. His Studenten-Briefe (Jena, 1842), a medley of letters
and lyrics, are wholly conventional. This was followed by Der
Mensck und die elementarische Notur (Stuttgart and Tubingen,
1845), in three parts (BeitrUge) : (1) an historical and philosophical
dissertation on the relations of mankind and the " soul of nature, 1 '
largely influenced by Schelling, (2) a dissertation on the juridical
side of the question, De fragmento Vegoiae, being the thesis
presented for his degree, (3) a lyrical drama, Erlinde. In this
last, as in his other poetic attempts, Wolfgang showed a consider-
able measure of inherited or acquired ability, in his wealth of
language and his easy mastery of the difficulties of rhythm and
rhyme. But this was all. The work was characteristic of his
self-centred isolation: ultra-romantic at a time when Romanti-
cism was already an outworn fashion, remote alike from the
spirit of the age and from that of Goethe. The cold reception
it met with shattered at a blow the dream of Wolfgang's life;
henceforth he realized that to the world he was interesting
mainly as " Goethe's grandson," that anything he might achieve
would be measured by that terrible standard, and he hated the
legacy of his name.
The next five years he spent in Italy and at Vienna, tormented
by facial neuralgia. Returning to Weimar in 1850, he was made a
chamberlain by the grand-duke, and in 1852, his health being
now somewhat restored, he entered the Prussian diplomatic
service and went as attach^ to Rome. The fruit of his long
years of illness was a slender volume of lyrics, Gedichte (Stuttgart
and Tiibingen, 1851), good in form, but seldom inspired, and
showing occasionally the influence of a morbid sensuality. In
1854 he was appointed secretary of legation; but the aggressive
ultramontanism of the Curia became increasingly intolerable
to his overwrought nature, and in 1856 he was transferred, at his
own request, as secretary of legation to Dresden. This post he
resigned in 1859, in which year he was raised to the rank of
Freikerr (baron). In 1866 he received the title of councillor
of legation; but he never again occupied any diplomatic post.
The rest of his life he devoted to historical research, ultimately
selecting as his special subject the Italian libraries up to the year
1500. The outcome of all his labours was, however, only the
first part of Studies and Researches in the Times and Life of
Cardinal Bessarion, embracing the period of the council of
Florence (privately printed at Jena, 1871), a catalogue of the
MSS. in the monastery of Sancta Justina at Padua (Jena,
1873), and a mass of undigested material, which he ultimately
bequeathed to the university of Jena.
In 1870 Ottilie von Goethe, who had resided mainly at Vienna,
returned to Weimar and took up her residence with her two sons
in the Goethehaus. So long as she lived, her small salon in the
attic storey of the great house was a centre of attraction for
many of the most illustrious personages in Europe. But after
her death in 1872 the two brothers lived in almost complete
isolation. The few old friends, including the grand-duke Charles
Alexander, who continued regularly to visit the house, were
entertained with kindly hospitality by Baron Walther; Wolf-
gang refused to be drawn from his isolation even by the advent
of royalty. "Tell the empress," he cried on one occasion,
"that I am not a wild beast to be stared at I" In 1879, his
increasing illness necessitating the constant presence of an
attendant, he went to live at Leipzig, where he died.
Goethe's grandsons have been so repeatedly accused of having
displayed a dog-in-the-manger temper in closing the Goethehaus
to the public and the Goethe archives to research, that the
charge has almost universally come to be regarded as proven.
It is true that the house was closed and access to the archives only
very sparingly allowed until Baron Walther's death in 1885.
But the reason for this was not, as Herr Max Hecker rather
absurdly suggests, Wolfgang's jealousy of his grandfather's
oppressive fame, but one far more simple and natural. From
one cause or another, principally Ottilie von Goethe's extrava-
gance, the family was in very straitened circumstances; and the
brothers, being thoroughly unbusinesslike, believed themselves
to be poorer than they really were. 1 They closed the Goethehaus
and the archives, because to have opened them would have
needed an army of attendants. 2 If they deserve any blame it
is for tie pride, natural to their rank and their generation, which
prevented them from charging an entrance fee, an expedient
which would not only have made it possible for them to give
access to the house and collections, but would have enabled
them to save the fabric from falling into the lamentable state
of disrepair in which it was found after their death. In any case,
the accusation is ungenerous. With an almost exaggerated
PieUit Goethe's descendants preserved his house untouched,
at great inconvenience to themselves, and left it, with all its
treasures intact, to the nation. Had they been the selfish
misers they are sometimes painted, they could have realized a
fortune by selling its contents.
Wolf Goethe (Weimar, 1889) is a sympathetic appreciation by Otto
Mejer, formerly president of the Lutheran consistory in Hanover.
See also Jenny v. Gerstenbergk, Ottilie von Goethe und ihre Sohne
Walther und Wolf (Stuttgart, 1901), and the article on Maximilian
Wolfgang von Goethe by Max F. Hecker in Allgem. deutsche Bio-
graphic, Bd. 49, Nachtrage (Leipzig, 1904). (W. A. P.)
GOETZ, HERMANN ( 1840-18 76), German musical composer,
was born at Konigsberg in Prussia, on the 1 7th of December 1840,
and began his regular musical studies at the comparatively
advanced age of seventeen. He entered the music-school of
Professor Stern at Berlin, and studied composition chiefly under
Ulrich and Hans von Bulow. In 1863 he was appointed organist
at Winterthur in Switzerland, where he lived in obscurity for
a number of years, occupying himself with composition during
his leisure hours. One of his works was an opera, The Taming
of the Shrew, the libretto skilfully adapted from Shakespeare's
play. After much delay it was produced at Mannheim (in
October 1874), and its success was as instantaneous as it has up to
the present proved lasting. It rapidly made the round of the
great German theatres, and spread its composer's fame over all
the land. But Goetz did not live to enjoy this happy result
for long. In December 1876 he died at Zurich from overwork.
A second opera, Francesca da Rimini, on which he was engaged,
remained a fragment; but it was finished according to his
directions, and was performed for the first time at Mannheim
a few months after the composer's death on the 4th of December
1876. Besides his dramatic work, Goetz also wrote various
compositions for chamber-music, of which a trio (Op. 1) and
a quintet (Op. 16) have been given with great success at the
London Monday Popular Concerts. Still more important is the
Symphony in F. As a composer of comic opera Goetz lacks the
sprightliness and artistic savoir faire so rarely found amongst
Germanic nations. His was essentially a serious nature, and
passion and pathos were to him more congenial than humour.
The more serious sides of the subject are therefore insisted upon
more successfully than Katherine's ravings and Petruchio's
eccentricities. There are, however, very graceful passages, e.g.
the singing lesson Bianca receives from her disguised lover.
Goetz's style, although influenced by Wagner and other masters,
shows signs of a distinct individuality. The design of his music
is essentially of a polyphonic character, and the working out and
interweaving of his themes betray the musician of high scholar-
ship. But breadth and beautiful flow of melody also were his,
1 After Walther's death upwards of £10,000 in bonds, &c, were
discovered put away and forgotten in escritoires and odd corners.
2 This was the reason given by Baron Walther himself to the
writer's mother, an old friend of Frau von Goethe, who lived with
her family in the Goethehaus for some years after 1871.
igo
GOFFE— GOGOL
as is seen in the symphony, and perhaps still more in the quintet
for pianoforte and strings above referred to. The most important
of Goctz's posthumous works are a setting of the 137th Psalm
for soprano solo, chorus and orchestra, a " Spring " overture
(Op. 15), and a pianoforte sonata for four hands (Op. 17).
OOFFE (or Gough), WILLIAM (fl. 1642-1660), English
parliamentarian, son of Stephen Goffe, puritan rector of Stanmer
in Essex, began life as an apprentice to a London Salter, a zealous
parliamentarian, but on the outbreak of the civil war he joined
the army and became captain in Colonel Harley's regiment of the
new model in 1645. He was imprisoned in 1642 for his share in
the petition to give the control of the militia to the parliament.
By his marriage with Frances, daughter of General Edward
Whalley, he became connected with Oliver Cromwell's family
and one of his most faithful followers. He was a member of
the deputation which on the 6th of July 1647 brought up the
charge against the eleven members. He was active in bringing
the king to trial and signed the death warrant. In 1649 he
received the honorary degree of M.A. at Oxford. He distin-
guished himself at Dunbar, commanding a regiment there and at
Worcester. He assisted in the expulsion of Barebone's parlia-
ment in 1653, took an active part in the suppression of Pen-
ruddock's rising in July 1654, and in October 1655 was appointed
major-general for Berkshire, Sussex and Hampshire. Meanwhile
he had been elected member for Yarmouth in the parliament of
1654 and for Hampshire in that of 1656. He supported the
proposal to bestow a royal title upon Cromwell, who greatly
esteemed him, was included in the newly-constituted House of
Lords, obtained Lambert's place as major-general of the Foot,
and was even thought of as a fit successor to Cromwell. As a
member of the committee of nine appointed in June 1658 on
public affairs, he was witness to the protector's appointment
of Richard Cromwell as his successor. He supported the latter
during his brief tenure of power and his fall involved his own loss
of influence. In November 1659 he took part in the futile mission
sent by the army to Monk in Scotland, and at the Restoration
escaped with his father-in-law General Edward Whalley to
Massachusetts. Goffe's political aims appear not to have gone
much beyond fighting " to pull down Charles and set up Oliver ";
and he was no doubt a man of deep religious feeling, who acted
throughout according to a strict sense of duty as he conceived it.
He was destined to pass the rest of his life in exile, separated
from his wife and children, dying, it is supposed, about 1679.
GOFFER, to give a fluted or crimped appearance to anything,
particularly to linen or lace frills or trimmings by means of
heated irons of a special shape, called goffering-irons or tongs.
" Goffering," or the French term gaufrage, is also used of the
wavey or crimped edging in certain forms of porcelain, and also
of the stamped or embossed decorations on the edges of the
binding of books. The French word gaufre, from which the
English form is adapted, means a thin cake marked with a
pattern like a honeycomb, a " wafer," which is etymologically
the same word. Waufre appears in the phrase unfer & waufres,
an iron for baking cakes on (quotation of 1433 in J. B. Roque-
fort's Glossairc de la langue ramane). The word is Teutonic,
cf. Dutch wafel> Ger. Waff el, a form seen in " waffle," the name
given to the well-known batter-cakes of America. The " wafer "
was so called from its likeness to a honeycomb, Wabe> ultimately
derived from the root tcu&-, to weave, the cells of the comb
appearing to be woven together.
000 (possibly connected with the Gentilic Gagaya, " of the
land of Gag," used in Amarna Letters i. 38, as a synonym for
41 barbarian," or with Ass. Gagu y a ruler of the land of Sahi,
N. of Assyria, or with Gyges y Ass. Gugu> a king of Lydia), a
Hebrew name found in Ezek. xxxviii.-xxxix. and in Rev. xx.,
and denoting an antitheocratic power that is to manifest itself
in the world immediately before the final dispensation. In the
later passage, Gog and Magog are spoken of as co-ordinate; in
the earlier, Gog is given as the name of the person or people and
Magog as that of the land of origin. Magog is perhaps a
contracted form of Mat-gog. mat being the common Assyrian
word for *' land." The passages are, however, intimately related
and both depend upon Gen. x. 2, though here Magog alone is
mentioned. He is the second " son " of Japhet, and the order
of the names here and in Ezekiel xxxviii. 2, indicates a locality
between Cappadocia and Media, i.e. in Armenia. According
to Josephus, who is followed by Jerome, the Scythians were
primarily intended by this designation; and this plausible
opinion has been generally followed. The name 2k60<h, it is
to be observed, however, is often but a vague word for any or all
of the numerous and but partially known tribes of the north;
and any attempt to assign a more definite locality to Magog can
only be very hesitatingly made. According to some, the Maiotes
about the Palus Maeotis are meant; according to others, the
Massage tae; according to Kiepert, the inhabitants of the
northern and eastern parts of Armenia. The imagery employed
in Ezekiel's prophetic description was no doubt suggested by the
Scythian invasion which about the time of Josiah, 630 B.C.,
had devastated Asia (Herodotus i. 104-106; Jer. iv. 3-vi. 30).
Following on this description, Gog figures largely in Jewish and
Mahommedan as well as in Christian eschatology. In the
district of Astrakhan a legend is still to be met with, to the effect
that Gog and Magog were two great races, which Alexander the
Great subdued and banished to the inmost recesses of the
Caucasus, where they are meanwhile kept in by the terror of
twelve trumpets blown by the winds, but whence they are
destined ultimately to make their escape and destroy the world.
The legends that attach themselves to the gigantic effigies
(dating from 1708 and replacing those destroyed in the Great
Fire) of Gog and Magog in Guildhall, London, are connected
only remotely, if at all, with the biblical notices. According to
the Recuyell des histoires de Troye, Gog and Magog were the
survivors of a race of giants descended from the thirty-three
wicked daughters of Diocletian; after their brethren had been
slain by Brute and his companions, Gog and Magog were brought
to London (Troy-novant) and compelled to officiate as porters
at the gate of the royal palace. It is known that effigies similar
to the present existed in London as early as the time of Henry V. ;
but when this legend began to attach to them is uncertain. They
may be compared with the giant images formerly kept at Antwerp
(Antigomes) and Douai (Gayant). According to Geoffrey of
Monmouth (Chronicles , i. 16), Goemot or Goemagot (either
corrupted from or corrupted into " Gog and Magog ") was a
giant who, along with his brother Corineus, tyrannized in the
western horn of England until slain by foreign invaders.
6060, or Gogha, a town of British India in Ahmedabad
district, Bombay, 193 m. N.W. of Bombay. Pop. (1901) 4798.
About j m. east of the town is an excellent anchorage, in some
measure sheltered by the island of Piram, which lies still farther
east. The natives of this place are reckoned the best sailors in
India; and ships touching here may procure water and supplies,
or repair damages. The anchorage is a safe refuge during the
south-west monsoon, the bottom being a bed of mud and the
water always smooth. Gogo has lost its commercial importance
and has steadily declined in population and trade since the time
of the American Civil War, when it was an important cotton-
mart.
GOGOL, NIKOLAI VASILIEVICH (1809-1852), Russian
novelist, was born in the province of Poltava, in South Russia,
on the 3 1st of March 1 809. Educated at the Niezhin gymnasium,
he there started a manuscript periodical, " The Star," and wrote
several pieces including a tragedy, The Brigands. Having
completed his course at Niezhin, he went in 1829 to St Petersburg,
where he tried the stage but failed. Next year he obtained a
clerkship in the department of appanages, but he soon gave it up.
In literature, however, he found his true vocation. In 1829 he
published anonymously a poem called Italy, and, under the
pseudonym of V. Alof , an idyll, Hans Kuchel Garten, which he
had written while still at Niezhin. The idyll was so ridiculed by
a reviewer that its author bought up all the copies he could
secure, and burnt them in a room which he hired for the purpose
at an inn. Gogol then fell back upon South Russian popular
literature, and especially the tales of Cossackdom on which his
boyish fancy had been nursed, his father having occupied the
GOGRA— GOITRE
191
post of " regimental secretary," one of the honorary officials in
the Zaporogian Cossack forces.
In 1830 he published in a periodical the first of the stories
which appeared next year under the title of Evenings in a Farm
near Dikanka: by Rudy Panko. This work, containing a series
of attractive pictures of that Little-Russian life which lends
itself to romance more readily than does the monotony of
" Great-Russian " existence, immediately obtained a great
success — its light and colour, its freshness and originality being
hailed with enthusiasm by the principal writers of the day in
Russia. Whereupon Gogol planned, not only a history of Little-
Russia, but also one of the middle ages, to be completed in eight
or nine volumes. This plan he did not carry out, though it led
to his being appointed to a professorship in the university of
St Petersburg, a post in which he met with small success and
which he resigned in 1835. Meanwhile he had published his
' Arabesques } a collection of essays and stories; his Taras Bulba,
the chief of the Cossack Tales translated into English by George
Tolstoy; and a number of novelettes, which mark his transition
from the romantic to the realistic school of fiction, such as the
admirable sketch of the tranquil life led in a quiet country
house by two kindly specimens of Old-world Gentlefolks, or the
description of the petty miseries endured by an ill-paid clerk
in a government office, the great object of whose life is to secure
the " cloak " from which his story takes its name. To the same
period belongs his celebrated comedy, the Revizor, or government
inspector. His aim in writing it was to drag into light " all that
was bad in Russia," and to hold it up to contempt. And he
succeeded in rendering contemptible and ludicrous the official
life of Russia, the corruption universally prevailing throughout
the civil service, the alternate arrogance and servility of men
in office. The plot of the comedy is very simple. A traveller
who arrives with an empty purse at a provincial town is taken
for an inspector whose arrival is awaited with fear, and he
receives all the attentions and bribes which are meant to pro-
pitiate the dreaded investigator of abuses. The play appeared
on the stage in the spring of 1836, and achieved a full success,
in spite of the opposition attempted by the official classes whose
malpractices it exposed. The aim which Gogol had in view
when writing the Revizor he afterwards fully attained in his
great novel, Mertvuiya Dushi, or Dead Souls, the first part of
which appeared in 1842. The hero of the story is an adventurer
who goes about Russia making fictitious purchases of " dead
souls," i.e. of serfs who have died since the last census, with the
view of pledging his imaginary property to the government.
But his adventures are merely an excuse for drawing a series
of pictures, of an unfavourable kind, of Russian provincial life,
and of introducing on the scene a number of types of Russian
society. Of the force and truth with which these delineations
are executed the universal consent of Russian critics in their
favour may be taken as a measure. From the French version
of the story a general idea of its merits may be formed, and some
knowledge of its plot and its principal characters may be gathered
from the English adaptation published in 1854, as an original
work, under the title of Home Life in Russia. But no one can
fully appreciate Gogol's merits as a humorist who is not intimate
with the language in which he wrote as well as with the society
which he depicted.
In 1836 Gogol for the first time went abroad. Subsequently
he spent a considerable amount of time out of Russia, chiefly
in Italy, where much of his Dead Souls was written. His
residence there, especially at Rome, made a deep impression on
his mind, which, during his later years, turned towards mysticism.
The last works which he published, his Confession and Corre-
spondence with Friends, offer a painful contrast to the light, bright,
vigorous, realistic, humorous writings which had gained and have
retained for him his immense popularity in his native land.
Asceticism and mystical exaltation had told upon his nervous
system, and its feeble condition showed itself in his literary
compositions. In 1848 he made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and
on his return settled down at Moscow, where he died on the 3rd
of March 1852.
See Materials for the Biography of Gogol (in Russian) (1897), by
Shenrok; " Illness and Death of Gogol," by N. Bazhenov, Russkaya
Muisl, January 1902. (W. R. S.-R.)
GOGRA, or Ghagra, a river of northern India. It is an
important tributary of the Ganges, bringing down to the plains
more water than the Ganges itself. It rises in Tibet near Lake
Manasarowar, not far from the sources of the Brahmaputra
and the Sutlej, passes through Nepal where it is known as the
Kauriala, and after entering British territory becomes the most
important waterway in the United Provinces. It joins the Ganges
at Chapra after a course of 600 m. Its tributary, the Rapti,
also has considerable commercial importance. The Gogra has
the alternative name of Sarju, and in its lower course is also
known as the Deoha.
GOHIER, LOUIS jfeldME (1 746-1830), French politician,
was born at Semblancay (Indre-et-Loire) on the 27th of February
1746, the son of a notary. He was called to the bar at Rennes,
and practised there until he was sent to represent the town in
the states-general. In the Legislative Assembly he represented
Ille-et-Vilaine. He took a prominent part in the deliberations;
he protested against the exaction of a new oath from priests
(Nov. 22, 1 791), and demanded the sequestration of the emigrants'
property (Feb. 7, 1792). He was minister of justice from March
1793 to April 1794, and in June 1799 he succeeded Treilhard
in the Directory, where he represented the republican interest.
His wife was intimate with Josephine Bonaparte, and when
Bonaparte suddenly returned from Egypt in October 1799 he
repeatedly protested his friendship for Gohier, who was then
president of the Directory, and tried in vain to gain him over.
After the coup d'ttat of the 18th Brumaire (Nov. 9, 1799), he
refused to abdicate his functions, and sought out Bonaparte
at the Tuileries " to save the republic," as he boldly expressed
it. He was escorted to the Luxembourg, and on his release
he retired to his estate at Eaubonne. In 1802 Napoleon made
him consul-general at Amsterdam, and on the Union of the
Netherlands with France he was offered a similar post in the
United States. His health did not permit of his taking up a new
appointment, and he died at Eaubonne on the 29th of May 1830.
His MSmoires d'un v&ttran irriprochable de la Revolution was
published in 1824, his report on the papers of the civil list preparatory
to the trial of Louis XVI. is printed in Le Prochs de Louis XVI
(Paris, an III) and elsewhere, while others appear in the Moniteur.
GdHRDE, a forest of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Hanover, immediately W. of the Elbe, between Wittenberg and
Luneburg. It has an area of about 85 sq. m. and is famous for its
oaks, beeches and game preserves. It is memorable for the
victory gained here, on the 16th of September 1 813, by the allies,
under Wallmoden, over the French forces commanded by Pecheur.
The hunting-box situated in the forest was built in 1689 and was
restored by Ernest Augustus, King of Hanover. It is known to
history on account of the constitution of Gohrde, promulgated
herein 17 19.
GOITO, a village of Lombardy, Italy, in the province of Mantua,
from which it is 11 m. N.W., on the road to Brescia. Pop.
(village) 737; (commune) 5712. It is situated on the right bank
of the Mincio near the bridge. Its position has given it a certain
military importance in various campaigns and it has been
repeatedly fortified as a bridge-head. The Piedmontese forces
won two actions (8th of April and 30th of May 1848) over the
Austrians here.
GOITRE (from Lat. guttur, the throat; synonyms, Bronchocele,
Derbyshire Neck), a term applied to a swelling in the front of the
neck caused by enlargement of the thyroid gland. This structure,
which lies between the skin and the anterior surface of the wind-
pipe, and in health is not large enough to give rise to any external
prominence (except in the pictures of certain artists), is liable to
variations in size, more especially in females, a temporary
enlargement of the gland being not uncommon at the catamenial
periods, as well as during pregnancy. In goitre the swelling is
Conspicuous and is not only unsightly but may occasion much
discomfort from its pressure upon the windpipe and other
important parts of the neck. J. L. Alibert recorded cases of
192
GOKAK— GOLD
goitre where the tumour hung down over the breast, or reached
as low as the middle of the thigh.
Goitre usually appears in early life,. often from the eighth to the
twelfth year; its growth is at first slow, but after several years of
comparative quiescence a sudden increase is apt to occur. In the
earlier stages the condition of the gland is simply an enlargement
of its constituent parts, which retain their normal soft consistence;
but in the course of time other changes supervene, and it may
become cystic, or acquire hardness from increase of fibrous tissue
or from calcareous deposits. Occasionally the enlargement is
uniform, but more commonly one of the lobes, generally the right,
is the larger. In rare instances the disease is limited to the
isthmus which connects tlje two lobes of the gland. The growth
is unattended with pain, and is not inconsistent with good health.
Goitre is a marked example of an endemic disease. There are
few parts of the world where it is not found prevailing in certain
localities, these being for the most part valleys and elevated plains
in mountainous districts(see Cretinism) . The malady is generally
ascribed to the use of drinking water impregnated with the salts of
lime and magnesia, in which ingredients the water of goitrous
districts abounds. B ut in localities not far removed from those in
which goitre prevails, and where the Water is of the same chemical
composition, the disease may be entirely unknown. The disease
may be the result of a combination of causes, among which local
telluric or malarial influences concur with those of the drinking
water. Goitre is sometimes cured by removal of the individual
from the district where it prevails, and it is apt to be acquired
by previously healthy persons who settle in goitrous localities;
and it is only in such places that the disease exhibits hereditary
tendencies.
In the early stages, change of air, especially to the seaside, is
desirable, and small doses of iron and of iodine should be given;
if this fails small doses of thyroid extract should be tried. If
palliative measures prove unsuccessful, operation must be under-
taken for the removal of one lateral lobe and the isthmus of the
tumour. This may be done under chloroform or after the sub-
cutaneous injection of cocaine. If chloroform is used, it must be
given very sparingly, as the breathing is apt to become seriously
embarrassed during the operation. After the successful per-
formance of the operation great improvement takes place, the
remaining part of the gland slowly decreasing in size. The whole
of the gland must not be removed during the operation, lest the
strange disease known as Myxoedema should be produced (see
Metabolic Diseases).
In exophthalmic goitre the bronchocele is but one of three
phenomena, which together constitute the disease, viz. palpitation
of the heart, elargement of the thyroid gland, and protrusion of
the eyeballs. This group of symptoms is known by the name of
" Graves's disease "or " Von Basedow's disease " — the physicians
by whom the malady was originally described. Although
occasionally observed in men, this affection occurs chiefly in
females, and in comparatively early life. It is generally preceded
by impoverishment of blood, and by nervous or hysterical
disorders, and it is occasionally seen in cases of organic heart
disease. It has been suddenly developed as the effect of fright or
of violent emotion. The first symptom is usually the palpitation
of the heart, which is aggravated by slight exertion, and may be
so severe as not only to shake the whole frame but even to be
audible at some distance. A throbbing is felt throughout the
body, and many of the larger blood-vessels are, like the heart,
seen to pulsate strongly. The enlargement of the thyroid is
gradual, and rarely increases to any great size, thus differing
from the commoner form of goitre. The enlarged gland is of soft
consistence, and communicates a thrill to the touch from its
dilated and pulsating blood-vessels. Accompanying the goitre a
remarkable change is observed in the eyes, which attract attention
by their prominence, and by the startled expression thus given to
the countenance. In extreme cases the eyes protrude from their
sockets to such a degree that the eyelids cannot be closed, and
injury may thus arise to the constantly exposed eyeballs. Apart
from such risk, however, the vision is rarely affected. It occasion-
ally happens that in undoubted cases of the disease one or other of
the three above-named phenomena is absent, generally either th*
goitre or the exophthalmos. The palpitation of the heart is the
most constant symptom. Sleeplessness, irritability, disorders of
digestion, diarrhoea and uterine derangements, are frequent
accompaniments. It is a serious disease and, if unchecked, may
end fatally. Some cases are improved by general hygienic
measures, others by electric treatment, or by the administration
of animal extracts or of sera. Some cases, on the other hand, may
be considered suitable for operative treatment. (E. O.*)
60KAK 9 a town of British India, in the Belgaum district of
Bombay, 8 m*. from a station on the Southern Mahratta railway.
Pop. (1901) 9860. It contains old temples with inscriptions,
and is known for a special industry of modelled toys. About
4 m. N.W. are the Gokak Falls, where the Ghatprabha throws
itself over a precipice 1 70 ft. high. Close by, the water has been
impounded for a large reservoir, which supplies not only irrigation
but also motive power for a cotton-mill employing 2000 hands.
GOKCHA, (Gok-Chai; Armenian Sevanga; ancient Haosra-
vagha), the largest lake of Russian Transcaucasia, in the govern-
ment of Erivan, in 40 9' to 40 38' N. and 45 1' to 45 40' E.
Its altitude is 6345 ft., it is of triangular shape, and measures
from north-west to south-east 45 m., its greatest width being
25 m., and its maximum depth 67 fathoms. Its area is 540 sq. m.
It is surrounded by barren mountains of volcanic origin, 12,000
ft. high. Its outflow is the Zanga, a left bank tributary of the
Aras (Araxes) ; it never freezes, and its level undergoes periodical
oscillations. It contains four species of Salmonidae, and two
of Cyprinidae, which are only met with in the drainage area
of this lake. A lava island in the middle is crowned by an
Armenian monastery. —
GOLCONDA,a fortress and ruined city of India, in the Nizam's
Dominions, 5 m. W. of Hyderabad city. In former times
Golconda was the capital of a large and powerful kingdom of
the Deccan, ruled by the Kutb Shahi dynasty which was founded
in 1512 by a Turkoman adventurer on the downfall of the
Bahmani dynasty, but the city was subdued by Aurangzeb in
1687, and annexed to the Delhi empire. The fortress of Golconda,
situated on a rocky ridge of granite, is extensive, and contains
many enclosures. It is strong and in good repair, but is com-
manded by the summits of the enormous and massive mausolea
of the ancient kings about 600 yds. distant. These buildings,
which are now the chief characteristics of the place, form a vast
group, situated in an arid, rocky desert. They have suffered
considerably from the ravages of time, but more from the hand
of man, and nothing but the great solidity of their walls has
preserved them from utter ruin. These tombs were erected at a
great expense, some of them being said to have cost as much
as £150,000. Golconda fort is now used as the Nizam's treasury,
and also as the state prison. Golconda has given its name in
English literature to the diamonds which were found in other
parts of the dominions of the Kutb Shahi dynasty, not near
Golconda itself.
GOLD [symbol Au, atomic weight 195-7(1! = 1), 197-2(0 = 16)],
a metallic chemical element, valued from the earliest ages on
account of the permanency of its colour and lustre. Gold
ornaments of great variety and elaborate workmanship have
been discovered on sites belonging to the earliest known civiliza-
tions, Minoan, Egyptian, Assyrian, Etruscan (see Jewelry,
Plate, Egypt, Crete, Aegean Civilization, Numismatics),
and in ancient literature gold is the universal symbol of the
highest purity and value (cf. passages in the Old Testament,
e.g. Ps. xix. 10 " More to be desired are they than gold, yea, than
much fine gold "). With regard to the history of the metallurgy
of gold, it may be mentioned that, according to Pliny, mercury
was employed in his time both as a means of separating the
precious metals and for the purposes of gilding. Vitruvius also
gives a detailed account of the means of recovering gold, by
amalgamation, from cloth into which it had been woven.
Physical Properties. — Gold has a characteristic yellow colour,
which is, however, notably affected by small quantities of other
metals; thus the tint is sensibly lowered by small quantities
of silver, and heightened by copper. When the gold is finely
GOLD
193
divided, as in " purple of Ca$sius," or when it is precipitated
from solutions, the colour is ruby-red, while in very thin leaves
it transmits a greenish light. It is nearly as soft as lead and
softer than silver. When pure, it is the most malleable of all
metals (see Goldbeating). It is also extremely ductile; a
single grain may be drawn into a wire 500 ft. in length, and an
ounce of gold covering a silver wire is capable of being extended
more than 1300 m. The presence of minute quantities of
cadmium, lead, bismuth, antimony, arsenic, tin, tellurium and
zinc renders gold brittle, T0Vff tn part of one of the three metals
first named being sufficient to produce that quality. Gold can
be readily welded cold; the finely divided metal, in the state
in which it is precipitated from solution, may be compressed
between dies into disks or medals. The specific gravity of gold
obtained by precipitation from solution by ferrous sulphate
is from 19*55 to 20*72. The specific gravity of cast gold varies
from 18*29 t° i°'37i an( * by compression between dies the
specific gravity may be raised from 19*37 to 19*41; by annealing,
however, the previous density is to some extent recovered, as
it is then found to be 19*40. The melting-point has been
variously given, the early values ranging from 142 5 C. to 1035 C.
Using improved methods, C. T. Heycock and F. H. Neville
determined it to be 1061*7° C; Daniel Berthelot gives 1064° C,
while Jaquerod and Perrot give 1066 • 1-1067-4° C. At still
higher temperatures it volatilizes, forming a reddish vapour.
Macquer and Lavoisier showed that when gold is strongly heated,
fumes arise which gild a piece of silver held in them. Its vola-
tility has also been studied by L. Eisner, and, in the presence of
other metals, by Napier and others** The volatility is barely
appreciable at 1075°; at 1250° it is four times as much as at
1100°. Copper and zinc increase the volatility far more than
lead, while the greatest volatility is induced, according to T.
Kirke Rose, by tellurium. It has also been shown that gold
volatilizes when a gold-amalgam is distilled. Gold is dissipated
by sending a powerful charge of electricity through it when in the
form of leaf or thin wire. The electric conductivity is given by
A. Matthiessen as 73 at o° C, pure silver being 100; the value
of this coefficient depends greatly on the purity of the metal,
the presence of a few thousandths of silver lowering it by 10%.
Its conductivity for heat has been variously given as 103 (C. M.
Despretz), 98 (F. Crace-Calvert and R. Johnson), and 60 (G. H.
Wiedemann and R. Franz), pure silver being 100. Its specific
heat is between 0-0298 (Dulong and Petit) and 9*03244 (Reg-
nault). Its coefficient of expansion for each degree between
0° and 100° C. is 0*000014661, or for gold which has been
annealed 0-000015136 (Laplace and Lavoisier). The spark
spectrum of gold has been mapped by A. Kirchhoff , R. Thalen,
Sir William Huggins and H. Kriiss; the brightest lines are 6277,
5960, 5955 and 5836 in the orange and yellow, and 5230 and
4792 in the green and blue.
Chemical Properties. — Gold is permanent in both dry and
moist air at ordinary or high temperatures. It is insoluble in
hydrochloric, nitric and sulphuric acids, but dissolves in aqua
regia — a mixture of hydrochloric and nitric acids — and when
very finely divided in a heated mixture of strong sulphuric
acid and a little nitric add; dilution with water, however,
precipitates the metal as a violet or brown powder from this
solution. The metal is soluble in solutions of chlorine, bromine,
thiosulphates and cyanides; and also in solutions which
generate chlorine, such as mixtures of hydrochloric acid with
nitric acid, chromic acid, antimonious acid, peroxides and
nitrates, and of nitric acid with a chloride. Gold is also attacked
when strong sulphuric acid is submitted to electrolysis with a
gold positive pole. W. Skey showed that in substances which
contain small quantities of gold the precious metal may be
removed by the solvent action of iodine or bromine in water.
Filter paper soaked with the clear solution is burnt, and the
presence of gold is indicated by the purple colour of the ash. In
solution minute quantities of gold may be detected by the
formation of " purple of Cassius," a bluish-purple precipitate
thrown down by a mixture of ferric and stannous chlorides.
The atomic weight of gold was first determined with accuracy
by Berzelius, who deduced the value 195-7 (H«=i) from the
amount of mercury necessary to precipitate it from the chloride,
and 195*2 from the ratio between gold and potassium chloride
in potassium aurichloride, KAuCU. Later determinations
were made by Sir T. E. Thorpe and A. P. Laurie, Kriiss and
J. W. Mallet. Thorpe and Laurie converted potassium auri-
bromide into a mixture of metallic gold and potassium bromide
by careful heating. The relation of the gold to the potassium
bromide, as well as the amounts of silver and silver bromide
which are equivalent to the potassium bromide, were determined.
The mean value thus adduced was 195-86. Kriiss worked with
the same salt, and obtained the value 195*65; while Mallet,
by analyses of gold chloride and bromide, and potassium auri-
bromide, obtained the value 195*77.
Occlusion of Gas by Gold. — T. Graham showed that gold is
capable of occluding by volume 0-48% of hydrogen, 0*20%
of nitrogen, 0-29% of carbon monoxide, and 0-16% of carbon
dioxide. Varrentrapp pointed out that " cornets " from the
assay of gold may retain gas if they are not strongly heated.
Occurrence and Distribution. — Gold is found in nature chiefly
in the metallic state, i.e. as " native gold/' and less frequently
in combination with tellurium, lead and silver. These are the
only certain examples of natural combinations of the metal,
the minute, though economically valuable, quantity often
found in pyrites and other sulphides being probably only present
in mechanical suspension. The native metal crystallizes in the
cubic system, the octahedron being the commonest form, but
other and complex combinations have been observed. Owing
to the softness of the metal, large crystals are rarely well defined,
the points being commonly rounded. In the irregular crystalline
aggregates branching and moss-like forms are most common,
and in Transylvania thin plates or sheets with diagonal structures
are found. More characteristic, however, than the crystallized
are the irregular forms, which, when large, are known as "nuggets"
or " pepites," and when in pieces below i to £ oz. weight as gold
dust, the larger sizes being distinguished as coarse or nuggety
gold, and the smaller as gold dust proper. Except in the larger
nuggets, which may be more or less angular, or at times even
masses of crystals, with or without associated quartz or other
rock, gold is generally found bean-shaped or in some other
flattened form, the smallest particles being scales of scarcely
appreciable thickness, which, from their small bulk as compared
with their surface, subside very slowly when suspended in water,
and are therefore readily carried away by a rapid current. These
form the " float gold " of the miner. The physical properties of
native gold are generally similar to that of the melted metal.
Of the minerals containing gold the most important are sylvanite or
graphic tellurium (Ag, Au) Te», with 24 to 26%; calavente, AuTe»,
with 42%; nagyagite or foliate tellurium (Pb, Au)i« Sb 8 (S, Te)«,
with 5 to 9% of gold; petzite, (Ag, Au)jTe, and white tellurium.
These are confined to a few localities, the oldest and best known
being those of Nagyag and Offenbanya in Transylvania ; they have
also oeen found at Red Cloud, Colorado, in Calaveras county, Cali-
fornia, and at Perth and Boulder, West Australia. The minerals
of the second class, usually spoken of as " auriferous," are compara-
tively numerous. Prominent among these are galena and iron pyrites,
the former being almost invariably gold-bearing. Iron pyrites,
however, is of greater practical importance, being in some districts
exceedingly rich, and, next to the native metal, is the most prolific
source of gold. Magnetic pyrites, copper pyrites, zinc blende and
arsenical pyrites are other and less important examples, the last
constituting the gold ore formerly worked in Silesia. A native gold
amalgam is found as a rarity in California, and bismuth from
South America is sometimes rich in gold. Native arsenic and
antimony are also very frequently found to contain gold and silver.
The association and distnbution of gold may be considered under
two different heads, namely, as it occurs in mineral veins — "reef
?;old," and in alluvial or other superficial deposits which are derived
rom the waste of the former — "alluvial gold." Four distinct
types of reef gold deposits may be distinguished: (1) Gold may
occur disseminated through metalliferous veins, generally with
sulphides and more particularly with pyrites. These deposits seem
to De the primary sources of native gold. (2) More common are the
auriferous quartz-reefs — veins or masses of quartz containing gold
in flakes visible to the naked eye, or so finely divided as to be invisible.
(3) The " banket " formation, which characterizes the goldfields of
South Africa, consists of a quartzite conglomerate throughout
which gold is very finely disseminated. (4) The siliceous sinter at
Wi. 7
i 9 4
GOLD
Mount Morgan, Queensland, which is obviously associated with
hydrothermal action, is also gold-bearing. The genesis of the last
three types of deposit is generally assigned to the simultaneous
percolation of solutions of gold and silica, the auriferous solution
being formed during the disintegration of the gold-bearing metalli-
ferous veins. But there is much uncertainty as to the mechanism
of the process; some authors hold that the soluble chloride is first
formed, while others postulate the intervention of a soluble aurate.
In the alluvial deposits the associated minerals are chiefly those
of great density and hardness, such as platinum, osmiridium and
other metals of the platinum group, tinstone, chromic, magnetic
and brown iron ores, diamond, ruby and sapphire, zircon, topaz,
garnet, &c. which represent the more durable original constituents of
the rocks whose disintegration has furnished the detritus.
Statistics of Gold Production. — The supply of gold, and also
its relation to the supply of silver, has, among civilized nations,
always been of paramount importance in the economic questions
concerning money (see Money and Bimetallism); in this
article a summary of the modern gold-producing areas will be
given, and for further details reference should be made to the
articles on the localities named. The chief sources of the
European supply during the middle ages were the mines of
Saxony and Austria, while Spain also contributed. The supplies
from Mexico and Brazil were important during the 16th and 17th
centuries. Russia became prominent in 1823, and for fourteen
years contributed the bulk of the supply. The United States
(California) after 1848, and Australia after 1851, were responsible
for enormous increases in the total production, which has been
subsequently enhanced by discoveries in Canada, South Africa,
India, China and other countries.
The average annual world's production for certain periods
from 1 801 to 1880 in ounces is given in Table I. The average
Table I.
Period.
Oz.
Period.
Oz.
1801-1810
590,750
380,300
1856-1860
6,350,180
1811-1820
1861-1865
5,951.770
1821-1830
472,400
1 866-1 870
6,169,660
1 831-1840
674,200
1871-1875
5,487,400
1841-1850
1,819,600
1876-1880
5,729,300
1851-1855
6,3s . 1 80
—
—
production of the five years 1881-1885 was the smallest since the
Australian and Calif ornian mines began to be worked in 1848-
1849; tne minimum 4,614,588 oz., occurred in 1882. It was
not until after 1885 that the annual output of the world began
to expand. Of the total production in 1876, 5,016,488 oz.,
almost the whole was derived from the United States, Australasia
and Russia. Since then the proportion furnished by these
countries has been greatly lowered by the supplies from South
Africa, Canada, India and China. The increase of production
has not been uniform, the greater part having occurred most
notably since 1895. Among the regions not previously important
as gold-producers which now contribute to the annual output,
the most remarkable are the goldfields of South Africa (Transvaal
and Rhodesia, the former of which were discovered in 1885).
India likewise has been added to the list, its active production
having begun at about the same time as that of South Africa.
The average annual product of India for the period 1886 to 1899
inclusive was £698,208, and its present annual product averages
about 550,009 oz., or about £2,200,000, obtained almost wholly
from the free-milling quartz veins of the Colar goldfields in
Mysore, southern India. In 1900 the output was valued at
£1,891,804, in 1905 at £2,450,536, and in 1008 at £2,270,000.
Canada, too, assumed an important rank, having contributed
in 1900 £5,583,300; but the output has since steadily declined
to £1,973,000 in 1908. The great increase during the few years
preceding 1899 was due to the development of the goldfields
of the North- Western Territory, especially British Columbia.
From the district of Yukon (Klondike, &c.) £2,800,000 was
obtained in 1899, wholly from alluvial workings, but the progress
made since has been slower than was expected by sanguine
people. It is, however, probable that the North-Western
Territory will continue to yield gold in important quantities
for some time to come.
The output of the United States increased from £7,050,000
in 1881 to £16,085,567 in 1900, £17,916,000, in 1905, and to
£20,065,000 in 1908. This increase was chiefly due to the
exploitation of new goldfields. The fall in the price of silver
stimulated the discovery and development of gold deposits,
and many states formerly regarded as characteristically silver
districts have become important as gold producers. Colorado is
a case in point, its output having increased from about £600,000
in 1880 to £6,065,000 in 1900; it was £5,139,800 in 1005. Some-
what more than one-half of the Colorado gold is obtained from
the Cripple Creek district. Other states also showed a largely
augmented product. On the other hand, the output of California,
which was producing over £3,000,000 per annum in 1876, has
fallen off, the average annual output from 1876 to 1900
being £2,800,000; in 1005 the yield was £3,839,000. This
decrease was largely caused by the practical suspension for
many years of the hydraulic mining operations, in preparation
for which millions of dollars had been expended in deep tunnels,
flumes, &c, and the active continuance of which might have been
expected to yield some £2,000,000 of gold annually. This inter*
ruption, due to the practical prohibition of the industry by the
United States courts, on the ground that it was injuring, through
the deposit of tailings, agricultural lands and navigable streams,
was lessened, though not entirely removed, by compromises and
regulations which permit, under certain restrictions, the renewed
exploitation of the ancient river-beds by the hydraulic method.
On the other hand, the progressive reduction of mining and
metallurgical costs effected by improved transportation and
machinery, and the use of high explosives, compressed air,
electric-power transmission, &c, resulted in California (as
elsewhere) in a notable revival of deep mining. This was
especially the case on the " Mother Lode,' 1 -where highly promising
results were obtained. Not only is vein-material formerly
regarded as unremunerative now extracted at a profit, but in
many instances increased gold-values have been encountered
below zones of relative barrenness, and operators have been
encouraged to make costly preparations for really deep mining
— more than 3000 ft. below the surface. The gold product of
California, therefore, may be fairly expected to maintain itself,
and, indeed, to show an advance. Alaska appeared in the list
of gold-producing countries in 1886, and gradually increased its
annual output until 1897, when the country attracted much atten-
tion with a production valued at over £500,000; the opening up
of new workings has increased this figure immensely, from about
£1,400,000 in 1001 to £3,006,500 in 1905. The Alaska gold
was derived almost wholly from the large low-grade quartz mines
of Douglas Island prior to 1899, but in that year an important
district was discovered at Cape Nome, on the north-western
coast. The result of a few months' working during that year
was more than £500,000 of gold, and a very much larger annual
output may reasonably be anticipated in the future; in 1905 it
was about £900,000. The gold occurs in alluvial deposits
designated as gulch-, bar-, beach-, tundra- and bench-placers.
The tundra is a coastal plain, swampy and covered with under-
growth and underlaid by gravel. The most interesting and, thus
far, the most productive are the beach deposits, similar to those
on the coast of Northern California. These occur in a strip of
comparatively fine gravel and sand, 150 yds. wide, extending
along the shore. The gold is found in stratified layers, with
" ruby " and black sand. The " ruby " sand consists chiefly of
fine garnets and magnetites, with a few rose-quartz grains.
Further exploration of the interior will probably result in the
discovery of additional gold districts.
Mexico, from a gold production of £200,000 in 1891, advanced
to about £1 ,88 1 ,800 in 1 900 and to about £3,221 ,000 in 1 905 . Of
this increase, a considerable part was derived from gold-quartz
mining, though much was also obtained as a by-product in the
working of the ores of other metals. The product of Colombia,
Venezuela, the Guianas, Brazil, Uruguay, Argentina, Chile,
Bolivia, Peru and Ecuador amounted in 1900 to £2,481,000 and
to £2,046,000 in 1905.
In 1876 Australasia produced £7,364,000, of which Victoria
contributed £3,984,000. The annual output of Victoria declined
GOLD
*95
until the year 1892, when it began to increase rapidly, but not to
its former level, the values for 1900 and 1005 being £3,142,000
&ad £3,138,000. There- has been an important increase in
Queensland, which advanced from £1,696,000 in 1876 to
£2,843,000 in 1900, and subsequently declined to £2,489,000
in 1905. There has been no increase, and, indeed, no large
fluctuation until quite recently in the output of New Zealand,
which averaged £1,054,000 per
annum from 1876 to 1898, but
the production of the two years
1900 and 1905 rose to £1,425,459
and £2,070,407 respectively. By
far the most important addition
to the Australasian product has
come from West Australia, which
began its production in 1887 —
about the time of the incep-
tion of mining at Witwaters-
rand ("the Rand") in South
Africa — and by continuous in-
crease, which assumed large
proportions towards the close of
the 19th century, was£6,426,ooo
in 1899, £6,179,000 in 1000, and
£8,212,000 in 1905. The total
Australasian production in 1908
was valued at £14,708,000.
Undoubtedly the greatest of
the gold discoveries made in the
latter half of the 19th century
was that of the Witwatersrand
district in the Transvaal. By
reason of its unusual geological
character and great economic
importance this district deserves
a more extended description. The gold occurs in conglomerate I
beds, locally known as "banket." There are several series of
parallel beds, interstratified with quartzite and schist, the most
important being the "main reef" series. The gold in this con-
glomerate reef is partly of detrital origin and partly of the genetic
character of ordinary vein-gold. The formation is noted for its
regularity as regards both the thickness and the gold-tenor of
the ore-bearing reefs, in which respect it is unparalleled in the
geology of the auriferous formations. The gold carries, on an
average, £2 per ton, and is worked by ordinary methods of gold-
mining, stamp-milling and cyaniding. In 1899, 5762 stamps
were in operation, crushing 7,331,446 tons of ore, and yielding
£15,134,000, equivalent to 25-5% of the world's production.
Of this, 80% came from within 12 m. of Johannesburg. After
September 1899 operations were suspended, almost entirely
owing to the Boer War, but on the 2nd of May 1901 they were
started again. In 1905 the yield was valued at £20,802,074,
and in 1009 at £30,925,788. So certain is the ore-bearing
formation that engineers in estimating its auriferous contents
feel justified in assuming, as a factor in their calculations, a
vertical extension limited only by the lowest depths at which
mining is feasible. On such a basis they arrived at more than
£600,000,000 as the available gold contained in the Witwaters-
rand conglomerates. This was a conservative estimate, and was
made before the full extent of the reefs was known; in 1004
Lionel Phillips stated that the main reef series had been
proved for 61 m., and he estimated the gold remaining to be
mined to be worth £2,500,000,000. Deposits similar to the
Witwatersrand banket occur in Zululand, and also on the
Gold Coast of Africa. In Rhodesia, the country lying north
of the Transvaal, where gold occurs in well-defined quartz-
veins, there is unquestionable evidence of extensive ancient
workings. The economic importance of the region generally
has been fully proved. Rhodesia produced £386,148 in 1000
and £722,656 in iooi, in spite of the South African War; the
product for 1905 was valued at £1,480,449, and for 1008 at
£2,526,000.
The gold production of Russia has been remarkably constant,
averaging £4,899,262 per annum; the gold is derived chiefly
from placer workings in Siberia.
The gold production of China was estimated for 1899 at ,
£1,328,238 and for 1900 at £860,000; it increased in 1901 to
about £1,700,000, to fall to £340,000 in 1905; in 1906 and 1907
it recovered to about £1,000,000.
Table II. — Gold Production of Certain Countries,
1881-IQ08 (in oz.).
Year.
Australasia.
Africa.
Canada.
India.
Mexico.
Russia.
United
States.
Totals.
1881
i,475,i6i
52,483
41,545
45.289
1,181,853
1,678,612
4,976,980
1882
1,438,067
52,000
1,154,613
1,572,187
4,825,794
4,614,588
1883
1,333,849
46,150
. .
46,229
1,132,219
1,451,250
1884
1,352,761
46,000
57,227
1,055,642
1,489,950
4,902,889
1885
1,309,804
53,987
• 46,941
1,225,738
1,538,325
5,002,584
1886
1,257,670
66,061
29,702
922,226
1,693,125
5,044,363
5,061,490
1887
1,290,202
28,754
240,266
366,023
59,884
15,403
39,86i
97L656
1,596,375
1888
1,344,002
53,1?°
62,658
35,034
47,H7
1,030,151
1,604,841
5,175,623
1889
1,540,607
78,649
33,862
1,154,076
1,587,000
5,611,245
1890
1,453,172
497,8i7
55,625
107,273
37,104
i,i34,59o
1,588,880
5,726,966
1891
1,518,690
729,268
45,022
131,776
48,375
1,168,764
1,604,840
6,287,591
1892
1,638,238
1,210,869
43,905
164,141
54,625
1,199,809
1,597,098
7,102,172
1893
1,711,892
1,478,477
44,853
207,152
217,688
1,345,224
1,739,323
1,910,813
7,772,585
1894
2,020,180
2,024,164
50,4"
210,412
1,167,455
8,813,848
1895
2,170,505
2,277,640
92,440
257,830
290,250
1,397.767
2,254,760
9,814,505
1896
2,185,872
2,280,892
136,274
323,501
314,437
1,041,794
2,568,132
9,950,861
1897
2,547,704
2,832,776
294,582
350,585
362,812
1,124,511
2,774,935
3.118,398
11,420,068
13,877,806
1898
3J37,644
3,837,i8i
3,876,216
669,445
376,431
411,187
1,231,791
1899
3,532,488
1,031,563
418,869
411,187
1,072,333
3,437,210
3,829,897
14,837,775
1900
3,555,506
419,503
1,348,720
456,444
435,375
974,537
12,315,135
12,698,089
1901
3,719,080
439,704
1,887,773
1,167,216
454,527
463,824
497,527
1,105,412
3,805,500
1902
3,946,374
4,315,538
1,003,355
491,156
1,090,053
3,870,000
14,313,660
1903
3,289,409
911,118
552,873
516,524
1,191,582
3,560,000
3,892,480
15,852,620
1904
4,245,744
4,156,084
793,350
556,097
609,781
1,199,857
16,790,351
1905
1906
4,159,220
5,477,841
700,863
576,889
779,181
1,063,883
1,087,056
4,265,742
18,360,945
3,984,538
6,449,749
7,270,464
7,983,34»
581,709
399,844
462,467
525,527
896,615
4,565,333
19,620,272
1907
3,659,693
495,965
903,672
1,282,635
4,374,827
19,988,144
1908
3.557,705
504,309
1,182,445
1,497,076
4,659,36o
21,529,300
Alloys. — Gold forms alloys with most metals, and of these many
are of great importance in the arts. The alloy with mercury — gold
amalgam — is so readily formed that mercury is one of the most
powerful agents for extracting the precious metal. With 10% of
gold present the amalgam is fluid, and with 12-5 % pasty, while with
13 % it consists of yellowish-white crystals. Gold readily alloys with
silver and copper to form substances in use from remote times for
money, jewelry and plate. Other metals which find application in
the metallurgy of gold by virtue of their property of extracting the
gold as an alloy are lead, which combines very readily when molten,
and which can afterwards be separated by cupellation, and copper,
which is separated from the gold by solution in acids or by electro-
lysis ; molten lead also extracts gold from the copper-gold alloys.
The relative amount of cold in an alloy is expressed in two ways :
(1) as " fineness," i.e. the amount of gold in 1000 parts of alloy;
(2; as " carats," i.e. the amount of goldin 24 parts of alloy. Thus,
pure gold is 1000 " fine " or 24 carat. In England the following
standards are used for plate and jewelry: 375, 500, 625, 750 and
916*6, corresponding to 9, 12, 15, 18 and 22 carats, the alloying
metals being silver and copper in varying proportions. In France
three alloys of the following standards are used for jewelry, 920,
8j.o and 750. A greenish alloy used by goldsmiths contains 70 % of
silver and 30% of gold. " Blue gold is stated to contain 73%
of gold and 25 % of iron. The Japanese use for ornament an alloy
of gold and silver, the standard of which varies from 350 to £00,
the colour of the precious metal being developed by " pickling ' in
a mixture of plum-juice, vinegar and copper sulphate. They may
be said to possess a series of bronzes, in which gold and silver replace
tin and zinc, all these alloys being characterized by' patina having
a wonderful range of tint. The common alloy, Shi-ya-ku-Do, con-
tains 70% of copper and 30% of gold; when exposed to air it
becomes coated with a fine black patina, and is much used in Japan
for sword ornaments. Gold wire may be drawn of any quality, but it
is usual to add 5 to 9 dwts. of copper to the pound. Tne " solders "
used fqr red gold contain 1 part of copper and 5 of gold ; for light
gold, 1 part of copper, 1 of silver and 4 of gold.
Gold and Stiver. — Electrum is a natural alloy of gold and silver.
Matthiessen observed that the density of alloys, the composition of
which varies from AuAge to Au«Ag, is greater than that calculated
from the densities of the constituent metals. These alloys are
harder, more fusible and more sonorous than pure gold. The alloys
of the formulae AuAg, AuAg 8 , AuAg 4 and AuAgjo are perfectly
homogeneous, and have been studied by Levol. Molten alloys con-
taining more than 80 % of silver deposit on cooling the alloy AuAg 9l
little gold remaining in the mother liquor.
Gold and Zinc. — When present in small quantities zinc renders gold
196
GOLD
brittle, but it may be added to gold in larger quantities without
destroying the ductility of the precious metal ; Pe*hgot proved that a
triple alloy of gold, copper and zinc, which contains 5-8 % of the last-
named, is perfectly ductile. The alloy of 1 1 parts gold and 1 part of
, zinc is, however, stated to be brittle.
Gold and Tin. — Alchorne showed that gold alloyed with ^th part
of tin is sufficiently ductile to be rolled and stamped into coin, pro-
vided the metal is not annealed at a high temperature. The alloys
of tin and gold are hard and brittle, and the combination of the metals
is attended with contraction; thus the alloy SnAu has a density
14*243, instead of 14*828 indicated by calculation. Matthiessen and
Bose obtained large crystals of the alloy AusSn t , having the colour
of tin, which changed to a bronze tint by oxidation.
Gold and Iron. — Hatchett found that the alloy of 11 parts gold
and 1 part of iron is easily rolled without annealing. In these pro-
portions the density of the alloy is less than the mean of its con-
stituent metals.
Gold and Palladium. — These metals are stated to alloy in all pro-
portions. According to Chenevix, the alloy composed of equal parts
of the two metals is grey, is less ductile than it6 constituent metals
and has the specific gravity 1 1 08. The alloy of 4 parts of gold and 1
part of palladium is white, hard and ductile. Graham showed that a
wire of palladium alloyed with from 2± to 25 parts of gold does not
exhibit the remarkable retraction which, in pure palladium, attends
its loss of occluded hydrogen.
Gold and Platinum. — Clarke states that the alloy of equal parts
of the two metals is ductile, and has almost the colour of gold.
Gold and Rhodium. — Gold alloyed with ith or )th of rhodium is,
according to Wollaston, very ductile.mf usible and of the colour of gold.
Gold and Iridium. — Small quantities of iridium do not destroy the
ductility of gold, but this is probably because the metal is only dis-
seminated through the mass, and not alloyed, as it falls to the bottom
of the crucible in which the gold is fused.
Gold and Nickel. — Eleven parts of gold and 1 of nickel yield an
alloy resembling brass.
Gold and Cobalt. — Eleven parts of gold and 1 of cobalt form a
brittle alloy of a dull yellow colour.
Compounds. — Aurous oxide, AutO, is obtained by cautiously
adding potash to a solution of aurous bromide, or by boiling
mixed solutions of auric chloride and mercurous nitrate. It forms
a dark-violet precipitate which dries to a greyish-violet powder.
When freshly prepared it dissolves in cold water to form an indigo-
coloured solution with a brownish fluorescence of colloidal aurous
oxide; it is insoluble in hot water. This oxide is slightly basic.
Auric oxide, AutO*, is a brown powder, decomposed into its elements
when heated to about 250 or on exposure to light. When a con-
centrated solution of auric chloride is treated with caustic potash,
a brown precipitate of auric hydrate, Au(OH)j, is obtained, which,
on heating, loses water to form auryl hydrate, AuO(OH), and
auric oxide, Au«0|. It functions chiefly as an acidic oxide, being
less basic than aluminium oxide, and forming no stable oxy-salts.
It dissolves in alkalis to form well-defined crystalline salts; potassium
aurate, KAuOi*3HtO, is very soluble in water, and is used in electro-
Iding. With concentrated ammonia auric oxide forms a black,
glL .
highly explosive compound of the composition AuNtHf^HtO,
named " fulminating gold " ; this substance is generally considered
to be Au(NHt)NH*3HjO, but it may be an ammine of the formula
[Au(NH»MOH)i)OH. Other oxides, e.g. AutOi, have beenidescribed.
Aurous chloride, AuCl, is obtained as a lemon-yellow, amorphous
powder, insoluble in water, by heating auric chloride to 185 . It
begins to decompose into gold and chlorine at 185 , the decomposition
being complete at 230 ; water decomposes it into gold and auric
chloride. Auric chloride, or gold trichloride, AuCl*, is a dark ruby-
red or reddish-brown, crystalline, deliquescent powder obtained by
dissolving the metal in aqua regia. It is also obtained by carefully
evaporating a solution of the metal in chlorine water. The gold
chloride of commerce, which is used in photography, is really a
hydrochloride, chlorauric or aurichloric acid, HAuCU*3HjO, and
is obtained in long yellow needles by crystallizing the acid solution.
Corresponding to this acid, a series of salts, named chloraurates or
aurichlorides, are known. The potassium salt is obtained by crys-
tallizing equivalent quantities of potassium and auric chlorides.
Light-yellow monoclinic needles of 2KAuClrHjO are deposited from
warm, strongly acid solutions, and transparent rhombic tables of
KAuCU-2HiO from neutral solutions. By crystallizing an aqueous
solution, red crystals of AuC1j*2HjO are obtained. Auric chloride
combines with the hydrochlorides of many organic bases — amines,
alkaloids, &c. — to form characteristic compounds. Gold dichloride,
probably AuiCU,«Au.AuCU, aurous chloraurate, is said to be
obtained as a dark-red mass by heating finely divided gold to 140 -
170 in chlorine. Water decomposes it into gold and auric chloride.
The bromides and iodides resemble the chlorides. Aurous bromide,
AuBr, is a yellowish-green powder obtained by heating the tri-
bromide to 140 ; auric bromide, AuBr«, forms reddish-black or
scarlet-red leafy crystals, which dissolve in water to form a reddish-
brown solution.and combines with bromides to form bromaurates corre-
sponding to the chloraurates. Aurous iodide, Aul, is a light -yellow,
sparingly soluble powder obtained, together with free iodine, by
adding potassium iodide to auric chloride; auric iodide, Aul»,
is formed as a dark-green powder at the same time, but it readily
decomposes to aurous iodide and iodine. Aurous iodide is also
obtained as a green solid by acting upon gold with iodine. The
iodaurates correspond to the chlor- and bromaurates; the potassium
salt, KA11I4, forms highly lustrous, intensely black, four-sided prisms.
Aurous cyanide, AuCN, forms yellow, microscopic, hexagonal
tables, insoluble in water, and is obtained by the addition of hydro-
chloric acid to a solution of potassium aurocyanide,- KAu(CN)*.
This salt is prepared by precipitating a solution of gold in aqua regia
by ammonia, and then introducing the well-washed precipitate into
a boiling solution of potassium cyanide. The solution is filtered
and allowed to cool, when colourless rhombic pyramids of the
aurocyanide separate. It is also obtained in the action of potassium
cyanide on gold in the presence of air, a reaction utilized in the
Mac Arthur-Forrest process of gold extraction (see below). Auric
cyanide, Au(CN)i, is not certainly known; its double salts, how*
ever, have been frequently described. Potassium auricyanide,
2KAu(CN)4*3H s O, is obtained as large, colourless, efflorescent
tablets by crystallizing concentrated solutions of auric chloride
and potassium cyanide. The acid, auricyanic acid, 2H Au (C N)<-3HiO,
is obtained by treating the silver salt (obtained by precipitating
the potassium salt with silver nitrate) with hydrochloric acid; it
forms tabular crystals, readily soluble in water, alcohol and ether.
Gold forms three sulphides corresponding to the oxides; they
readily decompose on heating. Aurous sulphide, Au»S, is a brownish-
black powder formed by passing sulphuretted hydrogen into a
solution of potassium aurocyanide and then acidifying. Sodium
aurosulphide, NaAuS*4HiO, is prepared by fusing gold with sodium
sulphide and sulphur, the melt being extracted with water, filtered
in an atmosphere of nitrogen, and evaporated in a vacuum over
sulphuric acid. It forms colourless, monoclinic prisms, which turn
brown on exposure to air. This method of bringing gold into
solution is mentioned by Stahl in his Observationes Chymico-
Physico-Medicae; he there remarks that Moses probably destroyed
the golden calf by burning it with sulphur and alkali (Ex. xxxii. 20).
Auric sulphide, AujS lt is an amorphous powder formed when lithium
aurichlonde is treated with dry sulphuretted hydrogen at — io°.
It is very unstable, decomposing into gold and sulphur at 200 °.
Oxy-salts of gold are almost unknown, but the sulphite and thio-
sulphate form double salts. Thus by adding acid sodium sulphite
to, or by passing sulphur dioxide at jo° into, a solution of sodium
aurate, the salt, 3NaiSO»AujSOr3H,0 is obtained, which, when
precipitated from its aqueous solution by alcohol, forms a purple
powder, appearing yellow or green by reflected light. Sodium
aurothiosulphate, 3NaiSjOrAu*S*Or4HiO, forms colourless needles;
it is obtained in the direct action of sodium thiosulphateongoldinthe
presence of an oxidizing agent, or by the addition of a dilute solution
of auric chloride to a sodium thiosulphate solution.
Mining and Metallurgy.
The various deposits of gold may be divided into two classes —
"veins" and "placers." The vein mining of gold does not
greatly differ from that of similar deposits of metals (see Mineral
Deposits). In the placer or alluvial deposits, the precious metal
is found usually in a water- worn* condition imbedded in earthy
matter, and the method of working all such deposits is based on
the disintegration of the earthy matter by the action of a stream
of water, which washes away the lighter portions and leaves the
denser gold. In alluvial deposits the richest ground is usually
found in contact with the "bed rock"; and, when the overlying
cover of gravel is very thick, or, as sometimes happens, when the
older gravel is covered with a flow of basalt, regular mining by
shafts and levels, as in what are known as tunnel-claims, may be
required to reach the auriferous ground.
The extraction of gold may be effected by several methods;
we may distinguish the following leading types:
1 . By simple washing, i.e. dressing auriferous sands,gravels,&c. ;
2. By amalgamation, i.e. forming a gold amalgam, afterwards
removing the mercury by distillation;
3. By chlorination, i.e. forming the soluble gold chloride and
then precipitating the metal;
4. By the cyanide process, i.e. dissolving the gold in potassium
cyanide solution, and then precipitating the metal;
5. Eiectrolytically, generally applied to the solutions obtained
in processes (3) and (4).
1. Extraction of Gold by Washing. — In the early days of gold-
washing in California and Australia, when rich alluvial deposits
were common at the surface, the most simple appliances sufficed.
The most characteristic is the " pan," a circular dish of sheet-
iron or " tin," with sloping sides about 13 or 14 in. in diameter.
The pan, about two-thirds filled with the " pay dirt " to be washed,
is held in the stream or in a hole filled with water. The larger
stones having been removed by hand, 'gyratory motion is given
to the pan by a combination of shaking and twisting movements
GOLD
197
so as to keep its contents suspended in the stream of water, which
carries away the bulk of the lighter material, leaving the heavy
minerals, together with any gold which may have been present. The
washing is repeated until enough of the enriched sand is collected,
when the gold is finally recovered by careful washing or " panning
out " in a smaller pan. In Mexico and South America, instead of the
pan, a wooden dish or trough, known as " batea," is used.
The " cradle " is a simple appliance for treating somewhat larger
quantities, and consists essentially of a box, mounted on rockers,
and provided with a perforated bottom of sheet iron in which the
" pay dirt " is placed. Water is poured on the dirt, and the rocking
motion imparted to the cradle causes the finer particles to pass through
the perforated bottom on to a canvas screen, and thence to the base
of the cradle, where the auriferous particles accumulate on transverse
bars of wood, called " riffles."
The " torn " is a sort of cradle with an extended sluice placed on
an incline of about 1 in 12. The upper end contains a perforated
riddle plate which is placed directly over the riffle box, and under
certain circumstances mercury may be placed behind the riffles.
Copper plates amalgamated with mercury are also used when the
cold is very fine, and in some instances amalgamated silver coins have
been used for the same purpose. Sometimes the stuff is disintegrated
with water in a " puddling machine," which was used, especially in
Australia, when the earthy matters are tenacious and water scarce.
The machine frequently resembles a brickmaker's wash-mill, and is
worked by horse or steam power.
In workings on a larger scale, where the supply of water is abundant,
as in California, sluices were generally employed. They are shallow
troughs about 12 ft. long, about 16 to 20 in. wide and 1 ft. in depth.
The troughs taper slightly so that they can be joined in series, the
total length often reaching several hundred feet. The incline of the
sluice varies with the conformation of the ground and the tenacity of
the stuff to be washed, from 1 in 16 to 1 in 8. A rectangular trough
of boards, whose dimensions depend chiefly on the size of the planks
available, is set up on the higher part of the ground at one side of the
claim to be worked, upon trestles or piers of rough stone- work, at such
an inclination that the stream may carry off all but the largest stones,
which are kept back by a grating of boards about 2 in. apart. The
travel is dug by hand and thrown in at the upper end, the stones
kept back being removed at intervals by two men with four-pronged
steel forks. The floor of the sluice is laid with riffles made of strips
of wood 2 in. square laid parallel to the direction of the current, and
at other points with boards having transverse notches filled with
mercury. These were known originally as Hungarian riffles.
In larger plant the upper ends of the sluices are often cut in rock
or lined witn stone blocks, the grating stopping the larger stones
being known as a " grizzly." In order to save very fine and especially
rusty particles of gold, so-called " under-current sluices " are used;
these are shallow wooden tanks, 50 sq. yds. and upwards in area,
which are placed somewhat below the mam sluice, and communicate
with it above and below, the entry beingprotected by a grating so
that only the finer material is admitted. These are paved with stone
blocks or lined with mercury riffles, so that from the greatly reduced
velocity of flow, due to the sudden increase of surface, the finer
particles of gold may collect. In order to save finely divided gold,
amalgamated copper plates are sometimes placed in a nearly level
position, at a considerable distance from the head of the sluice, the
gold which is retained in it being removed from time to time. Sluices
are often made double, and they are usually cleaned up — that is,
the deposit rich in gold is removed from them — once a week.
The " pan " is now only used by prospectors, while the " cradle"
and " torn " are practically confined to the Chinese; the sluice is
considered to be the best contrivance for washing gold gravels.
2. The Amalgamation Process. — This method is employed to
extract gold from both alluvial and reef deposits: in the first
case it is combined with " hydraulic mining," i.e. disintegrating
auriferous gravels by powerful jets of water, and the sluice
system described above; in the second case the vein stuff is
prepared by crushing and the amalgamation is carried out in
mills.
Hydraulic mining has for the most part been confined to the country
of its invention, California, and the western territories of America,
where the conditions favourable for its use are more fully developed
than elsewhere — notably the presence of thick banks of gravel that
cannot be utilized by other methods, and abundance of water, even
though considerable work may be required at times to make it avail-
able. The general conditions to be observed in such workings
may be briefly stated as follows: (1) The whole of the auriferous
gravel, down to the " bed rock," must be removed, — that is, no
selection of rich or poor parts is possible ; (2) this must be accom-
plished by the aid of water alone, or at times by water supplemented
6y blasting ; (3) the conglomerate must be mechanically disintegrated
without interrupting the whole system ; (4) the gold must be saved
without interrupting the continuous flow of water; and (5) arrange-
ments must be made for disposing of the vast masses of impoverished
gravel.
The water is brought from a ditch on the high ground, and through
a line of pipes to the distributing box, whence the branch pipes
supplying the jets diverge. The stream issues through a nozzle,
termed a " monitor " or " giant," which is fitted with a ball and
socket joint, so that the direction of the jet may be varied through
considerable angles by simply moving a handle. The material of
the bank being loosened by blasting and the cutting action of the
water, crumbles into holes, and the superincumbent mass, often
with large trees and stones, falls into the lower ground. The
stream, laden with stones and gravel, passes into the sluices, where
the gold is recovered in the manner already described. Under the
most advantageous conditions the loss of gold may be estimated at
15 or 20%, the amount recovered representing a value of about
two shillings per ton of gravel treated. The loss of mercury is
about the same, from 5 to 6 cwt. being in constant use per mile of
sluice.
In working auriferous river-beds, dredges have been used with
considerable success in certain parts of New Zealand and on the
Pacific slope in America. The dredges used in California are almost
exclusively of the endless-chain bucket or steam-shovel pattern.
Some dredges have a capacity under favourable conditions of over
2000 cub. yds. of gravel daily. The gravel is excavated as in the
ordinary form of endless-chain bucket dredge and dumped on to the
deck ot the dredge. It then passes through screens and grizzlies
to retain the coarse gravel, the finer material passing on to sluice
boxes provided with riffles, supplied with mercury. There are
belt conveyers for discharging the gravel and tailings at the end of the
vessel remote from the buckets. The water necessary to the process
is pumped from the river; as much as 2000 gallons per minute is
used on the larger dredges.
The dressing or mechanical preparation of vein stuff containing gold
is generally similar to that of other ores (see Ore-dressing), except
that the precious metal should be removed from the waste substances
as quickly as possible, even although other minerals of value that are
subsequently recovered may be present. In all cases the quartz
or other vein stuff must be reduced to a very fine powder as a pre-
liminary to further operations. This may be done in several ways,
e.g. either (1) by the Mexican crusher or arrastra, in which the grinding
is effected upon a bed of stone, over which heavy blocks of stone
attached to cross arms are dragged by the rotation of the arms about
a central spindle, or (2) by the Chilean mill or trapiche y also known
as the edge-runner, where the grinding stones roll upon the floor,
at the same time turning about a central upright — contrivances
which are mainly used for the preparation of silver ores; but
by far the largest proportion of the gold quartz of California,
Australia and Africa is reduced by (3) the stamp mill, which is similar
in principle to that used in Europe for the preparation of tin and other
ores.
The stamp mill was first used in California, and its use has since
spread over the whole world. In the mills of the Calif ornian type the
stamp is a cylindrical iron pestle faced with a chilled cast iron shoe,
removable so that it can be renewed when necessary, attached to
a round iron rod or lifter, the whole weighing from 600 to 900 ib;
stamps weighing 1320 lb are in use in the Transvaal. The lift is
effected by cams acting on the under surface of tappets, and formed
by cylindrical boxes keyed on to the stems of the lifter about one-
fourth of their length from the top. As, however, the cams, unlike
those of European stamp mills, are placed to one side of the stamp, the
latter is not only lifted but turned partly round on its own axis, where-
by the shoes are worn down uniformly. The height of lift may be
between 4 and 18 in., and the number of blows from 30 to over 100
per minute. The stamps are usually arranged in batteries of five;
the order of working is usually 1, 4, "2, 5, 3, but other arrangements,
e.g. 1, 3, 5, 2, 4, and 1, 5, 2, 4, 3, are common. The stuff, previously
broken to about 2-in. lumps in a rock-breaker, is fed in through an
aperture at the back of the " battery box," a constant supply of
water is admitted from above, and mercury in a finely divided state
is added at frequent intervals. The discharge of the comminuted
material takes place through an aperture, which is covered by a
thin steel plate perforated with numerous slits about j^th in. broad
and J in. long, a certain volume being discharged at every blow
and carried forward by the flushing water over an apron or table
in front, covered by copper plates filled with mercury. Similar
plates are often used to catch any particles of gold that may be thrown
back, while the main operation is so conducted that the bulk of the
gold may be reduced to the state of amalgam by bringing the two
metals into intimate contact under the stamp head, and remain in the
battery. The tables in front are laid at an incline of about 8° and are
about 13 ft. long; they collect from 10 to 15% of the whole gold;
a further quantity is recovered by leading the sands through a gutter
about 16 in. broad and 120 ft. long, also lined with amalgamated
copper plates, after the pyritic and other heavy minerals have been
separated by depositing in catch pits and other similar contrivances.
When the ore does not contain any considerable amount of free gold
mercury is not, as a rule, used during the crushing, but the amalgama-
tion is carried out in a separate plant. Contrivances of the most
diverse constructions have been employed. The most primitive is
the rubbing together of the concentrated crushings with mercury in
iron mortars. Barrel amalgamation, i.e. mixing the crushings
with mercury in rotating barrels, is rarely used, the process being
wasteful, since the mercury is specially apt to be " floured " (see
below).
198
GOLD
" At Schemnitz, Kerpenyes, Kreuzberg and other localities in
Hungary, quartz vein stuff containing a little gold, partly free and
partly associated with pyrites and galena, is, after stamping in mills,
similar to those described above, but without rotating stamps,
passed through the so-called " Hungarian gold mill " or " quick-mill."
This consists of a cast-iron pan having a shallow cylindrical bottom
holding mercury, in which a wooden muller, nearly of the same
shape as the inside of the pan, and armed below with several pro-
jecting blades, is made to revolve by gearing wheels. The stuff
from the stamps is conveyed to the middle of the muller, and is
distributed over the mercury, when the gold subsides, while the
quartz and lighter materials are guided by the blades to the cir-
cumference and are discharged, usually into a second similar mill,
and subsequently pass over blanket tables, i.e. boards covered
with canvas or sacking, the gold and heavier particles becoming en-
tangled in the fibres. The action of this mill is really more nearly
analogous to that of a centrifugal pump, as no grinding action takes
place in it. The amalgam is cleaned out periodically— fortnightly or
monthly — and after filtering through linen bags to remove the excess
of mercury, it is transferred to retorts for distillation (see below).
Many other forms of pan-amalgamators have been devised. The
Laszlo is an improved Hungarian mill, while the Piccard is of the
same type. In the Knox and Boss mills, which are also employed
for the amalgamation of silver ores, the grinding is effected between
flat horizontal surfaces instead of conical or curved surfaces as in the
previously described forms.
One of the greatest difficulties in the treatment of gold by amalga-
mation, and more particularly in the treatment of pyrites, arises from
the so-called " sickening " or " flouring " of the mercury; that is, the
particles, losing their bright metallic surfaces, are no longer capable
of coalescing with or taking up other metals. Of the numerous
remedies proposed the most efficacious is perhaps sodium amalgam.
It appears that amalgamation is often impeded by the tarnish
found on the surface of the gold when it is associated with sulphur,
arsenic, bismuth, antimony or tellurium. Henry Wurtz in America
(1864) and Sir William Crookesin England (1865) made independently
the discovery that, by the addition of a small quantity of sodium to
the mercury, the operation is much facilitated. It is also stated that
sodium prevents both the " sickening " and the " flouring " of the
mercury which is produced by certain associated minerals. The
addition of potassium cyanide has been suggested to assist the
amalgamation and to prevent " flouring," but Skey has shown that
its use is attended with loss of gold.
Separation of Gold from the Amalgam. — The amalgam is first
pressed in wetted canvas or buckskin in order to remove excess of
mercury. Lumps of the solid amalgam, about 2 in. in diameter,
are introduced into an iron vessel provided with an iron tube that
leads into a condenser containing water. The distillation is then
effected by heating to dull redness. The amalgam yields about
30 to 40% of gold. Horizontal cylindrical retorts, holding from
200 to 1200 lb of amalgam, are used in the larger Californian mills,
pot retorts being used in the smaller mills. The bullion left in the
retorts is then melted in black-lead crucibles, with the addition of
small quantities of suitable fluxes, e.g. nitre, sodium carbonate, &c.
The extraction of gold from auriferous minerals by fusion, except as
an incident in their treatment for other metals, is very rarely practised.
It was at one time proposed to treat the concentrated black iron
obtained in the Ural gold washings, which consists chiefly of mag-
netite, as an iron ore, by smelting it with charcoal for auriferous pig-
iron, the latter metal possessing the property of dissolving gold in
considerable quantity. By subsequent treatment with sulphuric acid
the gold could be recovered. Experiments on this point were made
by Anossow in 1835, but they have never been followed in practice.
Gold in galena or other lead ores is invariably recovered in the
refining or treatment of the lead and silver obtained. Pyritic ores
containing copper are treated by methods analogous to those of
the copper smelter. In Colorado the pyritic ores containing gold
and silver in association with copper are smelted in reverberatory
furnaces for regulus, which, when desilverized by Ziervogel's method,
leaves a residue containing 20 or 30 oz. of gold per ton. This is
smelted with rich gold ores, notably those containing tellurium, for
white metal or regulus ; and by a following process of partial reduc-
tion analogous to that of selecting in copper smelting, " bottoms "
of impure copper are obtained in which practically all the gold is
concentrated. By continuing the treatment of these in the ordinary
way of refining, poling and granulating, all the foreign matters
other than gold, copper and silver are removed, and, by exposing the
granulated metal to a high oxidizing heat for a considerable time the
copper may be completely oxidized while the precious metals are
unaltered. Subsequent treatment with sulphuric acid renders the
copper soluble in water as sulphate, and the final residue contains
only gold and silver, which is parted or refined in the ordinary way.
This method of separating golcf from copper, by converting the latter
into oxide and sulphate, is also used at Oker in the Harz.
Extraction by Means of Aqueous Solutions. — Many processes
have been suggested in which the gold of auriferous deposits is
converted into products soluble in water, from which solutions
the gold may be precipitated. Of these processes, two only are
of special importance, viz. the chlorination or Plattner process, in
which the metal is converted into the chloride, and the cyanide or
MacArthur-Forrest process, in which it is converted into potassium
aurocyanide.
(3) Chlorination or Plattner Process. — In this process moistened gold
ores are treated with chlorine gas, the resulting gold chloride dis-
solved out with water, and the gold precipitated with ferrous sulphate,
charcoal, sulphuretted hydrogen or otherwise. The process originated
in 1848 with C. F. Plattner, who suggested that the residues from
certain mines at Reichenstein, in Silesia, should be treated with
chlorine after the arsenical products had been extracted by roasting.
It must be noticed, however, that Percy independently made the
same discovery, and stated his results at the meeting of the British
Association (at Swansea) in 1849, but the Report was not published
until 1852. The process was introduced in 1858 by Deetken at Grass
Valley, California, where the waste minerals, principally pyrites from
tailings, had been worked for a considerable time by amalgamation.
The process is rarely applied to ores direct; free-milling ores are
generally amalgamated, and the tailings and slimes, after concentra-
tion, operated upon. Three stages in the process are to be distin-
guished: (i.) calcination, to convert all the metals, except gold
and silver, into oxides, which are unacted upon by chlorine; (ii.)
chlorinating the gold and lixiviating the product; (iii.) precipitating
the gold.
Tne calcination, or roasting, is conducted at a low temperature in
some form of reverberatory furnace. Salt is added in the roasting
to convert any lime, magnesia or lead which may be present, into
the corresponding chlorides. The auric chloride is, however, de-
composed at the elevated temperature into finely divided metallic
gold, which is then readily attacked by the chlorine gas. The high
volatility of gold in the presence of certain metals must also be
considered. According to Egleston the loss may be from 40 to 90 %
of the total gold present in cupriferous ores according to the tem-
perature and duration of calcination. The roasted mineral, slightly
moistened, is introduced: into a vat made of stoneware or pitched
planks, and furnished with a double bottom. Chlorine, generally
prepared by the interaction of pyrolusite, salt and sulphuric acid,
is led from a suitable generator beneath the false bottom, and rises
through the moistened ore, which rests on a bed of broken quartz;
the gold is thus converted into a soluble chloride, which is afterwards
removed by washing with water. Both fixed and rotating vats are
employed, the chlorination proceeding more rapidly in the latter
case; rotating barrels are sometimes used. There have also been
introduced processes in which the chlorine is generated in the
chloridizing vat, the reagents used being dilute solutions of bleaching
powder and an acid. Munktell's process is of this type. In the
Thies process, used in many districts in the United States, the vats
are rotating barrels made, in the later forms, of iron lined with lead,
and provided with a filter formed of a finely perforated leaden
grating running from one end of the barrel to the other, and rigidly
held in place by wooden frames. Chlorine is generated within the
barrel from sulphuric acid and chloride of lime. After charging,
the barrel is rotated, and when the chlorination is complete the
contents are emptied on a filter of quartz or some similar material,
and the filtrate ted to settling tanks.
After settling the solution is run into the precipitating tanks. The
Erecipitants in use are: ferrous sulphate, charcoal and sulphuretted
ydrogen, either alone or mixed with sulphur dioxide; the use of
copper and iron sulphides has been suggested, but apparently these
substances have achieved no success.
In the case of ferrous sulphate, prepared by dissolving iron in
dilute sulphuric acid, the reaction follows the equation AuClt+SFeSOi
= FeCl 8 4-Fej(S04)3+Au. At the same time any lead, calcium,
barium and strontium present are precipitated as sulphates; it is
therefore advantageous to remove these metals by the preliminary
addition of sulphuric acid, which also serves to keep any basic iron
salts in solution. The precipitation is carried out in tanks or vats
made wit Vwooden sides and a cement bottom. The solutions are
well mixed by stirring with wooden poles, and the gold allowed to
settle, the time allowed varying from 12 to 72 hours. The super-
natant liquid is led into settling tanks, where a further amount
of Tgold is deposited, 'and is then filtered through sawdust or
sand, the sawdust being afterwards burnt and the gold separated
from the ashes and the sand treated in the chloridizing vat. The
precipitated gold is washed, treated with salt and sulphuric acid
to remove iron salts, roughly dried by pressing in cloths or on filter
paper, and then melted with salt, borax and nitre in graphite
crucibles. Thus prepared it has a fineness of 800-960, the chief
impurities usually being iron and lead.
Charcoal is used as the precipitant at Mount Morgan, Australia.
Its use was proposed as early as 1818 and 1819 by Hare and Henry;
Percy advocated it in 1869, and Davis adopted it on the large scale
at a works in Carolina in 1880. The action is not properly under-
stood; it may be due to the reducing gases (hydrogen, hydrocarbons,
&c.) which are invariably present in wood charcoal. The process
consists essentially in running the solution over layers of charcoal,
the charcoal being afterwards burned. It has been found that the
reaction proceeds faster when the solution is heated.
GOLD
199
Precipitation with sulphur dioxide and sulphuretted hydrogen
proceeds much more rapidly, and has been adopted at many works.
Sulphur dioxide, generated by burning sulphur, is forced into the
solution under pressure, where it interacts with any free chlorine
E resent to form hydrochloric and sulphuric acids. Sulphuretted
ydrogen, obtained by treating iron sulphide or a coarse matte
with dilute sulphuric acid, is forced in similarly. The gold is
precipitated as the sulphide, together with any arsenic, antimony,
copper, silver and lead which may be present. The precipitate
is collected in a filter-press, and then roasted in. muffle furnaces
with nitre, borax and sodium carbonate. The fineness of the gold so
obtained is 900 to 950.
4. Cyanide Process. — This process depends upon the solubility
of gold in a dilute solution of potassium cyanide in the presence
of air (or some other oxidizing agent), and the subsequent precipita-
tion of the gold by metallic zinc or by electrolysis. The solubility
of gold in cyanide solutions was known to K. W. Scheele in 1782;
and M. Faraday applied it to the preparation of extremely thin
films of the metal. L. Eisner recognized, in 1846, the part played
by the atmosphere, and in 1879 Dixon showed that bleaching powder,
manganese dioxide, and other oxidizing agents, facilitated the solution.
S. B. Christy (Trans. A.I.M.E., 1896, vol. 26) has shown that the
solution is hastened by many oxidizing agents, especially sodium and
manganese dioxides and potassium ferricyamde. According to
G. Bodlander (Zeit.f. angew. Chern., 1896, vol. 19) the rate of solu-
tion in potassium cyanide depends upon the subdivision of the gold
— the finer the subdivision the quicker the solution, — and on the
concentration of the solution — the rate increasing until the solution
contains 0*25% of cyanide, and remaining fairly stationary with
increasing concentration. The action proceeds in two stages; in
the first hydrogen peroxide and potassium, aurocyanide are formed,
and in the second the hydrogen peroxide oxidizes a further quantity
of gold and potassium cyanide to aurocyanide, thus (1) 2Au+4KCN
-f0 2 +2H 2 O=2KAu(CN) 3 -f-4KOH-|-H a O2;(2)2Au-f-4KCN-f-2H 2 O2=
2KAu(CN) 2 +4KOH. Theendreactionmaybewritten4Au+8KCN+
2H,0+0 2 =4KAu(CN) 2 +4KOH.
The commercial process was patented in 1890 by MacArthur and
Forrest, and is now in use all over the world. It is best adapted for
free-milling ores, especially after the bulk of the gold has been re-
moved by amalgamation. It has been especially successful in the
Transvaal. In the Witwatersrand the ore, which contains about
9 dwts. of gold to the metric ton (2000 lb), is stamped and amalgam-
ated, and the slimes and tailings, containing about 3} dwts. per ton,
are cyanided, about 2 dwts. more being thus extracted. The total
cost per ton of ore treated is about 6s., of which the cyaniding costs
from 2s. to 4s. ^ '
The process embraces three operations: (1) Solution of the gold;
(2)precipitation of the gold; (3) treatment of the precipitate.
The ores, having been broken and ground, generally in tube mills,
until they pass a 150 to 200-mesh sieve, are transferred to the leaching
vats, which are constructed of wood, iron or masonry; steel vats,
coated inside and out with pitch, of circular section and holding up to
1000 tons, have come into use. The diameter is generally 26 ft., Dut
may be greater ; the best depth is considered to be a quarter of the
diameter. The vats are fitted with filters made of coco-nut matting
and jute cloth supported on wooden frames. The leaching is gener-
ally carried out with a strong, medium, and with a weak liquor, in the
order given ; sometimes there is a preliminary leaching with a weak
liquor. The strengths employed depend also upon the mode of
precipitation adopted, stronger solutions (up to 0-25 % KCN) being
used when zinc is the precipitant. For electrolytic precipitation the
solution may contain up to o«i % KCN. The licjuors are run off
from the vats to the electrolysing baths or precipitating tanks, and the
leached ores are removed by means of doors in the sides of the vats
into wagons. In the Transvaal the operation occupies 3$ to 4 days
for fine sands, and up to 14 days for coarse sands; the quantity of
cyanide per ton of tailings varies from 0*26 to 0*28 lb, for electrolytic
precipitation, and 0-5 lb for zinc precipitation.
The precipitation is effected by zinc in the form of bright turnings,
or coated with lead, or by electrolysis. According to Christy, the
precipitation with zinc follows equations lor 2 according as potassium
cyanide is present or not:
(1) 4KAu(CN) 2 +4Zn+2H,0=2Zn(CN) 2 -f-
K 2 Zn(CN)4+Zn(OK) 2 +4H+4Au ;
(2) 2KAu(CN) 2 +3Zn-HKCN+2H 2 =
2KiZn(CN) 4 +Zn(OK) 2 +4H+ 2Au ;
one part of zinc precipitating 3-1 parts of gold in the first case, and
2«o6 in the second. It may be noticed that the potassium zinc
cyanide is useless in gold extraction, for it neither dissolves gold nor
canpotassium cyanide be regenerated from it.
The precipitating boxes, generally made of wood but sometimes of
steel, and set on an incline, are divided by partitions into alternately
wide and narrow compartments, so that tne liquor travels upwards
in its passage through the wide divisions and downwards through the
narrow divisions. In the wider compartments are placed sieves
having sixteen holes to the square inch and bearing zinc turnings.
The gold and other metals are precipitated on the under surfaces of
the turnings and fall to the bottom of the compartment as a black
slime. The slime is cleaned out fortnightly or monthly, the zinc
turnings being cleaned by rubbing and the supernatant liquor
allowed to settle in the precipitating boxes or in separate vessels.
The slime so obtained consists of finely divided gold and silver
(5-50%), zinc (50-60%), lead (10%), carbon (10%), together with
tin, copper, antimony, arsenic and other impurities of the zinc and
ores. After well washing with water, the slimes are roughly dried in
bag-filters or filter-presses, and then treated with dilute sulphuric
acid, the solution being heated by steam. This dissolves out the
zinc. Lime is added to bring down .the gold, and the sediment, after
washing and drying, is fused in graphite crucibles.
5. Electrolytic Processes. — The electrolytic separation of the gold
from cyanide solutions was first practised in the Transvaal. The
process, as elaborated by Messrs. Siemens and Halske, essentially
consists in the electrolysis of weak solutions with iron or steel plate
anodes, and lead cathodes, the latter, when coated with gold, being
fused and cupelled. Its advantages over the zinc process are that the
deposited gold is purer and more readily extracted, and that weaker
solutions can be employed, thereby effecting an economy in cyanide.
In the process employed at the Worcester Works in the Transvaal,
the liquors, containing about 150 grains of gold per ton and from
o«o8 to o«oi % of cyanide, are treated in rectangular vats in which is
placed a series of iron and leaden plates at intervals of 1 in. The
cathodes, which are sheets of thin lead foil weighing ij ftS to the
sq. yd., are removed monthly, their gold content being from 0-5 to
io%, and after folding are melted in reverberatory furnaces to
ingots containing 2 to 4 % of gold. Cupellation brings up the gold to
about 900 fine. Many variations of the electrolytic process as above
outlined have been suggested. S. Cowper Coles has suggested
aluminium cathodes; Andreoli has recommended cathodes of iron
and anodes of lead coated with lead peroxide, the gold being removed
from the iron cathodes by a brief immersion in molten lead; in the
Pelatan-Cerici process the gold is amalgamated at a mercury cathode
(see also below) .
Refining or Parting of Gold. — Gold is almost always silver-
bearing, and it may be also noticed that silver generally contains
some gold. Consequently the separation of these two metals is
one of the most important metallurgical processes. In addition
to the separation of the silver the operation extends to the
elimination of the last traces of lead, tin, arsenic, &c. which
have resisted the preceding cupellation.
The " parting " of gold and silver is of considerable antiquity.
Thus Strabo states that in his time a process was employed for re-
fining and purifying gold in large quantities by cementing or burning
it with an aluminous earth, which, by destroying the silver, left the
gold in a state of purity. Pliny shows that for this purpose the gold
was placed on the fire in an earthen vessel with treble its weight of
salt, and that it was afterwards again exposed to the fire with two
parts of salt and one of argillaceous rock, which, in the presence of
moisture, effected the decomposition of the salt ; by this means the
silver became converted into chloride.
The methods of parting can be classified into "dry," "wet" and
electrolytic methods. In the " dry " methods the silver is converted
into sulphide or chloride, the gold remaining unaltered; in the
" wet " methods the silver is dissolved by nitric acid or boiling
sulphuric acid ; and in the electrolytic processes advantage is taken
of the fact that under certain current densities and other circum-
stances silver passes from an anode composed of a gold-silver alloy
to the cathode more readily than gold. Of the dry methods only
F. B. Miller's chlorine process is of any importance, this method, and
the wet process of refining by sulphuric acid, together with the
electrolytic process, being the only ones now practised.
The conversion of silver into the sulphide may be effected by
heating with antimony sulphide, litharge and sulphur, pyrites, or with
sulphur alone. The antimony, or Guss und Fluss, method was
practised up till 1846 at the Dresden mint; it is only applicable to
alloys containing more than 50% of gold. The fusion results in the
formation of a gold-antimony alloy, from which the antimony is
removed by an oxidizing fusion with nitre. The sulphur and
litharge, or Pfannenschmted, process was used to concentrate the
gold in an alloy in order to make it amenable to " quartation," or
parting with nitric acid. Fusion with sulphur was used for the same
purpose as the Pfahnenschmied process. It was etnployed in 1797
at the St Petersburg mint.
The conversion of the silver into the chloride may be effected by
means of salt — the " cementation " process — or other chlorides, or
by free chlorine — Miller's process. The first process consists essenti-
ally in heating the alloy with salt and brickdust; the latter absorbs
the chloride formed, while the gold is recovered by washing. It is no
longer employed. The second process depends upon the fact that, if
chlorine be led into the molten alloy, the base metals and the silver
are converted into chlorides. It was proposed in 1838 by Lewis
Thompson, but it was only applied commercially after Miller's im-
provements in 1867, when it was adopted at the Sydney mint. Sir
W. C. Roberts- Austen introduced it at the London mint; and it has
also been used at Pretoria. It is especially suitable to gold containing
little silver and base metals — a character of Australian gold — but it
yields to the sulphuric acid and electrolytic methods in point of
economy.
200
GOLD AND SILVER THREAD
The separation of gold from silver in the wet way may be effected
by nitric acid, sulphuric acid or by a mixture of sulphuric acid and
aqua regia.
I'urtinff by nitric acid is of considerable antiquity, being mentioned
by All>crtus Magnus (13th cent.), Biringuccio (1540) and Agricola
(1556). It is now rarely practised, although in some refineries both
the nitric acid and the sulphuric acid processes are combined, the
alloy being first treated with nitric acid. It used to be called " quar-
tation " or " inquurtation," from the fact that the alloy best suited
for the ofX'ration of refining contained 3 parts of silver to 1 of gold.
The <>[>rration may be conducted in vessels of glass or platinum, and
each pound of granulated metal is treated with a pound and a quarter
of nitric acid of specific gravity 1*32. The method is sometimes
employed in the assay of gold.
Refining by sulphuric acid, the process usually adopted for
♦parnting gold from silver, was first employed on the large scale by
d 'Arret in Paris in 1 802, and was introduced into the Mint refinery,
London, by Mathison in 1829. It is based upon the facts that con-
centrated not sulphuric acid converts silver and copper into soluble
sulphates without attacking the jgold, the silver sulphate being
subsequently reduced to the metallic state by copper plates with the
formation of copper sulphate. It is applicable to any alloy, and is
the best method for parting gold with the exception of the electro-
lytic method.
The process embraces four operations: (1) the preparation of an
alloy suitable for parting; (2) the treatment with sulphuric acid;
(3) the treatment of the residue for gold; (4) the treatment of the
solution for silver.
It is necessary to remove as completely as possible any lead, tin,
bismuth, antimony, arsenic and tellurium, impurities which impair
the properties of gold and silver, by an oxidizing fusion, e.g. with
nitre. Over 10 ° of copper makes the parting difficult; conse-
quently in such alloys the percentage of copper is diminished by the
addition of silver free from copper, or else the copper is removed by a
chemical process. Other undesirable impurities are the platinum
metals, »|xviul treatment being necessary when these substances are
present. The alloy, after the preliminary refining, is granulated by
being poured, while molten, in a thin stream into cold water which is
kept well agitated.
The acid treatment is generally carried out in cast iron pots;
platinum vessels used to be employed, while porcelain vessels are only
used for small operations, f.4. tor charges of 190 to 225 oz. as at Oker
in the Han. The pots, which are usually cylindrical with a hemi-
spherical bottom, may hold as much as 13,000 to 16,000 oz. of alloy.
'1 hey are provided with lids, made either of lead or of wood lined with
lead', which have openings to serve for the introduction of the alloy
and acid, anil a vent tube to lead off the vapours evolved during the
operation. The bullion with about twice its weight of sulphuric acid
01 <>o° W is placet! in the pot, and the whole gradually heated.
Since the action is sometimes very violent, especially when the
bullion is treated in the granulated form (it is steadier when thin
plates are operated upon), it is found expedient to add the acid in
several i*>rt ions. The heat ing is continued for 4to 1 2 hours according
to the amount of silver present; the end of the reaction is known
bv the aWnee of any hissing. Generally the reaction mixture is
allowed to cool, and the residuej which settles to the bottom of the
pot . consists of gold together with copper, lead and iron sulphates,
which are insoluble in strong sulphunc acid; silver sulphate may
also separate if present in sufficient quantity and the solution be
sutVWicntlv cooled. The solution is removed by ladles or by siphons,
and the residue is leached out with boiling water; this removes the
sulphates, A certain amount of silver is still present and, according
to M, IVttenkofcr, it is impossible to remove all the silver by means
of sulphuric acid. Several methods are in use for removing the
silver* Fusion with an alkaline bisulphate converts the silver into the
sulphate, which may be extracted by boiling with sulphuric acid and
then with water. Another process consists in treating a mixture of
the residue with one-quarter of its weight of calcined sodium sulphate
with sulphuric acid, the residue being finally boiled with a large
quantity of acid* Or the alloy is dissolved in aqua rtfia* the solution
filtered from the insoluble silver chloride, and the gold precipitated
bv ferrous chloride.
The silver present in the solution obtained in the sulphuric acid
boiling is recovered by a variety of processes. The solution may be
dirvvtW precipitated with copper, the copper passing into solution
a* eop|xr sulphate, and the silver separating as a mud, termed
s * cement silver." Or the silver sulphate may be separated from the
solution bv cooling and dilution, and then mixed with iron clippings,
the interaction bein$ accompanied with a considerable evolution of
heat* Or liuukow's method of precipitating the metal with ferrous
sulphate nuv be employed.
the ckvtrohtic parting of $e»M and silver has been shown to be
nuMv economical and free from the objections — such as the poisonous
l 1 u «k* -of c he sulphuric acid process One process depends upon the
lact i hat. *ith a suitable current density, if a very di".uw solution of
Miwr m;rate t< ekv«rol\>*\l between an auriferous silver anode and a
siAvr cath\\le, the siNer ot the anode is dissolved *>-: and deposited
at the cathode, the $v4d remaining at the anode. The silver is quite
free Irom $oUI, and the £v4d alter U.mUr£ with nitric acid has a tine-
ness ot onxh **>*,
Gold is left in the anode slime when copper or silver are refined by
the usual processes, but if the gold preponderate in the anode these
processes are inapplicable. A cyanide bath, as used in electroplating,
would dissolve the gold, but is not suitable for refining, because other
metals (silver, copper, &c.) passing with gold into the solution would
deposit with it. bock, however, in 1880 (Bert- und kQUenmannische
Zeitung, 1880, p. 4.11) described a process used at the North German
Refinery in Hamburg for the refining of gold containing platinum
with a small proportion of silver, lead or bismuth, and a subsequent
patent specification (1896) and a paper by Wohlwill (Zetis. /. Elek-
trochem., 1898, pp. 379, 402, 421) nave thrown more light upon
the process. The electrolyte is gold chloride (2*5-3 parts of pure gold
per 100 of solution) mixed with from 2 to 6% of the strongest
hydrochloric acid to render the gold anodes readily soluble, which
they are not in the neutral chloride solution. The bath is used at
65 to 70 C. (150 to 158 F.), and if free chlorine be evolved, which
is known at once by its pungent smell, the temperature is raised, or
more acid is added, to promote the solubility of the gold. The bath
is used with a current-density of 100 amperes per sq. ft. at 1 volt
(or higher), with electrodes about 1-2 in. apart. In this process all
the anode metals pass into solution except iridium and other re-
fractory metals of that group, which remain as metals, and silver,
which is converted into insoluble chloride; lead and bismuth form
chloride and oxychloride respectively, and these dissolve until the
bath is saturated with them, and then precipitate with the silver in
the tank. But if the gold-strength of the bath be maintained, only
gold is deposited at the cathode — in a loose powdery condition from
{>ure solutions, but in a smooth detachable deposit from impure
iquors. Under good conditions the eold should contain 99-98 % of
the pure metal. The tank is of porcelain or glazed earthenware, the
electrodes for impure solutions are t in. apart (or more with pure
solutions), and are on the multiple system, and the potential differ-
ence at the terminals of the bath is 1 volt. A high current-density
being employed, the turn-over of gold is rapid — an essential factor
of success when the costliness of the metal is taken into account.
Platinum and palladium dissolved from the anode accumulate in the
solution, and are removed at intervals of, say, a few months by
chemical precipitation. It is essential that the bath should not
contain more than 5% of palladium, or some of this metal will
deposit with the gold. The slimes are treated chemically for the
separation of the metals contained in them.
Authorities. — Standard works on the metallurgy of gold are the
treatises of T. Kirke Rose and of M. Eissler. The cyanide process
is especially treated by M. Eissler, Cyanide Process for the Extraction
of (Sold, which pays particular attention to the Witwatersrand
methods; Alfred James, Cyanide Practice; H. Forbes Julian and
Edgar Smart, Cyaniding Gold and Silver Ores. Gold milling is treated
by Henry Louis, A Handbook of Gold Milling; C. G. Warnford Lock,
Gold Milling; T. A. Rickard, Stamp Milling of Gold Ores. Gold
dredging is treated by Captain C. C. Longridge in Gold Dredging, and
hydraulic mining is discussed by the same author in his Hydraulic
Mining. For operations in special districts see J. M. Maclaren, Gold
(1908); J. H. Curie, Gold Mtnes of the World; Africa: F. H. Hatch
and T. A. Chalmers, Gold Mines of die Rand; S. J. TTU9cott 9 Witwaters-
rand Goldfields Banket and Mining Practice; Australasia: D. Clark,
Australian Mining and Metallurgy; Karl Schmeisser, Goldfields of
Australasia; A. G. Charleton, Gold Mining and Milling in Western
Australia; India: F. H. Hatch, The Kolar Gold-Field.
GOLD AND SILVER THREAD. Under this heading some
general account may be given of gold and silver strips, threads
and gimp used in connexion with varieties of weaving, embroidery
and twisting and plaiting or lace work. To this day, in many
oriental centres where it seems that early traditions of the
knowledge and the use of fabrics wholly or partly woven, orna-
mented, and embroidered with gold and silver have been main-
tained, the passion for such brilliant and costly textiles is still
strong and prevalent. One of the earliest mentions of the use
of gold in a woven fabric occurs in the description of the ephod
made for Aaron (Exod. xzziz. 2, 3), " And he made the ephod
of gold, blue, and purple, and scarlet, and fine twined linen.
And they did beat the gold into thin plates, and cut it into wires
(strips), to work it in the blue, and in the purple, and in the
scarlet, and in the fine linen, with cunning work." This is
suggestive of early Syrian or Arabic in-darning or weaving with
gold strips or tinsel. In both the Iliad and the Odyssey allusion
is frequently made to inwoven and embroidered golden textiles.
Assyrian sculpture gives an elaborately designed ornament upon
the robe of King Assur-nasfr-pal (884 B.c.) which was probably
an interweaving of gold and coloured threads, and testifies
to the consummate skill of Assyrian or Babylonian workers
at that date. From Assyrian and Babylonian wcav e ts the
conquering Persians of the time of Darius derived their celebrity
as weavers and users of splendid stuffs. Herodotus describes
GOLDAST
20I
the corselet given by Amasis king of Egypt to the Minerva of
Lindus and how it was inwoven or embroidered with gold. Darius,
we are told, wore a war mantle on which were figured (probably
inwoven) two golden hawks as if pecking at each other. Alex-
ander the Great is said to have found Eastern kings and princes
arrayed in robes of gold and purple. More than two hundred
years later than Alexander the Great was the king of Pergamos
(the third bearing the name Attalus) who gave much attention
to working in metals and is mentioned by Pliny as having
invented weaving with gold, hence the historic Attalic cloths.
There are several references in Roman writings to costumes
and stuffs woven and embroidered with gold threads and the
Graeco-Roman chryso-phrygium and the Roman auri-phrygium
are evidences not only of Roman work with gold threads but
also of its indebtedness to Phrygian sources. The famous
tunics of Agrippina and those of Heliogabalus are said to have
been of tissues made entirely with gold threads, whereas the
robes which Marcus Aurelius found in the treasury of Hadrian,
as well as the costumes sold at the dispersal of the wardrobe
of Commodus, were different in character, being of fine linen
and possibly even of silken stuffs inwoven or embroidered with
gold threads. The same description is perhaps correct of the
reputedly splendid hangings with which King Dagobert decorated
the early medieval oratory of St Denis. Reference to these
and many such stuffs is made by the respectively contemporary
or almost contemporary writers; and a very full and interesting
work by Monsieur Francisque Michel (Paris, 1852) is still a
standard book for consultation in respect of the history of silk,
gold and silver stuffs.
From indications such as these, as well as those of later date,
one sees broadly that the art of weaving and embroidering with
gold and silver threads passed from one great city to another,
travelling as a rule westward. Babylon, Tarsus, Bagdad,
Damascus, the islands of Cyprus and Sicily, Constantinople,
Venice and southern Spain appear successively in the process
of time as famous centres of these much-prized manufactures.
During the middle ages European royal personages and high
ecclesiastical dignitaries used cloth and tissues of gold and silver
for their state and ceremonial robes, as well as for costly hangings
and decoration; and various names — ciclatoun, tartarium,
naques or nac, baudekin or baldachin (Bagdad) and tissue — were
applied to textiles in the making of which gold threads were
almost always introduced in combination with others. The
thin flimsy paper known as tissue paper is so called because it
originally was placed between the folds of gold " tissue " (or
weaving) to prevent the contiguous surfaces from fraying each
other. Under the articles dealing with carpets, embroidery,
lace and tapestry will be found notices of the occasional use in
such productions of gold and silver threads. Of early date in
the history of European weaving are rich stuffs produced in
Southern Spain by Moors, as well as by Saracenic and Byzantine
weavers at Palermo and Constantinople in the 12th century,
in which metallic threads were freely used. Equally esteemed
at about the same period were corresponding stuffs made in
Cyprus, whilst for centuries later the merchants in such fabrics
eagerly sought for and traded in Cyprus gold and silver threads.
Later the actual manufacture of them was not confined to Cyprus,
but was also carried on by Italian thread and trimming makers
from the 14th century onwards. For the most part the gold
threads referred to were of silver gilt. In rare instances of
middle-age Moorish or Arabian fabrics the gold threads are
made with strips of parchment or paper gilt and still rarer are
instances of the use of real gold wire.
In India the preparation of varieties of gold and silver threads
is an ancient and important art. The " gold wire " of the
manufacturer has been and is as a rule silver wire gilt, the silver
wire being, of course, composed of pure .silver. The wire is
drawn by means of simple draw-plates, with rude and simple
appliances, from rounded bars of silver, or gold-plated silver, as
the case may be. The wire is flattened into strip, tinsel
or ribbon-like form, by passing fourteen or fifteen strands
simultaneously, over a fine, smooth, round-topped anvil and
beating each as it passes with a heavy hammer having a slightly
convex surface. Such strips or tinsel of wire so flattened are
woven into Indian soniri, tissue or cloth of gold, the web or warp
being composed entirely of golden strips, and ruperi, similar tissue
of silver. Other gold and silver threads suitable for use in
embroidery, pillow and needlepoint lace making, &c, consist of
fine strips of flattened wire wound round cores of orange (in the
case of silver, white) silk thread so as to completely cover them.
Wires flattened or partially flattened are also twisted into
exceedingly fine spirals and much used for heavy embroideries.
Spangles for embroideries, &c, are made from spirals of compara-
tively stout wire, by cutting them down ring by ring, laying each
C-like ring on an anvil, and by a smart blow with a hammer
flattening it out into a thin round disk with a slit extending
from the centre to one edge. The demand for many kinds of
loom-woven and embroidered gold and silver work in India is
immense, and the variety of textiles so ornamented is also very
great, chief amongst which are the golden or silvery tinsel
fabrics known as kincobs.
Amongst Western communities the demand for gold and
silver embroideries and braid lace now exists chiefly in connexion
with naval, military and other uniforms, masonic insignia,
court costumes, public and private liveries, ecclesiastical robes
and draperies, theatrical dresses, &c.
The proportions of gold and silver in the gold thread for the
woven braid lace or ribbon trade varies, but in all cases the
proportion of gold is exceedingly small. An ordinary gold braid
wire is drawn from a bar containing 90 parts of silver and 7
of copper, and plated with 3 of gold. On an average each ounce
troy of a bar so plated is drawn into 1500 yds. of wire; and there-
fore about 16 grains of gold cover 1 m. of wire. (A. S. C.)
GOLDAST AB HAIMINSFELD, MELCHIOR (1 576-1635),
Swiss writer, an industrious though uncritical collector of
documents relating to the medieval history and Constitution of
Germany, was born on the 6th of January 1576 (some say 1578),
of poor Protestant parents, near Bischofszell, in the Swiss Canton
of Thurgau. His university career, first at Ingolstadt (1585-
1586), then at Altdorf near Nuremberg (1 597-1 598), was cut short
by his poverty, from which he suffered all his life, and which
was the main cause of his wanderings. In 1598 he found a rich
protector in the person of Bartholomaeus Schobinger, of St
Gall, by whose liberality he was enabled to study at St Gall
(where he first became interested in medieval documents, which
abound in the conventual library) and elsewhere in Switzerland.
Before his patron's death (1604) he became (1603) secretary to
Henry, duke of Bouillon, with whom he went to Heidelberg and
Frankfort. But in 1604 he entered the service of the Baron
von Hohensax, then the possessor of the precious MS. volume
of old German poems, now in the national library in Paris, and
partially published by Goldast. Soon he was back in Switzerland,
and by 1606 in Frankfort, earning his living by preparing and
correcting books for the press. In 161 1 he was appointed
councillor at the court of Saxe- Weimar, and in 161 5 he entered
the service of the count of Schaumburg at Buckeburg. In 1624
he was forced by the war to retire to Bremen; there in 1625 he
deposited his library in that of the town (his books were bought
by the town in 1646, but many of his MSS. passed to Queen
Christina of Sweden, and hence are now in the Vatican library),
he himself returning to Frankfort. In 1627 he became councillor
to the emperor and to the archbishop-elector of Treves, and in
1633 passed to the service of the landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt.
He died at Giessen early in 1635.
His immense industry is shown by the fact that his biographer,
Senckenburg, gives a list of 65 works published or written by
him, some extending to several substantial volumes. Among the
more important are his Paraeneticorum velerum pars i. (1604),
which contained the old German tales of Kunig Tyrol von Schoiten,
the Winsbeke and the Winsbekin; Suevicarum return scriptores
(Frankfort, 1605, new edition, 1727); Rerum Alamannicarum
scriptores (Frankfort, 1606, new edition by Senckenburg, 1730);
Constitutiones imperiales (Frankfort, 1 607-1613, 4 vols.); Mon-
archic s. Romani imperii (Hanover and Frankfort, 161 2-1 6 14,
301. 7 a
202
GOLDBEATING— GOLDBERG
3 vols.) ; Commentarii de regni Bohemiae juribus (Frankfort,
1627, new edition by Schmink, 1719). He also edited De Thou's
History (1600-1610) and Willibald Pirckheimer , s works (1610).
In 1688 a volume of letters addressed to him by his learned
friends was published.
Life by Senckenburg, prefixed tc his 1730 work. See also R. von
Raumer s GeschichU d. germanischen Phuologie (Munich, 1870).
(W. A. B. C.)
GOLDBEATING.— The art of goldbeating is of great antiquity,
being referred to by Homer; and Pliny {N.H. 33. 19) states
that 1 oz. of gold was extended to 750 leaves, each leaf being
four fingers (about 3 in.) square; such a leaf is three times
as thick as the ordinary leaf gold of the present time. In all
probability the art originated among the Eastern nations, where
the working of gold and the use of gold ornaments have been
distinguishing characteristics from the most remote periods.
On Egyptian mummy cases specimens of original leaf-gilding
are met with, where the gold is so thin that it resembles modern
gilding (g.t>.). The minimum thickness to which gold can be
beaten is not known with certainty. According to Mersenne
(1621) 1 02. was spread out over 105 sq. ft.; Reaumur (171 1)
obtained 146$ sq. ft.; other values are 189 sq. ft. and 300 sq. ft.
Its malleability is greatly diminished by the presence of other
metals, even in very minute quantity. In practice the average
degree of tenuity to which the gold is reduced is not nearly so
great as the last example quoted above. A " book of gold "
containing 25 leaves measuring each 3} in., equal to an area of
264 sq. in., generally weighs from 4 to 5 grains.
The gold used by the goldbeater is variously alloyed, according
to the colour required. Fine gold is commonly supposed to be
incapable of being reduced to thin leaves. This, however, is
not the case, although its use for ordinary purposes is undesirable
on account of its greater cost. It also adheres on one part of a
leaf touching another, thus causing a waste of labour by the
leaves being spoiled; but for work exposed to the weather it is
much preferable, as it is more durable, and does not tarnish or
change colour. The external gilding on many public buildings,
e.g. the Albert Memorial in Kensington Gardens, London, is done
with pure gold. The following is a list of the principal classes of
leaf recognized and ordinarily prepared by British beaters, with
the proportions of alloy per oz. they contain.
Name of Leaf.
Proportion
of Gold.
Proportion
of Silver.
Proportion
of Copper.
Red .....
Pale red ....
Extra deep . . .
Deep
Citron
Yellow ....
Pale yellow , .
Lemon ....
Green or pale . ...
White
Grains.
456-460
464
45o
444
440
408
3«4
360
3"
240
Grains.
12
24
30
72
96
120
168
240
Grains.
20-24
16
12
12 i
10
The process of goldbeating is as follows: The gold, having been
alloyed according to the colour desired, is melted in a crucible at a
hkfier temperature than is simply necessary to fuse it, as its malle-
ability is improved by exposure "to a greater heat; sudden cooling
does not interfere with its malleability, gold differing in this respect
from some other metals. It is then cast into an ingot, and flattened,
bv rolling between a pair of powerful smooth steel rollers, into a
ribbon ot 1 \ in. wide and 10 ft. in length to the oz. After being
flattened it is annealed and cut into pieces of about 6j grs. each, or
about 75 per ox., and placed between the leaves of a " cutch," which
is about \ in. thick and 3t in. square, containing about 180 leaves of
a tough paper. Formerly fine vellum was used for this purpose, and
generally still it is interleaved in the proportion of about one of
vellum to six of paper. The cutch is beaten on for about 20 minutes
with a t7-tt> hammer, which rebounds bv the elasticity of the skin,
and saves the labour of lifting, by which the gold is spread to the
sue of the cutch; each leaf is then taken out. and cut into four
pieces, and put between the skins of a " shoder/' 4i in. square and
j in. thick, containing a Unit 720 skins, which have been worn out
in the finishing or " mould " process. The shoder requires about
two hours' beating upon with a o-lb hammer. As the gold will
spread unequally, the shoder is beaten upon after the larger leaves
have reached the edges. The effect of this is that the margins of
larger leaves come out of the edges in a state of dust. This allows
time for the smaller leaves to reach the full size of the shoder, thus
producing a general evenness of size in the leaves. Each leaf is again
cut into four pieces, and placed between the leaves of a *' mould,'
composed of about 950 of the finest gold-beaters' skins, 5 in. square
and | in. thick, the contents of one shoder filling three moulds.
The material has now reached the last and most difficult stage of the
process; and on the fineness of the skin and judgment of the work-
man the perfection and thinness of the leaf of gold depend. During
the first hour the hammer is allowed to fall principally upon the centre
of the mould. This causes gaping cracks upon the edges of the
leaves, the sides of which readily coalesce and unite without leaving
any trace of the union after being beaten upon. At the second hour,
when the gold is about the 150,000th Dart of an inch in thickness, it
for the first time permits the transmission of the rays of light. Pure
gold, or gold but slightly alloyed, transmits green rays; gold highly
alloyed with silver transmits pale violet rays. The mould requires
in all about four hours' beating with a 7-ft) hammer, when the
ordinary thinness for the gold leaf of commerce will be reached. A
single ounce of gold will at this stage be extended to 75 X4X4 =* 1200
leaves, which will trim to squares of about 3} in. each. The finished
leaf is then taken out of the mould, and the rough edges are trimmed
off by slips of the ratan fixed in parallel grooves of an instrument
called a waggon, the leaf being laid upon a leathern cushion. The
leaves thus prepared are placed into " books " capable of holding
25 leaves each, which have been rubbed over with red ochre to
prevent the gold clinging to the paper. Dentist gold is gold leaf
carried no farther than the cutch stage, and should be perfectly pure
gold.
By the above process also silver is beaten, but not so thin, the
inferior value of the metal not rendering it commercially desirable to
bestow so much labour upon it. Copper, tin, zinc, palladium, lead,
cadmium, platinum and aluminium can be beaten into thin leaves,
but not to the same extent as gold or silver.
The fine membrane called goldbeater's skin, used for making
up the shoder and mould, is the outer coat of the caecum or blind
gut of the ox. It is stripped off in lengths about 25 or 30 in.,
and freed from fat by dipping in a solution of caustic alkali and
scraping with a blunt knife. It is afterwards stretched on a
frame; two membranes are glued together, treated with a
solution of aromatic substances or camphor in isinglass, and
subsequently coated with white of egg. Finally they are cut
into squares of 5 or $\ in. ; and to make up a mould of 950 pieces
the gut of about 380 oxen is required, about 2$ skins being got
from each animal. A skin will endure about 200 beatings in
the mould, after which it is fit for use in the shoder alone.
The dryness of the cutch, shoder and mould is a matter of extreme
delicacy. They require to be hot-pressed every time they are used,
although they may be used daily, to remove the moisture which they
acquire from the atmosphere, except in extremely frosty weather,
when they acquire so little moisture that a difficulty arises from their
over-dryness, whereby the brilliancy of the gold is diminished, and
it spreads very slowly under the hammer. On the contrary, if the
cutch or shoder be damp, the gold will become pierced with innumer-
able microscopic holes; and m the moulds in its more attenuated
state it will become reduced to a pulverulent state. This condition
is more readily produced in alloyed golds than in fine gold. It is
necessary that each skin of the mould should be rubbed over with
calcined gypsum each time the mould may be used, in order to -pre-
vent the adhesion of the gold to the surface of the skin in beating.
GOLDBERG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Silesia, 1 14 m. by rail S.W. of Liegnitz, on the Katzbach, an
affluent of the Oder. Pop. (1005) 6804. The principal buildings
are an old church dating from the beginning of the 13 th century,
the Schwabe-Priesemuth institution, completed in 1876, for the
board and education of orphans, and the classical school or
gymnasium (founded in 1524 by Duke Frederick II. of Liegnitz),
which in the 17th century enjoyedjgreat prosperity, and numbered
Wallenstein among its pupils. The chief manufactures are
woollen cloth, flannel, gloves, stockings, leather and beer, and
there is a considerable trade in corn and fruit. Goldberg
owes its origin and name to a gold mine in the neighbourhood,
which, however, has been wholly abandoned since the time of
the Hussite wars. The town obtained civic rights in 12 11. It
suffered heavily from the Tatars in 1 241, from the plague in 1334,
from the Hussites in 1428, and from the Saxon, Imperial and
Swedish forces during the Thirty Years' War. On the 27th of
May 1 8 13 a battle took place near it between the French and the
1 Goldberg is also the name of a small town in the grand-duchy of
Mecklenburg-Schwerin.
GOLD COAST
203
Russians; and on the 23rd and the 27th of August of the same
year fights between the allies and the French.
See Sturm, Geschichte der Stodi Goldberg in Schlesien (1887).
GOLD COAST, that portion of the Guinea Coast (West Africa)
which extends from Assini upon the west to the river Volta on
the east. It derives its name from the quantities of grains of
gold mixed with the sand of the rivers traversing the district.
The term Gold Coast is now generally identified with the British
Gold Coast colony. This extends from 3 7' W. to i° 14' E., the
length of the coast-line being about 370 m. It is bounded W. by
the Ivory Coast colony (French), E. by Togoland (German). On
the north the British possessions, including Ashanti (q.v.) and the
Northern Territories, extend to the nth degree of north latitude.
The frontier separating the colony from Ashanti (fixed by order
in council, 22nd of October 1906) is in general 130 m. from the
coast, but in the central portion of the colony the southern limits
of Ashanti project wedge-like to the confluence of the rivers Ofin
and Prah, which point is but 60 m. from the sea at Cape Coast.
The combined area of the Gold Coast, Ashanti and the Northern
Territories, is about 80,000 sq. m., with a total population
officially estimated in 1908 at 2,700,000; the Gold Coast colony
alone has an area of 24,200 sq. m., with a population of over a
million, of whom about 2000 are Europeans.
Physical features. — Though the lagoons common to the West
African coast are found both at the western and eastern extremities
of the colony (Assini in the west and Kwitta in the east) the greater
part of the coast-line is of a different character. Cape Three Points
(4 ^4' ±0" N. 2° 5' 45* W.) juts boldly into the sea, forming the most
southerly point of the colony. Thence the coast trends E. by N. f and
is but slightly indented. The Usually low sandy beach is, however,
diversified by bold, rocky headlands. The flat belt of country does
not extend inland any considerable distance, the spurs of the great
plateau which forms the major part of West Africa advancing in the
east, in the Akwapim district, near to the coast. Here the hills reach
an altitude of over 2000 ft. Out of the level plain rise many fsolated
peaks, generally of conical formation. Numerous rivers descend
from the hills, but bars of sand block their mouths, and the Gold
Coast possesses no harbours. Great Atlantic rollers break unceas-
ingly upon the shore. The chief rivers are the Volta (q.v.), the
Ankobra and the Prah. The Ankobra or Snake river traverses
auriferous country, and reaches the sea some 20 m. west of Cape
Three Points. It has a course of about 150 m., and is navigable in
steam launches for about 80 m. The Prah (" Busum Prah, sacred
river) is regarded as a fetish stream by the Fanti and Ashanti. One
of its sub-tributaries has its rise near Kumasi. The Prah rises in the
N.E. of the colony and flows S.W. Some 60 m. from its mouth it is
joined by the Ofin, which comes from the north-west. The united
stream flows S. and reaches the sea in i° 35' W. As a waterway the
river, which has a course of 400 m., is almost useless, owing to the
many cataracts in its course. Another river is the Tano, which for
some distance in its lower course forms the boundary between the
colony and the Ivory Coast.
Geology. — Cretaceous rocks occur at intervals along the coast belt,
but are mostly hidden under an extensive development of superficial
deposits. Basalt occurs at Axim. Inland is a broad belt of sand-
stone and marl with an occasional band of auriferous conglomerate,
best known and most extensively worked for gold in the Wasaw
district. Though the conglomerates bear some resemblance to the
11 Banket " of South Africa they are most probably of more recent
date. The alluvial silts and gravels also carry gold.
Climate. — The climate on the coast is hot, moist and unhealthy,
especially for Europeans. The mean temperature in the shade in the
coast towns is 78 to 8o° F. Fevers and dysentery are the diseases
most to be dreaded by the European. The native inhabitants,
although they enjoy tolerable health and live to an average age, are
subject in the rainy season to numerous chest complaints. There are
two wet seasons. From April to August are the greater rains, whilst
in October and November occur the "■ smalls or second rains.
From the end of December to March the dry harmattan, wind blows
from the Sahara. In consequence of the prevalence of the sea-
breeze from the south-west the western portion of the colony, up to
the mouth of the Sekum river (a small stream to the west of Accra),
is called the windward district, the eastward portion being known
as the leeward. The rainfall at Accra, in the leeward district,
averages 27 in. in the year, but at places in the windward district is
much greater, averaging 79 in. at Axim.
Flora. — The greater part (probably three-fourths) of the colony is
covered with primeval forest. Here the vegetation is so luxuriant
that for great distances the sky is shut out from view. As a result of
the struggle to reach the sunlight the forest growths are almost
entirely vertical. The chief trees are silk cottons, especially the
bombax, and gigantic hard-wood trees, such as the African mahogany,
ebony, odum and camwood. The bombax rises for over 100 ft., a
straight column-like shaft, 25 to 30 ft. in circumference, and then
throws out horizontally a large number of branches. The lowest
growth in the forest consists of ferns and herbaceous plants. Of
the ferns some are climbers reaching 30 to 40 ft. up the stems of the
trees they entwine. Flowering plants are comparatively rare; they
include orchids and a beautiful white lily. The " bush " or inter-
mediate growth is made up of smaller trees, the rubber vine and
other creepers, some as thick as hawsers, bamboos and sensitive
mimosa, and has a height of from 30 to 60 ft. The creepers are found
not only in the bush, but on the ground and hanging from the branches
of the highest trees. West of the Prah the forest comes down to the
edge of the Atlantic. East of that river the coast land is covered
with bushes 5 to 12 ft. high, occasional Large trees and groves of
oil palms. Still farther east, by Accra, are numerous arborescent
Euphorbias, and immediately west of the lower Volta forests of oil
palms and grassy plains with fan palms. Behind all these eastern
regions is a belt of thin forest country before the denser forest is
reached. In the north-east are stretches of orchard-like country
with wild plum, shea-butter and kola trees, baobabs, dwarf date
and fan palms. The cotton and tobacco plants grow wild. At the
mouths of the rivers and along the lagoons the mangrove is the *
characteristic tree. There are numerous coco-nut palms along the
coast. The fruit trees and plants also include the orange, pineapple,
mango, papaw, banana and avocado or alligator pear.
Fauna. — The fauna includes leopards, panthers, hyenas, Potto
lemurs, jackals, antelopes, buffaloes, wild-hogs and many kinds of
monkey, including the chimpanzee and the Colobusvellerosus, whose
skin, with long black silky hair, is much prized in Europe. The
elephant has been almost exterminated by ivory hunters. The
snakes include pythons, cobras, horned and putt adders and the
venomous water snake. Among the lesser denizens of the forest are
the squirrel and porcupine. Crocodiles and in fewer numbers
manatees and otters frequent the rivers and lagoons and hippopotami
are found in the Volta. Lizards of brilliant hue, tortoises and great
snails are common. Birds, which are not very numerous, include
parrots and hornbills, kingfishers, ospreys, herons, crossbills, curlews,
woodpeckers, doves, pigeons, storks, pelicans, swallows, vultures and
the spur plover (the last-named rare). Shoals of herrings frequent
the coast, and the other fish include mackerel, sole, slate, mullet,
bonito, flying fish, fighting fish and shy nose. Sharks abound at the
mouths of all the rivers, edible turtle are fairly common, as are the
sword fish, dolphin and sting ray (with poisonous caudal spine).
Oysters are numerous on rocks running into the sea and on the
204
GOLD COAST
exposed roots of mangrove trees. Insect life is multitudinous ; beetles,
spiders, ants, fireflies, butterflies and jiggers abound. The earth-
worm is rare. The mosquitos include the Culex or ordinary kind,
the Anopheles, which carry malarial fever, and the Stegomyia, a
striped white and black mosquito which carries yellow-fever.
Inhabitants.— The natives are all of the Negro race. The most
important tribe is the Fanti (q.v.), and the Fanti language is generally
understood throughout the colony. The Fanti and Ashanti are
believed to have a common origin. It is certain that the Fanti came
originally from the north and conquered many of the coast tribes,
who anciently had owned the rule of the king of Benin. The districts
in general are named after the tribes inhabiting them. Those in the
western part of the colony are mainly of Fanti stock; the Accra and
allied tribes inhabit the eastern portion and are believed to be the
aboriginal inhabitants. The Akim (Akem), who occupy the north-
east portion of the colony, have engaged in gold-digging from time
immemorial. The capital of their country is Kibbi. The Akwapim
(Aquapem), southern neighbours of the Akim, are extensively en-
gaged in agriculture and in trade. The Accra, a clever race, are to be
found in all the towns of the West African coast as artisans and
sailors. They are employed by the interior tribes as middlemen and
interpreters. On the right bank of the Volta occupying the low
marshy land near the sea are the Adangme. The Kxobos live in
little villages in the midst of the palm tree woods which grow round
about the Kroboberg, an eminence about iooo ft. high. Their
country lies between that of the Akim and the Adangme. In the
west of the colony is the Ahanta country, formerly an independent
kingdom. The inhabitants were noted for their skill in war. They
are one of the finest and most intelligent of the tribes of Accra stock.
The Apollonia, a kindred race, occupy the coast region nearest the
Ivory Coast.
The Tshi, Tchwi or Chi language, 1 which is that spoken on the
Gold Coast, belongs to the great prefix-pronominal group. It com-
NmUve prises many dialects, which may, however, De reduced
^ sam to two classes or types. Akan dialects are spoken in
ptoses Assini, Amanahia (Apollonia), Awini, Ahanta, Wasaw,
Tshuforo (Juffer or Tufel), and Denkyera in the west,
and in Asen, Akim, and Akwapim in the east, as well as in the
different parts of Ashanti. Fanti dialects are spoken, not only in
Fanti proper, but in Afutu or the country round Cape Coast, in
Abora, Agymako, Akomfi, Gomoa and Agona. The difference
between the two types is not very great ; a ranti, for example, can
converse without much difficulty with a native of Akwapim or
Ashanti, his language being in fact a deteriorated form of the same
original. Akim is considered the finest and purest of all the Akan
dialects. The Akwapim, which is based on the Akim but has im-
bibed Fanti influences, has been made the book-language by the
Basel missionaries. They had reduced it to writing before 1850.
About a million people in all, it is estimated, speak dialects of the
Tshi.
The south-eastern corner of the Gold Coast is occupied by another
language known as the Ga or Accra, which comprises the (Ja proper
and the Adangme and Krobo dialects. Ga proper is spoken by about
40,000 people, including the inhabitants of Ga and Kinka (i.e. Accra,
in Tshi, Nkran and Kankan), Osu (i.e. Christiansborg), La, Tessi,
Ningua and numerous inland villages. It has been reduced to writing
by the missionaries. The Adangme and Krobo dialects are spoken
by about 80,000 people. They differ very considerably from Ga
proper, but books printed in Ga can be used by both the Krobo and
Adangme natives. Another language known as Guan is used in parts
of Akwapim and in Anum beyond the Volta ; but not much is known
either about it or the Obutu tongue spoken in a few towns in Agona,
Gomoa and Akomfi.
Fetishism (q.v.) is the prevailing religion of all the tribes. Belief
in a God is universal, as also is a belief in a future state. Christi-
UetMon ai "* v an( * Mahommedanism are both making progress.
2jb</ The natlves professing Christianity number about 40,000.
education, ^ Moravian mission was started at Christiansborg
about 1736; the Basel mission (Evangelical) was begun
in 1828, the missionaries combining manual training and farm
labour with purely religious work; the Wesleyans started a
mission among the Fanti in 1835, and the Anglican and Roman
Catholic Churches are also represented, as well as the Bremen
Missionary Society. Elementary education is chiefly in the hands of
the Wesleyan, Basel, Bremen and Roman Catholic missions, who
have schools at many towns along the coast and in the interior.
There are also government and Mahommedan schools. The natives
generally are extremely intelligent. They obtain easily the means of
subsistence, and are disinclined to unaccustomed labour, such as
working in mines. They are keen traders. The native custom of
burying the dead under the floors of the houses prevailed until 1874,
when it was prohibited by the British authorities.
Towns. — Unlike the other British possessions on the west coast of
Africa, the colony has many towns along the shore, this being due to
the multiplicity of traders of rival nations who went thither in quest
of gold. Beginning at the west, Newtown, on the Assini or Eyi
lagoon, is just within the British frontier. The first place of im-
!This name appears in a great variety of forms — Kwi, Ekwi,
Okwi, Oji, Odschi, Otsui, Tyi, Twi, Tschi, Chwee or Chee.
portance reached is Axim (pop., 1901, 2189), the site of an old Dutch
fort built near the mouth of the Axim river, and in the pre-railway
days the port of the gold region. Rounding Cape Three Points,
whose vicinity is marked by a line of breakers nearly 2} m. long,
Dixcove is reached. Twenty miles farther east is Sekondi (tf.v.),
(pop. about 5000), the starting-point of the railway to the gold-fields
and Kumasi. Elmina (q.v.), formerly one of the most important
posts of European settlement, is reached some distance after passing
the mouth of the Prah. Eight miles east of Elmina is Cape Coast
{q.v.), pop. (1901) 28,048. Anamabo is 9 m. farther east. Here, in
1807, a handful of English soldiers made a heroic and successful
defence of its fort against the whole Ashanti host. Saltpond, towards
the end of the 19th century, diverted to itself the trade formerly done
by Anamabo, from which it is distant 9 m. Saltpond is a well-built,
flourishing town, and is singular in possessing no ancient fort.
Between Anamabo and Saltpond is Kormantine(Cormantyne), noted
as the place whence the English first exported slaves from this coast.
Hence the general name Coromantynes given in the West Indies to
slaves from the Gold Coast. Eighty miles from Cape Coast is Accra
(q.v.) (pop. 17,892), capital of the colony. (Winnebah is passed
30 m. before Accra is reached. It is an old town noted for the manu-
facture of canoes.) There is no station of much importance in the
60 m. between Accra and the Volta, on the right bank of which river,
near its mouth, is the town of Addah (pop. 13,240). Kwitta (pop.
3018) lies beyond the Volta not far from the German frontier. Of
the inland towns Akropong, the residence of the king of Akwapim, is
one of the best known. It is 39 m. N.E. of Accra, stands on a ridge
1400 ft. above sea-level, and is a healthy place for European residents.
At Akropong are the headquarters of the Basel Missionary Society.
Akuse is a large town on the banks of the Volta. Tarlcwa is the
centre of the gold mining industry in the Wasaw district. Its im-
portance dates from the beginning of the 20th century. Accra, Cape
Coast and Sekondi possess municipal government.
Agriculture and Trade. — The soil is everywhere very fertile and the
needs of the people being few there is little incentive to work. The
forests alone supply an inexhaustible source of wealth, notably in the
oil palm. Among vegetable products cultivated are cocoa, cotton,
Indian corn, yams, cassava, peas, peppers, onions, tomatoes, ground-
nuts (Arachis hypogaea), Guinea corn (Sorghum vulgar e) and Guinea
grains (Amomum gr ana-parodist). The most common article of
cultivation is, however, the kola nut (Sterculia acuminata), the
favourite substitute in West Africa for the betel nut. In 1890 efforts
were made by the establishment of a government botanical station at
Aburi in the Accra district to induce the natives to improve their
methods of cultivation and to enlarge the number of their crops.
This resulted in the formation of hundreds of cocoa plantations,
chiefly in the district immediately north of Accra. Subsequently the
cultivation of the plant extended to every district of tne colony.
The industry had been founded in 1879 by a native of Accra, but it
was not untd 1901, as the result of the government's fostering care,
that the export became of importance. In that year the quantity
exported slightly exceeded 2,000,000 lb and fetched £42,000. In
1907 the quantity exported was nearly 21,000,000 ft) and in value
exceeded £515,000. In 1904 efforts were begun by the government
and the British Cotton Growing Association in co-operation to foster
the growing of cotton for export and by 1907 the cotton industry
had Decome firmly established. Tobacco and coffee are grown at
some of the Basel missionary stations.
The chief exports are gold, palm oil and palm kernels, cocoa,
rubber, timber (including mahogany) and kola nuts. Of these
articles the gold and rubber are shipped chiefly to England, whilst
Germany, France and America, take the palm products and ground-
nuts. The rubber comes chiefly from Ashanti. The imports consist
of cotton goods, rum, gin and other spirits, rice, sugar, tobacco, beads,
machinery, building materials and European goods generally.
The value of the trade increased from £1,628,309 in 1896 to
£4,055,351 in 1906. In the last named year the impbrts were valued
at £2,058,839 and the exports at £1,996,412. While the value of
imports had remained nearly stationary since 1902 the value of
exports had nearly trebled in that period. In the five years 15)03-
1907 the total trade increased from £3,063,486 to £5,007,869. ("Treat
Britain and British colonies take 66% of the exports and supply
over 60 % of the imports. In both import and export trade Germany
is second, followed by France and the United States. Specie is in-
cluded in these totals, over a quarter of a million being imported in
1904.
Fishing is carried on extensively along the coast, and salted and
sun-dried fish from Addah and Kwitta districts find a ready sale
inland. Cloths are woven by the natives from home-grown and
imported yarn; the making of canoes, from the silk-cotton trees,
is a flourishing industry, and salt from the lagoons near Addah is
roughly prepared. There are also native artificers in gold and other
metals, the workmanship in some cases being of conspicuous merit.
Odum wood is largely used in building and for cabinet work.
Gold Mining. — Gold is found in almost every part of the colony,
but only in a tew districts in paying quantities. Although since the
discovery of the coast gold had been continuously exported to
Europe from its ports, it was not until the last twenty years of the
19th century that efforts were made to extract gold according to
modern methods. The richnees of the Tarkwa main reef was first
GOLD COAST
205
discovered by a French trader, M. J. Bennat, about 1880. During
the period 1880 to 1900 the value of the gold exported varied from
a minimum of £32,000 to a maximum (1889) of £103,000. The
increased interest shown in the industry led to the construction of a
railway (see below) to the chief gold-fields, whereby the difficulties of
transport were largely overcome. Consequent upon the taking up of
a number of concessions, a concessions ordinance was issued in
August 1900. This was followed in 1001 by the grant of 2825 con-
cessions, and a " boom " in the West African market on the London
stock exchange. Many concessions were speedily abandoned, and in
190 1 the export of gold dropped to its lowest point, 6162 oz., worth
£22,186, but in 1902 a large company began crushing ore and the
output of gold rose to 26,911 oz., valued at £96,880. In 1907 the
export was 292 , 1 25 oz. , wotht £ 1 , 164,676. It should be noted that one
of the principal gold mines is not in the colony proper, but at Obuassi
in Ashanti. Underground labour is performed mainly by Basas and
Krumen from Liberia. Of native tribes the Apolloma have proved
the best for underground work, as they have mining traditions dating
from Portuguese times. A good deal of alluvial gold is obtained by
dredging apparatus. The use of dredging apparatus is modern, but
the natives nave worked the alluvial soil and the sand of the sea-
shore for generations to get the gold they contain.
Communications. — The colony possesses a railway, built and
owned by the government, which serves the gold mines, and has its
sea terminus at Sekondi. Work was begun in August 1898, but
owing to the disturbance caused by the Ashanti rising of 1900 the
rails only reached Tarkwa (39 m.) in May 1901. Thence the line is
carried to Kumasi, the distance to Obuassi (124 m.) being completed
by December 1902, whilst the first train entered the Ashanti capital
on the 1st of October 1903. The total length of the line is 168 m.
The cost of construction was £1,820,000. The line has a gauge
3 ft. 6 in. There is a branch line, 20 m. long, from Tarkwa N.W. to
Prestea on the Ankobra river. Another railway, built 1907-10,
35 m. in length, runs from Accra to Mangoase, in the centre of the
chief cocoa plantations. An extension to Kumasi has been surveyed.
Tortuous bush tracks are the usual means of internal communica-
tion. These are kept in fair order in the neighbourhood of govern-
ment stations. There is a well-constructed road 141 m. long from
Cape Coast to Kumasi, and roads connecting neighbouring towns are
maintained by the government. Systematic attempts to make use
of the upper Volta as a means of conveying goods to the interior were
first triea in iooo. The rapids about 60 m. from the mouth of the
river effectually prevent boats of large size passing up the stream.
Where railways or canoes are not available goods are generally
carried on the heads of porters, 60 lb being a full load.^ Telegraphs,
introduced in 1882, connect all the important towns in the colony,
and a line starting at Cape Coast stretches far inland, via Kumasi to
Wa in the Northern Territories. Accra and Sekondi are in telegraphic
communication with Europe, the Ivory Coast, Lagos and the Cape of
Good Hope. There is regular and frequent steamship communica-
tion with Europe by British, Belgian and German lines.
Administration, Revenue, &c— The country is governed as a crown
colony, the governor beine assisted by a legislative council composed
of officials and nominated unofficial members. Laws, called ordin-
ances, are enacted by the governor with the advice and consent of
this council. The law of the colony is the common law and statutes
of general application in force in England in 1874, modified by local
ordinances passed since that date. The governor is also governor of
Ashanti and the Northern Territories, but in those dependencies the
legislative council has no authority.
Native laws and customs — which are extremely elaborate and
complicated — are not interfered with " except when repugnant to
natural justice." Those relating to land tenure and succession may
be thus summarized. Individual tenure is not unknown, but most
land is held by the tribe or by the family in common, each member
having the right to select a part of the common land for his own use.
Permanent alienation can only take place with the unanimous
consent of the family and is uncommon, but long leases are granted.
Succession is through the female, i.e. when a man dies his property
goes to his sister's children. The government of the tribes is by their
own kings and chiefs under the supervision of district commissioners.
Slavery bas been abolished in the colony. In the Northern Terri-
tories the dealing in slaves is unlawful, neither can any person be
put in pawn for debt ; nor will any court give effect to the relations
between master and slave except in so far as those relations may be
in accordance with the English laws relating to master and servant.
For administrative purposes the colony is divided into three
provinces under provincial commissioners, and each province is sub-
divided into districts presided over by commissioners, who exercise
judicial as well as executive functions. The supreme court consists
of a chief j ustice and three puisne j udges. The defence of the colony
is entrusted to the Gold Coast regiment of the West African Frontier
Force, a force of natives controlled by the Colonial Office but officered
from the British army. There is also a corps of volunteers (formed
1802).
The chief source of revenue is the customs and (since 1902) railway
receipts, whilst the heaviest items of expenditure are transport (in-
cluding railways) and mine surveys-, medical and sanitary services,
and maintenance of the military force. The revenue, which in the
period 1894-1898 averaged £244,559 yearly, rose in 1898-1903 to an
average of £556*316 a year. For the five years 1903-1907 the
average annual revenue was £647,557 and the average annual
expenditure £615,606. Save for municipal purposes there is no
direct taxation in the colony and no poor-houses exist. There is a
public debt of (December 1907) £2,206,964. It should be noted that
the expenditure on Ashanti and the Northern Territories is included
in the Gold Coast budget.
History. — It is a debated question whether the Gold Coast was
discovered by French or by Portuguese sailors. The evidence
available is insufficient to prove the assertion, of which there is
no contemporary record, that a company of Norman merchants
established themselves about 1364 at a place they named La
Mina (Elmina),and that they traded with the natives for nearly
fifty years, when the enterprise was abandoned. It is well estab-
lished that a Portuguese expedition under Diogo d'Azambuja,
accompanied probably by Christopher Columbus, took possession
of (or founded) El mina in 1481-1482. By the Portuguese it was
called variously Sao Jorge da Mina or Ora del Mina — the mouth
of the (gold) mines. . That besides alluvial washings they also
worked the gold mines was proved by discoveries in the latter
part of the 1 9th century. The Portuguese remained undisturbed
in their trade until the Reformation, when the papal bull which
had given the country, with many others, to Portugal ceased to
have a binding power. English ships in 1 553 brought back from
Guinea gold to the weight of 1 50 lb. The fame of the Gold Coast
thereafter attracted to it adventurers from almost every European
nation. The English were followed by French, Danes, Branden-
burgers, Dutch and Swedes. The most aggressive were the
Dutch, who from the end of the 16th century sought to oust the
Portuguese from the Gold Coast, and in whose favour the Portu-
guese did finally withdraw in 1642, in return for the withdrawal
on the part of the Dutch of their claims to Brazil. The Dutch
henceforth made Elmina their headquarters on the coast . Traces
of the Portuguese occupation, which lasted 160 years, are still to
be found, notably in the language of the natives. Such familiar
words as palaver, fetish, caboceer and dash (i.e. a gift) have all a
Portuguese origin.
An English company built a fort at Kormantine previously to
1 65 1 , and some ten years later Cape Coast Castle was built. The
settlements made by the English provoked the hostility Appear-
of the Dutch and led to war between England and *nc* of
Holland, during which Admiral de Ruyter destroyed Swi«a.
( 1 664-1 665) all the English forts save Cape Coast &"*"**•
castle. The treaty of Breda in 1667 confirmed the Dutch in the
possession of their conquests, but the English speedily opened
other trading stations. Charles II. in 1672 granted a charter to
the Royal African Company, which built forts at Dixcove,
Sekondi, Accra, Whydah and other places, besides repairing Cape
Coast Castle. At this time the trade both in slaves and gold was
very great, and at the beginning of the 18th century the value of
the gold exported annually was estimated by Willem Bosman, the
chief Dutch factor at Elmina, to be over £200,000. The various
European traders were constantly quarrelling among themselves
and exercised scarcely any control over the natives. Piracy was rife
along the coast, and was not indeed finally stamped out until the
middle of the 1 9th century. The Royal African Company, which
lost its monopoly of trade with England in 1700, was succeeded
by another, the African Company of Merchants, which was con-
stituted in 1750 by act of parliament and received an annual
subsidy from government. The slave trade was then at its
height and some 10,000 negroes were exported yearly. Many
of the slaves were prisoners of war sold to the merchants by
the Ashanti, who had become the chief native power. The aboli-
tion of the slave trade (1807) crippled the company, which was
dissolved in 182 1, when the crown took possession of the forts.
Since the beginning of the 19th century the British had begun
to exercise territorial rights in the towns where they held forts,
and in 181 7 the right of the British to control the natives living in
the coast towns was recognized by Ashanti. In 1824 the first
step towards the extension of British authority beyond the coast
region was taken by Governor Sir Charles M'Carthy, who incited
the Fanti to rise against their oppressors, the Ashanti. (The
• Fanti's country had been conquered by the Ashanti in 1807.)
2o6
GOLD COAST
Sir Charles and the Fanti army were defeated, the governor losing
his life, but in 1826 the English gained a victory over the Ashanti
at Dodowah. At this period, however, the home government,
disgusted with the Gold Coast by reason of the perpetual dis-
turbances in the protectorate and the trouble it occasioned,
determined to abandon the settlements, and sent instructions for
the forts to be destroyed and the Europeans brought home. The
merchants, backed by Major Rickets, 2nd West India regiments,
the administrator, protested, and as a compromise the forts were
handed over to a committee of merchants (Sept. 1828), who were
1 given a subsidy of £4000 a year. The merchants secured (1830)
as their administrator Mr George Maclean — a gentleman with
military experience on the Gold Coast and not engaged in trade.
To Maclean is due the consolidation of British interests in the
interior. He concluded, 1831, a treaty Iwith the Ashantiadvantage-
ous to the Fanti, whilst with very inadequate means he contrived
to extend British influence over the whole region of the present
colony. In the words of a Fanti trader Maclean understood the
people, " he settled things quietly with them and the people also
loved him." 1 Complaints that Maclean encouraged slavery
reached England, but these were completely disproved, the
governor being highly commended on his administration by the
House of Commons Committee. It was decided, nevertheless,
that the Colonial Office should resume direct control of the forts,
which was done in 1843, Maclean continuing to direct native
affairs until his death in 1847. The jurisdiction of England on
the Gold Coast was defined by the bond of the 6th of March 1844,
Danish an agreement with the native chiefs by which the
and crown received the right of trying criminals, repressing
Dutch human sacrifice, &c. The limits of the protectorate
purchased. m * an< * were not defined. The purchase of the Danish
* forts in 1850, and of the Dutch forts and territory in
1871, led to the consolidation of the British power along the
coast; and the Ashanti war of 1873-74 resulted in the extension
of the area of British influence. Since that time the colony has
been chiefly engaged in the development of its material resources,
a development accompanied by a slow but substantial advance
in civilization among the native population. (For further
historical information see Ashanti.)
For a time the Gold Coast formed officially a limb of the
" West African Settlements " and was virtually a dependency of
Sierra Leone. In 1874 the settlements on the Gold Coast and
Lagos were created a separate crown colony, this arrangement
lasting until 1886 when Lagos was cut off from the Gold Coast
administration.
Northern Territories.
The Northern Territories of the Gold Coast form a British
protectorate to the north of Ashanti. They are bounded W. and
N. — where n° N. is the frontier line except at the eastern
extremity — by the French colonies of the Ivory Coast and Upper
Senegal and Niger, E. by the German colony of Togoland. The
southern frontier, separating the protectorate from Ashanti, is
the Black Volta to a point a little above its junction with the
White Volta. Thence the frontier turns south and afterwards
east so as to include the Brumasi district in the protectorate,
the frontier gaining the main Volta below Yeji. The Territories
include nearly all the country from the meridian of Greenwich
to 3 W. and between 8° and n° N., and cover an area of about
33,000 sq. m.
Lying north of the great belt of primeval forest which extends
parallel to the Guinea coast, the greater part of the protectorate
consists of open country, well timbered, and much of it presenting
a park-like appearance. There are also large stretches of grassy
plains, and in the south-east an area of treeless steppe. The flora
and fauna resemble those of Ashanti. The country is well
watered, the Black Volta forming the west and southern frontier
for some distance, while the White Volta traverses its central
regions. Both rivers, and also the united stream, contain rapids
which impede but do not prevent navigation (see Volta). The
climate is much healthier than that of the coast districts, and the
1 Blue Book on Africa (Western Coast) (1865), p. 233.
fever experienced is of a milder type. The rainfall is less than on
the coast; the dry season lasts from November (when the
harmattan begins to blow) to March. The mean temperature at
Gambaga is 8o° F., the mean annual rainfall 43 in. The inhabi-
tants were officially estimated in 1907 to number " at least
1,000,000." The Dagomba, Dagarti, Grunshi, Kangarga, Moshi
and Zebarima, Negro or Negroid tribes, constitute the bulk of the
people, and Fula, Hausa and Yoruba have settled as traders or
cattle raisers. A large number of the natives are Moslems, the
rest are fetish worshippers. The tribal organization is maintained
by the British authorities, who found comparatively little
difficulty in putting an end to slave-raiding and gaining the
confidence of the chiefs. Trained by British officers, the natives
make excellent soldiers.
Agriculture and Trade. — The chief crops are maize, guinea-corn,
millet, yams, rice, beans, groundnuts, tobacco and cotton. Cotton is
grown in most parts of the protectorate, the soil and climate in many
districts being very suitable for its cultivation. Rubber is found in
the north-western regions. When the protectorate was assumed by
Great Britain the Territories were singularly destitute of fruit trees.
The British have introduced the orange, citron, lime, guava, mango
and soursop, and among plants the banana, pine-apple and papaw.
A large number of vegetables and flowers have also been introduced
by the administration. ,
Stock-raising is carried on extensively, and besides oxen and sheep
there are large numbers of horses and donkeys in the Territories.
The chief exports are cattle, dawa-dawa (a favourite flavouring
matter for soup among the Ashanti and other tribes) and shea-
butter — the latter used in cooking and as an illuminant. The
principal imports are kola-nuts, salt and cotton goods. A large
proportion of the European goods imported is German and comes
through Togoland. The administration levies a tax on traders'
caravans, and in return ensures the safety of the roads. This tax is
the chief local source of revenue. The revenue and expenditure of the
Territories, as well as statistics of trade, are included in those of the
Gold Coast.
Gold exists in quartz formation, chiefly in the valley of the Black
Volta, and is found equally on the British and French sides of the
frontier.
Towns. — The headquarters of the administration are at Tamale
(or Tamari), a town in the centre of the Dagomba country east of the
White Volta and 200 m. N.E. of Kumasi. Its inhabitants are keen
traders, and it forms a distributing centre for the whole protectorate.
Gambaga, an important commercial centre and from 1897 to 1907
the seat of government, is in Mamprusi, the north-east corner of the
protectorate and is 85 m. N.N.E. of Tamale. A hundred and forty
miles due south of Gambaga is Salaga. This town is situated on the
caravan route from the Hausa states to Ashanti, and has a consider-
able trade in kola-nuts, shea-butter and salt* On the White Volta,
midway between Gambaga and Salaga, is the thriving town of
Daboya. On the western frontier are Bole (Baule) and Wa. They
carry on an extensive trade with Bontuku, the capital of Jaman, and
other places in the Ivory Coast colony. In all the towns the popula-
tion largely consists of aliens — Hausa, Ashanti, Mandinjps, &c.
Communications. — Lack of easy communication with the sea
hinders the development of the country. The ancient caravan routes
have been, however, supplemented by roads built by the British,
who have further organized a service of boats on the Volta. Large
cargo boats, chiefly laden with salt, ascend that river from Addah to
Yeji and Daboya. From Yeji, the port of Salaga, a good road, 150
m. lone, has been made to Gambaga. There is also a river service
from Yeji to Longoro on the Black Volta, the port of Kintampo, in
northern Ashanti. There is a complete telegraphic system connect-
ing the towns of the protectorate with Kumasi and the Gold Coast
ports.
History. — It was not until the last quarter of the 19th century
that the country immediately north of Ashanti became known
to Europeans. The first step forward was made by Monsieur
M. J. Bonnat (one of the Kumasi captives, see Ashanti) who,
ascending the Volta, reached Salaga (187 5-1 8 76). In 1882
Captain R. La Trobe Lonsdale, an officer in British colonial
service, went farther, visiting Yendi in the north and Bontuku
in the west. Two years later Captain Brandon Kirby made his
way to Kintampo. In 188 7-1 889 Captain L. G. Binger, a French
officer, traversed the country from north to south. Thereafter
the whole region was visited by British, French and German
political missions. Prominent among the British agents was
Mr George E. Ferguson, a native of West Africa, who had
previously explored northern Ashanti. Between 1892 and 1897
Ferguson concluded several treaties guarding British interests.
In 1897 Lieutenant Henderson and Ferguson occupied Wa, where
they were attacked by the sofasoi Samory (see Senegal, § 3).
GOLDEN— GOLDEN BULL
20'
Henderson, who had gone to the sofa camp to parley, was
held prisoner for some time, while Ferguson was killed. Mean-
time negotiations were opened in Europe to settle the spheres
of influence of the respective countries. (The Anglo-French
agreement of 1889 had fixed the boundaries of the hinterlands
of the French colony of the Ivory Coast and the British colony
of the Gold Coast as far as o° N. only.) A period of considerable
tension, arising from the proximity of British and French troops
in the disputed territory, was ended by the signature of a conven-
tion in Paris (14th of June 1898), in which the western and
northern boundaries were defined. The British abandoned
their claim to the important town and district of Wagadugu
in the north. In the following year (14th of November 1899)
an agreement defining the eastern frontier was concluded with
Germany. Previously a square block of territory to the north
of 8° N. had been regarded as neutral, both by Britain and
Germany. This was in virtue of an arrangement made in 1888.
By the 1899 convention the neutral zone was parcelled out
between the two powers. The delimitation of the frontiers
agreed upon took place during 1900-1904.
In 1897 the Northern Territories were constituted a separate
district of the Gold Coast hinterland, and were placed in charge
of a chief commissioner. Colonel H. P. Northcott (killed in the
Boer War, 1 899-1902) was the first commissioner and com-
mandant of the troops. He was succeeded by Col. A. H. Morris.
In 1 901 the Territories were made a distinct administration,
under the jurisdiction of the governor of the Gold Coast colony.
The government was at first of a semi-military character, but in
1907 a civilian staff was appointed to carry on the administration,
and a force of armed constabulary replaced the troops which
had been stationed in the protectorate and which were then
disbanded. The prosperity of the country under British ad-
ministration has been marked.
Bibliography. — A good summary of the condition and history of
the colony to the close of the 10th century will be found in vol. 3,
" West Africa," of the Historical Geography of the British Empire by
C. P. Lucas (2nd ed., Oxford, 1900). For current information see
the Gold Coast Civil Service List (London, yearly), the annual Blue
Books published in the colony, and the annual Report issued by the
Colonial Office, London. For fuller information consult the Report
from the Select Committee on Africa (Western Coast) (London, 1865),
a mine of valuable information ; The Gold Coast, Past and Present,
by G. Macdonald (London, 1898) ; History of the Gold Coast and
Ashanti, by C. C. Reindorf, a native pastor (Basel, 1895) ; A History
of the Gold Coast, by Col. A. B. Ellis (London, 1893); Wanderings in
West Africa (London, 1863) and To the Gold Coast for Gold (London,
1883), both by Sir Richard Burton. Of the earlier books the most
notable are The Golden Coast or a Description ofGuinney together with
a relation of such persons as got wonderful estates by their trade thither
(London, 1665), and A New and Accurate Description of the Coast of
Guinea written (in Dutch) by Willem Bosman, chief factor for the
Dutch at Elmina (Eng. trans., 2nd ed., 1721). For a complete survey
of the Gold Coast under Dutch control see " Die Niederlandisch
West-Indische Cornpagnie an der Gold-Kuste " by J. G. Doorman
in Tijds Indische Tool-, Land- en Volkenk, vol. 40 (1898). For
ethnography, religion, law, &c, consult The Land of Fetish (London,
1883) and The Tshi-speaking Peoples of the West Coast of Africa
(London, 1887), both by Col. A. B. Ellis; Fanti Customary Law (2nd
ed., London, 1904) and Fanti Law Report (London, 1904), both by
J . M . Sarbah. The Sketch of the Forestry of West Africa by Sir Alfred
Moloney (London, 1887) contains a comprehensive list of economic
plants. See also Report on Economic Agriculture on the Gold Coast
(Colonial Office Reports, No. no, 1890), and Papers relating to the
Construction of Railways in . . . the Gold Coast (London, 1904).
The best map is that of Major F. G. Guggisbere, over 70 sheets,
scale 1 : 125,000 (London, 1907-1909). There is a War Office map on
the scale 1 : 1 ,000,000 in one sheet. See also the works quoted under
Ashanti.
For the Northern Territories see L. G. Binger, Du Niger au Golfe
de Guinee (Paris, 1892), a standard authority; H. P. Northcott,
Report on the Northern Territories of the Gold Coast (War Office,
London, 1899), a valuable compilation summarizing the then avail-
able information. Annual Reports on the protectorate are issued by
the British Colonial Office. A map on the scale of 1 : 1,000,000 is
issued by the War Office. (F. R. C.)
GOLDEN, a city and the county-seat of Jefferson county,
Colorado, U.S.A., on Clear Creek (formerly called the Vasquez
fork of the South Platte), about 14 m. W. by N. of Denver.
Pop. (1890) 2383; (1900) 2152. Golden is a residential suburb
of Denver, served by the Colorado & Southern, the Denver &
Intermountain (electric), and the Denver & North- Western
Electric railways. It is about 5700 ft. above sea-level. About
600 ft. above the city is Castle Rock, with an amusement park,
and W. of Golden is Lookout Mountain, a natural park of 3400
acres. About 1 m. S. of the city is a state industrial school for
boys, and in Golden is the Colorado State School of Mines
(opened 1874), which offers courses in mining engineering and
metallurgical engineering. The Independent Pyritic Smelter
is at Golden, and among the city's manufactures are pottery,
firebrick and tile, made from clays found near by, and flour.
There are deposits of coal, copper and gold in the vicinity.
Truck-farming and the growing of fruit are important industries
in the neighbourhood. The first settlement here was a gold
mining camp, established in 1859, and named in honour of
Tom Golden, one of the pioneer prospectors. The village was
laid out in i860, and Golden was incorporated as a town in 1865
and was chartered as a city in 1870. Golden was made the
capital of Colorado Territory in 1862, and several sessions (or
parts of sessions) of the Assembly were held here between 1864
and 1868, when the seat of government was formally established
at Denver; the territorial offices of Colorado, however, were
at Golden only in 1866-1867.
GOLDEN BULL (Lat. Bulla Aurea), the general designation
of any charter decorated with a golden seal or bulla, either owing
to the intrinsic importance of its contents, or to the rank and
dignity of the bestower or the recipient. The custom of thus
giving distinction to certain documents is said to be of Byzantine
origin, though if this be the case it is somewhat strange that the
word employed as an equivalent for golden bull in Byzantine
Greek should be the hybrid xpwoPovKhov (cf. Codinus Curo-
palates, 6 iikyas \oyoOenjs fliararrci r& irapd rod /ScwiXfos
btrooreKKoueva irpoor&Y/zara koX xpwojSouXXa vote re 'Pifras,
XobXravas, koX tot&pxovs; and Anna Comnena, Alexiad t ]ib. iii.Std
Xpvao(3ov)dov \byov; lib. viii., XP V ^ 0V ^° V Xbyov). In Germany
a Golden Bull is mentioned under the reign of Henry I. the Fowler
in Chronica Cassin. ii. 31, and the oldest German example, if it
be genuine, dates from 983. At first the golden seal was formed
after the type of a solid coin, but at a later date, while the golden
surface presented to the eye was greatly increased, the seal was
really composed of two thin metal plates filled in with wax.
The number of golden bulls issued by the imperial chancery
must have been very large; the city of Frankfort, for example,
preserves no fewer than eight.
The name, however, has become practically restricted to a few
documents of unusual political importance, the golden bull of
the Empire, the golden bull of Brabant, the golden bull of
Hungary and the golden bull of Milan — and of these the first
is undoubtedly the Golden Bull par excellence. The main object
of the Golden Bull was to provide a set of rules for the election
of the German kings, or kings of the Romans, as they are called
in this document. Since the informal establishment of the
electoral college about a century before (see Electors), various
disputes had taken place about the right of certain princes to
vote at the elections, these and other difficulties having arisen
owing to the absence of any authoritative ruling. The spiritual
electors, it is true, had exercised their votes without challenge,
but far different was the case of the temporal electors. The
families ruling in Saxony and in Bavaria had been divided into
two main branches and, as the German states had not yet
accepted the principles of primogeniture, it was uncertain which
member of the divided family should vote. Thus, both the
prince ruling in Saxe-Lauenburg and the prince ruling in Saxe-
Wittenberg claimed the vote, and the two branches of the
family of Wittelsbach, one settled in Bavaria and the other in
the Rhenish palatinate, were similarly at variance, while the
duke of Bavaria also claimed the vote at the expense of the
king of Bohemia. Moreover, there had been several disputed
and double elections to the German crown during the past
century. In more than one instance a prince, chosen by a
minority of the electors, had claimed to exercise the functions
of king, and as often civil war had been the result. Under these
circumstances the emperor Charles IV. determined by an
208
GOLDEN BULL
authoritative pronouncement to make such proceedings impossible
in the future, and at the same time to add to his own power
and prestige, especially in his capacity as king of Bohemia.
Having arranged various disputes in Germany, and having in
April 1355 secured his coronation in Rome, Charles gave instruc-
tions for the bull to be drawn up. It is uncertain who is respon-
sible for its actual composition. The honour has been assigned
to Bartolo of Sassoferrato, professor of law at Pisa and Perugia,
to the imperial secretary, Rudolph of Friedberg, and even to
the emperor himself, but there is no valid authority for giving
it to any one of the three in preference to the others. In its
first form the bull was promulgated at the diet of Nuremberg
on the 10th of January 1356, but it was not accepted by the
princes until some modifications had been introduced, and in
its final form it was issued at the diet of Metz on the 25th of
December following.
The text of the Golden Bull consists of a prologue and of
thirty-one chapters. Some lines of verse invoking the aid of
Almighty God are followed by a rhetorical statement of the
evils which arise from discord and division, illustrations being
taken from Adam, who was divided from obedience and thus fell,
and from Helen of Troy who was divided from her husband.
The early chapters are mainly concerned with details of the
elaborate ceremonies which are to be observed on the occasion
of an election. The number of electors is fixed at seven, the duke
of Saxe- Wittenberg, not the duke of Saxe-Lauenburg, receiving
the Saxon vote, and the count palatine, not the duke of Bavaria,
obtaining the vote of the Wittelsbachs. The electors were ar-
ranged in order of precedence thus: the archbishops of Mainz,
of Trier and of Cologne, the king of Bohemia, qui inter electores
laicos ex regiae dignitatis fastigio jure et merito obtinet primatiam,
the count palatine of the Rhine, the duke of Saxony and the
margrave of Brandenburg. The three archbishops were respec-
tively arch-chancellors of the three principal divisions of the
Empire, Germany, Aries and Italy, and the four secular electors
each held an office in the imperial household, the functions of
which they were expected to discharge on great occasions.
The king of Bohemia was the arch-cupbearer, the count palatine
was the arch-steward (dapifer), the duke of Saxony was arch-
marshal, and the margrave of Brandenburg was arch-chamber-
lain. The work of summoning the electors and of presiding over
their deliberations fell to the archbishop of Mainz, but if he
failed to discharge this duty the electors were to assemble without
summons within three months of the death of a king. Elections
were to be held at Frankfort; they were to be decided by a
majority of votes, and the subsequent coronation at Aix-la-
Chapclle was to be performed by the archbishop of Cologne.
During a vacancy in the Empire the work of administering the
greater part of Germany was entrusted to the count palatine
of the Rhine, the duke of Saxony being responsible, however,
for the government of Saxony, or rather for the districts ubi
Saxonica jura servantur.
The chief result of the bull was to add greatly to the power of
the electors; for, to quote Bryce (Holy Roman Empire), it
" confessed and legalized the independence of the electors and
the powerlessness of the crown." To these princes were given
sovereign rights in their dominions, which were declared in-
divisible and were to pass according to the rule of primogeniture.
Except in extreme cases, there was to be no appeal from the
sentences of their tribunals, and they were confirmed in the right
of coining money, of taking tolls, and in other privileges, while
conspirators against their lives were to suffer the penalties of
treason. One clause gave special rights and immunities to the
king of Bohemia, who, it must be remembered, at this time was
Charles himself, and others enjoined the observance of the public
peace. Provision was made for an annual meeting of the electors,
to be held at Metz four weeks after Easter, when matters pro
bono et salute communi were to be discussed. This arrangement,
however, was not carried out, although the electors met occasion-
ally. Another clause forbade the cities to receive Pfahibiirger,
t\<\ forbade them to take men dwelling outside their walls under
their protection. It may be noted that there is no admission
whatever that the election of a king needs confirmation from
the pope.
The Golden Bull was thus a great victory for the electors, but
it weakened the position of the German king and was a distinct
humiliation for the other princes and for the cities. The status
of those rulers who did not obtain the electoral privilege was
lowered by this very fact, and the regulations about the Pfahl-
biirger, together with the prohibition of new leagues and associa-
tions, struck a severe blow at the cities. The German kings were
elected according to the conditions laid down in the bull until
the dissolution of the Empire in 1806. At first the document
was known simply as the Lex Carolina; but gradually the name
of the Book with the Golden Bull came into use, and the present
elliptical title was sufficiently established by 141 7 to be officially
employed in a charter by King Sigismund. The original auto-
graph was committed to the care of the elector of Mainz, and it
was preserved in the archives at Mainz till 1789. Official tran-
scripts were probably furnished to each of the seven electors at
the time of the promulgation, and before long many of the other
members of the Empire secured copies for themselves. The
transcript which belonged to the elector of Trier is preserved in
the state archives at Stuttgart, that of the elector of Cologne in
the court library at Darmstadt, and that of the king of Bohemia
in the imperial archives at Vienna. Berlin, Munich and Dresden
also boast the possession of an electoral transcript; and the
town of Kitzingen has a contemporary copy in its municipal
archives. There appears, however, to be good reason to doubt
the genuineness of most of these so-called original transcripts.
But perhaps the best known example is that of Frankfort-on-
Main, which was procured from the imperial chancery in 1366,
and is adorned with a golden seal like the original. Not only
was it regularly quoted as the indubitable authority in regard
to the election of the emperors in Frankfort itself, but it
was from time to time officially consulted by members of the
Empire.
The manuscript consists of 43 leaves of parchment of medium
quality, each measuring about ioi in. in height by 7i in breadth.
The seal is of the plate and wax type. On the obverse appears a
figure of the emperor seated on his throne, with the sceptre in his
right hand and the globe in his left; a shield, with the crowned
imperial eagle, occupies the space on the one side of the throne, and
a corresponding shield, with the crowned Bohemian lion with two
tails, occupies the space on the other side; and round the margin
runs the legend, Karolus quartus divinafavente dementia, Romanorum
imperator semper A ugustus et Boemiae rex. On the reverse is a castle,
with the words Aurea Roma on the gate, and the circumscription
reads, Roma caput mundi regit orbisfrena rotundi. The original Latin
text of the bull was printed at Nuremberg by Friedrich Creussner in
1474., and a second edition by An thonius Koburger (d. 1532) appeared
at the same place in 1477. Since that time it has been frequently
reprinted from various manuscripts and collections. M . Goldast gave
the Palatine text, compared with those of Bohemia and Frankfort,
in his CoUectio constitutumum et legum imperialium (Frankfort, 161 a).
Another is to be found in De comitiis imperii of O. Panvinius, and a
third, of unknown history, is prefixed to the Codex recessuum
Imperii (Mainz, 1 599, and again 1 61 5) . The Frankfort text appeared
in 17 A2 as Aurea Bulla secundum exemplar originate Frankfur tense,
edited by W. C. Multz, and the text is also found in J. J. Schmauss,
Corpus juris publici, edited by R. von Hommel (Leipzig, 1794), and
in the Ausgewdhlte Urkunaen zur Erlduterung der Verfassungs-
eeschichte Deutschlands im Mittelalter 9 edited by W. Altmann and
E. Bernheim (Berlin, 1891, and again 1895). German translations,
none of which, however, had any official authority, were published
at Nuremberg about 1474, at Venice in 1476, and at Strassburg in
1485. Among the earlier commentators on the document are
H.Canisiusand J. Limnaeus who wrote In A uream Bullam (Strassburg,
1662). The student will find a good account of the older literature
on the subject in C. G. Biener's Commentarii de origine et progressu
legum junumoue Germaniae (1 787-1 795). See also J. D. von
Olenschlfiger, Neue Erlduterungen der Guldenen Bulle (Frankfort and
Leipzig, 1766) ; H. G. von Thulemeyer, De Bulla Aurea f Argentea, &c
(Heidelberg, 1682); J. St Patter, Historische Entwickelung der
heutigen Staatsverfassung des teutschen Reichs (Gottinren, 1786-
1787), and O. Stobbe, Geschichte der deutschen RechtsqueUen (Bruns-
wick, 1 860-1 864). Among the more modern works may be
mentioned: E. Nerger, Die Goldne Bulle nach ihrem Ursprung
(Gdttineren, 1877), O. Hahn, Ursprung und Bedeutung der Goldnen
Bulle (Breslau, 1903); and M. G. Schmidt, Die staatsrecktliche
Anwendung der Goldnen Bulle (Halle, 1894). There is a valuable
contribution to the subject in the Quellensammlung zur Geschichte der
deutschen Reichsverfassung, edited by K. Zeumer (Leipzig, .1904), and
GOLDEN-EYE— GOLDEN ROSE
209
another by O. Harnack in his Das Kurfursten Kollegium bis zur
Mitte des I4ten Jahrhunderts (Giessen, 1 883). There is an English trans-
lation of the bull in E. F. Henderson's Select Historical Documents of
the Middle Ages (London, 1903).
(A. W. H.*)
GOLDEN-EYE, a name indiscriminately given in many parts
of Britain to two very distinct species of ducks, from the rich
yellow colour of their irides. The commonest of them — the
Anas fuligula of Linnaeus and Fuligula cristata of most modern
ornithologists — is, however, usually called by English writers
the tufted duck, while " golden-eye " is reserved in books for
the A. clanpda and A. glaucion of Linnaeus, who did not know
that the birds he so named were but examples of the same
species, differing only in age or sex; and to this day many fowlers
perpetuate a like mistake, deeming the " Morillon," which is the
female or young male, distinct from the " Golden-eye " or
" Rattle-wings " (as from its noisy flight they oftener call it),
which is the adult male. This species belongs to the group known
as diving ducks, and is the type of the very well-marked genus
Clangula of later systematists, which, among other differences,
has the posterior end of the sternum prolonged so as to extend
considerably over, and, we may not unreasonably suppose,
protect the belly — a character possessed in a still greater degree
by the mergansers (Merginae), while the males also exhibit in
the extraordinarily developed bony labyrinth of their trachea
and its midway enlargement another resemblance to the members
of the same subfamily. The golden-eye, C. glaucion of modern
writers, has its home in the northern parts of both hemispheres,
whence in winter it migrates southward; but as it is one of the
ducks that constantly resorts to hollow trees for the purpose
of breeding it hardly transcends the limit of the Arctic forests
on either continent. So well known is this habit to the people
of the northern districts of Scandinavia, that they very commonly
devise artificial nest-boxes for its accommodation and their own
profit.. Hollow logs of wood are prepared, the top and bottom
closed, and a hole cut in the side. These are affixed to the trunks
of living trees in suitable places, at a convenient distance from
the ground, and, being readily occupied by the birds in the breed-
ing-season, are regularly robbed, first of the numerous eggs, and
finally of the down they contain, by those who have set them up.
The adult male golden-eye is a very beautiful bird, mostly
black above, but with the head, which is slightly crested, reflect-
ing rich green lights, a large oval white patch under each eye
and elongated white scapulars; the lower parts are wholly
white and the feet bright orange, except the webs, which are
dusky. In the female and young male, dark brown replaces the
black, the cheek-spots are indistinct and the elongated white
scapulars wanting. The golden-eye of North America has been
by some authors deemed to differ, and has been named C.
americana, but apparently on insufficient grounds. North
America, however, has, in common with Iceland, a very distinct
species, C. islandica, often called Barrow's duck, which is but
a rare straggler to the continent of Europe, and never, so far
as known, to Britain. In Iceland and Greenland it is the only
habitual representative of the genus, and it occurs from thence
to the Rocky Mountains. In breeding-habits it differs from the
commoner species, not placing its eggs in tree-holes; but how
far this difference is voluntary may be doubted, for in the
countries it frequents trees are wanting. It is a larger and
stouter bird) and in the male the wjiite cheek-patches take a more
crescentic form, while the head is glossed with purple rather
than green, and the white scapulars are not elongated. The New
World also possesses a third and still more beautiful species of
the genus in C. albeola, known in books as the buff el-headed duck,
and to American fowlers as the " spirit-duck " and " butter-ball "
— the former name being applied from its rapidity in diving, and
the latter from its exceeding fatness in autumn. This is of small
size, but the lustre of the feathers in the male is most brilliant,
exhibiting a deep plum-coloured gloss on the head. It breeds
in trees, and is supposed to have occurred more than once in
Britain. (A. N.)
GOLDEN FLEECE, in Greek mythology, the fleece of the
ram on which Phrixus and Helle escaped, for which see
Argonauts. For the modern order of the Golden Fleece, see
Knighthood and Chivalry, section Orders of Knighthood.
GOLDEN HORDE, the name of a body of Tatars who in the
middle of the 13th century overran a great portion of eastern
Europe and founded in Russia the Tatar empire of khanate
known as the Empire of the Golden Horde or Western Kipchaks.
They invaded Europe about 1237 under the leadership of Bata
Khan, a younger son of Juji, eldest son of Jenghiz Khan, passed
over Russia with slaughter and destruction, and penetrated
into Silesia, Poland and Hungary, finally defeating Henry II.,
duke of Silesia, at Liegnitz in the battle known as the Wahlstatt
on the 9th of April 1241. So costly was this victory, however,
that Bata, finding he could not reduce Neustadt, retraced his
steps and established himself in his magnificent tent (whence
the name " golden" ) on the Volga. The new settlement was
known as Sir Orda (" Golden Camp," whence " Golden Horde ").
Very rapidly the powers of Bata extended over the Russian
princes, and so long as the khanate remained in the direct
descent from Bata nothing occurred to check the growth of the
empire. The names of Batu's successors are Sartak (1256),
Bereke (Baraka) (1256-1266), Manga-Timar (1266-1280), Tuda
Mangu (1280-1287), (?) Tala Bugha (1287-1290), Tokta (129c-
1312), Uzbeg (1312-1340), Tin-Beg (1340), Janl-Beg (1340-
I357)- The death of Janl-Beg, however, threw the empire into
confusion. Birdi-Beg (Berdi-Beg) only reigned for two years,
after which two rulers, calling themselves sons of Janl-Beg
occupied the throne during one year. From that time (1350)
till 1378 no single ruler held the whole empire under control,
various members of the other branches of the old house of Juji
assuming the title. At last in 1378 Toktamish, of the Eastern
Kipchaks, succeeded in ousting all rivals, and establishing
himself as ruler of eastern and western Kipchak. For a short
time the glory of the Golden Horde was renewed, until it was
finally crushed by Timur in 1395.
See further Mongols and Russia; Sir Henry Ho worth's History
of the Mongols; S. Lane-Poole's Moharnmadan Dynasties (1894),
pp. 222-231 ; for the relations of the various descendants of Jenghiz,
see Stockvis, Manuel d'histoire, vol. i. chap. ix. table 7.
GOLDEN ROD, in botany, the popular name for Solidago
virgaurea (natural order Compositae), a native of Britain and
widely distributed in the north temperate region. It is an old-
fashioned border-plant flowering from July to September, with
an erect, sparingly-branched stem and small bright-yellow
clustered heads of flowers. It grows well in common soil and is
readily propagated by division in the spring or autumn.
GOLDEN ROSE (rosa aurea), an ornament made of wrought
gold and set with gems, generally sapphires, which is blessed
by the pope on the fourth (Laetare) Sunday of Lent, and usually
afterwards sent as a mark of special favour to some distinguished
individual, to a church, or a civil community. Formerly it
was a single rose of wrought gold, coloured red, but the form
finally adopted is a thorny branch with leaves and flowers, the
petals of which are decked with gems, surmounted by one
principal rose. The origin of the custom is obscure. From very
early times popes have given away a rose on the fourth Sunday
of Lent, whence the name Dominica Rosa, sometimes given to
this feast. The practice of blessing and sending some such
symbol (e.g. eulogiae) goes back to the earliest Christian antiquity,
but the use of the rose itself does not seem to go farther back than
the nth century. According to some authorities it was used
by Leo IX. (1049-1054), but in any case Pope Urban II. sent one
to Fulk of Anjou during the preparations for the first crusade.
Pope Urban V., who sent a golden rose to Joanna of Naples in
1366, is alleged to have been the first to determine that one
should be consecrated annually. Beginning with the 16th
century there went regularly with the rose a letter relating the
reasons why it was sent, and reciting the merits and virtues
of the receiver. When the change was made from the form
of the simple rose to the branch is uncertain. The rose sent
by Innocent IV. in 1244 to Count Raymond Berengar IV. of
Provence was a simple flower without any accessory ornamenta-
tion, while the one given by Benedict XI. in 1303 or 1304 to the
2IO
GOLDEN RULE— GOLDFINCH
church of St Stephen at Perugia consisted of a branch garnished
with five open and two closed roses enriched with a sapphire,
the whole having a value of seventy ducats. The value of the
gift varied according to the character or rank of the recipient.
John XXII. gave away some weighing 12 oz., and worth
from £250 to £325. Among the recipients of this honour have
been Henry VI. of England, 1446; James III. of Scotland, on
whom the rose (made by Jacopo Magnolio) was conferred by
Innocent VIII.; James IV. of Scotland; Frederick the Wise,
elector of Saxony, who received a rose from Leo X. in 1518;
Henry VIII. of England, who received three, the last from Clement
VII. in 1524 (each had nine branches, and rested on different
forms of feet, one on oxen, the second on acorns, and the third on
lions); Queen Mary, who received one in 1555 from Julius III.;
the republic of Lucca, so favoured by Pius IV., in 1564; the
Lateran Basilica by Pius V. three years later; the sanctuary
of Loreto by Gregory XIII. in 1584; Maria Theresa, queen of
France, who received it from Clement IX. in 1668; Mary
Casimir, queen of Poland, from Innocent XI. in 1684 in recogni-
tion of the deliverance of Vienna by her husband, John Sobieski;
Benedict XIII. (1726) presented one to the cathedral of Capua,
and in 1833 it was sent by Gregory XVT. to the church of St
Mark's, Venice. In more recent times it was sent to Napoleon III.
of France, the empress Eugenie, and the queens Isabella II.,
Christina (1886) and Victoria (1906) of Spain. The gift of the
golden rose used almost invariably to accompany the coronation
of the king of the Romans. If in any particular year no one is
considered worthy of the rose, it is laid up in the Vatican.
Some of the most famous Italian goldsmiths have been
employed in making the earlier roses; and such intrinsically
valuable objects have, in common with other priceless historical
examples of the goldsmiths' art, found their way to the melting-
pot. It is, therefore, not surprising that the number of existing
historic specimens is very small. These include one of the 14th
century in the Cluny Museum, Paris, believed to have been sent
by Clement V. to the prince-bishop of Basel; another conferred
in 1458 on his native city of Siena by Pope Pius II.; and the
rose bestowed upon Siena by Alexander VII., a son of that city,
which is depicted in a procession in a fresco in the Palazzo
Pubblico at Siena. The surviving roses of more recent date
include that presented by Benedict XIII. to Capua cathedral;
the rose conferred on the empress Caroline by Pius VII., 181 9,
at Vienna; one of 1833 (Gregory XVI.) at St Mark's, Venice;
and Pope Leo XIII. 's rose sent to Queen Christina of Spain,
which is at Madrid.
Authorities. — Angelo Rocca, Aurea Rosa, &c. (1719) ; Busenelli,
De Rosa Aurea. Efnstola (1759); Girbal, La Rosa de oro (Madrid,
i'ordansVi ~
1820) ; C. Joret, La Rose d\
VantiquiU et an tnoyen Age (Paris,
1892), pp. 432-435; Eugdne Muntz in Kevue d'art chrbtien (1901),
series v. vol. 12 pp. 1-11; De F. Mely, Le Trtsor de Chartres
(1886); Marquis de Mac Swiney Mashanaglass, Le Portugal et le
Saint Siege: Les Roses d f or envoytes far les Papes aux rois de
Portugal au XVI* Steele (1904); Sir C. Young, Ornaments and Gift
consecrated by the Roman Pontiffs: the Golden Rose, the Cap and
Swords presented to Sovereigns of England and Scotland (1864).
(J.T.S.*; E.A.J.)
GOLDEN RULE, the term applied in all European languages
to the rule of conduct laid down in the New Testament (Matthew
vii. 12 and Luke vi. 31), " whatsoever ye would that men should
do to you, do ye even so to them, for this is the law and the
prophets." This principle has often been stated as the funda-
mental precept of social morality. It is sometimes put negatively
or passively, " do not that to another which thou wouldst not
have done to thyself " (cf. Hobbes, Leviathan, xv. 79, xvii. 85),
but it should be observed that in this form it implies merely
abstention from evil doing. In either form the precept in ordinary
application is part of a hedonistic system of ethics, the criterion
of action being strictly utilitarian in character.
See H. Sidgwick, History"of Ethics (5th ed., 1902)*, p. 167 ; James
Seth, Ethical Principles, p. 97 foil.
GOLDFIELD, a town and the county-seat of Esmeralda
county, Nevada, U.S.A., about 170 m. S.E. of Carson City.
Pop. (1908, local estimate), 20,000. It is served by the Tonopah
& Goldfield, Las Vegas & Tonopah, and Tonopah & Tidewater
railways. The town lies in the midst of a desert abounding in
high-grade gold ores, and is essentially a mining camp. The
discovery of gold at Tonopah, about 28 m. N. of Goldfield, in
1900 was followed by its discovery at Goldfield in 1902 and 1903;
in 1904 the Goldfield district produced about 800 tons of ore,
which yielded $2,300,000 worth of gold, or 30% of that of the
state. This remarkable production caused Goldfield to grow
rapidly, and it soon became the largest town in the state. In
addition to the mines, there are large reduction works. In 1907
Goldfield became the county-seat. The gold output in 1907 was
$8,408,396; in 1908, $4,880,251. Soon after mining on an ex-
tensive scale began, the miners organized themselves as a local
branch of the Western Federation of Miners, and in this branch
were included many labourers in Goldfield other than miners.
Between this branch and the mine-owners there arose a series of
more or less serious differences, and there were several set strikes
— in December 1906 and January 1907, for higher wages; in
March and April 1907, because the mine-owners refused to
discharge carpenters who were members of the American Federa-
tion of Labour, but did not belong to the Western Federation of
Miners or to the Industrial Workers of the World affiliated with
it, this last organization being, as a result of the strike, forced
out of Goldfield; in August and September 1907, because a
rule was introduced at some of the mines requiring miners to
change their clothing before entering and after leaving the
mines, — a rule made necessary, according to the operators, by
the wholesale stealing (in miners 1 parlance, " high-grading ")
of the very valuable ore (some of it valued at as high as $20 a
pound); and in November and December 1907, because some
of the mine-owners, avowedly on account of the hard times,
adopted a system of paying in cashier's checks. Excepting
occasional attacks upon non-union workmen, or upon persons
supposed not to be in sympathy with the miners' union, there
had been no serious disturbance in Goldfield; but in December
1907, Governor Sparks, at the instance of the mine-owners,
appealed to President Roosevelt to send Federal troops to
Goldfield, on the ground that the situation there was ominous,
that destruction of life and property seemed probable, and that
the state had no militia and would be powerless to maintain order.
President Roosevelt thereupon (December 4th) ordered General
Frederick Funston, commanding the Division of California, at
San Francisco, to proceed with 300 Federal troops to Goldfield.
The troops arrived in Goldfield on the 6th of December, and
immediately afterwards the mine-owners reduced wages and
announced that no members of the Western Federation of Miners
would thereafter be employed in the mines. President Roosevelt,
becoming convinced that conditions had not warranted Governor
Sparks's appeal for Federal assistance, but that the immediate
withdrawal of the troops might nevertheless lead to serious
disorders, consented that they should remain for a short time
on condition that the state should immediately organize an
adequate militia or police force. Accordingly, a special meeting
of the legislature was immediately called, a state police force
was organized, and on the 7th of March 1908 the troops were
withdrawn. Thereafter work was gradually resumed in the
mines, the contest having been won by the mine-owners.
GOLDFINCH (Ger. Goldfink 1 ), the FringiUa carduelis of
Linnaeus and the Carduelis elegans of later authors, an extremely
well-known bird found over the greater parts of Europe and
North Africa, and eastwards to Persia and Turkestan. Its gay
plumage is matched by its sprightly nature; and together they
make it one of the most favourite cage-birds among all classes.
As a songster it is indeed surpassed by many other species,
but its docility and ready attachment to its master or mistress
make up for any defect in its vocal powers. In some parts of
England the trade in goldfinches is very considerable. In i860
Mr Hussey reported (Zool., p. 7144) the average annual captures
near Worthing to exceed 11,000 dozens — nearly all being cock-
birds; and a witness before a committee of the House of
Commons in 1873 stated that, when a boy, he could take forty
1 The more common German name, however, is Distelfink (Thistle-
Finch) or Stieglitz.
GOLDFISH— GOLDIE
211
dozens in a morning near Brighton. In these districts and others
the number has become much reduced, owing doubtless in part
to the fatal practice of catching the birds just before or during
the breeding-season; but perhaps the strongest cause of their
growing scarcity is the constant breaking-up of waste lands, and
the extirpation of weeds (particularly of the order Compositae)
essential to the improved system of agriculture; for in many
parts of Scotland, East Lothian for instance, where goldfinches
were once as plentiful as sparrows, they are now only rare
stragglers, and yet there they have not been thinned by netting.
Though goldfinches may occasionally be observed in the coldest
weather, incomparably the largest number leave Britain in
autumn, returning in spring, and resorting to gardens and
orchards to breed, when the lively song of the cock, and the
bright yellow wings of both sexes, quickly attract notice. The
nest is a beautifully neat structure, often placed at no great
height from the ground, but generally so well hidden by the
leafy bough on which it is built as not to be easily found, until,
the young being hatched, the constant visits of the parents reveal
its site. When the broods leave the nest they move into the
more open country, and frequenting pastures, commons, heaths
and downs, assemble in large flocks towards the end of summer.
Eastward of the range of the present species its place is taken by
its congener C caniceps, which is easily recognized by wanting
the black hood and white ear-coverts of the British bird. Its
home seems to be in Central Asia, but it moves southward in
winter, being common at that season in Cashmere, and is not
unf requently brought for sale to Calcutta. The position of the
genus Cardudis in the family FrtngHUdae is not very clear.
Structurally it would seem to have some relation to the siskins
{Chrysomitris) , though the members of the two groups have very
different habits, and perhaps its nearest kinship lies with the'
hawfinches (Coccothraustes). See Finch. (A. N.)
GOLDFISH (Cyprinus or Carassius auratus), a, small fish
belonging to the Cyprinid family, a native of China but natur-
Telescope-fish.
alized in other countries. In the wild state its colours do not
differ from those of a Crucian carp, and like that fish it is tenacious
of life and easily domesticated. Albinos seem to be rather
common; and as in other fishes (for instance, the tench, carp,
eel, flounder), the colour of most of these albinos is a bright
orange or golden yellow; occasionally even this shade of colour
is lost, the fish being more or less pute white or silvery. The
Chinese have domesticated these albinos for a long time, and
by careful selection have succeeded in propagating all those
strange varieties, and even monstrosities, which appear in every
domestic animal. In some individuals the dorsal fin is only
half its normal length, in others entirely absent; in others the
anal fin has a double spine; in others all the fins are of nearly
double the usual length. The snout is frequently malformed,
giving the head of the fish an appearance similar to that of a
bull-dog. The variety most highly prized has an extremely
short snout, eyes which almost wholly project beyond the orbit,
no dorsal fin, and a very long three- or four-lobed caudal fin
(Telescope-fish).
The domestication of the goldfish by the Chinese dates back
from the highest antiquity, and they were introduced into Japan
at the beginning of the 16th century; but the date of their
importation into Europe is still uncertain. The great German
ichthyologist, M. E. Bloch, thought he could trace it back in
England to the reign of James I., whilst other authors fix the
date at iooi. It appears certain that they were brought to
France, only much later, as a present to Mme de Pompadour,
although the de Goncourts, the historians of the mistresses of
Louis XV., have failed to trace any records of this event. The
fish has since spread over a considerable part of Europe, and in
many places it has reverted to its wild condition. In many parts
of south-eastern Asia, in Mauritius, in North and South Africa,
in Madagascar, in the Azores, it has become thoroughly acclima-
tized, and successfully competes with the indigenous fresh-water
fishes. It will not thrive in rivers; in large ponds it readily
reverts to the coloration of the original wild stock. It flourishes
best in small tanks and ponds, in which the water is constantly
changing and does not freeze; in such localities, and with a full
supply of food, which consists of weeds, crumbs of bread, bran,
worms, small crustaceans and insects, it attains to a length of
from 6 to 12 in., breeding readily, sometimes at different times
of the same year.
GOLDFUSS, GEORG AUGUST (1782-1848), German palaeon-
tologist, born at Thurnau near Bayreuth on the 18th of April
1782, was educated at Erlangen, where he graduated Ph.D. in
1804 and became professor of zoology in 1818. He was sub-
sequently appointed professor of zoology and mineralogy in the
university of Bonn. Aided by Count G. Minister he issued the
important Petrefacta Germaniae (1826-1844), a work which was
intended to illustrate the invertebrate fossils of Germany, but it
was left incomplete after the sponges, corals, crinoids, echinids
and part of the mollusca had been figured. Goldf uss died at Bonn
on the 2nd of October 1848.
GOLDIE, SIR GEORGE DASHWOOD TAUBMAN (1846- ),
English administrator, the founder of Nigeria, was born on the
20th of May 1846 at the Nunnery in the Isle of Man, being the
youngest son of Lieut^Colonel John Taubman Goldie-Taubman,
speaker of the House of Keys, by his second wife Caroline,
daughter of John E. Hoveden of Hemingford, Cambridgeshire.
Sir George resumed his paternal name, Goldie, by royal licence in
1887. He was educated at the Royal Military Academy, Wool-
wich, and for about two years held a commission in the Royal
Engineers. He travelled in all parts of Africa, gaining an ex-
tensive knowledge of the continent, and first visited the country
of the Niger in 1877. He conceived the idea of adding to the
British empire the then little known regions of the lower and
middle Niger, and for over twenty years his efforts were devoted
to the realization of this conception. The method by which he
determined to work was the revival of government by chartered
companies within the empire — a method supposed to be buried
with the East India Company. The first step was to combine all
British commercial interests in the Niger, and this he accomplished
in 1879 when the United African Company was formed. In 1881
Goldie sought a charter from the imperial government (the 2nd
Gladstone ministry). Objections of various kinds were raised.
To meet them the capital of the company (renamed the National
African Company) was increased from £1 25,000 to £1,000,000, and
great energy was displayed in founding stations on the Niger.
At this time French traders, encouraged by Gambetta, established
themselves on the lower river, thus rendering it difficult for the
company to obtain territorial rights; but the Frenchmen were
bought out in 1884, so that at the Berlin conference on West
Africa in 1885 Mr Goldie, present as an expert on matters relating
to the river, was able to announce that on the lower Niger the
British flag alone flew. Meantime the Niger coast line had been
placed under British protection. Through Joseph Thomson,
David Mcintosh, D. W. Sargent, J. Flint, William Wallace,
E. Dangerfield and numerous other agents, over 400 political
treaties — drawn up by Goldie — were made with the chiefs of the
lower Niger and the Hausa states. The scruples of the British
government being overcome, a charter was at length granted
212
GOLDING— GOLDMARK
(July 1886), the National African Company becoming the Royal
Niger Company, with Lord Aberdare as governor and Goldie as
vice-governor. In 1895, on Lord Aberdare's death, Goldie
became governor of the company, whose destinies he had guided
throughout.
The building up of Nigeria as a British state had to be carried
on in face of further difficulties raised by French travellers with
political missions, and also in face of German opposition. From
1884 to 1890, Prince Bismarck was a persistent antagonist, and
the strenuous efforts he made to secure for Germany the basin of
the lower Niger and Lake Chad were even more dangerous
to Goldie's schemes of empire than the ambitions of France.
Herr E. R. Flegel, who had travelled in Nigeria during 1882-1884
under the auspices of the British company, was sent out in 1885
by the newly-formed German Colonial Society to secure treaties
for Germany, which had established itself at Cameroon. After
FlegePs death in 1886 his work was continued by his companion
Dr Staudinger, while Herr Hoenigsberg was despatched to stir
up trouble in the occupied portions of the Company's territory, —
or, as he expressed it, " to burst up the charter." He was finally
arrested at Onitsha, and, after trial by the company's supreme
court at Asaba, was expelled the country. Prince Bismarck then
sent out his nephew, Herr von Puttkamer, as German consul*
general to Nigeria, with orders to report on this affair, and when
this report was published in a White Book, Bismarck demanded
heavy damages from the company. Meanwhile Bismarck main-
tained constant pressure on the British government to compel the
Royal Niger Company to a division of spheres of influence, where-
by Great Britain would have lost a third, and the most valuable
part, of the company's territory. But he fell from power in
March 1890, and in July following Lord Salisbury concluded the
famous " Heligoland " agreement with Germany. After this
event the aggressive action of Germany in Nigeria entirely ceased,
and the door was opened for a final settlement of the Nigeria-
Cameroon frontiers. These negotiations, which resulted in an
agreement in 1893, were initiated by Goldie as a means of arresting
the advance of France into Nigeria from the direction of the Congo.
By conceding to Germany a long but narrow strip of territory
between Adamawa and Lake Chad, to which she had no treaty
claims, a barrier was raised against French expeditions, semi-
military and semi-exploratory, which sought to enter Nigeria
from the east. Later French efforts at aggression were made
from the western or Dahomeyan side, despite an agreement
concluded with France in 1890 respecting the northern frontier.
The hostility of certain Fula princes led the company to
despatch, in 1897, an expedition against the Mahommedan states
of Nup€ and IUorin. This expedition was organized and personally
directed by Goldie and was completely successful. Internal peace
was thus secured, but in the following year the differences with
France in regard to the frontier line became acute, and compelled
the intervention of the British government. In the negotiations
which ensued Goldie was instrumental in preserving for Great
Britain the whole of the navigable stretch of the lower Niger. It
was, however, evidently impossible for a chartered company to
hold its own against the state-supported protectorates of France
and Germany, and in consequence, on the 1st of January 1900,
the Royal Niger Company transferred its territories to the British
government for the sum of £865,000. The ceded territory
together with the small Niger Coast Protectorate, already under
imperial control, was formed into the two protectorates of
northern and southern Nigeria (see further Nigeria).
In 1903-1904, at the request of the Chartered Company of
South Africa, Goldie visited Rhodesia and examined the situation
in connexion with the agitation for self-government by the
Rhodesians. In 1 902-1903 he was one of the royal commissioners
who inquired into the military preparations for the war in South
Africa (189^-1902) and into the operations up to the occupation
of Pretoria, and in 1905- 1906 was a member of the royal com-
mission which investigated the methods of disposal of war stores
after peace had been made. In 1905 he was elected president
of the Royal Geographical Society and held that office for three
years. In 1908 he was chosen an alderman of the London County
Council. Goldie was created K.C.M.G. in 1887, and a privy
councillor in 1898. He became an F.R.S., honorary D.C.L. of
Oxford University (1897) and honorary LL.D. of Cambridge
(1897). He married in 1870 Matilda Catherine (d. 1898), daughter
of John William Elliott of Wakefield.
60LDING, ARTHUR (c. 1536-c. 1605), English translator, son
of John Golding of Belchamp St Paul and Hals ted, Essex, one of
the auditors of the exchequer, was born probably in London
about 1536. His half-sister, Margaret, married John de Vere,
16th earl of Oxford. In 1549 he was already in the service of
Protector Somerset, and the statement that he was educated at
Queen's College, Cambridge, lacks corroboration. He seems to
have resided for some time in the house of Sir William Cecil, in
the Strand, with his nephew, the poet, the 17th earl of Oxford,
whose receiver he was, for two of his dedications are dated from
Cecil House. His chief work is his translation of Ovid The
Fyrst Fawer Bookes of P. Ovidius Nasos worke, entitled Meta-
morphosis, translated oute of Latin into Englishe meter (1565),
was supplemented in 1567 by a translation of the filteen books.
Strangely enough the translator of Ovid was a man of strong
Puritan sympathies, and he translated many of the works of
Calvin. To his version of the Metamorphoses he prefixed a long
metrical explanation of his reasons for considering it a work
of edification. He sets forth the moral which he supposes to
underlie certain of the stories, and shows how the pagan
machinery may be brought into line with Christian thought.
It was from Golding's pages that many of the Elizabethans drew
their knowledge of classical mythology, and there is little doubt
that Shakespeare was well acquainted with the book. Golding
translated also the Commentaries of Caesar (1565), Calvin's
commentaries on the Psalms (1571), his sermon* on the Galatians
and Ephesians, on Deuteronomy and the book of Job, Theodore
Beza's Tragedie of Abrahams Sacrifice (1 577) and the De Beneficiis
of Seneca (1578). He completed a translation begun by Sidney
from Philippe de Mornay, A Worke concerning the Trewnesse of
the Christian Religion (1604). His only original work is a prose
Discourse on the earthquake of 1580, in which he saw a judgment
of God on the wickedness of his time. He inherited three con-
siderable estates in Essex, the greater part of which he sold in
1 595. The last trace we have of Golding is contained in an order
dated the 25th of July 1605, giving him licence to print certain
of his works.
GOLDINGEN (Lettish, Kuldiga), a town of Russia, in the
government of Courland, 55 m. by rail N.E. of Libau, and on
Windau river, in 56 58' N. and Z2° E. Pop. (1897) 9733. It
has woollen mills, needle and match factories, breweries and
distilleries, a college for teachers, and ruins of a castle of the
Teutonic Knights, built in 1248 and used in the 17th century as
the residence of the dukes of Courland.
GOLDMARK, KARL (1832- ), Hungarian composer, was
born at Keszthely-am-Plattensee, in Hungary, on the 18th of
May 1832. His father, a poor cantor in the local Jewish syna-
gogue, was unable to assist to any extent financially in the
development of his son's talents. Yet in the household much
music was made, and on a cheap violin and home-made flute,
constructed by Goldmark himself from reeds cut from the river-
bank, the future composer gave rein to his musical ideas. His
talent was fostered by the village schoolmaster, by whose aid
he was able to enter the music-school of the Oedenburger Verein.
Here he remained but a short time, his success at a school concert
finally determining his parents to allow him to devote himself
entirely to music. In 1844, then, he went to Vienna, where
J ansa took up his cause and eventually obtained for him admis-
sion to the conservatorium. For two years Goldmark worked
under Jansa at the violin, and on the outbreak of the revolution,
after studying all the orchestral instruments he obtained an
engagement in the orchestra at Raab. There, on the capitulation
of Raab, he was to have been shot for a spy, and was only saved
at the eleventh hour by the happy arrival of a former colleague.
In 1850 Goldmark left Raab for Vienna, where from his friend
Mittrich he obtained his first real knowledge of the classics.
There, too, he devoted himself to composition. In 1857 Goldmark,
GOLDONI— GOLDSCHMIDT
213
who was then engaged in the Karl-theater band, gave a
concert of his own works with such success that his first quartet
attracted very general attention. Then followed the " Sakun-
tala " and " Penthesilea " overtures, which show how Wagner's
influence had supervened upon his previous domination by
Mendelssohn, and the delightful " Landliche Hochzeit " sym-
phony, which carried his fame abroad. Goldmark's reputation
was now made, and very largely increased by the production
at Vienna in 1875 of his first and best opera, Die Kdnigin von
Saba. Over this opera he spent seven years. Its popularity
is still almost as great as ever. It was followed in November
1886, also at Vienna, by Merlin, much of which has been re-
written since then. A third opera, a version of Dickens's Cricket
on the Hearth, was given by the Royal Carl Rosa Company
in London in 1900. Goldmark's chamber music has not made
much lasting impression, but the overtures " Im Frtihling,"
" Prometheus Bound," and " Sapho " are fairly well known.
A " programme " seems essential to him. In opera he is most
certainly at his best, and as an orchestral colourist he ranks
among the very highest.
GOLDONI, CARLO (1707-1703), Italian dramatist, the real
founder of modern Italian comedy, was born at Venice, on the
25th of February 1707, in a fine house near St Thomas's church.
His father Giulio was a native of Modena. The first playthings
of the future writer were puppets which he made dance; the
first books he read were plays, — among others, the comedies of
the Florentine Cicognini. Later he received a still stronger
impression from the Mandragora of Machiavelli. At eight years
old he had tried to sketch a play. His father, meanwhile, had
taken his degree in medicine at Rome and fixed himself at
Perugia, where he made his son join him; but, having soon
quarrelled with his colleagues in medicine, he departed for
Chioggia, leaving his son to the care of a philosopher, Professor
Caldini of Rimini. The young Goldoni soon grew tired of his
Kfe at Rimini, and ran away with a Venetian company of players.
He began to study law at Venice, then went to continue the
same pursuit at Pavia, but at that time he was studying the
Greek and Latin comic poets much more and much better than
books about law. " I have read over again," he writes in his
own Memoirs, " the Greek and Latin poets, and I have told to
myself that I should like to imitate them in their style, their
plots, their precision; but I would not be satisfied unless I
succeeded in giving more interest to my works, happier issues
to my plots, better drawn characters and more genuine comedy."
For a satire entitled II Colosso, which attacked the honour of
several families of Pavia, he was driven from that town, and
went first to study with the jurisconsult Morelli at Udine, then
to take his degree in law at Modena. After having worked
some time as clerk in the chanceries of Chioggia and Feltre,
his father being dead, he went to Venice, to exercise there his
profession as a lawyer. But the wish to write for the stage
was always strong in him, and he tried to do so; he made,
however, a mistake in his choice, and began with a tragedy,
A tnalasunta, which was represented at Milan and proved a failure.
In 1734 he wrote another tragedy, Belisario, which, though not
much better, chanced nevertheless to please the public. This
first success encouraged him to write other tragedies, some of
which were well received; but the author himself saw clearly
that he had not yet found his proper sphere, and that a radical
dramatic reform was absolutely necessary for the stage. He
wished to create a characteristic comedy in Italy, to follow the
example of MoliSre, and to delineate the realities of social life
in as natural a manner as possible. His first essay of this kind
was Momolo Cortesan (Moniolo the Courtier), written in the
Venetian dialect, and based on his own experience. Other
plays followed — some interesting from their subject, others
from the characters; the best of that period are — he Trentadue
Disgrazie d' Arlecchino, La Notte critica, La Bancarotta, La
Donna di Garbo. Having, while consul of Genoa at Venice,
been cheated by a captain of Ragusa, he founded on this his
play Ulmpostore. At Leghorn he made the acquaintance of the
comedian Medebac, and followed him to Venice, with his company,
for which he began to write his best plays. Once he promised
to write sixteen comedies in a year, and kept his word; among
the sixteen are some of his very best, such as // Cafe, II Bugiardo,
La Pamela. When he left the company of Medebac, he passed
over to that maintained by the patrician Vendramin, continuing
to write with the greatest facility. In 1761 he was called to
Paris, and before leaving Venice he wrote Una delle ultime sere
di Carnevale (One of the Last Nights of Carnival), an allegorical
comedy m which he said good-bye to his country. At the end
of the representation of this play, the theatre resounded with
applause, and with shouts expressive of good wishes. Goldoni,
at this proof of public sympathy, wept as a child. At Paris,
during two years, he wrote comedies for the Italian actors; then
he taught Italian to the royal princesses; and for the wedding
of Louis XVI. and of Marie Antoinette he wrote in French one
of his best comedies, Le Bourru bienfaisant, which was a great
success. When he retired from Paris to Versailles, the king
made him a gift of 6000 francs, and fixed on him an annual
pension of 1 200 francs. It was at Versailles he wrote his Memoirs,
which occupied him till he reached his eightieth year. The
Revolution deprived him all at once of his modest pension, and
reduced him to extreme misery; he dragged on his unfortunate
existence till 1793, and died on the 6th of February. The day
after, on the proposal of Andr6 ChSnier, the Convention agreed
to give the pension back to the poet; and as he had already
died, a reduced allowance was granted to his widow.
The best comedies of Goldoni are : La Donna di Garbo, La Bottega
di Caffe, Pamela nubile,' Le Baruffe chiozzotte, I Rusteghi, Todero
Bronlolon, Gli Innamorali, II Ventaglio, II Bugiardo, La Casa nova,
II Burbero benefico, La Locandiera. A collected edition (Venice,
1788) was republished at Florence in 1827. See P. G. Molmenti,
Carlo Goldoni (Venice, 1875); Rabany, Carlo Goldoni (Paris, 1896).
The Memoirs were translated into English by John Black (Boston,
1877), with preface by W. D. Howells.
GOLDS, a Mongolo-Tatar people, living on the Lower Amur
in south-eastern Siberia. Their chief settlements are on the right
bank of the Amur and along the Sungari and Usuri rivers. In
physique they are typically Mongolic. Like the Chinese they
wear a pigtail, and from them, too, have learnt the art of silk
embroidery. The Golds live almost entirely on fish, and are
excellent boatmen. They keep large herds of swine and dogs,
which live, like themselves, on fish. Geese, wild duck, eagles,
bears, wolves and foxes are also kept in menageries. There is
much reverence paid to the eagles, and hence the Manchus call
the Golds " Eaglets. 1 ' Their religion is Shamanism.
See L. Schrenck, Die V other des Amurlandes (St Petersburg, 1891) ;
Laufer, "The Amoor Tribes," in American Anthropologist (New
York, 1900); E. G. Ravenstein, The Russians on the Amur (1861).
GOLDSBORO, a city and the county-seat of Wayne county,
North Carolina, U.S.A., on the Neuse river, about 50 m. S.E. of
Raleigh. Pop. (1890) 4017; (1900) 5877, of whom 2520 were
negroes. It is served by the Southern, the Atlantic Coast Line
and the Norfolk & Southern railways. The surrounding country
produces large quantities of tobacco, cotton and grain, and
trucking is an important industry, the city being a distributing
point for strawberries and various kinds of vegetables. The
city's manufactures include cotton goods, knit goods, cotton-
seed oil, agricultural implements, lumber and furniture. Golds-
boro is the seat of the Eastern insane asylum (for negroes) and
of an Odd Fellows' orphan home. The municipality owns and
operates its water-works and electric-lighting plant. Goldsboro
was settled in 1838, and was first incorporated in 184 1. In the
campaign of 1865 Goldsboro was the point of junction of the
Union armies under generab Sherman and Schofield, previous
to the final advance to Greensboro.
GOLDSCHMIDT, HERMANN (1802- 1866), German painter
and astronomer, was the son of a Jewish merchant, and was born
at Frankfort on the 17 th of June 1802. He for ten years assisted
his father in his business; but, his love of art having been
awakened while journeying in Holland, he in 1832 began the
study of painting at Munich under Cornelius and Schnorr, and
in 1836 established himself at Paris, where he painted a number
of pictures of more than average merit, among which may be
mentioned the " Cumaean Sibyl" (1844); an "Offering to
214
GOLDSMID— GOLDSMITH, OLIVER
Venus " (1845); a " View of Rome " (1849); the " Death of
Romeo and Juliet" (1857); and several Alpine landscapes.
In 1847 he began to devote his attention to astronomy; and
from 1852 to 1 86 1 he discovered fourteen asteroids between
Mars and Jupiter, on which account he received the grand
astronomical prize from the Academy of Sciences. His observa-
tions of the protuberances on the sun, made during the total
eclipse on the 10th of July i860, are included in the work of
Madler on the eclipse, published in 186 1. Goldschmidt died at
Fontainebleau on the 26th of August 1866.
GOLDSMID, the name of a family of Anglo- Jewish bankers
sprung from Aaron Goldsmid (d. 1782), a Dutch merchant who
settled in England about 1763. Two of his sons, Benjamin
Goldsmid (c. 1753-1808) and Abraham Goldsmid (c. 1756-1810),
began business together about 1777 as bill-brokers in London,
and soon became great powers in the money market, during the
Napoleonic war, through their dealings with the government.
Abraham Goldsmid was in 1810 joint contractor with the Barings
for a government loan, but owing to a depreciation of the scrip
he was forced into bankruptcy and committed suicide. His
brother, in a fit of depression, had similarly taken his own life
two years before. Both were noted for their public and private
generosity, and Benjamin had a part in founding the Royal
Naval Asylum. Benjamin left four sons, the youngest being
Lionel Prager Goldsmid; Abraham a daughter, Isabel.
Their nephew, Sir Isaac Lyon Goldsmid, Bart. (1 778-1859),
was born in London, and began in business with a firm of bullion
brokers to the Bank of England and the East India Company.
He amassed a large fortune, and was made Baron da Palmeira
by the Portuguese government in 1846 for services rendered in
settling a monetary dispute between Portugal and Brazil, but
he is chiefly known for his efforts to obtain the emancipation of
the Jews in England and for his part in founding University
College, London. The Jewish Disabilities Bill, first introduced
in Parliament by Sir Robert Grant in 1830, owed its final passage
to Goldsmid's energetic work. He helped to establish the
University College hospital in 1834, serving as its treasurer for
eighteen years, and also aided in the efforts to obtain reform in
the English penal code. Moreover he assisted by his capital
and his enterprise to build part of the English southern railways
and also the London docks. In 184 1 he became the first Jewish
baronet, the honour being conferred upon him by Lord Melbourne.
He had married his cousin Isabel (see above), and their second
son was Sir Francis Henry Goldsmid, Bart. (1 808-1 878), born in
London, and called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1833 (the first
Jew to become an English barrister; Q.C. 1858). After the
passing of the Jewish Disabilities Bill, in which he had aided
his father with a number of pamphlets that attracted great
attention, he entered Parliament in i860 (having succeeded to
the baronetcy) as member for Reading, and represented that
constituency until his death. He was strenuous on behalf of the
Jewish religion, and the founder cf the great Jews' Free School.
He was a munificent contributor to charities and especially to
the endowment of University College. He, like his father,
married a cousin, and, dying without issue, was succeeded in the
baronetcy by his nephew Sir Julian Goldsmid, Bart. (1838-1896),
son of Frederick David Goldsmid (1812-1866), long M.P. for
Honiton. Sir Julian was for many years in Parliament, and his
wealth, ability and influence made him a personage of consider-
able importance. He was eventually made a privy councillor.
He had eight daughters, but no son, and his entailed property
passed to his relation, Mr d'Avigdor, his house in Piccadilly
being converted into the Isthmian Club.
Another distinguished member of the same family, Sir
Frederic John Goldsmid (1818-1908), son of Lionel Prager
Goldsmid (see above), was educated at King's College, London,
and entering the Madras army in 1839 served in the China War
of 1840-41, with the Turkish troops in eastern Crimea in 1855-56,
and was given political employment by the Indian government.
He received the thanks of the commander-in-chief and of the
war office for services during the Egyptian campaign, and was
retired a major-general in 1875. Sir Frederic Goldsmid's name
is, however, associated less with military service than with much
valuable work in exploration and in surveying, for which he
repeatedly received the thanks of government. Fron 1865 to
1870 he was director-general of the Indo-European telegraph,
and carried through the telegraph convention with Persia; and
between 1870 and 1872, as commissioner, he settled with Persia
the difficult questions of the Perso-Baluch and Perso-Afghan
boundaries. In the course of his work he had to travel exten-
sively, and he followed this up by various responsible missions
connected with emigration questions. In 1 881-1882 he was in
Egypt, as controller of the Daira Sanieh, and doing other mis-
cellaneous military work; and in 1883 he went to the Congo,
on behalf of the king of the Belgians, as one of the organizers
of the new state, but had to return on account of illness. From
his early years he had made studies of several Eastern languages,
and he ranked among the foremost Orientalists of his day. In
1886 he was president of the geographical section of the British
Association meeting held at Birmingham. He had married in
1849, and had two sons and four daughters. In 187 1 he was
made a K.C.S.I. Besides important contributions to the 9th
edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica and many periodicals,
he wrote an excellent and authoritative biography of Sir James
Outram (2 vols., 1880).
A sister of the last-named married Henry Edward Goldsmid
(181 2-1855), an eminent Indian civil servant, son of Edward
Goldsmid; his reform of the revenue system in Bombay, and
introduction of a new system, established after his death, through
his reports in 1 840-1 847, and his devoted labour in land-surveys,
were of the highest importance to western India, and established
his memory there as a public benefactor.
GOLDSMITH, LEWIS (c. 1763-1846), Anglo-French publicist,
of Portuguese- Jewish extraction, was born near London about
1763. {laving published in 180 1 The Crimes of Cabinets, or a
Review of the Plans and Aggressions for Annihilating the Liberties
of France, and the Dismemberment of her Territories, an attack on
the military policy of Pitt, he moved, in 1802, from England to
Paris. Talleyrand introduced him to Napoleon, who arranged
for him to establish in Paris an English tri- weekly, the Argus,
which was to review English affairs from the French point of
view. According to his own account, he was in 1803 entrusted
with a mission to obtain from the head of the French royal
family, afterwards Louis XVIII., a renunciation of his claims to
the throne of France, in return for the throne of Poland. The
offer was declined, and Goldsmith says that he then received
instructions to kidnap Louis and kill him if he resisted, but,
instead of executing these orders, he revealed the plot. He was,
nevertheless, employed by Napoleon on various other secret
service missions till 1807, when his Republican sympathies began
to wane. In 1809 he returned to England, where he was at first
imprisoned but soon released; and he became a notary in
London. In 18 1 1, being now violently anti-republican, he founded
a Sunday newspaper, the Anti-Gallican Monitor and Anti-
Corsican Chronicle, subsequently known as the British Monitor,
in which he denounced the French Revolution. In 181 1 he
proposed that a public subscription should be raised to put a
price on Napoleon's head, but this suggestion was strongly repro-
bated by the British government. In the same year he published
Secret History of the Cabinet of Bonaparte and Recueil des muni-
festes, or a Collection of the Decrees of Napoleon Bonaparte, and in
1 8 1 2 Secret History of Bonaparte's Diplomacy. Goldsmith alleged
that in the latter year he was offered £200,000 by Napoleon
to discontinue his attacks. In 181 5 he published An Appeal to
the Governments of Europe on the Necessity of bringing Napoleon
Bonaparte to a Public Trial. In 1825 he again settled down in
Paris, and in 1832 published his Statistics of France. His only
child, Georgiana, became, in 1837, the second wife of Lord
Lyndhurst. He died in Paris on the 6th of January 1846.
GOLDSMITH, OLIVER (1728-1774), English poet, playwright,
novelist and man of letters, came of a Protestant and Saxon
family which had long been settled in Ireland. He is
usually said to have been born at Pallas or Pallasmore, Co.
Longford; but recent investigators have contended, with much
GOLDSMITH, OLIVER
215
show of probability, that his true birthplace was Smith-Hill
House, Elphin, Roscommon, the residence of his mother's father,
the Rev, Oliver Jones. His father, Charles Goldsmith, lived at
Pallas, supporting with difficulty his wife and children on what
he could earn, partly as a curate and partly ps a farmer.
While Oliver was still a child his father was presented to the
living of Kilkenny West, in the county of West Meath. This
was worth about £200 a year. The family accordingly quitted
their cottage at Pallas for a spacious house on a frequented road,
near the village of Lissoy. Here the boy was taught his letters by
a relative and dependent, Elizabeth Delap, and was sent in his
seventh year to a village school kept by an old quartermaster on
half-pay, who professed to teach nothing but reading, writing
and arithmetic, but who had an inexhaustible fund of stories
about ghosts, banshees and fairies, about the great Rapparee
chiefs, Baldearg O'Donnell and galloping Hogan, and about the
exploits of Peterborough and Stanhope, the surprise of Monjuich
and the glorious disaster of Brihuega. This man must have been
of the Protestant religion; but he was of the aboriginal race, and
not only spoke the Irish language, but could pour forth unpre-
meditated Irish verses. Oliver early became, and through life
continued to be, a passionate admirer of the Irish music, and
especially of the compositions of Carolan, some of the last notes
of whose harp he heard. It ought to be added that Oliver, though
by birth one of the Englishry , and though connected by numerous
ties with the Established Church, never showed the least sign of
that contemptuous antipathy with which, in his days, the ruling
minority in Ireland too generally regarded the subject majority.
So far indeed was he from sharing in the opinions and feelings of
the caste to which he belonged that he conceived an aversion to
the Glorious and Immortal Memory, and, even when George III.
was on the throne, maintained that nothing but the restoration
of the banished dynasty could save the country.
From the humble academy kept by the old soldier Goldsmith
was removed in his ninth year. He went to several grammar-
schools, and acquired some knowledge of the ancient languages.
His life at this time seems to have been far from happy. He had,
as appears from the admirable portrait of him by Reynolds at
Knole, features harsh even to ugliness. The small-pox had set its
mark on him with more than usual severity. His stature was
small, and his limbs ill put together. Among boys little tender-
ness is shown to personal defects; and the ridicule excited by
poor Oliver's appearance was heightened by a peculiar simplicity
and a disposition to blunder which he retained to the last. He
became the common butt of boys and masters, was pointed at as
a fright in the play-ground, and flogged as a dunce in the school-
room. When he had risen to eminence, those who had once
derided him ransacked their memory for the events of his early
years, and recited repartees and couplets which had dropped
from him, and which, though little noticed at the time, were
supposed, a quarter of a century later, to indicate the powers
which produced the Vicar of Wakefield and the Deserted Village.
On the nth of June 1744, being then in his sixteenth year,
Oliver went up to Trinity College, Dublin, as a sizar. The sizars
paid nothing for food and tuition, and very little for lodging;
but they had to perform some menial services from which they
have long been relieved. Goldsmith was quartered, not alone, in
a garret of what was then No. 35 in a range of buildings which has
long since disappeared. His name, scrawled by himself on one of
its window-panes is still preserved in the college library. From
such garrets many men of less parts than his have made their
way to the woolsack or to the episcopal bench. But Goldsmith,
while he suffered all the humiliations, threw away all the
advantages of his situation. He neglected the studies of the
place, stood low at the examinations, was turned down to the
bottom of his class for playing the buffoon in the lecture-room,
was severely reprimanded for pumping on a constable, and was
caned by a brutal tutor for giving a ball in the attic storey of the
college to some gay youths and damsels from the city.
While Oliver was leading at Dublin a life divided between
squalid distress and squalid dissipation, his father died, leaving
a mere pittance. In February 1749 the youth obtained his
bachelor's degree, and left the university. During some time
the humble dwelling to which his widowed mother had retired
was his home. He was now in his twenty-first year; it was
necessary that he should do something; and his education
seemed to have ^fitted him to do nothing but to dress himself
in gaudy colours, of which he was as fond as a magpie, to take a
hand at cards, to sing Irish airs, to play the flute, to angle in
summer and to tell ghost stories by the fire in winter. He tried
five or six professions in turn without success. He applied for
ordination; but, as he applied in scarlet clothes, he was speedily
turned out of the episcopal palace. He then became tutor in an
opulent family, but soon quitted his situation in consequence of a
dispute about pay. Then he determined to emigrate to America.
His relations, with much satisfaction, saw him set out for Cork
on a good horse, with £30 in his pocket. But in six weeks he
came back on a miserable hack, without a penny, and informed
his mother' that the ship in which he had taken his passage,
having got a fair wind while he was at a party of pleasure, had
sailed without him. Then he resolved to study the law. A
generous uncle, Mr Contarine, advanced £50. With this sum
Goldsmith went to Dublin, was enticed into a gaming-house
and lost every shilling. He then thought of medicine. A small
purse was made up; and in his twenty-fourth year he was sent
to Edinburgh. At Edinburgh he passed eighteen months in
nominal attendance on lectures, and picked up some superficial
information about chemistry and natural history. Thence he
went to Leiden, still pretending to study physic. He left that
celebrated university, the third university at which he had
resided, in his twenty-seventh year, without a degree, with the
merest smattering of medical knowledge, and with no property
but his clothes and his flute. His flute, however, proved a useful
friend. He rambled on foot through Flanders, France and
Switzerland, playing tunes which everywhere set the peasantry
dancing, and which often procured for him a supper and a bed.
He wandered as far as Italy. His musical performances, indeed,
were not. to the taste of the Italians; but he contrived to live on
the alms which he obtained at the gates of convents. It should,
however, be observed that the stories which he told about this
part of his life ought to be received with great caution; for strict
veracity was never one of his virtues; and a man who is ordinarily
inaccurate in narration is likely to be more than ordinarily
inaccurate when he talks about his own travels. Goldsmith,
indeed, was so regardless of truth as to assert in print that he was
present at a most interesting conversation between Voltaire and
Fontenelle, and that this conversation took place at Paris.
Now it is certain that Voltaire never was within a hundred
leagues of Paris during the whole time which Goldsmith passed
on the continent.
In February 1756 the wanderer landed at Dover, without a
shilling, without a friend and without a calling. He had indeed,
if his own unsupported evidence may be trusted, obtained a
doctor's degree on the continent; but this dignity proved
utterly useless to him. In England his flute was not in request;
there were no convents; and he was forced to have recourse to
a series of desperate expedients. There is a tradition that he
turned strolling player. He pounded drugs and ran about
London with phials for, charitable chemists. He asserted, upon
one occasion, that he had lived " among the beggars in Axe Lane."
He was for a time usher of a school, and felt the miseries and
humiliations of this situation so keenly that he thought it a
promotion to be permitted to earn his bread as a bookseller's
hack; but he soon found the new yoke more galling than the
old one, and was glad to become an usher again. He obtained a
medical appointment in the service of the East India Company;
but the appointment was speedily revoked. Why it was revoked
we are not told The subject was one on which he never liked
to talk. It is probable that he was incompetent to perform
the duties of the place. Then, he presented himself at Surgeons'
Hall for examination, as " mate to an hospital." Even to so
humble a post he was found unequal. Nothing remained but to
return to the lowest drudgery of literature. Goldsmith took a
room in a tiny square off Ludgate Hill, to which he had to climb
2l6
GOLDSMITH, OLIVER
from Sea-coal Lane by a dizzy ladder of flagstones called Break-
neck Steps. Green Arbour Court and the ascent have long
diasppeared. Here, at thirty, the unlucky adventurer sat
down to toil like a galley slave. Already, in 1 758, during his first
bondage to letters, he had translated Marteilhe's remarkable
Memoirs of a Protestant, Condemned to the Galleys of France for his
Religion. In the years that now succeeded he sent to the press
some things which have survived, and many which have perished.
He produced articles for reviews, magazines and newspapers;
children's books, which, bound in gilt paper and adorned with
hideous woodcuts, appeared in the window of Newbery's once
far-famed shop at the corner of Saint Paul's churchyard; An
Inquiry into the State of PoHte Learning in Europe, which, though
of little or no value, is still reprinted among his works; a volume
of essays entitled The Bee; a Life of Beau Nash; a superficial
and incorrect, but very readable, History of England, in a series
of letters purporting to be addressed by a nobleman to his son;
and some very lively and amusing sketches of London Society in
another series of letters purporting to be addressed by a Chinese
traveller to his friends. All these works were anonymous;
but some of them were well known to be Goldsmith's; and he
gradually rose in the estimation of the booksellers for whom he
drudged. He was, indeed, emphatically a popular writer. For
accurate research or grave disquisition he was not well qualified
by nature or by education. He knew nothing accurately; his
reading had been desultory; nor had he meditated deeply on
what he had read. He had seen much of the world; but he had
noticed and retained little more of what he had seen than some
grotesque incidents and characters which had happened to strike
his fancy. But, though his mind was very scantily stored with
materials, he used what materials he had in such a way as to
produce a wonderful effect. There have been many greater
writers; but perhaps no writer was ever more uniformly agree-
able. His style was always pure and easy, and, on proper
occasions, pointed and energetic. His narratives were always
amusing, his descriptions always picturesque, his humour rich
and joyous, yet not without an occasional tinge of amiable
sadness. About everything that he wrote, serious or sportive,
there was a certain natural grace and decorum, hardly to be
expected from a man a great part of whose life had been passed
among thieves and beggars, street-walkers and merryandrews,
in those squalid dens which are the reproach of great capitals.
As his name gradually became known, the circle of his acquaint-
ance widened. He was introduced to Johnson, who was then
considered as the first of living English writers; to Reynolds,
the first of English painters; and to Burke, who had not yet
entered parliament, but had distinguished himself greatly by his
writings and by the eloquence of his conversation. With these
eminent men Goldsmith became intimate. In 1763 he was one
of the nine original members of that celebrated fraternity which
has sometimes been called the Literary Club, but which has
always disclaimed that epithet, and still glories in the simple
name of the Club.
By this date Goldsmith had quitted his miserable dwelling
at the top of Breakneck Steps, and, after living for some time
at No. 6 Wine Office Court, Fleet Street, had moved into the
Temple. But he was still often reduced to pitiable shifts, the
most popular of which is connected with the sale of his solitary
novel, the Vicar of Wakefield. Towards the close of 1764(F)
his rent is alleged to have been so long in arrear that his landlady
one morning called in the help of a sheriff's officer. The debtor,
in great perplexity, despatched a messenger to Johnson; and
Johnson, always friendly, though often surly, sent back the
messenger with a guinea, and promised to follow speedily.
He came, and found that Goldsmith had changed the guinea,
and was railing at the landlady over a bottle of Madeira. Johnson
put the cork into the bottle, and entreated his friend to consider
calmly how money was to be procured. Goldsmith said that he
had a novel ready for the press. Johnson glanced at the manu-
script, saw that there were good things in it,took it to a bookseller,
sold it for £60 and soon returned with the money. The rent
was paid; and the sheriff's officer withdrew. (Unfortunately,
however, for this time-honoured version of the circumstances,
it has of late years been discovered that as early as October
1762 Goldsmith had already sold a third of the Vicar to one
Benjamin Collins of Salisbury, a printer, by whom it was eventu-
ally printed for F. Newbery, and it is difficult to reconcile this
fact with Johnson's narrative.)
But before the Vicar of Wakefield appeared in 1766, came the
great crisis of Goldsmith's literary life. In Christmas week 1764
he published a poem, entitled the Traveller. It was the first
work to which he had put his name, and it at once raised him
to the rank of a legitimate English classic. The opinion of the
most skilful critics was that nothing finer had appeared in verse
since the fourth book of the Dunciad. In one respect the
Traveller differs from all Goldsmith's other writings. In general
his designs were bad, and his execution good. In the Traveller
the execution, though deserving of much praise, is far inferior
to the design. No philosophical poem, ancient or modern, has
a plan so noble, and at the same time so simple. An English
wanderer, seated on a crag among the Alps, near the point
where three great countries meet, looks down on the boundless
prospect, reviews his long pilgrimage, recalls the varieties of
scenery, of climate, of government, of religion, of national
character, which he has observed, and comes to the conclusion,
just or unjust, that our happiness depends little on political
institutions, and much on the temper and regulation of our own
minds.
While the fourth edition of the Traveller was on the counters
of the booksellers, the Vicar of Wakefield appeared, and rapidly
obtained a popularity which has lasted down to our own time,
and which is likely to last as long as our language. The fable
is indeed one of the worst that ever was constructed. It wants,
not merely that probability which ought to be found in a tale of
common English life, but that consistency which ought to be
found even in the wildest fiction about witches, giants and
fairies. But the earlier chapters have all the sweetness of pastoral
poetry, together with all the vivacity of comedy. Moses and his
spectacles, the vicar and his monogamy, the sharper and his
cosmogony, the squire proving from Aristotle that relatives are
related, Olivia preparing herself for the arduous task of converting
a rakish lover by studying the controversy between Robinson
Crusoe and Friday, the great ladies with their scandal about Sir
Tomkyn's amours and Dr Burdock's verses, and Mr Burchell
with his " Fudge," have caused as much harmless mirth as has
ever been caused by matter packed into so small a number of
pages. The latter part of the tale is unworthy of the beginning.
As we approach the catastrophe, the absurdities lie thicker and
thicker, and the gleams of pleasantry become rarer and rarer.
The success which had attended Goldsmith as a novelist
emboldened him to try his fortune as a dramatist. He wrote
the Good Natur'd Man, a piece which had a worse fate than it
deserved. Garrick refused to produce it at Drury Lane. It was
acted at Covent Garden in January 1 768, but was coldly received.
The author, however, cleared by his benefit nights, and by the
sale of the copyright, no less than £500, five times as much as he
had made by the Traveller and the Vicar of Wakefield together.
The plot of the Good Natur f d Man is, like almost all Goldsmith's
plots, very ill constructed. But some passages are exquisitely
ludicrous, — much more ludicrous indeed than suited the taste
of the town at that time. A canting, mawkish play, entitled
False Delicacy, had just been produced, and sentimentality
was all the mode. During some years more tears were shed at
comedies than at tragedies; and a pleasantry which moved the
audience to anything more than a grave smile was reprobated
as low. It is not strange, therefore, that the very best scene in
the Good Natur'd Man, that in which Miss Richland finds her
lover attended by the bailiff and the bailiff's follower in full
court dresses, should have been mercilessly hissed, and should
have been omitted after the first night, not to be restored for
several years.
In May 1770 appeared the Deserted Village. In mere diction
and versification this celebrated poem is fully equal, perhaps
superior, to the Traveller; and it is generally preferred to the
GOLDSMITH, OLIVER
217
Traveller by that large class of readers who think, with Bayes
in the Rehearsal, that the only use of a plot is to bring in fine
things. More discerning judges, however, while they admire
the beauty of the details, are shocked by one unpardonable fault
which pervades the whole. The fault which we mean is not that
theory about wealth and luxury which has so often been censured
by political economists. The theory is indeed false; but the
poem, considered merely as a poem, is not necessarily the worse
on that account. The finest poem in the Latin language —
indeed, the finest didactic poem in any language-— was written
in defence of the silliest and meanest of all systems of natural
and moral philosophy. A poet may easily be pardoned for
reasoning ill; but he cannot be pardoned for describing ill, for
observing the world in which he lives so carelessly that his
portraits bear no resemblance to the originals, for exhibiting as
copies from real life monstrous combinations of things which
never were and never could be found together. What would
be thought of a painter who should mix August and January in
one landscape, who should introduce a frozen river into a harvest
scene ? Would it be a sufficient defence of such a picture to say
that every part was exquisitely coloured, that the green hedges,
the apple-trees loaded with fruit, the waggons reeling under the
yellow sheaves, and the sun-burned reapers wiping their fore-
heads were very fine, and that the ice and the boys sliding were
also very fine? To such a picture the Deserted Village bears a
great resemblance. It is made up of incongruous parts. The
village in its happy days is a true English village. The village
in its decay is an Irish village. The felicity and the misery
which Goldsmith has brought close together belong to two
different countries and to two different stages in the progress
of society. He had assuredly never seen in his native island such
a rural paradise, such a seat of plenty, content and tranquillity,
as his Auburn. He had assuredly never seen in England all
the inhabitants of such a paradise turned out of their homes in
one day and forced to emigrate in a body to America. The
hamlet he had probably seen in Kent; the ejectment he had
probably seen in Munster; but by joining the two, he has
produced something which never was and never will be seen in
any part of the world.
In 1773 Goldsmith tried his chance at Covent Garden with a
second play, She Stoops to Conquer. The manager was, not
without great difficulty, induced to bring this piece out. The
sentimental comedyjstill reigned, and Goldsmith's comedies were
not sentimental. The Good Natur'd Man had been too funny to
succeed; yet the mirth of the Good Natur'd Man was sober when
compared with the rich drollery of She Stoops to Conquer, which
is, in truth, an incomparable farce in five acts. On this occasion,
however, genius triumphed. Pit, boxes and galleries were in a
constant roar of laughter. If any bigoted admirer of Kelly
and Cumberland ventured to hiss or groan, he was speedily
silenced by a general cry of " turn him out," or " throw him
over." Later generations have confirmed the verdict which was
pronounced on that night.
While Goldsmith was writing the Deserted Village and She
Stoops to Conquer, he was employed on works of a very different
kind — works from which he derived little reputation but much
profit. He compiled for the use of schools a History of Rome,
by which he made £250; a History of England, by which he
made £500; a History of Greece, for which he received £250;
a Natural History, for which the booksellers covenanted to pay
him 800 guineas. These works he produced without any
elaborate research, by merely selecting, abridging and translating
into his own clear, pure and flowing language, what he found in
books well known to the world, but too bulky or too dry for boys
and girls. He committed some strange blunders, for he knew
nothing with accuracy. Thus, in his History of England, he tells
us that Naseby is in Yorkshire; nor did he correct this mistake
when the book was reprinted. He was very nearly hoaxed into
putting into the History of Greece an account of a battle between
Alexander the Great and Montezuma. In his Animated Nature
he relates, with faith and with perfect gravity, all the most
absurd lies which he could find in books of travels about gigantic
Patagonians, monkeys that preach sermons, nightingales that
repeat long conversations. " If he can tell a horse from a cow,"
said Johnson, " that is the extent of his knowledge of zoology."
How little Goldsmith was qualified to write about the physical
sciences is sufficiently proved by, two anecdotes. He on one
occasion denied that the sun is longer in the northern than in the
southern signs. It was vain to cite the authority of Maupertuis.
" Maupertuis!" he cried, " I understand those matters better
than Maupertuis." On another occasion he, in defiance of
the evidence of his own senses, maintained obstinately, and
even angrily, that he chewed his dinner by moving his upper
jaw.
Yet, ignorant as Goldsmith was, few writers have done more
to make the first steps in the laborious road to knowledge easy
and pleasant. His compilations are widely distinguished from
the compilations of ordinary bookmakers. He was a great,
perhaps an unequalled, master of the arts of selection and con-
densation. In these respects his histories of Rome and of
England, and still more his own abridgments of these histories,
well deserved to be studied. In general nothing is less attrac-
tive than an epitome; but the epitomes of Goldsmith,
even when most concise, are always amusing; and to read them
is considered by intelligent children not as a task but as a
pleasure.
Goldsmith might now be considered as a prosperous man.
He had the means of living in comfort, and even in what to one
who had so often slept in barns and on bulks must have been
luxury. His fame was great and was constantly rising. He
lived in what was intellectually fair the best society of the king-
dom, in a society in which no talent or accomplishment was
wanting, and in which the art of conversation was cultivated
with splendid success. There probably were never four talkers
more admirable in four different ways than Johnson, Burke,
Beauclerk and Garrick; and Goldsmith was on terms of intimacy
with all the four. He aspired to share in their colloquial renown,
but never was ambition more unfortunate. It may seem strange
that a man who wrote with so much perspicuity, vivacity and
grace should have been, whenever he took a part in conversation,
an empty, noisy, blundering rattle. But on this point the
evidence is overwhelming. So extraordinary was the contrast
between Goldsmith's published works and the silly things which
he said, that Horace Walpole described him as an inspired idiot.
" Noll," said Garrick, " wrote like an angel, and talked like poor
Poll." Chamier declared that it was a hard exercise of faith to
believe that so foolish a chatterer could have really written the
Traveller, Even Boswell could say, with contemptuous com-
passion, that he liked very well to hear honest Goldsmith run on.
" Yes, sir," said Johnson, " but he should not like to hear him-
self." Minds differ as rivers differ. There are transparent and
sparkling rivers from which it is delightful to drink as they flow;
to such rivers the minds of such men as Burke and Johnson may
be compared. But there are rivers of which the water when first
drawn is turbid and noisome, but becomes pellucid as crystal
and delicious to the taste, if it be suffered to stand till it has
deposited a sediment; and such a river is a type of the mind of
Goldsmith. His first thoughts on every subject were confused
even to absurdity, but they required only a little time to work
themselves clear. When he wrote they had that time, and
therefore his readers pronounced him a man of genius; but
when he talked he talked nonsense and made himself the
laughing-stock of his hearers. He was painfully sensible of
his inferiority in conversation; he felt every failure keenly; yet
he had not sufficient judgment and self-command to hold his
tongue. His animal spirits and vanity were always impelling
him to try to do the one thing which he could not do. After
every attempt he felt that he had exposed himself, and writhed
with shame and vexation; yet the next moment he began
again.
His associates seem to have regarded him with kindness, which,
in spite of their admiration of his writings, was not unmixed with
contempt. In truth, there was in his character much to love,
but very little to respect. His heart was soft even to weakness:
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GOLDSTUCKER
he was so generous that he quite forgot to be just; he forgave
injuries so readily that he might be said to invite them, and was
so liberal to beggars that he had nothing left for his tailor and his
butcher. He was vain, sensual, frivolous, profuse, improvident.
One vice of a darker shade was imputed to him, envy. But there
is not the least reason to believe that this bad passion, though it
, sometimes made him wince and utter fretful exclamations, ever
impelled him to injure by wicked arts the reputation of any of
his rivals. The truth probably is that he was not more envious,
but merely less prudent, than his neighbours. His heart was
on his lips. All those small jealousies, which are but too common
among men of letters, but which a man of letters who is also a
man of the world does his best to conceal, Goldsmith avowed
with the simplicity of a child. When he was envious, instead of
affecting indifference, instead of damning with faint praise,
instead of doing injuries slyly and in the dark, he told everybody
that he was envious. " Do not, pray, do not, talk of Johnson in
such terms," he said to Boswell; " you harrow up my very soul."
George Steevens and Cumberland were men far too cunning
to say such a thing. They would have echoed the praises of the
man whom they envied, and then have sent to the newspapers
anonymous libels upon him. Both what was good and what was
bad in Goldsmith's character was to his associates a perfect
security that he would never commit such villainy. He was
neither ill-natured enough, nor long-headed enough, to be
guilty of any malicious act which required contrivance and
disguise.
Goldsmith has sometimes been represented as a man of genius,
cruelly treated by the world, and doomed to struggle with
difficulties, which at last broke his heart. But no representation
can be more remote from the truth. He did, indeed, go through
much sharp misery before he had done anything considerable
in literature. But after his name had appeared on the title-page
of the Traveller, he had none but himself to blame for his dis-
tresses. His average income, during the last seven years of his
life, certainly exceeded £400 a year, and £400 a year ranked,
among the incomes of that day, at least as high as £800 a year
would rank at present. A single man living in the Temple, with
£400 a year, might then be called opulent* Not one in ten of the
young gentlemen of good families who were studying the law
there had so much. But all the wealth which Lord Ciive had
brought from Bengal and Sir Lawrence Dundas from Germany,
joined together, would not have sufficed for Goldsmith. He
spent twice as much as he had. He wore fine clothes, gave
dinners of several courses, paid court to venal beauties. He had
also, it should be remembered, to the honour of his heart, though
not of his head, a guinea, or five, or ten, according to the state of
his purse, ready for any tale of distress, true or false. But it was
not in dress or feasting, in promiscuous amours or promiscuous
charities, that his chief expense lay. He had been from boyhood
a gambler, and at once the most sanguine and the most unskilful
of gamblers. For a time he put off the day of inevitable ruin by
temporary expedients. He obtained advances from booksellers
by promising to execute works which he never began. But at
length this source of supply failed. He owed more than £2000;
and he saw no hope of extrication from his embarrassments.
His spirits and health gave way. He was attacked by a nervous
fever, which he thought himself competent to treat. It would
have been happy for him if his medical skill had been appreciated
as justly by himself as by others. Notwithstanding the degree
which he pretended to have received on the continent, he could
procure no patients. " I do not practise," he once said; " I
make it a rule to prescribe only for my friends." " Pray, dear
Doctor," said Beauclerk, " alter your rule; and prescribe only
for your enemies." Goldsmith, now, in spite of this excellent
advice, prescribed for himself. The remedy aggravated the
malady. The sick man was induced to call in real physicians;
and they at one time imagined that they had cured the disease.
Still his weakness and restlessness continued. He could get no
sleep. He could take no food. " You are worse," said one of his
medical attendants, " than you should be from the degree of
fever which you have. Is your mind at ease?" "No; it is
not," were the last recorded words of Oliver Goldsmith. He
died on the 4th of April 1774. in his forty-sixth year. He was
laid in the churchyard of the Temple; but the spot was not
marked by any inscription and is now forgotten. The coffin
was followed by Burke and Reynolds. Both these great men
were sincere mourners. Burke, when he heard of Goldsmith's
death, had burst into a flood of tears. Reynolds had been so
much moved by the news that he had flung aside his brush and
palette for the day.
A short time after Goldsmith's death, a little poem appeared,
which will, as long as our language lasts, associate the names of
his two illustrious friends with his own. It has already been
mentioned that he sometimes felt keenly the sarcasm which his
wild blundering talk brought upon him. He was, not long
before his last illness, provoked into retaliating. He wisely
betook himself to his pen; and at that weapon he proved
himself a match for all his assailants together. Within a small
compass he drew with a singularly easy and vigorous pencil
the characters of nine or ten of his intimate associates.
Though this little work did not receive his last touches, it
must always be regarded as a masterpiece. It is impossible,
however, not to wish that four or five likenesses which have
no interest for posterity were wanting to that noble gallery,
and that their places were supplied by sketches of Johnson
and Gibbon, as happy and vivid as the sketches of Burke and
Garrick.
Some of Goldsmith's friends and admirers honoured him
with a cenotaph in Westminster Abbey. Nollekens was the
sculptor, and Johnson wrote the inscription. It is much to be
lamented that Johnson did not leave to posterity a more durable
and a more valuable memorial of his friend. A life of Goldsmith
would have been an inestimable addition to the Lives of the Poets.
No man appreciated Goldsmith's writings more justly than
Johnson; no man was better acquainted with Goldsmith's
character and habits; and no man was more competent to
delineate with truth and spirit the peculiarities of a mind in
which great powers-were found in company with great weaknesses.
But the list of poets to whose works Johnson was requested by
the booksellers to furnish prefaces ended with Lyttelton, who
died in 1773. The line seems to have been drawn expressly for
the purpose of excluding the person whose portrait would have
most fitly closed the series. Goldsmith, however, has been
fortunate in his biographers. (M.)
Goldsmith's life has been written by Prior (1837), by Washington
Irving (1844-1849), and by John Forster (1848, 2nd ed. 1854).
The diligence of rrior deserves great praise ; the style of Washington
Irving is always pleasing; but the highest place must, in justice, be
assigned to the eminently interesting work of Forster. Subsequent
biographies are by William Black (1878), and Austin Dobson (1888,
American ed. 1899). The above article by Lord Macaulay has been
slightly revised for this 8 edition by Mr Austin Dobson, as regards
questions of fact for which there has been new evidence.
GOLDSTOCKER, THEODOR (1821-1872), German Sanskrit
scholar, was born of Jewish parents at Konigsberg on the 1 8 th of
January 182 1, and, after attending the gymnasium of that
town, entered the university in 1836 as a student of Sanskrit.
In 1838 he removed to Bonn, and, after graduating at Konigsberg
in 1840, proceeded to Paris; in 1842 he edited a German trans-
lation of the Prabodha Chandrodaya. From 1847 to 1850 he
resided at Berlin, where his talents and scholarship were recog-
nized by Alexander von Humboldt, but where his advanced
political views caused the authorities to regard him with suspicion.
In the latter year he removed to London, where in 1852 he was
appointed professor of Sanskrit in University College. He now
worked on a new Sanskrit dictionary, of which the first instal-
ment appeared in 1856. In 1861 he published his chief work:
Panini: his place in Sanskrit Literature', and he was one of the
founders and chief promoters of the Sanskrit Text Society;
he was also an active member of the Philological Society, and of
other learned bodies. He died in London on the 6th of March
1872.
As Literary Remains some of his writings were published in two
volumes (London, 1879), but his papers were left to the India Office
with the request that they were not to be published until 1920.
GOLD WELL— GOLF
219
GOLD WELL, THOMAS (d. 1585), English ecclesiastic, began
his career as vicar of Cheriton in 153 1, after graduating M.A. at
All Souls College, Oxford. He became chaplain to Cardinal
Pole and lived with him at Rome, was attainted in 1539, but
returned to England on Mary's accession, and in 1555 became
bishop of St Asaph, a diocese which he did much to win back
to the old faith. On the death of Mary, Goldwell escaped from
England and in 1 561 became superior of the Theatines at Naples.
He was the only English bishop at the council of Trent, and in
1 562 was again attainted. In the following year he was appointed
vicar-general to Carlo Borromeo, archbishop of Milan. He died
in Rome in 1 585, the last of the English bishops who had refused
to accept the Reformation.
GOLDZIHER, IGNAZ (1850- . ), Jewish Hungarian orient-
alist, was born in Stuhlweissenburg on the 22nd of June
1850. He was educated at the universities of Budapest, Berlin,
Leipzig and Leiden, and became privat docent at Budapest in
1872. In the next year, under the auspices of the Hungarian
government, he began a journey through Syria, Palestine and
Egypt, and took the opportunity of attending lectures of
Mahommedan sheiks in the mosque of el-Azhar in Cairo. He
was the first Jewish scholar to become professor in the Budapest
University (1894), and represented the Hungarian government
and the Academy of Sciences at numerous international con-
gresses. He received the large gold medal at the Stockholm
Oriental Congress in 1889. He became a member of several
Hungarian and other learned societies, was appointed secretary
of the Jewish community in Budapest. He was made Litt. D.
of Cambridge(i904)and LL.D. of Aberdeen (1906). His eminence
in the sphere of scholarship is due primarily to his careful in-
vest igationofpre-MahommedanandMahommedanlaw,tradition,
religion and poetry, in connexion with which he published a laTge
number of treatises, review articles and essays contributed to
the collections of the Hungarian Academy.
Among his chief works are: Beitr&ge zur Literatvrgeschichte der
Schi'a (1874); Beitrdge zur Geschichte der Sprachgelehrsamkeii bet
den Arabern (Vienna, 1871-1873); Der Mythos bei den Hebrdern und
seine geschichtliche Entwickelung (Leipzig, 1876; Eng. trans., R.
Martineau, London, 1877); Mukammeaanische Studien (Halle,
1 889-1 890, 2 vols.) ; Abkandhingen zur arabischen Philologie (Leiden,
1896-1899, 2 vols.); Buck v. Wesen d. Seele (ed. 1907).
GOLETTA [La Gotjlette], a town on the Gulf of Tunis in
36 50' N. io° 19' E., a little south of the ruins of Carthage, and
on the north side of the ship canal which traverses the shallow
Lake of Tunis and leads to the city of that name. Built on the
narrow strip of sand which separates the lake from the gulf,
Goletta is defended by a fort and battery. The town contains
a summer palace of the bey, the old seraglio, arsenal and custom-
house, and many villas, gardens and pleasure resorts, Goletta
being a favourite place for sea-bathing. A short canal, from
which the name of the town is derived (Arab. Halk-el-Wad,
" throat of the canal "), 40 ft. broad and 8 J ft. deep, divides the
town and affords communication between the ship canal and
a dock or basin, 1082 ft. long and 541 ft. broad. An electric
tramway which runs along the north bank of the ship canal
connects Goletta with the city of Tunis (q.v.). Pop. (1907)
about 5000, mostly Jews and Italian fishermen.
Beyond Cape Carthage, 5 m. N. of Goletta, is La Marsa, a
summer resort overlooking the sea. The bey has a palace here,
and the French resident-general, the British consul, other
officials, and many Tunisians have country-houses, surrounded
by groves of olive trees.
Before the opening of the ship canal in 1893 Goletta, as the
port of Tunis, was a place of considerable importance. The
basin at the Goletta end of the canal now serves as a subsidiary
harbour to that of Tunis. The most stirring events in the
history of the town are connected with the Turkish conquest
of the Barbary states. Khair-ed-Din Barbarossa having made
himself master of Tunis and its port, Goletta was attacked in
l 535 by the emperor Charles V., who seized the pirate's fleet,
which was sheltered in the small canal, his arsenal, and 300 brass
cannon. The Turks regained possession in 1 5 74. (See Tunisia :
History.)
GOLF (in its older forms Gofp, Gootf or Gowff, the last of
which gives the genuine old pronunciation), a game which
probably derives its name from the Ger. kolbe, a club — in Dutch,
kolf— which last is nearly in sound identical and might suggest a
Dutch origin, 1 which many pictures and other witnesses further
support.
History. — One of the most ancient and most interesting of the
pictures in which the game is portrayed is the tailpiece to an
illuminated Book of Hours made at Bruges at the beginning of
the 16th century. The original is in the British Museum. The
players, three in number, have but one club apiece. The heads
of the clubs are steel or steel covered. They play with a ball each.
That which gives this picture a, peculiar interest over the many
pictures of Dutch schools that portray the game in progress is
that most of them show it on the ice, the putting being at a stake.
In this Book of Hours they are putting at a hole in the turf, as in
our modern golf. It is scarcely to be doubted that the game is of
Dutch origin, and that it has been in favour since very early days.
Further than that our knowledge does not go. The early Dutch*
men played golf, they painted golf, but they did not write it.
It is uncertain at what date golf was introduced into Scotland,
but in 1457 the popularity of the game had already become so
great as seriously to interfere with the more important pursuit
of archery. In March of that year the Scottish parliament
" decreted and ordained that ivapinshawingis be halden be the
lordis and baronis spirituale and temporale, four times in the
zeir; and that the f ute-ball and golf be utterly cryii doun, and
nocht usit; and that the bowe-merkis be maid at ilk paroche kirk
a pair of buttis, and sckuttia be usit ilk Sunday" Fourteen years
afterwards, in May 1 471, it was judged necessary to pass another
act " anent wapensha wings/' and in 1491 a final and evidently
angry fulmination was issued on the general subject, with riaind
and penalties annexed. It runs thus — " Futeball and Golfe
forbidden. Item, it is statut and ordainit that in na place of the
realme there be usit fute-ball, golfe, or uiker sik unprofUabUl
sportis" &c. This, be it noted, is an edict of James IV. ; and it is
not a little curious presently to find the monarch himself setting
an ill example to his commons, by practice of this " unprofitabill
sport," as is shown by various entries in the accounts of the lord
high treasurer of Scotland (1 503-1 506).
About a century later, the game again appears on the surface of
history, and it is quite as popular as before. In the year 1592
the town council of Edinburgh "ordanis proclamation to be made
threw this burgh, that na inhabitants of the samyn be seen at ony
pastymes within or without the toun, upoun the Sabboth day, sic
as golfe, &c." 2 The following year the edict was re-announced,
but with the modification that the prohibition was " in tyme of
sermons."
Golf has from old times been known in Scotland as " The
Royal and Ancient Game of Goff." Though no doubt Scottish
monarchs handled the club before him, James IV. is the first who
figures formally in the golfing record. James V. was also very
partial to the game distinctively known as " royal "; and there
is some scrap of evidence to show that his daughter, the unhappy
Mary Stuart, was a golfer. It was alleged by her enemies that, as
showing her shameless indifference to the fate of her husband, a
very few days after his murder, she " was seen playing golf and
pallmall in the fields beside Seton." s That her son, James VI.
(afterwards James I. of England), was a golfer, tradition con-
fidently asserts, though the evidence which connects him with the
personal practice of the game is slight. Of the interest he took in
it we have evidence in his act — already alluded to — " anent golfe
ballis" prohibiting their importation, except under certain
1 From an enactment of James VI. (then James I. of England),
bearing date 1618, we find that a considerable importation of golf
balls at that time took place from Holland, and as thereby * na
small quantitie of gold and silver is transported zierly out of his
Hienes 7 kinedome of Scoteland " (see letter of His Majesty from
Salisbury, the 5th of August 1618), he issues a royal prohibition, at
once as a wise economy of the national moneys, and a protection to
native industry in the article. From this it might almost seem that
the game was at that date still known and practised in Holland.
8 Records of the City of Edinburgh.
» Inventories of Mary Queen of Scots, preface, p. kx. (1863).
220
GOLF
restrict Ions, Charles I. (as his brother Prince Henry had been l )
wuh devotedly attached to the game. Whilst engaged in it on
thr links of Lrith, in 164a, the news reached him of the Irish
rebellion of that year. He had not the equanimity to finish his
mntrh, but returned precipitately and in much agitation to
Holy rood. 1 Aft awards, while prisoner to the Scots army at
Newcastle, he found his favourite diversion in " the royal game/'
" The King wan nowhere treated with more honour than at New-
castle, an ho himself confessed, both he and his train having liberty
to go abroad and play at goff in the Shield Field, without the
walk" 1 Of his son, Charles II., as a golfer, nothing whatever is
ascertained, but James II. was a known devotee. 4 After the
Kent oration, James, then duke of York, was sent to Edinburgh in
iftMi/j as commissioner of the king to parliament, and an
historical monument of his prowess as a golfer remains there to
this day in the H Golfer's Land, 11 as it is still called, 77 Canongate.
The duke having been challenged by two English noblemen of his
suite, to play a match against them, for a very large stake, along
with any Scotch ally he might select, chose as his partner one
11 Johne l*at ermine." a shoemaker. The duke and the said Johne
won easily, and half of the large stake the duke made over to his
humble coadjutor, who therewith built himself the house men-
tioned above. In 1844 William IV. became patron of the St
Andrews tiulf Club (St Andrews being then, as now, the most
famous seat of the game), and approved of its being styled " The
tfovu/ *ml Ancient Golf Club of St Andrews/ 1 In 1837, as
turt her proof of royal favour, he presented to it a magnificent gold
medal, which " ahould be challenged and played for annually ";
and in i8j8 the queen dowager, duchess of St Andrews, became
pat ronea* of the club, and presented to it a handsome gold medal
- " The Royal Adelaide "—with a request that it should be worn
by the captain, as president, on all public occasions. In June
i8cm the prince of Wales (afterwards Edward VII.) signified his
deair* to become pat ron of the club, and in the following September
was elected captain by acclamation, His engagements did not
admit of his cumin* in person to undertake the duties of the
efttc** but hi* brother Prince lipoid vthe duke of Albany) ,having
in i£;o done the club the honour to become its captain, twice
viaited the ancient city in that capacity.
In more recent day*, golf has become increasingly popular in
a much wider degree In i$$o the man who travelled about
KnjtUnd with a *et of golf clubs was an object of some astonish-
ment, almost of alarm, to his fellow-travellers* In those days the
c\mtmon<«t of questions in itgant to the game was, M You have to
he a line ruler, do you not* to play golf ?" so confounded was it in
the popular wtad wiih the game of polo* At Blackheath a few
Svt*men resident in London had long played golf. In 1S04 the
Koxal North IVvon Club was formed at Westward Ho. and this
wa* the nr*t ol the seaside links discovered and laid out for golf in
KnglafeL In i$<s> the Royal Liverpool Club established itself in
|K^^>ssivxn of ;hc«\\^Kx>gi«hcAHirse of ihbquali; y at Hoylake, in
ChohmN A floit ciub was uwmed in vxwraon with the London
SsvtUNh Vo^nteets cwrp** which had its hou$* on the Putney end
ot Wuutvcxk^ Conxnton on Putney Heath; and. after making so
wun*n* a^arutViwvfwssof thegax* was s^>w.;hou^h steady,
tv* wan> ><*Ws A tew wtor* ciut* ww forsxd; the numbers of
*<&** $w*v but it could not t* $*>! ;hi; t>r gaxae was yet in
**> A5s^ *v*V.ar in KhgUaJL AU a; *ac* % for *> wry obvious
w*^s*. the ,;**:.;,*» v< the *ac*e:x; 5cvc:»h £»cs*racd to strike
ho*v. a*.Nt twen :
ka; r»r.>e*; ;;* jvx\i*ar.;\ ii>
b*ea wonderfully
a^. uvtv*>-i*$v> $?v*;. VSr k^^Ji -:x*s ;i*; ret* into most
v/ k > fc Nv.**.c uw\*? %js the d:ac cccr^t <* :ie Sc George's Golf
\\\k.\ ^^ Ni.v.^ vh. vsct ;hc cv\fc« oi k«;. IV lie London golfer
^ %a* :S^ s-^ ^vcr« ot ;bse ~^*c cvas* i^iz was reasonably
av\vs>.Nv\ a*i :S? tact «*i* sce<<:.L^ ^ke an epoch in
V ; \£-.\n-\ ^* V **** vvwaorsS* ncr^jssf. ^ fe true, in the
?, "X* a V ^-^ ^.v^axV-v:^ r».*c .rjxeshad taken place
i*'V*v * V ,"n,vxv>^ vc ^ v \£ v\-.-.vss» :t \2* >.nks at Sandwich.
^
v.*Cv*v<*» > «
►StT^Jfc ,» tU,i
~S.JL.
Already there was a chain of links all round the coast, besides
numerous inland courses; but since 1890 their increase has been
extraordinary, and the number which has been formed in the
colonies and abroad is very large also, so that in the Golfer's
Year Book for 1906 a space of over 300 pages was allotted to the
Club Directory alone, each page containing, on a rough average,
six clubs. To compute the average membership of these clubs is
very difficult. There is not a little overlapping, in the sense that
a member of one club will often be a member of several others;
but probably the average may be placed at something like 200
members for each club.
The immense amount of golf-playing that this denotes, the
large industry in the making of clubs and balls, in the upkeep
of links, in the actual work of club-carrying by the caddies,
and in the instruction given by the professional class, is obvious.
Golf has taken a strong hold on the affections of the people in
many parts of Ireland, and the fashion for golf in England has
reacted strongly on Scotland itself, the ancient home of the game,
where since 1880 golfers have probably increased in the ratio of
forty to one. Besides the industry that such a growth of the
game denotes in the branches immediately connected with it,
as mentioned above, there is to be taken into further account
the visiting population that it brings to all lodging-houses and
hotels within reach of a tolerable golf hnks, so that many a
fishing village has risen into a moderate watering-place by virtue
of no other attractions than those which are offered by its golf
course. Therefore to the Briton, golf has developed from
something of which he had a vague idea — as of " curling " —
to something in the nature of an important business, a business
that can make towns and has a considerable effect on the receipts
of railway companies.
Moreover, ladies have learned to play golf. Although this
is a crude and brief sentence, it does not state the fact too
widely nor too forcibly, for though it is true that before 1885
many played on the short links of St Andrews, North Berwick,
Westward Ho and elsewhere, still it was virtually unknown
that they should play on the longer courses, which till then
had been in the undisputed possession of the men. At many
places women now have their separate links, at others they play
on the same course as the men. But even where links are set
apart for women, they are far different from the little courses
that used to be assigned to them. They are links only a little
less formidable in their bunkers, a little less varied in their
features than those of men. The ladies have their annual
championship, which they play on the long links of the men,
sometimes on one, sometimes on another, but always on courses
of the first quality, demanding the finest display of golfing skill.
The claim that England made to a golfing fellowship with
Scotland was conceded very strikingly by the admission of
three English greens, first those of Hoylake and of Sandwich,
and in 1909 Deal, into the exclusive list of the links on which
the open championship of the game is decided. Before England
had so fully assimilated Scotland's game this great annual
contest was waged at St Andrews, Musselburgh and Prestwick
in successive years. Now the ancient green of Musselburgh,
somewhat worn out with length of hard and gallant service, and
moreover, as a nine-holes course inadequately accommodating
the numbers who compete in the championships to-day, has been
superseded by the course at Muirfield as a championship arena.
While golf had been making itself a force in the southern
kingdom, the professional element — men who had learned the
game from childhood, had become past-masters, were capable
of giving instruction, and also of making clubs and balls and
looking after the greens on which golf was played — had at first
been taken from the northern side of the Border. But when
golf had been started long enough in England for the tittle boys
who were at first employed as " caddies " — in carrying the
players' clubs — to grow to sufficient strength to drive the ball
as far as their masters, it was inevitable that out of the number
who thus began to play in their boyhood some few should
develop an exceptional talent for the game. This, in fact,
actually happened, and English golfers, both of the amateur
GOLF
221
and the professional classes, have proved themselves so adept
at Scotland's game, that the championships in either the Open
or the Amateur competitions have been won more often by
English than by Scottish players of late years. Probably in the
United Kingdom to-day there are as many English as Scottish
professional golf players, and their relative number is increasing.
Golf also " caught on," to use the American expression, in
the United States. To the American of 1890 golf was largely an
unknown thing. Since then, however, golf has become perhaps
a greater factor in the life of the upper and upper-middle classes
in the United States than it ever has been in England or Scotland.
Golf to the English and the Scots meant only one among several
of the sports and pastimes that take the man and the woman
of the upper and upper-middle classes into the country and the
fresh air. To the American of like status golf came as the one
thing to take him out of his towns and give him a reason for
exercise in the country. To-day golf has become an interest
all over North America, but it is in the Eastern States that it
has made most difference in the life of the classes with whom it
has become fashionable. Westerners and Southerners found
more excuses before the coming of golf for being in the open
country air. It is in the Eastern States more especially that it
has had so much influence in making the people live and take
exercise out of doors. In a truly democratic spirit the American
woman golfer plays on a perfect equality with the American
man. She does not compete in the men's championships; she
has championships of her own; but she plays, without question,
on the same links. There is no suggestion of relegating her, as a
certain cynical writer in the Badminton volume on golf described
it, to a waste corner, a kind of " Jews' Quarter," of the links.
And the Americans have taken up golf in the spirit of a sumptuous
and opulent people, spending money on magnificent clubhouses
beyond the finest dreams of the Englishman or the Scot. The
greatest success achieved by any American golfer fell to the lot
of Mr Walter Travis of the Garden City club, who in 1904 won
.the British amateur championship.
So much enthusiasm and so much golf in America have not
failed to make their influence felt in the United Kingdom.
Naturally and inevitably they have created a strong demand
for professional instruction, both by example and by precept,
and for professional advice and assistance in the laying-out and
upkeep of the many new links that have been created in all parts
of the States, sometimes out of the least promising material.
By the offer of great prizes for exhibition matches, and of wages
that are to the British rate on the scale of the dollar to the
shilling, they have attracted many of the best Scottish and
English professionals to pay them longer or shorter visits as the
case may be, and thus a new opening has been created for the
energies of the professional golfing class.
The Game. — The game of golf may be briefly denned as
consisting in hitting the ball over a great extent of country,
preferably of that sand-hill nature which is found by the sea-side,
and finally hitting or " putting " it into a little hole of some
4 in. diameter cut in the turf. The place of the hole is commonly
marked by a flag. Eighteen is the recognized number of these
holes on a full course, and they are at varying distances apart,
from 100 yds. up to anything between a J and § m. For the
various strokes required to achieve the hitting of the ball over
the great hills, and finally putting it into the small hole, a number
of different " clubs " has been devised to suit the different
positions in which the ball may be found and the different
directions in which it is wished to propel it. At the start
for each hole the ball may be placed on a favourable position
(e.g. " tee'd " on a small mound of sand) for striking it, but
after that it may not be touched, except with the club, until
it is hit into the next hole. A " full drive,' ' as the farthest distance
that the ball can be hit is called, is about 200 yds. in length,
of which some three-fourths will be traversed in the air, and the
rest by bounding or running over the ground. It is easily to be
understood that when the ball is lying on the turf behind a tall
sand-hill, or in a bunker, a differently-shaped club is required
for raising it over such an obstacle from that which is needed
when it is placed on the tee to start with; and again, that
another club is needed to strike the ball out of a cup or out of
heavy grass. It is this variety that gives the game its charm.
Each player plays with his own ball, with no interference from
his opponent, and the object of each is to hit the ball from the
starting-point into each successive hole in the fewest strokes.
The player who at the end of the round (i.e. of the course of
eighteen holes) has won the majority of the holes is the winner
of the round; or the decision may be reached before the end
of the round by one side gaining more holes than there remain to
play. For instance, if one player be four holes to the good, and
only three holes remain to be played, it is evident that the
former must be the winner, for even if the latter win every
remaining hole, he still must be one to the bad at the finish.
The British Amateur Championship is decided by a tourna-
ment in matches thus played, each defeated player retiring, and
his opponent passing on into the next round. In the case of the
Open Championship, and in most medal competitions, the scores
are differently reckoned — each man's total score (irrespective
of his relative merit at each hole) being reckoned at the finish
against the total score of the other players in the competition.
There is also a species of competition called " bogey " play, in
which each man plays against a " bogey " score — a score fixed
for each hole in the round before starting — and his position in
the competition relatively to the other players is determined
by the number of holes that he is to the good or to the bad of the
" bogey " score at the end of the round. The player who is most
holes to the good, or fewest holes to the bad, wins the competition.
It may be mentioned incidentally that golf occupies the almost
unique position of being the only sport in which even a single
player can enjoy his game, his opponent in this event being
" Colonel Bogey " — more often than not a redoubtable adversary.
The links which have been thought worthy, by reason of their
geographical positions and their ments, of being the scenes on which
the golf championships are fought out, are, as we have already said,
three in Scotland — St Andrews, Prestwick and Muirfield — and three
in England — Hoylake, Sandwich and Deal. This brief list is very
far from being complete as regards links of first-class quality in Great
Britain. Besides those named, there are in Scotland — Carnoustie,
North Berwick, Cruden Bay, Nairn, Aberdeen, Dornoch, Troon,
Machrihanish, South Uist, I slay, Gullane, Luffness and many more.
In England there are — Westward Ho, Bembridge, Littlestone, Great
Yarmouth, Brancaster, Seaton Carew, Formbv, Lytham, Harlech,
Burnham, among the seaside ones; while of the inland, some of them
of very fine quality, we cannot even attempt a selection, so large is
their number and so variously estimated tneir comparative merits.
Ireland has Portrush, Newcastle, Portsalon, Dolly mount and many
more of the first class ; and there are excellent courses in the Isle of
Man. In America many fine courses have been constructed. There
is not a British colony of any standing that is without its golf course —
Australia, India, South Africa, all have their golf championships,
which are keenly contested. Canada has had courses at Quebec and
Montreal for many years, and the Calcutta Golf Club, curiously
enough, is the oldest established (next to the Blackheath Club), the
next oldest being the club at Pau in the Basses-Pyrenees.
The Open Championship of golf was startea in i860 by the
Prestwick Club givine a belt to be played for annually under the
condition that it should become the property of any who could win
it thrice in succession. The following is the list of the champions : —
i860. W. Park, Musselburgh . . . 174 — at Prestwick.
1 86 1. Tom Morris, sen., Prestwick . 163 — at Prestwick.
1862. Tom Morris, sen., Prestwick . 163 — at Prestwick.
1863. W. Park, Musselburgh . . . 168 — at Prestwick.
1864. Tom Morris, sen., Prestwick . 160 — at Prestwick.
1865. A. Strath, St Andrews . . . 162 — at Prestwick.
1866. W. Park, Musselburgh . 169 — at Prestwick.
1867. Tom Morris, sen., St Andrews . 170 — at Prestwick.
1868. Tom Morris, jun., St Andrews . 154 — at Prestwick.
1869. Tom Morris, jun., St Andrews . 157 — at Prestwick.
1870. Tom Morris, jun., St Andrews . 149 — at Prestwick.
Tom Morris, junior, thus won the belt finally, according to the
conditions. In 1871 there was no competition; but by 1872 the
three clubs of St Andrews, Prestwick and Musselburgh had sub-
scribed for a cup which should be played for over the course of each
subscribing club successively, but should never become the property
of the winner. In later years the course at Muirfield was substituted
for that at Musselburgh, and Hoylake and Sandwich were admitted
into the list of championship courses. Up to 1891, inclusive, the
play of two rounds, or thirty-six holes, determined the championship,
but from 1892 the result has been determined by the play of 72 holes v
222
GOLF
After the interregnum of 1871, the following were the champions: —
Tom Morris, jun., St Andrews
Tom Kidd, St Andrews
Mungo Park, Musselburgh
Willie Park, Musselburgh
Bob Martin, St Andrews
Iamie Anderson, St Andrews
amie Anderson, St Andrews
amie Anderson, St Andrews
Job Fergusson, Musselburgh
Bob Fergusson, Musselburgh
Bob Fergusson, Musselburgh
W. Fernie, Dumfries
Tack Simpson, Carnoustie
Bob Martin, St Andrews
D. Brown, Musselburgh .
Willie Park, jun., Musselburgh
Jack Burns, Warwick
Willie Park, jun., Musselburg
Mr John Ball, jun., Hoylake
1872.
1873.
1874.
1875.
1876.
1877.
1878.
1879.
1880.
1881.
1882.
1883.
1884.
1885.
1886.
1887.
1888.
1889.
1890.
1 891.
1892.
1893.
1894.
1895.
1896.
1897.
1898.
1899.
1900.
1901. _
1902. A. Herd, Huddersfield
1903. H. Vardon, Ganton
1904. J. White, Sunningdale
I9<>5- J- Braid, Walton Heath
1906. J. Braid, Walton Heath
1907. Arnaud Massey, La Boulie
1908. J. Braid, Walton Heath
1909. J. H. Taylor, Richmond .
19 10. J. Braid, Walton Heath .
Hugh Kirkaldy, St Andrews
Mr H. H. Hilton, Hoylake
W. Auchterlonie, St Andrews
Taylor, Winchester
Taylor, Winchester
Vardon, Scarborough
Mr H. H. Hilton, Hoylake
H. Vardon, Scarborough
H. Vardon, Scarborough
J. H. Taylor, Richmond
J. Braid, Romford
w. l\
J. H.
J.H.
H. Vi
166 — at Prestwick.
179 — at St Andrews.
159 — at Musselburgh.
166 — at Prestwick.
176 — at St Andrews.
160 — at Musselburgh.
157 — at Prestwick,
170 — at St Andrews.
162 — at Musselburgh.
170 — at Prestwick.
171 — at St Andrews.
159 — at Musselburgh.
160 — at Prestwick.
171 — at St Andrews.
157 — at Musselburgh.
161 — at Prestwick.
171— ^at St Andrews.
155 — at Musselburgh.
164 — at Prestwick.
166 — at St Andrews.
305— at Muirfiefd.
322 — at Prestwick.
326 — at Sandwich.
322 — at St Andrews.
316 — at Muirfield.
314 — at Hoylake.
307 — at Prestwick.
310 — at Sandwich.
309 — at St Andrews.
309 — at Muirfield.
307 — at Hoylake.
300 — at Prestwick.
296 — at Sandwich.
318— at St Andrews.
300 — at Muirfield.
312 — at Hoylake.
291 — at Prestwick.
295— at Deal.
298— at St Andrews.
The Amateur Championship is of far more recent institution.
1886. Mr Horace Hutchinson
1887. Mr Horace Hutchinson
1888. Mr John Ball
1889. Mr J. E. Laidlay
1890. Mr John Ball
1 89 1. Mr J. E. Laidlay
1892. Mr John Ball
1893. Mr P. Anderson
1894. Mr John Ball
1895. Mr L. Balfour-Melville
1896. Mr F. G. Tait
1897. Mr J. T. Allan .
1898. Mr John Ball
1899. Mr F. G. Tait
1900. Mr H. H. Hilton
1901. Mr H. H. Hilton
1902. Mr C. Hutchings
1903. Mr R. Maxwell
1904. Mr W. J. Travis
1905. Mr A. G. Barry
1906. Mr J. Robb . .
1907. Mr John Ball
1908. Mr E. A. Lassen
1909. Mr Robert Maxwell
1910. Mr John Ball
at St Andrews,
at Hoylake.
at Prestwick.
at St Andrews,
at Hoylake.
at St Andrews,
at Sandwich,
at Prestwick.
at Hoylake.
at St Andrews,
at Sandwich,
at Muirfield.
at Prestwick.
at Hoylake.
at Sandwich,
at St Andrews,
at Hoylake.
at Muirfield.
at Sandwich,
at St Andrews,
at Hoylake.
at St Andrews,
at Sandwich,
at Muirfield.
at Hoylake.
The Ladies' Championship was started in 1893.
1893. Lady M. Scott
1894. Lady M. Scott
1895. Lady M. Scott
1896. Miss A. B. Pascoe
1897. Miss E. C. Orr .
1898. Miss L. Thompson
1899. Miss M. Hezlet .
1900. Miss R. K. Adair
1901. Miss M. A. Graham
1902. Miss M. Hezlet .
1903. Miss R. K. Adair
1904. Miss L. Dod . .
1905. Miss B. Thompson
1906. Mrs Kennion
1907. Miss M. Hezlet .
1908. Miss M. Titterton
1909. Miss D. Campbell
1910. Miss Grant Suttie
at St Annes.
at Littlestone.
at Portrush.
at Hoylake.
at Gullane.
at Yarmouth.
at Newcastle.
at Westward Ho.
at Aberdovy.
at Deal.
at Portrush.
at Troon.
at Cromer.
at Burnham.
at Newcastle (Co. Down).
at St Andrews.
at Birkdale.
at Westward Ho.
There have been some slight changes of detail and arrangement
as time has gone on, in the rules of the game (the latest edition
of the Rules should be consulted). A new class of golfer has
arisen, requiring a code of rules framed rather more exactly
than the older code. The Scottish golfer, who was " teethed "
on a golf club, as Mr Andrew Lang has described it, imbibed all
the traditions of the game with his natural sustenance. Very
few rules sufficed for him. But when the Englishman, and still
more the American (less in touch with the traditions), began to
play golf as a new game, then they began to ask for a code of
rules that should be lucid and illuminating on every point —
an ideal perhaps impossible to realize. It was found, at least,
that the code put forward by the Royal and Ancient Club of
St Andrews did not realize it adequately. Nevertheless the new
golfers were very loyal indeed to the club that had ever of old
held, by tacit consent, the position of fount of golfing legislation.
The Royal and Ancient Club was appealed to by English golfers
to step into the place, analogous to that of the Marylebone
Cricket Club in cricket, that they were both willing and anxious
to give it. It was a place that the Club at St Andrews did not
in the least wish to occupy, but the honour was thrust so insist-
ently upon it, that there was no declining. The latest effort to
meet the demands for some more satisfactory legislation on the
thousand and one points that continually must arise for decision
in course of playing a game of such variety as golf, consists of
the appointment of a standing committee, called the " Rules
of Golf Committee." Its members all belong to the Royal and
Ancient Club; but since this club draws its membership from
all parts of the United Kingdom, this restriction is quite con-
sistent with a very general representation of the views of north,
south, east and west — from Westward Ho and Sandwich to
Dornoch, and all the many first-rate links of Ireland — on the
committee. Ireland has, indeed, some of the best links in the
kingdom, and yields to neither Scotland nor England in en-
thusiasm for the game. This committee, after a general revision
of the rules into the form in which they now stand, consider
every; month, either by meeting or by correspondence, the
questions that are sent up to it by clubs or by individuals; and.
the committee's answers to these questions have the force of law
until they have come before the next general meeting of the
Royal and Ancient Club at St Andrews, which may confirm or
may reject them at will. The ladies of Great Britain manage
otherwise. They have a Golfing Union which settles questions
for them; but since this union itself accepts as binding the
answers given by the Rules of Golf Committee, they really arrive
at the same conclusions by a slightly different path. Nor does the
American Union, governing the play of men and women alike
in the States, really act differently. The Americans naturally
reserve to themselves freedom to make their own rules, but in
practice they conform to the legislation of Scotland, with the
exception of a more drastic definition of the status of the amateur
player, and certain differences as to the clubs used.
A considerable modification has been effected in the implements
of the game. The tendency of the modern wooden clubs is to
be short in the head as compared with the clubs of, say; 1880 or
1885. The advantage claimed (probably with justice) for this
shape is that it masses the weight behind the point on which
the ball is struck. Better material in the wood of the club is a
consequence of the increased demand for these articles and the
increased competition among their 'makers. Whereas under
the old conditions a few workers at the few greens then in
existence were enough to supply the golfing wants, now there
is a very large industry in golf club and ball making, which not
only employs workers in the local club-makers' shops all the
kingdom over, but is an important branch of the commerce of
the stores aridjof the big athletic outfitters, both in Great Britain
and in the United States. By far the largest modification in
the game since the change to gutta-percha balls from balls
of leather-covering stuffed with feathers, is due to the American
invention of the india-rubber cased balls* Practically it is as an
American invention that it is still regarded, although the British
law courts decided, after a lengthy trial (1905), that there had
been " prior users " of the principle of the balls' manufacture,
and therefore that the patent of Mr Haskell, by whose name the
GOLF
223
first balls of the kind were called, was not good. It is singular
to remark that in the first introduction of the gutta-percha
balls, superseding the leather and feather compositions, they also
were called by the name of their first maker, " Gourlay." The
general mode of manufacture of the, rubber-cored ball, which is
now everywhere in use, is interiorly, a hard core of gutta-percha
or some other such substance; round this is wound, by
machinery, india-rubber thread or strips at a high tension, and
over all is an outer coat of gutta-percha. Some makers have
tried to dispense with the kernel of hard substance, or to sub-
stitute'for it kernels of some fluid or gelatinous substance, but
in general the above is a sufficient, though rough, description of
the mode of making all these balls. Their superiority over the
solid gutta-percha lies in their superior resiliency. The effect
is that they go much more lightly off the club. It is not so much
in the tee-shots that this superiority is observed, as in the
second shots, when the ball is lying badly; balls of the rubber-
cored kind, with their greater liveliness, are more easy to raise
in the air from a lie of this kind. They also go remarkably well
off the iron clubs, and thus make the game easier by placing the
player within an iron shot of the hole at a distance at which he
would have to use a wooden club if he were playing with a solid
gutta-percha ball. They also tend to make the game more easy by
the fact that if they are at all mis-hit they go much better than
a gutta-percha ball similarly inaccurately struck. As a slight set-
off against these qualities, the ball,because of the greater liveliness,
is not quite so good for the short game as the solid ball; but on
the whole its advantages distinctly overbalance its disadvantages.
When these balls were first put on the market they were sold
at two shillings each and even, when the supply was quite
unequal to the demand, at a greater deal higher price, rising to as
much as a guinea a ball. But the normal price, until about a
year after the decision in the British courts of law affirming that
there was no patent in the balls, was always two shillings for the
best quality of ball. Subsequently there was a reduction down
to one shilling for the balls made by many of the manufacturing
companies, though in 1010 the rise in the price of rubber sent up
the cost. The rubber-cored ball does not go out of shape so
quickly as the gutta-percha solid ball and does not show other
marks of ill-usage with the club so obviously. It has had the
effect of making the game a good deal easier for the second- and
third-class players, favouring especially those who were short
drivers with the old gutta-percha ball. To the best players it has
made the least difference, nevertheless those who were best with
the old ball are also best with the new; its effect has merely
been to bring the second, third and fourth best closer to each
other and to the best.
Incidentally, the question of the expense of the game has
been touched on in this notice of the new balls. There is no
doubt that the balls themselves tend to a greater economy, not
only because of their own superior durability but also because,
as a consequence of their greater resiliency, they are not nearly
so hard on the clubs, and the clubs themselves being perhaps
made of better material than used to be given to their manu-
facture, the total effect is that a man's necessary annual expendi-
ture on them is very small indeed even though he plays pretty
constantly. Four or five rounds are not more than the average
of golfers will make an india-rubber cored ball last them, so that
the outlay on the weapons is very moderate. On the other
hand the expenditure of the clubs on their courses has increased
and tends to increase. Demands are more insistent than they
used to be for a well kept course, for perfectly mown greens,
renewed teeing grounds and so on, and probably the modern
golfer is a good deal more luxurious in his clubhouse wants than
his father used to be. This means a big staff of servants and
workers on the green, and to meet this a rather heavy subscription
is required. Such a subscription as five guineas added to a ten
or fifteen guinea entrance fee is not uncommon, and even this is
very moderate compared with the subscriptions to some of the
clubs in the United States, where a hundred dollars a year, or
twenty pounds of our money, is not unusual. But on the whole
golf is a very economical pastime, as compared with almost
any other sport or pastime which engages the attention of
Britons, and it is a pastime for all the year round, and for all
the life of a man or woman.
Glossary of Technical Terms used in the Game.
Addressing the Ball. — Putting oneself in position to strike the ball.
All Square. — Term used to express that the score stands level,
neither side being a hole up.
Baff. — To strike the ground with the club when playing, and so
loft the ball unduly.
Baffy. — A short wooden club, with laid-back face, for lofting shots.
Bogey. — The number of strokes which a good average player
should take to each hole. This imaginary player is usually known
as " Colonel Bogey," and plays a fine game.
Brassy. — A wooden club with a brass sole.
Bulger.— A driver in which the face " bulges " into a convex shape.
The head is shorter than in the older-fashioned driver.
Bunker. — A sand-pit.
Bye. — The holes remaining after one side has become more holes up
than remain for play.
Caddie. — The person who carries the clubs. Diminutive of
" cad " ; cf. laddie (from Fr. cadet).
Cleek. — The iron-headed club that is capable of the farthest drive
of any of the clubs with iron heads.
Cup. — A depression in the ground causing the ball to lie badly.
Dead. — A ball is said to be " dead " when so near the hole that
the putting it in in the next stroke is a " dead " certainty. A ball
is said to fall dead " when it pitches with hardly any run.
Divot. — A piece of turf cut out in the act of playing, which, be it
noted, should always be replaced before the player moves on.
Dormy.— One side is said to be " dormy " when it is as many
holes to the good as remain to be played — so that it cannot be
beaten.
Driver. — The longest driving club, used when the ball lies very
well and a long shot is needed.
Foozle. — Any very badly missed or bungled stroke.
" Forel " — A cry of warning to people in front.
Foursome. — A match in which tour persons engage, two on each
side playing alternately with the same ball.
Green. — {a) The links as a whole; (b) the "putting-greens"
around the holes.
Grip. — (a) The part of the club-shaft which is held in the hands
while playing; (&) the grasp itself — e.g. "a firm grip," "a loose
grip," are common expressions.
Half -Shot. — A shot played with something less than a full swing.
Halved. — A hole is halved " when both sides have played it in
the same number of strokes. A round is " halved " when each side
has won and lost the same number of holes.
Handicap. — The strokes which a player receives either in match
play or competition.
Hanging. — Said of a ball that lies on a slope inclining downwards
in regard to the direction in which it is wished to drive.
Hazard. — A general term for bunker, whin, long grass, roads and
all kinds of bad ground.
Heel.— To hit the ball on the " heel " of the club, i.e. the part of
the face nearest the shaft, and so send the ball to the right, with the
same result as from a slice.
Honour.-— The privilege (which its holder is not at liberty to
decline) of striking off first from the tee.
Iron. — An iron-headed club intermediate between the cleek and
lofting mashie. There are driving irons and lofting irons according
to the purposes for which they are intended.
Lie. — (a) The angle of the club-head with the shaft (e.g. a " flat
lie," " an upright lie ") ; (b) the position of the ball on the ground
(e.g. " a good fie," " a bad lie/').
Like, The. — The stroke which makes the player's score equal to
his opponent's in course of playing a hole.
Like-as-we-Lie. — Said when both sides have played the same
number of strokes.
Line. — The direction in which the hole towards which the player
is progressing lies with reference to the present position of his ball.
Mashie. — An iron club with a short head. The lofting mashie has
the blade much laid back, for playing a short lofting shot. The
driving mashie has the blade less laid back, and is used for longer,
less lofted shots.
Match-Play. — Play in which the score is reckoned by holes won
and lost.
Medal-Play. — Play in which the score is reckoned by the total
of strokes taken on the round.
Niblick. — A short stiff club with a short, laid back, iron head,
used for getting the ball out of a very bad lie.
Odd, The. — A stroke more than the opponent has played.
Press. — To strive to hit harder than you can hit with accuracy.
Pull. — To hit the ball with a pulling movement of the club, so as
to make it curve to the left.
Putt. — To play the short strokes near the hole (pronounced as in
" but ").
Putter. — The club used for playing the short strokes near the hole.
Some have a wooden head, some an iron head.
224
GOLIAD— GOLIARD
Rub-of-the-Green. — Any chance deflection that the ball receives as
it goes along.
Run Up. — To send the ball low and close to the ground in
approaching the hole — opposite to lofting it up.
Scratch Player. — Player who receives no oads in handicap com-
petitions.
Slice. — To hit the ball with a cut across it, so that it flies curving
to the right.
Stance. — (a) The place on which the player has to stand when
playing — e.g.* 1 a bad stance," " a good stance," are common ex-
pressions ; (0) the position relative to each other of the player's feet.
Stymie. — When one ball lies in a straight line between another and
the hole the first is said to M stymie," or "to be a stymie to " the
other — from an old Scottish word given by Jamieson to mean " the
faintest form of anything." The idea probably was, the " stymie"
only left you the " faintest form " of the hole to aim at.
Tee. — The little mound of sand on which the ball is generally
placed for the first drive to each hole.
Teeing-Ground. — The place marked as the limit, outside of which
it is not permitted to drive the ball off. This marked-out ground is
also sometimes called " the tee."
Top. — To hit the ball above the centre, so that it does not rise
much from the ground.
Up. — A player is said to be " one up," " two up," &c, when he is so
many holes to the good of his opponent.
Wrist-Shot. — A shot less in length than a half -shot, but longer than
a putt.
Bibliography. — The literature of the game has grown to some
considerable bulk. For many years it was practically comprised in
the fine work by Mr Robert Clark, Golf: A Royal and Ancient Game,
together with two handbooks on the game by Mr Chambers and by
Mr Forgan respectively, and the Golfiana Miscellanea of Mr Stewart.
A small book by Mr Horace Hutchinson, named Hints on Golf, was
very shortly followed by a much more important work by Sir Walter
Simpson, Bart., called The Art of Golf, a title which sufficiently
explains itself. The Badminton Library book on Golf attempted to
collect into one volume the most interesting historical facts known
about the game, with obiter dicta and advice to learners, and, on
similar didactic lines, books have been written by Mr H. C. S.
Everard, Mr Garden Smith and W. Park, the professional player.
Mr H. J. Whigham, sometime amateur champion golfer of the
United States, has riven us a book about the game in that country.
The Book of Golf ana Golfers, compiled, with assistance, by Mr Horace
Hutchinson, is in the first place a picture-gallery of famous golfers
in their respective attitudes of play. Taylor, Vardon and Braid have
each contributed a volume of instruction, and Mr G. W. Beldam has
published a book with admirable photographs of players in action,
called Great Golfers: their Methods at a Glance. A work intended for
the use of green committees is among the volumes of the Country Life
Library of Sport. Much interesting lore is contained in the Golfing
Annual, in the Golfer's Year Book and in the pages of Golf, which
has now become Golf Illustrated, a weekly paper devoted to the game.
Among works that have primarily a local interest, but yet contain
much of historical value about the game, may be cited the Golf Book
of East Lothian, by the Rev. John Kerr, and the Chronicle of Black-
heath Golfers, by Mr W. E. Hughes. (H. G. H.)
GOLIAD, an unincorporated village and the county-seat of
Goliad county, Texas, U.S.A., on the N. bank of the San Antonio
river, 85 m. S.E. of San Antonio. Pop. (1900) about 1700. It
is served by the Galveston, Harrisburg & San Antonio railway
(Southern Pacific System). Situated in the midst of a rich
farming and stock-raising country, Goliad has flour mills, cotton
gins and cotton-seed oil mills. Here are the interesting ruins of
Hhe old Spanish mission of La Bahia, which was removed to this
point from the Guadaloupe river in 1747. During the struggle
between Mexico and Spain the Mexican leader Bernardo Gutierrez
(1778-1814) was besieged here. The name Goliad, probably an
anagram of the name of the Mexican patriot Hidalgo (1 753-181 1),
was first used about 1829. On the outbreak of the Texan War
of Liberation Goliad was garrisoned by a small force of Mexicans,
who surrendered to the Texans in October 1835, and on the 20th
of December a preliminary " declaration of independence "
was published here, antedating by several months the official
Declaration issued at Old Washington, Texas, on the 2nd of
March 1836. In 1836, when Santa Anna began his advance
against the Texan posts, Goliad was occupiedjay a force of about
350 Americans under Colonel James W. Fannin (c. 1 800-1836),
who was overtaken on the Coletto. Creek while attempting to
carry out orders to withdraw from Goliad and to unite with
General Houston; he surrendered after a sharp fight (March
19-20) in which he inflicted a heavy loss on the Mexicans, and
was marched back with his force to Goliad, where on the morning
of the 27 th of March they were shot down by Santa Anna's
orders. Goliad was nearly destroyed by a tornado on the 19th
of May 1903.
GOUARD, a name applied to those* wandering students
(vagantes) and clerks in England, France and Germany, during
the 1 2th and 13th centuries, who were better known for their
rioting, gambling and intemperance than for their scholarship.
The derivation of the word is uncertain. It may come from
the Lat. gula, gluttony (Wright), but was connected by them
with a mythical " Bishop Golias," also called " archipo&a " and
" primas " — especially in Germany — in whose name their satirical
poems were mostly written. Many scholars have accepted
BUdinger's suggestion (Ober einige Reste der Vagantenpoesie in
Osterreich, Vienna, 1854) that the title of Golias goes back to
the letter of St Bernard to Innocent II., in which he referred
to Abelard as Goliath, thus connecting the goliards with the
keen-witted student adherents of that great medieval critic.
Giesebrecht and others, however, support the derivation of
goliard from gaUliard, a gay fellow, leaving " Golias " as the
imaginary " patron " of their fraternity.
Spiegel has ingeniously disentangled something of a biography
of an arckipo$ta who flourished mainly in Burgundy and at
Salzburg from 1160 to beyond the middle of the 13th century;
but the proof of the reality of this individual is not convincing.
It is doubtful, too, if the jocular references to the rules of the
"gild" of goliards should be taken too seriously, though their
aping of the " orders " of the church, especially their contrasting
them with the mendicants, was too bold for church synods.
Their satires were almost uniformly directed against the church,
attacking even the pope. In 1227 the council of Treves forbade
priests to permit the goliards to take part in chanting the service.
In 1229 they played a conspicuous part in the disturbances at
the university of Paris, in connexion with the intrigues of the
papal legate. During the century which followed they formed
a subject for the deliberations of several church councils, notably
in 1289 when it was ordered that " no clerks shall be jongleurs,
goliards or buffoons," and in 1300 (at Cologne) when they were
forbidden to preach or engage in the indulgence traffic. This
legislation was only effective when the " privileges of clergy "
were withdrawn from the goliards. Those historians who regard
the middle ages as completely dominated by ascetic ideals, regard
the goliard movement as a protest against the spirit of the time.
But it is rather indicative of the wide diversity in temperament
among those who crowded to the universities in the 13 th century,
and who found in the privileges of the clerk some advantage
and attraction in the student life. The goliard poems are as
truly " medieval " as the monastic life which they despised;
they merely voice another section of humanity. Yet their
criticism was most keenly pointed, and marks a distinct step
in the criticism of abuses in the church.
Along with these satires went many poems in praise of wine
and riotous living. A remarkable collection of them, now at
Munich, from the monastery at Benedictbeuren in Bavaria,
was published by Schmeller (3rd ed., 1895) under the title Carmina
Bur ana. Many of these, which form the main part of song-books
of German students to-day, have been delicately translated by
John Addington Symonds in a small volume, Wine, Women and
Song (1884). As Symonds has said, they form a prelude to the
Renaissance. The poems of " Bishop Golias " were later
attributed to Walter Mapes, and have been published by Thomas
Wright in The Latin Poems commonly attributed to Walter Mapes
(London, 1841).
The word " goliard " itself outlived these turbulent bands
which had given it birth, and passed over into French and
English literature of the 14th century in the general meaning of
jongleur or minstrel, quite apart from any clerical association.
It is thus used in Piers Plowman, where, however, the goliard
still rhymes in Latin, and in Chaucer.
See, besides the works quoted above, M. Haezner, Goliardendich-
tung und die Satire im I3ten Jakrhundert in England (Leipzig, 1905) ;
Spieeel, Die Vaganten und ihr " Orden " (Spires, 1892); Hubatsch,
Die lateinischen Vagantenlieder des Mittelalters (Gdrlitz, 1870); and
the article in La grande Encyclopedic. All of these have biblio-
graphical apparatus. (J. T. S.*)
GOLIATH— GOLITSUIN, V. V.
225
GOLIATH, the name of the giant by slaying whom David
achieved renown (1 Sam. xvii.). The Philistines had come up to
make war against Saul and, as the rival camps lay opposite each
other, this warrior came forth day by day to challenge to single
combat. Only David ventured to respond, and armed with a
sling and pebbles he overcame Goliath. The Philistines, seeing
their champion killed, lost heart and were easily put to flight.
The giant's arms were placed in the sanctuary, and it was his
famous sword which David took with him in his flight from Saul
(1 Sam. xxi. 1-9). From another passage we learn that Goliath
of Gath, " the shaft of whose spear was like a weaver's beam,"
was slain by a certain Elhanan of Bethlehem in one of David's
conflicts with the Philistines (2 Sam. xxL 18-22) — the parallel
1 Chron. xx. 5, avoids the contradiction by reading the " brother
of Goliath." But this old popular story has probably preserved
the more original tradition, and if Elhanan is the son of Dodo
in the list of David's mighty men (2 Sam. xxiii. 9, 24), the
resemblance between the two names may have led to the trans-
ference. The narratives of David's early life point to some
exploit by means of which he gained the favour of Saul, Jonathan
and Israel, but the absence of all reference to his achieve-
ment in the subsequent chapters (1 Sam. xxi. n, xxix. 5)
is evidence of the relatively late origin of a tradition which
in course of time became one of the best-known incidents in
David's life (Ps. cxliv., LXX. title, the apocryphal Ps.clL, Ecclus.
xlvii. 4).
See David; Samuel (Books) and especially Cheyne, Aids and
Devout Study of Criticism, pp. 80 sqq., 125 sqq. In the old Egyptian
romance of Stnuhit (ascribed to about 2000 B.C.), the story of the
slaying of the Bedouin hero has several points of resemblance with that
of David and Goliath. See L. B, Paton, Hist, of Syr. and Pal. p. 60 ;
A. Jeremias, Das A.T.im Lichte d. alten Orients, 2nd ed. pp. 299, 401 ;
A. R. S. Kennedy, Century Bible: Samuel, p. 122, argues that David's
Philistine adversary was originally nameless, in 1 Sam. xvii. he is
named only in v. 4.
GOLITSUIN, BORIS ALEKSYBEVICH (1654-1714), Russian
statesman, came of a princely family, claiming descent from
Prince Gedimin of Lithuania. Earlier members of the family
were Mikhail (d.c. 1552), a famous soldier, and his great-grandson
Vasily Vasilevich (d. 1619), who was sent as ambassador to Poland
to offer the Russian crown to Prince Ladislaus. Boris became
court chamberlain in 1676. He was the young tsar Peter's chief
supporter when, in 1689, Peter resisted the usurpations of his
elder sister Sophia, and the head of the loyal council which
assembled at the Troitsa monastery during the crisis of the struggle.
Golitsuin it was who suggested taking refuge in that strong
fortress and won over the boyars of the opposite party. In 1600
he was created a boyar and shared with Lev Naruishkin, Peter's
uncle, the conduct of home affairs. After the death of the
tsaritsa Natalia, Peter's mother, in 1694, his influence increased
still further. He accompanied Peter to the White Sea (1694-
1695); took part in the Azov campaign (1695); and was one of
the triumvirate who ruled Russia during Peter's first foreign
tour (1697-1698). The Astrakhan rebellion (1 706), which affected
all the districts under his government, shook Peter's confidence
in him, and seriously impaired his position. In 1707 he was
superseded in the Volgan provinces by Andrei Matvyeev. A
year before his death he entered a monastery. Golitsuin was a
typical representative of Russian society of the end of the 17th
century in its transition from barbarism to civilization. In
many respects he was far in advance of his age. He was highly
educated, spoke Latin with graceful fluency, frequented the society
of scholars and had his children carefully educated according
to the best European models. Yet this eminent, this superior
personage was an habitual drunkard, an uncouth savage who
intruded upon the hospitality of wealthy foreigners, and was not
ashamed to seize upon any dish he took a fancy to, and send it
home to his wife. It was his reckless drunkenness which
ultimately ruined him in the estimation of Peter the Great,
despite his previous, inestimable services. ,
See S. Solovev, History of Russia (Rus.), vol. xiv. (Moscow, 1858) ;
R. N. Bain, The First Romanovs (London, 1005). (R. N. B.)
GOLITSUIN, DMITRY MIKHAILOVICH (1665-1737)1
Russian statesman, was sent in 1697 to Italy to learn " military
affairs "; in 1704 he was appointed to the command of an
auxiliary corps in Poland against Charles XII.; from 17 n to
1 7 1 8 he was governor of Byelogorod. In 1 7 18 he was appointed
president of the newly erected Kammer Kollegium and a senator.
In May 1723 he was implicated in the disgrace of the vice-
chancellor Shafirov and was deprived of all his offices and
dignities, which he only recovered through the mediation of the
empress Catherine I. After the death of Peter the Great,
Golitsuin became the recognized head of the old Conservative
party which had never forgiven Peter for putting away Eudoxia
and marrying the plebeian Martha Skavronskaya. But the
reformers, as represented by Alexander Menshikov and Peter
Tolstoi, prevailed; and Golitsuin remained in the background
till the fall of Menshikov, 1727. During the last years of Peter II.
(17 28-1730), Golitsuin was the most prominent statesman in
Russia and his high aristocratic theories had full play. On the
death of Peter II. he conceived the idea of limiting the autocracy
by subordinating it to the authority of the supreme privy council,
of which he was president. He drew up a form of constitution
which Anne of Courland, the newly elected Russian empress,
was forced to sign at Mittau before being permitted to proceed to
St Petersburg. Anne lost no time in repudiating this constitution,
and never forgave its authors. Golitsuin was left in peace, how-
ever, and lived for the most part in retirement, till 1736, when he
was arrested on suspicion of being concerned in the conspiracy
of his son-in-law Prince Constantine Cantimir. This, however,
was a mere pretext, it was for his anti-monarchical sentiments
that he was really prosecuted. A court, largely composed of
his antagonists, condemned him to death, but the empress
reduced the sentence to lifelong imprisonment in Schllisselburg
and confiscation of all his estates. He died in his prison on the
14th of April 1737, after three months of confinement.
See R. N. Bain, The Pupils of Peter the Great (London, 1897).
GOLITSUIN, YASILY VASILEVICH (1643-1714), Russian
statesman, spent his early days at the court of Tsar Alexius
where he gradually rose to the rank of boyar. In 1676 he was
sent to the Ukraine to keep in order the Crimean Tatars and
took part in the Chigirin campaign. Personal experience of the
inconveniences and dangers of the prevailing system of prefer*
ment, the so-called mycstnichestoo, or rank priority, which had
paralysed the Russian armies for centuries, induced him to pro-
pose its abolition, which was accomplished by Tsar Theodore III.
(1678). The May revolution of 1682 placed Golitsuin at the
head of the Posolsky Prikaz, or ministry of foreign affairs, and
during the regency of Sophia, sister of Peter the Great, whose
lover he became, he was the principal minister of state (1682-
1689) and " keeper of the great seal," a title bestowed upon
only two Russians before him, Athonasy Orduin-Nashchokin
and Artamon Matvyeev. In home affairs his influence was
insignificant, but his foreign policy was distinguished by the
peace with Poland in 1683, whereby Russia at last recovered
Kiev. By the terms of the same treaty, he acceded to the
grand league against the Porte, but his two expeditions against
the Crimea (1687 and 1689), " the First Crimean War," were
unsuccessful and made him extremely unpopular. Only with the
utmost difficulty could Sophia get the young tsar Peter to
decorate the defeated commander-in-chief as if he had returned
a victor. In the civil war between Sophia and Peter (August-
September 1689), Golitsuin half-heartedly supported his mistress
and shared her ruin. His life was spared owing to the supplica-
tions of his cousin Boris, but he was deprived of his boyardom,
his estates were confiscated and he was banished successively to
Kargopol, Mezen and Kologora, where he died on the 21st of
April 1 7 14. Golitsuin was unusually well educated. He under-
stood German and Greek as well as his mother-tongue, and could
express himself fluently in Latin. He was a great friend of
foreigners, who generally alluded to him as " the great Golitsuin."
His brother Mikhail (1674-1730) was a celebrated soldier, who
is best known for his governorship of Finland (1714-1721), where
his admirable qualities earned the remembrance of the people
whom he had conquered. And Mikhail's son Alexander (1718-
xn.8
226
GOLIUS— GOLTZ, B.
1783) was a diplomat and soldier, who rose to be field-marshal
and governor of St Petersburg.
See R. N. Bain, The First Romanovs (London, 1905); A.
Bruckner, Fiirst Golizin (Leipzig, 1887); S. Solovev, History of
Russia (Rus.), vols. xiii.-»v. (Moscow, 1858, &c.). (R. N. B.)
GOLIUS or (Gohl), JACOBUS (1 596-1667), Dutch Orientalist,
was born at the Hague in 1596 , and studied at the university of
Leiden, where in Arabic and other Eastern languages he was the
most distinguished pupil of Erpenius. In 1622 he accompanied
the Dutch embassy to Morocco, and on his return he was chosen
to succeed Erpenius (1624) . In the following year he set out on a
Syrian and Arabian tour from which he did not return until 1629,
The remainder of his life was spent at Leiden where he held the
chair of mathematics as well as that of Arabic. He died on the
28th of September 1667,
His most important work is the Lexicon Arabico-Latinum, fol.,
Leiden, 1653, which, based on the Sihah of Al-Jauhari, was only
superseded by the corresponding work of Frcytag. Among his earlier
publications may be mentioned editions of various Arabic texts
(Proverbia quaedam A lis, imperatoris Muslemici, et Carmen Tograi-
poetae doctissimi, necnon dissertatio quaedam Aben Synae, 1629; and
Ahmedis Arabsiadae vitae et rerum gestarum Timuri, qui vulgo Tamer,
lanes dicitur, historia, 1636). In 1656 he published a new edition,
with considerable additions, of the Grammatica Arabica of Erpenius.
After his death, there was found among his papers a Dictionarium
Persico-Latinum which was published, with additions, by Edmund
Castell in his Lexicon heptaglotton (1669). Golius also edited, trans-
lated and annotated the astronomical treatise of Alfragan (Muham-
medis, filii Ketiri Ferganensis, qui vulgo Alfraganus dicitur, elementa
astronomica Arabice et Latine t 1669).
GOLLNOW, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Pomerania, on the right bank of the Ihna, 14 m. N.N.E. of Stettin,
with which it has communication by rail and steamer. Pop.
( 1 005) 8539. It possesses two Evangelical churches, a synagogue
and some small manufactures. Gollnow was founded in n 90,
and was raised to the rank of a town in 1268. It was for a time
a Hanse town, and came into the possession of Prussia in 1720,
having belonged to Sweden since 1648.
GOLOSH, or Galosh (from the Fr. galoche, Low Lat. calopedes,
a wooden shoe or clog; an adaptation of the Gr. KaXor6diov y
a diminutive formed of *a\ov, wood, and woOs, foot), originally
a wooden shoe or patten, or merely a wooden sole fastened to
the foot by a strap or cord. In the middle ages " galosh " was a
general term for a boot or shoe, particularly one with a wooden
sole. In modern usage, it is an outer shoe worn in bad weather
to protect the inner one, and keep the feet dry. Goloshes are
now almost universally made of rubber, and in the United States
they are known as " rubbers " simply, the word golosh being
rarely if ever used. In the bootmakers' trade, a " golosh "
is the piece of leather, of a make stronger than, or different from
that of the "uppers," which runs around the bottom part of a
boot or shoe, just above the sole.
GOLOVIN, FEDOR ALEKSYEEVICH, Count (d. 1706),
Russian statesman, learnt, like so many of his countrymen in
later times, the business of a ruler in the Far East. During the
regency of Sophia, sister of Peter the Great, he was sent to the
Amur to defend the new Muscovite fortress of Albazin against
the Chinese. In 1689 he concluded with the Celestial empire the
treaty of Nerchinsk, by which the line of the Amur, as far as its
tributary the Gorbitsa, was retroceded to China because of the
impossibility of seriously defending it. In Peter's grand embassy
to the West in 1697 Golovin occupied the second place
immediately after Lefort. It was his chief duty to hire foreign
sailors and obtain everything necessary for the construction and
complete equipment of a fleet. On Lefort's death, in March 1699,
he succeeded him as admiral-general. The same year he was
created the first Russian count, and was also the first to be
decorated with the newly-instituted Russian order of St Andrew.
The conduct of foreign affairs was at the same time entrusted
to him, and from 1699 to his death he was "the premier minister
of the tsar." Golovin's first achievement as foreign rninister was
to supplement the treaty of Carlowitz, by which peace with
Turkey had only been secured for three years, by concluding with
the Porte a new treaty at Constantinople (June *3> 1700), by
which the term of the peace was extended to thirty years and,
besides other concessions, the Azov district and a strip of territory
extending thence to Kuban were ceded to Russia. He also
controlled, with consummate ability, the operations of the
brand-new Russian diplomatists at the various foreign courts.
His superiority over all his Muscovite contemporaries was due
to the fact that he was already a statesman, in the modern sense,
while they were still learning the elements of statesmanship.
His death was an irreparable loss to the tsar, who wrote upon the
despatch announcing it, the words " Peter filled with grief."
See R. N. Bain, The First Romanovs (London, 1905). (K. N. B.)
GOLOVKIN, GAVRIIL IVANOVICH, Count (1660-1734),
Russian statesman, was attached (1677), while still a lad, to the
court of the tsarevitch Peter, afterwards Peter the Great, with
whose mother Natalia he was connected, and vigilantly guarded
him during the disquieting period of the regency of Sophia,
sister of Peter the Great (168 2-1689). He accompanied the
young tsar abroad on his first foreign tour, and worked by his
side in the dockyards of Saardam. In 1 706 he succeeded Golovin
in the direction of foreign affairs, and was created the first Russian
grand-chancellor on the field of Poltava (1709). Golovkin held
this office for twenty-five years. In the reign of Catherine I.
he became a member of the supreme privy council which had
the chief conduct of affairs during this and the succeeding reigns.
The empress also entrusted him with her last will whereby she
appointed the young Peter II. her successor and Golovkin one
. of his guardians. On the death of Peter II. in 1730 he declared
openly in favour of Anne, duchess of Courland, in opposition
to the aristocratic Dolgorukis and Golitsuins, and his determined
attitude on behalf of autocracy was the chief cause of the failure
of the proposed constitution, which would have converted Russia
into a limited monarchy. Under Anne he was a member of the
first cabinet formed in Russia, but had less influence in affairs than
Ostermann and Munnich. In 1707 he was created a count of
the Holy Roman empire, and in 17 10 a count of the Russian
empire. He was one of the wealthiest, and at the same time
one of the stingiest, magnates of his day. His ignorance of any
language but his own made his intercourse with foreign ministers
very inconvenient.
See R. N. Bain, The PupUs of Peter the Great (London, 1807).
GOLOVNIN, VASILY MIKHAILOVICH (1776-1831)', Russian
vice-admiral, was born on the 20th of April 1776 in the village
of Gulynki in the province of Ryazan, and received his education
at the Cronstadt naval school. From 1801 to 1806 he served as
a volunteer in the English navy. In 1807 he was commissioned
by the Russian government to survey the coasts of Kamchatka
and of Russian America, including also the Kurile Islands.
Golovnin sailed round the Cape of Good Hope, and on the 5th of
October 1 809, arrived in Kamchatka. In 1 8 1 o, whilst attempting
to survey the coast of the island of Kunashiri, he was seized by
the Japanese, and was retained by them as a prisoner, until the
13th of October 1813, when he was liberated, and in the following
year he returned to St Petersburg. Soon after this the govern-
ment planned another expedition, which had for its object the
circumnavigation of the globe by a Russian ship, and Golovnin
was appointed to the command. He started from St Petersburg
on the 7th of September 181 7, sailed round Cape Horn, and
arrived in Kamchatka in the following May. He returned to
Europe by way of the Cape of Good Hope, and landed at St
Petersburg on the 17th of September 1819. He died on the 12th
of July 183 1.
Golovnin published several works, of which the following are the
most important: — Journey to Kamchatka (2 vols., 18 19); Journey
Round the World (2 vols., 1822); and Narrative of my Captivity in
Japan, 1811-1813 (2 vols., 18 16). The last has been translated into
French, German and English, the English edition being in three
volumes (1824). A complete edition of his works was published at
St Petersburg in five volumes in 1864, with maps and cnarts, and a
biography of the author by N. Grech.
GOLTZ, B06UMIL (1801-1870), German humorist and
satirist, was born at Warsaw on the 20th of March 1801. After
attending the classical schools of Marienwerder and Kdnigsberg,
he learnt farming on an estate near Thorn, and in 182 1 entered
the university of Breslau as a student of philosophy. But he
GOLTZ, C.— GOLUCHOWSKI
227
soon abandoned an academical career, and, after returning for
a while to country life, retired to the small town of Gollub,
where he devoted himself to literary studies. In 1847 he settled
at Thorn, " the home of Copernicus," where he^lied on the 12th
of November 1870. Goltz is best known to literary fame by his
Buck der Kindheit (Frankfort, 1847; 4th ed., Berlin, 1877), in
which, after the style of Jean Paul, and Adalbert Stifter, but
with a more modern realism, he gives a charming and idyllic
description of the impressions of his own childhood. Among his
other works must be noted Ein Jugendleben (1852); Der Mensch
und die Leute (1858); Zur Charakteristik und Naturgeschichte
der Frauen (1859) ; Zur Geschichte und Charakteristik desdeutschen
Genius (1864), and Die WeltklugheU und die LebensweisheU
(1869).
Goltz's works have not been collected , but a selection will be found
in Reclam's Universalbibliothek (ed. by P. Stein, 1901 and 1906)!
See O. Roquet te, Siebzig Jahre, i. (1894).
GOLTZ, COLMAR, Freiherr Von Der (1843- )>
Prussian soldier and military writer, was born at Bielkenfeld,
East Prussia, on the 12 th of August 1843, and entered the
Prussian infantry in 1861. In 1864 he entered the Berlin
Military Academy, but was temporarily withdrawn in 1866 to
serve in the Austrian war, in which he was wounded at Trautenau.
In 1867 he joined the topographical section of the general staff,
and at the beginning of the Franco-German War of 1870-71
was attached to the staff of Prince Frederick Charles. He took
part in the battles of Vionville and Gravelotte and in the siege
of Metz. After its fall he served under the Red Prince in the
campaign of the Loire, including the battles of Orleans and Le
Mans. He was appointed in 1 87 1 professor at the military school
at Potsdam, and the same year was promoted captain and placed
in the historical section of the general staff. It was then he
wrote Die Operationen der II. Armee bis zur Capitulation von
Metz and Die Sieben Tage von Le Mans, both published in 1873.
In 1874 he was appointed to the staff of the 6th division, and
while so employed wrote Die Operationen der II. Armee an der
Loire and Uon GambeUa und seine Armeen, published in 1875
and 1877 respectively. The latter was translated into French
the same year, and both are impartially written. The views
expressed in the latter work led to his being sent back to regi-
mental duty for a time, but it was not long before he returned
to the military history section. In 1878 von der Goltz was
appointed lecturer in military history at the military academy
at Berlin, where he remained for five years and attained the rank
of major. He published, in 1883, Rossbach und Jena (new and
revised edition, Von Rossbach bis Jena und Auerst&dt, 1906),
Das Volk in Waff en (English translation The Nation in Arms),
both of which quickly became military classics, and during his
residence in Berlin contributed many articles to the military
journals. In June 1883 his services were lent to Turkey to
reorganize the military establishments of the country. He spent
twelve years in this work, the result of which appeared in the
Greco-Turkish War of 1897, and he was made a pasha and in
1895 a mushir or field-marshal. On his return to Germany in
1896 he became a lieutenant-general and commander of the 5th
division, and .in 1898, head of the Engineer and Pioneer Corps
and inspector-general of fortifications. In 1900 he was made
general of infantry and in 1902 commander of the I. army corps.
In 1907 he was made inspector-general of the newly created
sixth army inspection established at Berlin, and in 1908 was
given the rank of colonel-'general (Generaloberst) .
In addition to the works already named and frequent contribu-
tions to military periodical literature, he wrote Kriegfuhrung (1895,
later edition Krieg- und Heerfuhrung, 1901 ; Eng. trans. The Conduct
of War); Der thessalische Krieg (Berlin, 1898); Ein Ausflug nach
Macedonien (1894); Anatolische Ausfliige (1896); a map and de-
scription of the environs of Constantinople ; Von Jena bis Pr. Eylau
(1907), a most important historical work, carrying on the story of
Rossbach und Jena to the peace of Tilsit, &c.
GOLTZIUS, HENDRIK (1558-1617), Dutch painter and
engraver, was born in 1558 at Miilebrecht, in the duchy of
Jiilich. After studying painting on glass for some years under
his father, he was taught the use of the burin by Dirk Volkertsz
Coornlert, a Dutch engraver of mediocre attainment, whom he
soon surpassed, but who retained his services for his own
advantage. He was also employed by Philip Galle to engrave a
set of prints of the history of Lucretia. At the age of twenty-one
he married a widow somewhat advanced in years, whose money
enabled him to establish at Haarlem an independent business;
but his unpleasant relations with her so affected his health that
he found it advisable in 1500 to make a tour through Germany
to Italy, where he acquired an intense admiration for the works
of Michelangelo, which led him to surpass that master in the
grotesqueness and extravagance of his designs. He returned
to Haarlem considerably improved in health, and laboured there
at his art till his death, on the 1st of January 161 7. Goltzius
ought not to be judged chiefly by the works he valued most,
his eccentric imitations of Michelangelo. His portraits, though
mostly miniatures, are master-pieces of their kind, both on
account of their exquisite finish, and as fine studies of individual
character. Of his largef heads, the life-size portrait of himself
is probably the most striking example. His " master-pieces,"
so called from their being attempts to imitate the style of the
old masters, have perhaps been overpraised. In his command
of the burin Goltzius is not surpassed even by Durer; but his
technical skill is often unequally aided by higher artistic qualities.
Even, however, his eccentricities and extravagances are greatly
counterbalanced by the beauty and freedom of his execution.
He began painting at the age of forty-two, but none of his
works in this branch of art — some of which are in the imperial
collection at Vienna — display any special excellences. He
also executed a few pieces in chiaroscuro.
His prints amount to more than 300 plates, and are fully described
in Bartsch's Peintre-graveur, and Weigel's supplement to the same
work.
GOLUCHOWSKI, AGENOR, Count (1840- ), Austrian
statesman, was born on the 25th of March 1849. His father,
descended from an old and noble Polish family, was governor
of Galicia. Entering the diplomatic service, the son was in
1872 appointed attache* to the Austrian embassy at Berlin,
where he became secretary of legation, and thence he was
transferred to Paris. After rising to the rank of counsellor of
legation, hfe was in 1887 made minister at Bucharest, where he
remained till 1893. In these positions he acquired a great
reputation as a firm and skilful diplomatist, and on the retirement
of Count Kalnoky in May 1895 was chosen to succeed him as
Austro-Hungarian minister for foreign affairs. The appointment
of a Pole caused some surprise in view of the importance of
Austrian relations with Russia(then rather strained)and Germany,
but the choice was justified by events. In his speech of that
year to the delegations he declared the maintenance of the Triple
Alliance, and in particular the closest intimacy with Germany,
to be the keystone of Austrian policy; at the same time he
dwelt on the traditional friendship between Austria and Great
Britain, and expressed his desire for a good understanding with
all the powers. In pursuance of this policy he effected an under-
standing with Russia, by which neither power was to exert any
separate influence in the Balkan peninsula, and thus removed
a long-standing cause of friction. This understanding was
formally ratified during a visit to St Petersburg on which he
accompanied the emperor in April 1897. He took the lead in
establishing the European concert during the Armenian troubles
of 1896, and again resisted isolated action on the part of any of
the great powers during the Cretan troubles and the Greco-
Turkish War. In November 1897, when the Austro-Hungarian
flag was insulted at Mersina, he threatened to bombard the
town if instant reparation were not made, and by his firm
attitude greatly enhanced Austrian prestige in the East. In his
speech to the delegations in 1898 he dwelt on the necessity of
expanding Austria's mercantile marine, and of raising the fleet
to a strength which, while not vying with the fleets of the great
naval powers, would ensure respect for the Austrian flag wherever
her interests needed protection. He also hinted at the necessity
for European combination to resist American competition.
The understanding with Russia in the matter of the Balkan
States temporarily endangered friendly relations with Italy,
228
GOMAL— GOMER
who thought her interests threatened, until Goluchowski
guaranteed in 1898 the existing order. He further encouraged
a good understanding with Italy by personal conferences with
the Italian foreign minister, Tittoni, in 1004 and 1005. Count
Lamsdorff visited Vienna in December 1002, when arrangements
were made for concerted action in imposing on the sultan reforms
in the government of Macedonia. Further steps were taken after
Goluchowski's interview with the tsar at Miirzsteg in 1003, and
two civil agents representing the countries were appointed for
two years to ensure the execution of the promised reforms. This
period was extended in 1005, when Goluchowski was the chief
mover in forcing the Porte, by an international naval demonstra-
tion at Mitylene, to accept financial control by the powers in
Macedonia. At the conference assembled at Algeciras to settle
the Morocco Question, Austria supported the German position,
and after the close of the conferences the emperor William II.
telegraphed to Goluchowski: "You have proved yourself a
brilliant second on the duelling ground and you may feel certain
of like services from me in similar circumstances." This pledge
was redeemed in 1008, when Germany's support of Austria in
the Balkan crisis proved conclusive. By the Hungarians,
however, Goluchowski was hated; he was suspected of having
inspired the emperor's opposition to the use of Magyar in the
Hungarian army, and was made responsible for the slight
offered to the Magyar deputation by Francis Joseph in September
1005. So long as he remained in office there was no hope of
arriving at a settlement of a matter which threatened the dis-
ruption of the Dual monarchy, and on the nth of October 1906
he was forced to resign, C^^i-s^* **w.:--"— **^*M ~'—*~
GOMAL, or Gumal, the name of a river of Afghanistan, and of
a mountain pass on the Dera Ismail Khan border of the North-
West Frontier Province of British India. The Gomal river, one
of the most important rivers in Afghanistan, rises in the un-
explored regions to the south-east of Ghazni. Its chief tributary
is the Zhob. Within the limits of British territory the Gomal
forms the boundary between the North- West Frontier Province
and Baluchistan, and more or less between the Pathan and
Baluch races. The Gomal pass is the most important pass on
the Indian frontier between the Khyber and the Bolan. It
connects Dera Ismail Khan with the Gomal valley in Afghanistan,
and has formed for centuries the outlet for the povindah trade.
Until the year 1889 this pass was almost unknown to the Anglo-
Indian official; but in that year the government of India
decided that, in order to maintain the safety of the railway
as well as to perfect communication between Quetta and the
Punjab, the Zhob valley should, like the Bori valley, be brought
under British protection and control, and the Gomal pass should
be opened. After the Waziristan expedition of 1894 Wana was
occupied by British troops in order to dominate the Gomal and
Waziristan; but on the formation of the North- West Frontier
Province in 1901 it was decided to replace these troops by the
South Waziristan militia, who now secure the safety of the
GOMARUS, FRANZ (1563-1641), Dutch theologian, was born
at Bruges on the 30th of January 1563. His parents, having
embraced the principles of the Reformation, emigrated to the
Palatinate in 1578, in order to enjoy freedom to profess their
new faith, and they sent their son to be educated at Strassburg
under Johann Sturm (1507-1589). He remained there three
years, and then went in 1580 to Neustadt, whither the professors
of Heidelberg had been driven by the elector-palatine because
they were not Lutherans. Here his teachers in theology were
Zacharius Ursinus (1 534-1 583), Hieronymus Zanchius (1560-
1590), and Daniel Tossanus (1541-1602). Crossing to England
towards the end of 1 582, he attended the lectures of John Rainolds
( 1 540-1607) at Oxford, and those of William Whitaker (1548-
1595) at Cambridge. He graduated at Cambridge in 1584, and
then went to Heidelberg, where the faculty had been by this time
re-established. He was pastor of a Reformed Dutch church in
Frankfort from 1587 till 1593, when the congregation was
dispersed by persecution. In 1504 he was appointed professor
of theology at Leiden, and before going thither received from
the university of Heidelberg the degree of doctor. He taught
quietly at Leiden till 1603, when Jakobus Arminius came to be
one of his colleagues in the theological faculty, and began to
teach Pelagian doctrines and to create a new party in the uni-
versity. Gomarus immediately set himself earnestly to oppose
these views in his classes at college, and was supported by
Johann B. Bogermann (1570-1637), who afterwards became
professor of theology at Franeker. Arminius " sought to make
election dependent upon faith, whilst they sought to enforce
absolute predestination as the rule of faith, according to which
the whole Scriptures are to be interpreted" (J. A. Dorner,
History of Protestant Theology, i. p. 417) . Gomarus then became
the leader of the opponents of Arminius, who from that circum-
stance came to be known as Gomarists. He engaged twice in
personal disputation with Arminius in the assembly of the
estates of Holland in 1608, and was one of five Gomarists who
met five Arminians or Remonstrants in the same assembly of
1609. On the death of Arminius shortly after this time, Konrad
Vorstius ( 1 560-1622), who sympathized with his views, was
appointed to succeed him, in spite of the keen opposition of
Gomarus and his friends; and Gomarus took his defeat so ill
that he resigned his post, and went to Middleburg in 161 i, where
he became preacher at the Reformed church, and taught theology
and Hebrew in the newly founded IUustre Schule. From this
place he was called in 1614 to a chair of theology at Saumur,
where he remained four years, and then accepted a call as
professor of theology and Hebrew to Groningen, where he stayed
till his death on the nth of January 1641. He took a leading
part in the synod of Dort, assembled in 1618 to judge of the
doctrines of Arminius. He was a man of ability, enthusiasm
and learning, a considerable Oriental scholar, and also a keen
controversialist. He took part in revising the Dutch translation
of the Old Testament in 1633, and after his death a book by him,
called the Lyra Davidis, was published, which sought to explain
the principles of Hebrew metre, and which created some con-
troversy at the time, having been opposed by Louis Cappel.
His works were collected and published in one volume folio,
in Amsterdam in 1645. He was succeeded at Groningen in 1643
by his pupil Samuel Maresius (1 509-1673). '
GOMBERVILLE, MARIN LE ROY, Sieur du Parc et de
(1600- 1 6 74), French novelist and miscellaneous writer, was born
at Paris in 1600. At fourteen years of age he wrote a volume
of verse, at twenty a Discours sur Vhistoire and at twenty-two
a pastoral, La CarithSe, which is really a novel. The persons in
it, though still disguised as shepherds and shepherdesses, repre-
sent real persons for whose identification the author himself
provides a key. This was followed by a more ambitious attempt,
Polexandre (5 vols. 1632-1637). The hero wanders through the
world in search of the island home of the princess Alcidiane.
It contains much history and geography; the travels of Polex-
andre extending to such unexpected places as Benin, the Canary
Islands, Mexico and the Antilles, and incidentally we learn all that
was then known of Mexican history. CythtorU (4 vols.) appeared
in 1 630-1 642, and in 165 1 the Jeune Alcidiane, intended to undo
any harm the earlier novels may have done, for Gomberville
became a Jansenist and spent the last twenty-five years of his
life in pious retirement. He was one of the earliest and most
energetic members of the Academy. He died in Paris on the
14th of June 1674.
GOMER, the biblical name of a race appearing in the table
of nations (Gen. x. 2), as the " eldest son " of Japheth and the
" father " of Ashkenaz, Riphath and Togarmah; and in Ezek.
xxxviii. 6 as a companion of " the house of Togarmah in the
uttermost parts of the north," and an ally of Gog; both Gomer
and Togarmah being credited with " hordes," 1 E.V., ix.
" bands " or " armies." The " sons " of Gomer are probably
tribes of north-east Asia Minor and Armenia, and Gomer is
identified with the Cimmerians. These are referred to in cunei-
form inscriptions under the Assyrian name gimmira (gimirrai)
as raiding Asia Minor from the north and north-east of the Black
1 T*5 AgapK a word peculiar to Ezekiel, Clarendon Press Heb.
Lex.
GOMERA— GOMM
229
Sea, and overrunning Lydia in the 7th century b. c. (see
Cikmerh, Scythia, Lydia). . They do not seem to have made
any permanent settlements, unless some such are indicated by
the fact that the Armenians called Cappadocia Gamir. It is,
however, suggested that this name is borrowed from the Old
Testament. 1
The name Gomer (Gomer bath Diblaim) was also borne by the
unfaithful wife of Hosea, whom he pardoned and took back (Hosea
i. 3). Hosea uses these incidents as symbolic of the sin, punishment
and redemption of Israel, but there is no need to regard Gomer as a
purely imaginary person. (W. H. Bb.)
GOMERA, an island in the Atlantic Ocean, forming part of
the Spanish archipelago of the Canary Islands (q.v.). Pop.
(1000) 15,358; area 144 sq. m. Gomera lies 20 m. W.S.W. of
Teneriffe. Its greatest length is about 23 m. The coast is
precipitous and the interior mountainous, but Gomera has the
most wood and is the best watered of the group. The inhabitants
are very poor. Dromedaries are bred on Gomera in large
numbers. San Sebastian (3187) is the chief town and a port.
It was visited by Columbus on his first voyage of discovery in.
1492.
GOMEZ, DIOGO (Diego) (fl. 1440-148 2), Portuguese seaman,
explorer and writer. We first trace him as a cavalleiro of the
royal household; in 1440 he was appointed receiver of the royal
customs — in 1466 judge — at Cintra (juiz das causas e feitorias
contadas de Cintra) ; on the 5th of March 1482 he was confirmed
in the last-named office. He wrote, especially for the benefit
of Martin Behaim, a Latin chronicle of great value, dealing with
the life and discoveries of Prince Henry the Navigator, and
divided into three parts: (1) De prima inventione Guineae;
(2) De insults primo inventis in mare (sic) Occidentis; (3) De
inventione insularum de Azores. This chronicle contains the
only contemporary account of the rediscovery of the Azores
by the Portuguese in Prince Henry's service, and is also note-
worthy for its clear ascription to the prince of deliberate scientific
and commercial purpose in exploration. For, on the one hand,
the infante sent out his caravels to search for new lands (ad
quacrendas terras) from his wish to know the more distant parts
of the western ocean, and in the hope of finding islands or terra
firma beyond the limits laid down by Ptolemy (ultra descrip-
tionem Tolomei); on the other hand, his information as to the
native trade from Tunis to Timbuktu and the Gambia' helped
to inspire his persistent exploration of the West African coast —
" to seek those lands by way of the sea." Chart and quadrant
were used on the prince's vessels, as by Gomez himself on reach-
ing the Cape Verde Islands; Henry, at the time of Diogo's first
voyage, was in correspondence with an Oran merchant who
kept him informed upon events even in the Gambia hinterland;
and, before the discovery of the Senegal anil Cape Verde in 1445,
Gomez' royal patron had already gained reliable information
of some route to Timbuktu. In the first part of his chronicle
Gomez tells how, no long time after the disastrous expedition
of the Danish nobleman " Vallarte " (Adalbert) in 1448, he was
sent out in command of three vessels along the West African
coast, accompanied by one Jacob, an Indian interpreter, to be
employed in the event of reaching India. After passing the Rio
Grande, beyond Cape Verde, strong currents checked his course;
his officers and men feared that they were approaching the
extremity of the ocean, and he put back to the Gambia. He
ascended this river a considerable distance, to the negro town of
" Cantor," whither natives came from " Kukia " and Timbuktu
for trade; he gives elaborate descriptions of the negro world
he had now penetrated, refers to the Sierra Leone (" SerraLyoa ")
Mountains, sketches the course of this range, and says much of
Kukia (in the upper Niger basin?), the centre of the West African
gold trade, and the resort of merchants and caravans from Tunis,
Fez, Cairo and " all the land of the Saracens." Mahommedan-
ism was already dominant at the Cambria estuary, but Gomez
seems to have won over at least one important chief, with his
court, to Christianity and Portuguese allegiance. Another
African voyage, apparently made in 1462, two years after Henry
1 A. Jeremias, Das A.T. im Lichte des alien Orients, pp. 145 f»
the Navigator's death (though assigned by some to 1460), resulted
in a fresh discovery of the Cape Verde Islands, already found by
Cadamosto (q.v.). To the island of Santiago Gomez, like his
Venetian forerunner, claims to have given its present name.
His narrative is a leading authority on the last illness and death
of Prince Henry, as well as on the life, achievements and pur-
poses of the latter; here alone is recorded what appears to have
been the earliest of the navigator's exploring ventures, that
which under Joao de Trasto reached Grand Canary in 141 5.
Of Gomez* chronicle there is only one MS., viz. Cad. Hisp. 27, in the
Hof- und Staats-Bibliothek, Munich; the original Latin text was
printed by Schmeller " Cber Valentim Fernandez Alemao " in the
Abhandlungen der philosoph.-philolog. Kl. der bayerisch. Akademie der
Wissenschaften, vol. iv., part hi. (Munich, 1847) ; see also Soph us Ruge,
" Die Entdeckung der Azoren," pp. 149-180 (esp. 178-179) in the
27th Jahresbericht des Vereins fur Erdkunde (Dresden, 1901); Jules
Mees, Histoire de la dicouverte des ties Acores, pp. 44-45, 125- 127 (Ghent ,
ipoi); R. H. Major, Life of Prince Henry the Navigator, pp. xviii.,
xix., 64-65, 287-299, 303-305 (London, 1868) ; C. R. Beazley, Prince
Henry the Navt&tior, 289-298, 304-305 ; and Introduction to Azurara's
Discovery and Conquest of Guinea, ii. f iv., xiv., xxv.-xxvii., xcii.-xcvu
(London, 1899). (C. R. B.)
GOMEZ DE AVELLANEDA, GERTRUDIS (1814-1873).
Spanish dramatist and poet, was born at Puerto Principe
(Cuba) on the 23rd of March 1814, and removed to Spain in 1836.
Her Poesias liricas (1841), issued with a laudatory preface by
Gallego, made a most favourable impression and were republished
with additional poems in 1850. In 1846 she married a diplo-
matist named 'Pedro Sabater, became a widow within a year,
and in 1853 married Colonel Domingo Verdugo. Meanwhile
she had published Sab (1839), Guatimozin (1846), and other
novels of no great importance. She obtained, however, a series
of successes on the stage with Alfonso Munio (1844), a tragedy
in the new romantic manner; with Satil (1849), a biblical drama
indirectly suggested by Alfieri; and with Baltasar (1858), a
piece which bears some resemblance to Byron's Sardanapalus.
Her commerce with the world had not diminished her natural
piety, and, on the death of her second husband, she found so
much consolation in religion that she had thoughts of entering
a convent. She died at Madrid on the 2nd of February 1873,
full of mournful forebodings as to the future of her adopted
country. It is impossible to agree with Villemain that " le
gSnie de don Luis de Leon et de sainte Th6rese a reparu sous le
voile funebre de Gomez de Avellaneda," for she has neither the
monk's mastery of poetic form not the nun's sublime simplicity of
soul. She has a grandiose tragical vision of life, a vigorous
eloquence rooted in pietistic pessimism, a dramatic gift effective
in isolated acts or scenes; but she is deficient in constructive
power and in intellectual force, and her lyrics, though instinct
with melancholy beauty, or the tenderness of resigned devotion,
too often lack human passion and sympathy. The edition of her
Obras literarias (5 vols., 1869-1871), still incomplete, shows a
scrupulous care for minute revision uncommon in Spanish
writers; but her emendations are seldom happy. But she is
interesting as a link between the classic and romantic schools of
poetry, and, whatever her artistic shortcomings, she has no rivals
of her own sex in Spain during the 19th century.
GOMM, SIR WILLIAM MAYNARD (1784-1875), British
soldier, was gazetted to the 9th Foot at the age of ten, in recog-
nition of the services of his father, Lieut. -Colonel William Gomm,
who was killed in the attack on Guadaloupe (1794). He joined
his regiment as a lieutenant in 1799, and fought in Holland under
the duke of York, and subsequently was with Pulteney's Ferrol
expedition. In 1803 he became Captain, and shortly afterwards
qualified as a staff officer at the High Wycombe military college.
On the general staff he was with Cathcart at Copenhagen, with
Wellington in the Peninsula, and on Moore's staff at Corunna.
He was also on Chatham's staff in the disastrous Walcheren
expedition of 1809. In 1810 he rejoined the Peninsular army as
Leith's staff officer, and took part in all the battles of 1810,
181 1 and 181 2, winning his majority after Fuentes d'Onor and
his lieutenant-colonelcy at Salamanca. His careful reconnais-
sances and skilful leading were invaluable to Wellington in the
Vittoria campaign, and to the end of the war he was one of the
23°
GOMPERS— GONCHAROV
most trusted men of his staff. His reward was a transfer to the
Coldstream Guards and the K.C.B. In the Waterloo campaign
he served on the staff of the 5th British Division. From the
peace until 1839 he was employed on home service, becoming
colonel in 1829 and major-general in 1837. From 1839 to l8 4 2
he commanded the troops in Jamaica. He became lieutenant-
general in 1846, and was sent out to be commander-in-chief in
India, arriving only to find that his appointment had been
cancelled in favour of Sir Charles Napier, whom, however, he
eventually succeeded (1850-1855). In 1854 he became general
and in 1868 field marshal. In 1872 he was appointed constable
of the Tower, and he died in 1875. He was twice married, but
had no children. His Letters and Journals were published by
F. C. Carr-Gomm in 1881. Five " Field Marshal Gomm "
scholarships were afterwards founded in his memory at Keble
College, Oxford.
GOMPERS, SAMUEL (1850- ), American labour leader,
was born in London on the 27th of January 1850. He was
put to work in a shoe-factory when ten years old, but soon
became apprenticed to a cigar-maker, removed to New York
in 1863, became a prominent member of the International
Cigar-makers' Union, was its delegate at the convention of the
Federation of Organized Trade and Labor Unions of the United
States and Canada, later known as the American Federation of
Labor, of which he became first president in 1882. He was
successively re-elected up to 1895, when the opposition of the
Socialist Labor Party, then attempting to incorporate the
Federation into itself, secured his defeat; he was re-elected
in the following year. In 1894 he became editor of the Federa-
tion's organ, The American Federationist.
GOMPERZ, THEODOR (1832- ), German philosopher and
classical scholar, was born at Brunn on the 29th of March 1832.
He studied at Brunn and at Vienna under Herman Bonitz.
Graduating at Vienna in 1867 he became Privatdozent, and
subsequently professor of classical philology (1873). In 1882
he was elected a member of the Academy of Science. He
received the degree of Doctor of Philosophy honoris causa from
the university of Konigsberg, and Doctor of Literature from
the universities of Dublin and Cambridge, and became corre-
spondent for several learned societies. His principal works are:
Demosthenes der Staatsmann (1864), Philodemi de ira liber (1864),
Traumdeutung und Zauberei (1866), Herkulanische Studien
(1865-1866), Beitrage zur Kritik und Erklarung griech. Schrift-
steller (7 vols., 1875-1900), Neue Bruchstiicke Epikurs (1876),
Die Bruchstiicke der griech. Tragiker und Cobets neueste kritische
Manier (1878), Herodoteische Studien (1883), Ein bisher unbe-
kanntes griech. Schriftsystem (1884), Zu Philodems Biichern
von der Musik (1885), Uber den Abschluss^des herodoteischen
Geschichtswerkes (1886), Platonische Aufsatze (3 vols., 1887-1905),
Zu Heraklits Lehre und den Vberresten seines Werkes (1887),
Zu Aristoteles 9 Poelik (2 parts, 1888-1896), Uber die Charaktere
Theophrasts (1888), Nachlese zu den BruchstUcken der griech.
Tragiker (1888), Die Apologie der Heilkunsl (1890), Philodem
und die asthctischen Schriften der herculanischen Bibliothek (1891),
DieSchrift vomStaatswesen der Athener (1891), Die jiingst entdeckten
Vberreste einer den Platonischen Phddon enthaltenden Papyrus-
rolle (1892), Aus der Hekale des Kallimachos (1893), Essays
und Erinnerungen (1905). He supervised a translation of J. S.
Mill's complete works (12 vols., Leipzig, 1869-1880), and
wrote a life (Vienna, 1889) of Mill. His Griechische Denker:
Geschichte der antiken Philosophie (vols. L and ii., Leipzig, 1893
and 1902) was translated into English by L. Magnus (vol. L, 1901).
G ON AG U AS (" borderers "), descendants of a very old cross
between the Hottentots and the Kaffirs, on the " ethnical divide "
between the two races, apparently before the arrival of the
whites in South Africa. They have been always a despised race
and regarded as outcasts by the Bantu peoples. They were
threatened with extermination during the Kaffir wars, but were
protected by the British. At present they live in settled com-
munities under civil magistrates without any tribal organization,
and in some districts could be scarcely distinguished from the other
natives but for their broken Hottentot-Dutch-English speech.
GONfALVES DIAS, ANTONIO (1823-1864), Brazilian lyric
poet, was born near the town of Caxias, in Maranhao. From the
university of Coimbra, in Portugal, he returned in 1845 to his
native province, well-equipped with legal lore, but the literary
tendency which was strong within him led him to try his fortune
as an author at Rio de Janeiro. Here he wrote for the newspaper
press, ventured to appear as a dramatist, and in 1846 established
his reputation by a volume of poems — Primeiros Cantos — which
appealed to the national feelings of his Brazilian readers, were
remarkable for their autobiographic impress, and by their beauty
of expression and rhythm placed their author at the head of the
lyric poets of his country. In 1848 he followed up his success by
Segundos Cantos e sextilhas de Frei Antdo, in which, as the title
indicates, he puts a number of the pieces in the mouth of a simple
old Dominican friar; and in the following year, in fulfilment of
the duties of his new post as professor of Brazilian history in the
Imperial College of Pedro II. at Rio de Janeiro, he published an
edition of Berredo's Annaes historicos do Maranhao and added a
sketch of the migrations of the Indian tribes. A third volume of
poems, which appeared with the title of Ultimos Cantos in 185 1,
was practically the poet's farewell to the service of the muse, for
he spent the next eight years engaged under government patronage
in studying the state of public instruction in the north and the
educational institutions of Europe. On his return to Brazil in
i860 he was appointed a member of an expedition for the explora-
tion of the province of Ceari, was forced in 1862 by the state of
his health to try the effects of another visit to Europe, and died in
September 1864, the vessel that was carrying him being wrecked
off his native shores. While in Germany he published at Leipzig
a complete collection of his lyrical poems, which went through
several editions, the four first cantos of an epic poem called Os
Tymbiras (1857) and a Diccionario da lingua Tupty (1858).
A complete edition of the works of Dias has made its appearance
at Rio de Janeiro. See Wolf, Brisil UtteWaire (Berlin, 1863); Inno-
cencio de Silva, Diccionario bibliographico portuguez, viii. 157;
Sotero dos Reis, Curso de liUeratura portugueza e braziletra,
iv. (Maranhao, 1868); Jose* Verissimo, Estudos de literatura
brazileira, segunda serie (Rio, 1901).
GONCHAROV, IVAN ALEXANDROVICH (1812-1891), Rus-
sian novelist, was born 6/18 July 181 2, being the son of a rich
merchant in the town of Simbirsk. At the age of ten he was
placed in one of the gymnasiums at Moscow, from which he passed,
though not without some difficulty on account of his ignorance
of Greek, into the Moscow University. He read many French
works of fiction, and published a translation of one of the novels
of Eugene Sue. During his university career he devoted himself
to study, taking no interest in the political and Socialistic agitation
among his fellow-students. He was first employed as secretary to
the governor of Simbirsk, and afterwards in the ministry of
finance at St Petersburg. Being absorbed in bureaucratic work,
Goncharov paid no attention to the social questions then ardently
discussed by such men as Herzen, Aksakov and Bielinski. He
began his literary career by publishing translations from Schiller,
Goethe and English novelists. His first original work was
Obuiknovennayalstoria, " A Common Story " (1847). * n l8 5<> he
sailed to Japan as secretary to Admiral Putiatin for the purpose of
negotiating a commercial treaty, and on his return to Russia he
published a description of the voyage under the title of " The
Frigate Pallada. " His best work is Oblomov (1857), which exposed
the laziness and apathy of the smaller landed gentry in Russia
anterior to the reforms of Alexander II. Russian critics have
pronounced this work to be a faithful characterization of Russia
and the Russians. Dobrolubov said of it, " Oblomofka [the
country-seat of the Oblomovs] is our fatherland: something of
Oblomov is to be found in every one of us." ' Peesarev, another
celebrated critic, declared that " Oblomovism," as Goncharov
called the sum total of qualities with which he invested the hero
of his story, " is an illness fostered by the nature of the Slavonic
character and the life of Russian society." In 1858 Goncharov
was appointed a censor, and in 1868 he published another novel
called Obreev. He was not a voluminous writer, and during the
latter part of his life produced nothing of any importance. His
death occurred on 15/27 September 1891.
GONCOURT— GONDAR
231
GONCOURT, DE, a name famous in French literary history.
Edmond Louis Antoine Huot de Goncourt was born at
Nancy on the 26th of May 1822, and died at Champrosay on the
16th of July 1896. Jules Alfred Huot de Goncourt, his
brother, was born in Paris on the 17th of December 1830, and
died in Paris on the 20th of June 1870.
Writing always in collaboration, until the death of the younger,
it was their ambition to be not merely novelists, inventing a new
kind of novel, but historians; not merely historians, but the
historians of a particular century, and of what was intimate and
what is unknown in it ; to be also discriminating, indeed innovating,
critics of art, but of a certain section of art, the 18th century, in
France and Japan; and also to collect pictures and bibelots,
always of the French and Japanese 18th century. Their histories
(Portraits intimes du X VIII' stick (1857), La Femme au X VIII'
siecle (1862), La du Barry (1878), &c.) are made entirely out of
documents, autograph letters, scraps of costume, engravings,
songs, the unconscious self -revelations of the time; their three
volumes on V Art du XVIII' sihcle (1850-1875) deal with Watteau
and his followers in the same scrupulous, minutely enlightening
way, with all the detail of unpublished documents; and when
they came to write novels, it was with a similar attempt to give
the inner, undiscovered, minute truths of contemporary existence,
the inSdit of life. The same morbidly sensitive noting of the
irtfdit, of whatever came to them from their own sensations of
things and people around them, gives its curious quality to the
nine volumes of the Journal, 1887-1896, which will remain,
perhaps, the truest and most poignant chapter of human history
that they have written. Their novels, Soeur Philomene (1861),
Rente Mauperin (1864), Gertninie Lacerteux (1865), ManeUe
Salomon (1865), Madame Gervaisais (1869), and, by Edmond
alone, La FiUe Elisa (1878), Les Freres Zemganno (1879), La
Faustin (1882), Chtrie (1884), are, however, the work by which
they will live as artists. Learning something from Flaubert, and
teaching almost everything to Zola, they invented a new kind of
novel, and their novels are the result of a new vision of the world,
in which the very element of sight is decomposed, as in a picture
of Monet. Seen through the nerves, in this conscious abandon-
ment to the tricks of the eyesight, the world becomes a thing of
broken patterns and conflicting colours, and uneasy movement.
A novel of the Goncourts is made up of an infinite number of
details, set side by side, every detail equally prominent. While a
novel of Flaubert, for all its detail, gives above all things an
impression of unity , a novel of the Goncourts deliberately dispenses
with unity in order to give the sense of the passing of life, the
heat and form of its moments as they pass. It is written in little
chapters, sometimes no longer than a page, and each chapter is a
separate notation of some significant event, some emotion or sensa-
tion which seems to throw sudden light on the picture of a soul.
To the Goncourts humanity is as pictorial a thing as the world it
moves in; they do not search further than " the physical basis
of life," and they find everything that can be known of that
unknown force written visibly upon the sudden faces of little
incidents, little expressive moments* The soul, to them, is a
series of moods, which succeed one another, certainly without
any of the too arbitrary logic of the novelist who has conceived of
character as a solid or consistent thing. Their novels are hardly
stories at all, but picture-galleries, hung with pictures of the
momentary aspects of the world. French critics have complained
that the language of the Goncourts is no longer French, no longer
the French of the past; and this is true. It is their distinction —
the finest of their inventions — that, in order to render new
sensations, a new vision of things, they invented a new
language. (A. Sy.)
In his will Edmond de Goncourt left his estate for the endowment
of an academy, the formation of which was entrusted to MM.
Alphonse Daudet and Leon Hennique. The society was to consist of
ten members, each of whom was to receive anjannuity of 6000 francs,
and a yearly prize of 5000 francs was to be awarded to the author of
some work of fiction. Eight of the members of the new academy
were nominated in the will. They were: Alphonse Daudet, J. K.
Huysmans, L6on Hennique, Octave Mirbeau, the two brothers
J. H. Rosny, Gustave Geffroy and Paul Margueritte. On the 19th
of January 1903, after much litigation, the academy was constituted,
with E16mir Bourges, Lucien Descaves and Leon Daudet as members
in addition to those mentioned in de Goncourt 's will, the place of
Alphonse Daudet having been left vacant by his death in 1897.
On the brothers de Goncourt see the Journal des Goncourt already
cited; also M. A. Belloc (afterwards Lowndes) and M. L. Shedlock,
Edmond and Jules de Goncourt, with Letters and Leaves from their
Journals (1895) ; Alidor Delzant, Les Goncourt (1889) which contains
a valuable biBliography; Lettres de Jules de Goncourt (1888), with
preface by H. Ceard; R. Doumic, Portraits d'Scrivains (1892); Paul
Bourget, Nouveaux Essais de psychologic contemporaine (1886);
Smile Zola, Les Romanciers naturalistes (1881), &c.
GONDA, a town and district of British India, in the Fyzabad
division of the United Provinces. The town is 28 m. N.W. of
Fyzabad, and is an important junction on the Bengal & North-
western railway. The site on which it stands was originally a
jungle, in the centre of which was a cattle-fold (Gontha or Gothah),
where the cattle were enclosed at night as a protection against
wild beasts, and from this the town derives its name. Pop.
(1901) 15,811. The cantonments were abandoned in 1863.
The district of Gonda has an area of 2813 sq. m. It consists
of a vast plain with very slight undulations, studded with groves
of mango trees. The surface consists of a rich alluvial deposit
which is naturally divided into three great belts known as the
tarai or swampy tract, the uparhar or uplands, and the tarhar
or wet lowlands, all three being marvellously fertile. Several
rivers flow through the district, but only two, the Gogra and
Rapti, are of any commercial importance, the first being navigable
throughout the year, and the latter during the rainy season.
The country is dotted with small lakes, the water of which is
largely used for irrigation. On the outbreak of the Mutiny in
1857, the raja of Gonda, after honourably escorting the govern-
ment treasure to Fyzabad, joined the rebels. His estates, along
with those of the rani of Tulsipur, were confiscated, and conferred
as rewards upon the maharajas of Balrampur and Ajodhya, who
had remained loyal. In 1901 the population was 1,403,195,
showing a decrease of 4 % in one decade. The district is traversed
by the main line and three branches of the Bengal & North-
Western railway.
GONDAL, a native state of India, in the Kathiawar political
agency of Bombay, situated in the centre of the peninsula of
Kathiawar. Its area is 1024 sq. m.; pop. (1001) 162,859. The
estimated gross revenue is about £100,000, and the tribute
£7000. Grain and cotton are the chief products. The chief,
whose title is Thakur Sahib, is a Jadeja Rajput, of the same clan
as the Rao of Cutch. The Thakur Sahib, Sir Bhagvat Sinhji
(b. 1865), was educated at the Rajkot college, and afterwards
graduated in arts and medicine at the university of Edinburgh.
He published (in English) a Journal of a Visit to England and
A Short History of Aryan Medical Science. In 1892 he received
the honorary degree of D.C.L. of Oxford University. He was
created K.CJ.E. in 1887 and G.C.I.E. in 1897. The state has
long been conspicuous for its progressive administration. It
is traversed by a railway connecting it with Bhaunagar, Rajkot
and the sea-board. The town of Gondal is 23 m. by rail S. of
Rajkot; pop. (1001) 19,592.
GONDAR, properly Guendar, a town of Abyssinia, formerly
the capital of the Amharic kingdom, situated on a basaltic ridge
some 7500 ft. above the sea, about 21 m. N.E. of Lake Tsana,
a splendid view of which is obtained from the castle. Two
streams, the Angreb on the east side and the Gaha or Kaha on
the west, flow from the ridge, and meeting below the town, pass
onwards to the lake. In the early years of the 20th century the
town was much decayed, numerous ruins of castles, palaces
and churches indicating its former importance. It was never a
compact city, being divided into districts separated from each
other by open spaces. The chief quarters were those of the
Abun-Bed or bishop, the Etchege-Bed or chief of the monks,
the Debra Berhan or Church of the Light, and the Gemp or
castle. There was also a quarter for the Mahommedans. Gondar
was a small village when at the beginning of the 16th century
it was chosen by the Negus Sysenius (Seged I.) as the capital
of his kingdom. His son Fasilidas, or A'lem-Seged (1633-1667),
was the builder of the castle which bears his name. Later
emperors built other castles and palaces, the latest in date being
232
GONDOKORO— GONDOMAR
that of the Negus Yesu II. This was erected about 1736, at
which time Gondar appears to have been at the height of its
prosperity. Thereafter it suffered greatly from the civil wars
which raged in Abyssinia, and was more than once sacked. In
1868 it was much injured by the emperor Theodore, who did
not spare either the castle or the churches. After the defeat
of the Abyssinians at Debra Sin in August 1887 Gondar was
looted and fired by the dervishes under Abu Anga. Although
they held the town but a short time they inflicted very great
damage, destroying many churches, further damaging the castles
and carrying off much treasure. The population, estimated by
James Bruce in 1770 at 10,000 families, had dwindled in 1005
to about 7000. Since the pacification of the Sudan by the
British (1 886-1 889) there has been some revival of trade between
Gondar and the regions of the Blue Nile. Among the inhabitants
are numbers of Mahommedans, and there is a settlement of
Falashas. Cotton, cloth, gold and silver ornaments, copper
wares, fancy articles in bone and ivory, excellent saddles and
shoes are among the products of the local industry.
Unlike any other buildings in Abyssinia, the castles and
palaces of Gondar resemble, with some modifications, the
medieval fortresses of Europe, the style of architecture being
the result of the presence in the country of numbers of Portuguese.
The Portuguese were expelled by Fasilidas, but his castle was
built, by Indian workmen, under the superintendence of
Abyssinians who had learned something of architecture from the
Portuguese adventurers, helped possibly by Portuguese still in
the country. The castle has two storeys, is 90 ft. by 84 ft.,
has a square tower and circular domed towers at the corners.
The most extensive ruins are a group of royal buildings enclosed
in a wall. These ruins include the palace of Yesu II., which has
several fine chambers. Christian Levantines were employed in
its construction and it was decorated in part with Venetian
mirrors, &c. In the same enclosure is a small castle attributed
to Yesu I. The exterior walls of the castles and palaces named
are little damaged and give to Gondar a unique character among
African towns. Of the forty-four churches, all in the circular
Abyssinian style, which are said to have formerly existed in
Gondar or its immediate neighbourhood, Major Powell-Cotton
found only one intact in 1000. This church contained some
well-executed native paintings of St George and the Dragon,
The Last Supper, &c. Among the religious observances of the
Christians of Gondar is that of bathing in large crowds in the
Gaha on the Feast of the Baptist, and again, though in more
orderly fashion, on Christmas day.
See E. Ruppell, Reise in Abyssinien (Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1838-
1840); T. von Heuglin, Reise nach Abessinien (Jena, 1868); G.
Leiean, Voyage en Abyssinie (Paris, 1872); Achille Raffray, Afrique
crtentale; Abyssinie (Paris, 1876); P. H. G. Powell-Cotton, A
Sporting Trip through Abyssinia, chaps. 27-30 (London, 1902) ; and
Boll. Soc. Geog. Italtana for 1909. Views of the castle are given by
Heuglin, Raffray and Powell-Cotton.
GONDOKORO, a government station and trading-place on the
east bank of the upper Nile, in 4 54' N., 31 43' E. It is the
headquarters of the Northern Province of the (British) Uganda
protectorate, is 1070 m. by river S. of Khartum and 350 m.
N.N.W. in a direct line of Entebbe on Victoria Nyanza. The
station, which is very unhealthy, is at the top of a cliff 25 ft.
above the river-level. Besides houses for the civil and military
authorities and the lines for the troops, there are a few huts
inhabited by Bari, the natives of this part of the Nile. The
importance of Gondokoro lies in the fact that it is within a few
miles of the limit of navigability of the Nile from Khartum up
stream. From this point the journey to Uganda is continued
overland.
Gondokoro was first visited by Europeans in 1841-1842,
when expeditions sent out by Mehemet Ali, pasha of Egypt,
ascended the Nile as far as the foot of the rapids above Gondokoro.
It soon became an ivory and slave-trading centre. In 185 1 an
Austrian Roman Catholic mission was established here, but it
was abandoned in 1859. It was at Gondokoro that J. H. Speke
and J. A. Grant, descending the Nile after their discovery of its
source, met, on the 15th of February 1863, Mr (afterwards Sir)
Samuel Baker and his wife who were journeying up the river.
In 187 1 Baker, then governor-general of the equatorial provinces
of Egypt, established a military post at Gondokoro which he
named Ismailia, after the then khedive. Baker made this post
his headquarters, but Colonel (afterwards General) C. G. Gordon,
who succeeded him in 1874, abandoned the station on account
of its unhealthy site, removing to Lado. Gondokoro, however,
remained a trading-station. It fell into the hands of the Mahdists
in 1885. After the destruction of the Mahdist power in 1898
Gondokoro was occupied by British troops and has since formed
the northernmost post on the Nile of the Uganda protectorate
(see Sudan; Nile; and Uganda).
GONDOMAR, DIEGO SARMIENTO DE ACUfiA, Count of
(1567-1626), Spanish diplomatist, was the son of Garcia Sarmiento
de Sotomayor, corregidor of Granada, and governor of the
Canary Islands, by his marriage with Juana de Acuna, an
heiress. Diego Sarmiento, their eldest son, was born in the
parish of Gondomar, in the bishopric of Tuy, Galicia, Spain,
on the 1st of November 1567. He inherited wide estates both
in Galicia and in Old Castile. In 1583 he was appointed by
Philip IL to the military command of the Portuguese frontier
and sea coast of Galicia. He is said to have taken an active
part in the repulse of an English coast-raid in 1585, and in the
defence of the country during the unsuccessful English attack
on Corunna in 1589. In 1593 he was named corregidor of Toro.
In 1603 he was sent from court to Vigo to superintend the
distribution of the treasure brought from America by two
galleons which were driven to take refuge at Vigo, and on his
return was named a member of the board of finance. In 1609
he was again employed on the coast of Galicia, this time to repel
a naval attack made by the Dutch. Although he held military
commands, and administrative posts, bis habitual residence was
at Valladolid, where he owned the Casa del Sol and was already
collecting his fine library. He was known as a courtier, and
apparently as a friend of the favourite, the duke of Lerma.
In 161 2 he was chosen as ambassador in England, but did not
leave to take up his appointment till May 16 13.
His reputation as a diplomatist is based on his two periods
of service in England from 1613 to 1618 and from 1619 to 1622.
The excellence of his latinity pleased the literary tastes of James
I., whose character he judged with remarkable insight. He
flattered the king's love of books and of peace, and he made
skilful use of his desire for a matrimonial alliance between the
prince of Wales and a Spanish infanta. The ambassador's
task was to keep James from aiding the Protestant states
against Spain and the house of Austria, and to avert English
attacks on Spanish possessions in America. His success made
him odious to the anti-Spanish and puritan parties. The active
part he took in promoting the execution of Sir Walter Raleigh
aroused particular animosity. He was attacked in pamphlets,
and the dramatist Thomas Middleton made him a principal
person in the strange political play A Game of Chess, which was
suppressed by order of the council. In 161 7 Sarmiento was
created count of Gondomar. In 161 8 he obtained leave to come
home for his health, but was ordered to return by way of Flanders
and France with a diplomatic mission. In 1619 he returned to
London, and remained till 1622, when he was allowed to retire.
On his return he was named a member of the royal council and
governor of one of the king's palaces, and was appointed to a
complimentary mission to Vienna. Gondomar was in Madrid
when the prince of Wales — afterwards Charles I. — made his
journey there in search of a wife. He died at the house of the
constable of Castile, near Haro in the Rioja, on the 2nd of
October 1626.
Gondomar was twice married, first to his niece Beatrix
Sarmiento, by whom he had no children, and then to his cousin
Constanza de Acuna, by whom he had four sons and three
daughters. The hatred he aroused in England, which was
shown by constant jeers at the intestinal complaint from which
he suffered for years, was the best tribute to the zeal with which
he served his own master. Gondomar collected, both before he
came to London and during his residence there, a very fine
GONDOPHARES—GONGORA Y ARGOTE
233
library of printed books and manuscripts. Orders for the
arrangement, binding and storing of his books in his house at
Valladolid take a prominent place in his voluminous correspond-
ence. In 1785 the library was ceded by his descendant and
representative the marquis of Malpica to King Charles III.,
and it is now in the Royal Library at Madrid. A portrait of
Gondomar, attributed to Valazquez, was formerly at Stowe.
It was mezzotinted by Robert Cooper.
Authorities.— Gondomar's missions to England are largely dealt
with in S. R. Gardiner's History of England (London, 1 883-1 884).
In Spanish, Don Pascual de Gayangos wrote a useful biographical
introduction to a publication of a few of his letters — Cinco Cartas
politico4iterarias be Don Diego Sarmiento de Acufia, Conde de
Gondomar, issued at Madrid 1869 by the Sociedad de BibliSfUos of the
Spanish Academy; and there is a life in English by F. H. Lyon
(1910). (D. H.)
GONDOPHARES, or GoNDOifeERNES, an Indo-Parthian king
who ruled over the Kabul valley and the Punjab. By means
of his coins his accession may be dated with practical certainty
at a.d. 21, and his reign lasted for some thirty years. He is
notable for his association with St Thomas in early Christian
tradition. The legend is that India fell to St Thomas, who
showed unwillingness to start until Christ appeared in a vision
and ordered him to serve King Gondophares and build him a
palace. St Thomas accordingly went to India and suffered
martyrdom there. This legend is not incompatible with what
is known of the chronology of Gondophares' reign.
GONDWANA, the historical name for a large tract of hilly
country in India which roughly corresponds with the greater
part of the present Central Provinces. It is derived from the
aboriginal tribe of Gonds, who still form the largest element
in the population and who were at one time the ruling power.
From the 12th to as late as the 18th century three or four Gond
dynasties reigned over this region with a degree of civilization
that seems surprising when compared with the existing condition
of the people. They built large walled cities, and accumulated
immense treasures of gold and silver and jewels. On the whole,
they maintained their independence fairly well against the
Mahommedans, being subject only to a nominal submission and
occasional payment of tribute. But when the Mahratta invaders
appeared, soon after the beginning of the 18th century, the Gond
kingdoms offered but a feeble resistance and the aboriginal
population fled for safety to the hills. Gondwana was thus
included in the dominions of the Bhonsla raja of Nagpur, from
whom it finally passed to the British in 1853.
The Gonds, who call themselves £oitur or " highlanders,"
are the most numerous tribe of Dravidian race in India. Their
total number in 1901 was 2,286,913, of whom nearly two millions
were enumerated in the Central Provinces, where they form 20%
of the population. They have a language of their own, with
many dialects, which is intermediate between the two great
Dravidian languages, Tamil and Telugu. It is unwritten and
has no literature, except a little provided by the missionaries.
More than half the Gonds in the Central Provinces have now
abandoned their own dialects, and have adopted Aryan forms
of speech. This indicates the extent to which they have become
Hinduized. The higher class among them, called Raj Gonds,
have been definitely admitted into Hinduism as a pure cultivating
caste; but the great majority still retain the animistic beliefs,
ceremonial observances and impure customs of food which are
common to most of the aboriginal tribes of India.
GONFALON (the late French and Italian form, also found in
other Romanic languages, of gonfanon y which is derived from
the O.H. Ger. gundfano, gund, war, and fano, flag, cf . Mod. Ger.
Fahne f and English " vane "), a banner or standard of the
middle ages. It took the form of a small pennon attached below
the head of a knight's lance, or when used in religious processions
and ceremonies* or as the banner of a city or state or military
order, it became a many-streamered rectangular ensign, fre-
quently swinging from a cross-bar attached to a pole. This is
the most frequent use of the word. The title of " gonfalonier,"
the bearer of the gonfalon, was in the middle ages both military
and civil. It was borne by the counts of Vexin, as leaders of the
men of Saint Denis, and when the Vexin was incorporated in the
kingdom of France the title of Gonfalonier de Sant Denis passed
to the kings of France, who thus became the bearers of the
" oriflamme," as the banner of St Denis was called. " Gon-
falonier " was the title of civic magistrates of various degrees
of authority in many of the city republics of Italy, notably of
Florence, Sienna and Lucca. At Florence the functions of the
office varied. At first the gonfaloniers were the leaders of the
various military divisions of the inhabitants. In 1293 was
created the office of gonfalonier of justice, who carried out the
orders of the signiory. By the end of the 14th century the
gonfalonier was the chief of the signiory. At Lucca he was the
chief magistrate of the republic. At Rome two gonfaloniers
must be distinguished, that of the church and that of the
Roman people; both offices were conferred by the pope. The
first was usually granted to sovereigns, who were bound to
defend the church and lead her armies. The second bore a
standard with the letters S.P.Q.R. on any enterprise undertaken
in the name of the church and the people of Rome, and also at
ceremonies, processions, &c. This was granted by the pope to
distinguished families. Thus the Cesarini held the office till
the end of the 17th century. The Pamphili held it from 1686
till 1764.
GONG (Chinese, gong-gong or tam-tam), a sonorous or musical
instrument of Chinese origin and manufacture, made in the form
of a broad thin disk with a deep rim. Gongs vary in diameter
from about 20 to 40 in., and they are made of bronze containing
a maximum of 22 parts of tin to 78 of copper; but in many cases
the proportion of tin is considerably less. Such an alloy, when
cast and allowed to cool slowly, is excessively brittle, but it can be
tempered and annealed in a peculiar manner. If suddenly cooled
from a cherry-red heat, the alloy becomes so soft that it can be
hammered and worked on the lathe, and afterwards it may be
hardened by re-heating and cooling it slowly. In these properties
it will be observed, the alloy behaves in a manner exactly opposite
to steel, and the Chinese avail themselves of the known peculiari-
ties for preparing the thin sheets of which gongs are made. They
cool their castings of bronze in water, and after hammering out
the alloy in the soft state, harden the finished gongs by heating
them to a cherry-red and allowing them to cool slowly. These
properties of the alloy long remained a secret, said to have been
first discovered in Europe by Jean Pierre Joseph d'Arcet at the
beginning of the 19th century. Riche and Champion are said
to have succeeded in producing tam-tams having all the qualities
and timbre of the Chinese instruments. The composition of the
alloy of bronze used for making gongs is stated to be as follows: 1
Copper, 76-52; Tin, 22-43; Lead, 0-62; Zinc, 0-23; Iron, 0-18.
The gong is beaten with a round, hard, leather-covered pad,
fitted on a short stick or handle. It emits a peculiarly sonorous
sound, its complex vibrations bursting into a wave-like succession
of tones, sometimes shrill, sometimes deep. In China and Japan
it is used in religious ceremonies, state processions, marriages
and other festivals; and it is said that the Chinese can modify
its tone variously by particular ways of striking the disk.
The gong has been effectively used in the orchestra to intensify the
impression of fear and horror in melodramatic scenes. The tam-tam
was first introduced into a western orchestra by Francois Joseph
Gossec in the funeral march composed at the death of Mirabeau in
1 79 1. Gaspard Spontini used it in La Vestale (1807), in the finale of
act II., an impressive scene in which the high pontiff pronounces the
anathema on the faithless vestal. It was also used in the funeral
music played when the remains of Napoleon the Great were brought
back to France in 1840. Meyerbeer made use of the instrument in the
scene of the resurrection of the three nuns in Robert le diable. Four
tam-tams are now used at Bayreuth in Parsifal to reinforce the bell
instruments, although there is no indication given in the score (see
Parsifal). The tam-tam has been treated from its ethnographical
side by Franz Heger. 8 (K. S.)
G6NG0RA Y ARGOTE, LUIS DE (1 561-1627), Spanish lyric
poet, was born at Cordova on the nth of July 1561, His father,
Francisco de Argote, was corregidor of that city; the poet early
adopted the surname of his mother, Leonora de G6ngora, who
1 See Lagrande Encyclopedie, vol. viii. (Paris), " Bronze," p. 146a.
2 Alte MetaUtrommeln aus Sudost-Asien (Leipzig, 1902), Bd. i.,
Text; Bd. ii., Tafeln.
xn. 8 a
234
GONIOMETER
was descended from an ancient family. At the age of fifteen he
entered as a student of civil and canon law at the university of
Salamanca; but he obtained no academic distinctions and was
content with an ordinary pass degree. He was already known
as a poet in 1585 when Cervantes praised him in the Galatea; in
this same year he took minor orders, and shortly afterwards
was nominated to a canonry at Cordova. About 1 605-1 606
he was ordained priest, and thenceforth resided principally at
Valladolid and Madrid, where, as a contemporary remarks, he
" noted and stabbed at everything with his satirical pen." His
circle of admirers was now greatly enlarged; but the acknowledg-
ment accorded to his singular genius was both slight and tardy.
Ultimately indeed, through the influence of the duke of Sandoval,
he obtained an appointment as honorary chaplain to Philip III.,
but even this slight honour he was not permitted long to enjoy.
In 1626 a severe illness, which seriously impaired his memory,
compelled his retirement to Cordova, where he died on the 24th
of May 1627. An edition of his poems was published almost
immediately after his death by Juan Lopez de Vicufia; the
frequently reprinted edition by Hozes did not appear till 1633.
The collection consists of numerous sonnets, odes, ballads, songs
for the guitar, and of certain larger poems, such as the Soledades
and the Polifemo. Too many of them exhibit that tortuous
elaboration of style (estilo culto) with which the name of G6ngora
is inseparably associated; but though G6ngora has been justly
censured for affected Latinisms, unnatural transpositions, strained
metaphors and frequent obscurity, it must be admitted that he
was a man of rare genius, — a fact cordially acknowledged by
those of his contemporaries who were most capable of judging.
It was only in the hands of those who imitated G6ngora's style
without inheriting his genius that culteranismo became absurd.
Besides his lyrical poems G6ngora is the author of a play entitled
Las Firmezas de Isabel and of two incomplete dramas, the
Comedia venatoria and El Doctor Carlino. The only satisfactory
edition of his works is that published by R. Foulche'-Delbose in
the Bibliotheca Hispanica.
See Edward Churton, GSngora (London, 1862, 2 vols.); M.
Gonzalez y Frances, GSngora racionero (Cordoba, 1895) ; M. Gonzalez
y Frances, Don Luis de GSngora vindtcando su fama ante el propio
obispo (C6rdoba, 1899) ; " Vingt-six Lettres de Gongora " in the Revue
hispanique, vol. x. pp. 184-225 (Paris, 1903).
GONIOMETER (from Gr. 7«i>£a, angle, and yJtrpov, measure),
an instrument for measuring the angles of crystals; there are two
kinds — the contact goniometer and the reflecting goniometer.
Nicolaus Stena in 1669 determined the interfacial angles of
quartz crystals by cutting sections perpendicular to the edges,
the plane angles of the sections being then the angles between the
faces which are perpendicular to the sections. The earliest instru-
ment was the contact goniometer devised by Carangeot in 1783-
The Contact Goniometer (or HandrGoniometer).— This consists of
two metal rules pivoted together at the centre of a graduated semi-
circle (fig. 1). The instrument is placed with its plane perpendicular
to an edge between
two faces of the
crystal to be meas-
ured, and the rules
are brought into
contact with the
faces; this is best
done by holding the
crystal up against
the light with the
edge in the line of
sight. The angle
between the rules,
aa read on the
graduated semi-
circle, then gives
the angle between
the two faces. The
rules are slotted, so that they may be shortened and their tips applied
to a crystal partly embedded in its matrix. The instrument repre-
sented in fig. 1 is practically the same in all its details as that made
for Carangeot, and it is employed at the present day for the approxi-
mate measurement of large crystals with dull and rough faces.
S. L. Penfield (1900) has devised some cheap and simple forms of
contact goniometer, consisting of jointed arms and protractors made
of cardboard or celluloid.
Fig. 1. — Contact Goniometer.
The Reflecting Goniometer. — This is an instrument of far greater
precision, and is always used for the accurate measurement of the
angles when small crystals with bright faces are available. As a rule,
the smaller the crystal the more even are its faces, and when these are
smooth and bright they reflect sharply denned images of a bright
object. By turning the crystal
about an axis parallel to the
edge between two faces, the
image reflected from a second
face may be brought into the
same position as that formerly
occupied by the image reflected
from the first face; the angle
through which the crystal has
been rotated, as determined by
a graduated circle to which the
crystal is fixed, is the angle
between the normals to the
two faces.
Several forms of instruments
depending on this principle
have been devised, the earliest
being the vertical-circle gonio-
meter of W. H. Wollaston,
made in 1800. This consists
of a circle m (fig. 2), graduated
to degrees of arc and reading
with the vernier h to minutes,
which turns with the milled
head / about a horizontal
axis. The crystal is attached _, , . . , ^. . ^ .
with wax (a mixture of bees- FlG - 2.— Vertical-Circle Goniometer,
wax and pitch) to the holder
g, and by means of the pivoted arcs it may be adjusted so that
the edge between two faces (a zone-axis) is parallel to, and coincident
with, die axis of the instrument. The crystal-holder and adj ustment-
arcs, together with the milled head 5, are carried on an axis which
passes through the hollow axis of the graduated circle, and may thus
be rotated independently of the circle. In use, the goniometer is
E laced directly opposite to a window, with its axis parallel to the
orizontal window-bars, and as far distant as possible. The eye is
C laced quite close to the crystal, and the image of an upper window-
ar (or better still a slit in a dark screen) as seen in the crystal-face
is made to coincide with a lower window-bar (or chalk mark on the
floor) as seen directly: this is done by turning the milled head 5,
the reading of the graduated circle having previously been observed.
Without moving the eye, the milled head t, together with the crystal,
is then rotated until the image from a second face is brought into the
same position ; the difference between the first and second readings
of the graduated circle will then give the angle between the normals
of the two faces.
Several improvements have been made on Wollaston's gonio-
meter. The adjustment-arcs have been modified; a mirror of black
glass fixed to the stand beneath the crystal gives a reflected image of
the signal, with
which the reflec- ^JL
tion from the
crystal can be
more conveni-
ently made to co-
incide; a telescope
provided with
cross-wires jjiyes
greater precision
to the direction
of the reflected
rays of light; and
with the telescope
a collimator has
sometimes been
used. P
A still greater
improvement was
effected by plac-
ing the graduated
circle in a hori-
zontal position,
as in the instru-
ments of E. L.
Malus (1810), F.
C. von Riese (1829) and J. Babinet (1839). Many forms of
the horizontal-circle goniometer have been constructed; they are
provided with a telescope and collimator, and in construction are
essentially the same as a spectrometer, with the addition of arrange-
ments for adjusting and centring the crystal. The instrument shown
in fie. 3 is made by R. Fuess of Berlin, It has four concentric axes,
which enable the crystal-holder A, together with the adjustment-
arcs B and centring-slides D, to be raised or lowered, or to he rotated
independently of the circle H; further, either the crystal-holder or
the telescope T may be rotated with the circle, while the other
Fig. 3. — Horizontal-Circle Goniometer.
GONTAUT— GONZAGA
235
remains fixed. The crystal is placed on the holder and adjusted
so that the edge (zone-axis) between two faces is coincident with the
axis of the instrument. Light from an incandescent gas-burner
passes through the slit of the collimator C, and the image of the slit
(signal) reflected from the crystal face is viewed in the telescope.
The clamp a and slow-motion screw F enable the image to be
brought exactly on the cross-wires of the telescope, and the position
of the circle with respect to the vernier is read through the lens.
The crystal and the circle are then rotated together until the image
from a second face is brought on the cross-wires of the telescope, and
the angle through which they have been turned is the angle between
the normals to the two faces. While measuring the angles between
the faces of crystals the telescope remains fixed dv the clamp 0, but
when this is released the .instrument may be used as a spectrometer
or ref ractometer for determining, by the method of minimum
deviation, the indices of refraction of an artificially cut prism or^of a
transparent crystal when the faces are suitably inclined to one
another.
With a one-circle goniometer, such as is described above, it is
necessary to mount and re-adjust the crystal afresh for the measure-
ment of each zone of faces {i.e. each set of faces intersecting in parallel
edges) ; with very small crystals this operation takes a considerable
time, and the minute faces are not readily identified again. Further,
in certain cases, it is not possible to measure the angles between zones,
nor to determine the position of small faces which do not lie in pro-
minent zones on the crystal. These difficulties have been overcome
by the use of a two-circle goniometer or theodolite-goniometer,
which as a combination of a vertical-circle goniometer and one with a
horizontal-circle was first employed by W. n. Miller in 18^4- Special
forms have been designed by £. S. Fedorov (1889), V. GoWscnmidt
(1893), S. Czapski (1803) and F. Stoeber (1898), which differ mainly
in the arrangement of the optical parts. In these instruments the
crystal is set up and adjusted once for all, with the axis of a prominent
zone parallel to the axis of either the horizontal or the vertical
circle. As a rule, only in this zone can the angles between the faces be
measured directly; the positions of all the other faces, which need
be observed only once, are fixed by the simultaneous readings of the
two circles. These readings, corresponding to the polar distance and
azimuth, or latitude and longitude readings of astronomical tele-
scopes, must be plotted on a projection before the symmetry of the
crystal is apparent; and laborious calculations are necessary in
order to determine the indices of the faces and the angles between
them, and the other constants of the crystal, or to test whether any
three faces are accurately in a zone.
These disadvantages are overcome by adding still another gradu-
ated circle to the instrument, with its axis perpendicular to the axis
of the vertical circle, thus forming a three-circle goniometer. With
such an instrument measurements may be made in any zone or
between any two faces without re-adiusting the crystal; further the
troublesome calculations are avoided, and, indeed, the instrument
may be used for solving spherical triangles. Different forms of
three-circle goniometers have been designed by G. F. H. Smith
(1899 and 1904), E. S. Fedorov (1900) and J. F. C. Klein (1900).
Besides being used as a one-, two-, or three-circle goniometer for
the measurement of the interfacial angles of crystals, and as a re-
fractometer for determining refractive indices by the prismatic
method or by total reflection, Klein's instrument, which is called a
polymeter, is fitted with accessory optical apparatus which enables
it to be used for examining a crystal in parallel or convergent polar-
ized light and for measuring the optic axial angle.
Goniometers of special construction have been devised for certain
purposes; for instance, the inverted horizontal-circle goniometer of
H. A. Miers (1905) for measuring crystals during their growth in the
mother-liauid. A. E. Tutton (1894) has combined a goniometer with
lapidaries appliances for cutting section-plates and prisms from
crystals accurately in any desired direction. The instrument
commonly employed for measuring the optic axial angle of biaxial
crystals is really a combination of a goniometer with a polariscope.
For the optical investigation of minute crystals under the microscope,
various forms of stage-goniometer with one, two or three graduated
circles have been constructed. An ordinary microscope fitted with
cross-wires and a rotating graduated stage serves the purpose of a
goniometer for measuring the plane angles of a crystal face or sectiori,
being the same in principle as the contact goniometer.
For fuller descriptions of goniometers reference may be made to
the text-books of Crystallography and Mineralogy, especially to
P. H. Groth, Physikaltsche Kryslallographie (4th ed., Leipzig, 1905).
See also C. Leiss, Die oplischen Instrumente der Firma R. Fuess, deren
Beschreibung, Justierung und Anwendung (Leipzig, 1899). (L. J. S.)
GONTAUT, MARIE JOSEPHINE LOUISE, Duchesse de
(1773-1857), was born in Paris on the 3rd of August 1773,
daughter of Augustin Francois, comte de Montaut-Navailles,
who had been governor of Louis XVI. and his two brothers when
children. The count of Provence (afterwards Louis XVIII.)
and his wife stood sponsors to Josephine de Montaut, and she
shared the lessons given by Madame de Genlis to the Orleans
family, with whom her mother broke off relations after the out-
break of the Revolution. Mother and daughter emigrated to
Coblenz in 1792; thence they went to Rotterdam, and finally
to England, where Josephine married the marquis Charles
Michel de Gontaut-Saint-Blacard. They returned to France
at the Restoration, and resumed their place at court. Madame
de Gontaut became lady-in-waiting to Caroline, duchess of
Berry, and, on the birth of the princess Louise (Mile d'Artois,
afterwards duchess of Parma), governess to the children of
France. Next year the birth of Henry, duke of Bordeaux
(afterwards known as the comte de Chambord), added to her
charge the heir of the Bourbons. She remained faithful to his
cause all her life. Her husband died in 1822, and in 1827 she
was created duchesse de Gontaut. She followed the exiled royal
family in 1830 to Holyrood Palace, and then to Prague, but in
1834, owing to differences with Pierre Louis, due de Blacas, who
thought her comparatively liberal views dangerous for the
prince and princess, she received a brusque conge from Charles X.
Her twin daughters, Josephine (1 796-1844) and Charlotte (1796-
1818), married respectively Ferdinand de Chabot, prince de Leon
and afterwards due de Rohan, and Francois, comte de Bourbon-
Busset. She herself wrote in her old age some naive memoirs,
which throw an odd light on the pretensions of the " governess
of the children of France." She died in Paris in 1857.
See her Memoirs (Eng. ed., 2 vols., 1894), and Lettresintdites (1895).
GONVILE, EDMUND (d. 1351), founder of GonviUe Hall,
now GonviUe and Caius College, at Cambridge, England, is
thought to. have been the son of William de Gonvile, and the
brother of Sir Nicholas Gonvile. In 1320 he was rector of
Thelnetham, Suffolk, and steward there for William, earl Warren
and the earl of Lancaster. Six years later he was rector of
Rushworth, and in 1342 rector of Terrington St John and com-
missioner for the marshlands of Norfolk. In this year he
founded and endowed a collegiate church at Rushworth, sup-
pressed in 1 54 1. The foundation of Gonville Hall at Cambridge
was effected by a charter granted by Edward III. in 1348.
It was called, officially, the Hall of the Annunciation of the
Blessed Virgin, but was usually known as Gunnell or Gonville
Hall. Its original site was in Free-school Lane, where Corpus
Christi College now stands. Gonvile apparently wished it to
be devoted to training for theological study, but after his death
the foundation was completed by William Bateman, bishop of
Norwich and founder of Trinity Hall, on a different site and with
considerably altered statutes. (See also Caius, John.)
GONZAGA, an Italian princely family named after the town
where it probably had its origin. Its known history begins with
the 13th century, when Luigi I. (1267-1360), after fierce struggles
supplanted his brother-in-law Rinaldo (nicknamed Passerino)
Bonacolsi as lord of Mantua in August 1328, with the title of
captain-general, and afterwards of vicar-general of the empire,
adding the designation of count of Mirandola and Concordia,
which fief the Gonzagas held from 1328 to 1354. In July 1335
his son Guido, with the help of Filippino and Feltrino Gonzaga,
wrested Reggio from the Scaligeri and held it until 137 1. Luigi
was succeeded by Guido (d. 1369); the latter's son Luigi II.
came next in succession (d. 1382), and then Giovan Francesco I.
(d. 1407), who, although at one time allied with the treacherous
Gian Galeazzo Visconti, incurred the latter's enmity and all but
lost his estates and his life in consequence; eventually he joined
the Florentines and Bolognese, enemies of Visconti. He pro-
moted commerce and wisely developed the prosperity of his
dominions. His son Giovan Francesco II. (d. 1444) succeededhim
under the regency of his uncle Carlo Malatesta and the protection
of the Venetians. He became a famous general, and was rewarded
for his services to the emperor Sigismund with the title of
marquess of Mantua for himself and his descendants (1432), an
investiture which legitimatized the usurpations of the house of
Gonzaga. His son Luigi HI. " il Turco " (d. 1478) likewise
became a celebrated soldier, and was also a learned and liberal
prince, a patron of literature and the arts. His son Federigo I.
(d. 1484) followed in his father's footsteps, and served under
various foreign sovereigns, including Bona of Savoy and Lorenzo
de' Medici; subsequently he upheld the rights of the house of
236
GONZAGA, T. A.— GONZALO DE BERCEO
Este against Pope Sixtus IV. and the Venetians, whose ambitious
claims were a menace to his own dominions of Ferrara and
Mantova. His son Giovan Francesco III. (d. 1 5 1 9) continued the
military traditions of the family, and commanded the allied
Italian forces against Charles VIII. at the battle of Fornovo;
he afterwards fought in the kingdom of Naples and in Tuscany,
until captured by the Venetians in 1509. On his liberation he
adopted a more peaceful and conciliatory policy, and with the
help of his wife, the famous Isabella d'Este, he promoted the
fine arts and letters, collecting pictures, statues and other works
of art with intelligent discrimination. He was succeeded by his
son Federigo II. (d. 1540), captain-general of the papal forces.
After the peace of Cambrai (1529) his ally and protector, the
emperor Charles V., raised his title to that of duke of Mantua in
1530; in 1536 the emperor decided the controversy for the
succession of Monferrato between Federigo and the house of
Savoy in favour of the former. His son Francesco I. succeeded
him, and, being a minor, was placed under the regency of his
uncle Cardinal Ercole; he was accidentally drowned in 1550,
leaving his possessions to his brother Guglielmo. The latter
was an extravagant spendthrift, but having] subdued a revolt
in Monferrato was presented with that territory by the emperor
Maximilian II. At his death in 1587 he was succeeded by his
son Vincenzo I. (d. 161 2), who was more addicted to amusements
than to warfare. Then followed in succession his sons Francesco
II. (d. 161 2), Ferdinando (d. 1626), and Vincenzo II. (d. 1627), all
three incapable and dissolute princes. The last named appointed
as his successor Charles, the son of Henriette, the heiress of the
French family of Nevers-Rethel, who was only able to take
possession of the ducal throne after a bloody struggle; his
dominions were laid waste by foreign invasions and he himself
was reduced to the sorest straits. He died in 1637, leaving his
possessions to his grandson Charles (Carlo) II. under the regency
of the latter's mother Maria Gonzaga, which lasted until 1647.
Charles died in consequence of his own profligacy and was
succeeded by his son Ferdinand Charles (Ferdinando Carlo),
who was likewise for some years under the regency of his mother
Isabella of Austria. Ferdinand Charles, another extravagant
and dissolute prince, acquired the county of Guastalla by
marriage in 1678, but lost it soon afterwards; he involved his
country in useless warfare, with the result that in 1708 Austria
annexed the duchy. On the 5th of July of the same year he
died in Venice, and with him the Gonzagas of Mantua came to an
end.
Of the cadet branches of the house one received the lordship
of Bozzolo, another the counties of Novellara and Bagnolo, a
third, of which the founder was Ferrante I. (d. 1557), retained
the county of Guastalla, raised to a duchy in 162 1, and came to
an end with the death of Giuseppe Maria on the 16th of August
1746.
Bibliography.— S. MaflFei, Annali di Mantova (Tortona, 1675);
G. Veronesi, Quadrostorico della Mirandola (Modena, 1847) ; T. Aff6,
Storia di Guastalla (Guastalla, 1875, 4 vols.): Alessandro Luzio,
J Precattori d' Isabella d'Este (Ancona, 1887) I A. Luzio and R. Renier,
" Francesco Gonzaga alia battalia di Fornovo (i495)i secondo i
documenti Mantovani " (in Archivio storico italiano, ser. v. vol. vi.,
205-246) ; id., Mantova e Urbino, Isabella <FEste e Elisabeth Gonzaga
neUe relazioni famigliari e nellevicendepolitiche (Turin, 1893); L. G.,
Pelissier, " Les Relations de Francois de Gonzague, marquis de
Mantoue, avec Ludovico Sforza et Louis XJI " (in Annates de la
facultS de Lettres de Bordeaux, 1803); Antonino Bertolotti, " Lettere
del duca di Savoia Emanuele Filiberto a Guglielmo Gonzaga, duca di
Mantova" (4 rcA. stor. it., ser. v., vol.ix. pp. 250-283) ; Edmondo Solan,
Lettere inedite del card. Gasparo Contarini net cartewio del card.
Ercole Gonzaga (Venice, 1904) ; Arturo Segrfc, // Ricktamo di Don
Ferrante Gonzaga del governo di Milano, e sue conseguenze (Turin,
1904).
GONZAGA, THOMAZ ANTONIO (1744-1809), Portuguese
poet, was a native of Oporto and the son of a Brazilian-born
judge. He spent a part of his boyhood at Bahia, where his
father was disembargador of the appeal court, and returning to
Portugal he went to the university of Coimbra and took his law
degree at the age of twenty-four. He remained on there for some
years and compiled a treatise of natural law on regalist lines,
dedicating it to Pombal, but the fall of the marquis led him to
leave Coimbra and become a candidate for a magistracy, and in
1782 he obtained the posts of ouvidor and provedor of the goods of
deceased and absent persons at Villa Rica in the province of Minas
Geraes in Brazil. In 1786 he was named disembargador of the
appeal court at Bahia, and three years later, as he was about to
marry a young lady of position, D. Maria de Seixas Brandao, the
Marilia of his verses, he suddenly found himself arrested on the
charge of being the principal author of a Republican conspiracy in
Minas. Conducted to Rio, he was imprisoned in a fortress and
interrogated, but constantly asserted his innocence. However,
his friendship with the conspirators compromised him in the eyes
of his absolutist judges, who, on the ground that he had known of
the plot and not denounced it, sentenced him in April 1792 to
perpetual efcile in Angola, with the confiscation of his property.
Later, this penalty was commuted into one of ten years of exile to
Mozambique, with a death sentence if he should return to America.
After having spent three years in prison, Gonzaga sailed in May
1 792 for Mozambique and shortly after his arrival a violent fever
almost ended his life. A wealthy Portuguese gentleman, married
to a lady of colour, charitably received him into his house, and
when the poet recovered, he married their young daughter who
had nursed him through the attack. He lived in exile until his
death, practising advocacy at intervals, but his last years were
embittered by fits of melancholia, deepening into madness, which
were brought on by the remembrance of his misfortunes. His
reputation as a poet rests on a little volume of bucolics entitled
Marilia, which includes all his published verses and is divided into
two parts, corresponding with those of his lif e* The first extends
to his imprisonment and breathes only love and pleasure, while
the main theme of the second part, written in prison, is his
saudade for Marilia and past happiness. Gonzaga borrowed his
forms from the best models, Anacreon and Theocritus, but the
matter, except for an occasional imitation of Petrarch, the
natural, elegant style and the harmonious metrification, are all
his own. The booklet comprises the most celebrated collection of
erotic poetry dedicated to a single person in the Portuguese
tongue; indeed its popularity is so great as to exceed its intrinsic
merit.
Twenty-nine editions had appeared up to 1854, but the Paris
edition of 1862 in 2 vols, is in every way the best, although the
authenticity of the verses in its 3rd part, which do not relate to
Marilia t is doubtful. A popular edition of the first two parts was
published in 1888 (Lisbon, Corazzi). A French version of Marilia by
Monglave and Chalas appeared in Paris in 1825, an Italian by
Vegezzi Ruscalla at Turin in 1844, a Latin by Dr Castro Lopes at
Rio in 1868, and there is a Spanish one by Vedia.
See Innocencio da Silva, Diccionario bibliographico fortuguez,
vol. vii. p. 320, also Dr T. Braga, FUinto Elysio e os Disstdentas da
Arcadia (Oporto, 1901). (E. Pr.)
GONZALEZ-CARVAJAL, TOMAS JOS* (1753-1834), Spanish
poet and statesman, was born at Seville in 1 753. He studied at
the university of Seville, and took the degree of LL.D. at Madrid.
He obtained an office in the financial department of the govern-
ment; and in 1795 was made intendant of the colonies which had
just been founded in Sierra Morena and Andalusia. During
1 800-181 1 he held an intendancy in the patriot army. He
became, in 181 2, director of the university of San Isidro ; but
having offended the government by establishing a chair of inter-
national law, he was imprisoned for five years ( 1 8 1 5-1 8 20) . The
revolution of 1820 reinstated him, but the counter-revolution of
three years later forced him into exile. After four years he was
allowed to return, and he died, in 1834, a member of the supreme
council of war. Gonzalez-Carvajal enjoyed European fame as
author of metrical translations of the poetical books of the Bible.
To fit himself for this work he commenced the study of Hebrew at
the age of fifty-four. He also wrote other works in verse and
prose, avowedly taking Luis de Leon as his model.
See biographical notice in Biblioteca de Rwadeneyra, vol. lxvii.,
Poetas del sigh 18.
GONZALO DE BERCEO (c. 1180-c. 1246), the earliest Castilian
poet whose name is known to us, was born at Berceo, a village in
the neighbourhood of Calahorra in the province of Logrofio. In
1 221 he became a deacon and was attached, as a secular priest,
to the Benedictine monastery of San Millan de la Cogolla, in the
GOOCH— GOOD FRIDAY
237
diocese of Calahorra. His name is to be met with in a number of
documents between the years 1 237 and 1 246. He wrote upwards
of 13,000 verses, all on devotional subjects. His best work is a
life of St Oria; others treat of the life of St Millan, of St Dominic
of Silos, of the Sacrifice of the Mass, the Martyrdom of St Laurence,
the visible signs preceding the Last Judgment, the Praises of
Our Lady, the Miracles of Our Lady and the Lamentations of the
Virgin on the Passion of her Son. He writes in the common
tongue, the toman paladino, and his claim to the name of poet
rests on his use of the cuaderna via (single-rhymed quatrains,
each verse being of fourteen syllables). Sometimes, however, he
takes the more modest title oijuglar (jongleur), when claiming
payment for his poems. His literary attainments are not great,
and he lacks imagination and animation of style, but he has a
certain eloquence, and in speaking of the Virgin and the saints a
•certain charm, while his verse bears at times the imprint of a
passionate devotion, recalling the lyrical style of the great
Spanish mystics. There is, however, a very strong popular element
in his writings, which explains his long vogue. The great
majority of his legends of the Virgin are obviously borrowed
from the collection of a Frenchman, Gautier de Coinci; but he
has succeeded in making this material entirely his own by reason
of a certain conciseness and a realism in detail which make his
work far superior to the tedious and colourless narrative of his
model.
His Poesias are in the BiblioUca de autores espafloles of Riva-
deneyra, vol. lvii. (1864) ; La Vida de San Domingo de Silos has been
edited by J. D. FitzGerald (Paris, 1904; see the BibUotheque de
VEcole des HatUes Etudes, part 149); see also F. Fernandez y
Gonzalez in the RazSn (vol. i. ? Madrid, i860) ; N. Hergueta, " Docu-
mentos referentes a Gonzalo de Berceo," in the Revista de archivos,
(3rd series, Feb.-March, 1904, pp. 178-179). (P. A.)
GOOCH, SIR DANIEL, Bart. (1816-1889), English mechanical
engineer, was born at Bedlington, in Northumberland, on the
16th of August 1816. At the age of fifteen, having shown a taste
for mechanics, he was put to work at the Tredegar Ironworks,
Monmouthshire. In 1834 he went to Warrington, where, at the
Vulcan foundry, under Robert Stephenson, he acquired the
principles of locomotive design. Subsequently, after passing a
year at Dundee, he was engaged by the Stephensons at their
Gateshead works, where he seems to have conceived that predilec-
tion for the broad gauge for which he was afterwards distinguished,
through having to design some engines for a 6-foot gauge in
Russia and noticing the advantages it offered in allowing greater
space for the machinery, &c, as compared with the standard
gauge favoured by Stephenson. In 1837, on I. K. Brunei's
recommendation, he was appointed locomotive superintendent to
the Great Western railway at a time when the engines possessed
by the railway were very poor and inefficient. He soon improved
this state of affairs, and gradually provided his employers with
locomotives which were unsurpassed for general excellence and
economy of working. One of the most famous, the " Lord of the
Isles," was awarded a gold medal at the Great Exhibition of 1851,
and when, thirty years afterwards, it was withdrawn from active
service it had run more than three-quarters of a million miles, all
with its original boiler. In 1864 he left the Great Western and
interested himself in the problem of laying a telegraph cable
across the Atlantic. At this time the " Great Eastern " was in
the hands of the bondholders, of whom he himself was one of the
most important, and it occurred to him that she might advan-
tageously be utilized in the enterprise. Accordingly, at his
instance she was chartered by the Telegraph Construction
Company, of which also he was a director, and in 1865 was
employed in the attempt to lay a cable, Gooch himself super-
intending operations. The cable, however, broke in mid-ocean,
and the attempt was a failure. Next year it was renewed with
more success, for not only was a new cable safely put in place, but
the older one was picked up and spliced, so that there were two
complete lines between England and America. For this achieve-
ment Gooch was created a baronet. Meanwhile the Great
Western railway had fallen on evil days, being indeed on the
verge of bankruptcy, when in 1866 the directors appealed to him
to accept the chairmanship of the board and undertake the
rehabilitation of the company. He agreed to the proposal, and
was so successful in restoring its prosperity that in 1889, at the
last meeting over which he presided, a dividend was declared at the
rate of 7} %. Under his administration the system was greatly
enlarged and consolidated by the absorption of various smaller
lines, such as the Bristol and Exeter and the Cornwall railways;
and his appreciation of its strategic value caused him to be a
strenuous supporter of the construction of the Severn Tunnel.
His death occurred on the 15th of October 1889 at his residence,
Clewer Park, near Windsor.
GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827), English writer on medical,
religious and classical subjects, was born on the 25th of May
1764 at Epping, Essex. After attending a school at Romsey
kept by his father, the Rev. Peter Good, who was a Nonconformist
minister, he was, at about the age of fifteen, apprenticed to a
surgeon-apothecary at Gosport. In 1783 he went to London to
prosecute his medical studies, and in the autumn of 1784 he
began to practise as a surgeon at Sudbury in Suffolk. In 1793
he removed to London, where he entered into partnership with
a surgeon and apothecary. But the partnership was soon
dissolved, and to increase his income he began to devote attention
to literary pursuits. Besides contributing both in prose and
verse to the Analytical and Critical Reviews and the British
and Monthly Magazines, and other periodicals, he wrote a large
number of works relating chiefly to medical and religious subjects.
In 1794 he became a member of the British Pharmaceutical
Society, and in that connexion, and especially by the publication
of his work, A History of Medicine (1795), he did much to effect
a greatly needed reform in the profession of the apothecary.
In 1820 he took the diploma of M.D. at Marischal College,
Aberdeen. He died at Shepperton, Middlesex, on the 2nd of
January 1827. Good was not only well versed in classical
literature, but was acquainted with the principal European
languages, and also with Persian, Arabic and Hebrew. His
prose works display wide erudition; but their style is dull and
tedious. • His poetry never rises above pleasant and well-versified
commonplace. His translation of Lucretius, The Nature of
Things (1805-1807), contains elaborate philological and ex-
planatory notes, together with parallel passages and quotations
from European and Asiatic authors. ♦ _ j- „-
GOOD PRIDAY (probably "God's Friday "), the English
name for the Friday before Easter, kept as the anniversary of
the Crucifixion. In the Greek Church it has been or is known
as irdtrxa [aravpoyjtpov], TapaarKcvfi, Tapaaricevil jiey&toj or £7(0,
oomjpia or rd ooorripia, iipkpa rod oravpov, while among the
Latins the names of most frequent occurrence are Pascha Crucis,
Dies Dominicae Passionis, Parasceve, Feria Sexta Paschae,
Feria Sexta Major in Hierusalem, Dies Absolutionis. It was
called Long Friday by the Anglo-Saxons 1 and Danes, possibly in
allusion to the length of the services which marked the day.
In Germany it is sometimes designated Stiller Freitag (compare
Greek, ipdopfa tincpaKros; Latin, hebdomas inofficiosa, non
laboriosa), but more commonly Charfreitag. The etymology
of this last name has been much disputed, but there seems now
to be little doubt that it is derived from the Old High German
chara, meaning suffering or mourning.
The origin of the custom of a yearly commemoration of the
Crucifixion is somewhat obscure. It may be regarded as certain
that among Jewish Christians it almost imperceptibly grew out
of the old habit of annually celebrating the Passover on the
14th of Nisan, and of observing the " days of unleavened bread "
from the 1 5th to the 2 1st of that month. Inthe Gentile churches,
on the other hand, it seems to be well established that originally
no yearly cycle of festivals was known at all. (See Easter.)
From its earliest observance, the day was marked by a specially
rigorous fast, and also, on the whole, by a tendency to greater
simplicity in the services of the church. Prior to the 4th century
there is no evidence of non-celebration of the eucharist on Good
Friday; but after that date the prohibition of communion
1 See Johnson's Collection of Ecclesiastical Laws (vol. i. y anno 957) :
" Housel ought not to be hallowed on Long Friday, because Christ
suffered for us on that day."
23»
GOODMAN— GOODSIR
became common. In Spain, indeed, it became customary to
close the churches altogether as a sign of mourning; but this
practice was condemned by the council of Toledo (633). In the
Roman Catholic Church the Good Friday ritual at present
observed is marked by many special features, most of which
can be traced back to a date at least prior to the close of the 8th
century (see the Ordo Romanus in Muratori's Liturg. Rom. Vet.).
The altar and officiating clergy are draped in black, this being the
only day on which that colour is permitted. Instead of the
epistle, sundry passages from Hosea, Habakkuk, Exodus and
the Psalms are read. The gospel for the day consists of the
history of the Passion as recorded by St John. This is often
sung in plain-chaunt by three priests, one representing the " nar-
rator," the other two the various characters of the story. The
singing of this is followed by bidding prayers for the peace and
unity of the church, for the pope, the clergy, all ranks and
conditions of men, the sovereign, for catechumens, the sick and
afflicted, heretics and schismatics, Jews and heathen. Then
follows the " adoration of the cross " (a ceremony derived from
the church of Jerusalem and said to date back to near the time
of Helena's "invention of the cross"); the hymns Pange
lingua and Vexilla regis are sung, and then follows the " Mass
of the Presanc tiffed." The name is derived from the fact that
it is celebrated with elements consecrated the day before, the
liturgy being omitted on this day. The priest merely places the
Sacrament on the altar, censes it, elevates and breaks the host,
and communicates, the prayers and responses interspersed being
peculiar to the day. This again is followed by vespers, with a
special anthem; after which the altar is stripped in silence.
In many Roman Catholic countries — in Spain, for example — it is
usual for the faithful to spend much time in the churches, in
meditation on the " seven last words " of the Saviour; no
carriages are driven through the streets; the bells and organs
are silent; and in every possible way it is sought to deepen the
impression of a profound and universal grief. In the Greek
Church also the Good Friday fast is excessively strict; as in the
Roman Church, the Passion history is read and the cross adored;
towards evening a dramatic representation of the entombment
takes place, amid open demonstrations of contempt for Judas
and the Jews. In Lutheran churches the organ is silent on this
day, and altar, font and pulpit are draped in black, as indeed
throughout Holy Week. In the Church of England the history
of the Passion from the gospel according to John is also read;
the collects for the day are based upon the bidding prayers
which are found in the Ordo Romanus. The " three hours "
service, borrowed from Roman Catholic usage and consisting
of prayers, addresses on the " seven last words from the cross "
and intervals for meditation and silent prayer, has become very
popular in the Anglican Church, and the observance of the day
is more marked than formerly among Nonconformist bodies,
even in Scotland.
GOODMAN, GODFREY (1583-1656), bishop of Gloucester,
was born at Ruthin, Denbighshire, and educated at Westminster
and Cambridge. He took orders in 1603, and in 1606 obtained
the living of Stapleford Abbots, Essex, which he held together
with several other livings. He was canon of Windsor from 161 7
and dean of Rochester 1620-1621, and became bishop of
Gloucester in 1625. From this time his tendencies towards
Roman Catholicism constantly got him into trouble. He
preached an unsatisfactory sermon at court in 1626, and in
1628 incurred charges of introducing popery at Windsor. In
1633 he secured the see of Hereford by bribery, but Archbishop
Laud persuaded the king to refuse his consent. In 1638 he was
said to be converted to Rome, and two years later he was im-
prisoned for refusing to sign the new canons denouncing popery
and affirming the divine right of kings. He afterwards signed
and was released on hail, but next year the bishops who had
signed were all imprisoned in the Tower, by order of parliament,
on the charge of treason. After eighteen weeks* imprisonment
Goodman was allowed to return to his diocese. About 1650 he
settled in London, where he died a confessed Roman Catholic.
His best known book is The Fall of Man (London, 161 6).
GOODRICH, SAMUEL GRISWOLD (1 793-1860), American
author, better known under the pseudonym of " Peter Parley,"
was born, the son of a Congregational minister, at Ridgefield,
Connecticut, on the 19th of August 1793. He was largely 1
self-educated, became an assistant in a country store at Danbury,
Conn., in 1808, and at Hartford, Conn., in 1811, and from 1816 to
1822 was a bookseller and publisher at Hartford. He visited
Europe in 1823-1824, and in 1826 removed to Boston, where
he continued in the publishing business, and from 1828 to 1842
he published an illustrated annual, the Token, to which he was
a frequent contributor both in prose and verse. A selection
from these contributions was published in 1841 under the title
Sketches from a Student's Window, The Token also contained
some of the earliest work of Nathaniel Hawthorne, N. P. Willis,
Henry W. Longfellow and Lydia Maria Child. In 1841 he
established Merry's Museum, which he continued to edit till
1854. In 1827 he began, under the name of " Peter Parley," his
series of books for the young, which embraced, geography,
biography, history, science, and miscellaneous tales. Of these
he was the sole author of only a few, but in 1857 he wrote that he
was "the author and editor of about .170 volumes," and that
about seven millions had been sold, In 1857 he published
Recollections of a Lifetime^ which contains a list both of the
works of which he was the author or editor and of the spurious
works published under his name. By his writings and publica-
tions he amassed a large fortune. He was chosen a member of
the Massachusetts House of Representatives in 2836, and of the
state Senate in 1837, his competitor in the last election being
Alexander H. Everett, and in 1851-1853 he was consul at Paris,
where he remained till 1855, taking advantage of his stay to have
several of his works translated into French. After his return
to America* he published, in 1859, Illustrated History of the
Animal Kingdom., He died, in New York, on the 9th of May
i860.
His brother, Charles Augustus Goodrich (1700-1862), a
Congregational clergyman, published various ephemeral books,
and helped to compile some of the " Peter Parley " series.
GOODRICH, or Goodricke, THOMAS (d. 1554), English
ecclesiastic, was a son of Edward Goodrich of East Kirkby,
Lincolnshire, and was educated at Corpus Christi College,
Cambridge, afterwards becoming a fellow of Jesus College in the
same university. He was among the divines«consulted about the
legality of Henry VIII.'s marriage with Catherine of Aragon,
became one of the royal chaplains about 1530, and was conse-
crated bishop of Ely in 1 534. He was favourable to the Reforma-
tion, helped in 1537 to draw up the Institution of a Christian
Man (known as the Bishops' Book), and translated the Gospel
of St John for the revised New Testament. On the accession of
Edward VI. in 1547 the bishop was made a privy councillor,
and took a conspicuous part in public affairs during the reign.
" A busy secular spirited man," as Burnet calls him, he was
equally opposed to the zealots of the " old " and the " new
religion." He assisted to compile the First Prayer Book of
Edward VI., was one of the commissioners for the trial of Bishop
Gardiner, and in January 1 551-1552 succeeded Rich as lord high
chancellor. This office he continued to hold during the nine
days 7 reign of " Queen Jane " (Lady Jane Grey); but he con-
tinued to make his peace with Queen Mary, conformed to the
restored religion, and, though deprived of the chancellorship,
was allowed to keep his bishopric until his death on the 10th of
May 1554.
See the DtcL Nat. Biog., where further authorities are cited.
GOODSIR, JOHN (1814-1867), Scottish anatomist, born at
Anstruther, Fife, on the 20th of March 1814, was the son of Dr
John Goodsir, and grandson of Dr John Goodsir of Largo. He
was educated at the burgh and grammar-schools of his native
place and at the university of St Andrews. In 1830 he was
apprenticed to a surgeon-dentist in Edinburgh, where he studied
anatomy under Robert Knox, and in 1835 he joined his father
in practice at Anstruther. Three years later he communicated
to the British Association a paper on the pulps and sacs of the
human teeth, his researches on the whole process of dentition
GOODWILL— GOODWIN, T.
239
being at this time distinguished by their completeness; and
about the same date, on the nomination of Edward Forbes, he
was elected to the famous coterie called the " Universal Brother-
hood of the Friends of Truth," which comprised artists, scholars,
naturalists and others, whose relationship became a potent
influence in science. With Forbes he worked at marine zoology,
but human anatomy, pathology and morphology formed his
chief study. In 1840 he moved to Edinburgh, where in the
following year he was appointed conservator of the museum of
the College of Surgeons, in succession to William Macgillivray.
Much of his reputation rested on his knowledge of the anatomy of
tissues. In his lectures in the theatre of the college in 184 2- 1843
he evidenced the largeness of his observation of cell-life, both
physiologically and pathologically, insisting on the importance
of the cell as a centre of nutrition, and pointing out that the
organism is subdivided into a number of departments. R.
Virchow recognized his indebtedness to these discoveries by
dedicating his Cellular Pathologie to Goodsir, as " one of the
earliest and most acute observers of cell-life." In- 1843 Goodsir
obtained the post of curator in the university of Edinburgh;
the following year he was appointed demonstrator of anatomy,
and in 1845 curator of the entire museum. A year later he was
elected to the chair of anatomy in the university, and devoted
all his energies to anatomical research and teaching.
Human myology was his strong point; no one had laboured
harder at the dissect ing-table; and he strongly emphasized
the necessity of practice as a means of research. He believed
that anatomy, physiology and pathology could never be properly
advanced without daily consideration and treatment of disease.
In 1848 he became a fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons,
and in the same year he joined the Highland and Agricultural
Society, acting as chairman of the veterinary department, and
advising on strictly agricultural matters. In 1847 he delivered
a series of systematic lectures on the comparative anatomy
of the invertebrata; and, about this period, as member of an
aesthetic club, he wrote papers on the natural principles of
beauty, the aesthetics of the ugly, of smell, the approbation or
disapprobation of sounds, &c. Owing to the failing health of
Professor Robert Jameson, Goodsir was induced to deliver the
course of lectures on natural history during the summer of 1853.
The lectures were long remembered for their brilliancy, but
the infinite amount of thought and exertion which they cost
broke down the health of the lecturer. Goodsir, nevertheless,
persevered in his labours, writing in 1855 on organic electricity,
in 1856 on morphological subjects, and afterwards on the structure
of organized forms. His speculations in the latter domain gave
birth to his theory of a triangle as the mathematical figure
upon which nature had built up both the organic and inorganic
worlds, and he hoped to complete this triangle theory of formation
and law as the greatest of his works. In his lectures on the skull
and brain he held the doctrine that symmetry of brain had more
to do with the higher faculties than bulk or form. He died at
Wardie, near Edinburgh, on the 6th of March 1867, in the same
cottage in which his friend Edward Forbes died. His anatomical
lectures were remarkable for their solid basis of fact; and no one
in Britain took so wide a field for survey or marshalled so many
facts for anatomical tabulation and synthesis.
See Anatomical Memoirs of John Goodsir, F.R.S., edited by W.
Turner, with Memoir by H. Lonsdale (2 vols., Edinburgh, 1868), in
which Goodsir's lectures, addresses and writings are epitomized;
Proc. Roy. Soc. vol. iv. (1868) ; Trans. Bot. Soc. Edin. vol. ix. (1868).
GOODWILL, in the law of property, a term of somewhat
vague significance. It has been defined as every advantage
which has been acquired in carrying on a business, whether
connected with the premises in which the business has been
carried on, or with the name of the firm by whom it has been
conducted (Churton v. Douglas, 1859, Johns, 174). Goodwill
may be either professional or trade. Professional goodwill
usually takes the form of the recommendation by a retiring
professional man, doctor, solicitor, &c, to his clients of the suc-
cessor or purchaser coupled generally with an undertaking not
to compete with him; Trade goodwill varies with the nature of
the business with which it is connected, but there are two rights
which, whatever the nature of the business may be, are invariably
associated with it, viz. the right of the purchaser to represent
himself as the owner of the business, and the right to restrain
competition. For the purposes of the Stamp Act, the goodwill of
a business is property, and the proper duty must be paid on the
conveyance of such. (See also Partnership; Patents.)
GOODWIN, JOHN (c. 1594-1665), English Nonconformist
divine, was born in Norfolk and educated at Queens' College,
Cambridge, where he was elected fellow in 1617. He was vicar
of St Stephen's, Coleman Street, London, from 1633 to 1645,
when he was ejected by parliament for his attacks on Presbyterian-
ism, especially in his QeopaxLa (1644). He thereupon established
an independent congregation, and put his literary gifts at Oliver
Cromwell's service. In 1648 he justified the proceedings of the
army against the parliament (" Pride's Purge ") in a pamphlet
Might and Right Well Met f and in 1649 defended the proceedings
against Charles I. (to whom he had offered spiritual advice) in
T PpiaroSUaj,. At the Restoration this tract, with some that
Milton had written to Monk in favour of a republic, was publicly
burnt, and Goodwin was ordered into custody, though finally in-
demnified. He died in 1665. Among his other writings are Anti-
Cavalierisme (1642), a translation of the Stratagemata Satanae of
Giacomo Aconcio, the Elizabethan advocate of toleration, tracts
against Fifth-Monarchy Men, Cromwell's " Triers " and
Baptists, and Redemption Redeemed, containing a thorough
discussion of . . . election, reprobation and the perseverance of
the saints ( 1 6 5 1 , reprinted 1 840) . Goodwin's strongly Arminian
tendencies brought him into conflict with Robert Baillie, professor
of divinity of Glasgow, GeoTge Kendall, the Calvinist prebendary
of Exeter, and John Owen (q.v,), who replied to Redemption
Redeemed in The Doctrine of the Saints' Perseverance, paying a
high tribute to his opponent's learning and controversial skill.
Goodwin answered all three in the Triumviri (1658). John
Wesley in later days held him in much esteem and published an
abridged edition of his Imputatio fidei, a work on justification
that, had originally appeared in 1642. »
Life by T. Jackson (London, 1839).
GOODWIN, NATHANIEL CARL (1857- ), American actor,
was born in Boston on the 25th of July 1857. While clerk in a
large shop he studied for the stage, and made his first appearance
in 1873 in Boston in Stuart Robson's company as the newsboy
in Joseph Bradford's Law. He made an immediate success by his
imitations of popular actors. A hit in the burlesque Black-eyed
Susan led to his taking part in Rice and Goodwin's Evangeline
company. It was at this time that he married Eliza Weathersby
(d. 1887), an English actress with whom he played in B. E.
Woollf's Hobbies. It was not until 1889, however, that Nat
Goodwin's talent as a comedian of the " legitimate " type began
to be recognized. From that time he appeared in a number of
plays designed to display his drily humorous method, such as
Brander Matthews' and George H. Jessop's A Gold Mine,
Henry Guy Carleton's A Gilded Fool and Ambition, Clyde Fitch's
Nathan Hale, H. V. Esmond's When we were Twenty-one, &c.
Till 1903 he was associated in his performances with his third
wife, the actress Maxine Elliott (b. 1873), whom he married in
1898; this marriage was dissolved in 1908.
GOODWIN, THOMAS (1600-1680), English Nonconformist
divine, was born at Rollesby, Norfolk, on the 5th of October
1600, and was educated at Christ's College, Cambridge, where in
1616 he graduated B.A. In 1619 he removed to Catharine Hall,
where in 1620 he was elected fellow. In 1625 he was licensed
a preacher of the university; and three years afterwards he
became lecturer of Trinity Church, to the vicarage of which he
was presented by the king in 1632. Worried by his bishop, who
was a zealous adherent of Laud,he resigned all his preferments and
left the university in 1634. He lived for some time in London,
where in 1638 he married the daughter of an alderman ; but in the
following year he withdrew to Holland, and for some time was
pastor of a small congregation of English merchants and refugees
at Arnheim. Returning to London soon after Laud'simpeachment
by the Long Parliament, he ministered for some years to the
240
GOODWIN, W. W.— GOODYEAR
Independent congregation meeting at Paved Alley Church, Lime
Street, in the parish of St Dunstan's-in-the-East, and rapidly rose
to considerable eminence as a preacher; in 1643 he was chosen a
member of the Westminster Assembly, and at once identified
himself with the Congregational party, generally referred to in
contemporary documents as " the dissenting brethren." He
frequently preached by appointment before the Commons, and in
January 1650 his talents and learning were rewarded by the
House with the presidentship of Magdalen College, Oxford, a post
which he held until the Restoration. He rose into high favour with
the protector, and was one of his intimate advisers, attending him
on his death-bed. He was also a commissioner for the inventory
of the Westminster Assembly, 1650, and for the approbation of
preachers, 1653, and together with John Owen (q.v.) drew up an
amended Westminster Confession in 1658. From 1660 until his
death on the 23rd of February 1680 he lived in London, and
devoted himself exclusively to theological study and to the
pastoral charge of the Fetter Lane Independent Church.
The works published by Goodwin during his lifetime consist
chiefly of sermons printed by order of the House of Commons; but
he was also associated with Philip Nye and others in the preparation
of the Apologeticall Narration (1643). His collected writings., which
include expositions of the Epistle to the Ephesians and of the
Apocalypse, were published in five folio volumes between 1681 and
1704, and were reprinted in twelve 8vo volumes (Edin., 1 861-1866).
Characterized by abundant yet one-sided reading, remarkable at once
for the depth and for the narrowness of their observation and spiritual
experience, often admirably thorough in their workmanship, yet in
style intolerably prolix — they fairly exemplify both the merits and
the defects of the special school of religious thought to which they
belong. Calamy's estimate of Goodwin's qualities may be quoted
as both friendly and just. " He was a considerable scholar and an
eminent divine, and had a very happy faculty in descanting upon
Scripture so as to bring forth surprising remarks, which yet generally
tended to illustration. A memoir, derived from his own papers, by
his son (Thomas Goodwin, "the younger," i6so?-i7i6?, Inde-
pendent minister at London and Pinner, and author of the History
of the Reign of Henry V.) is prefixed to the fifth volume of his collected
works ; as a patriarch and Atlas of Independency " he is also noticed
by Anthony Wood in the Athenae Oxomenses. An amusing sketch,
from Addison's point of view, of the austere and somewhat fanatical
president of Magdalen is preserved in No. 494 of the Spectator.
GOODWIN, WILLIAM WATSON (1831- ), American
classical scholar, was born in Concord, Massachusetts, on the
9th of May 183 1. He graduated at Harvard in 185 1, studied in
Germany, was tutor in Greek at Harvard in 1 856-1 860, and
Eliot professor of Greek there from i860 until his resignation in
1001. He became an overseer of Harvard in 1903. In 1882-
1883 he was the first director of the American School for Classical
Studies at Athens. Goodwin edited the Panegyricus of Isocrates
(1864) and Demosthenes On The Crown (1001); and assisted in
preparing the seventh edition of Liddell and Scott's Greek-
English Lexicon. He revised an English version by several
writers of Plutarch's Morals (5 vols., 1871; 6th ed., 1889), and
published the Greek text with literal English version of Aeschylus'
Agamemnon (1006) for the Harvard production of that play in
June 1906. As a teacher he did much to raise the tone of classical
reading from that of a mechanical exercise to literary study.
But his most important work was his Syntax of the Moods and
Tenses of the Greek Verb (i860), of which the seventh revised
edition appeared in 1877 and another (enlarged) in 1890. This
was " based in part on Madvig and Kruger," but, besides making
accessible to American students the works of these continental
grammarians, it presented original matter, including a " radical
innovation in the classification of conditional sentences/' notably
the " distinction between particular and general suppositions."
Goodwin's Greek Grammar (elementary edition, 1870; enlarged
1879; revised and enlarged 1892) gradually superseded in most
American schools the Grammar of Hadley and Allen. Both the
Moods and Tenses and the Grammar in later editions are largely
dependent on the theories of Gildersleeve for additions and
changes. Goodwin also wrote a few elaborate syntactical
studies, to be found in Harvard Studies in Classical Philology ,
the twelfth volume of which was dedicated to him upon the
completion of fifty years as an alumnus of Harvard and forty-one
years as Eliot professor.
GOODWIN SANDS, a dangerous line of shoals at the entrance
to the Strait of Dover from the North Sea, about 6 m. from the
Kent coast of England, from which they are separated by the
anchorage of the Downs. For this they form a shelter. They
are partly exposed at low water, but the sands are shifting, and
in spite of lights and bell-buoys the Goodwins are frequently
the scene of wrecks, while attempts to erect a lighthouse or
beacon have failed. Tradition finds in the Goodwins the remnant
of an island called Lomea, which belonged to Earl Godwine in
the first half of the 1 ith century, and was afterwards submerged,
when the funds devoted to its protection were diverted to build
the church steeple at Tenterden (q.v.). Four lightships mark
the limits of the sands, and also signal by rockets to the lifeboat
stations on the coast when any vessel is in distress on the sands.
Perhaps the most terrible catastrophe recorded here was the
wreck of thirteen ships of war during a great storm in November
1703.
GOODWOOD, a mansion in the parish of Boxgrove, in the
Chichester parliamentary division of Sussex, England, 4 m.
N.E. of Chichester. It was built from designs of Sir William
Chambers with additions by Wyatt, after the purchase of the
property by the first duke of Richmond in 1 720. The park is in
a hilly district, and is enriched with magnificent trees of many
varieties, including some huge cedars. In it is a building con-
taining a Roman slab recording the construction of a temple
to Minerva and Neptune at Chichester. There is mention of a
British tributary prince named Cogidubnus, who perhaps served
also as a Roman official. A reference to early Christianity in
Britain has been erroneously read into this inscription. On the
racecourse a famous annual meeting, dating from 1802, is held
in July. The parish church of SS. Mary and Blaize, Boxgrove,
is almost entirely a rich specimen of Early English work.
GOODYEAR, CHARLES (1800- 1860), American inventor,
was born at New Haven, Connecticut, on the 29th of December
1800, the son of Amasa Goodyear, an inventor (especially of
farming implements) and a pioneer in the manufacture of hard-
ware in America. The family removed to Naugatuck, Conn.,
when Charles was a boy; he worked in his father's button
factory and studied at home until 1816, when he apprenticed
himself to a firm of hardware merchants in Philadelphia. In
182 1 he returned to Connecticut and entered into a partnership
with his father at Naugatuck, which continued till 1830, when it
was terminated by business reverses. Already he was interested
in an attempt to discover a method of treatment by which india-
rubber could be made into merchandizable articles that would
stand extremes of heat and cold. To the solution of this problem
the next ten years of his life were devoted. With ceaseless
energy and unwavering faith in the successful outcome of his
labours, in the face of repeated failures and hampered by
poverty, which several times led him to a debtor's prison, he
persevered in his endeavours. For a time he seemed to have
succeeded with a treatment (or " cure ") of the rubber with
aquafortis. In 1836 he secured a contract for the manufacture
by this process of mail bags for the U.S. government, but the
rubber fabric was useless at high temperatures. In 1837 he met
and worked with Nathaniel Hayward (1808-1865), who had been
an employee of a rubber factory in Roxbury and had made
experiments with sulphur mixed with rubber. Goodyear bought
from Hayward the right to use this imperfect process. In 1839,
by dropping on a hot stove some indiarubber mixed with sulphur,
he discovered accidentally the process for the vulcanization of
rubber. Two years more passed before he could find any one who
had faith enough in his discovery to invest money in it. At
last, in 1844, by which time he had perfected his process, his
first patent was granted, and in the subsequent years more than
sixty patents were granted to him for the application of his
original process to various uses. Numerous infringements had
to be fought in the courts, the decisive victory coming in 1852
in the case of Goodyear v. Day, in which his rights were defended
by Daniel Webster and opposed by Rufus Choate. In 1852 he
went to England, where articles made under his patents had
been displayed at the International Exhibition of 1851, but he
GOOGE— GOOSE
241
was unable to establish factories there. In France a company
for the manufacture of vulcanized rubber by his process failed,
and in December 1855 he was arrested and imprisoned for debt
in Paris. Owing to the expense of the litigation in which he was
engaged and to bad business management, he profited little from
his inventions. He died in New York City on the 1st of July
i860. He wrote an account of his discovery entitled Gum-
Elastic and its Varieties (2 vols., New Haven, 1853-1855).
See also B. K. Peirce, Trials of an Inventor, Life and Discoveries of
Charles Goodyear (New York, 1866); James Parton, Famous
Americans of Recent Times (Boston, 1867) ; and Herbert L. Terry,
India Rubber and its Manufacture (New York, 1907).
GOOGE, BARNABE (1540- 1594), English poet, son of Robert
Googe, recorder of Lincoln, was born on the nth of June 1540
at Alvingham, Lincolnshire. He studied at Christ's College,
Cambridge, and at New College, Oxford, but does not seem to
have taken a degree at either university. He afterwards removed
to Staple's Inn, and was attached to the household of his kinsman,
Sir William Cecil. In 1563 he became a gentleman pensioner
to Queen Elizabeth. He was absent in Spain when his poems
were sent to the printer by a friend, L. Blundeston. Googe then
gave his consent, and they appeared in 1563 as Eglogs, Epytaphes,
and Sonettes. There is extant a curious correspondence on the
subject of his marriage with Mary Darrell, whose father refused
Googe's suit on the ground that she was bound by a previous
contract. The matter was decided by the intervention of Sir
William Cecil with Archbishop Parker, and the marriage took
place in 1564 or 1565. Googe was provost-marshal of the court
of Connaught, and some twenty letters of his in this capacity
are preserved in the record office. He died in. February 1594.
He was an ardent Protestant, and his poetry is coloured by his
religious and political views. In the third " Eglog," for instance,
he laments the decay of the old nobility and the rise of a new
aristocracy of wealth, and he gives an indignant account of the
sufferings of his co-religionists under Mary. The other eclogues
deal with the sorrows of earthly love, leading up to a dialogue
between Corydon and Comix, in which the heavenly love is
extolled. The volume includes epitaphs on Nicholas Grimald,
John Bale and on Thomas Phaer, whose translation of Virgil
Googe is uncritical enough to prefer to the versions of Surrey
and of Gavin Douglas. A much more charming pastoral than
any of those contained in this volume, " Phyllida was a fayer
maid " {TotteVs Miscellany) has been ascribed to Barnabe
Googe. He was one of the earliest English pastoral poets, and
the first who was inspired by Spanish romance, being consider-
ably indebted to the Diana Enamorada of Montemayor.
His other works include a translation from Marcellus Palingenius
(said to be an anagram for Pietro Angelo Manzolli) of a satirical
Latin poem, Zodiacus vitae (Venice, 1551?), in twelve books, under
the title of The Zodyake of Life (1560); The Popish Kingdome, or
reign of Antichrist (1570), translated from Thomas Kirchmayer or
Naogeorgus; The Spiritual Husbandrie from the same author,
printed with the last; Foure Bookes of Husbandrie (1577). collected
by Conradus Heresbachius; and The Proverbes of . . . Lopes de
Mendoza (1579).
GOOLE, a market town and port in the Osgoldcross parlia-
mentary division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England,
at the confluence of the Don and the Ouse, 24 m. W. by S. from
Hull, served by the North Eastern, Lancashire & Yorkshire,
Great Central and Asholme joint railways. Pop. of urban
district (1901) 16,576. The town owes its existence to the
construction of the Knottingley canal in 1826 by the Aire and
Calder Navigation Company, after which, in 1829, Goole was
made a bonding port. Previously it had been an obscure hamlet.
The port was administratively combined with that of Hull in
1885. It is 47 m. from the North Sea (mouth of the Humber),
and a wide system of inland navigation opens from it. There are
eight docks supplied with timber ponds, quays, warehouses and
other accommodation. The depth of water is 21 or 22 ft. at high
water, spring tides. Chief exports are coal, stone, woollen goods
and machinery; imports, butter, fruit, indigo, logwood, timber
and wool. Industries include the manufacture of alum, sugar,
rope and agricultural instruments, and iron-founding. Ship-
building is also carried on, and there is a large dry dock and a
patent slip for repairing vessels. Passenger steamship services
are worked in connexion with the Lancashire & Yorkshire railway
to Amsterdam, Antwerp, Bruges, Copenhagen, Rotterdam and
other north European ports. The handsome church of St John
the Evangelist, with a lofty tower and spire, dates from 1844.
GOOSE (a common Teut. word, O. Eng. g6s, pi. gis, Ger. Gans 9
O. Norse gds, from Aryan root, ghans, whence Sans, hansd, Lat.
anser (for hanser), Gr. xty> &c.), the general English name for a
considerable number of birds, belonging to the family Anatidae
of modern ornithologists, which are mostly larger than ducks
and less than swans. Technically the word goose is reserved
for the female, the male being called gander (A.-S. gandra).
The most important species of goose, and the type of the
genus Anser, is undoubtedly that which is the origin of the
well-known domestic race (see Poultry), the Anser ferus or
A. cinereus of most naturalists, commonly called in English the
grey or grey lag 1 goose, a bird of exceedingly wide range in the
Old World, apparently breeding where suitable localities are
to be found in most European countries from Lapland to Spain
and Bulgaria. Eastwards it extends to China, but does not
seem to be known in Japan. It is the only species indigenous
to the British Islands, and in former days bred abundantly in
the English Fen-country, where the young were caught in large
numbers and kept in a more or less reclaimed condition with the
vast flocks of tame-bred geese that at one time formed so valuable
a property to the dwellers in and around the Fens. It is im-
possible to determine when the wild grey lag goose ceased from
breeding in England, but it certainly did so towards the end of
the 18th century, for Daniell mentions {Rural Sports, iii. 242)
his having obtained two broods in one season. In Scotland this
goose continues to breed sparingly in several parts of the High-
lands and in certain of the Hebrides, the nests being generally
placed in long heather, and the eggs seldom exceeding Ave or
six in number. It is most likely the birds reared here that are
from time to time obtained in England, for at the present day
the grey lag goose, though once so numerous, is, and for many
years has been, the rarest species of those that habitually resort
to the British Islands. The domestication of this species, as
Darwin remarks {Animals and Plants under Domestication, i.
287), is of very ancient date, and yet scarcely any other animal
that has been tamed for so long a period, and bred so largely in
captivity, has varied so little. It has increased greatly in size
and fecundity, but almost the only change in plumage is that
tame geese commonly lose the browner and darker tints of the
wild bird, and are more or less marked with white — being often
indeed wholly of that colour. 2 The most generally recognized
breeds of domestic geese are those to which the distinctive names
of Emden and Toulouse are applied; but a singular breed, said
to have come from Sevastopol, was introduced into western
Europe about the year 1856. In this the upper plumage is
elongated, curled and spirally twisted, having their shaft
transparent, and so thin that it often splits into fine filaments,
which, remaining free for an inch or more, often coalesce again;*
while the quills are aborted, so that the birds cannot fly.
1 The meaning and derivation of this word lag had long been a
puzzle until Skeat suggested (Ibis, 1870, p. 301) that it signified
late, last, or slow, as in laggard, a loiterer, lagman, the last man,
lagteeth, the posterior molar or " wisdom " teeth (as the last to
appear), and lagclock, a clock that is behind time. Thus the grey
lag goose is the grey goose which in England when the name was
given was not migratory but lagged behind the other wild species at
the season when they betook themselves to their northern breeding-
quarters. In connexion with this word, however, must be noticed
the curious fact mentioned by Rowley (Orn. Miscell., iii. 213),
that the flocks of tame geese in Lincolnshire are urged on by their
drivers with the cry of lag*em, lag'em."
2 From the times of the Romans white geese have been held in
great estimation, and hence, doubtless, they have been preferred as
breeding stock, but the practice of pluckine geese alive, continued
for so many centuries, has not improbably also helped to perpetuate
this variation, for it is well known to many bird-keepers that a
white feather is often produced in place of one of the natural colour
that has been pulled out.
• In some English counties, especially Norfolk and Lincoln, it
was no uncommon thing formerly for a man to keep a stock of a
thousand geese, each of which might be reckoned to rear on an
242
GOOSE
The other British species of typical geese are the bean-goose
{A. segetum), the pink-footed (A. brachyrhynchus) and the white-
fronted {A. albifrons). On the continent of Europe, but not
yet recognized as occurring in Britain, is a small form of the last
(A. eryihropus) which is known to breed in Lapland. All these,
for the sake of discrimination, may 'be divided into two groups —
(i) those having the " nail " at the tip of the bill white, or of a
very pale flesh colour, and (2) those in which this "nail" is
black. To the former belong the grey lag goose, as well as A.
albifrons and A. erythropus, and to the latter the other two.
A. albifrons and A. erythropus, which differ little but in size, —
the last being not much bigger than a mallard {Anas boschas), —
may be readily distinguished from the grey lag goose by their
bright orange legs and their mouse-coloured upper ,wing-coverts,
to say nothing of their very conspicuous white face and the
broad black bars which cross the belly, though the last two
characters are occasionally observable to some extent in the
grey lag goose, which has the bill and legs flesh-coloured, and
the upper wing-coverts of a bluish-grey. Of the second group,
with the black " nail," A. segetum has the bill long, black at the
base and orange in the middle; the feet are also orange, and
the upper wing-coverts mouse-coloured, as in A . albifrons and
A, erythropus, while A. brachyrhynchus has the bill short, bright
pink in the middle, and the feet also pink, the upper wing-coverts
being nearly of the same bluish-grey as in the grey lag goose.
Eastern Asia possesses in A. grandis a third species of this group,
which chiefly differs from A . segetum in its larger size. In North
America there is only one species of typical goose, and that
belongs to the white-" nailed " group. It very nearly resembles
A. albifrons , but is larger, and has been described as distinct
under the name of A. gambeli. Central Asia and India possess
in the bar-headed goose (A. indicus) a bird easily distinguished
from any of the foregoing by the character implied by its English
name; but it is certainly somewhat abnormal, and, indeed,
under the name of Eidabia, has been separated from the genus
Anser, which has no other member indigenous to the Indian
Region, nor any at all to the Ethiopian, Australian or Neotropical
Regions.
America possesses by far the greatest wealth of Anserine forms.
Beside others, presently to be mentioned, its northern portions
are the home of all the species of snow-geese belonging to the
genus Chen. The first of these is C. hyperboreus, the snow-goose
proper, a bird of large size, and when adult of a pure white,
except the primaries, which are black. This has long been
deemed a visitor to the Old World, and sometimes in considerable
numbers, but the later discovery of a smaller form, C. albatus,
scarcely differing except in size, throws some doubt on the older
records, especially since examples which have been obtained in
the British Islands undoubtedly belong to this lesser bird, and
it would be satisfactory to have the occurrence in the Old World
of the true C. hyperboreus placed on a surer footing. So nearly
allied to the species last named as to have been often confounded
with it, is the blue-winged goose, C. coerulescens, which is said
never to attain a snowy plumage. Then we have a very small
species, long ago described as distinct by Samuel Hearne, the
Arctic traveller, but until 1861 discredited by ornithologists.
Its distinctness has now been fully recognized, and it has received,
somewhat unjustly, the name of C. rossi. Its face is adorned
with numerous papillae, whence it has been removed by Elliot
to a separate genus, Exanthemops, and for the same reason it
has long been known to the European residents in the fur
countries as the " horned wavey " — the last word being a
rendering of a native name, Wawa, which signifies goose. Finally,
average seven goslings. The flocks were regularly taken to pasture
and water, just as sheep are, and the man who tended them was
called the gooseherd, corrupted into gozzerd. The birds were
plucked five times in the year, and in autumn the flocks were driven
to London or other large markets. They travelled at the rate of
about a mile an hour, and would get over nearly 10 m. in the day.
For further particulars the reader may be referred to Pennant's
British Zoology; Montagu's Ornithological Dictionary; Latham's
General History of Birds; and Rowleys Ornithological Miscellany
(iii. 206-215), where some account. also may be found of the goose-
fatting at Strassburg.
there appears to belong to this section, though it has been
frequently referred to another {Chloephaga), and has also been
made the type of. a distinct genus (Philacte), the beautiful
emperor goose, P. canagica, which is almost peculiar to the
Aleutian Islands, though straying to the continent in winter,
and may be recognized by the white edging of its remiges.
The southern portions of the New World are inhabited by
about half a dozen species of geese not nearly akin to the fore-
going, and separated as the genus Chloephaga. The most
noticeable of them are the rock or kelp goose, C. antarctica, and
the upland goose, C. mageUanica. In both of these the sexes
are totally unlike in colour, but in others a greater similarity
obtains. 1 Formerly erroneously associated with the birds of
this group comes one which belongs to the northern hemisphere,
and is common to the Old World as well as the New. It contains
the geese which have received the common names of bernacles
or brents, 2 and the scientific appellations of Bernicla and Branta
— for the use of either of which much may be said by nomen-
claturists. All the species of this section are distinguished by
their general dark sooty colour, relieved in some by white of
greater or less purity, and by way of distinction from the members
of the 'genus Anser , which are known as grey geese, are frequently
called by fowlers black geese. Of these, the best known both
in Europe and North America is the brent-goose — the Anas
bernicla of Linnaeus, and the B. torquata of many modern
writers — a truly marine bird, seldom (in Europe at least) quitting
salt-water, and coming southwards in vast flocks towards
autumn, frequenting bays and estuaries on the British coasts,
where it lives chiefly on sea-grass {Zoster a maritima). It is
known to breed in Spitsbergen and in Greenland. A form which
is by some ornithologists deemed a good species, and called
by them B. nigricans, occurs chiefly on the Pacific coast of
North America. In it the black of the neck, which in the common
brent terminates just above the breast, extends over most of
the lower parts. The true bernacle-goose, 8 the B. leucopsis of
most authors, is but a casual visitor to North America, but is
said to breed in Iceland, and occasionally in Norway. Its usual
incunabula, however, still form one of the puzzles of the ornitho-
logist, and the difficulty is not lessened by the fact that it will
breed freely in semi-captivity, while the brent-goose will not.
From the latter the bernacle-goose is easily distinguished by its
larger size and white cheeks. Hu tennis's goose {B. Hutchinsi)
seems to be its true representative in the New World. In this
the face is dark, but a white crescentic or triangular patch
extends from the throat on either side upwards behind the eye.
Almost exactly similar in coloration to the last, but greatly
superior in size, and possessing 18 rect rices, while all the fore-
going have but 16, is the common wild goose of America, B.
canadensis, which, for more than two centuries has been intro-
duced into Europe, where it propagates so freely that it has been
included by nearly all the ornithologists of this quarter of the
globe as a member of its fauna. An allied form, by some
deemed a species, is B. leucopareia, which ranges over the western
part of North America, and, though having 18 rectrices, is
distinguished by a white collar round the lower part of the
neck. The most diverse species of this group of geese are the
beautiful B. ruficollis, a native of north-eastern Asia, which
occasionally strays to western Europe, and has been obtained
more than once in Britain, and that which is peculiar to the
Hawaian archipelago, B. sandvicensis.
The largest living goose is that called the Chinese, Guinea or
swan-goose, Cygnopsis cygnoides, and this is the stock whence
the domestic geese of several eastern countries have sprung.
It may often be seen in English parks, and it is found to cross
readily with the common tame goose/ the offspring being fertile,
1 See Sclater and Salvin, Proc. Zool. Society (1876), pp. 361-369.
*The etymology of these two words is exceedingly obscure.
The ordinary spelling bernicle seems to be wrong, if we may judge
from the analogy 01 the French Bernache. In both words the e
should be sounded as a.
* The old fable, perhaps still believed by the uneducated in some'
parts of the world, was that bernacle-geese were produced from the
barnacles {Lepadidae) that grow on timber exposed to salt-water .
GOOSE (GAME OR—GOOSEBERRY
and Blyth has said that these crosses are very abundant in India.
The true home of the species is in eastern Siberia or Mongolia.
It is distinguished by its long smooth neck, marked dorsally
by a chocolate streak. The reclaimed form is usually distin-
guished by the knob at the base of the bill, but the evidence of
many observers shows that this is not found in the wild race.
Of this bird there is a perfectly white breed.
We have next to mention a very curious form, Cereopsis
novae-hollandiae, which is peculiar to Australia, and is a more
terrestrial type of goose than any other now existing. Its short,
decurved bill and green cere give it a very peculiar expression,
and its almost uniform grey plumage, bearing rounded black
spots, is also remarkable. It bears captivity well, breeding in
confinement, but is now seldom seen. It appears to have been
formerly very abundant in many parts of Australia, from which
it has of late been exterminated. Some of its peculiarities seem
to have been still more exaggerated in a bird that is wholly
extinct, the Cnemiornis calcitrans of New Zealand, the remains
of which were described in full by Sir R. Owen in 1873
{Trans. Zool. Society, ix. 253). Among the first portions of this
singular bird that were found were the tibiae, presenting an
extraordinary development of the patella, which, united with
the shank-bone, gave rise to the generic name applied. For some
time the affinity of the owner of this wonderful structure was
in doubt, but all hesitation was dispelled by the discovery of a
nearly perfect skeleton, now in the British Museum, which proved
the bird to be a goose, of great size, and unable, from the shortness
of its wings, to fly. In correlation with this loss of power may
also be noted the dwindling of the keel of thesternum. Generally,
however, its osteological characters point to an affinity to Cere-
opsis, as was noticed by Dr Hector {Trans. New Zeal. Institute,
vi. 76-84), who first determined its Anserine character.
Birds of the genera Chenalopex (the Egyptian and Orinoco
geese), Plectropterus, Sarcidiornis, Chlamydochen and some others,
are commonly called geese. It seems uncertain whether they
should be grouped with the Anserinae. The males of all, like
those of the above-mentioned genus Chlo'ephaga, appear to have
that curious enlargement at the junction of the bronchial tubes
and the trachea which is so characteristic of the ducks or
Anatinae. (A. N.)
GOOSE (Game of), an ancient French game, said to have been
derived from the Greeks, very popular at the close of the middle
ages. It was played on a piece of card-board upon which was
drawn a fantastic scroll, called the jardin de VOie (goose-garden) ,
divided into 63 spaces marked with certain emblems, such as
dice, an inn, a bridge, a labyrinth, &c. The emblem inscribed on
1 and 6$, as well as every ninth space between, was a goose.
The object was to land one's counter in number 63, the number
of spaces moved through being determined by throwing two
dice. The counter was advanced or retired according to the space
on which it was placed. For instance if it rested on the inn it
must remain there until each adversary, of which there might
be several, had played twice; if it rested on the death's Head
the player must begin over again; if it went beyond 63 it must
be retired a certain number of spaces. The game was usually
played for a stake, and special fines were exacted for resting on
certain spaces. At the end of the 18th century a variation of
the game was called the jeu de la Revolution Franchise*
GOOSEBERRY, Ribes Grossularia, a well-known fruit-bush
of northern and central Europe, placed in the same genus of
the natural order to which it gives name (Ribesiaceae) as the
closely allied currants. It forms a distinct section Grossularia,
the members of which differ from the true currents chiefly in
their spinous stems, and in their flowers growing on short foot-
stalks, solitary, or two or three together, instead of in racemes.
The wild gooseberry is a small, straggling bush, nearly re-
sembling the cultivated plant, — the branches being thickly
set with sharp spines, standing out singly or in diverging tufts
of two or three from the bases of the short spurs or lateral leaf
shoots, on which the bell-shaped flowers are produced, singly
or in pairs, from the groups of rounded, deeply-crenated 3- or 5-
lobed leaves. The fruit is smaller than in the garden kinds,
243
but is often of good flavour; it is generally hairy, but in one
variety smooth, constituting the R. Uva-crispa of writers; the
colour is usually green, but plants are occasionally met with
having deep purple berries. The gooseberry is indigenous in
Europe and western Asia, growing naturally in alpine thickets
and rocky woods in the lower country, from France eastward,
perhaps as far as the Himalaya. In Britain it is often found in
copses and hedgerows and about old ruins, but has been so long
a plant of cultivation that it is difficult to decide upon its claim
to a place in the native flora of the island. Common as it is now
on some of the lower slopes of the Alps of Piedmont and Savoy,
it is uncertain whether the Romans were acquainted with the
gooseberry, though it may possibly be alluded to in a vague
passage of Pliny: the hot summers of Italy, in ancient times as
at present, would be unfavourable to its cultivation. Abundant
in Germany and France, it does not appear to have been much
grown there in the middle ages, though the wild fruit was held
in some esteem medicinally for the cooling properties of its acid
juice in fevers; while the old English name, Fea-berry, still
surviving in some provincial dialects, indicates that it was
similarly valued in Britain, where it was planted in gardens
at a comparatively early period. William Turner describes the
gooseberry in his Herball, written about the middle of the 16th
century, and a few years later it is mentioned in one of Thomas
Tusser's quaint. rhymes as an ordinary object of garden culture.
Improved varieties were probably first raised by the skilful
gardeners of Holland, whose name for the fruit, Kruisbezie, may
have been easily corrupted into the present English vernacular
word. 1 Towards the end of the 18th century the gooseberry
became a favourite object of cottage-horticulture, especially in
Lancashire, where the working cotton-spinners have raised
numerous varieties from seed, their efforts having been chiefly
directed to increasing the size of the fruit. Of the many hundred
sorts enumerated in recent horticultural works, few perhaps equal
in flavour some of the older denizens of the fruit-garden, such
as the " old rough red " and " hairy amber." The climate of
the British Islands seems peculiarly adapted to bring the goose-
berry to perfection, and it may be grown successfully even in
the most northern parts of Scotland; indeed, the flavour of the
fruit is said to improve with increasing latitude. In Norway
even, the bush flourishes in gardens on the west coast nearly up
to the Arctic circle, and it is found wild as far north as 63 .
The dry summers of the French and German plains are less
suited to it, though it is grown in some hilly districts with tolerable
success. The gooseberry in the south of England will grow well
in cool situations, and may be sometimes seen in gardens near
London flourishing under the partial shade. of apple trees; but
in the north it needs full exposure to the sun to bring the fruit
to perfection. It will succeed in almost any soil, but prefers a
rich loam or black alluvium, and, though naturally a plant of
rather dry places, will do well in moist land, if drained.
The varieties are most easily propagated by cuttings planted
in the autumn, which root rapidly, and in a few years form
good fruit-bearing bushes. Much difference of opinion prevails
regarding the mode of pruning this valuable shrub; it is probable
that in different situations it may require varying treatment.
The fruit being borne on the lateral spurs, and on the shoots of
the last year, it is the usual practice to shorten the side branches
in the winter, before the buds begin to expand; some reduce the
longer leading shoots at the same time, while others prefer to
nip off the ends of these in the summer while they are still
1 The first part of the word has been usually treated as an ety-
mological corruption either of this Dutch word or the allied Ger.
Krausbeere, or of the earlier forms of the Fr. groseUle. T\it New
English Dictionary takes the obvious derivation from " goose "and
"berry" as probable; "the grounds on which plants and fruits
have received names associating them with animals are so commonly
inexplicable, that the want of appropriateness in the meaning afford?
no sufficient ground for assuming that the word is an etymologizing
corruption." Skeat (Etym. Diet., 1898) connects the French, Dutch
and German words, and finds the origin in the M.H.G. krus, curling,
crisped, applied here to the hairs on the fruit. The French word
was latinized as grossularia and confused with groseus, thick, fat.
244
GOOSEBERRY
succulent. When large fruit is desired, plenty of manure should
be supplied to the roots, and the greater portion of the berries
picked off while still small. If standards are desired, the goose-
berry may be with advantage grafted or budded on stocks of
some other species of Ribcs, R. aureum, the ornamental golden
currant of the flower garden, answering well for the purpose. The
giant gooseberries of the Lancashire " fanciers " are obtained
by the careful culture of varieties specially raised with this
object, the growth being encouraged by abundant manuring, and
the removal of all but a very few berries from each plant. Single
gooseberries of nearly a oz. in weight have been occasionally
exhibited; but the produce of such fanciful horticulture is
generally insipid. The bushes at times suffer much from" the
ravages of the caterpillars of the gooseberry or magpie moth,
Abraxas grossulariata, which often strip the branches of leaves
in the early summer, if not destroyed before the mischief is
accomplished. The most effectual way of getting rid of this
pretty but destructive insect is to look over each bush carefully,
and pick off the larvae by hand; when larger they may be
shaken off by striking the branches, but by that time the harm
is generally done — the eggs are laid on the leaves of the previous
season. Equally annoying in some years is the smaller larva
of the V-moth, H alias vanaria, which often appears in great
numbers, and is not so readily removed. The gooseberry is
sometimes attacked by the grub of the gooseberry sawfly,
Nematus ribesii, of which several broods appear in the course of
the spring and summer, and are very destructive. The grubs
bury themselves in the ground to pass into the pupal state;
the first brood of flies, hatched just as the bushes are coming into
leaf in the spring, lay their eggs on the lower side of the leaves,
where the small greenish larvae soon after emerge. For the
destruction of the first broods it has been recommended to syringe
the bushes with tar- water; perhaps a very weak solution of
carbolic acid might prove more effective. The powdered root
of white hellebore is said to destroy both this grub and the
caterpillars of the gooseberry moth and V-moth; infusion of
foxglove, and tobacco-water, are likewise tried by some growers.
If the fallen leaves arc carefully removed from the ground in the
autumn and burnt, and the surface of the soil turned over with
the fork or spade, most eggs and chrysalids will be destroyed.
The gooseberry was introduced into the United States by the
early settlers, and in some parts of New England large quantities
of the green fruit arc produced and sold for culinary use in the
towns; but the excessive heat of the American summer is not
adapted for the healthy maturation of the berries, especially of
the English varieties. Perhaps if some of these, or those raised
in the country, could be crossed with one of the indigenous
species, kinds might be obtained better fitted for American
conditions of culture, although the gooseberry does not readily
hybridise. The attacks of the American gooseberry mildew
j ^^m^. have largely con-
^^ J^rf^ ^ *"^ TX tributcd to the
■ j. B* failure of the crop
EL? ^5 * n America.
^ .^— — ^^ Occasionally the
■ tacked by the
^| L^ l/^» I fungus till recently
/^^| 1 P { J*j I called -4 ecidi urn
f- r)^S\ wn *°^ faros utt l e
tered together on
reddish spots on
the leaves or fruits
(fig. i). It has
recently been dis-
covered that the
spores contained in these cups will not reproduce the disease on
the $vx^berr>\ but infect species of C\iw tsedges* on which
they produce a iungus oi a totally different appearance. This
Fie,
i.— A Fungal Disease of the Gooseberry
\s Leaf showing patches of duster-cups on
surface; 5. Fruit, showing same; 3, Cluster-
cups much enlarged.
stage in the life-history of the parasite gives its name to the
whole fungus, so that it is now known as Puccinia Pringsheimiana.
Both uredospores and
teleutospores are formed
on the sedge, and the
latter live through the
winter and produce the
disease on the goose-
berry in the succeeding
year. In cases where
the disease proves
troublesome the sedges
in the neighbourhood
should be destroyed.
A much more pre-
valent disease is that
caused by Micro-
sphaeria Grosstdariae.
This is a mildew grow-
ing on the surface of
the leaf and sending
suckers into the epi-
dermis. The white
mycelium gives the From G^ge Massee's Tcxi-Book of Plant Divascs.
leaves Of the plant the D * permission of Duckworth & Co.
appearance of having Fig. 2.— Gooseberry Mildew (lftcr^*a«rftt
been whitewashed T , Grossulartac.)
t&f *\ M.. m <*-~., „ i» Leaf attacked by the fungus; 2,
(fig. a). Numerous YtiaiSaOoa or peritiecium (X75);W
wmte spores are pro- en< j f one f fa numerous appendages
duced in the summer is shown more highly magnified (X300)
which are able to ger- > n 3t 4. 5t spore sacs (asci) from the pen-
m i n a t e immediately, *"*™* containing spores ( X400).
and later small blackish fruits (perithecia) are produced that pass
uninjured through the winter liberating the spores they contain
in the spring,
which infect the
young developing
leaves of the
bush. In bad
cases the plants
are greatly in-
jured but fre-
quently little
harm is done.
Attacked plants
should be sprayed
with potassium
sulphide.
An allied fun-
gus, Spkacrotheca
mors-uvae y of
much greater vir-
ulence, has re-
cently appeared in
England, causing
the disease known
as " American
gooseberry mil-
dew " (fig. 3 a). In
the main the mode
of attack is simi-
lar to that of the
last - mentioned,
but not only are
the leaves at- _ . , , . m . _ . t . . . __ .
... , From the Jtm u m l of the Bmmi of AgrumUmrt (May 1907).
tac&ed, DUt tneby permission of the Dei*, of Agriculture and Ti imwil
- for Ireland.
tips of the young
shoots and the FlG - 3*-— American Gooseberry Mik)ew(S£*«r-
fruit* become ***** "ww*-*" *)- Plant with leaves and fnrit
truits D ^come attackedb ^ thefun ^
covered by the
cobweb-like mycelium, the attack frequently resulting in the
death of the shoots and the destruction of the fruits. After a
GOOTY— GORAKHPUR
245
time the mycelium becomes rusty brown and produces the
winter form of the fungus. Through the winter the shoots
are covered thickly with the brown mycelium and in the spring
the spores contained in the perithecia germinate and start the
infection anew, as in the case of the European mildew. This
fungus has recently been the subject of legislation, and when it
appears in a district strong repressive measures are called for.
In bad cases the attacked bushes should be destroyed, while in
milder attacks frequent spraying with potassium sulphide and
the pruning off and immediate destruction by fire of all the
young shoots showing the mildew should be resorted to.
The gooseberry, when ripe, yields a fine wine by the fermenta-
tion of the juice with water and sugar, the resulting sparkling
liquor retaining much of the flavour of the fruit. By similarly
treating the juice of the green fruit, picked just before it ripens,
an effervescing wine is produced, nearly resembling some kinds
of champagne, and, when skilfully prepared, far superior to
Fig. 3b. — 1, Fructification (perithecium) bursting, ascus containing
spores protruding ( X400) ; 2, Ascus with spores more highly magnified
(Xiooo).
much of the liquor sold under that name. Brandy has been
made from ripe gooseberries by distillation; by exposing the
juice with sugar to the acetous fermentation a good vinegar
may be obtained. The gooseberry, when perfectly ripe, contains
a large quantity of sugar, most abundant in the red and amber
varieties; in the former it amounts to from 6 to upwards of
8%. The acidity of the fruit is chiefly due to malic acid.
Several other species of the sub-genus produce edible fruit,
though none have as yet been brought under economic culture.
Among them may be noticed R. oxyacanthoides and R. Cynosbati,
abundant in Canada and the northern parts of the United States,
and R. gracile, common along the Alleghany range. The
group is a widely distributed one in the north temperate zone, —
one species is found in Europe extending to the Caucasus and
North Africa (Atlas Mountains), five occur in Asia and nineteen
in North America, the range extending southwards to Mexico
and Guatemala.
GOOTY, a town and hill fortress in southern India, in the
Anantapur district of Madras, 48 m. E. of Bellary. Pop. (1001)
968 2 . The town is surrounded by a circle of rocky hills, connected
by a wall. On the highest of these stands the citadel, 2100 ft.
above sea-level and 1000 ft. above the surrounding country.
Here was the stronghold of Morari Rao Ghorpade, a famous
Mahratta warrior and ally of the English, who was ultimately
starved into surrender by Hayder Ali in 1775.
GOPHER (Testudo polyphemus), the only living representative
on the North American continent of the genus Testudo of the
family Testudinidae or land tortoises; it occurs in the south-
eastern parts of the United States, from Florida in the south to
the river Savannah in the north. Its carapace, which is oblong
and remarkably compressed, measures from 12-18 in. in extreme
length, the shields which cover it being grooved, and of a yellow-
brown colour. It is characterized by the shape of the front lobe
of the plastron, which is bent upwards and extends beyond the
carapace. The gopher abounds chiefly in the forests, but
occasionally visits the open plains, where it does great damage,
especially to the potato crops, on which it feeds. It is a nocturnal
animal, remaining concealed by day in its deep burrow, and
coming forth at night to feed. The eggs, five in number, almost
round and i£ in. in diameter, are laid in a separate cavity near
the entrance. The flesh of the gopher or mungofa, as it is also
called, is considered excellent eating.
The name " gopher " is more commonly applied to certain
small rodent mammals, particularly the pocket-gopher.
GdPPINGEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Wurttem-
berg, on the right bank of the Fils, 22 m. E.S.E. of Stuttgart on
the railway to Friedrichshafen. Pop. (1905) 20,870. It possesses
a castle built, partly with stones from the ruined castle of Hohen-
staufen, by Duke Christopher of Wtirttemberg in the 16th century
and now used as public offices, two Evangelical churches, a
Roman Catholic church, a synagogue, a classical school, and a
modern school. The manufactures are considerable and include
linen and woollen cloth, leather, glue, paper and toys. There are
machine shops and tanneries in the town. Three m. N. of the
town are the ruins of the castle of Hohenstaufen. Gdppingen
originally belonged to the house of Hohenstaufen, and in 1270
came into possession of the counts of Wurttemberg. It was
surrounded by walls in 1 1 29, and was almost entirely rebuilt after
a fire in 1782.
See Pfeiffer, Beschreibung und Geschichte der Stadt Gdppingen
(1885).
GORAKHPUR, a city, district and division of the United
Provinces of British India. The city is situated on the left bank
of the river Rapti. Pop. (1901) 64,148. It is believed to have
been founded about 1400 a.d. It is the civil headquarters of the
district and was formerly a military cantonment. It consists of
a number of adjacent village sites, sometimes separated by
cultivated land, and most of the inhabitants are agriculturists.
The District of Gorakhpur has an area of 4535 sq. m. It
lies immediately south of the lower Himalayan slopes, but itself
forms a portion of the great alluvial plain. Only a few sandhills
break the monotony of its level surface, which is, however, inter-
sected by numerous rivers studded with lakes and marshes. In
the north and centre dense forests abound, and the whole country
has a verdant appearance. The principal livers are the Rapti,
the Gogra, the Gandak and Little Gandak, the Kuana, the Rohin,
the Ami and the Gunghi. Tigers are found in the north, and
many other wild animals abound throughout the district. The
lakes are well stocked with fish. The district is not subject to
very intense heat, from which it is secured by its vicinity to the
hills and the moisture of its soil. Dust-storms are rare, and cool
breezes from the north, rushing down the gorges of the Himalayas,
succeed each short interval of warm weather. The climate is,
however, relaxing. The southern and eastern portions are as
healthy as most parts of the province, but the tarai and forest-
tracts are still subject to malaria.
Gautama Buddha, the founder of the religion bearing his name,
was born, and died near the boundaries of the district. From the
beginning of the 6th century the country was the scene of a con-
tinuous struggle between the Bhars and their Aryan antagonists,
the Rathors. About 900 the Domhatars or military Brahmans
appeared, and expelled the Rathors from the town of Gorakhpur,
but they also were soon driven back by other invaders. During
the 15th and 16th centuries, after the district had been desolated
by incessant war, the descendants of the various conquerors held
parts of the territory, and each seems to have lived quite isolated,
as no bridges or roads attest any intercourse with each other.
Towards the end of the 16th century Mussulmans occupied
Gorakhpur town, but they interfered very little with the district,
and allowed it to be controlled by the native rajas. In the
middle of the 18th century a formidable foe, the Banjaras from the
west, so weakened the power of the rajas that they could not resist
the fiscal exactions of the Oudh officials, who plundered the
country to a great extent. The district formed part of the
territory ceded by Oudh to the British under the treaty of 1801.
During the Mutiny it was lost for a short time, but under the
friendly Gurkhas the rebels were driven out. The population in
1901 was 2,957,074, showing a decrease of 3% in the decade.
The district is traversed by the main line and several branches of
the Bengal & North-Western railway, and the Gandak, the Gogra
and the Rapti are navigable.
246
GORAL— GORCHAKOV
The Division has an area of 9534 sq, m. The population in
1901 was 6,333,012, giving an average density of 664 persons per
sq. m., being more than one to every acre, and the highest for
any large tract in India.
GORAL, the native name of a small Himalayan rough-haired
and cylindrical-horned ruminant classed in the same group as the
chamois. Scientifically this animal is known as Urotragus (or
Cemas) goral) and the native name is now employed as the
designation of all the other members of the same genus. In
addition to certain peculiarities in the form of the skull, gorals
are chiefly distinguished from serows (q.v.) by not possessing a
gland below the eye, nor a corresponding depression in the skull.
Several species are known, ranging from the Himalaya to Burma,
Tibet and North China. Of these, the two Himalayan gorals
(U. goral and U. bedfordi) are usually found in small parties, but
less commonly in pairs. They generally frequent grassy hills, or
rocky ground clothed with forest; in fine weather feeding only
in the mornings and evenings, but when the sky is cloudy grazing
throughout the day.
GORAMY, or Gouramy {Osphromenus olfax), reputed to be one
of the best-flavoured freshwater fishes in the East Indian archi-
pelago. Its original home is Java, Sumatra, Borneo and several
other East Indian islands, but thence it has been transported to
and acclimatized in Penang, Malacca, Mauritius and even
Cayenne. Being an almost omnivorous fish and tenacious of life,
Goramy.
it seems to recommend itself particularly for acclimatization in
other tropical countries; and specimens kept in captivity become
as tame as carps. It attains the size of a large turbot. Its
shape is flat and short, the body covered with large scales; the
dorsal and anal fins are provided with numerous spines, and
the ventral fins produced into long filaments. Like Anabas,
the climbing perch, it possesses a suprabranchial accessory
respiratory organ.
G&RBERSDORF, a village and climatic health resort of
Germany, in the Prussian province of Silesia, romantically
situated in a deep and well-wooded valley of the Waldenburg
range, 1900 ft. above the sea, 60 m. S.W. of Breslau by the
railway to Friedland and 3 m. from the Austrian frontier. Pop.
700. It has four large sanatoria for consumptives, the earliest of
which was founded in 1854 by Hermann Brehmer (1826-1889).
GORBODUC, a mythical king of Britain. He gave his kingdom
away during his lifetime to his two sons, Ferrex and Porrex.
The two quarrelled and the younger stabbed the elder. Their
mother, loving the latter most, avenged his death by murdering
her son, and the people, horrified at her act, revolted and
murdered both her and King Gorboduc* This legend was the
subject of the earliest regular English tragedy which in 1561
was played before Queen Elizabeth in the Inner Temple hall.
It was written by Thomas Sackville, Lord Buckhurst and
Thomas Norton in collaboration. Under the title of Gorboduc it
was published first very corruptly in 1565, and in better form as
The Tragedy of Ferrex and Porrex in 1570.
GORCHAKOV, or Gortchakoff, a noble Russian family,
descended from Michael Vsevolodovich, prince of Chernigov,
who, in 1 246, was assassinated by the Mongols. Prince Andrey
Ivanovich (1 768-1855), general in the Russian army, took a
conspicuous part in the final campaigns against Napoleon.
Alexander Ivanovich (i 760-1825) served with distinction
under his relative Suvarov in the Turkish Wars, and took part
as a general officer in the Italian and Swiss operations of 1799,
and in the war against Napoleon in Poland in 1806- 1807 (battle
of Heilsberg). Petr Dmitrievich (1790-1868) served under
Kamenski and Kutusov in the campaign against Turkey, and
afterwards against France in 1813-1814. In 1820 he suppressed
an insurrection in the Caucasus, for which service he was raised
to the rank of major-general. In 1828-1829 he fought under
Wittgenstein against the Turks, won an action at Aidos, and
signed the treaty of peace at Adrianople. In 1839 he was made
governor of Eastern Siberia, and in 185 1 retired into private
life. When the Crimean War broke out he offered his services
to the emperor Nicholas, by whom he was appointed general of
the VI. army corps in the Crimea. He commanded the corps
in the battles of Alma and Inkerman. He retired in 1855 and
died at Moscow, on the 18th of March 1868.
Prince Mikhail Dmitrievich (1795-1861), brother of the
last named, entered the Russian army in 1807 and took part
in the campaigns against Persia in 1810, and in 1812-1815
against France. During the Russo-Turkish War of 1828-1829
he was present at the sieges of Silistria and Shumla. After
being appointed, in 1830, a general officer, he was present in the
campaign in Poland, and was wounded at the battle of Grochow,
on the 25th of February 1831. He also distinguished himselt
at the battle of Ostrolenka and at the taking of Warsaw. For
these services he was promoted to the rank of lieutenant-generaL
In 1846 he was nominated military governor of Warsaw. In
1849 he commanded the Russian artillery in the war against the
Hungarians, and in 1852 he visited London as a representative
of the Russian army at the funeral of the duke of Wellington.
At this time he was chief of the staff of the Russian army and
adjutant-general to the tsar. Upon Russia declaring war
against Turkey in 1853, he was appointed commander-in-chief
of the troops which occupied Moldavia and Wallachia. In 1854
he crossed the Danube and besieged Silistria, but was superseded
in April by Prince Paskevich, who, however, resigned on the 8th
of June, when Gorchakov resumed the command. In July
the siege of Silistria was raised, and the Russian armies recrossed
the Danube; in August they withdrew to Russia. In 1855 he
was appointed commander-in-chief of the Russian forces in the
Crimea in place of Prince Menshikov. Gorchakov's defence of
Sevastopol, and final retreat to the northern part of the town,
which he continued to defend till peace was signed in Paris, were
conducted with skill and energy. In 1856 he was appointed
governor-general of Poland in succession to Prince Paskevich.
He died at Warsaw on the 30th of May 1861, and was buried,
in accordance with his own wish, at Sevastopol.
Prince Gorchakov, Alexander Mikhailovich (1798-1883),
Russian statesman, cousin of Princes Petr and Mikhail Gorchakov,
was born on the 16th of July 1798, and was educated at the
lyceum of Tsarskoye Selo, where he had the poet Pushkin as a
school-fellow. He became a good classical scholar, and learnt
to speak and write in French with facility and elegance. Pushkin
in one of his poems described young Gorchakov as " Fortune's
favoured son," and predicted his success. On leaving the lyceum
Gorchakov entered the foreign office under Count Nesselrode.
His first diplomatic work of importance was the negotiation of a
marriage between the grand duchess Olga and the crown prince
Charles of Wurttemberg. He remained at Stuttgart for some
years as Russian minister and confidential adviser of the crown
princess. He foretold the outbreak of the revolutionary spirit
in Germany and Austria, and was credited with counselling the
abdication of Ferdinand in favour of Francis Joseph. When the
German confederation was re-established in 1850 in place of the
parliament of Frankfort, Gorchakov was appointed Russian
minister to the diet. It was here that he first met Prince
Bismarck, with whom he formed a friendship which was after-
wards renewed at St Petersburg. The emperor Nicholas found
that his ambassador at Vienna, Baron Meyendorff, was not a
sympathetic instrument for carrying out his schemes in the East.
He therefore transferred Gorchakov to Vienna, where the latter
remained through the critical period of the Crimean War.
GORDIAN— GORDIUM
247
Gorchakov perceived that Russian designs against Turkey,
supported by Great Britain and France, were impracticable,
and he counselled Russia to make no more useless sacrifices,
but to accept the bases of a pacification. At the same time,
although he attended the Paris conference of 1856, he purposely
abstained from affixing his signature to the treaty of peace after
that of Count Orlov, Russia's chief representative. For the time,
however, he made a virtue of necessity, and Alexander II.,
recognizing the wisdom and courage which Gorchakov had
exhibited, appointed him minister of foreign affairs in place of
Count Nesselrode. Not long after his accession to office Gorcha-
kov issued a circular to the foreign powers, in which he announced
that Russia proposed, for internal reasons, to keep herself as
free as possible from complications abroad, and he added the
now historic phrase, " La Russie ne boude pas; die se rectieille"
During the Polish insurrection Gorchakov rebuffed the sugges-
tions of Great Britain, Austria and France for assuaging the
severities employed in quelling it, and he was especially acrid
in his replies to Earl Russell's despatches. In July 1863
Gorchakov was appointed chancellor of the Russian empire
expressly in reward for his bold diplomatic attitude towards an
indignant Europe. The appointment was hailed with enthusiasm
in Russia, and at that juncture Prince Chancellor Gorchakov
was unquestionably the most powerful minister in Europe.
An approchement now began between the courts of Russia and
Prussia; and in 1863 Gorchakov smoothed the way for the
occupation of Holstein by the Federal troops. This seemed
equally favourable to Austria and Prussia, but it was the latter
power which gained all the substantial advantages; and when
the conflict arose between Austria and Prussia in 1866, Russia
remained neutral and permitted Prussia to reap the fruits and
establish her supremacy in Germany. When the Franco-German
War of 1870-71 broke out Russia answered for the neutrality
of Austria. An attempt was made to form an anti-Prussian
coalition, but it failed in consequence of the cordial understanding
between the German and Russian chancellors. In return for
Russia's service in preventing the aid of Austria from being
given to France, Gorchakov looked to Bismarck for diplomatic
support in the Eastern Question, and he received an instalment
of the expected support when he successfully denounced the
Black Sea clauses of the treaty of Paris. This was justly regarded
by him as an important service to his country and one of the
triumphs of his career, and he hoped to obtain further successes
with the assistance of Germany, but the cordial relations between
the cabinets of St Petersburg and Berlin did not subsist much
longer. In 1875 Bismarck was suspected of a design of again
attacking France, and Gorchakov gave him to understand, in a
way which was not meant to be offensive, but which roused the
German chancellor's indignation, that Russia would oppose any
such scheme. The tension thus produced between the two
statesmen was increased by the political complications of 1875-
1878 in south-eastern Europe, which began with the Herze-
govinian insurrection and culminated at the Berlin congress.
Gorchakov hoped to utilize the complications in such a way as
to recover, without war, the portion of Bessarabia ceded by the
treaty of Paris, but he soon lost control of events, and the
Slavophil agitation produced the Russo-Turkish campaign of
1877-78. By the preliminary peace of San Stefano the
Slavophil aspirations seemed to be realized, but the stipulations
of that peace were considerably modified by the congress of
Berlin (13th June to 13th July 1878), at which the aged chancellor
held nominally the post of first plenipotentiary, but left to the
second plenipotentiary, Count Shuvalov, not only the task of
defending Russian interests, but also the responsibility and
odium for the concessions which Russia had to make to Great
Britain and Austria. He had the satisfaction of seeing the lost
portion of Bessarabia restored to his country by the Berlin
treaty, but at the cost of greater sacrifices than he anticipated.
After the congress he continued to hold the post of minister for
foreign affairs, but lived chiefly abroad, and resigned formally in
1882, when he was succeeded by M. de Giers. He died at Baden-
Baden on the itth of March 1883. Prince Gorchakov devoted
himself entirely to foreign affairs, and took no part in the great
internal reforms of Alexander II. 's reign. As a diplomatist he
displayed many brilliant qualities-i-adroitness in negotiation,
incisiveness in argument and elegance in style. His statesman-
ship, though marred occasionally by personal vanity and love
of popular applause, was far-seeing and prudent. In the latter
part of his career his main object was to raise the prestige of
Russia by undoing the results of the Crimean War, and it may
fairly be said that he in great measure succeeded. (D. M. W.)
GORDIAN, or Gordianus, the name of .three Roman
emperors. The first, Marcus Antonius Gordianus Sempronianus
Romanus Africanus (a.d. 150-238), an extremely wealthy man,
was descended from the Gracchi and Trajan, while his wife was
the great-granddaughter of Antoninus Pius. While he gained
unbounded popularity by his magnificent games and shows, his
prudent and retired life did not excite the suspicion of Caracalla,
in whose honour he wrote a long epic called Antoninias. Alexander
Severus called him to the dangerous honours of government in
Africa, and during his proconsulship occurred the usurpation of
Maximin. The universal discontent roused by the oppressive rule
of Maximin culminated in a revolt in Africa in 238, and Gordian
reluctantly yielded to the popular clamour and assumed the
purple. His son, Marcus Antonius Gordianus (192-238), was
associated with him in the dignity. The senate confirmed the
choice of the Africans, and most of the provinces gladly sided
with the new emperors; but, even while their cause was so
successful abroad, they had fallen before the sudden inroad of
Cappellianus, legatus of Numidia and a supporter of Maximin.
They had reigned only thirty-six days. Both the Gordians had
deserved by their amiable character their high reputation; they
were men of great accomplishments, fond of literature, and
voluminous authors; but they were rather intellectual voluptu-
aries than able statesmen or powerful rulers. Having embraced
the cause of Gordian, the senate was obliged to continue the
revolt against Maximin, and appointed Pupienus Maximus
and Caelius Balbinus, two of its noblest and most esteemed
members, as joint emperors. At their inauguration a sedition
arose, and the popular outcry for a Gordian was appeased
by the association with them of M. Antonius Gordianus
Pius (224-244), grandson of the elder Gordian, then a boy of *
thirteen. Maximin forthwith invaded Italy, but was murdered
by his own troops while besieging Aquileia, and a revolt of the
praetorian guards, to which Pupienus and Balbinus fell victims,
left Gordian sole emperor. For some time he was under the
control of his mother's eunuchs, till Timesitheus, 1 his father-in-
law and praefect of the praetorian guard, persuaded him to assert
his independence. When the Persians under Shapur (Sapor) I.
invaded Mesopotamia, the young emperor opened the temple of
Janus for the last time recorded in history, and marched in person
to the East. The Persians were driven back over the Euphrates
and defeated in the battle of Resaena (243), and only the death
of Timesitheus (under suspicious circumstances) prevented an
advance into the enemy's territory. Philip the Arabian, who
succeeded Timesitheus, stirred up discontent in the army, and
Gordian was murdered by the mutinous soldiers in Mesopotamia.
See lives of the Gordians by Capitolinus in the Scriptores historiae
Augustae; Herodian vii. viii.; Zosimus i. 16, 18; Ammianus
Marcellinus xxiii. 5; Eutropius ix. 2; Aurelius Victor, Caesares,
27; article Shapur (I.); Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyclopadie, i.
2619 f. (von Rohden).
GORDIUM, an ancient city of Phrygia situated on the Persian
" Royal road " from Pessinus to Ancyra, and not far from the
Sangarius. It lies opposite the village Pebi, a little north of
the point where the Constantinople-Angora railway crosses the
Sangarius. It is not to be confused with Gordiou-kome, ref ounded
as Juliopolis, a Bithynian town on a small tributary of the
Sangarius, about 47 m. in an air-line N. W. of Gordium. Accord-
ing to the legend, Gordium was founded by Gordhis, a Phrygian
peasant who had been called to the throne by his countrymen in
obedience to an oracle of Zeus commanding them to select the
first person that rode up to the temple of the god in a wagon.
The king afterwards dedicated his car to the god, and another
1 For this name see footnote to Shapur.
24-8
GORDON (FAMILY)— GORDON, A.
oracle declared that whoever succeeded in untying the strangely
entwined knot of cornel bark which bound the yoke to the pole
should reign over all Asia. • Alexander the Great, according to
the story, cut the knot by a stroke of his sword. Gordium was
captured and destroyed by the Gauls soon after 189 B.C. and
disappeared from history. In imperial times only a small village
existed on the site. Excavations made in 1000 by two German
scholars, G. and A. Koerte, revealed practically no remains later
than the middle of the 6th century B.C. (when Phrygia fell under
Persian power)-.
See Jahrbuch des Institute, Erganzungsheft v. (1904). (J. G. C. A.)
GORDON, the name of a Scottish family, no fewer than 157
main branches of which are traced by the family historians. A
laird of Gorden, in Berwickshire, near the English border, is said
to have fallen in the battle of the Standard (1 138). The families
of the two sons ascribed to him by tradition, Richard Gordon of
Gordon and Adam Gordon of Huntly, were united by the marriage
of their great-grandchildren Alicia and Sir Adam, whose grandson
Sir Adam (killed at Halidon Hill, 1333) at first took the English
side in the Scottish struggle for independence, and is the first
member of the family definitely to emerge into history. He was
justiciar of Scotland in 13 10, but after Bannockburn he attached
himself to Robert Bruce, who granted him in 13 18 the lordship of
Strathbogie in Aberdeenshire, to which Gordon gave the name of
Huntly from a village on the Gordon estate in Berwickshire. He
had two sons, Adam and William. The younger son, laird of
Stitchel hi Roxburghshire, was the ancestor of William de
Gordon of Stitchel and Lochinvar, founder of the Galloway
branch of the family represented in the Scottish peerage by the
dormant viscounty of Kenmure (q.v.), created in 1633; most of
the Irish and Virginian Gordons are offshoots of this stock. The
elder son, Adam, inherited the Gordon-Huntly estates. He had
two grandsons, Sir John (d. 1394) and Sir Adam (slain at Homildon
Hill, 1403). Sir John had two illegitimate sons, Jock of Scur-
dargue, the ancestor of the earls of Aberdeen, and Tarn of
Ruthven. From these two stocks most of the northern Gordon
families are derived. Sir Adam's daughter and heiress, Elizabeth,
married Sir Alexander Seton, and with her husband was confirmed
in 1408 in the possession of the barony of Gordon and Huntly in
" Berwickshire and of the Gordon lands in Aberdeen. The Seton -
Gordons are their descendants. Their son Alexander was created
earl of Huntly (see Huntly, Earls and Marquesses of),
probably in 1445; and his heirs became dukes of Gordon, George
Gordon (c. 1650-1 7 16), 4th marquess of Huntly, being created
duke of Gordon in 1684. He had been educated in a French
Catholic seminary, and served in the French army in the cam-
paigns of 1673 to 1675. Under James II. he was made keeper of
Edinburgh Castle on account of his religion, but he refused to
support James's efforts to impose Roman Catholicism on his
subjects. He offered little active resistance when the castle was
besieged by William III.'s forces. After his submission he was
more than once imprisoned on suspicion of Jacobite leanings, and
was ordered by George I. to reside on parole in Edinburgh. For
some time before his death he was separated from his wife Elizabeth
Howard , daughter of the 6th duke of Norfolk. His son Alexander,
2nd duke of Gordon (c. 1678-17 28), joined the Old Pretender, but
gained the royal pardon after the surrender of Gordon Castle in
1 7 16. Of his children by his wife Henrietta Mordaunt, second
daughter of Charles Mordaunt, earl of Peterborough, Cosmo
George (c. 1 720-1 752) succeeded as 3rd duke; Lord Lewis Gordon
(d. 1754) took an active part in the Jacobite rising of 1745; and
General Lord Adam Gordon (c. 1 726-1801) became commander of
the forces in Scotland in 1782, and governor of Edinburgh Castle
in 1786. Lord George Gordon (q.v.) was a younger son of the
3rd duke.
The title, with the earldom of Norwich and the barony of
Gordon Huntly, became extinct on the death of George, 5th
duke (1 770-1836), a distinguished soldier who raised the corps
now known as the 2nd battalion of the Gordon Highlanders.
The marquessate of Huntly passed to his cousin and heir-male,
George, 5th earl of Aboyne. Lady Charlotte Gordon, sister of
and co-heiress with the 5th duke, married Charles Lennox, 4th
duke of Richmond, whose son took the name of Gordon-Lennox.
The dukedom of Gordon was revived in 1876 in favour of the
6th duke of Richmond, who thenceforward was styled duke of
Richmond and Gordon. Adam Gordon of Aboyne (d. 1537)
took the courtesy title of earl of Sutherland in right of his wife
Elizabeth, countess of Sutherland in her own right, sister of the
9th earl. The lawless and turbulent Gordons of Gight were the
maternal ancestors of Lord Byron.
Among the many soldiers of fortune bearing the name of
Gordon was Colonel John Gordon, one of the murderers of
Wallenstein. Patrick Gordon (1635-1699) was born at Auch-
leuchries in Aberdeenshire, entered the service of Charles X.
of Sweden in 1651 and served against the Poles. He changed
sides more than once before he found his way to Moscow in 166 1
and took service under the tsar Alexis. He became general in
1687; in 1688 he helped to secure Peter the Great's ascendancy;
and later he crushed the revolt of the Streltzi. His diary was
published in German (3 vols., 1849-1853, Moscow and St Peters-
burg), and selections from the English original by the Spalding
Club (Aberdeen, 1859).
The Gordons fill a considerable place in Scottish legend and
ballad. " Captain Car," or " Edom (Adam) of Gordon " describes
an incident in the struggle between the Forbeses and Gordons
in Aberdeenshire in 1571; " The Duke of Gordon's Daughter "
has apparently no foundation in fact, though " Geordie " of the
ballad is sometimes said to have been George, 4th earl of Huntly;
" The Fire of Frendraught " goes back to a feud (1630) between
James Crichton of Frendraught and William Gordon of Rothie-
may; the " Gallant Gordons Gay " figure in " Chevy Chase ";
William Gordon of Earlston, the Covenanter, appears in " Both-
well Bridge " &c.
See William Gordon (of old Aberdeen), The History of the Ancient,
The Records of Aboyne, 1230-1681, edited by Charles, nth marquess
of Huntly, &c. (New Spalding Club, Aberdeen, 1894); The Gordon
Book, ed. J. M. Bulloch (1902); The House of Gordon, ed. J. M.
Bulloch (Aberdeen, vol. i., 1903); and Mr Bulloch's The First Duke
of Gordon (1909).
GORDON, ADAM LINDSAY (1833-1870), Australian poet,
was born at Fayal, in the Azores, in 1833, the son of a retired
Indian officer who taught Hindustani at Cheltenham College.
Young Gordon was educated there and at Merton College,
Oxford, but a youthful indiscretion led to his being sent in 1853
to South Australia, where he joined the mounted police. He then
became a horsebreaker, but on his father's death he inherited
a fortune and obtained a seat in the House of Assembly. At
this time he had the reputation of being the best non-professional
steeplechase rider in' the colony. In 1867 he moved to Victoria
and set up a livery stable at Ballarat. Two volumes of poems,
Sea Spray and Smoke Drift and Ashtaroth, were published in this
year, and two years later he gave up his business and settled
at New Brighton, near Melbourne. A second volume of poetry,
Bush Ballads and Galloping Rhymes, appeared in 1870. It
brought him more praise than emolument, and, thoroughly
discouraged by his failure to make good his claim to some
property in Scotland to which he believed himself entitled,
he committed suicide on the 24th of June 1870. His reputation
rose after his death, and he became the best known and most
widely popular of Australian poets. Much of Gordon's poetry
might have been written in England; when, however, it is
really local, it is vividly so; his genuine feeling frequently
kindles into passion; his versification is always elastic and
sonorous, but sometimes too reminiscent of Swinburne. His
compositions are almost entirely lyrical, and their merit is
usually in proportion to the degree in which they partake of the
character of the ballad.
Gordon's poems were collected and published in 1880 with a
biographical introduction by Marcus Clarke.
GORDON, ALEXANDER (c. 1692-c. 1754), Scottish antiquary,
is believed to have been born in Aberdeen in 1692. He is
the " Sandy Gordon " of Scott's Antiquary. Of his parentage
and early history nothing is known. He appears to have
GORDON, C. G.
249
distinguished himself in classics at Aberdeen University, and to
have made a living at first by teaching languages and music.
When still young he travelled abroad, probably in the capacity of
tutor. He returned to Scotland previous to 1726, and devoted
himself to antiquarian work. In 1726 appeared the IHnerarium
Septentrionale, his greatest and best-known work. He was already
the friend of Sir John Clerk, of Penicuik, better known as Baron
Clerk (a baron of the exchequer) ; and the baron and Roger Gale
(vice-president of the Society of Antiquaries) are the " two
gentlemen, the honour of their age and country," whose letters
were published, without their consent it appears, as an appendix
to the IHnerarium. Subsequently Gordon was appointed secre-
tary to the Society for the Encouragement of Learning, with an
annual salary of £50. Resigning this post, or, as there seems
reason for believing, being dismissed for carelessness in his
accounts, he succeeded Dr Stukeley as secretary to the Society
of Antiquaries, and also acted for a short time as secretary to
the Egyptian Club, an association composed of gentlemen who
had visited Egypt. In 174 1 he accompanied James Glen (after-
wards governor), to South Carolina. Through his influence Gor-
don, besides receiving a grant of land in South Carolina, became
registrar of the province and justice of the peace, and filled
several other offices. From his will, dated the 22nd of August
1754, it appears he had a son Alexander and a daughter Frances,
to whom he bequeathed most of his property, among which were
portraits of himself and of friends painted by his own hand.
See Sir Daniel Wilson, Alexander Gordon, the Antiquary, and his
Papers in the Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland,
with Additional Notes ana an Appendix of Original Letters by
Dr David Laing (Proc. Soc. of Antig. of Scot. x. 363-382).
GORDON, CHARLES GEORGE (1833-1885), British soldier
and administrator, fourth son of General H. W. Gordon, Royal
Artillery, was born at Woolwich on the 28th of January 1833.
He received his early education at Taunton school, and was
given a cadetship in the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich,
in 1848. He was commissioned as second lieutenant in the
corps of Royal Engineers on the 23rd of June 1852. After
passing through a course of instruction at the Royal Engineers 1
establishment, Chatham, he was promoted lieutenant in 1854,
and was sent to Pembroke dock to assist in the construction of
the fortifications then being erected for the defence of Milford
Haven. The Crimean War broke out shortly afterwards, and
Gordon was ordered on active service, and landed at Balaklava
on the 1st of January 1855. The siege of Sevastopol was in
progress, and he had his full share of the arduous work in the
trenches. He was attached to one of the British columns which
assaulted the Redan on the 18th of June, and was also present
at the .capture of that work on the 8th of September. He took
part in the expedition to Kinburn, and then returned to Sevas-
topol to superintend a portion of the demolition of the Russian
dockyard. After peace with Russia had been concluded, Gordon
was attached to an international commission appointed to de-
limit the new boundary, as fixed by treaty, between Russia and
Turkey in Bessarabia; and on the conclusion of this work he
was ordered to Asia Minor on similar duty, with reference to
the eastern boundary between the two countries. While so
employed Gordon took the opportunity to make himself well
acquainted with the geography and people of Armenia, and
the knowledge of dealing with eastern nations then gained
was of great use to him in after life.
He returned to England towards the end of 1858, and was
then selected for the appointment of adjutant and field-works
instructor at the Royal Engineers' establishment,
and took up his new duties at Chatham after promotion
to the rank of captain in April 1859. But his stay in England
was brief, for in i860 war was declared against China, and
Gordon was ordered out there, arriving at Tientsin in September.
He was too late for the attack on the Taku forts, but was present
at the occupation of Peking and destruction of the Summer
Palace. He remained with the British force of occupation in
northern China until April 1862, when the British troops,
under the command of General Staveley, proceeded to Shanghai,
in Chins.
in order to protect the European settlement at that place from
the Taiping rebels. The Taiping revolt, which had some remark-
able points of similarity with the Mahdist rebellion in the Sudan,
had commenced in 1850 in the province of Kwahgsi. The
leader, Hung Sin Tsuan, a semi-political, semi-religious en-
thusiast, assumed the title of Tien Wang, or Heavenly King,
and by playing on the feelings of the lower class of people gradu-
ally collected a considerable force. The Chinese authorities
endeavoured to arrest him, but the imperialist troops were
defeated. The area of revolt extended northwards through
the provinces of Hunan and Hupeh, and down the valley of
the Yangtsze-kiang as far as the great city of Nanking, which
was captured by the rebels in 1853. Here the Tien Wang
established his court, and while spending his own time in heavenly
contemplation and earthly pleasures, sent the assistant Wangs
on warlike expeditions through the adjacent provinces. For
some years a constant struggle was maintained between the
Chinese imperialist troops and the Taipings, with varying success
on both sides. The latter gradually advanced eastwards, and ap-
proaching the important city of Shanghai, alarmed the European
inhabitants, who subscribed to raise a mixed force of Europeans
and Manila men for the defence of the town. This force, which
was placed under the command of an American, Frederick
Townsend Ward (1831-1862), took up a position in the country
west of Shanghai to check the advance of the rebels. Fighting
continued round Shanghai for about two years, but Ward's
force was not altogether successful, and when General Staveley
arrived from Tientsin affairs were in a somewhat critical con-
dition. He decided to clear the district of rebels within a radius
of 30 m. from Shanghai, and Gordon was attached to his staff
as engineer officer. A French force, under the command of
Admiral Protet, co-operated with Staveley and Ward, with his
little army, also assisted. Kahding, Singpo and other towns
were occupied, and the country was fairly cleared of rebels
by the end of 1862. Ward was, unfortunately, killed in the
assault of Tseki, and his successor, Burgevine, having had a
quarrel with the Chinese authorities, Li Hung Chang, the gover-
nor of the Kiang-su province, requested General Staveley to
appoint a British officer to command the contingent. Staveley
selected Gordon, who had been made a brevet-major in December
1862 for his previous services, and the nomination was approved
by the British government. The choice was judicious as
further events proved. • In March 1863 Gordon proceeded to
Sungkiang to take command of the force, which had received
the name of "The Ever- Victorious Army," an encouraging
though somewhat exaggerated title, considering its previous
history. Without waiting to reorganize his troops he marched
at once to the relief of Chansu, a town 40 m. north-west of
Shanghai, which was invested by the rebels. The relief was
successfully accomplished, and the operation established Gordon
in the confidence of his troops. He then reorganized his force,
a matter of no small difficulty, and advanced against Quinsan,
which was captured, though with considerable loss. Gordon
then marched through the country, seizing town after town
from the rebels until at length the great city of Suchow was
invested by his army and a body of Chinese imperialist troops.
The city was taken on the 29th of November, and after its
capture Gordon had a serious dispute with Li Hung Chang,
as the latter had beheaded certain of the rebel leaders whose
lives the former had promised to spare if they surrendered. This
action, though not opposed to Chinese ethics, was so opposed
to Gordon's ideas of honour that he withdrew his force from
Suchow and remained inactive at Quinsan until February
1864. He then came to the conclusion that the subjugation of
the rebels was more important than his dispute with Li, and
visited the latter in order to arrange for further operations.
By mutual consent no allusion was made to the death of the
Wangs. This was a good example of one of Gordon's marked
characteristics, that, though a man of strong personal feelings,
he was always prepared to subdue them for the public benefit.
He declined, however, to take any decoration or reward from
the emperor for his services at the capture of Suchow. After
250
GORDON, C. G.
the meeting with Li Hung Chang the " Ever- Victorious Army "
again advanced and took a number of towns from the rebels,
ending with Chanchufu, the principal military position of the
Taipings. This fell in May, when Gordon returned to Quinsan
and disbanded his force. In June the Tien Wang, seeing his
cause was hopeless, committed suicide, and the capture of Nan-
king by the imperialist troops shortly afterwards brought the
Taiping revolt to a conclusion. The suppression of this serious
movement was undoubtedly due in great part to the skill and
energy of Gordon, who had shown remarkable qualities as a
leader of men. The emperor promoted him to the rank of Titu,
the highest grade in the Chinese army, and also gave him the
Yellow Jacket, the most important decoration in China. He
wished to give him a large sum of money, but this Gordon refused.
He was promoted lieutenant-colonel for his Chinese services,
and made a Companion of the Bath. Henceforth he was often
familiarly spoken of as " Chinese " Gordon.
Gordon was appointed on his return to England Commanding
Royal Engineer at Gravesend, where he was employed in super-
intending the erection of forts for the defence of the Thames.
He devoted himself with energy to his official duties, and his
leisure hours to practical philanthropy. All the acts of kindness
which he did for the poor during the six years he was stationed
at Gravesend will never be fully known. In October 187 1 he
was appointed British representative on the international
commission which had been constituted after the Crimean War
to maintain the navigation of the mouth of the river Danube,
with headquarters at Galatz. During 1872 Gordon was sent to
inspect the British military cemeteries in the Crimea, and when
passing through Constantinople on his return to Galatz he made
the acquaintance of Nubar Pasha, prime minister of Egypt,
who sounded him as to whether he would take service under the
khedive. Nothing further was settled at the time, but the
following year he received a definite offer from the khedive,
which he accepted with the consent of the British government,
and proceeded to Egypt early in 1874. He was then- a colonel
in the army, though still only a captain in the corps of Royal
Engineers.
To understand the object of the appointment which Gordon
accepted in Egypt, it is necessary to give a few facts with refer-
ence to the Sudan. In 1820-22 Nubia, Sennar and Kordofan
had been conquered by Egypt, and the authority of the Egyptians
was subsequently extended southward, eastward to the Red
Sea and westward over Darfur (conquered by Zobeir Pasha in
1874). One result of the Egyptian occupation of the country
was that the slave trade was largely developed, especially in the
White Nile and Bahr-el-Ghazal districts. Captains Speke and
Grant, who had travelled through Uganda and came down the
White Nile in 1863, and Sir Samuel Baker, who went up the
same river as far as Albert Nyanza, brought back harrowing
tales of the misery caused by the slave-hunters. Public opinion
was considerably moved, and in i860 the khedive Ismail decided
to send an expedition up the White Nile, with the double object
of limiting the evils of the slave trade and opening up the district
to commerce. The command of the expedition was given to
Sir Samuel Baker, who reached Khartum in February 1870, but,
owing to the obstruction of the river by the sudd or grass barrier,
did not reach Gondokoro, the centre of his province, for fourteen
months. He met with great difficulties, and when his four years'
service came to an end little had been effected beyond establishing
a few posts along the Nile and placing some steamers on the river.
It was to succeed Baker as governor of the equatorial regions
that the khedive asked for Gordon's services, having come to
the conclusion that the latter was the most likely person to bring
the affair to a satisfactory conclusion. After a short stay in
Cairo, Gordon proceeded to Khartum by way of Suakin and
Berber, a route which he ever afterwards regarded as the best
mode of access to the Sudan. From Khartum he proceeded up
the White Nile to Gondokoro, where he arrived in twenty-four
days, the sudd, which had proved such an obstacle to Baker,-
having been removed since the departure of the latter by the
Egyptian governor-general. Gordon remained in the equatorial
provinces until October 1876, and then returned to Cairo. The
two years and a half thus spent in Central Africa was a time of
incessant toil. A line of stations was established from the Sobat
confluence on the White Nile to the frontier of Uganda — to
which country he proposed to open a route from Mombasa — and
considerable progress was made in the suppression of the slave
trade. The river and Lake Albert were mapped by Gordon and
his staff, and he devoted himself with wonted energy to improving
the condition of the people. Greater results might have been
obtained but for the fact that Khartum and the whole of the
Sudan north of the Sobat were in the hands of an Egyptian
governor, independent of Gordon, and not too well disposed
towards his proposals for diminishing the slave trade. On
arriving in Cairo Gordon informed the khedive of his reasons
for not wishing to return to the Sudan, but did not definitely
resign the appointment of governor of the equatorial provinces.
But on reaching London he telegraphed to the British consul-
general in Cairo, asking him to let the khedive know that he
would not go back to Egypt. Ismail Pasha, feeling, no doubt,
that Gordon's resignation would injure his prestige, wrote to him
saying that he had promised to return, and that he expected him
to keep his word. Upon this Gordon, to whom the keeping of a
promise was a sacred duty, decided to return to Cairo, but gave
an assurance to some friends that he would not go back to the
Sudan unless he was appointed governor-general of the entire
country. After some discussion the khedive agreed, and made
him governor-general of the Sudan, inclusive of Darfur and the
equatorial provinces.
One of the most important questions which Gordon had to
take up on his appointment was the state of the political relations
between Egypt and Abyssinia, which had been in an
unsatisfactory condition for some years. The dispute &MmL"
centred round the district of Bogos, lying not far
inland from Massawa, which both the khedive and King John of
Abyssinia claimed as belonging to their respective dominions.
War broke out in 1875, when an Egyptian expedition was
despatched to Abyssinia,- and was completely defeated by King
John near Gundet. A second and larger expedition, under
Prince Hassan, the son of the khedive, was sent the following year
from Massawa. The force was routed by the Abyssinians at
Gura, but Prince Hassan and his staff got back to Massawa.
Matters then remained quiet until March 1877, when Gordon
proceeded to Massawa to endeavour to make peace with King
John. He went up to Bogos, and had an interview with Walad
Michael, an Abyssinian chief and the hereditary ruler of Bogos,
who had joined the Egyptians with a view to raiding on his own
account. Gordon, with his usual powers of diplomacy, persuaded
Michael to remain quiet, and wrote to the king proposing terms
of peace. But he received no reply at that time, as John, feeling
pretty secure on the Egyptian frontier after his two successful
actions against the khedive's troops, had gone southwards to
fight with Menelek, king of Shoa. Gordon, seeing that the
Abyssinian difficulty could wait for a few months, proceeded to
Khartum. Here he took up the slavery question, and proposed
to issue regulations making the registration of slaves compulsory,
but his proposals were not approved by the Cairo government.
In the meantime an insurrection had broken out in Darfur, and
Gordon proceeded to that province to relieve the Egyptian
garrisons, which were considerably stronger than the force he
had available, the insurgents also being far more numerous than
his little army. On coming up with the main body of rebels he
saw that diplomacy gave a better chance of success than fighting,
and, accompanied only by an interpreter, rode into the enemy's
camp to discuss the situation. This bold move, which probably
no one but Gordon would have attempted, proved quite success-
ful, as part of the insurgents joined him, and the remainder
retreated to the south. The relief of the Egyptian garrisons was
successfully accomplished, and Gordon visited the provinces of
Berber and Dongola, whence he had again to return to the
Abyssinian frontier to treat with King John. But no satisfactory
settlement was arrived at, and Gordon came back to Khartum
in January 1878. There he had scarcely a week's rest when the
GORDON, C. G.
251
khedive summoned him to Cairo to assist in settling the financial
affairs of Egypt. He reached Cairo in March, and was at once
appointed by Ismail as president of a commission of inquiry into
the finances, on the understanding that the European com-
missioners of the debt, who were the representatives of the bond-
holders, and whom Ismail regarded as interested parties, should
not be members of the commission. Gordon accepted the post
on these terms, but the consuls-general of the different powers
refused to agree to the constitution of the commission, and it fell
to the ground, as the khedive was not strong enough to carry
his point. The attempt of the latter to utilize Gordon as a
counterpoise to the European financiers having failed, Ismail
fell into the hands of his creditors, and was deposed by the
sultan in the following year in favour of his son Tewfik. After
the conclusion of the financial episode, Gordon proceeded to the
province of Harrar, south of Abyssinia, and, finding the adminis-
tration in a bad condition, dismissed Raouf Pasha, the governor.
He then returned to Khartum, and in 1879 went again into
Darfur to pursue the slave traders, while his subordinate, Gessi
Pasha, fought them with great success in the Bahr-el-Ghazal
district and killed Suleiman, their leader and a son of Zobeir.
This put an end to the revolt, and Gordon went back to Khartum.
Shortly afterwards he went down to Cairo, and when there was
requested by the new khedive to pay a visit to King John and
make a definite treaty of peace with Abyssinia. Gordon had an
interesting interview with the king, but was not able to do much,
as the king wanted great concessions from Egypt, and the
khedive's instructions were that nothing material was to be
conceded. The matter ended by Gordon being made a prisoner
and sent back to Massawa. Thence he returned to Cairo and
resigned his Sudan appointment. He was considerably ex-
hausted by the three years' incessant work, during which he had
ridden no fewer than 8500 m. on camels and mules, and was
constantly engaged in the task of trying to reform a vicious
system of administration.
In March 1880 Gordon visited the king of the Belgians at
Brussels, and King Leopold suggested that he should at some
future date take charge of the Congo Free State.
In April the government of the Cape Colony telegraphed
to him offering the position of commandant of the
Cape local forces, but he declined the appointment. In May
the marquess of Ripon, who had been given the post of governor-
general of India, asked Gordon to go with him as private secretary.
This he agreed to do, but a few days later, feeling that he was
not suitable for the position, asked Lord Ripon to release him.
The latter refused to do so, and Gordon accompanied him to
India, but definitely resigned his post on Lord Ripon's staff
shortly afterwards. Hardly had he resigned when he received
a telegram from Sir Robert Hart, inspector-general of customs
in China, inviting him to go to Peking. He started at once
and arrived at Tientsin in July, where he met Li Hung Chang,
and learnt that affairs were in a critical condition, and that there
was risk of war with Russia. Gordon proceeded to Peking and
used all his influence in favour of peace. His arguments, which
were given with much plainness of speech, appear to have
convinced the Chinese government, and war was avoided.
Gordon returned to England, and in April 1881 exchanged
with a brother officer, "who had been ordered to Mauritius as
Commanding Royal Engineer, but who for family reasons was
unable to accept the appointment. He remained in Mauritius
until the March following, when, on promotion to the rank of
major-general, he had to vacate the position of Commanding
Royal Engineer. Just at the same time the Cape ministry
telegraphed to him to ask if he would go to the Cape to consult
with the government as regards settling affairs in Basutoland.
The telegram stated that the position of matters was grave,
and that it was of the utmost importance that the colony should
secure the services of someone of proved ability, firmness and
energy. Gordon sailed at once for the Cape , and saw the governor,
Sir Hercules Robinson, Mr Thos. Scanlen, the premier, and
Mr. J. X. Merriman, a member of the ministry, who, for political
reasons, asked him not to go to Basutoland, but to take the
1680-
1884.
appointment of commandant of the colonial forces at King
William's Town. After a few months, which were spent in
reorganizing the colonial forces, Gordon was requested to go up
to Basutoland to try to arrange a settlement with the chief
Masupha, one of the most powerful of the Basuto leaders.
Greatly to his surprise*, at the very time he was with Masupha,
Mr. J. W. Sauer, a member of the Cape government, was taking
steps to induce Lerethodi, another chief, to advance against
Masupha. This not only placed Gordon in a position of danger,
but was regarded by him as an act of treachery. He advised
Masupha not to deal with the Cape government until the hostile
force was withdrawn, and resigned his appointment. He con-
sidered that the Basuto difficulty was due to the bad system
of administration by the Cape government. That Gordon's
views were correct is proved by the fact that a few years later
Basutoland was separated from Cape Colony and placed directly
under the imperial government. After his return to England
from the Cape, being unemployed, Gordon decided to go to
Palestine, a country he had long desired to visit. Here he
remained for a year, and devoted his time to the study of Biblical
history and of the antiquities of Jerusalem. The king of the
Belgians then asked him to take charge of the Congo Free State,
and he accepted the mission and returned to London to make
the necessary preparations. But a few days after his arrival he
was requested by the British government to proceed immediately
to the Sudan. To understand the reasons for this, it is necessary
briefly to recapitulate the course of events in that country since
Gordon had left it in 1879.
After his resignation of the post of governor-general, Raouf
Pasha, an official of the ordinary type, who, as already mentioned,
had been dismissed by Gordon for misgovernment in 1878, was
appointed to succeed him. As Raouf was instructed to increase
the receipts and diminish the expenditure, the system of govern-
ment naturally reverted to the old methods, which Gordon had
endeavoured to improve. The fact that justice and firmness
were succeeded by injustice and weakness tended naturally
to the outbreak of revolt, and unfortunately there was a leader
ready to head a rebellion — one Mahommed Ahmed, already
known for some years as a holy man, who was insulted by an
Egyptian official, and retiring with some followers to the island
of Abba on the White Nile, proclaimed himself as the mahdi,
a successor of the prophet. Raouf endeavoured to take him
prisoner but without success, and the revolt spread rapidly.
Raouf was recalled, and succeeded by Abdel Kader Pasha, a
much stronger governor, who had some success, but whose
forces were quite insufficient to cope with the rebels. The
Egyptian government was too busily engaged in suppressing
Arabi's revolt to be able to send any help to Abdel Kader, and
in September 1882, when the British troops entered Cairo,
the position in the Sudan was very perilous. Had the British
government listened to the representations then made to them,
that, having conquered Egypt, it was imperative at once to
suppress the revolt in the Sudan, the rebellion could have been
crushed, but unfortunately Great Britain would do nothing
herself, while the steps she allowed Egypt to take ended in the
disaster to Hicks Pasha's expedition. Then, in December 1883,
the British government saw that something must be done, and
ordered Egypt to abandon the Sudan. But abandonment was
a policy most difficult to carry out, as it involved the withdrawal
of thousands of Egyptian soldiers, civilian employes and their
families. Abdel Kader Pasha was asked to undertake the work,
and he agreed on the understanding that he would be supported,
and that the policy of abandonment was not to be announced.
But the latter condition was refused, and he declined the task.
The British government then asked General Gordon to proceed
to Khartum to report on the best method of carrying out the
evacuation. The mission was highly popular in England.
Sir Evelyn Baring (Lord Cromer) was, however, at first opposed
to Gordon's appointment. His objections were overcome, and
Gordon received his instructions in London on the 18th of
January 1884, and started at once for Cairo, accompanied by
Lieut.-Colonel J. D. H. Stewart.
252
GORDON, C. G.
AtKbmr-
At Cairo he received further instructions from Sir Evelyn
Baring, and was appointed by the khedive as governor-general,
with executive powers. Travelling by Korosko and
Berber, he arrived at Khartum on the 18th of February,
and was well received by the inhabitants, who believed
that he had come to save the country from the rebels. Gordon
at once commenced the task of sending the women and children
and the sick and wounded to Egypt, and about two thousand
five hundred had been removed before the mahdi's forces closed
upon Khartum. At the same time he was impressed with the
necessity of making some arrangement for the future government
of the country, and asked for the help of Zobeir (q.v.), who had
great influence in the Sudan, and had been detained in Cairo
for some years. This request was made on the very day Gordon
reached Khartum, and was in accordance with a similar proposal
he had made when at Cairo. But, after delays which involved
the loss of much precious time, the British government refused
(13th of March) to sanction the appointment, because Zobeir
had been a notorious slave-hunter. With this refusal vanished
all hope of a peaceful retreat of the Egyptian garrisons. Waver-
ing tribes went over to the mahdi. The advance of the rebels
against Khartum was combined with a revolt in the eastern
Sudan, and the Egyptian troops in the vicinity of Suakin met
with constant defeat. At length a British force was sent to
Suakin under the command of General Sir Gerald Graham, and
routed the rebels in several hard-fought actions. Gordon
telegraphed to Sir Evelyn Baring urging that the road from
Suakin to Berber should be opened by a small force. But this
request, though strongly supported by Baring and the British
military authorities in Cairo, was refused by the government in
London. In April General Graham and his forces were withdrawn
from Suakin, and Gordon and the Sudan were seemingly
abandoned to their fate. The garrison of Berber, seeing that
there was no chance of relief, surrendered a month later and
Khartum was completely isolated. Had it not been for the
presence of Gordon the city would also soon have fallen, but with
an energy and skill that were almost miraculous, he so organized
the defence that Khartum held out until January 1885. When
it is remembered that Gordon was of a different nationality
and religion to the garrison and population, that he had only
one British officer to assist him, and that the town was badly
fortified and insufficiently provided with food, it is just to say
that the defence of Khartum is one of the most remarkable
episodes in military history. The siege commenced on the 18th
of March, but it was not until August that the British govern-
ment under the pressure of public opinion decided to take steps
to relieve Gordon. General Stephenson, who was in command
of the British troops in Egypt, wished to send a brigade at once
to Dongola, but he was overruled, and it was not until the
beginning of November that the British relief force was ready
to start from Wadi Haifa under the command of Lord Wolseley.
The force reached Korti towards the end of December, and from
that place a column. was despatched across the Bayuda desert
to Metemma on the Nile. After some severe fighting in which
the leader of the column, Sir Herbert Stewart, was mortally
wounded, the force reached the river on the 20th of January,
and the following day four steamers, which had been sent down
by Gordon to meet the British advance, and which had been
waiting for them for four months, reported to Sir Charles Wilson,
who had taken command after Sir Herbert Stewart was wounded.
On the 24th Wilson started with two of the steamers
for Khartum, but on arriving there on the 28th he
found that the place had been captured by the rebels and Gordon
killed two days before. A belief has been entertained that
Wilson might have started earlier and saved the town, but this
is quite groundless. In the first place, Wilson could not have
started sooner than he did; and in the second, even if he had
been able to do so, it would have made no difference, as the rebels
could have taken Khartum any time they pleased after the 5th
of January, when the provisions were exhausted. Another
popular notion, that the capture of the place was due to treachery
on the part of the garrison, is equally without foundation. The
attack was made at a point in the fortifications where the
rampart and ditch had been destroyed by the rising of the Nile,
and when the mahdi's troops entered the soldiers were too weak
to make any effectual resistance. Gordon himself expected the
town to fall before the end of December, and it is really difficult
to understand how he succeeded in holding out until the 26th
of January. Writing on the 14th of December he said, " Now,
mark this, if the expeditionary force — and I ask for no more
than two hundred men — does not come in ten days, the town
may fall, and I have done my best for the honour of my country."
He had indeed done his best, and far more than could have been
regarded as possible. To understand what he went through
during the latter months of the siege, it is only necessary to read
his own journal, a portion of which, dating from 10th September
to 14th December 1884, was fortunately preserved and published.
Gordon was not an author, but he wrote many short
memoranda on subjects that interested him, and a considerable
number of these have been utilized, especially in the work by
his brother, Sir Henry Gordon, entitled Events in the Life of
Charles George Gordon, from its Beginning to its End. He was '
a voluminous letter-writer, and much of his correspondence has
been published. His character was remarkable, and the influence
he had over those with whom he came in contact was very
striking. His power to command men of non-European races
was probably unique. He had no fear of death, and cared but
little for the opinion of others, adhering tenaciously to the course
he believed to be right in the face of all opposition. Though
not holding to outward forms of religion, he was a truly religious
man in the highest sense of the word, and was a constant student
of the .Bible. To serve God and to do his duty were the great
objects of his life, and he died as he had lived, carrying out the
work that lay before him to the best of his ability. The last
words of his last letter to his sister, written when he knew that
death was very near, sum up his character: " I am quite happy,
thank God, and, like Lawrence, I have tried to do my duty." 1
1 With this estimate of Gordon's character may be contrasted
those of Lord Cromer (the most severe of Gordon's critics), and of
Lord Morley of Blackburn; in their strictures as in their praise
they help to explain both the causes of the extraordinary influence
wielded by Gordon over all sorts and conditions of men and also
his difficulties. Lord Cromer's criticism, it should be remembered,
does not deal with Gordon's career as a whole but solely with his last
mission to the Sudan; Lord Morley 's is a more general judgment. •*<
Lord Cromer (Modern Egypt, vol. i., ch. xxvii., p. 565-571) says:
" We may admire, and for my own part I do very much admire
General Gordon's personal courage, nis disinterestedness and his
chivalrous feeling in favour of the beleaguered garrisons, but ad-
miration of these qualities is no sufficient plea against a condemna-
tion of his conduct on the ground that it was quixotic. In his last
letter to his sister, dated December 14, 1884, he wrote: ' I am
quite happy, thank God, and, like Lawrence, I have tried to do my
duty ' . . . I am not now dealing with General Gordon's character,
which was in many respects noble, or with his military defence of
Khartoum, which was heroic, but with the political conduct of his
mission, and from this point of view I have no hesitation in saying
that General Gordon cannot be considered to have tried to do his
duty unless a very strained and mistaken view be taken of what
his duty was. ... As a matter of public morality I cannot think
that General Gordon's process of reasoning is defensible. ... I
do not think that it can be held that General Gordon made any
serious effort to carry out the main ends of British and Egyptian
policy in the Sudan. He thought more of his personal opinions
than of the interests of the state. ... In fact, except personal
courage, great fertility in military resource, a lively though some-
times ill-directed repugnance to injustice, oppression and meanness
of every description, and a considerable power of acquiring influence
over those, necessarily limited in numbers, with whom he was
brought into personal contact, General Gordon does not appear to
have possessed any of the qualities which would have fitted him
to undertake the difficult task he had in hand."
Lord Morley (Life of Gladstone, vol. iii., 1st ed., 1003, ch. 9,
p. 151) says: " Gordon, as Mr Gladstone said, was a hero of heroes.
He was a soldier of infinite personal courage and daring, of striking
military energy, initiative and resource; a high, pure and single
character, dwelling much in the region of the unseen. But as all
who knew him admit, and as his own records testify, notwithstand-
ing an undercurrent of shrewd common sense, he was the creature,
almost the sport, of impulse; his impressions and purposes changed
with the speed of lightning; anger often mastered nim; he went
very often by intuitions and inspirations rather than by cool
GORDON, LORD G.— GORDON, SIR J. W.
253
Authorities. — The Journals of Major-General Gordon at Khartoum
(1885); Lord Cromer, Modern Egypt (2 vols., 1908); F. R. Wingate,
Mahdiism and the Egyptian Suaan (1891); the British Parlia-
mentary Paper on Egypt (1884-1885); C. G. Gordon, Reflections
m Palestine (1884); edited by D. C. Boulger, General Gordon's
Letters from the Crimea, the Danube, and Armenia (1884); edited by
G. B. Hill, Colonel Gordon in Central Africa (1881); Letters of
General C. G. Gordon to his Sister (1888); H. W. Gordon, Events in
the Life of C. G. Gordon (1886); Commander L. Brine, The Taeping
Rebellion in China (1862); A. Wilson, Gordon's Campaigns ana the
Taeping Rebellion (1868); D. C. Boulger, Life of Gordon (1896);
A Egmont Hake, The Story of Chinese Gordon (1st vol. 1884, 2nd
vol. 1885); Colonel Sir W. F. Butler, Charles George Gordon (1880);
Archibald Forbes, Chinese Gordon (1884) ; edited by A. Egmont Hake,
Events in the Taeping Rebellion (1891); S. Mossman, General Gordon's
Diary in China (1885) ; Lieutenant T. Lister, R.E., With Gordon in
the Crimea (1891); Lieutenant-General Sir G. Graham, Last Words
with Gordon (1887) ; " War Correspondent," Why Gordon Perished
(1896). „ A ^ Mm *A a a-jnra*"** * "**$z u^ ( c - M - w «)
'" GORDON, LORD GEORGE (1751-1793), third and youngest
son of Cosmo George, duke of Gordon, was born in London on
the 26th of December 17 51. After completing his education at
Eton, he entered the navy, where he rose to the rank of lieutenant
in 1772, but Lord Sandwich, then at the head of the admiralty,
would not promise him the command of a ship, and he resigned
his commission shortly before the beginning of the American.
War. In 1774 the pocket borough of Ludgershall was bought
for him by General Fraser, whom he was opposing in Inverness-
shire, in order to bribe him not to contest the county. He was
considered flighty, and was not looked upon as being of any
importance. In 1779 he organized, and made himself head of
the Protestant associations, formed to secure the repeal of the
Catholic Relief Act of 1778. On the 2nd of June 1 780 he headed
the mob which marched in procession from St George's Fields
to the Houses of Parliament in order to present the monster
petition against the acts. After the mob reached Westminster a
terrific riot ensued, which continued several days, during which
the city was virtually at their mercy. At first indeed they
dispersed after threatening to make a forcible entry into the
House of Commons, but reassembled soon afterwards and
destroyed several Roman Catholic chapels, pillaged the private
dwellings of many Roman Catholics, set fire to Newgate and
broke open all the other prisons, attacked the Bank of England
and several other public buildings, and continued the work of
violence and conflagration until the interference of the military,
by whom no fewer than 450 persons were killed and wounded
before the riots were quelled. For his share in instigating the
riots Lord Gordon was apprehended on a charge of high treason;
but, mainly through the skilful and eloquent defence of Erskine,
he was acquitted on the ground that he had no treasonable
intentions. His life was henceforth full of crack-brained schemes,
political and financial. In 1786 he was excommunicated by the
archbishop of Canterbury for refusing to bear witness in an
ecclesiastical suit; and in 1787 he was convicted of libelling the
queen of France, the French ambassador and the administration
of justice in England. He was, however, permitted to withdraw
from the court without bail, and made his escape to Holland;
but on account of representations from the court of Versailles
he was commanded to quit that country, and, returning to
England, was apprehended, and in January 1788 was sentenced
inference from carefully surveyed fact; with many variations of
mood he mixed, as we often see in people less famous, an invincible
faith in his own rapid prepossessions while they lasted. Everybody
now discerns that to despatch a soldier of this temperament on a
piece of business [the mission to the Sudan in 1884] that was not
only difficult and dangerous, as Sir E. Baring said, but profoundly
obscure, and needing vigilant sanity and self-control, was little
better than to call in a wizard with his magic. Mr Gladstone always
professed perplexity in understanding why the violent end of the
gallant Cavagnari in Afghanistan stirred the world so little in
comparison with the fate of Gordon. The answer is that Gordon
seized the imagination of England, and seized it on its higher side.
His religion was eccentric, but it was religion; the Bible was the
rock on which he founded himself, both old dispensation and new ;
he was known to hate forms, ceremonies and all the ' solemn plausi-
bilities ' ; his speech was sharp, pithy, rapid and ironic ; above
all, he knew the ways of war ana would not bear the sword for
nought."
to five years > imprisonment in Newgate, where he lived at his
ease, giving dinners and dances. As he could not obtain securities
for his good behaviour on the termination of his term of imprison-
ment, he was not allowed to leave Newgate, and there he died
of delirious fever on the 1st of November 1 793. Some time before
his apprehension he had become a convert to Judaism, and had
undergone the initiatory rite.
A serious defence of most of his eccentricities is undertaken in
The Life of Lord George Gordon, with a Philosophical Review of his
Political Conduct, by Robert Watson, M.D. (London, 1705). The
best accounts of Lord George Gordon are to be found in the Annual
Registers from 1780 to the year of his death.
GORDON, SIR JOHN WATSON (1 788-1864), Scottish painter,
was the eldest son of Captain Watson, R.N., a cadet of the
family of Watson of Overmains, in the county of Berwick. He
was born in Edinburgh in 1788, and was educated specially with
a view to his joining the Royal Engineers. He entered as a
student in the government school of design, under the manage-
ment of the Board of Manufactures. His natural taste for art
quickly developed itself, and his father was persuaded to allow
him to adopt it as his profession. Captain Watson was himself
a skilful draughtsman, and his brother George Watson, after-
wards president of the Scottish Academy, stood high as a portrait
painter, second only to Sir Henry Raeburn, who also was a
friend of the family. In the year 1808 John sent to the exhibition
of the Lyceum in Nicolson Street a subject from the Lay of the
Last Minstrel, and continued for some years to exhibit fancy
subjects; but, although freely and sweetly painted, they were
altogether without the force and character which stamped his
portrait pictures as the works of a master. After the death of
Sir Henry Raeburn in 1823, he succeeded to much of his practice.
He assumed in 1826 the name of Gordon. One of the earliest
of his famous sitters was Sir Walter Scott, who sat for a first
portrait in 1820. Then came J. G. Lockhart in 1821; Professor
Wilson, 1822 and 1850, two portraits; Sir Archibald Alison,
1839; Dr Chalmers, 1844; a little later De Quincey, and Sir
David Brewster, 1864. Among his most important works may
be mentioned the earl of Dalhousie (1833), in the Archers' Hall,
Edinburgh; Sir Alexander Hope (1835), in the county buildings,
Linlithgow; Lord President Hope, in the Parliament House;
and Dr Chalmers. These, unlike his later works, are gener-
ally rich in colour. The full length of Dr B run ton (1844),
and Dr Lee, the principal of the university (1846), both on the
staircase of the college library, mark a modification of his style,
which ultimately resolved itself into extreme simplicity, both
of colour and treatment. * - * •*•
During the last twenty years of his life he painted many
distinguished Englishmen who came to Edinburgh to sit to him.
And it is significant that David Cox, the landscape painter, on
being presented with his portrait, subscribed for by many
friends, chose to go to Edinburgh to have it executed by Watson
Gordon, although he neither knew the painter personally nor
had ever before visited the country. Among the portraits
painted during this period, in what may be termed his third style,
are De Quincey, in the National Portrait Gallery, London;
General Sir Thomas Macdougall Brisbane, in the Royal Society;
the prince of Wales, Lord Macaulay, Sir M. Packington, Lord
Murray, Lord Cockburn, Lord Rutherford and Sir John Shaw
Lefevre, in the Scottish National Gallery. These latter pictures
are mostly clear and grey, sometimes showing little or no positive
colour, the flesh itself being very grey, and the handling extremely
masterly, though never obtruding its cleverness. He was very
successful in rendering acute observant character. A good
example of his last style, showing pearly flesh-painting freely
handled, yet highly finished, is his head of Sir John Shaw
Lefevre. - - *.*<§«■<*• * — - _•-"-«*
John Watson Gordon was one of the earlier members of the
Royal Scottish Academy, and was elected its president in 1850;
he was at the same time appointed limner for Scotland to the
queen, and received the honour of knighthood. Since 1841 he
had been an associate of the Royal Academy, and in 1851 he
was elected a royal academician. He died on the 1st of June
1864.
254
GORDON, L.-^GORE, C.
GORDON, LEON, originally Judah Loeb ben Asher (1831-
1892), Russian- Jewish poet and novelist (Hebrew), was born at
Wilna in 183 1 and died at St Petersburg in 1892. He took
a leading part in the modern revival of the Hebrew language
and culture. His satires did much to rouse the Russian Jews
to a new sense of the reality of life, and Gordon was the apostle
of enlightenment in the Ghettos. His Hebrew style is classical
and pure. His poems were collected in four volumes, Kol Shire
Yehudak (St Petersburg, 1883-1884); his. novels in Kol Kithbe
Yehuda (Odessa, 1889).
For his works see Jewish Quarterly Review, xviii. 437 seq.
GORDON, PATRICK (1635-1699), Russian general, was
descended from a Scottish family of Aberdeenshire, who
possessed the small estate of Auchleuchries, and were connected
with the house of Had do. He was born in 1635, an d after
completing his education at the parish schools of Cruden and
Ellon, entered, in his fifteenth year, the Jesuit college at Brauns-
berg, Prussia; but, as " his humour could not endure such a
still and strict way of living," he soon resolved to return home.
He changed his mind, however, before re-embarking, and after
journeying on foot in several parts of Germany, ultimately, in
1655, enlisted at Hamburg in the Swedish service. In the
course of the next five years he served alternately with the
Poles and Swedes as he was taken prisoner by either. In 1661,
after further experience as a soldier of fortune, he took service
in the Russian army under Alexis I., and in 1665 he was sent
on a special mission to England. After his return he distin-
guished himself in several wars against the Turks and Tatars in
southern Russia, and in recognition of his services he in 1678 was
made major-general, in 1679 was appointed to the chief command
at Kiev, and in 1683 was made lieutenant-general. He visited
England in 1686, and in 1687 and 1689 took part as quarter-
master-general in expeditions against the Crim Tatars in the
Crimea, being made full general for his services, in spite of the
denunciations of the Greek Church to which, as a heretic, he
was exposed. On the breaking out of the revolution in Moscow
in 1689, Gordon with the troops he commanded virtually decided
events in favour of the tsar Peter L, and against the tsaritsa
Sophia. He was therefore during the remainder of his life in
high favour with the tsar, who confided to him the command of
his capital during his absence from Russia, employed him in
organizing his army according to the European system, and
latterly raised him to the rank of general-in-chief. He died
on the 29th of November 1699. The tsar, who had visited him
frequently during his illness, was with him when he died, and
with his own hands closed his eyes.
General Gordon left behind him a diary of his life, written in
English. This is preserved in MS. in the archives of the Russian
foreign office. A complete German translation, edited by Dr
Maurice Possalt (Tagebuchdes Generals Patrick Gordon) was published,
the first volume at Moscow in 1849, the second at St Petersburg in
1 85 1, and the third at St Petersburg in 1853; and Passages from
the Diary of General Patrick Gordon of Auc/Ueuchries (1635-1699),
was printed, under the editorship of Joseph Robertson, for the
Spalaing Club, Aberdeen, 1859.
GORDON-CUMMING, ROUALEYN GEORGE (1820-1866),
Scottish traveller and sportsman, known as the " lion hunter,"
was born on the 15th of March 1820. He was the second son of
Sir William G. Gordon-Cumming, 2nd baronet of Altyre and
Gordonstown, Elginshire. From his early years he was distin-
guished by his passion for sport. He was educated at Eton, and
at eighteen joined the East India Co.'s service as a cornet in the
Madras Light Cavalry. The climate of India not suiting him,
after two years' experience he retired from the service and
returned to Scotland. During his stay in the East he had laid
the foundation of his collection of hunting trophies and specimens
of natural history. In 1843 l* e joined the Cape Mounted Rifles,
but for the sake of absolute freedom sold out at the end of the
year and with an ox wagon and a few native followers set out
for the inferior. He hunted chiefly in Bechuanaland. and the
Limpopo valley, regions then swarming with big game. In
1848 he returned to England. The story of his remarkable
exploits is vividly told in his book, Five Years of a Hunter* s
Life in the Far Interior of South Africa (London, 1850, 3rd
ed. 1851). Of this volume, received at first with incredulity
by stay-at-home critics, David Livingstone, who furnished
Gordon-Cumming with most of his native guides, wrote: " I
have no hesitation in saying that Mr Cumming's book conveys a
truthful idea of South African hunting " (Missionary Travels,
chap. vii.). His collection of hunting trophies was exhibited
in London in 185 1 at the Great Exhibition, and was illustrated
by a lecture delivered by Gordon-Cumming. The collection,
known as " The South Africa Museum," was afterwards exhibited
in various parts of the country. In 1858 Gordon-Cumming went
to live at Fort Augustus On the Caledonian Canal, where the
exhibition of his trophies attracted many visitors. He died
there on the 24th of March 1866.
An abridgment of his book was published in 1856 under the title
of The Lion Hunter of South Africa, and in this form was frequently
reprinted, a new edition appearing in 1904.
GORE, CATHERINE GRACE FRANCES (1799-1861), English
novelist and dramatist, the daughter of Charles Moody, a wine-
merchant, was born in 1799 at East Retford, Nottinghamshire.
In 1823 she was married to Captain Charles Gore; and, in the
next year, she published her first work, Theresa Marchmont, or
the Maid of Honour, Then followed, among others, the Lettre
de Cachet (1827), The Reign of Terror (1827), Hungarian Tales
(1829), Manners of the Day (1830), Mothers and Daughters (183 1),
and The Fair of May Fair (1832), Mrs Armytage (1836). Every
succeeding year saw several volumes from her pen: The Cabinet
Minister and The Courtier of the Days of Charles II., in 1839;
Preferment in 1840. In 1841 Cecil, or the Adventures of a Cox-
comb, attracted considerable attention. Greville, or a Season in
Paris appeared in the same year; then Ormington, or Cecil a
Peer, Fascination, The Ambassador's Wife; and in 1843 The
Banker's Wife. Mrs Gore continued to write, with unfailing
fertility of invention, till her death on the 29th of January 1861.
She also wrote some dramas of which the most successful was
the School for Coquettes, produced at the Haymarket (1831).
She was a woman of versatile talent, and set to music Burns's
" And ye shall walk in silk attire," one of the most popular songs
of her day. Her extraordinary literary industry is proved by
the existence of more than seventy distinct works. Her best
novels are Cecil, or the Adventures of a Coxcomb, and The Banker's
Wife. Cecil gives extremely vivid sketches of London fashionable
life, and is full of happy epigrammatic touches. For the know-
ledge of London clubs displayed in it Mrs Gore was indebted to
William Beckford, the author of Vathek. The Banker's Wife
is distinguished by some clever studies of character, especially
in the persons of Mr Hamlyn, the cold calculating money-maker,
and his warm-hearted country neighbour, Colonel Hamilton.
Mrs Gore's novels had an immense temporary popularity;
they were parodied by Thackeray in Punch, in his " Lords and
Liveries by the author of Dukes and Dejeuners "; but, tedious
as they are to present-day readers, they presented on the whole
faithful pictures of the contemporary life and pursuits of the
English upper classes. >/
GORE, CHARLES (1853- ), English divine, was born in
1853, the 3rd son of the Hon. Charles Alexander Gore, brother
of the 4th earl of Arran. His mother Was a daughter of the 4th
earl of Bessborough. He was educated at Harrow and at Balliol
College, Oxford, and was elected fellow of Trinity College in 1875.
From 1880 to 1883 he was vice-principal of the theological
college at Cuddesdon, and, when in 1884 Pusey House was
founded at Oxford as a home for Dr Pusey 's library and a centre
for the propagation of his principles, he was appointed principal,
a position which he held until 1893. As principal of Pusey House
Mr Gore exercised a wide influence over undergraduates and the
younger clergy, and it was largely, if not mainly, under this
influence that the " Oxford Movement " underwent a change
which to the survivors of the old school of Tractarians seemed
to involve a break with its basic principles. " Puseyism " had
been in the highest degree conservative, basing itself on authority
and tradition, and repudiating any compromise with the modern
critical and liberalizing spirit. Mr Gore, starting from the same
GORE— GORGE
255
basis of faith and authority, soon found from his practical experi-
ence in dealing with the " doubts and difficulties " of the younger
generation that this uncompromising attitude was untenable,
and set himself the task of reconciling the principle of authority
in religion with that of scientific authority by attempting to
define the boundaries of their respective spheres of influence.
To him the divine authority of the Catholic Church was an
axiom, and in 1889 he published two works, the larger of which,
The Church and the Ministry, is a learned vindication of the
principle of Apostolic Succession in the episcopate against the
Presbyterians and other Protestant bodies, while the second,
Roman Catholic Claims, is a defence, couched in a more popular
form, of the Anglican Church and Anglican orders against the
attacks of the Romanists.
So far his published views had been in complete consonance
with those of the older Tractarians. But in 1800 a great stir
was created by the publication, under his editorship, of Lux
Mundi, a series of essays by different writers, being an attempt
" to succour a distressed faith by endeavouring to bring the
Christian Creed into its right relation to the modern growth of
knowledge, scientific, historic, critical; and to modern problems
of politics and ethics." Mr Gore himself contributed an essay
on " The Holy Spirit and Inspiration." The book, which ran
through twelve editions in a little over a year, met with a some-
what mixed reception. Orthodox churchmen, Evangelical and
Tractarian alike, were alarmed by views on thg incarnate nature
of Christ that seemed to them to impugn his Divinity, and by
concessions to the Higher Criticism in the matter of the inspira-
tion of Holy Scriptures which appeared to them to convert the
" impregnable rock," as Gladstone had called it, into a founda-
tion of sand; sceptics, on the other hand, were not greatly
impressed by a system of defence which seemed to draw an
artificial line beyond which criticism was not to advance. None
the less the book produced a profound effect, and that far beyond
the borders of the English Church, and it is largely due to its
influence, and to that of .the school it represents, that the High
Church movement developed thenceforth on " Modernist "
rather than Tractarian lines.
In 1 80 1 Mr Gore was chosen to deliver the Bampton lectures
before the university, and chose for his subject the Incarnation.
In these lectures he developed the doctrine, the enunciation of
which in Lux Mundi had caused so much heart-searching. This is
an attempt to explain how it came that Christ, though incarnate
God, could be in error, e.g. in his citations from the Old Testa-
ment. The orthodox explanation was based on the principle of
accommodation (q.v.). This, however, ignored the difficulty that
if Christ during his sojourn on earth was not subject to human
limitations, especially of knowledge, he was not a man as other
men, and therefore not subject to their trials and temptations.
This difficulty Gore sought to meet through the doctrine of the
Kevoxris. Ever since the Pauline epistles had been received into
the canon theologians had, from various points of view, at-
tempted to explain what St Paul meant when he wrote of
Christ (2 Phil. ii. 7) that " he emptied himself and took upon
him the form of a servant " (lavrdv kickvuxrev /biop^f dov\ov
\af&v). According to Mr Gore this means that Christ, on his
incarnation, became subject to all human limitations, and had,
so far as his life on earth was concerned, stripped himself of all
the attributes of the Godhead, including the Divine omniscience,
the Divine nature being, as it were, hidden under the human. 1
Lux Mundi and the Bampton lectures led to a situation of
some tension which was relieved when in 1893 Dr Gore resigned
his principalship and became vicar of Radley, a small parish
near Oxford. In 1894 he became canon of Westminster. Here
he gained commanding influence as a preacher and in 1898 was
appointed one of the court chaplains. In 1902 he succeeded
1 Cf . the Lutheran theologian Ernst Sartorius in his Lekre von
der heiligen Lithe (1844), Lehre ii. pp. 21 et seq.: " the Son of God
veils his all-seeing eye and descends into human darkness and as
child of man opens his eye as the gradually growing light of the
world of humanity, until at the right hand of the Father he allows
it to shine forth in all its glory." See Loofs, Art. " w— — '- " *«
Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopddie (ed. 1901), x. 247.
Kenosis " in
J. J. S. Perowne as bishop of Worcester and in 1905 was installed
bishop of Birmingham, a new see the creation of which had been
mainly due to his efforts. While adhering rigidly to his views
on the divine institution of episcopacy as essential to the
Christian Church, Dr Gore from the first cultivated friendly
relations with the ministers of other denominations, and advo-
cated co-operation with them in all matters when agreement
was possible. In social questions he became one of the leaders
of the considerable group of High Churchmen known, somewhat
loosely, as Christian Socialists. He worked actively against the
sweating system, pleaded for European intervention in Mace-
donia, and was a keen supporter of the Licensing Bill of 1908.
In 1892 he founded the clerical fraternity known as the Com-
munity of the Resurrection. Its members are priests, who are
bound by the obligation of celibacy, live under a common rule
and with a common purse. Their work is pastoral, evangelistic,
literary and educational. In 1898 the House of the Resurrection
at Mirfield, near Huddersfield, became the centre of the com-
munity; in 1903 a college for training candidates for orders was
established there, and in the same year a branch house, for
missionary work, was set up in Johannesburg in South Africa.
Dr Gore's works include The Incarnation (Bampton Lectures,
1891), The Creed of the Christian (1895), The Body of Christ (1901),
The New Theology and the Old Religion (1908), and expositions of
The Sermon on the Mount (1896), Ephesians (1898), and Romans
(1899), while in 1910 he published Orders and Unity.
GORE. (1) (O. Eng. gar, dung or filth), a word formerly
used in the sense of dirt, but now confined to blood that has
thickened after being shed. (2) (O. Eng. gdra, probably con-
nected with gare, an old word for " spear "), something of
triangular shape, resembling therefore a spear-head. The word
is used for a tapering strip of land, in the " common or open
field " system of agriculture, where from the shape of the land
the acre or half-acre strips could not be portioned out in straight
divisions. Similarly " gore " is used in the United States,
especially in Maine and Vermont, for a strip of land left out
in surveying when divisions are made and boundaries marked. -
The triangular sections of material used in forming the covering
of a balloon or an umbrella are also called " gores," and in
dressmaking the term is used for a triangular piece of material
inserted in a dress to adjust the difference in widths. To gore,
i.e. to stab or pierce with any sharp instrument, but more
particularly used of piercing with the horns of a bull, is probably
directly connected with gate, a spear.
GOREE, an island off the west coast of Africa, forming part
of the French colony of Senegal. It lies at the entrance of the
large natural harbour formed by the peninsula of Cape Verde.
The island, some 900 yds. long by 330 broad, and 3 m. distant
from the nearest point of the mainland, is mostly barren rock.
The greater part of its surface is occupied by a town, formerly
a thriving commercial entrep6t and a strong military post.
Until 1906 it was a free port. With the rise of Dakar (q.v.),
c. i860, on the adjacent coast, Goree lost its trade and its
inhabitants, mostly Jolofs, had dwindled in 1005 to about 1500.
Its healthy climate, however, makes it useful as a sanatorium.
The streets are narrow, and the houses, mainly built of dark-
red stone, are flat-roofed. The castle of St Michael, the gover-
nor's residence, the hospital and barracks, testify to the former
importance of the town. Within the castle is an artesian well,
the only water-supply, save that collected in rain tanks, on the
island. Goree was first occupied by the Dutch, who took posses-
sion of it early in the 17th century and called it Goeree or Goede-
.reede, in memory of the island on their own coast now united
with Overflakkee. Its native name is Bir, i.e. a belly, in allusion
to its shape. It was captured by the English under Commodore
(afterwards Admiral Sir Robert) Holmes in 1663, but retaken
in the following year by de Ruyter. The Dutch were finally
expelled in 1677 by the French under Admiral d'Estr6es.
Goree subsequently fell again into the hands of the English,
but was definitely occupied by France in 1817 (see Senegal:
History).
GORGE, strictly the French word for the throat considered
externally. Hence it is applied in falconry to a hawk's crop,
256
GORGEI— GORGES
and thus, with the sense of something greedy or ravenous, to
food given to a hawk and to the contents of a hawk's crop or
stomach. It is from this sense that the expression of a person's
" gorge rising at " anything in the sense of loathing or disgust
is derived. " Gorge," from analogy with " throat," is used
with the meaning of a narrow opening as of a ravine or valley
between hills; in fortification, of the neck of an outwork or
bastion; and in architecture, of the narrow part of a Roman
Doric column, between the echinus and the astragal. From
" gorge " also comes a diminutive " gorget," a portion of a
woman's costume in the middle ages, being a close form of
wimple covering the neck and upper part of the breast, and also
that part of the body armour covering the neck and collar-
bone (see Gorget). The word " gorgeous," of splendid or
magnificent appearance, comes from the O. Fr. gorgias, with
the same meaning, and has very doubtfully been connected
with gorge, a ruffle or neck-covering, of a supposed elaborate
kind.
GORGEI, ARTHUR (1818- ), Hungarian soldier, was
born at Toporcz, in Upper Hungary, on the 30th of January
18 18. He came of a Saxon noble family who were converts to
Protestantism. In 1837 he entered the Bodyguard of Hungarian
Nobles at Vienna, where he combined military service with a
course of study at the university. In 1845, on the death of his
father, he retired from the army and devoted himself to the
study of chemistry at Prague, after which he retired to the
family estates in Hungary. On the outbreak of the revolutionary
war of 1848, Gftrgei offered his sword to the Hungarian govern-
ment. Entering the Honv6d army with the rank of captain, he
was employed in the purchase of arms, and soon became major
and commandant of the national guards north of the Theiss.
Whilst he was engaged in preventing the Croatian army from
crossing the Danube, at the island of Csepel, below Pest, the
wealthy Hungarian magnate Count Eugene Zichy fell into his
hands, and G&rgei caused him to be arraigned before a court-
martial on a charge of treason and immediately hanged. After
various successes over the Croatian forces, of which the most
remarkable was that at Ozora, where 10,000 prisoners fell into
his hands, Gdrgei was appointed commander of the army of the
Upper Danube, but, on the advance of Prince Windischgratz
across the Leitha, he resolved to fall back, and in spite of the
remonstrances of Kossuth he held to his resolution and retreated
upon Waitzen. Here, irritated by what he considered undue
interference with his plans, he issued (January 5th, 1849) a pro-
clamation throwing the blame for the recent want of success
upon the government, thus virtually revolting against their
authority. Gdrgei retired to the Hungarian Erzgebirge and
conducted operations on his own initiative. Meanwhile the
supreme command had been conferred upon the Pole Dembinski,
but the latter fought without success the battle of Kapolna,
at which action Gorgei's corps arrived too late to take an effective
part, and some time after this the command was again conferred
upon Gdrgei. The campaign in the spring of 1849 was brilliantly
conducted by him, and in a series of engagements, he defeated
Windischgratz. In April he won the victories of Gddollo Izaszeg
and Nagy Sarl6, relieved Komorn, and again won a battle at
Acs or Waitzen. Had he followed up his successes by taking
the offensive against the Austrian frontier, he might perhaps
have dictated terms in the Austrian capital itself. As it was,
he contented himself with reducing Ofen, the Hungarian capital,
in which he desired to re-establish the diet, and after effecting
this capture he remained inactive for some weeks. Meanwhile,
at a diet held at Debreczin, Kossuth had formally proposed the
dethronement of the Habsburg dynasty and Hungary had been
proclaimed a republic. Gdrgei had refused the field-marshal's
baton offered him by Kossuth and was by no means in sympathy
with the new regime. However, he accepted the portfolio of
minister of war, while retaining the command of the troops in
the field. The Russians had now intervened in the struggle and
made common cause with the Austrians; the allies were advanc-
ing into Hungary on all sides, and Gdrgei was defeated by
Haynau at Pered (2oth-2ist of June). Kossuth, perceiving
the impossibility of continuing the struggle and being unwilling
himself to make terms, resigned his position as dictator, and was
succeeded by Gdrgei, who meanwhile had been fighting hard
against the various columns of the enemy. Gdrgei, convinced
that he could not break through the enemy's lines, surrendered,
with his army of 20,000 infantry and 2000 cavalry, to the
Russian general Riidiger at Vilagos. Gdrgei was not court-
martialled, as were his generals, but kept in confinement at
Klagenfurt, where he lived, chiefly employed in chemical work,
until 1867, when he was pardoned and returned to Hungary.
The surrender, and particularly the fact that his life was spared
while his generals and many of his officers and men were hanged
or shot, led, perhaps naturally, to his being accused of treason
by public opinion of his countrymen. After his release he
played no further part in public life. Even in 1885 an attempt
which was made by a large number of his old comrades to re-
habilitate him was not favourably received in Hungary. After
some years' work as a railway engineer he retired to Visegrad,
where he lived thenceforward in retreat. (See also Hungary:
History.)
General Gdrgei wrote a justification of his operations (Mdn
Leben und Wirkcn in Ungarn 1848-1859, Leipzig, 1852), an
anonymous paper under the title Was verdanken wit der Revolu-
tion? (1875), and a reply to Kossuth's charges (signed " Joh.
Demar") in Budapesti Szemle, 1881, 25-26. Amongst those
who wrote in his favour were Captain Stephan Gdrgei (1848 is
1849 boly Budapest, 1885), and Colonel Aschermann (Ein offenes
Wort in der Sache des HonvSd-Generals A rthur Gdrgei, Klausenburg,
1867).
See also A. G. Horn, Gdrgei, OberkommandatU d. une. Armee
(Leipzig, 1850) ; Kinety, Gdrf&vs Life and Work in Hungary (London,
1853) ; Szinyei, in Magydr Irdk (hi. 1378), Hentaller, Gdrgei as a
Statesman (Hungarian); Elemar, Gdrgei in 1848-1849 (Hungarian,
Budapest, 1886).
GORGES, SIR FBRDINAKDO (c. 1 566-1647), English colonial
pioneer in America and the founder of Maine, was born in
Somersetshire, England, probably in .1566. From youth both
a soldier and a sailor, he was a prisoner in Spain at the age of
twenty-one, having been captured by a ship of the Spanish
Armada. In 1589 he was in command of a small body of troops
fighting for Henry IV. of France, and after distinguishing him-
self at the siege of Rouen was knighted there in 1591. In 1596
he was commissioned captain and keeper of the castle and fort
at Plymouth and captain of St Nicholas Isle; in 1597 he accom-
panied Essex on the expedition to the Azores; in 1599 assisted
him in the attempt to suppress the Tyrone rebellion in Ireland,
and in 1600 was implicated in Essex's own attempt at rebellion
in London. In 1603, on the accession of James I., he was
suspended from his post at Plymouth, but was restored in the
same year and continued to serve as " governor of the forts
and island of Plymouth " until 1629, when, his garrison having
been without pay for three and a half years, his fort a ruin,
and all his applications for aid having been ignored, he resigned.
About 1605 he began to be greatly interested in the New World;
in 1606 he became a member of the Plymouth Company, and he
laboured zealously for the founding of the Popham colony at
the mouth of the Sagadahoc (now the Kennebec) river in 1607.
For several years following the failure of that enterprise in 1608
he continued to fit out ships for fishing, trading and exploring,
with colonization as the chief end in view. He was largely
instrumental in procuring the new charter of 1620 for the
Plymouth Company, and was at all times of its existence perhaps
the most influential member of that body. He was the recipient,
either solely or jointly, of several grants of territory from it,
for one of which he received in 1639 the royal charter of Maine
(see Maine). In 1635 he sought to be appointed governor-general
of all New England, but the English Civil War — in which he
espoused the royal cause — prevented him from ever actually
holding that office. A short time before his death at Long
Ash ton in 1647 he wrote his Brief e Narration of the OriginaU
Undertakings of the Advancement of Plantations into the Parts of
America. He was an advocate, especially late in life, of the
feudal type of colony.
GORGET— GORILLA
257
See J. P. .Baxter (ed.), Sir Ferdinando Gorges and his Province of
Maine (3 vols., Boston, 1890; in the Prince Society Publications),
the first volume of which is a memoir of Gorges, and the other
volumes contain a reprint of the Briefe Narration, Gorges's letters,
and other documentary material.
GORGET (O. Fr. gorgele, dim. of gorge, throat), the name
applied after about 1480 to the collar-piece of a suit of armour.
It was generally formed of small overlapping rings of plate, and
attached either to the body armour or to the armet. It was
worn in the 16th and 17th centuries with the half-armour,
with the plain cuirass, and even occasionally without any
body armour at all. During these times it gradually became a
distinctive badge for officers, and as such it survived in several
armies — in the form of a small metal plate affixed to the front
of the collar of the uniform coat — until after the Napoleonic wars.
In the German army to-day a gorget-plate of this sort is the
distinctive mark of military police, while the former officer's
gorget is represented in British uniforms by the red patches or
tabs worn on the collar by staff officers and by the white patches
of the midshipmen in the Royal Navy.
GORGIAS (c. 483-375 B.C.), Greek sophist and rhetorician,
was a native of Leontini in Sicily. In 427 he was sent by his
fellow-citizens at the head of an embassy to ask Athenian
protection against the aggression of the Syracusans. He subse-
quently settled in Athens, and supported himself by the practice
of oratory and by teaching rhetoric. He died at Larissa in
Thessaly. His chief claim to recognition consists in the fact that
he transplanted rhetoric to Greece, and contributed to the
diffusion of the Attic dialect as the language of literary prose.
He was the author of a lost work On Nature or the Non-existent
(lUpl rod pi) o>ros ^ ircpi ^foeoff, fragments edited by M. C.
Valeton, 1876), the substance of which may be gathered from
the writings of Sextus Empiricus, and also from the treatise
(ascribed to Theophrastus) De Melisso, Xenophane, Gorgia.
Gorgias is the central figure in the Platonic dialogue Gorgias.
The genuineness of two rhetorical exercises (The Encomium
of Helen and The Defence of Palamedes, edited with Antiphon by
F. Blass in the Teubner series, 1881), which have come down
under his name, is disputed.
For his philosophical opinions see Sophists and Scepticism.
See also Gomperz, Greek Thinkers, Eng. trans, vol. i. bk. iii. chap,
vii.; Tebb's Attic Orators, introd. to vol. i. (1893); F. Blass, Die
aUiscne Beredsamkeil, i. (1887); and article Rhetoric.
GORGON, GORGONS (Gr. Topyu, Topytoes, the " terrible,"
or, according to some, the " loud-roaring "), a figure or figures
in Greek mythology. Homer speaks of only one Gorgon, whose
head is represented in the Iliad (v. 741) as fixed in the centre of
the aegis of Zeus. In the Odyssey (xi. 633) she is a monster of the
under-world. Hesiod increases the number of Gorgons to three —
Stheno (the mighty), Euryale (the far-springer) and Medusa
(the queen), and makes them the daughters of the sea-god
Phorcys and of Keto. Their home is on the farthest side of the
western ocean; according to later authorities, in Libya (Hesiod,
Theog. 274; Herodotus fl. 91; Pausanias ii. 21). The Attic
tradition, reproduced in Euripides (Ion 1002), regarded the
Gorgon as a monster, produced by Gaea to aid her sons the
giants against the gods and slain by Athena (the passage is a
locus classicus on the aegis of Athena).
The Gorgons are represented as winged creatures, having
the form of young women; their hair consists of snakes; they
are round-faced, flat-nosed, with tongues lolling out and large
projecting teeth. Sometimes they have wings of gold, brazen
claws and the tusks of boars. Medusa was the only one of the
three who was 'mortal; hence Perseus was able to kill her by
cutting off her head. From the blood that spurted from her neck
sprang Chrysaor and Pegasus, her two sons by Poseidon. The
head, which had the power of turning into stone all who looked
upon it, was given to Athena, who placed it in her shield;
according to another account, Perseus buried it in the market-
place of Argos. The hideously grotesque original type of the
Gorgoneion, as the Gorgon's head was called, was placed on the
walls of cities, and on shields and breastplates to terrify an enemy
(cf. the hideous faces on Chinese soldiers' shields), and used
generally as an amulet, a protection against the evil eye. Heracles
is said to have obtained a lock of Medusa's hair (which possessed
the same powers as the head) from Athena and given it to
Sterope, the daughter of Cepheus, as a protection for the town
of Tegea against attack (Apollodorus ii. 7. 3). According to
Roscher, it was supposed, when exposed to view, to bring on a
storm, which put the enemy to flight. Frazer (Golden Bough, i.
378) gives examples of the superstition that cut hair caused
storms. According to the later idea of Medusa as a beautiful
maiden, whose hair had been changed into snakes by Athena,
the head was represented in works of art with a wonderfully
handsome face, wrapped in the calm repose of death. The
Rondanini Medusa at Munich is a famous specimen of this
conception. Various accounts of the Gorgons were given by
later ancient writers. According to Diod. Sic. (iii. 54. 55)
they were female warriors living near Lake Tritonis in Libya,
whose queen was Medusa; according to Alexander of Myndus,
quoted in Athenaeus (v. p. 221), they were terrible wild animals
whose mere look turned men to stone. Pliny (Nat. Hist. vi.
30 b 1 ]) describes them as savage women, whose persons were
covered with hair, which gave rise to the story of their snaky
hair and girdle. Modern authorities have explained them as the
personification of the waves of the sea or of the barren, un-
productive coast of Libya; or as the awful darkness of the
storm-cloud, which comes from the west and is scattered by the
sun-god Perseus. More recent is the explanation of anthro-
pologists that Medusa, whose virtue is really in her head, is
derived from the ritual mask common to primitive cults.
See Jane E. Harrison, Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion
(1903); W. H. Roscher, Die Gorgonen und Verwandtes (1879);
J. Six, De Gor gone (1885), on the types of the Gorgon's head ; articles
by Roscher and Furtw&ngler in Koscher's Lexikon der Mytholopie,
by G. Glotz in Daremberg and Saglio's Dictionnaire des antiqmtis,
and by R. Gfidechens in Ersch and Gruber's AUgemeine Encyclopddie;
N. G. Polites ('0 xepi tQ* Yopybtxav yxBo* xapA rtg 'EWrgyuuf Xmf, 1878)
gives an account of the Gorgons, and of the various superstitions
connected with them, from the modern Greek point of view, which
regards them as malevolent spirits of the sea.
GORGONZOLA, a town of Lombardy, Italy, in the province
of Milan, from which it is 11 m. E.N.E. by steam tramway.
Pop. (1901) 5134. It is the centre of the district in which is
produced the well-known Gorgonzola cheese.
GORI, a town of Russian Transcaucasia, in the government
of Tiflis and 49 m. by rail N.W. of the city of Tiflis, on the river
Kura; altitude, 2010 ft. Pop. (1897) 10,457. The surrounding
country is very picturesque. Gori has a high school for girls, and
a school for Russian and Tatar teachers. At one time celebrated
for its silk and cotton stuffs, it is now famous for corn, reputed
the best in Georgia, and the wine is also esteemed. The climate
is excellent, delightfully cool in summer, owing to the refreshing
breezes from the mountains, though these are, however, at times
disagreeable in winter. Gori was founded (1 1 23) by the Georgian
king David II., the Renovater, for the Armenians who fled their
country on the Persian invasion. The earliest remains of the
fortress are Byzantine; it was thoroughly restored in 1634-
1658, but destroyed by Nadir Shah of Persia in the 18th century.
There is a church constructed in the 17th century by Capuchin
missionaries from Rome. Five miles east of Gori is the remark-
able rock-cut town of Uplis-tsykhe, which was a fortress in the
time of Alexander the Great of Macedon, and an inhabited city
in the reign of the Georgian king Bagrat III. (980-1014).
GORILLA (or Pongo), the largest of the man-like apes, and
a native of West Africa from the Congo to Cameroon, whence
it extends eastwards across the continent to German East Africa.
Many naturalists regard the gorilla as best included in the same
genus as the chimpanzee, in which case it should be known as
Anthropopithecus gorilla, but by others it is regarded as the
representative of a genus by itself, when its title will be Gorilla
savagei, or G. gorilla. That there are local forms of gorilla is
quite certain: but whether any of these are entitled to rank as
distinct species may be a matter of opinion. It was long supposed
that the apes encountered on an island off the west coast of
Africa by Hanno, the Carthaginian, were gorillas, but in the
xii. 9
25»
GORINCHEM— GORING
opinion of some of those best qualified to judge, it is probable
that the creatures in question were really baboons. The first
real account of the gorilla appears to be the one given by an
English sailor, Andrew Battel, who spent some time in the wilds
of West Africa during and about the year 1590; his account
being presented in Purchas's Pilgrimage, published in the year
16x3. From this it appears that Battel was familiar with both
the chimpanzee and the gorilla, the former of which he terms
engeco and the latter pongo — names which ought apparently
to be adopted for these two species in place of those now in use.
Between Battel's time and 1846 nothing appears to have been
heard of the gorilla or pongo, but in that year a missionary at
the Gabun accidentally discovered a skull of the huge ape;
and in 1847 a sketch of that specimen, together with two others,
came into the hands of Sir R. Owen, by whom the name Gorilla
savagei was proposed for the new ape in 1848. Dr Thomas
Savage, a missionary at the Gabun, who sent Owen information
with regard to the original skull, had, however, himself proposed
the name Troglodytes gorilla in 1847. The first complete skeleton
of a gorilla sent to Europe was received at the museum of the
Royal College of Surgeons in 1851, and the first complete skin
appears to have reached the British Museum in 1858. Paul B.
du Chaillu's account (1861) of his journeys in the Gabun
region popularized the knowledge of the existence of the gorilla.
Male gorillas largely exceed the females in size, and attain a
height of from 5} ft. to 6£ ft., or perhaps even more. Some of
the features distinguishing the gorilla from the mere gorilla-like
chimpanzees will be found mentioned in the article Primates.
Among them are the small ears, elongated head, the presence of
a deep groove alongside the nostrils, the small size of the thumb,
and the great length of the arm, which [reaches half-way down
the shin-bone (tibia) in the erect posture. In old males the eyes
are overhung by a beetling penthouse of bone, the hinder half
of the middle line of the skull bears a wall-like bony ridge for
the attachment of the powerful jaw-muscles, and the tusks, or
canines, are of monstrous size, recalling those of a carnivorous
animal. The general colour is blackish, with a more or less
marked grey or brownish tinge on the hair of the shoulders, and
sometimes of chestnut on the head. Mr G. L. Bates (in Proc.
Zool. Soc.y 1905, vol. i.) states that gorillas only leave the depths
of the forest to enter the outlying clearings in the neighbourhood
of human settlements when they are attracted by some special
fruit or succulent plant; the favourite being the fruit of the
" mejom," a tall cane-like plant (perhaps a kind of Amomum)
which grows abundantly on deserted clearings. At one isolated
village the natives, who were unarmed, reported that they not
unfrequently saw and heard the gorillas, which broke down the
stalks of the plantains in the rear of the habitations to tear out
and eat the tender heart. On the old clearings of another village
Mr Bates himself, although he did not see a gorilla, saw the fresh
tracks of these great apes and the torn stems and discarded
fruit rinds of the " mejoms," as well as the broken stalks of the
latter, which had been used for beds. On another occasion he
came across the bed of an old gorilla which had been used only
the night before, as was proved by a negro woman, who on the
previous evening had heard the animal breaking and treading
down the stalks to form its couch. According to native report,
the gorillas sleep on these beds, which are of sufficient thickness
to raise them a foot or two above the ground, in a sitting posture,
with the head inclined forwards on the breast. In the first case
Mr Bates states that the tracks and beds indicated the presence
of three or four gorillas, some of which were small. This account
does not by any means accord with one given by von Koppenf els,
in which it is stated that while the old male gorilla sleeps in a
sitting posture at the base of a tree-trunk (no mention being
made of a bed), the female and young ones pass the night in a
nest in the tree several yards above the ground, made by bending
the boughs together and covering them with twigs and moss.
Mr Bates's account, as being based on actual inspection of the
beds, is probably the more trustworthy. Even when asleep and
snoring, gorillas are difficult to approach, since they awake at
the slightest rustle, and an attempt to surround the one heard
making his bed by the woman resulted in failure. Most gorillas
killed by natives are believed by Mr Bates to have been en-
countered suddenly in the daytime on the ground or in low trees
in the outlying clearings. Many natives, even if armed, refuse,
however, to molest an adult male gorilla, on account of its
ferocity when wounded. Mr Bates, like Mr Winwood Reade,
refused to credit du Chaillu's account of his having killed gorillas,
and stated that the only instance he knew of one of these animals
being slain by a European was an old male (now in Mr Walter
Rothschild's museum at Tring) shot by the German trader
Paschen in the Yaunde district, of which an illustrated account
was published in 1901. Mr E. J. Corns states, however, that
two European traders, apparently in the " 'eighties " of the 19th
century, were in the habit of surrounding and capturing these
animals as occasion offered. 1 Fully adult gorillas have never
been seen alive in captivity — and perhaps never will be, as the
creature is ferocious and morose to a degree. So long ago as the
year 1855, when the species was known to zoologists only by its
skeleton, a gorilla was actually living in England. This animal,
a young female, came from the Gabun, and was kept for some
months in WombwelTs travelling menagerie, where it was treated
as a pet. On its death, the body was sent to Mr Charles Waterton,
of Walton Hall, by whom the skin was mounted in a grotesque
manner, and the skeleton given to the Leeds museum. Appar-
ently, however, it was not till several years later that the skin
was recognized by Mr A. D. Bartlett as that of a gorilla; the
animal having probably been regarded by its owner as a chim-
panzee. A young male was purchased by the Zoological Society
in October 1887, from Mr Cross, the Liverpool dealer in animals.
At the time of arrival it was supposed to be about, three years old,
and stood 2} ft. high. A second, a male, supposed to be rather
older, was acquired in March 1896, having been brought to
Liverpool from the French Congo. It is described as having
been thoroughly healthy at the date of its arrival, and of an
amiable and tractable disposition. Neither survived long* Two
others were received in the Zoological Society's menagerie in
1904, and another was housed there for a short time in the
following year, while a fifth was received in 1906. Falkenstein's
gorilla, exhibited at the Westminster aquarium under the name
of pongo, and afterwards at the Berlin aquarium, survived for
eighteen months. " Pussi," the gorilla of the Breslau Zoological
Gardens, holds a record for longevity, with over seven years
of menagerie life. Writing in 1003 Mr T. W. Hornaday stated
that but one live gorilla, and that a tiny infant, had ever
landed in the United States; and it lived only five days after
arrival. (R. L.*)
GORINCHEM, or Gorcum, a fortified town of Holland in the
province of south Holland, on the right bank of the Merwede
at the confluence of the Linge, 16 m. by rail W. of Dordrecht.
It is connected by the Zederik and Merwede canals with Amster-
dam, and steamers ply hence in every direction. Pop. (1900)
11,987. Gorinchem possesses several interesting old houses, and
overlooking the river are some fortified gateways of the 17 th
century. The principal buildings are the old church of St
Vincent, containing the monuments of the lords of Arkel; the
town hall, a prison, custom-house, barracks and a military
hospital. The charitable and benevolent institutions are
numerous, and there are also a library and several learned
associations. Gorinchem possesses a good harbour, and besides
working in gold and silver, carries on a considerable trade in
grain, hemp, cheese, potatoes, cattle and fish, the salmon fishery
being noted. Woerkum, or Woudrichem, a little below the town
on the left bank of the Merwede, is famous for its quaint old
buildings, which are decorated with mosaics.
GORING, GEORGE GORING, Lord (1608-165 7), English
Royalist soldier, son of George Goring, earl of Norwich, was born
on the 14th of July 1608. He soon became famous at court
for his prodigality and dissolute manners. His father-in-law,
Richard Boyle, earl of Cork, procured for him a post in the Dutch
1 In 1905 the Rev. Geo. Grenfell reported that he had that summer
shot a gorilla in the Bwela country, east of the Mongala affluent of
the Congo.
GORKI— GORLITZ
259
army with the rank of colonel. He was permanently lamed
by a wound received at Breda in 1637, and returned to England
early in 1639, when he was made governor of Portsmouth. He
served in the Scottish war, and already had a considerable
reputation when he was concerned in the " Army Plot." Officers
of the army stationed at York proposed to petition the king and
parliament for the maintenance of the royal authority. A
second party was in favour of more violent measures, and
Goring, in the hope of being appointed lieutenant-general,
proposed to march the army on London and overawe the parlia-
ment during Strafford's trial. This proposition being rejected
by his fellow officers, he betrayed the proceedings to Mountjoy
Blount, earl of Newport, who passed on the information in-
directly to Pym in April. Colonel Goring was thereupon called
on to give evidence before the Commons, who commended him
for his services to the Commonwealth. This betrayal of his
comrades induced confidence in the minds of the parliamentary
leaders, who sent him back to his Portsmouth command. Never-
theless he declared for the king in August. He surrendered
Portsmouth to the parliament in September 1642 and went to
Holland to recruit for the Royalist army, returning to England
in December. Appointed to a cavalry command by the earl of
Newcastle, he defeated Fairfax at Seacroft Moor near Leeds
in March 1643, hut in May he was taken prisoner at Wakefield
on the capture of the town by Fairfax. In April 1644 he effected
an exchange. At Marston Moor he commanded the Royalist
left, and charged with great success, but, allowing his troopers
to disperse in search of plunder, was routed by Cromwell at the
close of the battle. In November 1644, on his father's elevation
to the earldom of Norwich, he became Lord Goring. The
parliamentary authorities, however, refused to recognize the
creation of the earldom, and continued to speak of the father as
Lord Goring and the son as General Goring. In August he had
been despatched by Prince Rupert, who recognized his ability,
to join Charles in the south, and in spite of his dissolute and
insubordinate character he was appointed to supersede Henry,
Lord Wilmot, as lieut.-general of the Royalist horse (see Great
Rebellion). He secured some successes in the west, and in
January 1645 advanced through Hampshire and occupied
Farnham; but want of money compelled him to retreat to
Salisbury and thence to Exeter. The excesses committed by his
troops seriously injured the Royalist cause, and his exactions
made his name hated throughout the west. He had himself
prepared to besiege Taunton in March, yet when in the next
month he was desired by Prince Charies, who was at Bristol,
to send reinforcements to Sir Richard Grenville for the siege of
Taunton, he obeyed the order only with ill-humour. Later in
the month he was summoned with his troops to the relief of the
king at Oxford. Lord Goring had long been intriguing for an
independent command, and he now secured from the king what
was practically supreme authority in the west. It was alleged
by the earl of Newport that he was willing to transfer his
allegiance once more to the parliament. It is not likely that he
meditated open treason, but he was culpably negligent and
occupied with private ambitions and jealousies. He was still
engaged in desultory operations against Taunton when the
main campaign of 1645 opened. For the part taken by Goring's
army in the operations of the Naseby campaign see Great
Rebellion. After the decisive defeat of the king, the army of
Fairfax marched into the west and defeated Goring in a disastrous
fight at Langport on the 10th of July. He made no further
serious resistance to the parliamentary general, but wasted his
time in frivolous amusements, and in November he obtained
leave to quit his disorganized forces and retire to France on the
ground of health. His father's services secured him the command
of some English regiments in the Spanish service. He died at
Madrid in July or August 1657. Clarendon gives him a very
unpleasing character, declaring that " Goring . . . would,
without hesitation, have broken any trust, or done any act of
treachery to have satisfied an ordinary passion or appetite; and
in truth wanted nothing but industry (for he had wit, and
courage, and understanding and ambition, uncontrolled by any
fear of God or man) to have been as eminent and successful in
the highest attempt of wickedness as any man in the age he
lived in or before. Of all his qualifications dissimulation was
his masterpiece; in which he so much excelled, that men were
not ordinarily ashamed, or out of countenance, with being
deceived but twice by him."
See the life by C. H. Firth in the Dictionary of National Biography;
Dugdale's Baronage, where there are some doubtful stories of his
life in Spain; the Clarendon State Papers; Clarendon's History of the
Great Rebellion; and S. R. Gardiner's History of the Great Civil War.
GORKI, MAXIM (1868- ), the pen-name of the Russian
novelist Alexei Maximovich Pyeshkov, who was born at Nizhni-
Novgorod on the 26th of March 1868. His father was a dyer,
but he lost both his parents in childhood, and in his ninth year
was sent to assist in a boot-shop. We find him afterwards in a
variety of callings, but devouring books of all sorts greedily,
whenever they fell into his hands. He ran away from the boot-
shop and went to help a land-surveyor. He was then a cook
on board a steamer and afterwards a gardener. In his fifteenth
year he tried to enter a school at Kazan, but was obliged to betake
himself again to his drudgery. He became a baker, than hawked
about kvaSy and helped the barefooted tramps and labourers
at the docks. From these he drew some of his most striking
pictures, and learned to give sketches of humble life generally
with the fidelity of a Defoe. After a long course of drudgery
he had the good fortune to obtain the place of secretary to a
barrister at Nizhni-Novgorod. This was the turning-point of
his fortunes, as he found a sympathetic master who helped him.
He also became acquainted with the novelist Korolenko, who
assisted him in his literary efforts. His first story was Makar
Chudra, which was published in the journal Kavkaz. He con-
tributed to many periodicals and finally attracted attention by
his tale called Chelkash, which appeared in Russkoe Bogatsvo
(" Russian wealth ")• This was followed by a series of tales
in which he drew with extraordinary vigour the life of the
bosniaki, or tramps. He has sometimes described other classes
of society, tradesmen and the educated classes, but not with
equal success. There are some vigorous pictures, however,
of the trading class in his Foma Gordeyev. But his favourite
type is the rebel, the man in revolt against society, and him he
describes from personal knowledge, and enlists our sympathies
with him. We get such a type completely in Konovalov. Gorki
is always preaching that we must have ideals — something better
than everyday life, and this view is brought out in his play
At the Lowest Depths, which had great success at Moscow, but
was coldly received at St Petersburg.
For a good criticism of Gorki see Ideas and Realities in Russian
Literature, by Prince Kropotkin. Many of his works have been
translated into English.
GdRUTZ, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Silesia, on the left bank of the Neisse, 62 m. E. from Dresden
on the railway to Breslau, and at the junction of lines to Berlin,
Zittau and Halle. Pop. (1885) 55,702, (1905) 80,931. The
Neisse at this point is crossed by a railway bridge 1650 ft. long
and 120 ft. high, with 32 arches. Gdrlitz is one of the hand-
somest, and, owing to the extensive forests of 70,000 acres,
which are the property of the municipality, one of the wealthiest
towns in Germany. It is surrounded by beautiful walks and
fine gardens, and although its old walls and towers have now
been demolished, many of its ancient buildings remain to form
a picturesque contrast with the signs of modern industry. From
the hill csilled Landskrone, about 1500 ft. high, an extensive
prospect is obtained of the surrounding country. The principal
buildings are the fine Gothic church of St Peter and St Paul,
dating from the 15th century, with two stately towers, a famous
organ and a very heavy bell; the Frauen Kirche, erected about
the end of the 15th century, and possessing a fine portal and
choir in pierced work; the Kloster Kirche, restored in 1868,
with handsome choir stalls and a carved altar dating from 1383;
and the Roman Catholic church, founded in 1853, in the Roman
style of architecture, with beautiful glass windows and oil-paint-
ings. The old town hall (Rathaus) contains a very valuable
library, having at its entrance a fine flight of steps. There is
26o
GORRES
also a new town hall which was erected in 1904-1906. Other
buildings are: the old bastion, named Kaiaertrutz, now used
as a guardhouse and armoury; the gymnasium buildings in
the Gothic style erected in 1851; the Ruhmeshalle with the
Kaiser Friedrich museum, the house of the estates of the province
(St&ndehaus), two theatres and the barracks. Near the town
is the chapel of the Holy Cross, where there is a model of the
Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem made during the 15th century.
In the public park there is a bust of Schiller, a monument to
Alexander von Humboldt, and a statue of the mystic Jakob
Bdhme (1575-1624); a monument has been erected in the town
in commemoration of the war of 1870-71, and also one to the
emperor William I. and a statue of Prince Frederick Charles.
In connexion with the natural history society there is a valuable
museum, and the scientific institute possesses a large library
and a rich collection of antiquities, coins and articles of virtu.
Gdrlitz, next to Breslau, is the largest and most flourishing
commercial town of Silesia, and is also regarded as classic ground
for the study of German Renaissance architecture. Besides
cloth, which forms its staple article of commerce, it has manu-
factories of various linen and woollen wares, machines, railway
wagons, glass, sago, tobacco, leather, chemicals and tiles.
Gdrlitz existed as a village from a very early period, and at
the beginning of the 12th century received civic rights. It was
then known as Drebenau, but on being rebuilt after its destruc-
tion by fire in 1131 it received the name of Zgorzelice. About
the end of the 12th century it was strongly fortified, and for a
short time it was the capital of a duchy of Gdrlitz. It was
several times besieged and taken during the Thirty Years' War,
and it also suffered considerably in the Seven Years' War. In the
battle which took place near it between the Austrians and
Prussians on the 7th of September 1757, Hans Karl von Winter-
feldt, the general of Frederick the Great, was slain. In 181 5 the
town, with the greater part of Upper Lusatia, came into the
possession of Prussia.
See Neumann, Geschichtc von Gdrlitz (1850).
GdRRBS, JOHANN JOSEPH VON (1776-1848), German
writer, was born on the 25th of January 1776, at Coblenz. His
father was a man of moderate means, who sent his son to a Latin
college under the direction of the Roman Catholic clergy. The
sympathies of the young Gdrres were from the first strongly
with the French Revolution, and the dissoluteness and irreligion
of the French exiles in the Rhineland confirmed him in his hatred
of princes. He harangued the revolutionary clubs, and insisted
on the unity of interests which should ally all civilized states to
one another. He then commenced a republican journal called Das
role Blaiiy and afterwards RiibezaJd, in which he strongly con-
demned the administration of the Rhenish provinces by France,
After the peace of Campo Formio (1797) there was some hope
that the Rhenish provinces would be constituted into an inde-
pendent republic. In 1799 the provinces sent an embassy, of
which Gdrres was a member, to Paris to put their case before the
directory. The embassy reached Paris on the 20th of November
1799; two days before this Napoleon had assumed the supreme
direction of affairs. After much delay the embassy was received
by him; but the only answer they obtained was " that they
might rely on perfect justice, and that the French government
would never lose sight of their wants." Gdrres on his return
published a tract called Resultate meiner Sendung nach Paris, in
which he reviewed the history of the French Revolution. During
the thirteen years of Napoleon's dominion Gdrres lived a retired
life, devoting himself chiefly to art or science. In 1801 he
married Catherine de Lasaulx, and was for some years teacher
at a secondary school in Coblenz; in 1806 he moved to Heidel-
berg, where he lectured at the university. As a leading member
of the Heidelberg Romantic group, he edited together with
K. Brentano and L. von Arnim the famous ZeUungfiir Einsiedler
(subsequently re-named Trdst-Einsamkeit), and in 1807 he
published Die teutscken VolksbUcher. He returned to Coblenz
in 1808, and again found occupation as a teacher in a secondary
school, supported by civic funds. He now studied Persian, and
in two years published a Mytkengesckickte der asiaiiscken Welt,
which was followed ten years later by Das Heldenbuch von Iran,
a translation of part of the Shahnatna, the epic of Firdousi. In
1813 he actively took up the cause of national independence!
and in the following year founded Der rheinische Merkur. The
intense earnestness of the paper, the bold outspokenness of its
hostility to Napoleon, and its fiery eloquence secured for it
almost instantly a position and influence unique in the history
of German newspapers. Napoleon himself called it la cinquietne
puissance. The ideal it insisted on was a united Germany, with
a representative government, but under an emperor after the
fashion of other days, — for Gdrres now abandoned his early
advocacy of republicanism. When Napoleon was at Elba,
Gdrres wrote an imaginary proclamation issued by him to the
people, the intense irony of which was so well veiled that many
Frenchmen mistook it for an original utterance of the emperor.
He inveighed bitterly against the second peace of Paris (181 5),
declaring that Alsace and Lorraine should have been demanded
back from France.
Stein was glad enough to use the Merkur at the time of the
meeting of the congress of Vienna as a vehicle for giving expres-
sion to his hopes. But Hardenberg, in May 181 5, warned Gdrres
to remember that he was not to arouse hostility against France,
but only against Bonaparte. There was also in the Merkur an
antipathy to Prussia, a continual expression of the desire that
an Austrian prince should assume the imperial title, and' also a
tendency to pronounced liberalism — all of which made it most
distasteful to Hardenberg, and to his master King Frederick
William III. Gdrres disregarded warnings sent to him by the
censorship and continued the paper in all its fierceness. Accord-
ingly it was suppressed early in 181 6, at the instance of the
Prussian government; and soon after Gdrres was dismissed from
his post as teacher at Coblenz. From this time his writings
were his sole means of support, and he became a most diligent
political pamphleteer. In the wild excitement which followed
Kotzebue's assassination, the reactionary decrees of Carlsbad
were framed, and these were the subject of Gdrres's celebrated
pamphlet Teutschland und die Revolution (1820). In this work
he reviewed the circumstances which had led to the murder of
Kotzebue, and, while expressing all possible horror at the deed
itself, he urged that it was impossible and undesirable to repress
the free utterance of public opinion by reactionary measures.
The success of the work was very marked, despite its ponderous
style. It was suppressed by the Prussian government, and
orders were issued for the arrest of Gdrres and the seizure of his
papers. He escaped to Strassburg, and thence went to Switzer-
land. Two more political tracts, Europa und die Revolution
(1821) and In Sachen der Rheinprovinzen und in eigener Angele-
genheit (1822), also deserve mention.
In Gdrres's pamphlet Die heilige AUianz und die Vdlker auf
dem Kongress zu Verona he asserted that the princes had met
together to crush the liberties of the people, and that the people
must look elsewhere for help. The " elsewhere " was to Rome;
and from this time Gdrres became a vehement Ultramontane
writer. He was summoned to Munich by King Ludwig of Bavaria
as Professor of History in the university, and there his writing
enjoyed very great popularity. His Christliche Mysiik (1836-
1842) gave a series of biographies of the saints, together with an
exposition of Roman Catholic mysticism. But his most cele-
brated ultramontane work was a polemical one. Its occasion
was the deposition and imprisonment by the Prussian govern-
ment of the archbishop Clement Wenceslaus, in consequence of
the refusal of that prelate to sanction in certain instances the
marriages of Protestants and Roman Catholics. Gdrres in his
Aihanasius (1837) fiercely upheld the power of the church,
although the liberals of later date who have claimed Gdrres as
one of their own school deny that he ever insisted on the absolute
supremacy of Rome. Aihanasius went through several editions,
and originated a long and bitter controversy. In the Historisch*
polUische BUUter, a Munich journal, Gdrres and his son Guido
(1805-1852) continually upheld the claims of the church.
Gdrres received from the king the order of merit for his services.
He died on the 29th of January 1848.
GORSAS— GORTON
261
Gorres's Gesammtlte Schriftcn (only his political writings) appeared
in six volumes (1854-1860), to which three volumes olGesammelte
Briefe were subsequently added (1858-1874). Cp. J. Galland,
Joseph von Gdrres (1876, 2nd ed. 1877) ; J. N. Sepp, Gdrres und seine
Zeitgenossen (1877), and by the same author, Gdrres, in the series
Geisteshelden (1896). A Gorres-Gesellschaft was founded in 1876.
GORSAS, ANTOINE JOSEPH (1752-1793), French publicist
and politician, was born at Limoges (Haute- Vienne) on the 24th
of March 1752, the son of a shoemaker. He established himself
as a private tutor in Paris, and presently set up a school for the
army at Versailles, which was attended by commoners as well
as nobles. In 1781 he was imprisoned for a short time in the
Bicgtre on an accusation of corrupting the morals of his pupils,
his real offence being the writing of satirical verse. These
circumstances explain the violence of his anti-monarchical
sentiment. At the opening of the states-general he began to
publish the Courrier de Versailles a Paris et de Paris a Versailles,
in which appeared on the 4th of October 1789 the account of the
banquet of the royal bodyguard. Gorsas is said to have himself
read it in public at the Palais Royal, and to have headed one of
the columns that marched on Versailles. He then changed the
name of his paper to the Courrier des qualre-vingt-trois diparte-
ments, continuing his incendiary propaganda, which had no
small share m provoking the popular insurrections of June and
August 1792. During the September massacres he wrote in
his paper that the prisons were the centre of an anti-national
conspiracy and that the people exercised a just vengeance on
the guilty. On the 10th of September 1792 he was elected to
the Convention for the department of Seine-et-Oise, and on the
10th of January 1793 was elected one of its secretaries. He sat
at first with the Mountain, but having been long associated
with Roland and Brissot, his agreement with the Girondists
became gradually more pronounced; during the trial of Louis XVI.
he dissociated himself more and more from the principles of the
Mountain, and he voted for the king's detention during the war
and subsequent banishment. A violent attack on Marat in
the Courrier led to an armed raid on his printing establishment
on the 9th of March 1793. The place was sacked, but Gorsas
escaped the popular fury by flight. The facts being reported to
the Convention, little sympathy was shown to Gorsas, and a
resolution (which was evaded) was passed forbidding repre-
sentatives to occupy themselves with journalism. On the 2nd
of June he was ordered by the Convention to hold himself under
arrest with other members of his party. He escaped to Nor-
mandy to join Buzot, and after the defeat of the Girondists at
Pacy-sur-Eure he found shelter in Brittany. He was imprudent
enough to return to Paris in the autumn, where he was arrested
on the 6th of October and guillotined the next day.
See the Moniteur, No. 268 (1792), Noa. 20, 70 new series 18 (1793) ;
M. Tourneux, BibL de VhisL de Paris, 10,291 seq. (1894).
GORST, SIR JOHN ELDON (1835- ), English statesman,
was born at Preston in 1835, the son of Edward Chaddock
Gorst, who took the name of Lowndes on succeeding to the
family estate in 1853. He graduated third wrangler from St
John's College, Cambridge, in 1857, and was admitted to a
fellowship. After beginning to read for the bar in London, his
father's illness and death led to his sailing to New Zealand, where
he married in i860 Mary Elizabeth Moore. The Maoris had at
that time set up a king of their own in the Waikato district and
Gorst, who had made friends with the chief Tamihana (William
Thomson), acted as an intermediary between the Maoris and
the government. Sir George Grey made him inspector of
schools, then resident magistrate, and eventually civil com-
missioner in Upper Waikato. Tamihana's influence secured his
safety in the Maori outbreak of 1863. * n *9°8 ne published a
volume of recollections, under the title of New Zealand Revisited:
Recollections of the Days of my Youth. He then returned to
England and was called to the bar at the Inner Temple in 1865,
becoming Q.C. in 1875. He stood unsuccessfully for Hastings
in the Conservative interest in 1865, and next year entered
parliament as member for the borough of Cambridge, but failed
to secure re-election at the dissolution of 1868. After the
Conservative defeat of that year he was entrusted by Disraeli
with the reorganization of the party machinery, and in five years
of hard work he paved the way for the Conservative success at
the general election of 1874. At a bye-election in 1875 he re-
entered parliament as member for Chatham, which he continued
to represent until 1892. He joined Sir Henry Drummond-
Wolff, Lord Randolph Churchill and Mr Arthur Balfour in the
" Fourth Party," and he became solicitor-general in the ad-
ministration of 1885-1886 and was knighted. On the formation
of the second Salisbury administration (1886) he became under-
secretary for India and in 1891 financial secretary to the
Treasury. At the general election of 1892 he became member
for Cambridge University. He was deputy chairman of com-
mittees in the House of Commons from 1888 to 189 1, and on the
formation of the third Salisbury administration in 1895 he
became vice-president of the committee of the council on educa-
tion (until 1902). Sir John Gorst adhered to the principles of
Tory democracy which he had advocated in the days of the
fourth party, and continued to exhibit an active interest in the
housing of the poor, the education and care of their children,
and in social questions generally, both in parliament and in the
press. But he was always exceedingly " independent " in his
political action. He objected to Mr Chamberlain's proposals
for tariff reform, and lost his seat at Cambridge at the general
election of 1906 to a tariff reformer. He then withdrew from
the vice-chancellorship of the Primrose League, of which he
had been one of the founders, on the ground that it no longer
represented the policy of Lord Beaconsneld. In 1910 he con-
tested Preston as a Liberal, but failed to secure election.
His elder son, Sir J. Eldon Gorst (b. 1861), was financial
adviser to the Egyptian government from 1898 to 1904, when
he became assistant under-secretary of state for foreign affairs.
In 1907 he succeeded Lord Cromer as British agent and consul-
general in Egypt.
An account of Sir John Gorst's connexion with Lord Randolph
Churchill will be found in the Fourth Party (1906), by his younger
son, Harold E. Gorst.
GORTON, SAMUEL (c. 1600-1677), English sectary and
founder of the American sect of Gortonites, was born about
1600 at Gorton, Lancashire. He was first apprenticed to a
clothier in London, but, fearing persecution for his religious
convictions, he sailed for Boston, Massachusetts, in 1636. Con-
stantly involved in rehgious disputes, he fled in turn to Ply-
mouth, and (in 1 637-1638) to Aquidneck (Newport), where he
was publicly whipped for insulting the clergy and magistrates.
In 1643 he bought land from the Narraganset Indians at
Shawomet — now Warwick — where he was joined by a number
of his followers; but he quarrelled with the Indians and the
authorities at Boston sent soldiers to arrest Gorton and six of his
companions. He served a term of imprisonment for heresy at
Charlestown, after which he was ejected from the colony.
In England in 1646 he published the curious tract " Simpli-
cities Defence against Seven Headed Policy " (reprinted in
1835), giving an account of his grievances against the Massa-
chusetts government. In 1648 he returned to New England
with a letter of protection from the earl of Warwick, and joining
his former companions at Shawomet, which he named Warwick,
in honour of the earl, he remained there till his death at the end
of 1677. He is chiefly remembered as the founder of a small
sect called the Gortonites, which survived till the end of the
1 8th century. They had a great contempt for the regular clergy
and for all outward forms of religion, holding that the true
believers partook of the perfection of God.
Among his quaint writings are : An Incorruptible Key composed
of the CX. Psalms wherewith you may open the rest of the Scriptures
(1647), and Saltmarsh returned from the Dead, with its sequel, An
Antidote against the Common Plague of the World (1657). See L. G.
Jones, Samuel Gorton: a forgotten Founder of our Liberties (Providence,
1896).
GORTON, an urban district in the Gorton parliamentary
division of Lancashire, England, forming an eastern suburb
of Manchester. Pop. (1901) 26,564. It is largely a manufactur-
ing district, having cotton mills and iron, engineering and
chemical works.
262
GORTYNA— GORZ AND GRADISCA
GORTYNA, or Goktyn, an important ancient city on the
southern side of the island of Crete. It stood oh the banks
of the small river Lethaeus (Mitropolipotamo), about three hours
distant from the sea, with which it communicated by means of
its two harbours, Metallum and Lebena. It had temples of
Apollo Pythius, Artemis and Zeus. Near the town was the
famous fountain of Sauros, inclosed by fruit-bearing poplars;
and not far from this was another spring, overhung by an ever-
green plane tree which in popular belief marked the scene of
the amours of Zeus and Europa. Gortyna was, next to Cnossus,
the largest and most powerful city of Crete. The two cities
combined to subdue the rest of the island; but when they had
gained their object they quarrelled with each other, and the
history of both towns is from this time little more than a record
of their feuds. Neither plays a conspicuous part in the history
of Greece. Under the Romans Gortyna became the metropolis
of the island. Extensive ruins may still be seen at the modern
village of Hagii Deka, and here was discovered the great inscrip-
tion containing chapters of its ancient laws. Though partly
ruinous, the church of St Titus is a very interesting monument
of early Christian architecture, dating from about the 4th century.
See also Crete, and for a full account of the laws see Greek
Law.
GdRTZ, GEORG HEINRICH VON, Baron von Schlitz
(1668-17 1 9), Holstein statesman, was educated at Jena. He
entered the Holstein-Gottorp service, and after the death of
the duchess Hedwig Sophia, Charles XII.'s sister, became very
influential during the minority of her son Duke Charles Frederick.
His earlier policy aimed at strengthening Holstein-Gottorp
at the expense of Denmark. With this object, during Charles
XII.'s stay at Altranstadt (1 706-1 707), he tried to divert the
king's attention to the Holstein question, and six years later,
when the Swedish commander, Magnus Stenbock, crossed the
Elbe, Gortz rendered him as much assistance as was compatible
with not openly breaking with Denmark, even going so far
as to surrender the fortress of Tonning to the Swedes. G5rtz
next attempted to undermine the grand alliance against Sweden
by negotiating with Russia, Prussia and Saxony for the purpose
of isolating Denmark, or even of turning the arms of the allies
against her, a task by no means impossible in view of the strained
relations between Denmark and the tsar. The plan foundered,
however, on the refusal of Charles XII. to save the rest of his
German domains by ceding Stettin to Prussia. Another simul-
taneous plan of procuring the Swedish crown for Duke Charles
Frederick also came to nought. Gortz first suggested the
marriage between the duke of Holstein and the tsarevna Anne
of Russia, and negotiations were begun in St Petersburg with
that object. On the arrival of Charles XII. from Turkey at
Stralsund, Gdrtz was the first to visit him, and emerged from
his presence chief minister or " grand- vizier " as the Swedes
preferred to call the bold and crafty satrap, whose absolute
devotion to the Swedish king took no account of the intense
wretchedness of the Swedish nation. Gdrtz, himself a man of
uncommon audacity, seems to have been fascinated by the
heroic element in Charles's nature and was determined, if
possible, to save him from his difficulties. He owed his extra-
ordinary influence to the fact that he was the only one of Charles's
advisers who believed, or pretended to believe, that Sweden
was still far from exhaustion, or at any rate had a sufficient
reserve of power to give support to an energetic diplomacy —
Charles's own opinion, in fact. GSrtz's position, however,
was highly peculiar. Ostensibly, he was only the Holstein
minister at Charles's court, in reality he was everything in Sweden
except a Swedish subject — finance minister, plenipotentiary
to foreign powers, factotum, and responsible to the king alone,
though he had not a line of instructions. But he was just the
man for a hero in extremities, and his whole course of procedure
was, of necessity, revolutionary. His chief financial expedient
was to debase, or rather ruin, the currency by issuing copper
tokens redeemable in better times; but it was no faultr of his
that Charles XII., during his absence, flung upon the market
too enormous an amount of this copper money for Gortz to deal
with. By the end of 17 18 it seemed as if Gttrtz's system could
not go on much longer, and the hatred of the Swedes towards
him was so intense and universal that they blamed him for
Charles XII. 's tyranny as well as for his own. Gortz hoped,
however, to conclude peace with at least some of Sweden's
numerous enemies before the crash came and then, by means
of fresh combinations, to restore Sweden to her rank as a great
power. It must be admitted that, in pursuance of his " system,"
Gtirtz displayed a genius for diplomacy which would have done
honour to a Metternich or a Talleyrand. He desired peace with
Russia first of all, and at the congress of Aland even obtained
relatively favourable terms, only to have them rejected by his
obstinately optimistic master. Simultaneously, Gortz was negoti-
ating with Cardinal Alberoni and with the whigs in England; but
all his ingenious combinations collapsed like a house of cards on
the sudden death of Charles XII. The whole fury, of the Swedish
nation instantly fell upon Gortz. After a trial before a special
commission which was a parody of justice — the accused was
not permitted to have any legal assistance or the use of writing
materials — he was condemned to decapitation and promptly
executed. Perhaps Gortz deserved his fate for " unnecessarily
making himself the tool of an unheard-of despotism," but his
death was certainly a judicial murder, and some historians even
regard him as a political martyr.
See R. N. Bain, Charles XII, (London, 1805), and Scandinavia,
chap. 12 (Cambridge, 1905); B. von Beskow, Freherre Georg
Heinrich von Gortz (Stockholm, 1868). (R. N. B.)
GORZ (Ital. Gorizia; Slovene, Gorica), the capital of the
Austrian crownland of Gorz and Gradisca, about 390 m. S.W.
of Vienna by rail. Pop (1900) 25,432, two-thirds Italians,
the remainder mostly Slovenes and Germans. It is picturesquely
situated on the left bank of the Isonzo in a fertile valley, 35 m.
N.N.W. of Trieste by rail. It is the seat of an archbishop and
possesses an interesting cathedral, built in the 14th century
and the richly decorated church of St Ignatius, built in the
17th century by the Jesuits. On an eminence, which dominates
the town, is situated the old castle, formerly the seat of the
counts of Gorz, now partly used as barracks. Owing to the
mildness of its climate Gorz has become a favourite winter-
resort, and has received the name of the Nice of Austria. Its
mean annual temperature is 55 F.; while the mean winter
temperature is 38*7° F. It is adorned with several pretty gardens
with a luxuriant southern vegetation. On a height to the N.
of the town is situated the Franciscan convent of Castagnavizza,
in whose chapel lie the remains of Charles X. of France(d. 1836),
the last Bourbon king, of the duke of Angoul&ne (d. 1844),
his son, and of the duke of Chambordj(d. 1883). Seven miles
to the north of Gorz is the Monte Santo (2275 ft.), a much-
frequented place on which stands a pilgrimage church. The
industries include cotton and silk weaving, sugar refining,
brewing, the manufacture of leather and the making of rosoglio.
There is also a considerable trade in wooden work, vegetables,
early fruit and wine. Gorz is mentioned for the first time at
the beginning 6f the nth century, and received its charter as
a town in 1307. During the middle ages the greater part of
its population was German. «•*'
GtfRZ AND GRADISCA, a county and crownland Of Austria,
bounded E. by Carniola, S. by Istria, the Triestine territory
and the Adriatic, W. by Italy and N. by Carinthia. It has
an area of 1140 sq. m. The coast line, though extending for
25m., does not present any harbour of importance. It is fringed
by alluvial deposits and lagoons, which are for the most part
of very modern formation, for as late as the 4th or 5th centuries
Aquileia was a great seaport. The harbour of Grado is the only
one accessible to the larger kind of coasting craft. On all sides,
except towards the south-west where it unites with the Friulian
lowland, it is surrounded by mountains, and about four-sixths
of its area is occupied by mountains and hills. From the Julian
Alps, which traverse the province in the north, the country
descends in successive terraces towards the sea, and may roughly
be divided into the upper highlands, the lower highlands, the
hilly district and the lowlands. The principal peaks ia the
GOSCHEN, VISCOUNT
263
Julian Alps are the Monte Canin (8469ft.), the Manhart (8784 ft.),
the Jalouc (8708 ft.), the Km (7367 ft.), the Matajur (5386 ft.),
and the highest peak in the whole range, the Triglav or
Terglou (9394 ft.). The Julian Alps are crossed by the Predil
Pass (381 1 ft.), through which passes the principal road from
Carinthia to the Coastland. The southern part of the province
belongs to the Rarst region, and here are situated the famous
cascades and grottoes of Sankt Kanzian, where the river Reka
begins its subterranean course. The principal river of the
province is the Isonzo, which rises in the Triglav, and pursues
a strange zigzag course for a distance of 78 m. before it reaches
the Adriatic. At Gdrz the Isonzo is still 138 ft. above the sea,
and it is navigable only in its lowest section, where it takes the
name of the Sdobba. Its principal affluents are the Idria,
the Wippach and the Torre with its tributary the Judrio,
which forms for a short distance the boundary between Austria
and Italy. Of special interest not only in itself but for the
frequent allusions to it in classical literature is the Timavus
or Timavo, which appears near Duino, and after a very short
course flows into the Gulf of Trieste. In ancient times it appears,
according to the well-known description of Virgil (A en. i. 244)
to have rushed from the mountain by nine separate mouths
and with much noise and commotion, but at present it usually
issues from only three mouths and flows quiet and still. It
is strange enough, however, to see the river coming out full
formed from the rock, and capable at its very source of bearing
vessels on its bosom. According to a probable hypothesis it
is a continuation of the above-mentioned river Reka, which is
lost near Sankt Kanzian.
Agriculture, and specially viticulture, is the principal occupa-
tion of the population, and the vine is here planted not only
in regular vineyards, but is introduced in long lines through
the ordinary fields and carried up the hills in terraces locally
called ronchL The rearing of the silk-worm, especially in the
lowlands, constitutes another great source of revenue, and
furnishes the material for the only extensive industry of the
country. The manufacture of silk is carried on at G6rz, and in
and around the village of Haidenschaft. G6rz and Gradisca
had in 1900 a population of 232,338, which is equivalent to
203 inhabitants per square mile. According to nationality about
two-thirds were Slovenes, and the remainder Italians, with only
about 2200 Germans. Almost the whole of the population
(99-6%) belongs to the Roman Catholic Church. The local
diet, of which the archbishop of Gorz is a member ex-efficio,
is composed of 22 members, and the crownland sends 5 deputies
to the Reichsrat at Vienna. For administrative purposes the
province is divided into 4 districts and an autonomous munici-
pality, G6rz (pop. 25,432), the capital. Other principal places
are Cormons (5824), Monfalcone (5536), Kirchheim (5699),
Gradisca (3843) and Aquileia (2319).
Gorz first appears distinctly in history about the close of the
10th century, as part of a district bestowed by the emperor
Otto III. on John, patriarch of Aquileia. In the nth century
it became the seat of the Eppenstein family, who frequently
bore the title of counts of Gorizia; and in the beginning of the
1 2th century the countship passed from them to the Lurngau
family which continued to exist till the year 1500, and acquired
possessions in Tirol, Carinthia, Friuli and Styria. On the
death of Count Leonhard (12th April 1500) the fief reverted to
the house of Habsburg. The countship of Gradisca was united
with it in 1754. The province was occupied by the French in
1809, but reverted again to Austria in 181 5. It formed a district
of the administrative province of Trieste until 1861, when it
became a separate crownland under its actual name.
GOSCHEN, GEORGE JOACHIM GOSCHEN, 1st Viscount
(1831-1907), British statesman, son of William Henry GSschen,
a London merchant of German extraction, was born in London
on the 10th of August 183 1. He was educated at Rugby under
Dr Tait, and at Oriel College, Oxford, where he took a first-
class in classics. He entered his father's firm of Frilhling &
Gtischeh, of Austin Friars, in 1853, and three years later became
a director of the Bank of England. His entry into public life
took place in 1863, when he was returned without opposition
as member for the city of London in the Liberal interest,
and this was followed by his re-election, at the head of the poll,
in the general election of 1865. In November of the same year
he was appointed vice-president of the- Board of Trade and
paymaster-general, and in January 1866 he was made chancellor
of the duchy of Lancaster, with a seat in the cabinet. When
Mr Gladstone became prime minister in December 1868, Mr
Goschen joined the cabinet as president of the Poor Law Board,
and continued to hold that office until March 1871, when he
succeeded Mr Childers as first lord of the admiralty. In 1874
he was elected lord rector of the university of Aberdeen. Being
sent to Cairo in 1876 as delegate for the British holders of
Egyptian bonds, in order to arrange for the conversion of
the debt, he succeeded in effecting an agreement with the
Khedive.
In 1878 his views upon the county franchise question pre-
vented him from voting uniformly with his party, and he in-
formed his constituents in the city that he would not stand
again at the forthcoming general election. In 1880 he was
elected for Ripon, and continued to represent that constituency
until the general election of 1885, when he was returned for the
Eastern Division of Edinburgh. Being opposed to the extension
of the franchise, he was unable to join Mr Gladstone's govern-
ment in 1880; declining the post of viceroy of India, he accepted
that of special ambassador to the Porte, and was. successful in
settling the Montenegrin and Greek frontier questions in 1880
and 1 88 1. He was made an ecclesiastical commissioner in 1882,
and when Sir Henry Brand was raised to the peerage in 1884,
the speakership of the House of Commons was offered to him,
but declined. During the parliament of 2880-1885 he frequently
found himself unable to concur with his party, especially as
regards the extension of the franchise and questions of foreign
policy; and when Mr Gladstone adopted the policy of Home
Rule for Ireland, Mr Goschen followed Lord Harrington (after-
wards duke of Devonshire) and became one of the most active of
the Liberal Unionists. His vigorous and eloquent opposition to
Mr Gladstone's Home Rule Bill of 1886 brought him into greater
public prominence than ever, but he failed to retain his seat for
Edinburgh at the election in July of that year. On the resigna-
tion of Lord Randolph Churchill in December 1886, Mr Goschen,
though a Liberal Unionist, accepted Lord Salisbury's invitation
to join his ministry, and became chancellor of the exchequer.
Being defeated at Liverpool, 26th of January 1887, by seven
votes, he was elected for St George's, Hanover Square, on the
9th of February. His chancellorship of the exchequer during
the ministry of 1886 to 1892 was rendered memorable by his
successful conversion of the National Debt in 1888 (see National
Debt). With that financial operation, under which the new
af% Consols became known as " Goschens," his name will
long be connected. Aberdeen University again conferred upon
him the honour of the lord rectorship in 1888, and he received
a similar honour from the University of Edinburgh in 1890.
In the Unionist opposition of 1893 to 1895 Mr Goschen again
took a vigorous part, his speeches both in and out of the House
of Commons being remarkable for their eloquence and debating
power. From 1895 to 1900 Mr Goschen was first lord of the
admiralty, and in that office he earned the highest reputation
for his businesslike grasp of detail and his statesmanlike outlook
on the naval policy of the country. He retired in 1900, and was
raised to the peerage by the title of Viscount Goschen of Hawk-
hurst, Kent. Though retired from active politics he continued
to take a great interest in public affairs; and when Mr Chamber-
lain started his tariff reform movement in 1903, Lord Goschen
was orie of the weightiest champions of free trade on the Unionist
side. He died on the 7th of February 1907, being succeeded in
the title by his son George Joachim (b. 1866), who was Con-
servative M.P. for East Grinstead from 1895 to 1900, and
married a daughter of the 1st earl of Cranbrook.
In educational subjects Goschen had always taken the greatest
interest, his best known, but by no means his only, contribution
to popular culture being his participation in the University
264
GOS-HAWK— GOSLAR
Extension Movement; and his first efforts in parliament were
devoted to advocating the abolition of religions tests and the
admission of Dissenters to the universities. His published
works indicate how ably he combined the wise study of econo-
mics with a practical instinct for business-like progress, without
neglecting the more ideal aspects of human life. In addition to
his well-known work on The Theory of the Foreign Exchanges,
he published several financial and political pamphlets and
addresses on educational and social subjects, among them being
that on Cultivation of the Imagination, Liverpool, 1877, and that
on Intellectual Interest, Aberdeen, 1888. He also wrote The Life
and Times of Georg Joachim Goschen, publisher and printer of
Leipzig (1903). (H. Ch.)
GOS-HAWK, i.e. goose-hawk, the Astur palumbarius of
ornithologists, and the largest of the short-winged hawks used
in falconry. Its English name, however, has possibly been
transferred to this species from one of the long-winged hawks
or true falcons, since there is no tradition of the gos-hawk, now
30 called, having ever been used in Europe to take geese or other
large and powerful birds. The genus Astur may be readily
distinguished from Falco by the smooth edges of its beak,
its short wings (not reaching beyond about the middle of the tail),
and its long legs and toes — though these last are stout and com-
paratively shorter than in the sparrow-hawks (Accipiter). In
plumage the gos-hawk has a general resemblance to the pere-
grine falcon, and it undergoes a corresponding change as it
advances from youth to maturity — the young being longitudin-
ally streaked beneath, while the adults are transversely barred.
The irides, however, are always yellow, or in old birds orange,
while those of the falcons are dark brown. The sexes differ
greatly in size. There can be little doubt that the gos-hawk,
nowadays very rare in Britain, was once common in England,
and even towards the end of the 18th century Thornton obtained
a nestling in Scotland, while Irish gos-hawks were of old highly
celebrated. Being strictly a woodland-bird, its disappearance
may be safely connected with the disappearance of the ancient
forests in Great Britain, though its destructiveness to poultry
and pigeons has doubtless contributed to its present scarcity.
In many parts of the continent of Europe it still abounds. It
ranges eastward to China and is much valued in India. In
North America it is represented by a very nearly allied species,
A. atricapiUus, chiefly distinguished by the closer barring of
the breast. Three or four examples corresponding with this
form have been obtained in Britain. A good many other species
of Astur (some of them passing into Accipiter) are found in
various parts of the world, but the only one that need here be
mentioned is the A. novae-hollandiae of Australia, which is
remarkable for its dimorphism — one form possessing the normal
dark-coloured plumage of the genus and the other being perfectly
white, with crimson irides. Some writers hold these two forms
to be distinct species and call the dark-coloured one A. cinereus
or A. raiu "*" - - (A. N.)
GOSHEN, a division of Egypt settled by the Israelites between
Jacob's immigration and the Exodus. Its exact delimitation
is a difficult problem. The name may possibly be of Semitic,
or at least non-Egyptian origin, as in Palestine we meet with a
district (Josh. x. 41) and a city (ib. xv. 51) of the same name.
The Septuagint reads r&rc/t 'Apafftas in Gen. xlv. 10, and
xlvi. 34, elsewhere simply TkaefM, In xlvi. 28 " Goshen . . .
the land of Goshen " are translated respectively " Heroopolis
. . . the land of Rameses." This represents a late Jewish
identification. Ptolemy defines " Arabia " as an Egyptian nome
on the eastern border of the delta, with capital Phacussa,
corresponding to the Egyptian nome Sopt and town Kesem.
It is doubtful whether Phacussa be situated at the mounds of
Fafcus, or at another place, Saft-el-Henneh, which suits Strabo's
description of its locality rather better. The extent of Goshen,
according to the apocryphal book of Judith (i. 9, 10), included
Tanis and Memphis; this is probably an overstatement. It
is indeed impossible to say more than that it was a place of
good pasture, on the frontier of Palestine, and fruitful in edible
vegetables and in fish (Numbers xi. 5). (R. A. S. M.)
GOSHEN, a city and the county-seat of Elkhart county,
Indiana, U.S.A., on the Elkhart river, about 95 m. E. by S.
of Chicago, at an altitude of about 800 ft. Pop, (1890)
6°33 \ (xooo) 7810 (462 foreign-born); (1910) 8514. Goshen is
served by the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, and
the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern railways, and is connected
by electric railway with Warsaw and South Bend. The city
has a Carnegie library, and is the seat of Goshen College (under
Mennonite control), chartered as Elkhart Institute, at Elkhart,
Ind., in 1895, and removed to Goshen and opened under its
present name in 1903. The college includes a collegiate depart-
ment, an academy, a Bible school, a normal school, a summer
school and correspondence courses, and schools of business,
of music and of oratory, and in 1 008-1009 had 331 students,
73 of whom were in the Academy. Goshen is situated in
a good fanning region and is an important lumber market.
There is a good water-power. Among the city's manufactures
are wagons and carriages, furniture, wooden-ware, veneer-
ing, sash and doors, ladders, lawn swings, rubber goods,
flour, foundry products and agricultural machinery. The
municipality owns its water works and its electric-lighting
system. Goshen was first settled in 1828 and was first chartered
as a city in 1868.
GOSLAR, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Hanover, romantically situated on the Gose, an affluent of the
Oker, at the north foot of the Harz, 24 m. S.E. of Hildesheim
and 31 m. S.W. from Brunswick, by rail. Pop. (1005) 17,817.
It is surrounded by walls and is of antique appearance. Among
the noteworthy buildings are the " Zwinger," a tower with
walls 23 ft. thick; the market church, in the Romanesque
style, restored since its partial destruction by fire in 1844, and
containing the town archives and a library in which are some
of Luther's manuscripts; the old town hall (Rathaus), possessing
many interesting antiquities; the Kaiserworth (formerly the
hall of the tailors' gild and now an inn) with the statues of
eight of the German emperors; and the Kaiserhaus, the oldest
secular building in Germany, built by the emperor Henry III.
before 1050 and often the residence of* his successors. This was
restored in 1867-1878 at the cost of the Prussian government,
and was adorned with frescoes portraying events in German
history. Other buildings of interest are: — the small chapel
which is all that remains since 1820 of the old and famous
cathedral of St Simon and St Jude founded by Henry III. about
1040, containing among other relics of the cathedral an old
altar supposed to be that of the idol Krodo which formerly
stood on the Burgberg near Neustadt-Harzburg; the church
of the former Benedictine monastery of St Mary, or Neuwerk,
of the 1 2th century, in the Romanesque style, with wall-paintings
of considerable merit; and the house of the bakers' gild now
an hotel, the birthplace of Marshal Saxe. There are four
Evangelical churches, a Roman Catholic church, a synagogue,
several schools, a natural science museum, containing a collection
of Harz minerals, the Fenkner museum of antiquities and a
number of small foundations. The town has equestrian statues
of the emperor Frederick I. and of the German emperor William
I. The population is chiefly occupied in connexion with the
sulphur, copper, silver and other mines in the neighbourhood.
The town has also been long noted for its beer, and possesses
some small manufactures and a considerable trade in fruit. ^}
Goslar is believed to have been founded by Henry the Fowler
about 920, and when in the time of Otto the Great the mineral
treasures in the neighbourhood were discovered it increased
rapidly in prosperity. It was often the meeting-place of German
diets, twenty-three of which are said to have been held here,
and was frequently the residence of the emperors. About 1350
it joined the Hanseatic League. In the middle of the 14th
century the famous Goslar statutes, a code of laws, which was
adopted by many other towns, was published. The town was
unsuccessfully besieged in 1625, during the Thirty Years' War,
but was taken by the Swedes in 1632 and nearly destroyed by
fire. Further conflagrations in 1728 and 1780 gave a severe
blow to its prosperity. It was a free town till 1802, when it
GOSLICKI— GOSPEL
265
came into the possession of Prussia. In 1807 it was joined to
Westphalia, in 1816 to Hanover and in 1866 it was, along with
Hanover, re-united to Prussia.
See T. Erdmann, Die alte Kaiserstadt Goslar und ihre Umgebung
in Geschickte, Sage und Bild (Goslar, 1892); Crusius, Geschichte
der vormais kaiserHchen freien Reichstadi Goslar (1842- 1843); A.
Wolfstieg, VerfassungsgeschichU von Goslar (Berlin, 1885) ; T. Asche,
Die Katserpfalz zu Goslar (1892); Neuburg, Goslars Bergbau bis
i$K2 (Hanover, 1892); and the Urkundenbuch der Stadt Goslar,
edited by G. Bode (Halle, 1893-1900). For the Goslatische Statuten
see the edition published by Goschen (Berlin, 1840).
GOSLICKI, WAWRZYNIEC (? 1533-1607), Polish bishop,
better known under his Latinized name of Laurentius Grimalius
Goslicius, was born about 1 533. After having studied at Cracow
and Padua, he entered the church, and was successively appointed
bishop of Kaminietz and of Posen. Goslicki was an active man
of business, was held in high estimation by his contemporaries
and was frequently engaged in political affairs. It was chiefly
through his influence, and through the letter he wrote to the
pope against the Jesuits, that they were prevented from establish-
ing their schools at Cracow. He was also a strenuous advocate
of religious toleration in Poland. He died on the 3 1st of October
1607.
His principal work is De optimo senator e, &c. (Venice, 1568).
There are two English translations published respectively under
the titles A commonwealth of good counsaile, &c. (1007), and The
Accomplished Senator, done into English by Mr Oldisworth (1733).
GOSLIN, or Gauzlinus (d. c. 886), bishop of Paris and defender
of the city against the Northmen (885), was, according to some
authorities, the son of Koricon II., count of Maine, according
to others the natural son of the emperor Louis I. In 848 he
became a monk, and entered a monastery at Reims, later he
became abbot of St Denis. Like most of the prelates of his
time he took a prominent part in the struggle against the
Northmen, by whom he and his brother Louis were taken
prisoners (858), and he was released only after paying a heavy
ransom (Prudentii Trecensis episcopi Annates, ann. 858). From
855 to 867 he held intermittently, and from 867 to 881 regularly,
the office of chancellor to Charles the Bald and his successors.
In 883 or 884 he was elected bishop of Paris, and foreseeing the
dangers to which the city was to be exposed from the attacks
of the Northmen, he planned and directed the strengthening
of the defences, though he also relied for security on the merits
of the relics of St Germain and St Genevieve. When the attack
finally came (885), the defence of the city was entrusted to him
and to Odo, count of Paris, and Hugh, abbot of St Germain
rAuxerrois. The city was attacked on the 26th of November,
and the struggle for the possession of the bridge (now the Pont-
au-Change) lasted for two days; but Goslin repaired the destruc-
tion of the wooden tower overnight, and the Normans were
obliged to give up the attempt to take the city by storm. The
siege lasted for about a year longer, while the emperor Charles
the Fat was in Italy. Goslin died soon after the preliminaries
of the peace had been agreed on, worn out by his exertions, or
killed by a pestilence which raged in the city.
See Amaury Duval, U£v£que Gozlin ou le siege de Paris par les
Normands, chronique du IX* Steele (2 vols., Paris, 1832, 3rd ed. ib,
1835).
GOSNOLD, BARTHOLOMEW (d. 1607), English navigator.
Nothing is known of his birth, parentage or early life. In 1602,
in command of the " Concord,'' chartered by Sir Walter Raleigh
and others, he crossed the Atlantic; coasted from what is now
Maine to Martha's Vineyard, landing at and naming Cape Cod
and Elizabeth Island (now Cuttyhunk) and giving the name
Martha's Vineyard to the island now called No Man's Land;
and returned to England with a cargo of furs, sassafras and other
commodities obtained in trade with the Indians about Buzzard's
Bay. In London he actively promoted the colonization of
the regions he had visited and, by arousing the interest of Sir
Ferdinando Gorges and other influential persons, contributed
toward securing the grants of the charters to the London and
Plymouth Companies in 1606. In 1 606-1 607 he was associated
with Christopher Newport in command of the three vessels
by which the first Jamestown colonists were carried to Virginia.
As a member of the council he took an active share in the affairs
of the colony, ably seconding the efforts of John Smith to intro-
duce order, industry and system among the motley array of
adventurers and idle " gentlemen " of which the little band was
composed. He died from swamp fever on the 22nd of August 1607.
See The Works of John Smith (Arber's Edition, London, 1884);
and J. M. Brereton, Brief and True Relation of the North Part of
Virginia (reprinted by B. F. Stevens, London, 1901), an account of
Gosnold's voyage of 1602.
GOSPATRIC (fl. 1067), earl of Northumberland, belonged to
a family which had connexions with the royal houses both of
Wessex and Scotland. Before the Conquest he accompanied
Tostig on a pilgrimage to Rome (1061); and at that time
was a landholder in Cumberland. About 1067 he bought the
earldom of Northumberland from William the Conqueror; but,
repenting of his submission, fled with other Englishmen to the
court of Scotland (1068). He joined the Danish army of in-
vasion in the next year; but was afterwards able, from his
possession of Bamburgh castle, to make terms with the con-
queror, who left him undisturbed till 1072. The peace concluded
in that year with Scotland left him at William's mercy. He
lost his earldom and took refuge in Scotland, where Malcolm
seems to have provided for him.
See E. A. Freeman, Norman Conquest, vol. i. (Oxford, 1877),
and the English Hist, Review, vol. xix. (London, 1904). ^
OOSPEL (0. Eng. gods pel, i.e. good news, a translation of Lat.
bona annuntiatiOy or evangelium, Gr. ei>ayyk\iov; cf. Goth.
iu spillon, " to announce good news," ULfilas' translation of
the Greek, from iu, that which is good, and spellon to announce),
primarily the " glad tidings " announced to the world by Jesus
Christ. The word thus came to be applied to the whole body of
doctrine taught by Christ and his disciples, and so to the Christian
revelation generally (see Christianity); by analogy the term
" gospel " is also used in other connexions as equivalent to
" authoritative teaching." In a narrower sense each of the
records of the life and teaching of Christ preserved in the writings
of the four " evangelists " is described as a Gospel. The many
more or less imaginative lives of Christ which are .not accepted
by the Christian Church as canonical are known as " apocryphal
gospels " (see Apocryphal Literature). The present article
is concerned solely with general considerations affecting the
four canonical Gospels; see for details of each, the articles
under Matthew, Mark, Luke and John.
The Four Gospels. — The disciples of Jesus proclaimed the
Gospel that He was the Christ. Those to whom this message
was first delivered in Jerusalem and Palestine had seen and
heard Jesus, or had heard much about Him. They did not
require to be told who He was. But more and more as the work
of preaching and teaching extended to such as had not this
knowledge, it became necessary to include in the Gospel delivered
some account of the ministry of Jesus. Moreover, alike those
who had followed Him during His life on earth, and all who
joined themselves to them, must have felt the need of dwelling
on His precepts, so that these must have been often repeated,
and also in all probability from an early time grouped together
according to their subjects, and so taught. For some time,
probably for upwards of thirty years, both the facts of the life
of Jesus and His words were only related orally. This would
be in accordance with the habits of mind of the early preachers
of the Gospel. Moreover, they were so absorbed in the expecta-
tion of the speedy return of Christ that they did not feel called
to make provision for the instruction of subsequent generations.
The Epistles of the New Testament contain no indications of
the existence of any written record of the life and teaching
of Christ. Tradition indicates a.d. 60-70 as the period when
written accounts of the life and teaching of Jesus began to be
made (see Mark, Gospel of, and Matthew, Gospel of).
This may be accepted as highly probable. We cannot but
suppose that at a time when the number of the original band
of disciples of Jesus who survived must have been becoming
noticeably smaller, and: all these were advanced in life, the
importance of writing down that which had been orally delivered
concerning the Gospel-history must have been realized. We also
xii. 9 a
266
GOSPEL
gather from Luke's preface (i. 1-4) that the work of writing
was undertaken in these circumstances and under the influence
of this feeling, and that various records had already in con-
sequence been made.
But do our Gospels, or any of them, in the form in which
we actually have them, belong to the number of those earliest
records ? Or, if not, what are the relations in which they
severally stand to them ? These are questions which in modern
criticism have been greatly debated. With a view to obtaining
answers to them, it is necessary to consider the reception of the
Gospels in the early Church, and also to examine and compare
the Gospels themselves. Some account of the evidence supplied
in these two ways must be given in the present article, so far
as it is common to all four Gospels, or to three or two of them,
and in the articles on the several Gospels so far as it is especial
to each.
1. 1. The Reception of the Gospels in the Early Church.— The
question of the use of the Gospels and of the manner in which
they were regarded during the period extending from the latter
years of the 1st century to the beginning of the last quarter
of the 2nd is a difficult one. There is a lack of explicit references
to the Gospels; 1 and many of the quotations which may be
taken from them are not exact. At the same time these facts
can be more or less satisfactorily accounted for by various
circumstances. In the first place, it would be natural that
the habits of thought of the period when the Gospel was delivered
orally should have continued to exert influence even after the
tradition had been committed to writing. Although documents
might be known and used, they would not be regarded as the
authorities for that which was independently remembered, and
would not, therefore, necessarily be mentioned. Consequently,
it is not strange that citations of sayings of Christ— and these
arc the only express citations in writings of the Subapostolic
Age — should be made without the source whence they were
derived being named, and (with a single exception) without
any clear indication that the source was a document. The
exception is in the little treatise commonly called the Epistle
of Barnabas, probably composed about a.d. 130, where (c. iv.
14) the words " many are called but few chosen " are intro-
duced by the formula " as it is written."
For the identification, therefore, of the source or sources
used we have to rely upon the amount of correspondence with
our Gospels in the quotations made, and in respect to other
parallelisms of statement and of expression, in these early
Christian writers. The correspondence is in the main full and
true as regards spirit and substance, but it is rarely complete
in form. The existence of some differences of language may,
however, be too readily taken to disprove derivation. Various
forms of the same saying occurring in different documents,
or remembered from oral tradition and through catechetical
instruction, would sometimes be purposely combined. Or,
again, the memory might be confused by this variety, and the
verification of quotations, especially of brief ones, was difficult,
not only from the comparative scarcity of the copies of books,
but also because ancient books were not provided with ready
means of reference to particular passages. On the whole there
is clearly a presumption that where we have striking expressions
which are known to us besides only in one of our Gospel-records,
that particular record has been the source of it. And where
there are several such coincidences the ground for the supposition
that the writing in question has been used may become very
strong. There is evidence of this kind, more or less clear in the
several cases, that all the four Gospels were known in the first
two or three decades of the and century. It is fullest as to our
first Gospel and, next to this one, as to our third.
After this time it becomes manifest that, as we should expect,
documents were the recognized authorities for the Gospel history;
but there is still some uncertainty as to the documents upon
which reliance was placed, and the precise estimation in which
» For the onlv two that can be held to be such in the first half
«4 the 2nd centurv, and the doubts whether they refer to our present
Go*pel*.*ee Mau. Gosfbl of, and Matthew, Gospel of.
they were severally held. This is in part at least due to the
circumstance that nearly all the writings which have remained
of the Christian literature belonging to the period circa a.d.
130-180 are addressed to non-Christians, and that for the most
part they give only summaries of the teaching of Christ and of
the facts of the Gospel, while terms that would not be under-
stood by, and names that would not carry weight with, others
than Christians are to a large extent avoided. The most im-
portant of the writings now in question are two by Justin
Martyr (circa a.d. 145-160), viz. his Apology and his Dialogue
with Trypho. In the former of these works he shows plainly
his intention of adapting his language and reasoning to Gentile,
and in the latter to Jewish, readers. In both his name for the
Gospel-records is " Memoirs of the Apostles." After a great
deal of controversy there has come to be very wide agreement
that he reckoned the first three Gospels among these Memoirs.
In the case of the second and third there are indications, though
slight ones, that he held the view of their composition and
authorship which was common from the last quarter of the
century onwards (see Mark, Gospel of, and Luke, Gospel
of), but he has made the largest use of our first Gospel. It is
also generally allowed that he was acquainted with the fourth
Gospel, though some think that he used it with a certain reserve.
Evidence may, however, be adduced which goes far to show
that he regarded it, also, as of apostolic authority. There is a
good deal of difference of opinion still as to whether Justin
reckoned other sources for the Gospel-history besides our
Gospels among the Apostolic Memoirs. In this connexion,
however, as well as on other grounds, it is a significant fact that
within twenty years or so after the death of Justin, which prob-
ably occurred circa a.d. 160, Tatian, who had been a hearer of
Justin, produced a continuous narrative of the Gospel-history
which received the name Diatessaron (" through four "), in
the main a compilation from our four Gospels. 1
Before the close of the 2nd century the four Gospels had
attained a position of unique authority throughout the greater
part of the Church, not different from that which they have
held since, as is evident from the treatise of Irenaeus Against
Heresies (c a.d. 180; see esp. iii. i. 1 f. and x., xi.) and from other
evidence only a few years later. The struggle against Gnosticism,
which had been going on during the middle part of the century,
had compelled the Church both to define her creed and to draw
a sharper line of demarcation than heretofore between those
writings whose authority she regarded as absolute and all others.
The effect of this was no doubt to enhance the sense generally
entertained of the value of the four Gospels. At the same time
in the formal statements now made it is plainly implied that the
belief expressed is no new one. And it is, indeed, difficult to
suppose that agreement on this subject between different
portions of the Church could have manifested itself at this time
in the spontaneous manner that it does, except as the consequence
of traditional feelings and convictions, which went back to the
early part of the century, and which could hardly have arisen
without good foundation, with respect to the special value of
these works as embodiments of apostolic testimony, although
all that came to be supposed in regard to their actual authorship
cannot be considered proved.
2. The Internal Criticism of the Gospels.— In the middle of the
19th century an able school of critics, known as the Tubingen
school, sought to show from indications in the several Gospels
that they were composed well on in the 2nd century in the
interests of various strongly marked parties into which the Church
was supposed to have been divided by differences in regard to
the Judaic and Pauline forms of Christianity. These theories
are now discredited. It may on the contrary be confidently
asserted with regard to the first three Gospels that the local
colouring in them is predominantly Palestinian, and that they
1 The character of Tatian's Diatessaron has been much disputed
in the past, but there can no longer be any reasonable doubt on the
subject after recent discoveries and investigations. (An account
of these mav be seen most conveniently in The Diatessaron of Tatian t
bv S. Hemphill; see under Tatian.)
GOSPORT
267
show no signs of acquaintance with the questions and the
circumstances of the 2nd century; and that the character even
of the Fourth Gospel is not such as to justify its being placed;
at furthest, much after the beginning of that century.
We turn to the literary criticism of the Gospels, where solid
results have been obtained. The first three Gospels have in
consequence of the large amount of similarity between them
in contents, arrangement, and even in words and the forms of
sentences and paragraphs, been called Synoptic Gospels. It
has long been seen that, to account for this similarity, relations
of interdependence between them, or of common derivation,
must be supposed. And the question as to the true theory of
these relations is known as the Synoptic Problem. Reference
has already been made to the fact that during the greater part
of the Apostolic age the Gospel history was taught orally. Now
some have held that the form of this oral teaching was to a great
extent a fixed one, and that it was the common source of our
first three Gospels. This oral theory was for a long time the
favourite one in England; it was never widely held in Germany,
and in recent years the majority of English students of the
Synoptic Problem have come to feel that it does not satisfactorily
explain the phenomena. Not only are the resemblances too
close, and their character in part not of a kind, to be thus
accounted for, but even many of the differences between parallel
contexts are rather such as would arise through the revision
of a document than through the freedom of oral delivery.
It is now and has for many years been widely held that a
document which is most nearly represented by the Gospel of
Mark, or which (as some would say) was virtually identical
with it, has been used in the composition of our first and third
Gospels. This source has supplied the Synoptic Outline, and in
the main also the narratives common to all three. Questions
connected with the history of this document are treated in the
article on Mamc, Gospel of.
There is also a considerable amount of matter common to
Matthew and Luke, but not found in Mark. It is introduced
into the Synoptic Outline very differently in those two Gospels,
which clearly suggests that it existed in a separate form, and
was independently combined by the first and third evangelists
with their other document. This common matter has also a
character of its own; it consists mainly of pieces of discourse.
The form in which it is given in the two Gospels is in several
passages so nearly identical that we must suppose these pieces
at least to have been derived immediately or ultimately from
the same Greek document. In other cases there is more diver-
gence, but in some of them this is accounted for by the
consideration that in Matthew passages from the source now
in question have been interwoven with parallels in the other
chief common source before mentioned. There are, however,
instances in which no such explanation will serve, and it is
possible that our first and third evangelists may have used
two documents which were not in all respects identical, but which
corresponded very closely on the whole. The ultimate source
of the Subject matter in question, or of the most distinctive
and larger part of it, was in all probability an Aramaic one,
and in some parts different translations may have been used.
This second source used in the composition of Matthew and
Luke has frequently been called " The Logia " in order to signify
that it was a collection of the sayings and discourses of Jesus.
This name has been suggested by Schleiermacher's interpretation
of Papias' fragment on Matthew (see Matthew, Gospel of).
But some have maintained that the source in question also
contained a good many narratives, and in order to avoid any
premature assumption as to its contents and character several
recent critics have named it " Q." It may, however, fairly
be called " the Logian document," as a convenient way of
indicating the character of the greater part of the matter which
our first and third evangelists have taken from it, and this
designation is used in the articles on the Gospels of Luke
and Matthew. The reconstruction of this document has been
attempted by several critics. The arrangement of its contents
can, it seems, best be learned from Luke.
3. One or two remarks may here be added as to the bearing
of the results of literary criticism upon the use of the Gospels,
Their effect is to lead us, especially when engaged in historical
inquiries, to look beyond our Gospels to their sources, instead
of treating the testimony of the Gospels severally as independent
and ultimate. Nevertheless it will still appear that each Gospel
has its distinct value, both historically and in regard to the
moral and spiritual instruction afforded. And the fruits of
much of that older study of the Gospels, which was largely
employed in pointing out the special characteristics of each,
will still prove serviceable.
Authorities. — 1. German Books: Introductions to the New
Testament— R. J. Holtzmann (3rd ed., 1892), B. Weiss (Eng. trans.,
1887), Th. Zahn (2nd ed., 1900), G. A. Julicher (6th ed., 1906; En$.
trans., 1904); H. v. Soden, Urchristliche Literoturgeschichte, vol. h.
(1905; Eng. trans., 1906). Books on the Synoptic Gospels, especi-
ally the Synoptic Problem: H. J. Holtzmann, Die synoptischen
Evangelien (1863); Weizsacker, Untersuchungen uber die evangelische
Geschichte (1864); B. Weiss, Das Marcus-Eoangelium una seine
synoptischen ParaUelen (1872): Das Matthaus-Evangelium und seine
Lucas-Parallelen (1876); H. H. Wendt, Die Lehre Jesu (1886);
A. Resch, Agrapka (1889), &c; P. Wernle, Die synoptische Frage
(1899); W. Soltau, Unsere Evangelien, ihre QueUen una ihrjQueUen-
wert (1901); H. T. Holtzmann, HandrCommentar sum N.T. f vol. i*
(1889); J. Wellhausen, Pas Evangelium Mar ci, Das Evangelium
Matthai, Das Evangelium Lucas (1904), Einleitung in die dret ersten
Evangelien (1905); A. Harnack, SprHche und Reden Jesu, die
snveite Quelle des Matthdus und Lukas (1007).
2. French Books: A. Loisy, Les Evangtlcs synoptiques (1907-1908).
3. English Books: G. Salmon, Introduction to the New Testament
(1st ed., 1885; oth ed., 1904); W. Sanday, Inspiration (Lect. vi.,
3rd ed., 1903); B. F. Westcott, An Introduction to the Study of the
Gospels (1st ed., 1851; 8th ed., 1895); A. Wright, The Composition
of the Four Gospels (1890) ; J. E. Carpenter, The First Three Gospels*
their Origin and Relations (1890) ; A. J. Jolley, The Synoptic Problem
(1893); J. C. Hawkins, Horae synopticae (1899); W. Alexander,
Leading Ideas of the Gospels (new ed., 1892) ; E. A. Abbott, Clue
(1900); J. A. Robinson, The Study of the Gospels (1902); F. C.
Burkitt, The Gospel History and its Transmission (1906) ; G. Salmon,
The Human Element in the Gospels (1907); V. H. Stanton, Ths
Gospels as Historical Documents: Pt. I., The Early Use of the Gospels
(1903); Pt. II., The Synoptic Gospels (1908).
4. Synopses. — W. G. Kushbrooke, Synopticon, An Exposition of
the Common Matter of the Synoptic Gospels (1880); A. Wright, The
Synopsis of the Gospels in Greek (2nd ed., 1903).
See also the articles on each Gospel, and the article Bible, section
New Testament (V. H. S.) ,
GOSPORT, a seaport in the Fareham parliamentary division
of Hampshire, England, facing Portsmouth across Portsmouth
harbour, 81 m. S.W. from London by the London & South-
western railway. Pop. of urban district of Gosport and Alver-
stoke (1901), 28,884. A ferry and a floating bridge connect it
with Portsmouth. It is enclosed within a double line of fortifica-
tions, consisting of the old Gosport lines, and, about 3000 yds.
to the east, a series of forts connected by strong lines with
occasional batteries, forming part of the defence works of Ports-
mouth harbour. The principal buildings are the town hall and
market hall, and the church of Holy Trinity, erepted in the time of
William III. To the south at Haslar there is a magnificent
naval hospital, capable of containing 2000 patients, and adjoin-
ing it a gunboat slipway and large barracks. To the north is
the Royal Clarence victualling yard, with brewery, cooperage,
powder magazines, biscuit-making establishment, and store-
houses for various kinds of provisions for the royal navy.
Gosport (Goseporte, Gozeport, Gosberg, Godsport) was
originally included in Alverstoke manor, held in 1086 by the
bishop and monks of Winchester under whom villeins farmed the
land. In 1284 the monks agreed to give up Alverstoke with
Gosport to the bishop, whose successors continued to hold them
until the lands were taken over by the ecclesiastical commis-
sioners. After the confiscation of the bishop's lands in 1641,
however, the manor of Alverstoke with Gosport was granted to
George Withers, but reverted to the bishop at the Restoration.
In the 16th century Gosport was " a little village of fishermen."
It was called a borough in 146 1, when there are also traces of
burgage tenure. From 1462 one bailiff was elected annually
in the borough court, and government by a bailiff continued
until 1682, when Gosport was included in Portsmouth borough
268
GOSS, SIR J.— -GOSSE, P. H.
under the charter of Charles II. to that town. This was annulled
in 1688, since which time there is no evidence of the election of
bailiffs. With this exception no charter of incorporation is
known, although by the 16th century the inhabitants held common
property in the shape of tolls of the ferry. The importance of
Gosport increased during the 1 6th and 17th centuries owing to
its position at the mouth of Portsmouth harbour, and its con-
venience as a victualling station. For this reason also the town
was particularly prosperous during the American and Peninsular
Wars. About 1540 fortifications were built there for the defence
of the harbour, and in the 17th century it was a garrison town
under a lord-lieutenant. «* nmumm .*sg$ ag**-*
GOSS, SIR JOHN (1800-1880), English composer, was bdrn
at Fareham, Hampshire, on the 27th of December 1800. He
was elected a chorister of the Chapel Royal in 181 1, and in 1816,
.on the breaking of his voice, became a pupil of Attwood. A
few early compositions, some for the theatre, exist, and some
glees were published before 1825. He was appointed organist
of St Luke's, Chelsea, in 1824, and in 1838 became organist of
St Paul's in succession to Attwood; he kept the post until
1872, when he resigned and was knighted. His position in the
London musical world of the time was an influential one, and he
did much by his teaching and criticism to encourage the study and
appreciation of good music. In 1876 he was given the degree
of Mus.D. at Cambridge. Though his few orchestral works
have very small importance, his church music includes some
fine compositions, such as the anthems "O taste and see,"
" Saviour of the world " and others. He was the last of the
great English school of church composers who devoted themselves
almost exclusively to church music; and in the history of the glee
his is an honoured name, if only on account of his finest work
in that form, the five-part glee, Ossian's " Hymn to the sun."
He died at Brixton, London, on the 10th of May 1880.
GOSSAMER* a fine, thread-like and filmy substance spun
by small spiders, which is seen covering stubble fields and gorse
bushes, and floating in the air in clear weather; especially in the
autumn. By transference anything light, unsubstantial or
flimsy is known as "gossamer." A thin gauzy material used
for trimming and millinery, resembling the " chiffon " of to-day,
was formerly known as gossamer; and in the early Victorian
period it was a term used in the hat trade, for silk hats of very
light weight.
The word is obscure in origin, it is found in numerous forms
in English, and is apparently taken from gose y goose and
somere, summer. The Germans have Miidchensommer, maidens'
summer, and Altweibersommer, old women's summer, as well
as Sommerf&den, summer-threads, as equivalent to the English
gossamer, the connexion apparently being that gossamer is
seen most frequently in the warm days of late autumn (St
Martin's summer) when geese are also in season. Another
suggestion is that the word is a corruption of gaze a Marie
(gauze of Mary) .through the legend that gossamer was origin-
ally the threads which fell away from the Virgin's shroud on her
assumption.
GOSSE, EDMUND (1840- ), English poet and critic, was
born in London on the 21st of September 1849, son of the zoolo-
gist P. H. Gosse. In 1867 he became an assistant in the depart-
ment of printed books in the British Museum, where he remained
until he became in 1875 translator to the Board of Trade. In
1904 he was appointed librarian to the House of Lords. In
1884-1890 he was Clark Lecturer in English literature at Trinity
College, Cambridge. Himself a writer of literary verse of much
grace, and master of a prose style admirably expressive of a wide
and appreciative culture, he was conspicuous for his valuable
work in bringing foreign literature home to English readers.
Northern Studies (1879), a collection of essays on the literature
of Holland and Scandinavia, was the outcome of a prolonged
visit to those countries, and was followed by later work in the
same direction. He translated Ibsen's Hedda GaUer (1891),
and, with W. Archer, The Master- Builder (1893), and in 1007
he wrote a life of Ibsen for the " Literary Lives " series. He
also edited the English translation of the works of BjSrnson.
His services to Scandinavian letters were acknowledged in 1901,
when he was made a knight of the Norwegian order of St Olaf
of the first class. Mr Gosse's published volumes of verse include
On Viol and Flute (1873), King Erik (1876), New Poems (1879),
Firdausi in Exile (1885), In Russet and Silver (1894), Collected
Poems (1806). Hypolympia, or the Gods on the Island (1001),
an " ironic phantasy," the scene of which is laid in the 20th
century, though the personages are Greek gods, is written in
prose, with some blank verse. His Seventeenth Century Studies
(1883), Life of William Congreve (1888), The Jacobean Poets
(1894), Life and Letters of Dr John Donne, Dean of St Paul's
(1899), Jeremy Taylor (1004, " English Men of Letters "), and
Life of Sir Thomas Browne (1905) form a very considerable
body of critical work on the English 17th-century writers. He
also wrote a life of Thomas Cray, whose works he edited, (4 vols.,
1884); A History of Eighteenth Century Literature (1889); a
History of Modern English Literature (1897), and vols. hi. and iv.
of an Illustrated Record of English Literature (1003-1904) under-
taken in connexion with Dr Richard Garnett. Mr Gosse was
always a sympathetic student of the younger school of French
and Belgian writers, some of his papers on the subject being
collected as French Profiles (1905). Critical Kit-Kdts (1896)
contains an admirable criticism of J. M. de Heredia, reminiscences
of Lord de Tabley and others. He edited Heinemann's series
of " Literature of the World " and the same publisher's " Inter-
national Library." To the 9th edition of the Encyclopaedia
Britannica he contributed numerous articles, and his services
as chief literary adviser in the preparation of the 10th and nth
editions incidentally testify to the high position held by him
in the contemporary world of letters. In 1005 he was entertained
in Paris by the leading litterateurs as a representative of English
literary culture. In 1007 Mr Gosse published anonymously
Father and Son, an intimate study of his own early family life.
He married Ellen, daughter of Dr G. W. Epps, and had a son and
two daughters.
GOSSE, PHILIP HENRY (1810-1888), English naturalist,
was born at Worcester on the 6th of April 1810, his father,
Thomas Gosse (1 765-1844) being a miniature painter. In his
youth the family settled at Poole, where Gosse's turn for natural
history was noticed and encouraged by his aunt,, Mrs Bell, the
mother of the zoologist, Thomas Bell (1 792-1880). He had,
however, little opportunity for developing it until, in 1827,
he found himself clerk in a whaler's office at Carbonear, in
Newfoundland, where he beguiled the tedium of his life by
observations, chiefly with the microscope. After a brief and
unsuccessful interlude of farming in Canada, during which he
wrote an unpublished work on the entomology of Newfoundland,
he travelled in the United States, was received and noticed
by men of science, was employed as a teacher for some time
in Alabama, and returned to England in 1839. His Canadian
Naturalist (1840), written on the voyage home, was followed
in 1843 by his Introduction to Zoology. His first widely popular
book was The Ocean (1844). In 1844 Gosse, who had meanwhile
been teaching in London, was sent by the British Museum to
collect specimens of natural history in Jamaica. He spent
nearly two years on that island, and after his return published
his Birds of Jamaica (1847) and his Naturalist's Sojourn in
Jamaica ( 185 1) . He also wrote about this time several zoological
works for the S.P.C.K., and laboured to such an extent as to
impair his health. While recovering at Ilfracombe, he was
attracted by the forms of marine life so abundant on that shore,
and in 1853 published A Naturalists Rambles on the Devonshire
Coast, accompanied by a description of the marine aquarium
invented by him, by means of which he succeeded in preserving
zoophytes and other marine animals of the humbler grades
alive and in good condition away from the sea. This arrange-
ment was more fully set forth and illustrated in his Aquarium
(1854), succeeded in 1855-1856 by A Manual of Marine Zoology,
in two volumes, illustrated by nearly 700 wood engravings
after the author's drawings. A volume on the marine fauna
of Tenby succeeded in 1856. In June of the same year he was
elected F.R.S. Gosse, who was a most careful observer, but who
GOSSEC— GOTA
269
lacked the philosophical spirit, was now tempted to essay work
of a more ambitious order, publishing in 1857 two books, Life
and Omphalos, embodying his speculations on the appearance
of life on the earth, which he considered to have been instan-
taneous, at least as regarded its higher forms. His views met
with no favour from scientific men, and he returned to the
field of observation, which he was better qualified to cultivate.
Taking up his residence at St Marychurch, in South Devon, he
produced from 1858 to i860 his standard work on sea-anemones,
the Actinologia Britannica. The Romance of Natural History
and other popular works followed. In 1865 he abandoned
authorship, and chiefly devoted himself to the cultivation of
orchids. Study of the Rotifera, however, also engaged his
attention, and his results were embodied in a monograph by
Dr C. T. Hudson (1886). He died at St Marychurch on the
23rd of August 1888.
His life was written by his son, Edmund Gosse.
GOSSEC, FRANCOIS JOSEPH (1 734-1 829), French musical
composer, son of a small farmer, was born at the village of
Vergnies, in Belgian Hainaut, and showing early a taste for
music became a choir-boy at Antwerp. He went to Paris in
1 7 51 and was taken up by Rameau. He became conductor
of a private band kept by La Popeliniere, a wealthy amateur,
and gradually determined to do something to revive the study
of instrumental music in France. He had his own first symphony
performed in 1754, and as conductor to the Prince de Cond6's
orchestra he produced several operas and other compositions
of his own. He imposed his influence upon French music with
remarkable success, founded the Concert des Amateurs in 1770,
organized the ficole de Chant in 1784, was conductor of the band
of the Garde Nationale at the Revolution, and was appointed
(with M£hul and Cherubini) inspector of the Conservatoire de
Musique when this institution was created in 1795. He was an
original member of the Institute and a chevalier of the legion
of honour. Outside France he was but little known, and his
own numerous compositions, sacred and secular, were thrown
into the shade by those of men of greater genius; but he has a
place in history as the inspirer of others, and as having powerfully
stimulated the revival of instrumental music. He died at
Passy on the 16th of February 1829.
See the Lives by P. He<louin (1852) and E. G. J. Gregoir (1878).
GOSSIP (from the O.E. godsibb, i.e. God, and sib, akin, standing
in relation to), originally a god-parent, i.e. one who by taking a
sponsor's vows at a baptism stands in a spiritual relationship
to the child baptized. The common modern meaning is of light
personal or social conversation, or, with an invidious sense, of
idle tale-bearing. " Gossip " was early used with the sense of
a friend or acquaintance, either of the parent of the child
baptized or of the other god-parents, and thus came to be used,
with little reference to the position of sponsor, for women friends
of the mother present at a birth; the transition of meaning
to an idle chatterer or talker for talking's sake is easy. The
application to the idle talk of such persons does not appear to
be an early one.
GOSSNER, JOHANNES EVANGELISTA (1773-1858), German
divine and philanthropist, was born at Hausen near Augsburg
on the 14th of December 1773, and educated at the university
of Dillingen. Here like Martin Boos and others he came under
the spell of the Evangelical movement promoted by Johann
Michael Sailer, the professor of pastoral theology. After taking
priest's orders, Gossner held livings at Dirlewang (1804-1811)
and Munich (1811-1817), but his evangelical tendencies brought
about his dismissal and in 1826 he formally left the Roman
Catholic for the Protestant communion. As minister of the
Bethlehem church in Berlin (1820-1846) he was conspicuous
not only for practical and effective preaching, but for the founding
of schools, asylums and missionary agencies. He died on the
20th of March 1858.
Lives by Bethmann-Hollweg (Berlin, 1858) and H. Dalton
(Berlin, 1878).
GOSSON, STEPHEN (1 554-1624), English satirist, was
baptized at St George's, Canterbury, on the 17th of April 1554.
He entered Corpus Christi College, Oxford, 1572, and on leaving
the university in 1576 he went to London. In 1598 Francis
Meres in his PaUadis Tamia mentions him with Sidney, Spenser,
Abraham Fraunce and others among the " best for pastorall,"
but no pastorals of his are extant. He is said to have been an
actor, and by his own confession he wrote plays, for he speaks
of CatUines Conspiracies as a " Pig of mine own Sowe." To
this play and some others, on account of their moral intention,
he extends indulgence in the general condemnation of stage
plays contained in his Schoole of Abuse, containing a pleasant
invective against Poets, Pipers, Plaiers, Jesters and such like
Caterpillars of the Commonwealth (1579). The euphuistic style
of this pamphlet and its ostentatious display of learning were
in the taste of the time, and do not necessarily imply insincerity.
Gosson justified his attack by considerations of the disorder
which the love of melodrama and of vulgar comedy was intro-
ducing into the social life of London. It was not only by
extremists like Gosson that these abuses were recognized.
Spenser, in his Teares of the Muses (1591), laments the same
evils, although only in general terms. The tract was dedicated
to Sir Philip Sidney, who seems not unnaturally to have
resented being connected with a pamphlet which opened with
a comprehensive denunciation of poets, for Spenser, writing
to Gabriel Harvey (Oct. 16, 1579) of the dedication, says the
author " was for hys labor scorned." He dedicated, however,
a second tract, The Ephemerides of Phialo . . . and A Short
Apologie of the Schoole of Abuse, to Sidney on Oct. 28th, 1579.
Gosson's abuse of poets seems to have had a large share in
inducing Sidney to write his Apologie for Poetrie, which probably
dates from 1581. After the publication of the Schoole of Abuse
Gosson retired into the country, where he acted as tutor to the
sons of a gentleman (Plays Confuted. " To the Reader," 1582).
Anthony a Wood places this earlier and assigns the termination
of his tutorship indirectly to his animosity against the stage,
which apparently wearied his patron of his company. The
publication of his polemic provoked many retorts, the most
formidable of which was Thomas Lodge's Defence of Playes
(1 580). The players themselves retaliated by reviving Gosson's
own plays. Gosson replied to his various opponents in 1582
by his Playes Confuted in Five Actions, dedicated to Sir Francis
Walsingham. Meanwhile he had taken orders, was made
lecturer of the parish church at Stepney (1585), and was pre-
sented by the queen to the rectory of Great Wigborough, Essex,
which he exchanged in 1600 for St Botolph's, Bishopsgate. He
died on the 13th of February 1624. Pleasant Quippes for Upstart
New-fangled Gentlewomen (1595), a coarse satiric poem, is also
ascribed to Gosson.
The Schoole of Abuse and Apologie were edited (1868) by Prof. E.
Arber in his English Reprints. Two poems of Gosson's are included.
GOT, FRANCOIS JULES EDMOND (1822-1901), French actor,
was born at Lignerolles on the 1st of October 1822, and entered
the Conservatoire in 1841, winning the second prize for comedy
that year and the first in 1842. After a year of military service
he made his debut at the Com6die Francaise on the 17th of July
1844, as Alexis in Les HtrUiers and Mascarelles in Les Prtcieuses
ridicules. He was immediately admitted pensionnaire, and be-
came socUtaire in 1850. By special permission of the emperor
in 1866 he played at the Odeon in Smile Augier's Contagion.
His golden jubilee at the Th6atre Frangais was celebrated in
1894, and he made his final appearance the year after. Got
was a fine representative of the grand style of French acting,
and was much admired in England as well as in Paris. He
wrote the libretto of the opera Pranqois Villon (1857) and also
of UEsclave (1874). In 1881 he was decorated with the cross
of the Legion of Honour.
GOTA, a river of Sweden, draining the great Lake Vener.
The name, however, is more familiar in its application to the
canal which affords communication between Gothenburg and
Stockholm. The river flows out of the southern . extremity
of the lake almost due south to the Cattegat, which it enters
by two arms enclosing the island of Hisingen, the eastern forming
the harbour and bearing the heavy sea-traffic of the port of
2.7.0
GOTARZES— GOTHA
Gothenburg. The Gota river is 50 m. in length, and is navigable
for large vessels, a series of locks surmounting the famous falls
of Trollhattan (q.v.). Passing the abrupt wooded Halleberg
and Hunneberg (royal shooting preserves) Lake Veneris reached
at Venersborg. Several important ports lie on the north, east
and south shores (see Vener). From Sjdtorp, midway on the
eastern shore, the western Gdta canal leads S.E. to Karlsborg.
Its course necessitates over twenty locks to raise it from the
Vener level (144 ft.) to its extreme height of 300 ft., and lower
it over the subsequent fall through the small lakes Viken and
Botten to Lake Vetter (q*vr t 289 ft.), which the route crosses to
Motala. The eastern canal continues eastward from this point,
and a descent is followed through five locks to Lake Boren,
after which the canal, carried still at a considerable elevation,
overlooks a rich and beautiful plain. The picturesque Lake
Roxen with its ruined castle of Stjeroarp is next traversed. At
Norsholm a branch canal connects Lake Glan to the north,
giving access to the important manufacturing centre of Norrko-
ping. Passing Lake Aspl&ngen, the canal follows a cut through
steep rocks, and then resumes an elevated course to the old town
of Soderkdping, after which the Baltic is reached at Mem.
Vessels plying to Stockholm run N.E. among the coastal island-
fringe (skUrg&rd), and then follow the Sodertelge canal into
Lake Malar. The whole distance from Gothenburg to Stockholm
is about 360 m., and the voyage takes about 2$ days. The length
of artificial work on the Gdta canal proper is 54 m., and there
are 58 locks. The scenery is not such as will bear adverse
weather conditions; that of the western canal is without any
interest save in the remarkable engineering work. The idea
of a canal dates from 1516, but the construction was organized
by Baron von Platten and engineered by Thomas Telford in
1810-1832. The falls of Trollhattan had already been locked
successfully in 1800.
GOTARZES, or Goterzes, king of Parthia (c. a.d. 42-51).
In an inscription at the foot of the rock of Behistun 1 he is
called Twrdpftys TefrrroBpos, i.e. "son of G6w," and seems
to be designated as " satrap of satrap." This inscription
therefore probably dates from the reign of Artabanus II. (a.d.
10-40), to whose family Gotarzes must have belonged. From
a very barbarous coin of Gotarzes with the inscription fioun-
Xecos patrCkewv A/waraf vos xeKakovfievos Aprafiavov Tmepfrp
(Wroth, Catalogue of the Coins of Parthia, p. 165; Numism.
Chron., 1900, p. 95; the earlier readings of this inscription are
wrong), which must be translated " king of kings Arsakes,
named son of Artabanos, Gotarzes," it appears that he was
adopted by Artabanus. When the troublesome reign of Arta-
banus II. ended in a.d. 39 or 40, he was succeeded by Vardanes,
probably his son; but against him in 41 rose Gotarzes (the dates
are fixed by the coins). He soon made himself detested by his
cruelty — among many other murders he even slew his brother
Artabanus and his whole family (Tac. Ann. xi. 8) — and Vardanes
regained the throne in 42; Gotarzes fled to Hyrcania and
gathered an army from the Dahan nomads. The war between
the two kings was at last ended by a treaty, as both were afraid
of the conspiracies of their nobles. Gotarzes returned to ;
Hyrcania. But when Vardanes was assassinated in 45, Gotarzes
was acknowledged in the whole empire (Tac. Ann. xi. 9 ff.;
Joseph. Antiq. xx. 3, 4, where Gotarzes is called Kotardes).
He now takes on his coins the usual Parthian titles, " king of
kings Arsaces the benefactor, the just, the illustrious (EpipJianes),
the friend of the Greeks (Philhellen)," without mentioning his
proper name. The discontent excited by his cruelty and luxury
induced the hostile party to apply to the emperor Claudius
and fetch from Rome an Arsacid prince Meherdates (i.e. Mithra-
dates), who lived there as hostage. He crossed the Euphrates
in 49, but was beaten and taken prisoner by Gotarzes, who cut
off his ears (Tac. Ann. xii. 10 ff.). Soon after Gotarzes died,
according to Tacitus, of an illness; Josephus says that he was
murdered. His last coin is dated from June 51.
x Rawlinson t Journ. Roy. Geog. Soc. ix. 114; Fiandin and Coste,
La Perse ancienne, i. tab. 19; Dtttenberger, Orientis Graeci inser.
431.
An earlier " Arsakes with the name Gotarzes," mentioned on
some astronomical tablets from Babylon (Strassmaier in Zeitschr.
filr Assyriologie, vi. 216; Mahler in Wiener Zeitschr. far Kunde des
Morgenlands, xv. 63 ff.), appears to have reigned for some time in
Babylonia about 87 B.C. (Ed. M.)
GOTHA, a town of .Germany, alternately with Coburg the
residence of the dukes of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, in a pleasant
situation on the Leine canal, 6 m. N. of the slope of the Thuringian
forest, 17 m. W. from Erfurt, on the railway to Bebra-Cassel.
Pop. (1905) 56,906. It consists of an old inner town and encircling
suburbs, and is dominated by the castle of Friedenstein, lying
on the Schlossberg at an elevation of 1 100 ft. With the exception
of those in the older portion of -the town, the streets are hand-
some and spacious, and the beautiful gardens and promenades
between the suburbs and the castle add greatly to the town's
attractiveness. To the south of the castle there is an extensive
and finely adorned park. To the north-west of the town the
Galberg — on which there is a public pleasure garden — and
to the south-west the Seeberg rise to a height of over 1300 ft.
and afford extensive views. The castle of Friedenstein, begun
by Ernest the Pious, duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, in 1643 and
completed in 1654, occupies the site of the old fortress of Grim-
menstein. It is a huge square building flanked with two wings,
having towers rising to the height of about 140 ft. It contains
the ducal cabinet of coins and the ducal library of nearly 200,000
volumes, among which are several rare editions and about
6900 manuscripts. The picture gallery, the cabinet of engravings, t
the natural history museum, the Chinese museum, and the
cabinet of art, which includes a collection of Egyptian, Etruscan,
Roman and German antiquities, are now included in the new
museum, completed in 1878, which stands on a terrace to the
south of the castle. The principal other public buildings are
the church of St Margaret with a beautiful portal and a lofty
tower, founded in the 12 th century, twice burnt down, and
rebuilt in its present form in 1652; the church of the Augustinian
convent, with an altar-piece by the painter Simon Jacobs;
the theatre; the fire insurance bank and the life insurance bank;
the ducal palace, in the Italian villa style, with a winter garden
and picture gallery; the buildings of the ducal legislature;
the hospital; the old town-hall, dating from the nth century;
the old residence of the painter Lucas Cranach, now used as a
girls' school; the ducal stable; and the Friedrichsthal palace,
now used as public offices. The educational establishments
include a gymnasium (founded in 1524, one of the most famous
in Germany), two training schools for teachers, conservatoires
of music and several scientific institutions. Gotha is remarkable
for its insurance societies and for the support it has given to
cremation. The crematorium was long regarded as a model
for such establishments.
Gotha is one of the most active commercial towns of Thuringia,
its manufactures including sausages, for which it has a great
reputation, porcelain, tobacco, sugar, machinery, mechanical
and surgical instruments, musical instruments, shoes, lamps
and toys. There are also a number of nurseries and market
gardens. The book trade is represented by about a dozen firms,
including that of the great geographical house of Justus Perthes,
founded in 1785.
Gotha (in old chronicles called Gotegewe and later Gotaha)
existed as a village in the time of Charlemagne. In 930 its lord
Gothard abbot of Hersfeld surrounded it with walls. It was
known as a town as early as 1200, about which time it came
into the possession of the landgraves of Thuringia. On the
extinction of that line Gotha came into the possession of the
electors of Saxony, and it fell later to the Ernestine line of dukes.
After the battle of Muhlberg in 1547 the castle of Grimmenstein
was partly destroyed, but it was again restored in 1554. In
1567. the town was taken from Duke John Frederick by the
elector Augustus of Saxony. After the death of John Frederick's
sons, it came into the possession of Duke Ernest the Pious, the
founder of the line of the dukes of Gotha; and on the extinction
of this family it was united in 1825 along with the dukedom to
Coburg.
GOTHAM, WISE MEN OF-^GOTHENBURG
271
See Gotka und seine Umgebung (Got ha, 1851); Kuhne, Beilrdge
zur Geschichte der Entwickelung der socialen Zustdnde der Stadt
und des Herzogtums Gotha (Gotha, 1862); Humbert, Les Villes
de la Thuringe (Paris, 1869), and Beck, Geschichte der Stadt Gotha
(Gotha, 1870).
GOTHAM, WISE MEN OF, the early name given to the people
of the village of Gotham, Nottingham, in allusion to their reputed
simplicity. But if tradition is to be believed the Gothamites
were not so very simple. The story is that King John intended
to live in the neighbourhood, but that the villagers, foreseeing
ruin as the cqst of supporting the court, feigned imbecility when
the royal messengers arrived. Wherever the latter went they
saw the rustics engaged in some absurd task. John, on this
report, determined to have his hunting lodge elsewhere, and the
" wise men " boasted, " we ween there are more fools pass
through Gotham than remain in it." The " foles of Gotham "
are mentioned as early as the 15th century in the Tovmeley
Mysteries; and a collection of their " jests " was published in
the 16th century under the title Merrie Tales of the Mad Men
of Gotham, gathered together by A.B., of Pkisicke Doctour. The
"A.B." was supposed to represent Andrew Borde or Boorde
( 1490 ?-i 549), famous among other things for his wit, but he
probably had nothing to do with the compilation. As typical
of the Gothamite folly is usually quoted the story of the villagers
joining hands round a thornbush to shut in a cuckoo so that it
would sing all the year. The localizing of fools is common to
most countries, and there are many other reputed " imbecile "
centres in England besides Gotham. Thus there are the people
of Coggeshall, Essex, the " carles of Austwick," Yorkshire,
" the gowks of Gordon," Berwickshire, and for many centuries
the charge of folly has been made against " silly " Suffolk and
Norfolk (Descriptio Norfolciensium about 12th century, printed
in Wright's Early Mysteries and other Latin Poems). In Germany
there are the Schildburgers, in Holland the people of Kampen.
Among the ancient Greeks Boeotia was the home of fools;
among the Thracians, Abdera; among the ancient Jews,
Nazareth.
See W. A. Clouston, Booh of Noodles (London, 1888); R. H.
Cunningham, Amusing Prose Chap-books (1889).
GOTHENBURG (Swed. Gdteborg), a city and seaport of
Sweden, on the river Gdta, 5 m. above its mouth in the Cattegat,
285 m. S,W. of Stockholm by rail, and 360 by the Gdta canal-
route. Pop. (1900) 130,619. It is the chief town of the district
{Ian) of Goteborg och Bohus, and the seat of a bishop. It lies
on the east or left bank of the river, which is here lined with
quays on both sides, those on the west belonging to the large
island of Hisingen, contained between arms of the Gota. On
this island are situated the considerable suburbs of Lindholmen
and Lundby.
The city itself stretches east and south from the river, with
extensive and pleasant residential suburbs, over a wooded plain
enclosed by low hills. The inner city, including the business
quarter, is contained almost entirely between t her river and the
Rosenlunds canal, continued in the Vallgraf, the moat of the old
fortifications; and is crossed by the Storahamn, Ostrahamn
and Vestrahamn canals. The Storahamn is flanked by the
handsome tree-planted quays, Norra and Sodra Hamngatan.
The first of these, starting from the Stora Bommenshamn,
where the sea-going passenger-steamers lie, leads past the museum
to the Gustaf-Adolfs-Torg. The museum, in the old East
India Company's house, has fine collections in natural history,
entomology, botany, anatomy, archaeology and ethnography,
a picture and sculpture gallery, and exhibits of coins and in-
dustrial art. Gustaf-Adolfs-Torg is the business centre, and
contains the town-hall (1670) and exchange (1849). Here are
statues by B. E. Fogelberg of Gustavus Adolphus and of Odin,
and of Oscar I. by J. P. Molin. Among several churches in
this quarter of the city is the cathedral (Gustarii Domkyrka),
a cruciform church founded in 1633 and rebuilt after fires in
1742 and 1815. Here are also the customs-house and residence
of the governor of the Idn. On the north side, closely adjacent,
are the Lilla Bommenshamn, where the Gota canal steamers
lie, and the two principal railway stations, Statens and Bergslafs
Bangard. Above the Rosenlunds canal rises a low, rocky
eminence, Lilla OtterhSUeberg. The inner city is girdled on
the south and east by the Kungspark, which contains Molin's
famous group of statuary, the Belt-bucklers (Btiltesp&nnare),
and by the beautiful gardens of the Horticultural Society
(TrUdg&rdsforeningen). These grounds are traversed by the
broad Nya A116, a favourite promenade, and beyond them lies
the best residential quarter, the first houses facing Vasa Street,
Vasa Park and Kungsport Avenue. At the north end of the
last are the university and the New theatre. At the west end
of Vasa Street is the city library, the most important in the
country except the royal library at Stockholm and the university
libraries at Upsala and Lund. The suburbs are extensive. To
the south-west are Majorna and Masthugget, with numerous
factories. Beyond these lie the fine Slottskog Park, planted with
oaks, and picturesquely broken by rocky hills commanding views
of the busy river and the city. The suburb of Annedal is the
workmen's quarter; others are Landala, Garda and Stampen.
All are connected with the city by electric tramways. Six
railways leave the city from four stations. The principal lines,
from the Statens and Bergslafs stations, run N. to Trollhattan,
and into Norway (Christiania) ; N.E. between Lakes Vener
and Vetter to Stockholm, Falun and the north; E. to Boras
and beyond, and S. by the coast to Helsingborg, &c. From
the Vestgftta station a narrow-gauge line runs N.E. to Skara
and the southern shores of Vener, and from Sard station near
Slottskog Park a line serves Sar6, a seaside watering-place on
an island 20 m. S. of Gothenburg.
The city has numerous important educational establishments.
The university (Hdgskola) was a private foundation (1891),
but is governed by a board, the members of which are nominated
by the state, the town council, Royal Society of Science and
Literature, directors of the museum, and the staffs of the various
local colleges. There are several boys 1 schools, a college for
girls, a scientific college, a commercial college (1826), a school
of navigation, and Chalmers' Polytechnical College, founded
by William Chalmers (1 748-181 1), a native of Gothenburg of
English parentage. He bequeathed half his fortune to this
institution, and the remainder to the Sahlgrenska hospital.
A people's library was founded by members of the family of
Dickson, several of whom have taken a prominent part in
philanthropical works in the city. The connexion of the family
with Gothenburg dates from 1802, when Robert Dickson, a"
native of Montrose in Scotland, founded the business in which
he was joined in 1807 by his brother James.
In respect of industry and commerce as a whole Gothenburg
ranks as second to Stockholm in the kingdom; but it is actually
the principal centre of export trade and port of register; and
as a manufacturing town it is slightly inferior to Malmo. Its
principal industrial establishments are mechanical works (both
in the city and at Lundby), saw-mills, dealing with the timber
which is brought down the Gflta, flour-mills, margarine factories,
breweries and distilleries, tobacco works, cotton mills, dyeing
and bleaching works (at Levanten in the vicinity), furniture
factories, paper and leather works, and shipbuilding yards.
The vessels registered at the port in 1901 were 247 of 1 20,488 tons.
There are about 3 m. of quays approachable by vessels drawing
20 f t. , and slips for the accommodation of large vessels. Gothen-
burg is the principal port of embarkation of Swedish emigrants
for America.
The city is governed by a council including two mayors, and
returns nine members to the second chamber of the Riksdag
(parliament).
Founded by Gustavus Adolphus in 1619, Gothenburg was
from the first designed to be fortified, a town of the same name
founded on Hisingen in 1603 having been destroyed by the Danes
during the Calmar war. From 162 1, when it was first chartered,
it steadily increased, though it suffered greatly in the Danish
wars of the last half of the 17 th and the beginning of the 18th
centuries, and from several extensive conflagrations (the last
in 1 81 3), which have destroyed important records of its history.'
The great development of its herring fishery in the latter part
272
GOTHIC— GOTHS
of the 1 8th century gave a new impulse to the city's trade, which*
was kept up by the influence of the " Continental System/'
under which Gothenburg became a depot for the colonial mer-
chandise of England. After the fall of Napoleon it began to
decline, but after its closer connexion with the interior of the
country by the Gota canal (opened 1832) and Western railway
it rapidly advanced both in population and trade. Since the
demolition of its fortifications in 1807, it has been defended
only by some small forts. Gothenburg was the birthplace of
the poet Bengt Lidner (1757-1793) and two of Sweden's greatest
sculptors, Bengt Erland Fogelberg (1 786-1854) and Johann
Peter Molin (1814-1873). After the French Revolution Gothen-
burg was for a time the residence of the Bourbon family. The
name of this city is associated with the municipal licensing
system known as the Gothenburg System (see Liquor Laws).
See W. Berg, Samlingar till Gdteborgs historic, (Gothenburg, 1893) ;
Lagerberg, Ghteborg i aldre och nyare Hd (Gothenburg, 1902);
Frdding, Del forna Gdteborg (Stockholm, 1903).
GOTHIC, the term generally applied to medieval architecture,
and more especially to that in which the pointed arch appears.
The style was at one time supposed to have originated with the
warlike people known as the Goths, some of whom (the East
Goths, or Ostrogoths) settled in the eastern portion of Europe,
and others (the West Goths, or Visigoths) in the Asturias of
Spain; but as no buildings or remains of any description have
ever been found, in which there are any traces of an independent
construction in either brick or stone, the title is misleading;
since, however, it is now so generally accepted it would be difficult
to change it. The term when first employed was one of reproach,
as Evelyn (1702) when speaking of the faultless building (i.e.
classic) says, " they were demolished by the Goths or Vandals,
who introduced their own licentious style now called modern
or Gothic." The employment of the pointed arch in Syria,
Egypt and Sicily from the 8th century onwards by the Mahom-
medans for their mosques and gateways, some four centuries
before it made its appearance in Europe, also makes it advisable
to adhere to the old term Gothic in preference to Pointed
Architecture. (See Architecture)
GOTHITE, or Goethite, a mineral composed of an iron
hydrate, FejOs-HkO, crystallizing in the orthorhombic system
and isomorphous with diaspore and manganite (?.*.). It was
first noticed in 1789, and in 1806 was named after the poet
Goethe. Crystals are prismatic, acicular or scaly in habit;
they have a perfect cleavage parallel to the brachypinacoid
(M in the figure). Reniform and stalactitic
masses with a radiated fibrous structure also
occur. The colour varies from yellowish
or reddish to blackish-brown, and by trans-
mitted light it is often blood-red; the streak
is brownish-yellow; hardness, 5; specific
gravity, 4-3. The best crystals are the
brilliant, blackish-brown prisms with terminal
pyramidal planes (fig.) from the Restormel
iron mines at Lostwithiel, and the Botallack
mine at St Just in Cornwall. A variety
occurring as thin red scales at Siegen in Westphalia is known
as Rubinglimmer or pyrrhosiderite (from Gr. irvppbs, flame-
coloured, and cldrjpos, iron): a scaly-fibrous variety from the
same locality is called lepidocrocite (from XcttIs, scale, and kpokis,
fibre) . Sammetblende or przibramite is a variety, from Przibram
in Bohemia, consisting of delicate acicular or capillary crystals
arranged in radiating groups with a velvety surface and yellow
colour.
Gothite occurs with other iron oxides, especially limonite
and hematite, and when found in sufficient quantity is mined
with these as an ore of iron. It often occurs also as an enclosure
in other minerals. Acicular crystals, resembling rutile in ap-
pearance/sometimes penetrate crystals of pale-coloured amethyst,
for instance, at Wolf's Island in Lake Onega in Russia: this
form of the mineral has long been known as onegite, and the
crystals enclosing it are cut for ornamental purposes under the
name of " Cupid's darts " (JUches d* amour). The metallic glitter
d\
d !
of avanturine or sun-stone (q.v.) is due to the enclosed scales
of gothite and certain other minerals. (L. J. S.)
GOTHS (Gotones, later Gothis), a Teutonic people who in the
1 st century of the Christian era appear to have inhabited the
middle part of the basin of the Vistula. They were
probably the easternmost of the Teutonic peoples. history*
According to their own traditions as recorded by
Jordanes, they had come originally from the island Scandza,
i.e. Skane or Sweden, under the leadership of a king named
Berig, and landed first in a region called Gothiscandza. Thence
they invaded the territories of the Ulmerugi (the Holmryge of
Anglo-Saxon tradition), probably in the neighbourhood of
RUgenwalde in eastern Pomerania, and conquered both them
and the neighbouring Vandals. Under their sixth king Filimer
they migrated into Scythia and settled in a district which they
called Oium. The rest of their early history, as it is given by
Jordanes following Cassiodorus, is due to an erroneous identifica-
tion of the Goths with the Getae, and ancient Thracian people.
The credibility of the story of the migration from Sweden
has been much discussed by modern authors. The legend was
not peculiar to the Goths, similar traditions being current among
the Langobardi, the Burgundians, and apparently several
other Teutonic nations. It has been observed with truth
that so many populous nations can hardly have sprung from
the Scandinavian peninsula; on the other hand, the existence of
these traditions certainly requires some explanation. Possibly,
however, many of the royal families may have contained an
element of Scandinavian blood, a hypothesis which would well
accord with the social conditions of the migration period, as
illustrated, e.g., in Volsunga Saga and in Hervarar Saga ok
Heitireks Konungs. In the case of the Goths a connexion with
Gotland is not unlikely, since it is clear from archaeological
evidence that this island had an extensive trade with the coasts
about the mouth of the Vistula in early times. If, however,
there was 'any migration at all, one would rather have expected
it to have taken place in the reverse direction. For the origin
of the Goths can hardly be separated from that of the Vandals,
whom according to Procopius they resembled in language and
in all other respects. Moreover the Gepidae, another Teutonic
people, who are said to have formerly inhabited the delta of
the Vistula, also appear to have been closely connected with
the Goths. According to Jordanes they participated in the
migration from Scandza.
Apart from a doubtful reference by Pliny to a statement
of the early traveller Pytheas, the first notices we have of the
Goths go back to the first years of the Christian era, at which
time they seem to have been subject to the Marcomannic king
Maroboduus. They do not enter into Roman history, however,
until after the beginning of the 3rd century, at which time they
appear to have come in conflict with the emperor Caracalla.
During this century their frontier seems to have been advanced
considerably farther south, and the whole country as far as the
lower Danube was frequently ravaged by them. The emperor
Gordianus is called " victor Gothorum " by Capitolinus, though
we have no record of the ground for the claim, and further conflicts
are recorded with his successors, one of whom, Decius, was slain
by the Goths in Moesia. According to Jordanes the kings of
the Goths during these campaigns were Ostrogotha and after-
wards Cniva, the former of whom is praised also in the Anglo-
Saxon poem Widsith. The emperor Gallus was forced to pay
tribute to the Goths. By this time they had reached the coasts of
the Black Sea, and during the next twenty years they frequently
ravaged the maritime regions of Asia Minor and Greece. Aurelian
is said to have won a victory over them, but the province of
Dacia had to be given up. In the time of Constantine the Great
Thrace and Moesia were again plundered by the Goths, a.d. 321.
Constantine drove them back and concluded peace with their
king Ariaric in 336. From the end of the 3rd century we hear
of subdivisions of the nation called Greutungi, Teruingi,
Austrogothi (Ostrogothi), Visigothi, Taifali, though it is not
clear whether these were all distinct.
. Though by this time the Goths had extended their territories
GOTHS
273
far to the south and east, it must not be assumed that they had
evacuated their old lands on the Vistula. Jordanes records
several traditions of their conflicts with other Teutonic tribes,
in particular a victory won by Ostrogotha over Fastida, king of
the Gepidae, and another by Geberic over Visimar, king of the
Vandals, about the end of Constantine's reign, in consequence
of which the Vandals sought and obtained permission to settle
in Pannonia. Geberic was succeeded by the most famous of
the Gothic kings, Hermanaric (Eormenric, ISrmunrekr), whose
deeds are recorded in the traditions of all Teutonic nations.
According to Jordanes he conquered the Heruli, the Aestii,
the Venedi, and a number of other tribes who seem to have been
settled in the southern part of Russia. From Anglo-Saxon
sources it seems probable that his supremacy reached westwards
as far as Holstein. He was of a cruel disposition, and is said to
have killed his nephews Embrica (Emerca) and Fritla (Fridla)
in order to obtain the great treasure which they possessed.
Still more famous is the story of Suanihilda (Svanhildr), who
according to Northern tradition was his wife and was cruelly
put to death on a false charge of unfaithfulness. An attempt
to avenge her death was made by her brothers Ammius (Hamolr)
and Sarus (SSrli) by whom Hermanaric was severely wounded.
To his time belong a number of other heroes whose exploits
are recorded in English and Northern tradition, amongst whom
we may mention Wudga (Vidigoia), Hama and several others,
who in Widsith are represented as defending their country against
the Huns in the forest of the Vistula. Hermanaric committed
suicide in his distress at an invasion of the Huns about a.d. 370,
and the portion of the nation called Ostrogoths then came under
Hunnish supremacy. The Visigoths obtained permission to
cross the Danube and settle in Moesia. A large part of the nation
became Christian about this time (see below). The exactions
of the Roman governors, however, soon led to a quarrel, which
ended in the total defeat and death of Valens at Adrianople
in the year 378. (F. G. M. B.)
From about 370 the history of the East and West Goths
parts asunder, to be joined together again only incidentally
^^ and for a season. The great mass of the East Goths
history, stayed north of the Danube, and passed under the
overlordship of the Hun. They do not for the present
play any important part in the affairs of the Empire. The great
mass of the West Goths crossed the Danube into the Roman
provinces, and there played a most important part in various
characters of alliance and enmity. The great migration was in
376, when they were allowed to pass as peaceful settlers under
their chief Frithigern. His rival Athanaric seems to have tried
to maintain his party for a while north of the Danube in defiance
of the Huns; but he had presently to follow the example of the
great mass of the nation. The peaceful designs of Frithigern
were meanwhile thwarted by the ill-treatment which the Goths
suffered from the Roman officials, which led first to disputes
and then to open war. In 378 the Goths won the great battle of
Adrianople, and after this Theodosius the Great, the successor
of Valens, made terms with them in 381, and the mass of the
Gothic warriors entered the Roman service as foederati. Many
of their chiefs were in high favour; but it seems that the orthodox
Theodosius showed more favour to the still remaining heathen
party among the Goths than to the larger part of them who had
embraced Arian Christianity. Athanaric himself came to Con-
stantinople in 381 ; he was received with high honours, and had
a solemn funeral when he died. His saying is worth recording,
as an example of the effect which Roman civilization had on
the Teutonic mind. " The emperor," he said, " was a god upon
earth, and he who resisted him would have his blood on his
own head."
The death of Theodosius in 395 broke up the union between
the West Goths and the Empire. Dissensions arose between
them and the ministers of Arcadius; the Goths threw off their
allegiance, and chose Alaric as their king. This was a restoration,
alike of national unity and of national independence. The
royal title had not been borne by their leaders in the Roman
service. Alaric's position is quite different from that of several
Goths in the Roman service, who appear as simple rebels. He
was of the great West Gothic house of the Balthi, or Bold-men,
a house second in nobility only to that of the Amali. His whole
career was taken up with marchings to and fro within the lands,
first of the Eastern, then of the Western empire. The Goths
are under him an independent people under a national king;
their independence is in no way interfered with if the Gothic
king, in a moment of peace, accepts the office and titles of a
Roman general. But under Alaric the Goths make no lasting
settlement. In the long tale of intrigue and warfare between
the Goths and the two imperial courts which fills up this whole
time, cessions of territory are offered to the Goths, provinces
are occupied by them, but as yet they do not take root anywhere;
no Western land as yet becqmes Gotkia. Alaric's designs of
settlement seem in his first stage to have still kept east of the
Adriatic, in Illyricum, possibly in Greece. Towards the end of .
his career his eyes seem fixed on Africa.
Greece was the scene of his great campaign in 395-96, the
second Gothic invasion of that country. In this campaign the
religious position of the Goths is strongly marked. The Arian
appeared as an enemy alike to the pagan majority and the
Catholic minority; but he came surrounded by monks, and his
chief wrath was directed against the heathen temples (vide G. F.
Hertzberg, Gcsckichte Griechenlands, iii. 391). His Italian cam-
paigns fall into two great divisions, that of 402-3, when he
was driven back by Stilicho, and that of 408-10, after Stilicho's
death. In this second war he thrice besieged Rome (408, 409,
410). The second time it suited a momentary policy to set
up a puppet emperor of his own, and even to accept a military
commission from him. The third time he sacked the city,
the first time since Brennus that Rome had been taken by an
army of utter foreigners. The intricate political and military
details of these campaigns are of less importance in the history
of the Gothic nation than the stage which Alaric's reign marks
in the history of that nation. It stands between two periods
of settlement within the Empire and of service under the Empire.
Under Alaric there is no settlement, and service is quite secondary
and precarious; after his death in 410 the two begin again in
new shapes.
Contemporary with the campaigns of Alaric was a barbarian
invasion of Italy, which, according to one view, again brings
the East and West Goths together. The great mass of the East
Goths, as has been already said, became one of the many nations
which were under vassalage to the Huns; but their relation
was one merely of vassalage. They remained a distinct people
under kings of their own, kings of the house of the Amali and of
the kindred of Ermanaric (Jordanes, 48) . They had to follow the
lead of the Huns in war, but they were also able to carry on wars
of their own; and it has been held that among these separate
East Gothic enterprises we are to place the invasion of Italy in
405 by Radagaisus (whom R. Pallmann 1 writes Ratiger, and
takes him for the chief of the heathen part of the East Goths).
One chronicler, Prosper, makes this invasion preceded by another
in 400, in which Alaric and Radagaisus appear as partners.
The paganism of Radagaisus is certain. The presence of Goths
in his army is certain, but it seems dangerous to infer that his
invasion was a national Gothic enterprise..
Under Ataulphus, the brother-in-law and successor of Alaric,
another era opens, the beginning of enterprises which did in the
end lead to the establishment df a settled Gothic monarchy
in the West. The position of Ataulphus is well marked by the
speech put into his mouth by Orositis. He had at one time
dreamed of destroying the Roman power, of turning Romania
into Gothia, and putting Ataulphus in the stead of Augustus;
but he had learned that the world could be governed only by
the laws of Rome and he had determined to use the Gothic arms
for the support of the Roman power. And in the confused and
contradictory accounts of his actions (for the story in Jordanes
cannot be reconciled with the accounts in Olympiodorus and
the chroniclers), we can see something of this principle at work
throughout. Gaul and Spain were overrun both by barbarian
1 Gcsckichte der Vdlkcrwanderung (Gotha, 1 863-1 864).
274
GOTHS
invaders and by rival emperors. The sword of the Goth was
to win back the last lands for Rome. And, amid many shif tings
of allegiance, Ataulphus seems never to have wholly given up
the position of an ally of the Empire. His marriage with Placidia,
the daughter of the great Theodosius, was taken as the seal of
the union between Goth and Roman, and, had their son Theo-
dosius lived, a dynasty might have arisen uniting both claims.
But the career of Ataulphus was cut short at Barcelona in 415,
by his murder at the hands of another faction of the Goths.
The reign of Sigeric was momentary. Under Wallia in 418 a
more settled state of things was established. The Empire re-
ceived again, as the prize of Gothic victories, the Tarraconensis
in Spain, and Novempopulana and the Narbonensis in Gaul.
The " second Aquitaine," with the sea-coast from the mouth
of the Garonne to the mouth of the Loire, became the West
Gothic kingdom of Toulouse. The dominion of the Goths was
now strictly Gaulish; their lasting Spanish dominion does not
yet begin.
The reign of the first West Gothic Theodoric (410-451) shows
a shifting state of relations between the Roman and Gothic
powers; but, after defeats and successes both ways, the older
relation of alliance against common enemies was again estab-
lished. At last Goth and Roman had to join together against
the common enemy of Europe and Christendom, Attila the Hun.
But they met Gothic warriors in his army. By the terms of
their subjection to the Huns, the East Goths came to fight for
Attila against Christendom at Chalons, just as the Servians came
to fight for Bajazet against Christendom at Nicopolis. Theodoric
fell in the battle (451). After this momentary meeting, the
history of the East and West Goths again separates for a while.
The kingdom of Toulouse grew within Gaul at the expense of
the Empire, and in Spain at the expense of the Suevi. Under
Euric (466-485) the West Gothic power again became largely
a Spanish power. The kingdom of Toulouse took in nearly all
Gaul south of the Loire and west of the Rhone, with all Spain,
except the north-west corner, which was still held by the Suevi.
Provence alone remained to the Empire. The West Gothic
kings largely - adopted Roman manners and culture; but, as
they still kept to their original Arian creed, their rule never
became thoroughly acceptable to their Catholic subjects. They
stood, therefore, at a great disadvantage when a new and aggres-
sive Catholic power appeared in Gaul through the conversion
of the Frank Clovis or Chlodwig. Toulouse was, as in days long
after, the seat of an heretical power, against which the forces
of northern Gaul marched as on a crusade. In 507 the West
Gothic king Alaric II. fell before the Frankish arms at Campus
Vogladensis, near Poitiers, and his kingdom, as a great power
north of the Alps, fell with him. That Spain and a fragment of
Gaul still remained to form a West Gothic kingdom was owing
to the intervention of the East Goths under the rule of the greatest
man in Gothic history.
When the Hunnish power broke in pieces on the death of
Attila, the East Goths recovered their full independence. They
now entered into relations with the Empire, and were settled
on lands in Pannonia. During the greater part of the latter
half of the 5th century, the East Goths play in south-eastern
Europe nearly the same part which the West Goths played
in the century before. They are seen going to and fro, in every
conceivable relation of friendship and enmity with the Eastern
Roman power, till, just as the West Goths had done before them,
they pass from the East to the West. They are still ruled by
kings of the house of the Amali, and from that house there now
steps forward a great figure, famous alike in history and in
romance, in the person of Theodoric, son of Theodemir. Born
about 454, his childhood was spent at Constantinople as a
hostage, where he was carefully educated. The early part of
his life is taken up with various disputes, intrigues and wars
within the Eastern empire, in which he has as his rival another
Theodoric, son of Triarius, and surnamed Strabo. This older
but lesser Theodoric seems to have been the chief, not the king,
of that branch of the East Goths which had settled within the
Empire at an earlier time. Theodoric the Great, as he is some-
times distinguished, is sometimes the friend, sometimes the
enemy, of the Empire. In the former case he is clothed with
various Roman titles and offices, as patrician and consul; but
in all cases alike he remains the national East Gothic king. It
was in both characters together that he set out in 488, by com-
mission from the emperor Zeno, to recover Italy from Odoacer.
By 493 Ravenna was taken; Odoacer was killed by Theodoric's
own hand; and the East Gothic power was fully established
over Italy, Sioily, Dalmatia and the lands to the north of Italy.
In this war the history of the East and West Goths begins again
to unite, if we may accept the witness of one writer that Theo-
doric was helped by West Gothic auxiliaries. The two branches
of the nation were soon brought much more closely together,
when, through the overthrow of the West Gothic kingdom of
Toulouse, the power of Theodoric was practically extended
over a large part of Gaul and over nearly the whole of Spain.
A time of confusion followed the fall of Alaric II., and, as that
prince was the son-in-law of Theodoric, the East Gothic king
stepped in as the guardian of his grandson Amalaric, and pre-
served for him all his Spanish and a fragment of his Gaulish
dominion. Toulouse passed away to the Frank; but the Goth
kept Narbonne and its district, the land of Septimania — the
land which, as the last part of Gaul held by the Goths, kept
the name of Gothia for many ages. While Theodoric lived,
the West Gothic kingdom was practically united to his own
dominion. He seems also to have claimed a kind of protect-
orate over the Teutonic powers generally, and indeed to have
practically exercised it, except in the case of the Franks.
The East Gothic dominion was now again as great in extent
and far more splendid than it could have been in the time of
Ermanaric. But it was now of a wholly different character.
The dominion of Theodoric was not a barbarian but a civilized
power. His twofold position ran through everything. He was
at once national king of the Goths; and successor, though without
any imperial titles, of the Roman emperors of the West. The
two nations, differing in manners, language and religion, lived
side by side on the soil of Italy; each was ruled according to its
own law, by the prince who was, in his two separate characters,
the common sovereign of both. The picture of Theodoric's
rule is drawn for us in the state papers drawn up in his name
and in the names of his successors by his Roman minister Cassio-
dorus. The Goths seem to have been thick on the ground in
northern Italy; in the south they formed little more than
garrisons. In Theodoric's theory the Goth was the armed pro-
tector of the peaceful Roman; the Gothic king had the toil of
government, while the Roman consul had the honour. All the
forms of the Roman administration went on, and the Roman
polity and Roman culture had great influence on the Goths
themselves. The rule of the prince over two distinct nations
in the same land was necessarily despotic; the old Teutonic
freedom was necessarily lost. Such a system as that which
Theodoric established needed a Theodoric to carry it on. It
broke in pieces after his death.
On the death of Theodoric (526) the East and West Goths
were again separated. The few instances in which they are
found acting together after this time are as scattered and
incidental as they were before. Amalaric succeeded to the
West Gothic kingdom in Spain and Septimania. Provence
was added to the dominion of the new East Gothic king Athalaric,
the grandson of Theodoric through his daughter Amalasuntha.
The weakness of the East Gothic position in Italy now showed
itself. The long wars of Justinian's reign (535-555) recovered
Italy for the Empire, and the Gothic name died out on Italian
soil. The chance of forming a national state in Italy by the
union of Roman and Teutonic elements, such as those which
arose in Gaul, in Spain, and in parts of Italy under Lombard
rule, was thus lost. The East Gothic kingdom was destroyed
before Goths and Italians had at all mingled together. The war
of course made the distinction stronger; under the kings who
were chosen for the purposes of the war national Gothic feeling
had revived. The Goths were now again, if not a wandering
people, yet an armed host, no longer the protectors but the
GOTHS
275
enemies of the Roman people of Italy. The East Gothic dominion
and the East Gothic name wholly passed away. The nation
had followed Theodoric. It is only once or twice after his
expedition that we hear of Goths, or even of Gothic leaders,
in the eastern provinces. From the soil of Italy the nation
passed away almost without a trace, while the next Teutonic
conquerors stamped their name on the two ends of the land,
one of which keeps it to this day.
The West Gothic kingdom lasted much longer, and came
much nearer to establishing itself as a national power in the
lands which it took in. But the difference of race and faith
between the Arian Goths and the Catholic Romans of Gaul and
Spain influenced the history of the West Gothic kingdom for
a long time. The Arian Goths ruled over Catholic subjects,
and were surrounded by Catholic neighbours. The Franks ;
were Catholics from their first conversion; the Suevi became
Catholics much earlier than the Goths. The African conquests
of Belisarius gave the Goths of Spain, instead of the Arian
Vandals, another Catholic neighbour in the form of the restored
Roman power. The Catholics everywhere preferred either
Roman, Suevian or Frankish rule to that of the heretical Goths;
even the unconquerable mountaineers of Cantabria seem for
a while to have received a Frankish governor. In some other
mountain districts the Roman inhabitants long maintained
their independence, and in 534 a large part of the south of Spain,
including the great cities of Cadiz, Cordova, Seville and New
Carthage, was, with the good will of its Roman inhabitants,
reunited to the Empire, which kept some points on the coast
as late as 624. That is to say, the same work which the Empire
was carrying on in Italy against the East Goths was at the same
moment carried on in Spain against the West Goths. But in
Italy the whole land was for a while won back, and the Gothic
power passed away for ever. In Spain the Gothic power outlived
the Roman power, but it outlived it only by itself becoming
in some measure Roman. The greatest period of the Gothic
power as such was in the reign of Leovigild (568-586). He
reunited the Gaulish and Spanish parts of the kingdom which
had been parted for a moment; he united the Suevian dominion
to his own; he overcame some of the independent districts,
and won back part of the recovered Roman province in southern
Spain. He further established the power of the crown over the
Gothic nobles, who were beginning to grow into territorial lords.
The next reign, that of his son Recared (586-601), was marked
by a change which took away the great hindrance which had
thus far stood in the way of any national union between
Goths and Romans. The king and the greater part of the
Gothic people embraced the Catholic faith. A vast degree of
influence now fell into the hands of the Catholic bishops; the
two nations began to unite; the Goths were gradually romanized
and the Gothic language began to go out of use. In short, the
Romance nation and the Romance speech of Spain began to
be formed. The Goths supplied the Teutonic infusion into the
Roman mass. The kingdom, however, still remained a Gothic
kingdom. " Gothic," not " Roman " or " Spanish," is its
formal title; only a single late instance of the use of the formula
" regnum Hispaniae " is known. In the first half of the 7th
century that name became for the first time geographically
applicable by the conquest of the still Roman coast of southern
Spain. The Empire was then engaged in the great struggle
with the Avars and Persians, and, now that the Gothic kings
were Catholic, the great objection to their rule on the part of
the Roman inhabitants was taken away. The Gothic nobility
still remained a distinct class, and held, along with the Catholic
prelacy, the right of choosing the king. Union with the Catholic
Church was accompanied by the introduction of the ecclesi-
astical ceremony of anointing, a change decidedly favourable to
elective rule. The growth of those later ideas which tended
again to favour the hereditary doctrine had not time to grow
up in Spain before the Mahommedan conquest (711). The West
Gothic crown therefore remained elective till the end. The
modern Spanish nation is the growth of the long struggle with
the Mussulmans; but it has a direct connexion with the West
Gothic kingdom. We see at once that the Goths hold altogether
a different place in Spanish memory from that which they hold
in Italian memory. In Italy the Goth was but a momentary
invader and ruler; the Teutonic element in Italy comes from
other sources. In Spain the Goth supplies an important element
in the modern nation. And that element has been neither
forgotten nor despised. Part of the unconquered region of
northern Spain, the land of Asturia, kept for a while the name
of Gothia, as did the Gothic possessions in Gaul and in Crim.
The name of the people who played so great a part in all southern
Europe, and who actually ruled over so large a part of it has
now wholly passed away; but it is in Spain that its historical
impress is to be looked for.
Of Gothic literature in the Gothic language we have the Bible
of Ulnlas, and some other religious writings and fragments
(see Gothic Language below). Of Gothic legislation in Latin
we have the edict of Theodoric of the year 500, edited by F.
Bluhme in the Monumenta Germaniae historical and the books
of Variae of Cassiodorus may pass as a collection of the state
papers of Theodoric and his immediate successors. Among the
West Goths written laws had already been put forth by Euric.
The second Alaric (484-507) put forth a Breviarium of Roman
law for his Roman subjects; but the great collection of West
Gothic laws dates from the later days of the monarchy, being
put forth by King Recceswinth about 654. This code gave
occasion to some well-known comments by Montesquieu and
Gibbon, and has been discussed by Savigny (Geschichte des
romiscken Rechts, ii. 65) and various other writers. They are
printed in the Monumenta Germaniae, leges, tome i. (1902).
Of special Gothic histories, besides that of Jordanes, already
so often quoted, there is the Gothic history of Isidore, archbishop
of Seville, a special source of the history of the West Gothic
kings down to Svinthala (621-631). But all the Latin and
Greek writers contemporary with the days of Gothic predominance
make their constant contributions. Not for special facts, but
for a general estimate, no writer is more instructive than Salvian
of Marseilles in the 5th century, whose work De Gubernatione Dei
is full of passages contrasting the vices of the Romans with the
virtues of the barbarians, especially of the Goths. In all such
pictures we must allow a good deal for exaggeration both ways,
but there must be a ground-work of truth. The chief virtues
which the Catholic presbyter praises in the Arian Goths are
their chastity, their piety according to their own creed, their
tolerance towards the Catholics under their rule, and their
general good treatment of their Roman subjects. He even
ventures to hope that such good people may be saved, notwith-
standing their heresy. All this must have had some ground-
work of truth in the 5th century, but it is not very wonderful
if the later West Goths of Spain had a good deal fallen away from
the doubtless somewhat ideal picture of Salvian. (E. A. F.)
There is now an extensive literature on the Goths, and among the
principal works may be mentioned: T. Hodgkin, Italy ana her
Invaders (Oxford, 1 880-1 809); J. Aschbach, Geschichte der West-
goten (Frankfort, 1827); F. Dahn, Die Kdnige der Germanen (1861-
1899); E. von Wietersheim, Geschichte der Vdlkerwanderung (1880-
1881); R. Pallmann, Die Geschichte der Vdlkerwanderung (Gotha,
1 863-1 864) ; B. Rappaport, Die Einf&lle der Goten in das romische
Reich (Leipzig, 1899), and K. Zeuss, Die Deutschen and die Nachbar-
st&mme (Munich, 1837). Other works which may be consulted are :
E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, edited by J. B.
Bury (1896-1900); H. H. Milman, History of Latin Christianity
(1867); J. B. Bury, History of the Later Roman Empire (1889);
P. Villan, Le Invasioni barbartche in Italia (Milan, 1 901); and F.
Martroye, V Occident d Vipoque bysantine: Goths et Vandales (Paris,
1903). There is a popular history of the Goths by H. Bradley in the
" Story of the Nations " series (London, 1888). For the laws see the
Leges in Band I. of the Monumenta Germaniae historica t leges (1902).
A. Helfferich, Entstehung und Geschichte des Westgotenrechts (Berlin,
1858); F. Bluhme, Zur Textkritik des Westgotenrechts (1872); F.
Dahn, Lex Visigothorum. Westgotische Studien fWurzburg, 1874);
C. Rinaudo, Leggi dei Visigote, studio (Turin, 1878); and K. Zeumer,
" Geschichte der westgotischen Gesetzgebung " in the Neues Archw
der Gesellschaftfilr dltere deutsche Geschichtskunde. See also the article
on Theodoric.
Gothic Language.—Out knowledge of the Gothic language
is derived almost entirely from the fragments of a translation
276
GOTLAND
of the Bible which is believed to have been made by the Arian
bishop Wulfila or Ulfilas (d. 383) for the Goths who dwelt on
the lower Danube. The MSS. which have come down to us
and which date from the period of Ostrogothic rule in Italy
(480-555) contain the Second Epistle to the Corinthians complete,
together with more or less considerable fragments of the four
Gospels and of all the other Pauline Epistles. The only remains
of the Old Testament are three short fragments of Ezra and
Nehemiah. There is also an incomplete commentary (skeireins)
on St John's Gospel, a fragment of a calendar, and two charters
(from Naples and Arezzo, the latter now lost) which contain
some Gothic sentences. All these texts are written in a special
character, which is said to have been invented by Wulfila. It
is based chiefly on the uncial Greek alphabet, from which
indeed most of the letters are obviously derived, and several
orthographical peculiarities, e.g. the use of at for e and ei for i
reflect the Greek pronunciation of the period. Other letters,
however, have been taken over from the Runic and Latin
alphabets. Apart from the texts mentioned above, the only
remains of the Gothic language are the proper names and
occasional words which occur in Greek and Latin writings,
together with some notes, including the Gothic alphabet, in a
Salzburg MS. of the 10th century, and two short inscriptions
on a torque and a spear-head, discovered at Buzeo (Walachia)
and Kovel (Volhynia) respectively. The language itself, as
might be expected from the date of Wulfila's translation, is
of a much more archaic type than that of any other Teutonic
writings which we possess, except a few of the earliest Northern
inscriptions. This may be seen, e.g. in the better preservation
of final and unaccented syllables and in the retention of the dual
and the middle (passive) voice in verbs. It would be quite
erroneous, however, to regard the Gothic fragments as represent-
ing a type of language common to all Teutonic nations in the
4th century. Indeed the distinctive characteristics of the
language are very marked, and there is good reason for believing
that it differed considerably from the various northern and
western languages, whereas the differences among the latter
at this time were probably comparatively slight (see Teutonic
Languages). On the other hand, it must not be supposed that
the language of the Goths stood quite isolated. Procopius
(Vand. i. 2) states distinctly that the Gothic language was
spoken not only by the Ostrogoths and Visigoths but also by the
Vandals and the Gepidae; and in the former case there is sufficient
evidence, chiefly from proper names, to prove that his statement
is not far from the truth. With regard to the Gepidae we have
less information; but since the Goths, according to Jordanes
(cap. 17), believed them to have been originally a branch of
their own nation, it is highly probable that the two languages
were at least closely related. Procopius elsewhere (Vand. i.
3; Goth. i. 1, iii. 2) speaks of the Rugii, Sciri and Alani as
Gothic nations. The fact that the two former were sprung
from the north-east of Germany renders it probable that they
had Gothic affinities, while the Alani, though non-Teutonic
in origin, may have become gothicized in the course of the
migration period. Some modern writers have included in the
same class the Burgundians, a nation which had apparently
come from the basin of the Oder, but the evidence at our disposal
on the whole hardly justifies the supposition that their language
retained a close affinity with Gothic.
In the 4th and 5th centuries the Gothic language — using
the term in its widest sense — must have spread over the greater
part of Europe together with the north coast of Africa. It
disappeared, however, with surprising rapidity. There is no
evidence for its survival in Italy or Africa after the fall of the
Ostrogothic and Vandal kingdoms, while in Spain it is doubtful
whether the Visigoths retained their language until the Arabic
conquest. In central Europe it may have lingered somewhat
longer in view of the evidence of the Salzburg MS. mentioned
above. Possibly the information there given was derived from
southern Hungary or Transylvania where remains of the Gepidae
were to be found shortly before the Magyar invasion (889).
According to Walafridus Strabo (de Reb. EccUs. cap. 7) also
Gothic was still used in his time (the 9th century) in some
churches in the region of the lower Danube. Thenceforth the
language seems to have survived only among the Goths (Goli
TeiraxUae) of the Crimea, who are mentioned for the last time
by Ogier Ghislain de Busbecq, an imperial envoy at Constanti-
nople about the middle of the 16th century. He collected a
number of words and phrases in use among them which show
clearly that their language, though not unaffected by Iranian
influence, was still essentially a form of Gothic.
See H. C. von der Gabelentz and J. Loebe, Ulfilas (Altenburg and
Leipzig, 1836-1846); E. Bernhardt, Vulfila oder die gotische Bibel
(Halle, 1 875) . For other works on the Gothic language see J . Wright,
A Primer of (he Gothic Language (Oxford, 1894), p. 143 £ To the
references there given should be added: C. C. Uhlenbeck, Etymo-
logischesWdrterbuch d.goJ.5£racte(Amsterdam t 2nd ed. 1001 ) ;F.Kluge,
" Geschichte d. got. Sprache " in H. Paul's Grundriss a. germ. Pkuo-
loeie (2nd ed., vol. i., Strassburg, 1897) * W. Streitberg, Gotisches
Etementarbuch (Heidelberg, 1897) ; Th. von Grienberger, Beitrdge *ur
Geschichte d. deutschen Sprache u. Liter atur, xxi. 185 ff.; L. F. A.
Wimmer, Die Runenschrift (Berlin, 1887), p. 61 ff.; G. Stephens,
Handbook to the Runic Monuments (London, 1884), p. 203 ; F. Wrede,
Vber die Sprache der Wandalen (Strassburg, 1886). For further
references see K. Zeuss, Die Deutschen, p. 432 f . (where earlier refer-
ences to the Crimean Goths are also given) ; F. Kluge, of. cit., p. 515
ff. ; and O. Bremer, ib. vol. iii., p. 822. (H. M. C.)
GOTLAND, an island in the Baltic Sea belonging to Sweden,
lying between 57° and 58° N., and having a length from S. S. W.
to N.N.E. of 75 m., a breadth not exceeding 30 m., and an area
of 1 142 sq. m. The nearest point on the mainland is 50 m.
from the westernmost point of the island. With the island
Faro, off the northern extremity, the Karlsoe, off the west coast,
and GStska Sando, 25 m. N. by £., Gotland forms the admini-
strative district (kin) of Gotland. The island is a level plateau
of Silurian limestone, rising gently eastward, of an average
height of 80 to 100 ft., with steep coasts fringed with tapering,
free-standing columns of limestone (ranker). A few low isolated
hills rise inland. The climate is temperate, and the soil, although
in parts dry and sterile, is mostly fertile. Former marshy moors
have been largely drained and cultivated. There are extensive
sand-dunes in the north. As usual in a limestone formation,
some of the streams have their courses partly below the surface,
and caverns are not infrequent. Less than half the total area
is under forest, the extent of which was formerly much greater.
Barley, rye, wheat and oats are grown, especially the first, which
is exported to the breweries on the mainland. The sugar-beet
is also produced and exported, and there are beet-sugar works
on the island. Sheep and cattle are kept; there is a government
sheep farm at Roma, and the cattle may be noted as belonging
principally to an old native breed, yellow and horned. Some
lime-burning, cement-making and sea-fishing are carried on.
The capital of the island is Visby, on the west coast. There are
over 80 m. of railways. Lines run from Visby N.E. to Tingstade
and S. to Hofdhem, with branches from Roma to Klintehamn,
a small watering-place on the west coast, and to Slitehamn on
the east. Excepting along the coast the island has no scenic
attraction, but it is of the highest archaeological interest. Nearly
every village has its ruined church, and others occur where no
villages remain. The shrunken walled town of Visby was one
of the richest commercial centres of the Baltic from the nth to
the 14th century, and its prosperity was shared by the whole
island. It retains ten churches besides the cathedral. The
massive towers of the village churches are often detached, and
doubtless served purposes of defence. The churches of Roma,
Hemse, with remarkable mural paintings, Othen and Larbo
may be specially noted. Some contain fine stained glass, as at
Dalhem near Visby. The natives of Gotland speak a dialect
distinguished from that of any part of the Swedish mainland.
Pop. of Idn (1000) 52,781.
Gotland was subject to Sweden before 800, and in 1030 was
christianized by St Olaf , king of Norway, when returning from
his exile at Kiev. He dedicated the first church in the island to
St Peter at Visby. At that time Visby had long been one of
the most important trading towns in the Baltic, and the chief
distributing centre of the oriental commerce which came to
Europe along the rivers of Russia. In the early years of the
GOTO ISLANDS— GOTTFRIED VON STRASSBURG
277
Hanseatic League, or about the middle of the 13th century,
it became the chief dep6t for the produce of the eastern Baltic
countries, including, in a commercial sense, its daughter colony
(nth century or earlier) of Novgorod the Great. Although
Visby was an independent member of the Hanseatic League,
the influence of LUbeck was paramount in the city, and half
its governing body were men of German descent. Indeed,
BjSrkander endeavours to prove that the city was a German
(Hanseatic) foundation, dating principally from the middle
of the 12th century. However that may be, the importance of
Visby in the sea trade of the North is conclusively attested by
the famous code of maritime law which bears its name. This
Waterrecht dot de Kooplilde en de Schippers gemakt hebben to
Visby (" sea-law which the merchants and seamen have made
at Visby ") was a compilation based upon the Lubeck code,
the 01€ron code and the Amsterdam code, and was first printed
in Low German in 1 505, but in all probability had its origin about
1240, or not much later (see Sea Laws). By the middle of the
14th century the reputation of the wealth of the city was so
great that, according to an old ballad, " the Gotlanders weighed
out gold with stone weights and played with the choicest jewels.
The swine ate out of silver troughs, and the women spun with
distaffs of gold." This fabled wealth was too strong a temptation
for the energetic Valdemar Atterdag of Denmark. In 1361 he
invaded the island, routed the defenders of Visby under the
city walls (a monolithic cross marks the burial-place of the
islanders who fell) and plundered the city. From this blow
it never recovered, its decay being, however, materially helped
by the fact that for the greater part of the next 150 years it was
the stronghold of successive freebooters or sea-rovers — first,
of the Hanseatic privateers called Vitalienbrfldre or Viktualien-
bnider, Who made it their stronghold during the last eight
years of the 14th century; then of the Teutonic Knights, whose
Grand Master drove out the " Victuals Brothers," and kept the
island until it was redeemed by Queen Margaret. There too
Erik XIII. (the Pomeranian), after being driven out of Denmark
by his own subjects, established himself in 1437, and for a
dozen years waged piracy upon Danes and Swedes alike. After
him came Olaf and Ivar Thott, two Danish lords, who down to
the year 1487 terrorized the seas from their pirates' stronghold
of Visby. Lastly, the Danish admiral Sftren Norrby, the last
supporter of Christian I. of Denmark, when his master's cause
was lost, waged a guerrilla war upon the Danish merchant ships
and others from the same convenient base. But this led to an
expedition by the men of LUbeck, who partly destroyed Visby
in 1525. By the peace of Stettin (1570) Gotland was confirmed
to the Danish crown, to which it had been given by Queen
Margaret. But at the peace of Bromsebro in 1645 it was at length
restored to Sweden, to which it has since belonged, except for
the three years 1676-1679, when it was forcibly occupied by the
Danes, and a few weeks in 1808, when the Russians landed a force.
The extreme wealth of the Gotlanders naturally fostered a
spirit of independence, and their relations with Sweden were
curious. The island at one period paid an annual tribute of
60 marks of silver to Sweden, but it was clearly recognized that
it was paid by the desire of the Gotlanders, and not enforced
by Sweden. The pope recognized their independence, and it
was by their own free will that they came under the spiritual
charge of the bishop of Linkoping. Their local government was
republican in form, and a popular assembly is indicated in the
written Gotland Law, which dates not later than the middle of
the 13th century. Sweden had no rights of objection to the
measures adopted by this body, and there was no Swedish
judge or other official in the island. Visby had a system of
government and rights independent of, and in some measure
opposed to, that of the rest of the island. It seems clear that
there were at one time two separate corporations, for the native
Gotlanders and the foreign traders respectively, and that
these were subsequently fused. The rights and status of native
Gotlanders were not enjoyed by foreigners as a whole — even
intermarriage was illegal — but Germans, on account of their
commercial pre-eminence in the island, were excepted.
See C. H. Bergman, GoUands geografi och historic (Stockholm,
1898) and Gotldniska skildringar och mtnnen, (Visby, 1902); A. T.
SnSbohm, GoUands land och folk (Visby, 1897 et seq.); W. Moler,
Bidrag till en GoUndsk bibHografi. (Stockholm, 1890); Hans Hilde-
brand, Visby och dess Minnesmdrken (Stockholm, 1892 et seq.);
A. Bjdrkander, Till Visby Stads Aeldsta Historic (1898), where moat
of the literature dealing with the subject is mentioned; but some of
the author's arguments require criticism. For local government and
rights see K. Hegel, Stadter und Gilden itn Mittdalter (book iii. ch.
iii., Leipzig, 1891).
GOTO ISLANDS [Goto Retto, Gotto], a group of islands
belonging to Japan, lying west of Kiushiu, in 33 N., 129 E.
The southern of the two principal islands, Fukae-shima, measures
17 m. by 13 i; the northern, Nakaori-shima, measures 23 m. by
7 j. These islands lie almost in the direct route of steamers plying
between Nagasaki and Shanghai, and are distant some 50 m. from
Nagasaki. Some dome-shaped hills command the old castle-
town of Fukae. The islands are highly cultivated; deer and
other game abound, and trout are plentiful in the mountain
strea ms. A majority of the inhabitants are Christians.
GOITER, FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1 746-1 797), German poet
and dramatist, was born on the 3rd of September 1746, at Gotha.
After the completion of his university career at GrSttingen, he
was appointed second director of the Archive of his native town,
and subsequently went to Wetzlar, the seat of the imperial law
courts, as secretary to the Saxe-Coburg-Gotha legation. In
1768 he returned to Gotha as tutor to two young noblemen, and
here, together with H. C. Boie, he founded the famous Gbttinger
Musenalmanach. In 1770 he was once more in Wetzlar, where
he belonged to Goethe's circle of acquaintances. Four years
later he took up his permanent abode in Gotha, where he died on
the 1 8th of March ^797. Gotter was the chief representative of
French taste in the German literary life of his time. His own
poetry is elegant and polished, and in great measure free from the
trivialities of the Anacreontic lyric of the earlier generation of
imitators of French literature; but he was lacking in the imagin-
ative depth that characterizes the German poetic temperament.
His plays, of which Merope (1774), an adaptation in admirable
blank verse of the tragedies of Maffei and Voltaire, and Medea
(*775)> a melodrame, are best known, were mostly based on
French originals and had considerable influence in counteracting
the formlessness and irregularity of the Sturm und Drang drama.
Getter's collected Gedichte appeared in 2 vols, in 1787 and 1788;
a third volume (1802) contains his Liter arischer Nacnlass. See B.
Litzmann, Schroder und Gotter (1887), and R. Schldsser, F. W.
Gotter , sein Leben und seine Werke (1894).
GOTTFRIED VON STRASSBURG, one of the chief German
poets of the middle ages. The dates of his birth and death
are alike unknown, but he was the contemporary of Hartmann
von Aue, Wolfram von Eschenbach and WaJther von der
Vogelweide, and his epic Tristan was written about the year
1 210. In all probability he did not belong to the nobility, as
he is entitled Meister, never Herr, by his contemporaries; his
poem — the only work that can with any certainty be attributed
to him — bears witness to a learned education. The story of
Tristan had been evolved from its shadowy Celtic origins by the
French trouv&res of the early 12th century, and had already
found its way into Germany before the close of that century,
in the crude, unpolished version of Eilhart von Oberge. It
was Gottfried, however, who gave it its final form. His version
is based not on that of Chretien de Troyes, but on that of a
trouvbre Thomas, who seems to have been more popular with
contemporaries. A comparison of the German epic with the
French original is, however, impossible, as Chr6tien's Tristan
is entirely lost, and of Thomas's only a few fragments have come
down to us. The story centres in the fatal voyage which Tristan,
a vassal to the court of his uncle King Marke of Kurnewal
(Cornwall), makes to Ireland to bring back Isolde as the king's
bride. On the return voyage Tristan and Isolde drink by
mistake a love potion, which binds them irrevocably to each other.
The epic resolves itself into a series of love intrigues in which
the two lovers ingeniously outwit the trusting king. They are
ultimately discovered, and Tristan flees to Normandy where
he marries another Isolde — " Isolde with the white hands " —
278
GOTTINGEN— GOTTLING
without being able to forget the blond Isolde of Ireland. At this
point Gottfried's narrative breaks off and to learn the close
of the story we have to turn to two minor poets of the time,
Ulrich von Ttirheim and Heinrich von Freiberg— the latter
much the superior — who have supplied the conclusion. After
further love adventures Tristan is fatally wounded by a poisoned
spear in Normandy; the " blond Isolde," ,as the only person
who has power to cure him, is summoned from Cornwall. The
ship that brings her is to bear a white sail if she is on board,
a black one if not. Tristan's wife, however, deceives him,
announcing that the sail is black, and when Isolde arrives,
she finds her lover dead. Marke at last learns the truth concern-
ing the love potion, and has the two lovers buried side by side
in KurnewaL
It is difficult to form an estimate of Gottfried's independence
of his French source; but it seems clear that he followed closely
the narrative of events he found in Thomas. He has, however,
introduced into the story an astounding fineness of psychological
motive, which, to judge from a general comparison of the
Arthurian epic in both lands, is German rather than French;
he has spiritualized and deepened the narrative; he has, above
all, depicted with a variety and insight, unusual in medieval
literature, the effects of an overpowering passion. Yet, glowing
and seductive as Gottfried's love-scenes are, they are never
for a moment disfigured by frivolous hints or innuendo; the
tragedy is unrolled with an earnestness that admits of no touch
of humour, and also, it may be added, with a freedom from
moralizing which was easier to attain in the 13th than in later
centuries. The mastery of style is no less conspicuous. Gottfried
had learned his best lessons from Hartmann von Aue, but he
was a more original and daring artificer of rhymes and rhythms
than that master; he delighted in the sheer music of words,
and indulged in antitheses and allegorical conceits to an extent
that proved fatal to his imitators. As far as beauty of expression
is concerned, Gottfried's Tristan is the masterpiece of the German
court epic.
Gottfried's Tristan has been frequently edited: by H. F. Massman
(Leipzig, 1843); by R. Bech stein (2 vols., 3rd ed., Leipzig, 1890-
1891); by W. Gofther (2 vols., Stuttgart, 1889); by K. Marold
(1906). Translations into modern German have been made by H.
Kurz (Stuttgart, 1844); by K. Simrock (Leipzig, 1855); and, best
of all, by W. Hertz (Stuttgart, 1877). There is also an abbreviated
English translation by Jessie L. Weston (London^ 1899). The
continuation of Ulrich von Turheim will be found in Massman's
edition; that by Heinrich von Freiberg has been separately edited
by R. Bechstein (Leipzig, 1877). See also R. Heinzel, " Gottfrieds
von Strassburg Tristan und seine Quelle " in the Zeit. far deut. Alt.
xiv. (1869), pp« 272 ff.; W. Golther, Die Sage von Tristan und
Isolde (Nlunich, 1887); F. Piquet, UOriginalitt de Gottfried de
Strasbourg dans son pohne de Tristan et Isolde (Lille, 1905). K.
Immermann (q.v.) has written an epic of Tristan und Isolde (1840),
R. Wagner (q.v.) a musical drama (1865). Cp. R. Bechstein, Tristan
und Isolde in der deutscken Dicktung der Neuzeit (Leipzig, 1877).
GflTTINGEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Hanover, pleasantly situated at the west foot of the Hainberg
(1200 ft.), in the broad and fertile valley of the Leine, 67 m. S.
from Hanover, on the railway to Cassel. Pop. (1875) 17,057,
(1005) 34,030. It is traversed by the Leine canal, which separates
the Altstadt from the Neustadt and from Masch, and is surrounded
by ramparts, which are planted with lime-trees and form an
agreeable promenade. The streets in the older part of the town
are for the most part crooked and narrow, but the newer portions
are spaciously and regularly built. Apart from the Protestant
churches of St John, with twin towers, and of St James, with a
high tower (290 ft.), the medieval town hall, built in the 14th
century and restored in 1880, and the numerous university
buildings, Gdttingen possesses few structures of any public
importance. There are several thriving industries, including,
besides the various branches of the publishing trade, the manu-
facture of cloth and woollens and of mathematical and other
scientific instruments.
The university, the famous Georgia Augusta, founded by
George II. in 1734 and opened in 1737, rapidly attained a leading
position, and in 1823 its students numbered 1547- Political
disturbances, in which both professors and students were im-
plicated, lowered the attendance to 860 in 1834. The expulsion
in 1837 of the famous seven professors — Die G&Uinger Sieben —
viz. the Germanist, Wilhelm Eduard Albrecht (1800-1876);
the historian, Friedrich Christoph Dahlmann (1785-1860);
the orientalist, Georg Heinrich August Ewald (1803-1875);
the historian, Georg Gottfried Gervinus (1 805-1875); the
physicist, Wilhelm Eduard Weber (1804-1891); and the philo-
logists, the brothers Jacob Ludwig Karl Grimm (1785-1863),
and Wilhelm Karl Grimm (1786-1859), — for protesting against
the revocation by King Ernest Augustus of Hanover of the
liberal constitution of 1833, further reduced the prosperity of
the university. The events of 1848, on the other hand, told
somewhat in its favour; and, since the annexation of Hanover in
1866, it has been carefully fostered by the Prussian government.
In 1903 its teaching staff numbered 121 and its students 1529.
The main university building lies on the Wilhelmsplatz, and,
adjoining, is the famous library of 500,000 vols, and 5300 MSS.,
the richest collection of modern literature in Germany. There
is a good chemical laboratory as well as adequate zoological,
ethnographical and mineralogical collections, the most remark*
able being Blumenbach's famous collection of skulls in the
anatomical institute. There are also a celebrated observatory,
long under the direction of Wilhelm Klinkerfues (1827-1884),
a botanical garden, an agricultural institute and various hospitals,
all connected with the university. Of the scientific societies
the most noted is the Royal Society of Sciences {Kdnigliche
SozietiLt der Wissenschaften) founded by Albrecht von Haller,
which is divided into three classes, the physical, the mathematical
and the historical-philological. It numbers about 80 members
and publishes the well-known Gottingische gelehrle Anzeigen*
There are monuments in the town to the mathematicians K. F.
Gauss and W. E. Weber, and also to the poet G. A. Burger.
The earliest mention of a village of Goding or Gutingi occurs
in documents of about 950 a.d. The place received municipal
rights from the German king Otto IV. about 12 10, and from
1286 to 1463 it was the seat of the princely house of Brunswick*
Gottingen. During the 14th century it held a high place among
the towns of the Hanseatic League. In 1531 it joined the
Reformation movement, and in the following century it suffered
considerably in the Thirty Years' War, being taken by Tilly
in 1626, after a siege of 25 days, and recaptured by the
Saxons in 1632. After a century of decay, it was anew brought
into importance by the establishment of its university; and a
marked increase in its industrial and commercial prosperity
has again taken place in recent years. Towards the end of the
1 8th century Gottingen was the centre of a society of young
poets of the Sturm und Drang period of German literature, known
as the Gotlinger Dichterbund or Hainbund (see Germany:
Literature).
See Freusdorff, Gottingen in Vergangenheit und Gegenwart TGdttin-
§en, 1887); the Urkundenbuch der Stadt Gottingen, edited by G.
chmidt, A. Hasselblatt and G. Kastner; Unger, GdtUngen und die
Georgia Augusta (1861); and Gottinqer Professoren (Gotha, 1872);
and O. Mejer, Kulturgeschichtliche Btlder aus Gotlinger (1889).
GtiTTUNG, CARL WILHELM (1 793-1869), German classical
scholar, was born at Jena on the 19th of January 1793.
He studied at the universities of Jena and Berlin, took part
in the war against France in 18 14, and finally settled down
in 1822 as professor at the university of his native town, where
he continued to reside till his death on the 20th of January
1869. In his early years Gottling devoted himself to German
literature, and published two works on the Nibelungen: t)ber das
Geschichtiicke im Nibdungenliede (1814) and Nibelungen und
Gibelinen (181 7). The greater part of his life, however, was
devoted to the study of classical literature, especially the elucida-
tion of Greek authors. The contents of his Gesamtnelte Abhand-
lungen aus dem klassiscken Altertum (1851-1863) and Opuscula
Academica (published in 1869 after his death) sufficiently indicate
the varied nature of his studies. He edited the Texvn (gram-
matical manual) of Theodosius of Alexandria (1822), Aristotle's
Politics (1824), and Economics (1830) and Hesiod (1831; 3rd ecL
by J. Flach, 1878). Mention may also be made of his Allgemeine
Lckre vom Accent der grieckischen Sprache (1835), enlarged from a
GOTTSCHALK— GOTTSCHED
279
smaller work, which was translated into English (1831) as the
Elements of Greek Accentuation; and of his Correspondence with
Goethe (published 1880).
See memoirs by C. Nipperdey, his colleague at Jena (1869), G.
Lothholz (Stargard, 1 876), K. Fischer (preface to the Opuscula
Academical and C. Bursian in Aligemeine deutsche Biographic, ix.
GOTTSCHALK [Godescalus, Gottescale], (c, 808-867?),
German theologian, was born near Mainz, and was devoted
(pblatus) from infancy by his parents, — his father was a Saxon,
Count Bern, — to the monastic life. He was trained at the
monastery of Fulda, then under the abbot Hrabanus Maurus, and
became the friend of Walafrid Strabo and Ijoup of Ferrieres. In
June 829, at the synod of Mainz, on the pretext that he had been
unduly constrained by his abbot, he sought and obtained his
liberty, withdrew first to Corbie, where he met Ratramnus, and
then to the monastery of Orbais in the diocese of Soissons.
There he studied St Augustine, with the result that he became an
enthusiastic believer in the doctrine of absolute predestination, in
one point going beyond his master — Gottschalk believing in a
predestination to condemnation as well as in a predestination to
salvation, while Augustine had contented himself with the
doctrine of pretention as complementary to the doctrine of elec-
tion. Between 835 and 840 Gottschalk was ordained priest,
without the knowledge of his bishop, by Rigbold, chorepiscopusoi
Reims. Before 840, deserting his monastery, he went to Italy,
preached there his doctrine of double predestination, and entered
into relations with Notting, bishop of Verona, and Eberhard,
count of Friuli. Driven from Italy through the influence of
Hrabanus Maurus, now archbishop of Mainz, who wrote two
violent letters to Notting and Eberhard, he travelled through
Dalmatia, Pannonia and Norica, but continued preaching and
writing. In October 848 he presented to the synod at Mainz a
profession of faith and a refutation of the ideas expressed by
Hrabanus Maurus in his letter to Notting. He was convicted,
however, of heresy, beaten, obliged to swear that he would never
again enter the territory of Louis the German, and handed over
to Hincmar, archbishop of Reims, who sent him back to his
monastery at Orbais. The next year at a provincial council at
Quierzy, presided over by Charles the Bald, he attempted to
justify his ideas, but was again condemned as a heretic and
disturber of the public peace, was degraded from the priesthood,
whipped, obliged to burn his declaration of faith, and shut up in
the monastery of Hautvilliers, There Hincmar tried again to
induce him to retract. Gottschalk however continued to defend
his doctrine, writing to his friends and to the most eminent theo-
logians of France and Germany. A great controversy resulted.
Prudentius, bishop of Troyes, Wenilo of Sens, Ratramnus of
Corbie, Loup of Ferrieres and Florus of Lyons wrote in his
favour. Hincmar wrote De praedestinatione and De una non
trina deitate against his views, but gained little aid from
Johannes Scotus Erigena, whom he had called in as an authority.
The question was discussed at the councils of Kiersy (853), of
Valence (855) and of Savonnieres (859). Finally the pope
Nicolas I. took up the case, and summoned Hincmar to the
council of Metz (863). Hincmar either could not or would not
appear, but declared that Gottschalk might go to defend himself
before the pope. Nothing came of this, however, and when
Hincmar learned that Gottschalk had fallen ill, he forbade him
the sacraments or burial in consecrated ground unless he would
recant. This Gottschalk refused to do. He died on the 30th of
October between 866 and 870.
Gottschalk was a vigorous and original thinker, but also of a
violent temperament, incapable of discipline or moderation in
his ideas as in his conduct. He was less an innovator than a
reactionary. Of his many works we have only the two pro-
fessions of faith (cf. Migne, PatrologiaLatina, cxxi. c. 347 et seq.),
and some poems, edited by L. Traube in Monumenta Germaniae
historical Poetae Latini aevi Carolini (t. iii. 707-738). Some
fragments of his theological treatises have been preserved in the
writings of Hincmar, Erigena, Ratramnus and Loup of Ferrieres.
From the 17th century, when the Jansenists exalted Gottschalk,
much has been written on him. Mention may be made of. two
recent studies, F. Pica vet, " Les Discussions sur la liberte* au temps
de Gottschalk, de Raban Maur, d'Hincmar, et de Jean Scot," in
Comptes rendus de Vacad. des sciences morales et politiques (Paris,
1896); and A. Freystedt, " Studien zu Gottschalks Leben und
Lehre," in ZeitschriftfUr Kirchengeschichte (1897), vol. xviii.
GOTTSCHALL, RUDOLF VON (1823-1909), German man of
letters, was born at Breslau on the 30th of September 1823, the
son of a Prussian artillery officer. He received his early educa-
tion at the gymnasia in Mainz and Coburg, and subsequently at
Rastenburg in East Prussia. In 1841 he entered the university
of Konigsberg as a student of law, but, in consequence of his
pronounced liberal opinions, was expelled. The academic
authorities at Breslau and Leipzig were not more tolerant
towards the young fire-eater, and it was only in Berlin that he
jeventually found himself free to prosecute his studies. During
this period of unrest he issued Lieder der Gegenwart (1842) and
ZensurfiuchUinge (i843)-H;he poetical fruits of his political
enthusiasm. He completed his studies in Berlin, took the degree
of doctor juris in Konigsberg, and endeavoured to obtain there the
venia legendi. His political views again stood in the way, and
forsaking the legal career, Gottschall now devoted himself entirely
to literature. He met with immediate success, and beginning as
dramaturge in Konigsberg with Der Blinde von Alcala (1846) and
Lord Byron in Italien (1847) proceeded to Hamburg where he
occupied a similar position. In 1852 he married Marie, baroness
von Seherr-Thoss, and for the next few years lived in Silesia.
In 1862 he took over the editorship of a Posen newspaper, but in
1864 removed to Leipzig. Gottschall was raised, in 1877, by the
king of Prussia to the hereditary nobility with the prefix " von,"
having been previously made a Geheimer H of rat by the grand duke
of Weimar. Down to 1887 Gottschall edited the Brockhaus'sche ,
BUitter filr liUerarische Unterhaltung and the monthly periodical
Unsere Zeit. He died at Leipzig on the 21st of March 1909.
Gottschall's prolific literary productions cover the fields of
poetry, novel- writing and literary criticism. Among his volumes
of lyric poetry are Sebastopol (1856), Janus (1873), Bunte Blillen
(1891). Among his epics, Carlo Zeno (1854), Maja (1864), dealing
with an episode in the Indian Mutiny, and Merlins Wande-
rungen (1887). The comedy Pitt und Fox (1854), first produced
on the stage in Breslau, was never surpassed by the other lighter
pieces of the author, among which may be mentioned Die Welt
des Schwindels and Der Spion von Rheinsberg. The tragedies,
Mazeppa, Catharine Howard, Amy Robsart and Der Gotze von
Venedig, were very successful; and the historical novels, Im
Banne des schwarzen Adlers (1875; 4th ed., 1884), Die Erbschaft
des Blutes (1881), Die TochterRUbe*ahls(T&&9), and VerkUmmerte
Existenzen (1892), enjoyed a high degree of popularity. As. a
critic and historian of literature Gottschall has also done excellent
work. His Die deutsche NationaUiteratur des iq. Jahrhunderts
(1855; 7th ed., 1901-1902), and Poelik (1858; 6th ed., 1903)
command the respect of all students of literature.
Gottschairs collected Dramatische Werke appeared in 12 vols, in
1880 (2nd ed„ 1884); he has also, in recent years, published many
volumes of collected essays and criticisms. See his autobiography,
Aus meiner Jugend (1898).
GOTTSCHED, JOHANN CHRISTOPH (1700-1766), German
author and critic, was born on the 2nd of February 1700, at
Judithenkirch near Konigsberg, the son of a Lutheran clergyman.
He studied philosophy and history at the university of his native
town, but immediately on taking the degree of M agister in 1723,
fled to Leipzig in order to evade impressment in the Prussian
military service. Here he enjoyed the protection of J. B.
Mencke (1 674-1 732), who, under the name of " Philander von
der Linde," was a well-known poet and also president of the
Deutschilbende poetische GeseUschaft in Leipzig. Of this society
Gottsched was elected " Senior" in 1726, and in the next year
reorganized it under the title of the Deutsche GeseUschaft. In
1730 he was appointed extraordinary professor of poetry, and,
in 1734, ordinary professor of logic and metaphysics in the
university. He died at Leipzig on the 1 2th of December 1766.
Gottsched's chief work was his Versuch einer krUischen
Dichtkunst filr die Deutschen (1730), the first systematic treatise
in German on the art of poetry from the standpoint of Boileau.
His Ausfilhrliche Redekunst (1728) and his Grundlegung enter
28o
GOTZ— GOUDIMEL
deutschen Sprachkunst (1748) were of importance for the develop-
ment of German style and the purification of the language.
He wrote several plays, of which Der sterbende Cato (1732), an
adaptation of Addison's tragedy and a French play on the same
theme, was long popular on the stage. In his Deutsche Schau-
bilhne (6 vols., 1 740-1 745), which contained mainly translations
from the French, he provided the German stage with a classical
repertory, and his bibliography of the German drama, Ndtiger
Vorrat zur Geschichte der deutschen dramatischen Dichtkunst
(1 757-1 765), is still valuable. He was also the editor of several
journals devoted to literary criticism. As a critic, Gottsched
insisted on German literature being subordinated to the laws
of French classicism; he enunciated rules by which the play-
wright must be bound, and abolished bombast and buffoonery
from the serious stage. While such reforms obviously afforded
a healthy corrective to the extravagance and want of taste
which were rampant in the German literature of the time,
Gottsched went too far. In 1740 he came into conflict with the
Swiss writers Johann Jakob Bodmer (q.v.) and Johann Jakob
Breitinger (1 701-1776), who, under the influence of Addison
and contemporary Italian critics, demanded that the poetic
imagination should not be hampered by artificial rules; they
pointed to the great English poets, and especially to Milton.
Gottsched, although not blind to the beauties of the English
writers, clung the more tenaciously to his principle that poetry
must be the product of rules, and, in the fierce controversy
which for a time raged between Leipzig and Zurich, he was
inevitably defeated. His influence speedily declined, and
before his death his name became proverbial for pedantic
folly.
His wife, Luise Adelgunde Victorie, n6e Kulmus (17 13-1762),
in some respects her husband's intellectual superior, was an
author of some reputation. She wrote several popular comedies,
of which Das Testament is the best, and translated the Spectator
(9 vols., 1 739-1 743)/ Pope's Rape of the Lock (1744) and other
English and French works. After her death her husband edited
her SitmUiche kleinere Gedichte with a memoir ( 1 763) .
See T. W. Danzel, Gottsched und seine Zeit (Leipzig, 1848); T.
Cruger, Gottsched, Bodmer, und Breitinger (with selections from their
writings) (Stuttgart, 1884); F. Servaes, Die Poetik Gottscheds und
der Schweizer (Strassburg, 1887); E. Wolff, Gottscheds SteUung im
deutschen Bildungsleben (2 vols., Kiel, 1895-1897), and G. Waniek,
Gottsched und die deutsche Literatur seiner Zeit (Leipzig, 1897). On
Frau Gottsched, see P. Schlenther, Frau Gottsched und die burgerliche
Komddie (Berlin, 1886).
G0TZ, JOHANN NIKOLAUS (1721-1781), German poet, was
born at Worms on the 9th of July 1721. He studied theology
at Halle (1 730-1 742), where he became intimate with the poets
Johann W. L. Gleim and Johann Peter Uz, acted for some years
as military chaplain, and afterwards filled various other ecclesi-
astical offices. He died at Winterburg on the 4th of November
1 78 1. The writings of Gotz consist of a number of short lyrics
and several translations, of which the best is a rendering of
Anacreon. His original compositions are light, lively and
sparkling, and are animated rather by French wit than by
German depth of sentiment. The best known of his poems is
Die Mddcheninsel, an elegy which met with the warm approval
of Frederick the Great.
Gdtz's Vermischte Gedichte were published with biography by
K. W. Ramlcr (Mannheim, 1785; new ed., 1807), and a collection of
his poems, dating from the years 1 745-1 765, has been edited by
C. Schuddekopf in the Deutsche Literaturdenkmale des 18. und 19.
Jahrhunderts (1893). See also Brief e von und an J. N. Gotz, edited
by C. SchUddekopf (1893).
GOUACHE, a French word adapted from the Ital. guazzo
(probably in origin connected with " wash ")> meaning literally
a " ford/' but used also fox a method of painting in opaque
water-colour. The colours axe mixed with or painted in a
vehicle of gum ox honey, and whereas in true water-colours
the high lights are obtained by leaving blank the surface of the
paper or other material used, or by allowing it to show through
a translucent wash in " gouache," these are obtained by white
or other light colour. " Gouache " is frequently used in miniature
painting.
GOUDA (or Ter Gotjwe), a town of Holland, in the province
of South Holland, on the north side of the Gouwe at its confluence
with the Ysel, and a junction station 1 2jm. by rail N.E. of Rotter-
dam. Pop. (1 900) 2 2,303 . Tramways connect it with Bodegraven
(5}m. N.) on the old Rhine and with Oudewater (8 m. E.) on
the Ysel; and there is a regular steamboat service in various
directions, Amsterdam being reached by the canalized Gouwe;
Aar, Drecht and Amstel. The town of Gouda is laid out in a
fine open manner and, like other Dutch towns, is intersected by
numerous canals. On its outskirts pleasant walks and fine
trees have replaced the old fortifications. The Groote Markt
is the largest market-square in Holland. Among the numerous
churches belonging to various denominations, the first place must
be given to the Groote Kerk of St John. It was founded in 1485,
but rebuilt after a fire in 1 5 5 2 , and is remarkable for its dimensions
(345 ft. long and 150 ft. broad), for a large and celebrated organ,
and a splendid series of over forty stained-glass windows presented
by cities and princes and executed by various well-known artists,
including the brothers Dirk (d. c.1577) and Wouter (d. c. 1590)
Crabeth, between the years 1555 and 1603 (see Explanation
of the Famous and Renowned Glass Works, 6W., Gouda, 1876,
reprinted from an older volume, 17 18). Other noteworthy
buildings are the Gothic town hall, founded in 1449 and rebuilt
in 1690, and the weigh-house, built by Pieter Post of Haarlem
( 1 608-1 669) and adorned with a fine relief by Barth. Eggers
(d. c. 1690). The museum of antiquities (1874) contains an
exquisite chalice of the year 1425 and some pictures and portraits
by Wouter Crabeth the younger, Corn. Ketel (a native of Gouda,
1548-1616) and Ferdinand Bol (1616-1680). Other buildings
are the orphanage, the hospital, a house of correction for women
and a music hall.
In the time of the counts the wealth of Gouda was mainly
derived from brewing and cloth- weaving; but at a later date
the making of clay tobacco pipes became the staple trade, and,
although this industry has somewhat declined, the churchwarden
pipes of Gouda are still well known and largely manufactured.
In winter-time it is considered a feat to skate hither from
Rotterdam and elsewhere to buy such a pipe and return with
it in one's mouth without its being broken. The mud from the
Ysel furnishes the material for large brick-works and potteries;
there are also a celebrated manufactory of stearine candles, a
yarn factory, an oil refinery and cigar factories. The transit
and shipping trade is considerable, and as one of the principal
markets of South Holland, the round, white Gouda cheeses are
known throughout Europe. Boskoop, 5 m. N. by W. of Gouda
on the Gouwe, is famous for its nursery gardens; and the little
old-world town of Oudewater as the birthplace of the famous
theologian Arminius in 1 560. The town hall (1 588) of Oudewater
contains a picture by Dirk Stoop (d. 1686), commemorating
the capture of the town by the Spaniards in 1575 and the
subsequent sack and massacre.
GOUDIMEL, CLAUDE, muscial composer of the 16th century,
was born about 1510. The French and the Belgians claim him
as their countryman. In all probability he was born at Besancon,
for in his edition of the songs of Arcadelt, as well as in the mass
of 1554, he calls himself " natif de Besancon " and " Claudius
Godimellus Vescontinus." This discountenances the theory of
Ambros that he was born at Vaison near Avignon. As to his
early education we know little or nothing, but the excellent
Latin in which some of his letters were written proves that,
in addition to his musical knowledge, he also acquired a good
classical training. It is supposed that he was in Rome in 1540
at the head of a music-school, and that besides many other
celebrated musicians, Palestrina was amongst his pupils. About
the middle of the century he seems to have left Rome for Paris,
where, in conjunction with Jean Duchemin, he published, in
1555, a musical setting of Horace's Odes. Infinitely more
important is another collection of vocal pieces, a setting of the
celebrated French version of the Psalms by Marot and Beza
published in 1565. It is written in four parts, the melody being
assigned to the tenor. The invention of the melodies was long
ascribed to Goudimel, but they have now definitely been proved
GOUFFIER-— GOUGH, VISCOUNT
281
to have originated in popular tune? found in the collections of
this period. Some of these tunes are still used by the French
Protestant Church. Others were adopted by the German
Lutherans, a German imitation of the French versions of the
Psalms in the same metres having been published at* an early
date. Although the French version of the Psalms was at first
used by Catholics as well as Protestants, there is little doubt
that Goudimel had embraced the new faith. In Michel Brenet's
Biographie (Annates franc-cuntoises, Besancon, 1898, P. Jacquin)
it is established that in Metz, where he was living in 1 565, Goudi-
mel moved in Huguenot circles, and even figured as godfather
to the daughter of the president of Senneton. Seven years
later he fell a victim to religious fanaticism during the St
Bartholomew massacres at Lyons from the 27th to the 28th of
August 1572, his death, it is stated, being due to " les ennemis
de la gloire de Dieu et quelques mechants envieux de l'honneur
qu'il avait acquis." Masses and motets belonging to his Roman
period are found in the Vatican library, and in the archives
of various churches in Rome; others were published. Thus
the work entitled Missae tres a Claudio Goudimel praestaniissimo
musico auctore, nunc primum in lucem editae, contains one mass
by the learned editor himself, the other two being by Claudius
Sermisy and Jean Maillard respectively. Another collection,
La Fleur des chansons des deux plus excellens musiciens de nostre
temps, consists of part songs by Goudimel and Orlando di Lasso.
Burney gives in his history a motet of Goudimel's Domine quid
multiplicati sunt.
GOUFFIER, the name of a great French family, which owned
the estate of Bonnivet in Poitou from the 14th century. Guil-
laume Gouffier, chamberlain to Charles VII., was an inveterate
enemy of Jacques Coeur, obtaining his condemnation and after-
wards receiving his property (149 1). He had a great number
of children, several of whom played a part in history. Artus,
seigneur de Boisy (c. 147 5-1 5 20) was entrusted with the education
of the young count of Angouleme (Francis I.), and on the acces-
sion of this prince to the throne as Francis I. became grand
master of the royal household, playing an important part in the
government; to him was given the task of negotiating the
treaty of Noyon in 151 6; and shortly before his death the king
raised the estates of Roanne and Boisy to the rank of a duchy,
that of Roannais, in his favour. Adrien Gouffier (d. 1523)
was bishop of Coutances and Albi, and grand almoner of France.
Guillaume Gouffier, seigneur de Bonnivet, became admiral
of France (see Bonnivet). Claude Gouffier, son of Artus,
was created comte de Maulevrier (1542) and marquis de Boisy
(1564).
There were many branches of this family > the chief of them
being the dukes of Roannais, the counts of Caravas, the lords of
Crevecoeur and of Bonnivet, the marquises of Thois, of Brazeux,
and«of Espagny. The name of Gouffier was adopted in the 18th
century by a branch of the house of ChoiseuL (M. P.*)
GOUGE, MARTIN (c. 13 60-1 444), surnamed de Charpaigne,
French chancellor, was born at Bourges about 1360. A canon
of Bourges, in 1402 he became treasurer to John, duke of Bern,
and in 1406 bishop of Chartres. He was arrested by John the
Fearless, duke of Burgundy, with the hapless Jean de Montaigu
(1340-1400) in 1409, but was soon released and then banished.
Attaching himself to the dauphin Louis, duke of Guienne, he
became his chancellor, the king's ambassador in Brittany, and a
member of the grand council; and on the 13th of May 1415,
he was transferred from the see of Chartres to that of Clermont-
Ferrand. In May 1418, when the Burgundians re-entered Paris,
he only escaped death at their hands by taking refuge in the
Bastille. He then left Paris, but only to fall into the hands of
his enemy, the duke de la Tr6moille, who imprisoned him in
the castle of Sully. Rescued by the dauphin Charles, he was
appointed chancellor of France on the 3rd of February 1422.
He endeavoured to reconcile Burgundy and France, was a party
to the selection of Arthur, earl of Richmond, as constable, but
had to resign his chancellorship in favour of Regnault of Chartres ;
first from March 25th to August 6th 1425, and again when La
Tremoille had supplanted Richmond. After the fall of La
Tr6moille in 1433 he returned to court, and exercised a powerful
influence over affairs of state almost till his death, which took
place at the castle, of Beaulieu (Puy-de-D6me) on. the 25th or
26th of November 1444.
See Hirer's account in the MSmoires de la SocUU des AnHquaires
du Centre, p. 267 (1869) ; and the NouveUe Biographie generate, vol.
xxi.
GOUGE (adopted from the Fr. gouge, derived from the Late
Lat. gubia or gulbia, in Ducange gulbium, an implement ad
hortum excolendum, and also instrummtum ferreum in usu
fabrorum; according to the New English Dictionary the word
is probably of Celtic origin, gylf, a beak, appearing in Welsh,
and gilb, a boring tool, in Cornish), a tool of the chisel type with
a curved blade, used for scooping a groove or channel in wood,
stone, &c. (see Tool). A similar instrument is used in surgery
for operations involving the excision of portions of bone.
" Gouge " is also used as the name of a bookbinder's tool, for
impressing a curved line on the leather, and for the line so im-
pressed. In mining, a " gouge " is the layer of soft rock or earth
sometimes found in each side of a vein of coal or ore, which the
miner can scoop out with his pick, and thus attack the vein more
easily from the side. The verb " to gouge " is used in the sense
of scooping or forcing out.
GOUGH, HUGH GOUGH, Viscount (1770-1869), British
field-marshal, a descendant of Francis Gough who was made
bishop of Limerick in 1626, was born at Woodstown, Limerick,
on the 3rd of November 1779. Having obtained a commission
in the army in August 1794, he served with the 78th Highlanders
at the Cape of Good Hope, taking part in the capture of Cape
Town and of the Dutch fleet in Saldanha Bay in 1706. His
next service was in the West Indies, where, with the 87th
(Royal Irish Fusiliers), he shared in the attack on Porto Rico,
the capture of Surinam, and the brigand war in St Lucia. In
1809 he was called to take part in the Peninsular War, and,
joining the army under Wellington, commanded his regiment as
major in the operations before Oporto, by which the town was
taken from the French. At Talavera he was severely wounded,
and had his horse shot under him. For his conduct on this
occasion he was afterwards promoted lieutenant-colonel, his
commission, on the recommendation of Wellington, being
antedated from the day of the duke's despatch. He was thus
the first officer who ever received brevet rank for services
performed in the field at the head of a regiment. He was next
engaged at the battle of Barrosa, at which his regiment captured
a French eagle. At the defence of Tarifa the post of danger
was assigned to him, and he compelled the enemy to raise the
siege. At Vitoria, where Gough again distinguished himself,
his regiment captured the baton of Marshal Jourdan. He was
again severely wounded at Nivelle, and was soon after created a
knight of St Charles by the king of Spain. At the close of the
war he'returned home and enjoyed a respite of some years from
active service. He next took command of a regiment stationed
in the south of Ireland, discharging at the same time the duties
of a magistrate during a period of agitation. Gough was pro-
moted major-general in 1830. Seven years later he was sent to
India to take command of the Mysore division of the army.
But not long after his arrival in India the difficulties which led
to the first Chinese war made the presence of an energetic general
on the scene indispensable, and Gough was appointed commander-
in-chief of the British forces in China. This post he held during
all the operations of the war; and by his great achievements
and numerous victories in the face of immense difficulties, he
at length enabled the English plenipotentiary, Sir H. Pottinger,
to dictate peace on his own terms. After the conclusion of the
treaty of Nanking in August 1842 the British forces were with-
drawn; and before the close of the year Gough, who had been
made a G.C.B. in the previous year for his services in the capture
of the Canton forts, was created a baronet. In August 1843 he
was appointed commander-in-chief of the British forces in India,
and in December he took the command in person against the
Mahrattas, and defeated them at Maharajp'ur, capturing more
than fifty guns. In 1845 occurred the rupture with the Sikhs,
282
GOUGH, J. B.— GOUJON, JEAN
who crossed the Sutlej in large numbers, and Sir Hugh Gough
conducted the operations against them, being well supported
by Lord Hardinge, the governor-general, who volunteered to
serve under him. Successes in the hard-fought battles of
Mudki and Ferozeshah were succeeded by the victory of
Sobraon, and shortly afterwards the Sikhs sued for peace at
Lahore. The services of Sir Hugh Gough were rewarded by
his elevation to the peerage of the United Kingdom as Baron
Gough (April 1846). The war broke out again in 1848, and
again Lord Gough took the field; but the result of the battle
of Chillianwalla being equivocal, he was superseded by the
home authorities in favour of Sir Charles Napier; before the
news of the supersession arrived Lord Gough had finally crushed
the Sikhs in the battle of Gujarat (February 1849). His tactics
during the Sikh wars were the subject of an embittered contro-
versy (see Sikh Wars). Lord Gough now returned to England,
was raised to a viscountcy, and for the third time received the
thanks of both Houses of Parliament. A pension of £2000 per
annum was granted to him by parliament, and an equal pension
by the East India Company. He did not again see active service.
In 1854 he was appointed colonel of the Royal Horse Guards,
and two years later he was sent to the Crimea to invest Marshal
Pelissier and other officers with the insignia of the Bath. Honours
were multiplied upon him during his latter years. He was made
a knight of St Patrick, being the first knight of the order who
did not hold an Irish peerage, was sworn a privy councillor,
was named a G.C.S.I., and in November 1862 was made field-
marshal. He was twice married, and left children by both his
wives. He died on the 2nd of March 1869.
See R. S. Rait, Lord Gough (1903) ; and Sir W. Lee Warner, Lord
Dalhousie (1904).
GOUGH, JOHN BARTHOLOMEW (1817-1886), American
temperance orator, was born at Sandgate, Kent, England, on
the 22nd of August 181 7. He was educated by his mother,
a schoolmistress, and at the age of twelve was sent to the United
States to seek his fortune. He lived for two years with family
friends on a farm in western New York, and then entered a
book-bindery in New York City to learn the trade. There in
1833 his mother joined him, but after her death in 1835 he fell
in with dissolute companions, and became a confirmed drunkard.
He lost his position, and for several years supported himself
as a ballad singer and story-teller in the cheap theatres and
concert-halls of New York and other eastern cities* Even this
means of livelihood was being closed to him, when in Worcester,
Massachusetts, in 1842 he was induced to sign a temperance
pledge. After several lapses and a terrific struggle, he determined
to devote his life to lecturing in behalf of temperance reform.
Gifted with remarkable powers of pathos and of description,
he was successful from the start, and was soon known and sought
after throughout the entire country, his appeals, which were
directly personal and emotional, being attended with extra-
ordinary responses. He continued his work until the end of his
life, made several tours of England, where his American success
was repeated, and died at his work, being stricken with apoplexy
on the lecture platform at Frankford, Pennsylvania, where he
passed away two days later, on the 18th of February 1886.
He published an Autobiography (1846); Orations (1854); Tem-
perance Addresses (1870); Temperance Lectures (1879); and Sun-
light and Shadow, or Gleanings from My Life Work (1880).
GOUGH, RICHARD (1 735-1809), English antiquary, was born
in London on the 2 1st of October 1 73 5. His father was a wealthy
M.P. and director of the East India Company. Gough was a
precocious child, and at twelve had translated from the French
a history of the Bible, which his mother printed for private
circulation. When fifteen he translated Abbe Fleury's work on
the Israelites; and at sixteen he published an elaborate work
entitled Atlas Renovatus, or Geography modernized. In 1752
he entered Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, where he began
his work on British topography, published in 1768. Leaving
Cambridge in 1756, he began a series of antiquarian excursions
in various parts of Great Britain. In 1773 ne began an edition
in English of. Camden's Britannia, which appeared in 1789.
Meantime he published, in 1786, the first volume of his splendid
work, the Sepulchral Monuments of Great Britain, applied to
illustrate the history of families manners, habits, and arts at the
different periods from the Norman Conquest to the Seventeenth
Century. This volume, which contained the first four centuries,
was followed in 1796 by a second volume containing the 15th
century, and an introduction to the second volume appeared
in 1 799. Gough was chosen a fellow of the Society of Antiquaries
of London in 1767, and from 1771 to 1791 he was its director.
He was elected F.R.S. in 1775. He died at Enfield on the 20th
of February 1809. His books and manuscripts relating to
Anglo-Saxon and northern literature, all his collections in the
department of British topography, and a large number of his
drawings and engravings of other archaeological remains, were
bequeathed to the university of Oxford.
Among the minor works of Gough are An Account of ike Bedford
Missal (m MS.); A Catalogue of the Coins of Canute, King of
Denmark (1777); History of Fleshy in Essex (1803); An Account of
the Coins of the Seleucidae, Kings of Syria (1804) ; and " History of the
Society of Antiquaries of London/' prefixed to their Archaeologia.
GOUJET, CLAUDE PIERRE (1697-1767), French abb6 and
litt6rateur, was born in Paris on the 19th of October 1697.
He studied at the College of the Jesuits, and at the College
Mazarin, but he nevertheless became a strong Jansenist. In
1705 he assumed the ecclesiastical habit, in 17 19 entered the
order of Oratorians, and soon afterwards was named canon
of St Jacques l'Hdpital. On account of his extreme Jansenist
opinions he suffered considerable persecution from the Jesuits,
and several of his works were suppressed at their instigation.
In his latter years his health began to fail, and he lost his
eyesight. Poverty compelled him to sell his library, a sacrifice
which hastened his death, which took place at Paris on the
1st of February 1767.
He is the author of Supplement au dictionnaire de MorSri (1735),
and a Nouveau SuppUment to a subsequent edition of the work;
he collaborated in Bibliotheque francat$e t ou histoire litUraire de
la France (18 vols., Paris, 1 740-1 759); and in the Vies des saints
(7 vols., 1730); he also wrote Mimoires historiques et litter aires sur
le col&ge royal de France (1758); Histoire des Inquisitions (Paris,
1752); and supervised an edition of Richelet's Dictionnaire, of
which he has also given an abridgment. He helped the abbe Fabre
in his continuation of Fleury's Histoire eccttsiastiquc*
See Mimoires hist, et lilt, de I' abbe Goujet (1767).
GOUJON, JEAN (c. 1520-c. 1566), French sculptor of the
1 6th century. Although some evidence has been offered in
favour of the date 1520 (Archives de Vart franqais, m. 350),
the time and place of his birth are still uncertain. The
first mention of his name occurs in the accounts of the church
of St Maclou at Rouen in the year 1546, and in the following
year he was employed at the cathedral of the same town, where
he added to the tomb of Cardinal d'Amboise a statue of his
nephew Georges, afterwards removed, and possibly carved
portions of the tomb of Louis de Brez6, executed some time after
1545. On leaving Rouen, Goujon was employed by Pierre
Lescot, the celebrated architect of the Louvre, on the restorations
of St-Germain l'Auxerrois; the building accounts — some of
which for the years 1 542-1 544 were discovered by M. de Laborde
on a piece of parchment binding — specify as his work, not only
the carvings of the pulpit (Louvre), but also a Notre Dame de
Piete, now lost. In 1547 appeared Martin's French translation
of Vitruvius, the illustrations of which were due, the translator
tells us in his " Dedication to the King," to Goujon, " nagueres
architecte de Monseigneur le Connetable, et maintenant un des
vdtres." We learn from this statement not only that Goujon
had been taken into the royal service on the accession of Henry
II., but also that he had been previously employed under Bullant
on the chateau of ficouen. Between 1547 and 1549 he was
employed in the decoration of the Loggia ordered from Lescot
for the entry of Henry II. into Paris, which took place on the
16th of June 1549. Lescot's edifice was reconstructed at the
end of the 18th century by Bernard Poyet into the Fontaine'
des Innocents, this being a considerable variation of the original
design. At the Louvre, Goujon, under the direction of Lescot,
executed the carvings of the south-west angle of the court, the
GOUJON, J. M.— GOULBURN, H.
*8 3
reliefs of the Escalier Henri II., and the Tribune des Cariatides,
for which he received 737 livres on the 5th of September 1350.
Between 1548 and 1554 rose the ch&teau d'Anet, in the embel-
lishment of which Goujon was associated with Philibert Delorme
in the service of Diana of Poitiers. Unfortunately the building
accounts of Anet have disappeared, but Goujon executed a
vast number of other works of equal importance, destroyed or
lost in the great Revolution. In 1555 his name appears again
in the Louvre accounts, and continues to do so every succeeding
year up to 1562, when all trace of him is lost. In the course of
this year an attempt was made to turn out of the royal employ-
ment all those who were suspected of Huguenot tendencies.
Goujon has always been claimed as a Reformer; it is consequently
possible that he was one of the victims of this attack. We should
therefore probably ascribe the work attributed to him in the
H6tel Carnavalet (in situ), together with much else executed
in various parts of Paris — but now dispersed or destroyed —
to a period intervening between the date of his dismissal from
the Louvre and his death, which is computed to have taken
place between 1564 and 1568, probably at Bologna. The
researches of M. Tomaso Sandonnini (see Gazette des Beaux Arts,
2* periode, vol. xxxi.) have finally disposed of the supposition,
long entertained, that Goujon died during the St Bartholomew
massacre in 1572.
List of authentic works of Jean Goujon: Two marble columns
supporting the organ of the church of St Maclou (Rouen) on
right and left of porch on entering; left-hand gate of the church
of St Maclou; bas-reliefs for decoration of screen of St Germain
l'Auxerrois (now in Louvre) ; " Victory " over chimney-piece
of Salle des Gardes at £couen; altar at Chantilly; illustrations
for Jean Martin's translation of Vitruvius; bas-reliefs and
sculptural decoration of Fontaine des Innocents; bas-reliefs
adorning entrance of Hotel Carnavalet, also series of satyrs'
heads on keystones of arcade of courtyard; fountain of Diana
from Anet (now in Louvre); internal decoration of chapel at
Anet; portico of Anet (now in courtyard of ficole des Beaux
Arts) ; bust of Diane de Poictiers (now at Versailles) ; Tribune
of Caryatides in the Louvre; decoration of " Escalier Henri
II., " Louvre; ceils de boeuf and decoration of Henri II. facade,
Louvre; groups for pediments of facade now placed over
entrance to Egyptian and Assyrian collections, Louvre.
See A. A. Pottier, (Euvres de Goujon (1844); Reginald Lister,
Jean Goujon (London, 1903).
GOUJON, JEAN MARIE CLAUDE ALEXANDRE (1 766-1 795),
French publicist and statesman, was born at Bourg on the
13th of April 1766, the son of a postmaster. The boy went
early to sea, and saw righting when he was twelve years old;
in 1790 he settled at Meudon, and began to make good his lack
of education. As procureur-general-syndic of the department
of Seine-et-Oise, in August, 1 792, he had to supply the inhabitants
with food, and fulfilled his difficult functions with energy and
tact. In the Convention, which he entered on the death of
Herault de S6chelles, he took his seat on the benches of the
Mountain. He conducted a mission to the armies of the Rhine
and the Moselle with creditable moderation, and was a con-
sistent advocate of peace within the republic. Nevertheless-
he was a determined opponent of the counter-revolution, which
he denounced in the Jacobin Club and from the Mountain
after his recall to Paris, following on the revolution of the 9th
Thermidor (July 27, 1794). He was one of those who protested
against the readmission of Louvet and other survivors of the
Girondin party to the Convention in March 1795; and, when
the populace invaded the legislature on the 1st Prairial (May
20, 1795) and compelled the deputies to legislate in accordance
with their desires, he proposed the immediate establishment
of a special commission which should assure the execution of
the proposed changes and assume the functions of the various
committees. The failure of the insurrection involved the fall
of those deputies who had supported the demands of the populace.
Before the close of the sitting, Goujon, with Romme, Duroi,
Duquesnoy, Bourbotte, Soubrany and others were put under
arrest by their colleagues, and on their way to the .ch&teau
of Taureau in Brittany bad a narrow escape from a mob at
Avranches. They were brought back to Paris for trial before
a military commission on the 17th of June, and, though no proof
of their complicity in organizing the insurrection could be found —
they were, in fact, with the exception of Goujon and Bourbotte,
strangers to one another — they were condemned. In accordance
with a pre-arranged plan, they attempted suicide on the stair-
case leading from the court-room with a knife which Goujon
had successfully concealed. Romme, Goujon and Duquesnoy
succeeded, but the other three merely inflicted wounds which
did not prevent their being taken immediately to the guillotine.
With their deaths the Mountain ceased to exist as a party.
See J. Claretie, Les Dernier s Montagnards, histoire de I insurrection
de Prairial an III d'aprhs les documents (1867) ; Defense du repri-
sentant du peuple Goujon (Paris, no date), with the letters and a hymn
written by Goujon during his imprisonment. For other documents
see Maunce Tourneux (Paris, 1890, vol. i., pp. 422-425).
GOULBURN, EDWARD MBYRICK (1818-1897), English
churchman, son of Mr Serjeant Goulburn, M.P., recorder of
Leicester, and nephew of the Right Hon. Henry Goulburn,
chancellor of the exchequer in the ministries of Sir Robert Peel
and the duke of Wellington, was born in London on the itth of
February 1818, and was educated at Eton and at BaUiol College,
Oxford. In 1839 he became fellow and tutor of Merton, and in
1841 and 1843 was ordained deacon and priest respectively.
For some years he held the living of Holywell, Oxford, and was
chaplain to Samuel Wilberforce, bishop of the diocese. In
1849 he succeeded Tait as headmaster of Rugby, but in 1857
he resigned, and accepted the charge of Quebec Chapel, Maryle-
bone. In 1858 he became a prebendary of St Paul's, and in
1859 vicar of St John's, Paddington. In 1866 he was made
dean of Norwich, and in that office exercised a long and marked
influence on church life. A strong Conservative and a churchman
of traditional orthodoxy, he was a keen antagonist of " higher
criticism " and of all forms of rationalism. His Thoughts on
Personal Religion (1862) and The Pursuit of Holiness were
well received; and he wrote the Life (1892) of his friend Dean
Burgon, with whose doctrinal views he was substantially in
agreement. He resigned the deanery in 1889, and died at
Tunbridge Wells on the 3rd of May 1897.
See Life by £. Compton (1809).
GOULBURN* HENRY (1 784-1 856), English statesman, was
born in London on the 19th of March 1784 and was educated at
Trinity College, Cambridge. In 1808 he became member of
parliament for Horsham; in 1810 he was appointed under-
secretary for home affairs and two and a half years later he was
made under-secretary for war and the colonies. Still retaining
office in the Tory government he became a privy councillor in
1 82 1, and just afterwards was appointed chief secretary to the
lord-lieutenant of Ireland, a position which he held until April
1827. Here although frequently denounced as an Orangeman,
his period of office was on the whole a successful one, and in
1823 he managed to pass the Irish Tithe Composition Bill. In
January 1828 he was made chancellor of the exchequer under
the duke of Wellington; like his leader he disliked Roman
Catholic emancipation, which he voted against in 1828. In the
domain of finance Goulburn's chief achievements were to reduce
the rate of interest on part of the national debt, and to allow
any one to sell beer upon payment of a small annual fee, a com-
plete change of policy with regard to the drink traffic. Leaving
office with Wellington in November 1830, Goulburn was home
secretary under Sir Robert Peel. for four months in 1835, and
when this statesman returned to office in September 1841 he
became'chancellor of the exchequer for the second time. Although
Peel himself did some of the chancellor's work, Goulburn was
responsible fox a further reduction in the rate of interest on the
national debt, and he aided his chief in the struggle which ended
in the repeal of the corn laws. With his colleagues he left office
in June 1846. After representing Horsham in the House of
Commons for over four years. Goulburn was successively member
for St Germans, for West Looe, and for the city of Armagh; In
May 1 83 1 he was elected for Cambridge University, and he
retained this seat until his death on the 12th of January 1856
284
GOULBURN— GOULD, JAY
at Betchworth House, Dorking. Goulbum was one of Peel's
firmest supporters and most intimate friends. His eldest son,
Henry (1813-1843), was senior classic and second wrangler
at Cambridge in 1835.
See S. Walpole, History of England (1878-1886).
GOULBURN, a city of Argyle county, New South Wales,
Australia, 134 m. S.W. of Sydney by the Great Southern railway.
Pop. (1901) 10,618. It lies in a productive agricultural district,
at an altitude of 2129 ft., and is a place of great importance,
being the chief depot of the inland trade of the southern part
of the state. There are Anglican and Roman Catholic cathedrals.
Manufactures of boots and shoes, flour and beer, and tanning
are important. The municipality was created in 1859; and
Goulbum became a city in 1864.
GOULD, AUGUSTUS ADDISON (1805-1866), American
conchologist, was born at New Ipswich, New Hampshire, on the
23rd of April 1805, graduated at Harvard College in 1825, and
took his degree of doctor of medicine in 1830. Thrown from
boyhood on his own exertions, it was only by industry, per-
severance and self-denial that he obtained the means to pursue
his studies. Establishing himself in Boston, he devoted himself
to the practice of medicine, and finally rose to high professional
rank and social position. He became president of the Massachu-
setts Medical Society, and was employed in editing the vital
statistics of the state. As a conchologist his reputation is world-
wide, and he was one of the pioneers of the science in America.
His writings fill many pages of the publications of the Boston
Society of Natural History (see vol. xi. p. 197 for a list) and
other periodicals. He published with L. Agassiz the Principles
of Zoology (2nd ed. 1851); he edited the Terrestrial and Air-
breathing Mollusks (1851-1855) of Amos Binney (1803-1847); he
translated Lamarck's Genera of Shells. The two most important
monuments to his scientific work, however, are Mollusc a and
Shells (vol. xii., 1852) of the United States exploring expedition
(1838-1842) under Lieutenant CharlesWilkes(i833), published by
the government, and the Report on the Invertebrata published by
order of the legislature of Massachusetts in 184 1. A second
edition of the latter work was authorized in 1865, and published
in 1870 after the author's death, which took place at Boston
on the 15th of September 1866. Gould was a corresponding
member of all the prominent American scientific societies, and
of many of those of Europe, including the London Royal Society.
GOULD, BENJAMIN APTHORP (1824-1896), American
astronomer, a son of Benjamin Apthorp Gould (1787-1859),
principal of the Boston Latin school, was bom at Boston, Massa-
chusetts, on the 27th of September 1824. Having graduated
at Harvard College in 1844, he studied mathematics and as-
tronomy under C. F. Gauss at Gottingen, and returned to
America in 1848. From 1852 to 1867 he was in charge of the
longitude department of the United States coast survey; he
developed and organized the service, was one of the first to
determine longitudes by telegraphic means, and employed the
Atlantic cable in 1866 to establish longitude-relations between
Europe and America. The Astronomical Journal was founded
by Gould in 1849; and its publication, suspended in 186 1,
was resumed by him in 1885. From 1855 to 1859 he acted as
director of the Dudley observatory at Albany, New York;
and published in 1859 a discussion of the places and proper
motions of circumpolar stars to be used as standards by the
United States coast survey. Appointed in 1862 actuary to
the United States sanitary commission, he issued in 1869 an
important volume of Military and Anthropological Statistics.
He fitted up in 1864 a private observatory at Cambridge, Mass.;
but undertook in 1868, on behalf of the Argentine republic,
to organize a national observatory at Cordoba; began to observe
there with four assistants in 1870, and completed in 1874 his
Uranometria Argentina (published 1879) for which he received
in 1883 the gold medal of the Royal Astronomical Society.
This was followed by a zone-catalogue of 73,160 stars (1884), and
a general catalogue (1885) compiled from meridian observations
of 32,448 stars. Gould's measurements of L. M. Rutherford's
photographs of the Pleiades in 1866 entitle him to rank as a
pioneer in the use of the camera as an instrument of precision;
and he secured at Cordoba 1400 negatives of southern star-
dusters, the reduction of which occupied the closing years of
his life. He returned in 1885 to his home at Cambridge, where
he died on the 26th of November 1896.
See Astronomical Journal, No. 389; Observatory, xx. 70 (same
notice abridged); Science (Dec. 18, 1896, S. C. Chandler); Astro-
physical Journal 9 v. 50; Monthly Notices Roy. Astr. Society , lvii.
218.
GOULD, SIR FRANCIS CARRUTHBRS (1844- ), English
caricaturist and politician, was born in Barnstaple on the 2nd
of December 1844. Although in early youth he showed great
love of drawing, he began life in a bank and then joined the
London Stock Exchange, where he constantly sketched the
members and illustrated important events in the financial
world; many of these drawings were reproduced by lithography
and published for private circulation. In 1879 he began the
regular illustration of the Christmas numbers of Truth, and in
1887 he became a contributor to the Pall Mall Gazette, trans-
ferring his allegiance to the Westminster Gazette on its foundation
and subsequently acting as assistant editor. Among his inde-
pendent publications are Who killed Cock Robin? (1897), Tales
told in the Zoo (1900), two volumes of Froissart's Modern
Chronicles, told and pictured by F. C. Gould (1902 and 1903),
and Picture Politics — a periodical reprint of his Westminster
Gazette cartoons, one of the most noteworthy implements of
political warfare in the armoury of the Liberal party. Frequently
grafting his ideas on to subjects taken freely from Uncle Remus,
Alice in Wonderland, and the works of Dickens and Shakespeare,
Sir F. C. Gould used these literary vehicles with extraordinary
dexterity and point, but with a satire that was not unkind and
with a vigour from which bitterness, virulence and cynicism
were notably absent. He was knighted in 1906.
GOULD, JAY (1836-1892), American financier, was born in
Roxbury, Delaware county, New York, on the 27th of May 1836.
He was brought up on his father's farm, studied at Hobart
Academy, and though he left school in his sixteenth year, devoted
himself assiduously thereafter to private study, chiefly of mathe-
matics and surveying, at the same time keeping books for a
blacksmith for his board. For a short time he worked for his
father in the hardware business; in 185 2-1856 he worked as a
surveyor in preparing maps of Ulster, Albany and Delaware
counties in New York, of Lake and Geauga counties in Ohio,
and of Oakland county in Michigan, and of a projected
railway line between Newburgh and Syracuse, N.Y. An ardent
anti-renter in his boyhood and youth, he wrote A History of
Delaware County and the Border Wars of New York, containing
a Sketch of the Early Settlements in the County, and A History
of the Late Anti-Rent Difficulties in Delaware (Roxbury, 1856).
He then engaged in the lumber and tanning business in western
New York, and in banking at Stroudsburg, Pennsylvania. In
1863 he married Miss Helen Day Miller, and through her father,
Daniel S. Miller, he was appointed manager of the Rensselaer
& Saratoga railway, which he bought up when it was in a very
bad condition, and skilfully reorganized; in the same way he
bought and reorganized the Rutland & Washington railway,
from which he ultimately realized a large profit. In 1859 he
removed to New York City, where he became a broker in railway
stocks, and in 1868 he was elected president of the Erie railway, of
which by shrewd strategy he and James Fisk, Jr. (q. v.) , had gained
control in July of that year. The management of the road under
his control, and especially the sale of $5,000,000 of fraudulent
stock in 1868-1870, led to litigation begun by English bond-
holders, and Gould was forced out of the company in March
1872 and compelled to restore securities valued at about
$7,500,000. It was during his control of the Erie that he and
Fisk entered into a league with the Tweed Ring, they admitted
Tweed to the directorate of the Erie, and Tweed in turn arranged
favourable legislation for them at Albany. With Tweed, Gould
was cartooned by Nast in 1869. In October 1871 Gould was the
chief bondsman of Tweed when the latter was held in $1,000,000
bail. With Fisk in August 1869 he began to buy gold in a daring
GOUNOD
285
attempt to " corner " the market, his hope being that, with the
advance in price of gold, wheat would advance to such a price
that western farmers would sell, and there would be a consequent
great movement of breadstuffs from West to East, which would
result in increased freight business for the Erie road. His
speculations in gold, during which he attempted through President
Grant's brother-in-law, A. H. Corbin, to influence the president
and his secretary General Horace Porter, culminated in the panic
of " Black Friday," on the 24th of September 1869, when the
price of gold fell from 162 to 135.
Gould gained control of the Union Pacific, from which in
1883 he withdrew after realizing a large profit. Buying up the
stock of the Missouri Pacific he built up, by means of consolida-
tions, reorganizations, and the construction of branch lines,
the " Gould System " of railways in the south-western states.
In 1880 he was in virtual control of 10,000 miles of railway, about
one-ninth of the railway mileage of the United States at that
time. Besides, be obtained a controlling interest in the Western
Union Telegraph Company, and after 188 1 in the elevated
railways in New York City, and was intimately connected with
many of the largest railway financial operations in the United
States for the twenty years following 1 868. He died of consump-
tion and of mental strain on the 2nd of December 1892, his
fortune at that time being estimated at $72,000,000; all of
this he left to his own family.
His eldest son, George Jay Gould (b. 1864), was prominent
also as an owner and manager of railways, and became president
of the Little Rock & Fort Smith railway (1888), the St Louis,
Iron Mountain & Southern railway (1893), the International
& Great Northern railway (1893), the Missouri Pacific railway
(1893), the Texas & Pacific railway (1893), and tne Manhattan
Railway Company (1892); he was also vice-president and
director of the Western Union Telegraph Company. It was
under his control that the Wabash system became transconti-
nental and secured an Atlantic port at Baltimore; and it was
he who brought about a friendly alliance between the Gould
and the Rockefeller interests.
The eldest daughter, Helen Miller Gould (b. 1868), became
widely known as a philanthropist, and particularly for her
generous gifts to American army hospitals in the war with Spain
in 1898 and for her many contributions to New York University,
to which she gave $250,000 for a library in 1895 and $100,000
for a Hall of Fame in 1000.
GOUNOD, CHARLES FRANCOIS (1818- 1893), French com-
poser, was born in Paris on the 17th of June 181 8, the son of
F. L. Gounod, a talented painter. He entered the Paris Con-
servatoire in 1836, studied under Reicha, Halevy and Lesueur,
and won the " Grand Prix de Rome " in 1839. While residing
in the Eternal City he devoted much of his time to the study
of sacred music, notably to the works of Palestrina and Bach.
In 1843 he went to Vienna, where a " requiem " of his composi-
tion was performed. On his return to Paris he tried in vain to
find a publisher for some songs he had written in Rome. Having
become organist to the chapel of the " Missions fitrangeres,"
he turned his thoughts and mind to religious music. At that
time he even contemplated the idea of entering into holy
orders. His thoughts were, however, turned to more mundane
matters when, through the intervention of Madame Viardot,
the celebrated singer, he received a commission to compose an
opera on a text by Emile Augier for the Academic Nationale
de Musique. Sapho, the work in question, was produced in
185 1, and if its success was not very great, it at least sufficed to
bring the composer 's name to the fore. Some critics appeared
to consider this work as evidence of a fresh departure in the
style of dramatic music, and Adolphe Adam, the composer,
who was also a musical critic, attributed to Gounod the wish
to revive the system of musical declamation invented by Gluck.
The fact was that Sapho differed in some respects from the
operatic works of the period, and was to a certain extent in
advance of the times. When it was revived at the Paris Opera
in 1884, several additions were made by the composer to the
original score, not altogether to its advantage, and Sapho once
more failed to attract the public. Gounod's second dramatic
attempt was again in connexion with a classical subject, and
consisted in some choruses written for Ulysse, a tragedy by
Ponsard, played at the Th6a\tre Francais in 1852, when the
orchestra was conducted by Offenbach. The composer's next
opera, La Nonne sanglante, given at the Paris 0p6ra in 1854,
was a failure.
Goethe's Faust had for years exercised a strong fascination
over Gounod, and he at last determined to turn it to operatic
account. The performance at a Paris theatre of a drama on
the same subject delayed the production of his opera for a time.
In the meanwhile he wrote in a few months the music for an
operatic version of Moliere's comedy, Le MSdecin tnalgri lui,
which was produced at the Theatre Lyrique in 1858. Berlioz well
described this charming little work when he wrote of it, " Every-
thing is pretty, piquant, fluent, in this ' opera comique '; there is
nothing superfluous and nothing wanting." The first perform-
ance of Faust took place at the The&tre Lyrique on the 19th
of March 1859. Goethe's masterpiece had already been utilized
for operatic purposes by various composers, the most celebrated
of whom was Spohr. The subject had also inspired Schumann,
Berlioz, Liszt, Wagner, to mention only a few, and the enormous
success of Gounod's opera did not deter Boito from writing his
Mefistofele. Faust is without doubt the most popular French
opera of the second half of the 1 9th century. Its success has been
universal, and nowhere has it achieved greater vogue than in
the land of Goethe. For years it remained the recognized type
of modern French opera. At the time of its production in Paris
it was scarcely appreciated according to its merits. Its style
was too novel, and its luscious harmonies did not altogether
suit the palates of those dilettanti who still looked upon Rossini
as the incarnation of music. Times have indeed changed, and
French composers have followed the road opened by Gounod,
and have further developed the form of the lyrical drama,
adopting the theories of Wagner in a manner suitable to their
national temperament. Although in its original version Faust
contained spoken dialogue, and was divided into set pieces
according to custom, yet it differed greatly from the operas of
the past. Gounod had not studied the works of German masters
such as Mendelssohn and Schumann in vain, and although
his own style is eminently Gallic, yet it cannot be denied that
much of its charm emanates from a certain poetic sentimentality
which seems to have a Teutonic origin. Certainly no music
such as his had previously been produced by any French com-
poser. Auber was a gay trifler, scattering his bright effusions
with absolute insouciance, teeming with melodious ideas, but
lacking depth. Berlioz, a musical Titan, wrestled against fate
with a superhuman energy, and, Jove-like, subjugated his
hearers with his thunderbolts. It was, however, reserved for
Gounod to introduce la note tendre, to sing the tender passion
in accents soft and languorous. The musical language em-
ployed in Faust was new and fascinating, and it was soon to be
adopted by many other French composers, certain of its idioms
thereby becoming hackneyed. Gounod's opera was given in
London in 1863, when its success, at first doubtful, became
enormous, and it was heard concurrently at Covent Garden
and Her Majesty's theatres. Since then it has never lost its
popularity.
Although the success of Faust in Paris was at first not so
great as might have been expected, yet it gradually increased
and set the seal on Gounod's fame. The fortunate composer
now experienced no difficulty in finding an outlet for his works,
and the succeeding decade is a specially important one in his
career. The opera from his pen which came after Faust was
Philemon et Baucis, a setting of the mythological tale in which
the composer followed the traditions of the Opera. Comique,
employing spoken dialogue, while not abdicating the in-
dividuality of his own style. This work was produced at the
Thdatre Lyrique in i860. It has repeatedly been heard in
London. La Reine de Saba, a four-act opera, produced at the
Grand Opera on the 28th of February 1862, was altogether
a far more ambitious work. For some reason it did not meet
286
GOURD
with success, although the score contains some of Gounod's
choicest inspirations, notably the weU-known air, " Lend me
your aid." La Reine de Saba was adapted for the English stage
under the name of Irene. The non-success of this work proved
a great disappointment to Gounod, who, however, set to work
again, and this time with better results, Miretile, the fruit of his
labours, being given for the first time at the Theatre Lyrique
on the 19th of March 1S64. Founded upon the Mireio of the
Provencal poet Mistral, Miretile contains much charming and
characteristic music. The libretto seems to have militated against
its success, and although several revivals have taken place and
various modifications and alterations have been made in the score,
yet Miretile has never enjoyed a very great vogue. Certain
portions of this opera have, however, been popularized in the
concert-room. La Colombo, a little opera in two acts without pre-
tension, deserves mention here. It was originally heard at Baden
in i860, and subsequently at the Op6ra Comique. A suavely
melodious entr'acte from this little work has survived and been
repeatedly performed.
Animated with the desire to give a pendant to his Faust,
Gounod now sought for inspiration from Shakespeare, and
turned his attention to Romeo and Juliet, Here, indeed, was a
subject particularly well calculated to appeal to a composer
who had so eminently qualified himself to be considered the
musician of the tender passion. The operatic version of the
Shakespearean tragedy was produced at the Theatre Lyrique on
the 27th of April 1867. It is generally considered as being the
composer's second best opera. Some people have even placed
it on the same level as Faust, but this verdict has not found
general acceptance. Gounod himself is stated to have expressed
his opinion of the relative value of the two operas enigmatically
by saying, " Faust is the oldest, but I was younger; Romio
is the youngest, but I was older." The luscious strains wedded
to the love scenes, if at times somewhat cloying, are generally
in accord with the situations, often irresistibly fascinating,
while always absolutely individual. The success of Romio
in Paris was great from the outset, and eventually this work
was transferred to the Grand Op6ra, after having for some time
formed part of the repertoire of the Op6ra Comique. In London
it was not until the part of Romeo was sung by Jean de
Resxke that this opera obtained any real hold upon the English
public.
After having so successfully sought for inspiration from
Molidre, Goethe and Shakespeare, Gounod now turned to another
famous dramatist, and selected Pierre Corneille's Polyeucte
as the subject of his next opera. Sortie years were, however,
to elapse before this work was given to the public. The Franco-
German War had broken out, and Gounod was compelled to
take refuge in London, where he composed the " biblical elegy "
Gallia for the inauguration of the Royal Albert Hall. During
his stay in London Gounod composed a great deal and wrote a
number of songs to English words, many of which have attained
an enduring popularity, such as " Maid of Athens," " There
is a green hill far away," " Oh that we two were maying,"
" The fountain mingles with the river." His sojourn in London
was not altogether pleasant, as he was embroiled in lawsuits
with publishers. On Gounod's return to Paris he hurriedly
set to music an operatic version of Alfred de Vigny's Cinq-Mars,
which was given at the Opera Comique on the 5th of April 1877
(and in London in 1900), without obtaining much success.
Polyeucte, his much-cherished work, appeared at the Grand
Opera the following year on the 7th of October, and did not meet
with a better fate. Neither was Gounod more fortunate with
Le Tribut de Zamora, his last opera, which, given on the same
stage in 1881, speedily vanished, never to reappear. In his
later dramatic works he had, unfortunately, made no attempt
to keep up with the times, preferring to revert to old-fashioned
methods.
The genius of the great composer was, however, destined to
assert itself in another field — that of sacred music. His friend
Camille Saint-Safcns, in a volume entitled Portraits et Souvenirs,
writes:
Gounod did not cease all his life to write for the church, to
accumulate masses and motet ts; but it was at the commencement
of his career, in the Messe de Sainte Cictie, and at the end, in the
oratorios The Redemption and Mors et vita, that he rose highest. _
Saint-Sagns, indeed, has formulated the opinion that the three
above-mentioned works will survive all the master's operas.
Among the many masses composed by Gounod at the outset
of his career, the best is the Messe de Sainte CSctie, written in
1855. He also wrote the Messe du SacrS Ccsur (1876) and the
Messe a la m&moire de Jeanne d'Arc (1887). This last work
offers certain peculiarities, being written for solos, chorus,
organ, eight trumpets, three trombones, and harps. In style
it has a certain affinity with Palestrina. The Redemption, which
seems to have acquired a permanent footing in Great Britain,
was produced at the Birmingham Festival of 1882. It was
styled a sacred trilogy, and was dedicated to Queen Victoria.
The score is prefixed by a commentary written by the composer,
in which the scope of the oratorio is explained. It cannot be
said that Gounod has altogether risen to the magnitude of his
task. The music of The Redemption bears the unmistakable
imprint of the composer's hand, and contains many beautiful
thoughts, but the work in its entirety is not exempt from
monotony. Mors et vita, a sacred trilogy dedicated to Pope
Leo XIII., was also produced for the first time in Birmingham
at the Festival of 1885. This work is divided into three parts,
" Mors," " Judicium," " Vita." The first consists of a Requiem,
the second depicts the Judgment, the third Eternal Life.
Although quite equal, if not superior to The Redemption, Mors
et vita has not obtained similar success.
Gounod was a great worker, an indefatigable writer, and it
would occupy too much space to attempt even an incomplete
catalogue of his compositions. Besides the works already
mentioned may be named two symphonies which were played
during the 'fifties, but have long since fallen into neglect.
Symphonic music was not Gounod's forte, and the French master
evidently recognized the fact, for he made no further attempts
in this style. The incidental music he wrote to the dramas Les
Deux Reines and Jeanne oVArc must not be forgotten. He also
attempted to set Molidre's comedy, Georges Dandin, to music,
keeping to the original prose. This work has never been brought
out. Gounod composed a large number of songs, many of which
are very beautiful. One of the vocal pieces that have contri-
buted most to his popularity is the celebrated Meditation on
the First Prelude of Bach, more widely known as the Ave Maria.
The idea of fitting a melody to the Prelude of Bach was original,
and it must be admitted that in this case the experiment was
successful.
Gounod died at St Cloud on the 18th of October 1893. His
influence on French music was immense, though during the
last years of the 19th century it was rather counterbalanced
by that of Wagner. Whatever may be the verdict of posterity,
it is unlikely that the quality of individuality will be denied
to Gounod. To be the composer of Faust is alone a sufficient
title to lasting fame. (A. He.)
GOURD, a name given to various plants of the order Cucur-
bitaceae, especially those belonging to the genus Cucurbita,
monoecious trailing herbs of annual duration, with long succulent
stems furnished with tendrils, and large, rough, palmately-lobed
leaves; the flowers are generally large and of a bright yellow
or orange colour, the barren ones with the stamens united;
the fertile are followed by the large succulent fruit that gives
the gourds their chief economic value. Many varieties of
Cucurbita are under cultivation in tropical and temperate
climates, especially in southern Asia; but it is extremely
difficult to refer them to definite specific groups, on account of
the facility with which they hybridize; while it is very doubtful
whether any of the original forms now exist in the wild state.
Charles Naudin, who made a careful and interesting series of
observations upon this genus, came to the conclusion that all
varieties known in European gardens might be referred to six
original species; probably three, or at most four, have furnished
the edible kinds in ordinary cultivation. Adopting the specific
GOURGAUD
287
names usually given to the more familiar forms, the most im-
portant of the gourds, from an economic point of view, is perhaps
C. maxima, the Potiron Jaunt of the French, the red and yellow
gourd of British gardeners (fig. 6), the spheroidal fruit of which
is remarkable for its enormous size: the colour of the somewhat
rough rind varies from white to bright yellow, while in some kinds
it remains green; the fleshy interior is of a deep yellow or
orange tint. This valuable gourd is grown extensively in southern
Asia and Europe. In Turkey and Asia Minor it yields, at some
periods of the year, an important article of diet to the people;
immense quantities are sold in the markets of Constantinople,
where in the winter the heaps of one variety with a white rind
are described as resembling mounds of snowballs. The yellow
kind attains occasionally a weight of upwards of 240 lb. It
grows well in Central Europe and the United States, while in
the south of England k will produce its gigantic fruit in perfection
in hot summers. The yellow flesh of this gourd and its numerous
varieties yields a considerable amount of nutriment, and is the
more valuable as the fruit can be kept, even in warm climates, for
a long time. In France and in the East it is much used in soups
and ragouts, while simply boiled it forms a substitute for other
table vegetables; the taste has been compared to that of a young
carrot. In some countries the larger kinds are employed as
cattle food. The seeds yield by expression a large quantity
of a bland oil, which is used for the same purposes as that of
the poppy and olive. The " mammoth " gourds of English and
American gardeners (known in America as squashes) belong
to this species. The pumpkin (summer squash of America)
is Cucurbita Pepo. Some of the varieties of C. maxima and
Pepo contain a considerable quantity of sugar, amounting in
the sweetest kinds to 4 or 5%, and in the hot plains of Hungary
efforts have been made to make use of them as a commercial
source of sugar. The young shoots of both these large gourds
may be given to cattle, and admit of being eaten as a green
vegetable when boiled. The vegetable marrow is a variety
(ovifera) of C. Pepo. Many smaller gourds are cultivated in
India and other hot climates, and some have been introduced
into English gardens, rather for the beauty of their fruit and
foliage than for their escu-
MMriM
lent qualities. Among these
is C. Pepo var. aurantia,
the orange gourd, bearing a
spheroidal fruit, like a large
orange in form and colour;
in Britain it is generally
too bitter to be palatable,
though applied to culinary
purposes in Turkey and the
Levant. C. Pepo var. pyri-
formis and var. verrucosa,
the warted gourds, are
likewise occasionally eaten,
especially in the immature
state; and C. mosehata
(musk melon) is very exten-
sively cultivated throughout
m r<7 I 1FMM F 1 India by the natives, the
m w\ 1i l ^ ~^MmK '*' M yellow flesh being cooked
jf ^i^&^^lv V M and eaten '
\^ y^^Sjgp^^ }^JJ The bottle-gourds are
Photographed from specimens in the British P laced ™ a Separate genus,
Museum. Lagenaria, chiefly differing
Group of Gourds. f rom Cucurbita in the an-
1-5. Various forms of bottle gourd, thers being free instead of
Lagenaria vulgaris. adherent. The bottle-gourd
6..Giant gourd, Cucurbtonwma. ^^ ^^^ *^
garis, is a climbing plant with downy, heart-shaped leaves and
beautiful white flowers: the remarkable fruit (figs. 1-5) first begins
to grow in the form of an elongated cylinder, but gradually widens
towards the extremity, until, when ripe, it resembles a flask
with a narrow neck and large rounded bulb; it sometimes
attains a length of 7 ft. When ripe, the pulp is removed from
the neck, and the interior cleared by leaving water standing
in it; the woody rind that remains is used as a bottle: or the
lower part is cut off and cleared out, forming a basin-like vessel
applied to the same domestic purposes as the calabash (Cres-
centia) of the West Indies: the smaller varieties, divided length-
wise, form spoons. The ripe friut is apt to be bitter and cathartic,
but while immature it is eaten by the Arabs and Turks. When
about the size of a small cucumber, it is stuffed with rice and
minced meat, flavoured with pepper, onions, &c, and then boiled,
forming a favourite dish with Eastern epicures. The elongated
snake-gourds of India and China (Trichosanthes) are used in
curries and stews.
All the true gourds have a tendency to secrete the cathartic
principle coUcynthin, and in many varieties of Cucurbita and ths
allied genera it is often elaborated to such an extent as to
render them unwholesome, or even poisonous. The seeds of
several species therefore possess some anthelmintic properties;
those of the common pumpkin are frequently administered
in America as a vermifuge.
The cultivation of gourds began far beyond the dawn of history,
and the esculent species have become so modified by culture
that the original plants from which they have descended can
no longer be traced. The abundance of varieties in India would
seem to indicate that part of Asia as the birthplace of the present
edible forms; but some appear to have been cultivated in aU
the hotter regions of that continent, and in North Africa, from
the earliest ages, while the Romans were familiar with at least
certain kinds of Cucurbita, and with the bottle-gourd. Cucurbita
Pepo, the source of many of the American forms, is probably
a native of that continent.
Most of the annual gourds mav be grown successfully in Britain.
They are usually raised in hotbeds or under frames, and planted out
in rich soil in the early summer as soon as the nights become warm.
The more ornamental kinds may be trained over treTlis-work, a
favourite mode of displaying them in the East ; but the situation
must be sheltered and sunny. Even Lagenaria will sometimes pro-
duce fine fruit when so treated in the southern counties.
For an account of these cultivations in England see paper by Mr
J. W. Odell, " Gourds and Cucurbits," in Journ. Royal Hort. Soc.
xxix. 450 (1904). y
GOURGAUD, GASPAR, Baron (1783-1852), French soldier,
was born at Versailles on the 14th of September 1783; his father
was a musician of the royal chapel. At school he showed talent
in mathematical studies and accordingly entered the artillery.
In 1802 he became junior lieutenant, and thereafter served
with credit in the campaigns of 1803-1805, being wounded at
Austerlitz. He was present at the siege of Saragossa in 1808,
but returned to service in Central Europe and took part in nearly
all the battles of the Danubian campaign of 1809. In 1811
he was chosen to Inspect and report on the fortifications of
Danzig. Thereafter he became one of the ordnance officers
attached to the emperor, whom he foDowed closely through
the Russian campaign of 1812; he was one of the first to enter
the Kremlin and discovered there a quantity of gunpowder
which might have been used for the destruction of Napoleon.
For his services in this campaign he received the title of baron,
and became first ordnance officer. In the campaign of 1813
in Saxony he further evinced his courage and prowess, especially
at Leipzig and Hanau; but it was in the first battle of 1814,
near to Brienne, that he rendered the most signal service by
killing the leader of a small band of Cossacks who were riding
furiously towards Napoleon's tent. ' Wounded at the battle of
Montmirail, he yet recovered in time to share in several of the
conflicts which followed, distinguishing himself especially at
Laon and Reims. Though enrolled among the royal guards of
Louis XVIII. in the summer of 1814, he yet embraced the cause
of Napoleon during the Hundred Days (181 5), was named general
and aide-de-camp by the emperor, and fought at Waterloo.
After the second abdication of the emperor (June 22nd, 181 5)
Gourgaud retired with him and a few other companions to
Rochefort. It was to him that Napoleon entrusted the letter
of appeal to the prince regent for an asylum in England. Gour-
gaud set off in H.M.S. " Slaney," but was not allowed to land
288
GOURKO— GOURVILLE
in England. He determined to share Napoleon's exile and
sailed with him on H.M.S. " Northumberland " to St Helena.
The ship's secretary, John R. Glover, has left an entertaining
account of some of Gourgaud's gasconnades at table. His
extreme sensitiveness and vanity soon brought him into collision
with Las Cases and Montholon at Longwood. The former he
styles in his journal a " Jesuit " and a scribbler who went thither
in order to become famous. With Montholon, his senior in rank,
the friction became so acute that he challenged him to a duel,
for which he suffered a sharp rebuke from Napoleon. Tiring
of the life at Longwood and the many slights which he suffered
from Napoleon, he desired to depart, but before he could sail
he spent two months with Colonel Basil Jackson, whose account
of him throws much light on his character, as also on the " policy"
adopted by the exiles at Longwood. In England he was gained
over by members of the Opposition and thereafter made common
cause with O'Meara and other detractors of Sir Hudson Lowe,
for whose character he had expressed high esteem to Basil Jack-
son. He soon published his Catnpagne de 1815, in the preparation
of which he had had some help from Napoleon; but Gourgaud's
Journal de Ste-Htlhne was not destined to be published till
the year 1899. Entering the arena of letters, he wrote, or colla-
borated in, two well-known critiques. The first was a censure of
Count P. de Segur's work on the campaign of 181 2, with the
result that he fought a duel with that officer and wounded him.
He also sharply criticized Sir Walter Scott's Life of Napoleon.
He returned to active service in the army in 1830; and in 1840
proceeded with others to St Helena to bring back the remains
of Napoleon to France. He became a deputy to the Legislative
Assembly in 1849; he died in 1852.
Gourgaud's works are La Campagne de 1815 (London and Paris,
18 1 8); Napolton et la Grande Armie en Russie; examen critique de
Vouvrage de M. It comte P. de S6gur (Paris, 1824) ; Refutation de la
vie de NapoUon par Sir Walter Scott (Paris, 1827). He collaborated
with Montholon in the work entitled Mhnoires pour servir a Dnstoire
de France sous NapoUon (Paris, 1 822-1 823), and with Belliard and
others in the work entitled Bourrienne et ses erreurs (2 vols., Paris,
1830); but his most important work is the Journal inSdit de Ste~
IlQbie (2 vols., Paris, 1899), which is a remarkably naif and lifelike
record of the life at Longwood. See, too, Notes ana Reminiscences of
a Staff Officer, by Basil Jackson (London, 1904), and the bibliography
to the article Lows, Sir Hudson. (J. Hl. R.)
GOURKO, JOSEPH VLADIMIROVICH, Count (1828-1901),
Russian general, was born, of Lithuanian extraction, on the
15th of November 1828. He was educated in the imperial
corps of pages, entered the hussars of the imperial bodyguard
as sub-lieutenant in 1846, became captain in 1857, adjutant
to the emperor in 1860, colonel in 1861, commander of the 4th
Hussar regiment of Mariupol in 1866, and major-general of the
emperor's suite in 1867. He subsequently commanded the
grenadier regiment, and in 1873 the 1st brigade, 2nd division,
of the cavalry of the guard. Although he took part in the
Crimean War, being stationed at Belbek, his claim to distinction
is due to his services in the Turkish war of 1877. He led the van
of the Russian invasion, took Trnovo on the 7th July, crossed
the Balkans by the Hain Bogas pass, debouching near Hainkioi,
and, notwithstanding considerable resistance, captured Uflani,
Maglish and Kasanlyk; on the 18th of July he attacked Shipka,
which was evacuated by the Turks on the following day. Thus
within sixteen days of crossing the Danube Gourko had secured
three Balkan passes and created a panic at Constantinople.
He then made a series of successful reconnaissances of the
Tunja valley, cut the railway in two places, occupied Stara
Zagora (Turkish, Eski Zagra) and Nova Zagora (Yeni Zagra),
checked the advance of Suleiman's army, and returned again
over the Balkans, In October he was appointed commander of
the allied cavalry, and attacked the Plevna line of communication
to Orkhanie with a large mixed force, captured Gorni-Dubnik,
Telische and Vratza, and, in the middle of November, Orkhanie
itself. Plevna was isolated, and after its fall in December
Gourko led the way amidst snow and ice over the Balkans to
the fertile valley beyond, totally defeated Suleiman, and occupied
Sophia, Philippopolis and Adrianople, the armistice at the
end of January 1878 stopping further operations (see Russo-
Turkish Wars). Gourko was made a count, and decorated
with the 2nd class of St George and other orders. In 1870-1880
he was governor of St Petersburg, and from 1883 to 1894 governor-
general of Poland. He died on the 29th of January 1901. .
GOURMET* a French term for one who takes a refined and
critical, or even merely theoretical pleasure in good cooking
and the delights of the table. The word has not the disparaging
sense attached to the Fr. gourmand, to whom the practical
pleasure ■ of good eating is the chief end. The O. Fr. groumet
or gromet meant a servant, or shop-boy, especially one employed
in a wine-seller's shop, hence an expert taster of wines, from
which the modern usage has developed. The etymology of
gourmet is obscure; it may be ultimately connected with the
English " groom " (q.v.). The origin of gourmand is unknown.
In English, in the form " grummet," the word was early applied
to a cabin or ship's boy. Ships of the Cinque Ports were obliged
to carry one "grummet"; thus in a charter of 1229 (quoted
in the New English Dictionary) it is laid down servUia inde
debita Domino Regi, xxi. naves, et in qualibet nave xxi. homines,
cum uno gartione qui dicitur gromet.
GOUROCK, a police burgh and watering-place of Renfrew-
shire, Scotland, on the southern shore of the Firth of Clyde,
si m. W. by N. of Greenock by the Caledonian railway. Pop.
(1001) 5261. It is partly situated on a fine bay affording good
anchorage, for which it is largely resorted to by the numerous
yacht clubs of the Clyde. The extension of the railway from
Greenock (in 1889) to the commodious pier, with a tunnel 1 J m.
long, the longest in Scotland, affords great facilities for travel
to the ports of the Firth, the sea lochs on the southern Highland
coast and the Crinan CanaL The eminence called Barrhill
(480 ft. high) divides the town into two parts, the eastern known
as Kempoch, the western as Ashton. Near Kempoch point is
a monolith of mica-schist, 6 ft. high, called " Granny Kempoch,"
which the superstitious of other days regarded as possessing
influence over the winds, and which was the scene, in 1662, of
certain rites that led to the celebrants being burned as witches.
Gamble Institute (named after the founder) contains halls,
recreation rooms, a public library and baths. It is said that
Gourock was the first place on the Clyde where herrings were
cured. There is tramway communication with Greenock and
Ashton. About 3 m. S.W. there stands on the shore the familiar
beacon of the Cloch. Gourock became a burgh of barony in 1694.
GOURVILLE, JEAN HERAULD (1625-1703), French adven-
turer, was born at La Rochefoucauld. At the age of eighteen
he entered the house of La Rochefoucauld as a servant, and in
1646 became secretary to Francois de la Rochefoucauld, author
of the Maximes. Resourceful and quick-witted, he rendered
services to his master during the Fronde, in his intrigues with
the parliament, the court or the princes. In these negotiations
he made the acquaintance of Cond6, whom he wished to help
to escape from the chateau of Vincennes; of Mazarin, for whom
he negotiated the reconciliation with the princes; and of Nicolas
Fouquet. After the Fronde he engaged in financial affairs,
thanks to Fouquet. In 1658 he farmed the taille in Guienne.
He bought depreciated rentes and had them raised to their
nominal value by the treasury; he extorted gifts from the
financiers for his protection, being Fouquet's confidant in many
operations of which he shared the profits. In three years he
accumulated an enormous fortune, still further increased by his
unfailing good fortune at cards, playing even with the king.
He was involved in the trial of Fouquet, and in April 1663 was
condemned to death for peculation and embezzlement of public
funds; but escaping, was executed in effigy. He sent a valet
one night to take the effigy down from the gallows in the court
of the Palais de Justice, and then fled the country. He re-
mained five years abroad, being excepted in 1665 from the
amnesty accorded by Louis XIV. to the condemned financiers.
Having returned secretly to France, he entered the service of
Conde, who, unable to meet his creditors, had need of a clever
manager to put his affairs in order. In this way he was able to
reappear at court, to assist at the campaigns of the war with
Holland, and to offer himself for all the delicate negotiations
GOUT
389
for his master or the king. He received diplomatic missions in
Germany, in Holland, and especially in Spain, though it was
only in 1694, that he was freed from the condemnation pro-
nounced against him by the chamber of justice. From 1696
be fell ill and withdrew to his estate, where he dictated to his
secretary, in four months and a half, his Memoir es, an important
source for the history of his time. In spite of several errors,
introduced purposely, they give a clear idea of the life and morals
of a financier of the age of Fouquet, and throw light on certain
points of the diplomatic history. They were first published in
1724.
There is a modern edition, with notes, an introduction and ap-
pendix, by Lecestre (Paris, 1894-1895, 2 vols.).
GOUT, the name rather vaguely given, in medicine, to a
constitutional disorder which manifests itself by inflammation
of the joints, with sometimes deposition of urates of soda, and
also by morbid changes in various important organs. The
term gout, which was first used about the end of the 13th
century, is derived through the Fr. gouite from the Lat. gutta,
a drop, in allusion to the old pathological doctrine of the dropping
of a morbid material from the blood within the joints. The
disease was known and described by the ancient Greek physicians
under various terms, which, however, appear to have been
applied by them alike to rheumatism and gout. The general
term arthritis (Hp&pov, a joint) was employed when many joints
were the seat of inflammation; while in those instances where
the disease was limited to one part the terms used bore reference
to such locality; hence podagra (roBbypa, from irofc, the foot,
and &ypa, a seizure), chiragra (x^P, the hand), gonagra (y6w,
the knee), &c.
Hippocrates in his Aphorisms speaks of gout as occurring
most commonly in spring and autumn, and mentions the fact
that women are less liable to it than men. He also gives directions
as to treatment. Celsus gives a similar account of the disease.
Galen regarded gout as an unnatural accumulation of humours
in a part, and the chalk-stones as the concretions of these,- and
he attributed the disease to over-indulgence and luxury. Gout
is alluded to in the works of Ovid and Pliny, and Seneca, in his
95th epistle, mentions the prevalence of gout among the Roman
ladies of his day as one of the results of their high living and
debauchery. Lucian, in his Tragopodagra, gives an amusing
account of the remedies employed for the cure of gout.
In all times this disease has engaged a large share of the atten-
tion of physicians, from its wide prevalence and from the amount
of suffering which it entails. Sydenham, the famous English
physician of the 17 th century, wrote an important treatise on
the subject, and his description of the gouty paroxysm, all the
more vivid from his having himself been afflicted with the disease
for thirty-four years, is still quoted by writers as the most
graphic and exhaustive account of the symptomatology of gout.
Subsequently Cullen, recognizing gout as capable of manifesting
itself in various ways, divided the disease into regular gout,
which affects the joints only, and irregular gout, where the gouty
disposition exhibits itself in other forms; and the latter variety
he subdivided into atonic gout, where the most prominent
symptoms are throughout referable to the stomach and ali-
mentary canal; retrocedent gout, where the inflammatory attack
suddenly disappears from an affected joint and serious disturb-
ance takes place in some internal organ, generally the stomach
or heart; and misplaced gout, where from the first the disease
does not appear externally, but reveals itself by an inflammatory
attack of some internal part. Dr Garrod, one of the most
eminent authorities on jgout, adopted a division somewhat
similar to, though simpler than that of Cullen, namely, regular
gout, which affects the joints alone, and is either acute or chronic,
and irregular gout, affecting non-articular tissues, or disturbing
the functions of various organs.
It is often stated that the attack of gout comes on without
any previous warning; but, while this is true in many instances,
the reverse i$ probably as frequently the case, and the pre-
monitory symptoms; especially in those who nave previously
suffered from the' disease, may be sufficiently precise to indicate
the impending seizure. Among the more common of these
may be mentioned marked disorders of the digestive organs,
with a feeble and capricious appetite, flatulence and pain after
eating, and uneasiness in the right side in the region of the liver.
A remarkable tendency to gnashing of the teeth is sometimes '
observed. This symptom was first noticed by Dr Graves,
who connected it with irritation in the urinary organs, which
also is present as one of the premonitory indications of the
gouty attack. Various forms of nervous disturbance also present
themselves in the form of general discomfort, extreme irritability
of temper, and various perverted sensations, such as that of
numbness and coldness in the limbs. These symptoms may
persist for many days and then undergo amelioration immediately
before the impending paroxysm. On the night of the attack
the patient retires to rest apparently well, but about two or three
o'clock in the morning awakes with a painful feeling in the foot,
most commonly in the ball of the great toe, but it may be in
the instep or heel, or in the thumb. With the pain there often
occurs a distinct shivering followed by feverishness. The pain
soon becomes of the most agonizing character: in the words
of Sydenham, " now it is a violent stretching and tearing of the
ligaments, now it is a gnawing pain, and now a pressure and
tightening; so exquisite and lively meanwhile is the part
affected that it cannot bear the weight of the bedclothes, nor
the jar of a person walking in the room."
When the affected part is examined it is found to be swollen
and of a deep red hue. The superjacent skin is tense and glisten-
ing, and the surrounding veins are more or less distended. After
a few hours there is a remission of the pain, slight perspiration
takes place, and the patient may fall asleep. The pain may
continue moderate during the day but returns as night advances,
and the patient goes through a similar experience of suffering
to that of the previous night, followed with a like abatement
towards morning. These nocturnal exacerbations occur with
greater or less severity during the continuance Of the attack,
which generally lasts f or a week or ten days. As the symptoms
decline the swelling and tenderness of the affected joint abate,
but the skin over it pits on pressure for a time, and with this
there is often associated slight desquamation of the cuticle.
During the attacks there is much constitutional disturbance.
The patient is restless and extremely irritable, and suffers from
cramp in the limbs and from dyspepsia, thirst and constipation.
The urine is scanty and high-coloured, with a copious deposit,
consisting chiefly of urates. During the continuance of the
symptoms the inflammation may leave the one foot and affect
the other, or both may suffer at the same time. After the attack
is over the patient feels quite well and fancies himself better
than he had been for a long time before; hence the once popular
notion that a fit of the gout was capable of removing all other
ailments. Any such idea^ however, is sadly belied in the ex-
perience of most sufferers from this disease. It is rare that the
first is the only attack of gout, and another is apt to occur within
a year, although by care and treatment it may be warded off.
The disease, however, undoubtedly tends to take a firmer hold
on the constitution and to return. In the earlier recurrences
the same joints as were formerly the seat of the gouty inflam-
mation suffer again, but in course of time others become im-
plicated, until in advanced cases scarcely any articulation
escapes, and the disease thus becomes chronic. It is to be noticed
that when gout assumes this form the frequently recurring attacks
are usually attended with less pain than the earlier ones, but
their disastrous effects are evidenced alike by the disturbance
of various important organs, especially the stomach, liver,
kidneys and heart, and by the remarkable changes which take
place in the joints from the formation of the so-called chalk-
stones or tophi. These deposits, which are highly characteristic
of gout, appear at first to take place in the form of a semifluid
material, consisting for the most part of urate of soda, which
gradually becomes more dense, and ultimately quite hard.
When any quantity of this is deposited in the structures of a
joint the effect is to produce stiffening, and, as deposits appear
to take place to a greater or less amount in connexion with every
xn. 10
290
GOUT
attack, permanent thickening and deformity of the parts is apt
to be the consequence. The extent of this depends, of course,
on the amount of the deposits, which, however, would seem
to be in no necessary relation to the severity of the attack, being
in some cases even of chrome gout so slight as to be barely
appreciable externally, but on the other hand occasionally
causing great enlargement of the joints, and fixing them in a
flexed or extended position which renders them entirely useless.
Dr Garrod describes the appearance of a hand in an extreme
case of this kind, and likens its shape to a bundle of French
carrots with their heads forward, the nails corresponding to the
stalks. Any of the joints may be thus affected, but most
commonly those of the hands and feet. The deposits take place
in other structures besides those of joints, such as along the course
of tendons, underneath the skin and periosteum, in the sclerotic ,
coat of the eye, and especially on the cartilages of the external
ear. When largely deposited in joints an abscess sometimes
forms, the skin gives way, and the concretion is exposed. Sir
Thomas Watson quotes a case of this kind where the patient
when playing at cards was accustomed to chalk the score of the
game upon the table with his gouty knuckles.
. The recognition of what is termed irregular gout is less easy
than that form above described, where the disease gives abundant
external evidence of its presence; but that other parts than
joints suffer from gouty attacks is beyond question. The diag-
nosis may often be made, in cases where in an attack of ordinary
gout the disease suddenly leaves the affected joints and some
new series of symptoms arises. It has been often observed when
cold has been applied to an inflamed joint that the pain and
inflammation in the part ceased, but that some sudden and
alarming seizure referable to the stomach, brain, heart or lungs
supervened. Such attacks, which correspond to what is termed
by Cullen retrocedent gout, often terminate favourably, more
especially if the disease again returns to the joints. Further,
the gouty nature of some long-continued internal or cutaneous
disorder may be rendered apparent by its disappearance on the
outbreak of the paroxysm in the joints. Gout, when of long
standing, is often found associated with degenerative changes in
the heart and large arteries, the liver, and especially the kidneys,
which are apt to assume the. contracted granular condition
characteristic of one of the forms of Blight's disease. A variety
of urinary calculus — the uric acid — formed by concretions of
this substance in the kidneys is a not unfrequent occurrence,
in connexion with gout; hence the well-known association of
this disease and gravel.
The pathology of gout is discussed in the article on Metabolic
Diseases. Many points, however, still remain unexplained.
As remarked by Trousseau, " the production in excess of uric
acid and urates is a pathological phenomenon inherent like all
others in the disease; and like all the others it is dominated
by a specific cause, which we know only by its effects, and which
we term the gouty diathesis." This subject of diathesis (habit,
or organic predisposition of individuals), which is regarded as an
essential element in the pathology of gout, naturally suggests
the question as to whether, besides being inherited, such a
peculiarity may also be acquired, and this leads to a considera-
tion of the causes which are recognized as influential in favouring
the occurrence of this disease.
It is beyond dispute that gout is in a marked degree hereditary,
fully more than half the number of cases being, according to
Sir C. Scudamore and Dr Garrod, of this character. But it is
no less certain that there are habits and modes of life the observ-
ance of which may induce the disease even where no hereditary
tendencies can be traced, and the avoidance of which may, on
the other hand, go far towards weakening or neutralizing the
influence of inherited liability* Gout is said to affect the sedentary
more readily than the active. If, however, inadequate exercise
be combined with a luxurious manner of living, with habitual
over-indulgence in animal food and rich dishes, and especially
in alcoholic beverages, then undoubtedly the chief factors in the
production of the disease are present.
Much has been written upon the relative influence of various
forms of alcoholic drinks in promoting the development of gout.
It is generally stated that fermented are more injurious than
distilled liquors, and that, in particular, the stronger wines,
such as port, sherry and madeira, are much more potent in their
gout-producing action than the lighter class of wines, such as
hock, moselle, &c., while malt liquors are fully as hurtful as strong
wines. It seems quite as probable, however,that over-indulgence
in any form of alcohol, when associated with the other conditions
already adverted to, will have very much the same effect in
developing gout. The comparative absence of jgout in countries
where spirituous liquors are chiefly used, such as Scotland, is
cited as showing their relatively slight effect in encouraging
that disease; but it is to be noticed that in such countries there
is on the whole a less marked tendency to excess in the other
pleasures of the table, which in no degree less than alcohol are
chargeable with inducing the gouty habit. Gout is not a common
disease among the poor and labouring classes, and when it does
occur may often be connected even in them with errors in living.
It is not yejy rare to meet gout in butlers, coachmen, &c, who
are apt to JUve luxuriously while leading comparatively easy lives.
Gout, it must ever be borne in mind, may also affect persons who
observe the strictest temperance in living, and whose only excesses
are in the direction of over-work, either physical or intellectual.
Many of the great names in history in all times have had their
existence embittered by this malady, and have died from its
effects. The influence, of hereditary tendency may often be
traced in such instances, and is doubtless called into activity
by the depressing consequences of over-work. It may, notwith-
standing, be affirmed as generally true that those who lead regular
lives, and are moderate in the use of animal food and alcoholic
drinks, or still better abstain from the . latter altogether, are
less likely to be the victims of gout even where an undoubted
inherited tendency exists.
Gout is more common in mature age than in the earlier years
of life, the greatest number of cases in one decennial period being
between the ages of thirty and forty, next between twenty and
thirty, and thirdly between forty and fifty, It may occasionally
affect very young persons; such cases are generally regarded as
hereditary, but, so far as diet is concerned, it has to be remembered
that their home life has probably been a predisposing cause.
After middle life gout rarely appears for the first time. Women
are much less the subjects of gout than men, apparently from
their less exposure to the influences (excepting, of course, that
of heredity) which tend to develop the disease, and doubtless
also from the differing circumstances of their physical constitu-
tion. It most frequently appears in females after the cessation
of the menses. Persons exposed to the influence of lead poisoning,
such as plumbers, painters, &c, are apt to suffer from gout;
and it would seem that impregnation of the system with this
metal markedly interferes with the uric acid excreting function
of the kidneys.
Attacks of gout are readily excited in those predisposed to
the disease. Exposure to cold, disorders of digestion, fatigue,
and irritation or injuries of particular joints will often precipitate
the gouty paroxysm.
With respect to the treatment of gout the greatest variety
of opinion has prevailed and practice been pursued, from the
numerous quaint nostrums detailed by Lucian to the " expectant "
or do-nothing system recommended by Sydenham. But gout,
although, as has been shown, a malady of a most severe and
intractable character, may nevertheless be successfully dealt
with by appropriate medicinal and hygienic measures. The
general plan of treatment can be here only briefly indicated.
During the acute attack the affected part should be kept at
perfect rest, and have applied to it warm opiate fomentations
or poultices, or, what answers quite as well, be enveloped in
cotton wool covered in with oil silk. The diet of the patient
should be light, without animal food or stimulants. The adminis-
tration of some simple laxative will be of service, as well as the
free use of alkaline diuretics, such as the bicarbonate or acetate
of potash. The medicinal agent most relied on for the relief
of pain is colchicum, which manifestly exercises a powerful
GOUTHIERE
291
action on the disease. This drug (Colchicum autumnale), which
is believed to correspond to the hermodactyl of the ancients,
has proved of such efficacy in modifying the attacks that, as
observed by Dr Garrod, " we may safely assert that colchicum
possesses as specific a control over the gouty inflammation as
cinchona barks or their alkaloids over intermittent fever."
It is usually administered in the form of the wine in doses of
10 to 30 drops every four or six hours, or in pill as the acetous
extract (gr. }-gr: i.). The effect of colchicum in subduing the
pain of gout is generally so prompt and marked that it is un-
necessary to have recourse to opiates; but its action requires
to be carefully watched by the physician from its well-known
nauseating and depressing consequences, which, should they
appear, render the suspension of the drug necessary. Otherwise
the remedy may be continued in gradually diminishing doses
for some days after the disappearance of the gouty inflammation.
Should gout give evidence of its presence in an irregular form
by attacking internal organs, besides the medicinal treatment
above mentioned, the use of frictions and mustard applications
to the joints is indicated with the view of exciting its appearance
there. When gout has become chronic, colchicum, although of
less service than in acute gout, is yet valuable, particularly
when the inflammatory attacks recur. More benefit, however,
appears to be derived from potassium iodide, guaiacum, the
alkalis potash and lithia, and from the administration of aspirin
and sodium salicylate. Salicylate of menthol is an effective
local application, painted on and covered with a gutta-percha
bandage. Lithia was strongly recommended by Dr Garrod from
its solvent action upon the urates. It is usually administered
in the form of the carbonate (gr. v., freely diluted).
The treatment and regimen to be employed in the intervals
of the gouty attacks are of the highest importance. These
bear reference for the most part to the habits and mode of life
of the patient. Restriction must be laid upon the amount and
quality of the food, and equally, or still more, upon the alcoholic
stimulants. " The instances," says Sir Thomas Watson, " are
not few of men of good sense, and masters of themselves, who,
being warned by one visitation of the gout, have thenceforward
resolutely abstained from rich living and from wine and strong
drinks of all kinds, and who have been rewarded for their prudence
and self-denial by complete immunity from any return of the
disease, or upon whom, at any rate, its future assaults have been
few and feeble." The same eminent authority adds: "lam
sure it is worth any young man's while, who has had the gout,
to become a teetotaller." By those more advanced in life
who, from long continued habit, are unable entirely to relinquish
the use of stimulants, the strictest possible temperance must
be observed. Regular but moderate exercise in the form of
walking or riding, in the case of those who lead sedentary lives,
is of great advantage, and all over-work, either physical or mental,
should be avoided. Fatigue* la bUe, et reposez la ttte is the maxim
of an experienced French doctor (Dr Debout d'Estrees of Con-
trexeville). Unfortunately the complete carrying out of such
directions, eVen by those who feel their importance, is too often
rendered difficult or impossible by circumstances of occupation
and otherwise, and at most only an approximation can be made.
Certain mineral waters and baths (such as those of Vichy,
Royat, Contrexeville, &c.) are of undoubted value in cases of
gout and, arthritis. The particular place must in each case be
determined by the physician, and special caution must be
observed in recommending this plan of treatment in persons
whose gout is complicated by organic disease of any kind.
Dr Alexander Haig's " uric acid free diet " has found many ad-
herents. His view as regards the pathology is that in gouty persons
the blood is less alkaline than in normal, and therefore less able to
hold in solution uric acid or its salts, which are retained in the joints.
Assuming gout to be a poisoning by animal food (meat, fish, eggs),
and by tea, coffee, cocoa and other vegetable alkaloid-containing sub-
stances, he recommends an average daily diet excluding these, and
containing 24 oz. of breadstuffs (toast, bread, biscuits and puddings)
together with 24 oz. of fruit and vegetables (excluding peas, beans,
lentils, mushrooms and asparagus) ; 8 oz. of the breadstuffs may be
replaced by 21 oz. of milk or 2 oz. of cheese, butter and oil being taken
a* required, so that it is not strictly a vegetarian diet.
Precisely the opposite view as to diet has recently been put forward
by Professor A. Robin of the H6pital Beaujon, who says serious
mistakes are made in ordering patients to abstain from red meats
and take light food, fish, eggs, <xc. Tha common object in view is the
diminished output of uric acid. This output is chiefly obtained from
food rich in nucleins and in collagenous matters, i.e. young white
meats, eggs, &c. . Consequently the gouty subject ought to .restrict
himself to the consumption of red meat, beef and mutton, and leave
out of his dietary all white meat and internal organs. He should
take little hydrocarbons and sugars, and be moderate in fats.
Vegetarian diet he regards as a mistake, likewise milk diet, as they
tend to weaken the patient. To prevent the formation of uric acid
Robin prescribes quinic acid combined with formine or urotropine.
GOUTHIERE, PIERRE (1 740-1806), French metal worker,
was born at Troyes and went to Paris at an early age as the
pupil of Martin Cour. During his brilliant career he executed
a vast quantity of metal work of the utmost variety, the best of
which was unsurpassed by any of his rivals in that great art
period. It was long believed that he received many commissions
for furniture from the court of Louis XVI., and especially from
Marie Antoinette, but recent searches suggest that his work for
the queen was confined to bronzes. Gouthiere can, however, well
bear this loss, nor will his reputation suffer should those critics
ultimately be justified who believe that many of the furniture
mounts attributed to him were from the hand of Thomire. But
if he did not work for the court he unquestionably produced
many of the most splendid belongings of the due d'Aumont,
the duchesse de Mazarin and Mme du Barry. Indeed the
custom of the beautiful mistress of Louis XV. brought about
the financial ruin of the great artist, who accomplished more
than any other man for the fame of her chateau of Louveciennes.
When, the collection of the due d'Aumont was sold by auction
in Paris in 1782 so many objects mounted by Gouthiere were
bought for Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette that it is not
difficult to perceive the basis of the belief that they were actually
made for the court. The due's sale catalogue is, however, in
existence, with the names of the purchasers and the prices
realized. The auction was almost an apotheosis of Gouthiere.
The precious lacquer cabinets, the chandeliers and candelabra,
the tables and cabinets in marquetry, the columns and vases
in porphyry, jasper and choice marbles, the porcelains of China
and Japan were nearly all mounted in bronze by him. More
than fifty of these pieces bore Gouthiere's signature. The due
d'Aumont's cabinet represented the high-water mark of the
chaser's art, and the great prices which were paid for Gouthiere's
work at this sale are the most conclusive criterion of the value
set upon his achievement in his own day. Thus Marie Antoinette
paid 12,000 Iivres for a red jasper bowl or brtile-parfums mounted
by him, which was then already famous. Curiously enough
it commanded only one-tenth of that price at the Fournier sale
in 183 1 ; but in 1865, when the marquis of Hertford bought
it at the prince de Beauvais's sale, it fetched 31,900 francs. It
is now in the Wallace Collection, which contains the finest and
most representative gathering of Gouthiere's undoubted work.
The mounts of gilt bronze, cast and elaborately chased, show
satyrs' heads, from which hang festoons of vine leaves, while
within the feet a serpent is coiled to spring. A smaller cup is one
of the treasures of the Louvre. There too is a bronze clock,
signed by " Gouthiere, cizileur el doreur du Roy & Paris" dated
1 77 1, with a river god, a water nymph symbolizing the Rhdne
and its tributary the Durance, and a female figure typifying the
city of Avignon. Not all of Gouthiere's work is of the highest
quality, and much of what he executed was from the designs
of others. At his best his delicacy, refinement and finish are
exceedingly delightful — in his great moments he ranks with
the highest alike as artist and as craftsman. The tone of soft
dead gold which is found on some of his mounts he is believed
to have invented, but indeed the gilding of all his superlative
work possesses a remarkable quality. This charm of tone is
admirably seen in the bronzes and candelabra which he executed
for the chimneypiece of Marie Antoinette's boudoir at Fontaine-
bleau. He continued to embellish Louveciennes for Madame
du Barry until the Revolution, and then the guillotine came for
her and absolute ruin for him. When her property was seized
29*
GOUVION SAINT-CYR— GOVERNMENT
she owed him 756,000 livres, of which he never received a sol,
despite repeated applications to the administrators. " Riduit
& soUiciUr une place d V hospice, il mourul dans la misere." So
it was stated in a lawsuit brought by his sons against du Barry's
heirs.
GOUVION SAINT-CYR, LAURENT, Marquis de (1764-1830),
French marshal, was born at Toul on the 13th of April 1764.
At the age of eighteen he went to Rome with the view of pro-
secuting the study of painting, but although he continued his
artistic studies after his return to Paris in 1784 he never definitely
adopted the profession of a painter. In 1792 he was chosen
a captain in a volunteer battalion, and served on the staff of
General Custine. Promotion rapidly followed, and in the course
of two years he had become a general of division. In 1796 he
commanded the centre division of Moreau's army in the campaign
of the Rhine, and by coolness and sagacity greatly aided him
in the celebrated retreat from Bavaria to the Rhine. In 1798
he succeeded Masslna in the command of the army of Italy.
In the following year he commanded the left wing of Jourdan's
army in Germany; but when Jourdan was succeeded by Mass6na,
he joined the army of Moreau in Italy, where he distinguished
himself in face of the great difficulties that followed the defeat
of Novi. When Moreau, in 1800, was appointed to the command
of the army of the Rhine, Gouvion St-Cyr was named his principal
lieutenant, and on the 9th of May gained a victory over General
Kray at Biberach. He was not, however, on good terms with
his commander and retired to France after the first operations
of the campaign. In 1801 he was sent to Spain to command
the army intended for the invasion of Portugal, and was named
grand officer of the Legion of Honour. When a treaty of peace
was shortly afterwards concluded with Portugal, he succeeded
Lucien Bonaparte as ambassador at Madrid. In 1803 he was
appointed to the command of an army corps in Italy, in 1805
he served with distinction under Massl na, and in 1806 was
engaged in the campaign in southern Italy. He took part in
the Prussian and Polish campaigns of 1807, and in 1808, in which
year .'he was made a count, he commanded an army corps in
Catalonia; but, not wishing to comply with certain orders
he. received from Paris (for which see Oman, Peninsular War,
vol. ni.)t he resigned his command and remained in disgrace
till 18x1. He was still a general of division, having been excluded
from the first list of marshals owing to his action in refusing
to influence the troops in favour of the establishment of the
Empire. On the opening of the Russian campaign he received
command of an army corps, and on the 18th of August 181 2
obtained a victory over the Russians at Polotsk, in recognition
of which he was created a marshal of France. He received a
severe wound in one of the actions during the general retreat.
St-Cyr distinguished himself at the battle of Dresden (August
26-27, 1813), and in the defence of that place against the Allies
after the battle of Leipzig, capitulating only on the nth of
November, when Napoleon had retreated to the Rhine. On
the restoration of the Bourbons he was created a peer of France,
and in July 181 5 was appointed war minister, but resigned his
office in the November following. In June 181 7 he was appointed
minister of marine, and in September following again resumed
the duties of war minister, which he continued to discharge
till November 1819. During this time he effected many reforms,
particularly in respect of measures tending to make the army
a national rather than a dynastic force. He exerted himself
also to safeguard the rights of the old soldiers of the Empire,
organised the general staff and revised the code of military law
and the pension regulations. He was made a marquess in 1817.
He died at Hy*res (Var) on the 17th of March 1830. Gouvion
St-Cyr would doubtless have obtained better opportunities of
acquiring distinction had he shown himself more blindly devoted
to the interests of Napoleon, but Napoleon paid him the high
compliment of referring to his " military genius, 1 ' and entrusted
him with independent commands in secondary theatres of war.
It is doubtful, however, if he possessed energy commensurate
with his skill, and in Napoleon's modern conception of war,
as three parts moral to one technical, there was more need fox
the services of a bold leader of troops whose " doctrine " — to
use the modern phrase — predisposed him to self-sacrificing and
vigorous action, than for a savant in the art of war of the type of
St-Cyr. Contemporary opinion, as reflected by Marbot, did
justice to his " commanding talents/' but remarked the indolence
which was the outward sign of the vague complexity of a mind
that had passed beyond the simplicity of mediocrity without
attaining the simplicity of genius.
He was the author of the following works, all of the highest
value: Journal des operations de I'armee de Catalogue en 1808 et
1800 (Paris, 1 821); Mimoires sur les campagnes des armies de Rhin
et de Rhin-et- Moselle de 17 04 a 17 gr? (Paris, 1829); and Memoires
pour servir & I'histoire mtlitaire sous le Dtrectoin, le Consular et
V Empire (1831).
See Gay de Vernon's Vie de Gouvion Saint-Cyr (1857).
GO VAN, a municipal and police burgh of Lanarkshire, Scotland.
It lies on the south bank of the Clyde in. actual contact with
Glasgow, and in a parish of the same name which includes a large
part of the city on both sides of the riven Pop. (1891) 61,589;
(1001) 76,532. Govan remained little more than a village till
i860, when the growth of shipbuilding and allied trades gave
its development an enormous impetus. Among its public build-
ings are the municipal chambers, combination fever hospital,
Samaritan hospital and reception houses for the poor. Elder
Park (40 acres) presented to the burgh in 1885 contains a statue
of John Elder (1824/-1869), the pioneer shipbuilder, the husband
of the donor. A statue of Sir William Pearce ( 1833-1 888) *
another well-known Govan shipbuilder, once M.P. for the burgh,
stands at Govan Cross. The Govan lunacy board opened in
1896 an asylum near Paisley. Govan is supplied with Glasgow
gas and water, and its tramways are leased by the Glasgow
corporation; but it has an electric light installation of its own,
and performs all other municipal functions quite independently
of the city, annexation to which it has always strenuously
resisted. Prince's Dock lies within its bounds and the ship-
building yards have turned out many famous ironclads and
liners. Besides shipbuilding its other industries are match-
making, silk-weaving, hair-working, copper-working, tube-
making, weaving, and the manufacture of locomotives and
electrical apparatus. The town forms the greater part of the
Govan division of Lanarkshire, which returns one member to
parliament.
GOVERNMENT (O. Fr. gavernetnent, mod. gouvernement,
O. Fr. govemer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare y to steer a
ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. tvfkpvap), in; its widest sense, the
ruling power in a political society. In every society of men there
is a determinate body (whether consisting of one individual
or a few or many individuals) whose commands the rest of the
community are bound to obey. This sovereign body is what in
more popular phrase is termed the government of the country*
and the varieties which may exist in its constitution are known
as forms of government. For the opposite theory of a community
with "|no government," see Anarchism.
How did government come into existence? Various answers
to this question have at times been given, which may be dis-
tinguished broadly into three classes. The first class would
comprehend the legendary accounts which nations have given
in primitive times of their own forms of government. These
are always attributed to the mind of a single lawgiver. The
government of Sparta was the invention of Lycurgus. Solon,
Moses, Numa and Alfred in like manner shaped the government
of their respective nations. There was no curiosity about the
institutions of other nations — about the origin of governments
in general; and each nation was perfectly ready to accept the
traditional vouoSkraji of any other.
The second may be called the logical or metaphysical account
of the origin of government. It contained no overt reference
to any particular form of government, whatever its covert
references may have been. It answered the question, how
government in general came into existence; and it answered
it by a logical analysis of the elements of society. The phenome-
non to be accounted for being government and laws, it abstracted
government and laws, and contemplated mankind as cristing
GOVERNMENT
293
without them. The characteristic feature of this kind of specula-
tion is that it reflects how contemporary men would behave
if all government were removed, and infers that men must have
behaved so before government came into existence. Society
without government resolves itself into a number of individuals
each following his own aims, and therefore, in the days before
government, each man followed his own aims. It is easy to see
how this kind of reasoning should lead to very different views
of the nature of the supposed original state. With Hobbes,
it is a state of war, and government is the result of an agreement
among men to keep the peace; With Locke, it is a state of
liberty and equality, — it is not a state of war; it is governed
by its own law, — the law of nature, which is the same thing
as the law of reason. The state of nature is brought to an end
by the voluntary agreement of individuals to surrender their
natural liberty and submit themselves to one supreme govern-
ment. In the words of Locke, " Men being by nature all free,
equal and independent, no one can be put out of this estate
and subjected to the political power of another without his own
consent. The only way whereby any one divests himself of his
natural liberty, and puts on the bonds of civil society, is by agree-
ing with other men to join and unite into a community " (On
Civil Government, c. viii.). Locke boldly defends his theory
as founded on historical fact, and it is amusing to compare his
demonstration of the baselessness of Sir R. Filmer's speculations
with the scanty and doubtful examples which he accepts as the
foundation of his own. But in general the various forms of the
hypothesis eliminate the question of time altogether. The
original contract from which government sprang is likewise the
subsisting contract on which civil society continues to be based.
The historical weakness of the theory was probably always
recognized. Its logical inadequacy was conclusively demon-
strated by John Austin. But it still clings to speculations on
the principles of government.
The " social compact " (see Rousseau) is the most famous
of the metaphysical explanations of government. It has had
the largest history, the widest influenccand the most complete
development. To the same class belong the various forms of
the theory that governments exist by divine appointment.
Of all that has been written about the divine right of kings, a
great deal must be set down to the mere flatteries of courtiers
and ecclesiastics. But there remains a genuine belief that men
are bound to obey their rulers because their rulers have been
appointed by God. Like the social compact, the theory of
divine appointment avoided the question of historical fact.
The application of the historical method to the phenomena
of society has changed the aspect of the question and robbed it
of its political interest. The student of the history of society has
no formula to express the law by which government is born. All
that he can do is to trace governmental forms through various
stages of social development. The more complex and the larger
the society, the more distinct is the separation between the
governing part and the rest, and the more elaborate is the
subdivision of functions in the government: The primitive
type of ruler is king, judge, priest and general At the same
time, his Way of life differs little from that of his followers and
subjects. The metaphysical theories were so far right in imputing
greater equality of social conditions to more primitive times.
Increase of bulk brings with it a more complex social organization.
War tends to develop the strength of the governmental organiza-
tion; peace relaxes it. All societies of men exhibit the germs
of government; but there would appear to be races of men so
low that they cannot be said to live together in society at all.
Modern investigations have illustrated very f ully the importance
of the family (q.v.) in primitive societies, and the belief in a
common descent has much to do with the social cohesion of a
tribe. The government of a tribe resembles the government of a
household; the head of the family is the ruler. But we cannot
affirm that political government has its origin in family govern-
ment, or that there may not have been states of society in
which government of some sort existed while the family did
not.
I. Forms op Government
Three Standard Forms. — Political writers from the time of
Aristotle have been singularly unanimous in their classification
of the forms of government. There are three ways in which
states may be governed. They may be governed by one man,
or by a number of men, small in proportion to the whole number
of men in the state, or by a number large in proportion to the
whole number of men in the state. The government may be
a monarchy, an aristocracy or a democracy. The same terms
are used by John Austin as were used by Aristotle, and in very
nearly the same sense. The determining quality in governments
in both writers, and it may safely be said in all intermediate
writers, is the numerical relation between the constituent
members of the government and the population of the state.
There were, of course, enormous differences between the state-
systems present to the mind of the Greek philosopher and the
English jurist. Aristotle was thinking of the small independent
states of Greece, Austin of the great peoples of modern Europe.
The unit of government in the one case was a city, in the other
a nation. This difference is of itself enough to invalidate all
generalization founded on the common terminology. But on
one point there is a complete parallel between the politics of
Aristotle and the politics of Austin. The Greek cities were to
the rest of the world very much what European nations and
European colonies are to the rest of the world now. They were
the only communities in which the governed visibly took some
share in the work of government. Outside the European system,
as outside the Greek system, we have only the stereotyped
uniformity of despotism, whether savage or civilized. The
question of forms of government, therefore, belongs character-
istically to the European races. The virtues and defects of
monarchy, aristocracy and democracy are the virtues and
defects manifested by the historical governments of Europe.
The generality of the language used by political writers must
not blind us to the fact that they are thinking only of a compara-
tively small portion of mankind.
Greek Politics. — Aristotle divides governments according to
two principles. In all states the governing power seeks either
its own advantage or the advantage of the whole state, and
the government is bad or good accordingly. In all states the
governing power is one man, or a few men or many men. Hence
six varieties of government, three of which are bad and three
good. Each excellent form has a corresponding depraved form,
thus: —
The good government of one (Monarchy) corresponds to the
depraved form (Tyranny).
The good government of few (Aristocracy) corresponds to
the depraved form (Olijgarchy).
The good government of many (Commonwealth) corresponds
to the depraved form (Democracy).
The fault of the depraved forms is that the governors act
unjustly where their own interests are concerned. The worst
of the depraved forms is tyranny, the next oligarchy and the
least bad democracy. 1 Each of the three leading types exhibits
a number of varieties. Thus in monarchy we have the heroic,
the barbaric, the elective dictatorship, the Lacedemonian
(hereditary generalship, orparrryla), and absolute monarchy.
So democracy and oligarchy exhibit four corresponding varieties.
The best type of democracy is that of a community mainly
agricultural, whose citizens, therefore, have not leisure for
political affairs, and allow the law to rule. The best oligarchy
is that in which a considerable number of small proprietors
have the power; here, too, the laws prevail. The worst
democracy consists of a larger citizen class having leisure for
politics; and the worst oligarchy is that of a small number of
very rich and influential men. In both the sphere of law is
reduced to a minimum. A good government is one in which
as much as possible is left to the laws, and as little as possible
to the will of the governor.
1 Aristotle elsewhere speaks of the error of those who think that
any one of the depraved forms is better than any other.
294
GOVERNMENT
The Politics of Aristotle, from which tjiese principles are
taken, presents a striking picture of the variety and activity
of political life in the free communities of Greece. The king and
council of heroic times had disappeared, and self-government
in some form or other was the general rule. It is to be noticed,
however, that the governments of Greece were essentially
unstable. The political philosophers could lay down the law
of development by which one form of government gives birth
to another. Aristotle devotes a large portion of his work to
the consideration of the causes of revolutions. The dread of
tyranny was kept alive by the facility with which an over-
powerful and unscrupulous citizen could seize the whole machinery
of government. Communities oscillated between some form of
oligarchy and some form of democracy. The security of each
was constantly imperilled by the conspiracies of the opposing
factions. Hence, although political life exhibits that exuberant
variety of form and expression which characterizes all the in-
tellectual products of Greece, it lacks the quality of persistent
progress. Then there was no approximation to a national
government, even of the federal type. The varying confederacies
and hegemonies are the nearest approach to anything of the kind.
What kind of national government would ultimately have arisen
if Greece had not been crushed it is needless to conjecture;
the true interest of Greek politics lies in the fact that the free
citizens were, in the strictest sense of the word, self-governed.
Each citizen took his turn at the common business of the state.
He spoke his own views in the agora, and from time to time
in his own person acted as magistrate or judge. Citizenship
in Athens was a liberal education, such as it never can be made
under any representative system.
The Government of Rome. — During the whole period of freedom
the government of Rome was, in theory at least, municipal
self-government. Each citizen had a right to vote laws in his
own person in the comitia of the centuries or the tribes. The
administrative powers of government were, however, in the hands
of a bureaucratic assembly, recruited from the holders of high
public office. The senate represented capacity and experience
rather than rank and wealth. Without some such instrument
the city government of Rome could never have made the conquest
of the world. The gradual extension of the citizenship to other
Italians changed the character of Roman government. The
distant citizens could not come to the voting booths; the device
of representation was not discovered; and the comitia fell into
the power of the town voters. In the last stage of the Roman
republic, the inhabitants of one town wielded the resources of
a world-wide empire. We can imagine what would be the effect
of leaving to the people of London or Paris the supreme control
of the British empire or of France, — irresistible temptation,
inevitable corruption. The rabble of the capital learn to live
on the rest of the empire. 1 The favour of the effeminate masters
of the world is purchased by partem et cir censes. That capable
officers and victorious armies should long be content to serve
such masters was impossible. A conspiracy of generals placed
itself at the head of affairs, and the most capable of them made
himself sole master. Under Caesar, Augustus and Tiberius,
the Roman people became habituated to a new form of govern-
ment, which is best described by the name of Caesarism. The
outward forms of republican government remained, but one
man united in his own person all the leading offices, and used
them to give a seemingly legal title to what was essentially
military despotism. There is no more interesting constitutional
study than the chapters in which Tacitus traces the growth
of the new system under the subtle and dissimulating intellect
of Tiberius. The new Roman empire was as full of fictions as
the English constitution of the present day. The master of the
world posed as the humble servant of a menial senate. Depre-
1 None of the free states of Greece ever made extensive or per-
manent conquests ; but the tribute sometimes paid by one state to
another (as by the Aeginetans to the Athenians) was a manifest source
of corruption. Compare the remarks of Hume (Essays, part i. 3, That
Politics may be reduced to a Science), " free governments are the most
ruinous and oppressive for their provinces."
eating the outward symbols of sovereignty, he was satisfied with
the modest powers of a consul or a tribunus plebis. The reign
of Tiberius, little capable as he was by personal character of
captivating the favour of the multitude, did more for imperialism
than was done by his more famous predecessors. Henceforward
free government all over the world lay crushed beneath the
military despotism of Rome. Caesarism remained true to the
character imposed upon it by its origin. The Caesar was an
elective not an hereditary king. The real foundation of his
power was the army, and the army in course of time openly
assumed the right of nominating the sovereign. The character-
istic weakness of the Roman empire was the uncertainty of the
succession. The nomination of a Caesar in the lifetime of the
emperor was an ineffective remedy. Rival emperors were
elected by different armies; and nothing less than the force
of arms could decide the question between them.
Modern Governments. — Feudalism. — The Roman empire be-
queathed to modern Europe the theory of universal dominion.
The nationalities which grew up after its fall arranged themselves
on the basis of territorial sovereignty. Leaving out of account
the free municipalities of the middle ages, the problem of govern-
ment had now to be solved, not for small urban communities,
but for large territorial nations. The medieval form of govern-
ment was feudal. One common type pervaded all the relations
of life. The relation of king and lord was like the relation between
lord and vassal (see Feudalism). The bond between them
was the tenure of land. In England there had been, before
the Norman Conquest, an approximation to a feudal system.
In the earlier English constitution, the most striking features
were the power of the witan, and the common property of the
nation in a large portion of the soil. The steady development
of the power of the king kept pace with the aggregation of the
English tribes under one king. The conception that the land
belonged primarily to the people gave way to the conception
that everything belonged primarily to the king. 2 The Norman
Conquest imposed on England the already highly developed
feudalism of France, and out of this feudalism the free govern-
ments of modern Europe have grown. One or two of the leading
steps in this process may be indicated here. The first, and
perhaps the. most important, was the device of representation.
For an account of its origin, and for instances of its use in England
before its application to politics, we must be content to refer
to Stubbs's Constitutional History, vol. ii. The problem of com-
bining a large area of sovereignty with some degree of self-
government, which had proved fatal to ancient commonwealths,
was henceforward solved. From that time some form of repre-
sentation has been deemed essential to every constitution
professing, however remotely, to be free.
The connexion between representation and the feudal system
of estates must be shortly noticed. The feudal theory gave the
king a limited right to military service and to certain aids, both
of which were utterly inadequate to meet the expenses of the
government, especially in time of war. The king therefore
had to get contributions from his people, and he consulted
them in their respective orders. The three estates were simply
the three natural divisions of the people, and Stubbs has pointed
out that, in the occasional treaties between a necessitous king
and the order of merchants or lawyers, we have examples of
inchoate estates or sub-estates of the realm. The right of repre-
sentation was thus in its origin a right to consent to taxation.
The pure theory of feudalism had from the beginning been
broken by William the Conqueror causing all free-holders to
take an oath of direct allegiance to himself. The institution of
parliaments, and the association of the king's smaller
tenants in capite with other commoners, still further removed the
2 Ultimately, in the theory of English law, the king may be said to
have become the universal successor of the people. Some of the
peculiarities of the prerogative rights seem to be explainable only
on this view, e.g. the curious distinction between wrecks come to
land and wrecks still on water. The common right to wreckage was
no doubt the origin of the prerogative right to the former. Every
ancient common right has come to be a right of the crown or a right
held of the crown By a vassal.
GOVERNMENT
295
government from the purely feudal type in whkh the mesne lord
stands between the inferior vassal and the king.
Parliamentary Government.^-The English System. — The right
of the commons to share the power of the king and lords in
legislation, the exclusive right of the commons to impose taxes,
the disappearance of the clergy as a separate order, were all
important steps in the movement towards popular government.
The extinction of the old feudal nobility in the dynastic wars of
the 15th century simplified the question by leaving the crown
face to face with parliament. The immediate result' was no
doubt an increase in the power of the crown, which probably
never stood higher than it did in the reigns of Henry VIII. and
Elizabeth; but even these powerful monarchs were studious
in their regard for parliamentary conventionalities. After a
long period of speculative controversy and civil war, the settle-
ment of 1688 established limited monarchy as the' government
of England. Since that time the external form of government
has remained unchanged, and, so far as legal description goes,
the constitution of William III. might be taken for the same
system as that Which still exists. The silent 'changes have,
however, been enormous. The- most striking of these, and that
which has produced the most salient features of the English
system, is the growth of cabinet government. Intimately con-
nected with this is the rise of the two great historical parties of
English politics. The normal state of government in England
is that the cabinet of the day shall represent that which is, for
the time, the stronger of the two. Before the Revolution the
king's ministers had begun to act as a united body; but even
after the Revolution the union was still feeble and fluctuating,
and^each individual minister was bound to the others only by
the tie of common service to the king. Under the Hanoverian
sovereigns the ministry became consolidated, the position of
the cabinet became definite, and its dependence on parliament,
and more particularly on the House of Commons, was established.
Ministers were chosen exclusively from one house or the other,
and they assumed complete responsibility for every act done
in the name of the crown. The simplicity of English politics
has divided parliament into the representatives of two parties,
and the party in opposition has been steadied by the conscious-
ness that it, too, has constitutional functions of high importance,
because at any moment it may be called to provide a ministry*
Criticism is sobered by being made responsible. Along with
this movement went the withdrawal of the personal action of
the sovereign in politics. No king has attempted to veto a
bill since the Scottish Militia Bill was vetoed by Queen Anne.
No ministry has been dismissed by the sovereign since 1834.
Whatever the power of the sovereign may be, it is unquestionably
limited to his personal influence over his ministers. And it
must be remembered that since the Reform Act of 1832 ministers
have become, in practice, responsible ultimately, not to parlia-
ment, but to the House of Commons. Apart, therefore, from
democratic changes due to a wider suffrage, we find that the
House of Commons, as a body, gradually made itself the centre
of the government. Since the area of the constitution has been
enlarged, it may be doubted whether the orthodox descriptions
of the government any longer apply. The earlier constitutional
writers, such as Blackstone and J. L. Delolme, regard it as a
wonderful compound of the three standard forms, — monarchy,
aristocracy and democracy. Each has its place, and each acts
as a check upon the others. Hume, discussing the question
" Whether the British government inclines more to absolute
monarchy or to a republic," decides in favour of the former
alternative. " The tide has run long and with some rapidity
to the side of popular government, and is just beginning to
turn toward monarchy." And he gives it as his own opinion
that absolute monarchy would be the easiest death, the true
euthanasia of the British constitution. These views of the
English government in the 18th century may be contrasted
with Bagehot's sketch of the modern government as a working
instrument. 1
1 See Bagehot's English Constitution; or, for a more recent
analysts, Sidney Low's Governance of England.
Leading Features of Parliamentary Government. — The parlia-
mentary government developed by England out of feudal
materials has been deliberately accepted as the type of constitu-
tional government all over the world. Its leading features are
popular representation more or less extensive, a bicameral
legislature, and a cabinet or consolidated ministry. In connexion
with all of these, numberless questions of the highest practical
importance have arisen, the bare enumeration of which would
surpass the limits of our space. We shall confine ourselves to
a few very general considerations.
The Two Chambers. — First, as to the double chamber. This,
which is perhaps more accidental than any other portion of
the British system, has been the most widely imitated. In most
European countries, in the British colonies, in the United
States Congress, and in the separate states of the Union, 2 there
are two houses of legislature. This result has been brought
about partly by natural imjtatiqn of the accepted type of free
government, partly from a conviction that the second chamber
will moderate the democratic tendencies of the first. But the
elements of the British original cannot be reproduced to order
under different conditions. There have, indeed, been a few
attempts to imitate the special character of hereditary nobility
attaching to the British House of Lords. In some countries,
where the feudal tradition is still strong (e.g. Prussia, Austria,
Hungary), the hereditary element in the upper chambers has
survived as truly representative of actual social and economic
relations. But where these social conditions do not obtain
(e.g. in France after the Revolution) the attempt to establish
an hereditary peerage on the. British model has always failed.
For the peculiar solidarity between the British nobility &nd the
general mass of the people, the outcome of special conditions
and tendencies, is a result beyond the power of constitution-
makers to attain. The British system too, after its own way,
has for a long period worked without any serious collision
between the Houses, — the standing and obvious danger of the
bicameral system. The actual ministers of the day must possess
the confidence of the House of Commons; they need not — in fact
they often do not — possess the confidence of the House of Lords.
It is only in legislation that the Lower House really shares its
powers with the Upper; and (apart from any such change in
the constitution as was suggested in 1907 by Sir H. Campbell-
Bannerman) the constitution possesses, in the unlimited power
of nominating peers, a well-understood last resource should
the House of Lords persist in refusing important measures
demanded by the representatives of the people. In the United
Kingdom it is well understood that the real sovereignty lies
with the people (the electorate), and the House of Lords
recognizes the principle that it must accept a measure when the
popular will has been clearly expressed. In all but measures
of first-class importance, however, the House of Lords is a real
second chamber, and in these there is little danger of a collision
between the Houses. There is the widest possible difference
between the British and any other second chamber. In the
United States the Senate (constituted on the system of equal
representation of states) is the more important of the two
Houses, and the only, one whose control of the executive can be
compared to that exercised by the British House of Commons.
The real strength of popular government in England lies in
the ultimate supremacy of the House of Commons. That
supremacy had been acquired, perhaps to its full extent, before
the extension of the suffrage made the constituencies democratic.
Foreign imitators, it may be observed, have been more ready to
accept a wide basis of representation than to confer real power
on the representative body. In all the monarchical countries
of Europe, however unrestricted the right of suffrage may be,
the real victory of constitutional government has yet to be won.
Where the suffrage means little or nothing, there is little or no
reason for guarding it against abuse. The independence of the
executive in the United States brings that country, from one
' For an account of the double chamber system in the state legis-
latures see United States: Constitution and Government, and also
S. G. Fisher, The Elocution of the Constitution (Philadelphia, 1897).
296
GOVERNMENT
point of view, more near to the state system of the continent
of Europe than to that of the United Kingdom. The people
make a more complete surrender of power to the government
(State or Federal) than is done in England.
Cabinet Government. — The peculiar functions of the English
cabinet are not easily matched in any foreign system. They are
a mystery even to most educated Englishmen. The cabinet
(q.v.) is much more than a body consisting of chiefs of depart-
ments. It is the inner council of the empire, the arbiter of
national policy, foreign or domestic, the sovereign in commission.
The whole power of the House of Commons is concentrated in
its hands. At the same time, it has no place whatever in the
legal constitution. Its numbers and its constitution are not
fixed even by any rule of practice. It keeps no record of its
proceedings. The relations of an individual minister to the
cabinet, and of the cabinet to its head and creator, the premier,
are things known only to the initiated. With the doubtful
exception of France, no other system of government presents
us with anything like its equivalent. In the United States,
as in the European monarchies, we have a council of ministers
surrounding the chief of the state.
Change of Power in the English System. — One of the most
difficult problems of government is how to provide for the
devolution of political power, and perhaps no other question
is so generally and justly applied as the test of a working con-
stitution. If the transmission works smoothly, the constitution,
whatever may be its other defects, may at least be pronounced
stable. It would be tedious to enumerate all the contrivances
which this problem has suggested to political societies. Here,
as usual, oriental despotism stands at the bottom of the scale.
When sovereign power is imputed to one family, and the law
of succession fails to designate exclusively the individual entitled
to succeed, assassination becomes almost a necessary measure
of precaution. The prince whom chance or intrigue has pro-
moted to the throne of a father or an uncle must make himself
safe from his relatives and competitors. Hence the scenes
which shock the European conscience when " Amurath an
Amurath succeeds/' The strong monarchical governments
of Europe have been saved from this evil by an indisputable
law of succession, which macks out from his infancy the next
successor to the throne. The king names his ministers, and the
law names the king. In popular or constitutional governments
far more elaborate precautions are required. It is one of the real
merits of the English constitution that it has solved this problem
— in a roundabout way perhaps, after its fashion — but with per-
fect success. The ostensible seat of power is the throne, and
down to a time not long distant the demise of the crown suspended
all the other powers of the state. In point of fact, however, the
real change of power occurs on a change of ministry. The con-
stitutional practice of the 19th century settled, beyond the
reach of controversy, the occasions on which a ministry is bound
to retire. It must resign or dissolve when it is defeated 1 in the
House of Commons, and if after a dissolution it is beaten again,
it must resign without alternative. It may resign if it thinks its
majority in the House of Commons not sufficiently large. The
dormant functions of the crown now come into existence. It
receives back political power from the old ministry in order to
transmit it to the new. When the new ministry is to be formed,
and how it is to be formed, is also clearly settled by established
practice. The outgoing premier names his successor by recom-
mending the king to consult him; and that successor must be
the recognized leader of his successful rivals. All this is a
matter of custom, not of law; and it is doubtful if any two
authorities could agree in describing the custom in language
of precision. In theory the monarch may send for any one
he pleases, and charge him with the formation of a government;
but the ability to form a government restricts this liberty to
the recognized head of a party, subject to there being such an
individual. It is certain that the intervention of the crown
1 A government " defeat * may, of course, not reaily represent a
hostile vote in exceptional cases, and in some instances a government
has obtained a reversal of the vote and has not resigned.
facilitates the transfer of power from one party to another, by
giving it the appearance of a mere change of servants. The
real disturbance is that caused by the appeal to the electors.
A general election is always a struggle between the great political
parties for the possession of the powers of government. . It
may be noted that modern practice goes far to establish the rule
that a ministry beaten at the hustings should resign at once
without waiting for a formal defeat in the House of Commons.
The English custom makes the ministry dependent on the wiH
of the House of Commons; and, on the other hand, the House
of Commons itself is dependent on the will of the ministry. In
the last result both depend on the will of the constituencies,
as expressed at the general election. There is no fixity in either
direction in the tenure of a ministry.. It may be challenged at
any moment, and it lasts until it is challenged and beaten. And
that there should be a. ministry and a House of Commons in
harmony with each other but out of harmony with the people is
rendered all but impossible by the law and the practice as to
the duration of parliaments.
Change of Power in the United States.— The United States
offers a very different Solution of the problem. The American
president. is at once king and prime minister; and there is no
titular superior to act as a conduit-pipe between him and his
successor. His crown is rigidly fixed; he can be removed only
by the difficult method of impeachment: No hostile vote
on matters of legislation can affect his position. But the end of
his term is known from the first day of his government; arid
almost before he begins to reign the political forces of the country
are shaping out a new struggle for the succession. Further, a
change of government in America means a considerable change
in the administrative staff (see Civil Service). The com-
motion caused by a presidential election in the United States
is thus infinitely greater and more prolonged than that caused
by a general election in England. A change of power in England
affects comparatively few personal interests, and absorbs the
attention of the country for a comparatively short space of time.
In the United States it is long foreseen and elaborately prepared
for, and when it comes it involved the personal fortunes of large
numbers of citizens. And yet the British constitution is more
democratic than the American, in the sense that the popular
will can more speedily be brought to bear upon the government.
Change of Power in France. — The established practice of
England and America may be compared with the constitutional-
ism of France. Here the problem presents different conditions.
The head of the state is neither a premier of the English, nor
a president of the American type. He is served by a prime
minister and a cabinet, who, like an English ministry, hold office
on the condition of parliamentary confidence; but he holds
office himself on the same terms, and is, in fact, a minister like
the others. So far as the transmission of power from cabinet
to cabinet is concerned, he discharges the functions of an English
king. But the transmission of power between himself and his
successor is protected by no constitutional devices whatever,
and experience would seem to show that no such devices are
really necessary. Other European countries professing con-
stitutional government appear to follow the English practice.
The Swiss republic is so peculiarly situated that it is hardly fair to
compare it with any other. But it is interesting to note that,
while the rulers of the states are elected annually, the same
persons are generally re-elected. * v -»~ * -*— ,.
The Relation between Government and Laws. — It might be
supposed that, if any general proposition could be established
about government, it would be one establishing some constant
relation between the form of a government and the character
of the laws which it enforces. The technical language of the
English school of jurists is certainly of a kind to encourage such
a supposition. The entire body of law in force in a country
at any moment is regarded as existing solely by the fiat of the
governing power. There is no maxim more entirely in the spirit
of this jurisprudence than the following: — " The real legislator
is not he by whom the law was first ordained, but he by whose
will it continues to be law." The whole of the vast repertory
GOVERNMENT
297
of rules which make up the law of England— the rules of practice
in the courts, the local customs of a county or a manor, the
principles formulated by the sagacity of generations of judges,
equally with the statutes, for the year, are conceived of by the
school of Austin as created by the will of the sovereign and the
two Houses of Parliament, or so much of them as would now
satisfy the definition of sovereignty. It would be out of place
to examine here the difficulties which embarrass this definition,
but the statement we have made carries on its face a demonstra-
tion of its own falsity in fact. There is probably no government
in the world of which it could be said that it might change at
will the substantive laws of the country and still remain a
government. However well it may suit the purposes of analytical
jurisprudence to define a law as a command set by sovereign to
subject, we must not forget that this is only a definition, and that
the assumption it rests upon is, to the student of society, any-
thing but a universal fact. From his point of view the cause of
a particular law is not one but many, and of the many the deliber-
ate will of a legislator may not be one. Sir Henry Maine has
illustrated this point by the case of the great tax-gathering
empires of the east, in which the absolute master of millions
of men never dreams of making anything in the nature of a law
at all. This view is no doubt as strange to the English statesman
as to the English jurist. The most conspicuous work of govern-
ment in his view is that of parliamentary legislation. For a
large portion of the year the attention of the whole people is
bent on the operations of a body of men who are constantly
engaged in making new laws. It is natural, therefore, to think
of law as a factitious thing, made and unmade by the people
who happen for the time being to constitute parliament. It is
forgotten how small a proportion the laws actually devised by
parliament are of the law actually prevailing in the land. No
European country has undergone so many changes in the form
of government as France. It is surprising how little effect these
political revolutions have had on the body of French law.
The change from empire to republic is not marked by greater
legislative effects than the change from a Conservative to a
liberal ministry in England would be.
These reflections should make us cautious in accepting any
general proposition about forms of government and the spirit
of their laws. We must remember, also, that the classification
of governments according to the numerical proportion between
governors and governed supplies but a small basis for generaliza-
tion. What parallel can be drawn between a small town, in which
half the population are slaves, and every freeman has a direct
'voice in the government, and a great modern state, in which
there is not a single slave, while freemen exercise their sovereign
powers at long intervals, and through the action of delegates
and representatives ? Propositions as vague as those of Montes-
quieu may indeed be asserted with more or less plausibility.
But to take any leading head of positive law, and to say that
monarchies treat it in one way, aristocracies and democracies
in another, is a different matter.
II. Sphere of Government
The action of the state, or sovereign power, or government
in a civilized community shapes itself into the threefold functions
of legislation, judicature and administration. The two first
are perfectly well-defined^ and the last includes all the kinds
of state action not included in the other two. It is with reference
to legislation and administration that the line of permissible
state-action requires to be drawn. There is no doubt about the
province of the judicature, and that function of government
may therefore be dismissed with a very few observations.
The complete separation of the three functions marks a
high point of social organization. In simple societies the same
officers discharge all the duties which we divide between the
legislator, the administrator and the judge. The acts them-
selves are not consciously recognized as being of different kinds.
The evolution of all the parts of a highly complex government
from one original is illustrated in a striking way by the history
of English institutions. All the conspicuous parts of the modern
government, however little they may resemble each other now,
can be followed back without a break to their common origin.
Parliament, the cabinet, the privy council, the courts of law,
all carry us back to the same nidus in the council of the feudal
king.
Judicature. — The business of judicature, requiring as it does
the possession of a high degree of technical skill and knowledge,
is generally entrusted by the sovereign body or people to a
separate and independent class of functionaries. In England
the appellate jurisdiction of the House of Lords still maintains
in theory the connexion between the supreme legislative and the
supreme judicial functions. In some states of the American Union
certain judicial functions of the upper house were for a time main-
tained after the example of the English constitution as it existed
when the states were founded. In England there is also still
a considerable amount of judicial work in which the people takes
its share. The inferior magistracies, except in populous places,
are in the hands of private persons. And by the jury system
the ascertainment of fact has been committed in very large
measure to persons selected indiscriminately from the mass
of the people, subject to a small property qualification. But
the higher functions of the judicature are exercised by persons
whom the law has jealously fenced off from external interference
and control. The independence of the bench distinguishes the
English system from every other. It was established in principle
as a barrier against monarchical power, and hence has become
one of the traditional ensigns of popular government. In many
of the American states the spirit of democracy has demanded
the subjection of the judiciary to popular control. The judges
are elected directly by the people, and hold office for a short
term, instead of being appointed, as in England, by the respons-
ible executive, and removable only by a vote of the two Houses.
At the same time the constitution of the United States has
assigned to the supreme court of the Union a perfectly unique
position. The supreme court is the guardian of the constitution
(as are the state courts* of the constitution of the states; see
United States). It has to judge whether a measure passed
by the legislative powers is not void by reason of being uncon-
stitutional, and it may therefore have to veto the deliberate
resolutions of both Houses of Congress and the president. It
is admitted that this singular experiment in government has been '
completely justified by its success. -' j
Limits of State Interference in Legislation and Administration. —
The question of the limits of state action does not arise with
reference to the judiciary. The enforcement of the laws is a
duty which the sovereign power must of absolute necessity
take upon itself. But to what conduct of the citizens the laws
shall extend is the most perplexing of all political questions.
The correlative question with regard to the executive would
be what works of public convenience should the state undertake
through its own servants. The whole question of the sphere'
of government may be stated in these two questions: What
should the state do for its citizens ? and How far should the
state interfere with the action of its citizens ? These questions
are the direct outcome of modern popular government; they
are equally unknown to the small democracies of ancient times
and to despotic governments at all times. Accordingly ancient
political philosophy, rich as it is in all kinds of suggestions,
has very little to say that has any bearing on the sphere of
government. The conception that the power of the state can
be and ought to be limited belongs to the times of " government
by discussion," to use Bagehot's expression, — to the time when
the sovereign number is divided by class interests, and when
the action of the majority has to be carried out in the face of
strong minorities, capable of making themselves heard. Aristotle
does indeed dwell on one aspect of the question. He would
limit the action of the government in the sense of leaving as little
as possible to the personal will of the governors, whether one
or many. His maxim is that the law should reign. But that the
sphere of law itself should be restricted, otherwise than by
general principles of morality, is a consideration wholly foreign
to ancient philosophy: The state is conceived as acting like
xn. 10 a
298
GOVERNOR— GOWER, J.
a just man, and justice in the state is the same thing as justice
in the individual. The Greek institutions which the philosophers
are unanimous in commending are precisely those which the most
State-ridden nations of modern times would agree in repudiating.
The exhaustive discussion of all political measures, which for
aver two centuries has been a fixed habit of English public life,
has of itself established the principle that there are assignable
limits to the action of the state. Not that the limits ever have
been assigned in terms, but popular sentiment has more or
less vaguely fenced off departments of conduct as sacred from
the interference of the law. Phrases like " the liberty of the
subject," the " sanctity of private property," an Englishman's
house is his castle," " the rights of conscience/' are the common*
places of political discussion, and tell the state, " Thus far shalt
thou go and no further."
The two contrasting policies are those of laissez-faire (let
alone) and Protection, or individualism and state-socialism,
the one a policy of non-interference with the free play of social
forces, the other of their regulation for the benefit of the com-
munity. The laissez-faire theory was prominently upheld by
John Stuart Mill, whose essay on Liberty, together with the
concluding chapters of his treatise on Political Economy, gives
a tolerably complete view of the principles of government.
There is a general presumption against the interference of govern-
ment, which is only to be. overcome by very strong evidence
of necessity. Governmental action is generally less effective
than voluntary action. The necessary duties of government
are so burdensome, that to increase them destroys its efficiency.
Its powers are already so great that individual freedom is
constantly in danger. As a general rule, nothing which can be
done by the voluntary agency of individuals should be left to
the state. Each man is the best judge of his own interests.
But, on the, other hand, when the thing itself is admitted to
be useful or necessary, and it cannot be effected by voluntary
agency, or when it is of such a nature that the consumer cannot
be considered capable of judging of the quality supplied, then
Mill would allow the state to interpose. Thus the education
of children , and even of adults, would fairly come within the
province of the state. Mill even goes so far as to admit that,
where a restriction of the hours of labour, or the establishment
of a periodical holiday, is proved to be beneficial to labourers
as a class, but cannot be carried out voluntarily on account of
the refusal of individuals to co-operate, government may justifi-
ably compel them to co-operate. Still further, Mill would desire
to see some control exercised by the government over the opera-
tions of those, voluntary associations which, consisting of large
numbers of shareholders, necessarily leave their affairs in the
hands of one or a few persons. In short, Mill's general rule
against state action admits of many important exceptions,
founded on no principle less vague than that of public expediency.
The essay on Liberty is, mainly concerned with freedom of
individual character, and its arguments apply to control exercised,
not only by the state, but by society in the form of public opinion.
The leading principle is that of Humboldt, " the absolute and
essential importance of human development in its richest
diversity." Humboldt broadly excluded education, religion
and morals from the action, direct and indirect, of, the state.
Mill, as we have seen, conceives education to be within the pro-
vince of the state, but he would confine its action to compelling
parents to educate their children.
The most thoroughgoing opponent of state action, however,
is Herbert Spencer. In his Social Statics, published in 1850,
he holds it to be the essential duty of government to protect —
to maintain men's rights to life, to personal liberty and to
property; and the theory that the government ought to under-
take other offices besides that of protector he regards as an
untenable theory. Each man has a right to the fullest exercise
of all his faculties, compatible with the same right in others.
This is the fundamental law of equal freedom, which it is the
duty and the only duty of the state to enforce. If the Btate
goes beyond this duty, it becomes, not a protector, but an
aggressor. Thus all state regulations of commerce, all religious
establishments, all government relief of the poor, all state
systems of education and of sanitary superintendence, even
the state currency and the post-office, stand condemned, not
only as ineffective for their respective purposes, but as involving
violations of man's natural liberty.
The tendency of modern legislation is more a question of
political practice than of political theory. In some cases state
interference has been abolished or greatly limited. These cases
are mainly two — in matters of opinion (especially religious
opinion), and in matters of contract.
The mere enumeration of the individual instances would occupy a
formidable amount of space. The reader is referred to such articles
as England, Church of; Establishment; Marriage; Oath;
Roman Catholic Church, &c, and Company; Contract;
Partnership, &c. In other cases the state has interfered for the
protection a^nd assistance of definite classes of persons. For example,
the education and protection of children (see Children, Law Re-
lating to; Education; Technical Education); the regulation
of factory labour and dangerous employment (see Labour Legisla-
tion); improved conditions of health (Bee Adulteration; Hous-
ing ; Public Health, Law of, &c.) ; coercion for moral purposes
(see Bet and Betting; Criminal Law; Gaming and Wagering;
Liquor Laws; Lotteries, &c). Under numerous other headings
in this work the evolution of existing forms of government is dis-
cussed ; see also the bibliographical note to the article Constitution
and Constitutional Law.
GOVERNOR (from the Fr. gouverneur, from gouverner, O. Fr.
governer, Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, to direct, guide), in
general, one who governs or exercises authority; specifically,
an official appointed to govern a district, province, town, &c.
In British colonies or dependencies the representative of the
crown is termed a governor. Colonial governors are classed
as governors-general, governors and lieutenant-governors,
according to the status of the colony or group of colonies over
which they preside. Their powers vary according to the position
which they occupy. In all cases they represent the authority
of the crown. In the United States (q.v.) the official at the
head of every state government is called a governor.
GOW, NIEL (1727-1807), Scottish musician of humble parent-
age, famous as a violinist and player of reels, but more so for
the part he played in preserving the old melodies of Scotland.
His compositions, and those of his four sons, Nathaniel, the
most famous (1 763-1831), William (1751-1701), Andrew (1760-
1803), and John (1764-1826), formed the " Gow Collection,"
comprising various volumes edited by Niel and his. sons, a
valuable repository of Scottish traditional airs. The most im*
portant of Niel's sons was Nathaniel, who is remembered as
the author of the well-known " Caller Herrin," taken from the
fishwives' cry, a tune to which words were afterwards written'
by Lady Nairne. Nathaniel's son, Niel Gow junior ( 1 795-1823) ,
was the author of the famous songs " Flora Macdonald'sLament"
and " Cam' ye by Athol."
GOWER, JOHN (d. 1408), English poet, died at an advanced
age in 1408, so that he may be presumed to have been born
about 1330. He belonged to a good Kentish family, but the
suggestion of Sir Harris Nicolas that the poet is to be identified
with a John Gower who was at one time possessed of the manor
of Kentwell is open to serious objections. There is no evidence
that he ever lived as a country gentleman, but he was undoubtedly
possessed of some wealth, and we know that he was the owner
of the manors of Fehwell in Suffolk and Moulton in Norfolk.
In a document of 1382 he is called an " Esquier de Kent," and
he was certainly not in holy orders. That he was acquainted
with Chaucer we know, first because Chaucer in leaving England
for Italy in 1378 appointed Gower and another to represent
him in his absence, secondly because Chaucer addressed his
Troilus and Criseide to Gower and Strode (whom he addresses
as " moral Gower " and " philosophical Strode ") for criticism
and correction, and thirdly because of the lines in the first edition
of Gower's Confessio amantis," And gret wel Chaucer whan ye
mete," &c. There is no sufficient ground for the suggestion,
based partly on the subsequent omission of these lines and
partly on the humorous reference of Chaucer to Gower's Confessio
amantis in the introduction to the Man of Law's Tale, that the
friendship was broken by a quarreL From his Latin poem
GOWER
299
Vox damOntis we know that he was deeply, and. painfully
interested in the peasants' rising of 1381; and by the alterations
which the author made in successive revisions, of this work
we can trace a gradually increasing sense of disappointment in
the youthful king, whom he at first acquits of all responsibility
for the state of the kingdom on account of his tender age* That
he became personally known, to the king we learn from his
own statement in the first edition of the Confessio amantis,
where he says that he met the king* upon the river, was invited
to enter the royal barge, and in the conversation which followed
received the suggestion which led him to write his principal
English poem. At the same time we know, especially from the
later revisions of. the Confessio (mantis, that he was a great
admirer of the king's brilliant cousin, Henry of Lancaster,
afterwards Henry IV., whom he came eventually to regard as a
possible saviour of society from the misgpovernment of Richard II.
We have a record that in 1393 he received a collar from his
favourite political hero, and it is to be observed that the
effigy upon Gower's tomb is wearing a collar of SS. with the
swan badge which was used by Henry. .
The first edition of the Confessed amantis is dated 1300, and
this contains, at least in > some copies, a secondary dedication
to the then eaxl of Derby. The later form, in. which Henry
became the sole object of the dedication, is of the year 1393.
Gower's political opinions are still more strongly expressed in
the Cronica inpartUa.
In 1398 he was married to Agnes Groundolf, and from the
special licence granted . by the bishop of Winchester for the
celebration of this marriage in John Gower's private oratory
we gather that he was then living in lodgings assigned to him
within the priory of St Mary Overy, and perhaps also that he
was too infirm to be married in the parish church. It is probable
that this was not his first marriage, {or there are indications
in his early French poem that he had a wife at the time when
that was written. His will is dated the 15th of August 1408,
and his death took place very soon after this. He had been
blind for some years before his death. A magnificent tomb
with a recumbent effigy was erected over his grave in the chapel
of St John the Baptist within the church of the priory, now
St Saviour's, Southwark, and this is still to be seen, though not
quite in its original state or place. From the inscription on the
tomb, as well a£ from other indications, it appears that he was a
considerable benefactor of the priory and contributed largely
to the rebuilding of the church.
The effigy on Gower's tomb rests its head upon a pile of three
folio volumes entitled Speculum meditantis, Vox clamantis
and Confessio amantis. These are his three principal works.
The first of these was long supposed to have perished, but a copy
of it was discovered in the year 1895. under the title Mirour
del'omme* It is a French poem of about 30,000 lines in twelve-
line stanzas, and under the form of an allegory of the human soul
describes the seven deadly sins and their opposing virtues, and
then the various estates of man and the vices incident to each,
concluding with a narrative of the life of the Virgin Mary, and
with praise of her as the means of reconciliation between God
and man. The work is extremely tedious for the most part,
but shows considerable command over the language and a great
facility in metrical expression.
Gower's next work was the Vox clamantis in Latin elegiac
verse, in which the author takes occasion from the peasants'
insurrection of 13&1 to deal -again) with the faults of the various
classes of society. In the earlier portion the insurrection itself
is described in a rather vivid manner, though under the form
of an allegory: the remainder contains much the same material
as we have already seen in that part of the French poenrwhere
the classes of society are described Gower's Latin verse is
very fair, as judged by the medieval standard, but in this book
he has borrowed very freely from Ovid, Alexander Neckam,
Peter de Riga arid others. <' .
Gower's" chief claim, however, to reputation as a poet rests
upon his English work, the Confessio amantis, in which he
displays in his native language a real gift as a story-teller. He
is himself the lover of his poem, in spite of his. advancing years*
and he makes his confession to Genius, the priest of Venus,
under the. usual headings supplied by the seven deadly sins.
These with their several branches are successively described,
and the nature of them illustrated by tales, which are directed
to the illustration both of the general nature of the sin, and of the
particular form which it may take in a lover. Finally he receives
at once his absolution, and his dismissal from the service of
Venus, for which his age rendershim unfit. The idea is ingenious,
and there is often much quaintness of fancy in the application
of moral ideas to the relations* of the lover and his mistress.
The tales are drawn from very various sources and are often
extremely well* told. The metre is the short couplet, and it is
extremely smooth and regular. The great fault of the Confessio
amantis is the extent of its digressions, especially in the fifth
and seventh books.
Gower also wrote in .1307 a short series of French ballades
on the virtue of the married state (TraitiS pour essampler les
atnantz merits), and after the accession of Henry IV. he produced
the Cronica tripartita, a partisan account in Latin leonine
hexameters of the events of the last twelve years of the reign
of Richard II. About the same time he addressed* an English
poem in seven-line stanzas to Henry IV. (In Praise of Peace),
and dedicated to the king a series of French ballades (Cinkante
Bafades), which deal with the conventional topics of love, but
are often graceful, and even poetical in expression. Several
occasional Latin pieces also belong to the later years of his
life.
On the whole Gower must be admitted to have had consider-
able literary powers; and though not a man of genius, and by
no means to be compared with Chaucer, yet he did good service
in helping to establish the standard literary language, which at
the end of the 14th century took the place of the Middle English
dialects. The Confessio amantis was long regarded as a classic
of the language, and Gower and Chaucer were often mentioned
side by side as the fathers of English poetry. i
A complete edition of Gower's works in four volumes, edited by
G. C. Maeaulay, was published in 1 890-1902, the first volume con-
taining the French works, the second and third the English, and the
fourth the Latin, with a biography. Before this the Confessio
tnefolfov" " ""
amantis had been published in 1
[lowing editions : Caxton (1
Berthelette (1532 and 1554); Chalmers, British Poets (1810); Rein-
hold Pauli (1857); H, Morley (1889, incomplete). The two series
of French ballades and the Praise of Peace were printed for the
Roxburghe Club in 181 8, and the Vox clamantis and Cronica
tripartita were edited by H. O. Coxe for the Roxburghe Club in
1850. The Cronica tripartita, the Praise of Peace and some of the
minor Latin poems were printed in Wright's Political Poems (Rolls
series, 14). The Praise of Peace appeared in the early folio editions
of Chaucer, and has been edited also by Dr Skeat in his Chaucerian
and other Pieces. Reference may be made to Todd's Illustrations of
the Lives and Writings of Gower and Chaticer; the article (by Sir
H. Nicolas) in the Retrospective Review for 1828; Observations on the
Language of Chaucer and Gower, by F. J. Child ; H. Morley 's English
Writers, iv. ; Ten Brink's History of Early English Literature'ii. ; and
Courthope's History of English Poetry, i. (G. C. M.)
GOWER, a seigniory and district in the county of Glamorgan,
lying between the rivers Tawe and Loughor and between
Breconshire and the sea, its length from the Breconshire border
to Worm's Head being 28 m., and its breadth about 8 m. It
corresponds to the ancient commote of Gower (in Welsh Gwyr )
which in early Welsh times was grouped with two other commotes
stretching westwards to the Towy and so formed part of the
principality of Ystrad Tywi. Its early association with the
country to the west instead of with Glamorgan is perpetuated by
its continued inclusion in the diocese of St Davids, its two rural
deaneries, West and East Gower, being in the archdeaconry
of Carmarthen. What is meant by Gower in modern popular
usage, however, is only the peninsular part or " English Gower "
(that is the Welsh Bro-wyr, as distinct from Gwyr proper),
roughly corresponding to the hundred of Swansea and lying
mainly to the south of a line drawn from Swansea to Loughor.
The numerous limestone caves of the coast are noted for their
immense deposits of animal remains, but their traces of man are
far scantier, those found in Bacon Hole and in Paviland cave
3°°
GOWER
being the most important. In the Roman period the river Tawe,
or the great morass between it and the Neath, probably formed
the boundary between the Silures and the Goidelic population
to the west; The latter, reinforced perhaps from Ireland,
continued to be the dominant race in Gower till their conquest
or partial expulsion in the 4th century by the sons of Cunedda
who introduced a Brythonic element into the district. Centuries
later Scandinavian rovers raided the coasts, leaving traces of
their more or less temporary occupation in such place-names
as Burry Holms, Worms Head and Swansea, and probably
also in some cliff earthworks. About the year 1 100 the conquest
of Gower was undertaken by Henry de Newburgh, first earl of
Warwick, with the assistance of Maurice de Londres and others.
His followers, who were mostly Englishmen from the marches
and Somersetshire with perhaps a sprinkling of Flemings, settled
for the most part on the southern side of the peninsula, leaving
the Welsh inhabitants of the northern half of Gower practically
undisturbed. These invaders were probably reinforced a little
later by a small detachment of the larger colony of Flemings
which settled in south Pembrokeshire. Moated mounds, which
in some cases developed into castles, were built for the protection
of the various manors into which the district was parcelled out,
the castles of Swansea and Loughor being ascribed to the earl
of Warwick and that of Oystermouth to Maurice de Londres.
These were repeatedly attacked and burnt by the Welsh during
the 1 2th and 13th centuries, notably by Griffith ap Rhys in
1 1 13, by his son the Lord Rhys in 1189, by his grandsons acting
in concert with Llewelyn the Great in 1215, and by the last
Prince Llewelyn in 1257. With the Norman conquest the feudal
system was introduced, and the manors were held in capite
of the lord by the tenure of castle-guard of the castle of Swansea,
the caput baroniae.
About 1 189 the lordship passed from the Warwick family
to the crown and was granted in 1203 by King John to William
de Braose, in whose family it remained for over 120 years except
for three short intervals when it was held for a second time by
King John (1211-1215), by Llewelyn the Great (1216-1223),
and the Despensers (c. 1323-1326). In 1208 the Welsh and
English inhabitants who had frequent cause to complain of
their treatment, received each a charter, in similar terms, from
King John, who also visited the town of Swansea in 12 10 and
in 121 5 granted its merchants liberal privileges. In 1283
a number of de Braose's tenants — unquestionably Welshmen —
left Gower for the royal lordship of Carmarthen, declaring that
they would live under the king rather than under a lord marcher.
In the following year the king visited de Braose at Oystermouth
Castle, which seems to have been made the lord's chief residence,
after the destruction of Swansea Castle by Llewelyn. Later
on the king's officers of the newly organized county of Carmarthen
repeatedly claimed jurisdiction over Gower, thereby endeavour-
ing to reduce its status from that of a lordship marcher with
semi-regal jurisdiction, into that of an ordinary constituent Of
the new county. De Braose resisted the claim and organized the
English part of his lordship on the lines of a county palatine,
with its own comitatus and chancery held in Swansea Castle,
the sheriff and chancellor being appointed by himself. The
inhabitants, who had no right of appeal to the crown against
their lord or the decisions of his court, petitioned the king,
who in 1305 appointed a special commission to enquire into
their alleged grievances, but in the following year the de Braose
of the time, probably in alarm, conceded liberal privileges both
to the burgesses of Swansea and to the English and Welsh
inhabitants of his " county " of English Gower. He was the
last lord seignior to live within the seigniory, which passed from
him to his son-in-law John de Mowbray. Other troubles befell
the de Braose barons and their successors in title, for their right
to the lordship was contested by the Beauchamps, representa-
tives of the earlier earls of Warwick, in prolonged litigation
carried on intermittently from 1278 to 1396, the Beauchamps
being actually in possession from 1354, when a decision was
given in their favour, till its reversal in 1306. It then reverted
to the Mowbrays and was held by them until the 4th duke of
Norfolk exchanged it in 1489, for lands in England, with William
Herbert, earl of Pembroke. The latter's granddaughter brought
it to her husband Charles Somerset, who in 1506 was granted
her father's subtitle of Baron Herbert of Chepstow, Raglan and
Gower, and from him the lordship has descended to the present
lord, the duke of Beaufort.
Gower was made subject to the ordinary law of England by
its inclusion in 1535 in the county of Glamorgan as then re-
organized; its chancery, which from about the beginning of
the 14th century had been located at Oystermouth Castle, came
to an end, but though the Welsh acts of 1535 and 1542 purported
to abolish the rights and privileges of the lords marchers as
conquerors, yet some of these, possibly from being regarded as
private rights, have survived into modern times. For instance,
the seignior maintained a franchise gaol in Swansea Castle till
1858, when it was abolished by act of parliament, the appoint-
ment of coroner for Gower is still vested in him, all writs are
executed by the lord's officers instead of by the officers of the
sheriff for the county, and the lord's rights to the foreshore,
treasure trove, felon's goods and wrecks are undiminished.
The characteristically English part of Gower lies to the south
and south-west of its central ridge of Cefn y Bryn. It was this
part that was declared by Professor Freeman to be " more Teu-
tonic than Kent itself." The seaside fringe lying between this
area and the town of Swansea, as well as the extreme north-west
of the peninsula, also became anglicized at a comparatively
early date, though the place-names and the names of the in-
habitants are still mainly Welsh. The present line of demarca-
tion between the two languages is one. drawn from Swansea
in a W.N.W. direction to Llanrhidian on the north coast. It
has remained practically the same for several centuries, and is
likely to continue so, as it very nearly coincides with the southern
outcrop of the coal measures, the industrial population to
the north being Welsh-speaking, the agriculturists to the south
being English. In 1001 the Gower rural district (which includes
the Welsh-speaking industrial parish of Llanrhidian, with about
three-sevenths of the total population) had 64-5 % of the popula-
tion above three years of age that spoke English. only, 5*4%
that spoke Welsh only, the remainder being bilinguals, as com-
pared with 17 % speaking English only, 17*7 speaking Welsh only
and the rest bilinguals in the Swansea rural district, and 7%
speaking English only, 55*2 speaking Welsh only and the rest
bilinguals in the Pontardawe rural district, the last two districts
constituting Welsh Gower.
More than one-fourth of the whole area of Gower is unenclosed
common land, of which in English Gower fully one-half is
apparently capable of cultivation. Besides the demesne manors
of the lord seignior, six in number, there are some twelve mesne
manors and fees belonging to the Penrice estate, and nearly
twenty more belonging to various other owners. The tenure is
customary freehold, though in some cases described as copyhold,
and in the ecclesiastical manor of Bishopston, descent is by
borough English. The holdings are on the whole probably smaller
in size than in any other area of corresponding extent in Wales,
and agriculture is still in a backward state.
In the Arthurian romances Gower appears in the form of
Goire as the island home of the dead, a view which probably
sprang up among the Celts of Cornwall, to whom the peninsula
would appear as an island. It is also surmised by Sir John Rh£s
that Malory's Brandegore (i.e. Bran of Gower) represents the
Celtic god of the other world (Rhys, Arthurian Legend, 160,
3 29 et seq.) . On Cefn Bryn, almost in the centre of the peninsula,
is a cromlech with a large capstone known as Arthur's Stone.
The unusually large number of cairns on this hill, given as eighty
by Sir Gardner Wilkinson, suggests that this part of Gower
was a favourite burial-place in early British times. •
See RevJ J. D. Da vies, A History of West Gower (4 vols., 1877-
1804); Col. W. Ll-Morgan, An Antiquarian Survey of East Gower
(1809); an article (probably by Professor Freeman) entitled
" Anglia Trans- Walliana " in the Saturday Review for May 20,
1876; "The Signory of Gower" by G. T. Clark in Archaeoloeia
Cambrensis for 1 893-1 894; The Surveys of Gower and Kilvey, ed. by
Baker and Grant-Francis (1861-1870). (D. Ll. T.)
GOWN— GOWRIE, EARL OF
GOWN, properly the term for a loose outer garment formerly 1
worn by .either sex but now generally for that worn by women.;
While " dress " is the usual English word, except in such com-
binations as "tea-gown," " dressing-gown " and the like, where
the original loose flowing nature of the f< gown "is referred to,
44 gown " is the common American word. " Gown "comes from
the O. Fr. g <nme or g&nne. The word appears in various Romanic .
languages, cf. Ital. gbnna. The medieval Lat. gunna is used of
a garment of skin or fur. A Celtic origin has been usually
adopted, but the Irish, Gaelic and Manx words are taken from
the English. Outside the ordinary use of the word, " gown "
is the name for the distinctive robes worn by holders of particular
offices or by members of particular professions or of universities,
&c. (see Robes).
GOWRIE, JOHN RUTHVEN, 3RD Earx o* (c. 1 577-1600),
Scottish conspirator, was the second son of William, 4th Lord.
Ruthven and 1st earl of Gowrie (cr. 1581), by his wife Dorothea,
daughter of Henry Stewart, and Lord Methven. The Ruthven
family was of ancient Scottish descent, and had owned extensive
estates in the time of William the Lion; the Ruthven peerage
dated from the year 1488. The 1st earl of Gowrie (? 1 541-1 584) ,
and his father, Patrick, 3rd Lord Ruthven (c. 15 20-1 566), had!
both been concerned in the murder of Rizario in 1566; and
both took an active part on the side of the Kirk in the constant
intrigues and factions among the Scottish nobility of the ^period, j
The former had been the custodian of Mary, queen of Scots,
during her imprisonment in Loch Leven, where, according to
the queen, hfe had pestered her with amorous attentions; he.
had also been the chief actor in the plot known as the " raid of
Ruthven " when Ring James VI. was treacherously seized-
while a guest at the castle of Ruthven in 1582,. and kept under;
restraint for several months while the earl remained at the head
of the government. Though pardoned for this conspiracy he
continued to plot against the king in conjunction with the earls-
of Mar and Angus, and he was executed for high treason on
the 2nd of May 1584; his friends complaining that the confession
on which he was convicted of treason was obtained by a promise
of pardon from the king. His eldest son, William, 2nd earl of,
Gowrie, only survived till 1588, the family dignities and estates,
which had been forfeited, having been restored to him in 1 586*
When, therefore, John Ruthven succeeded to the earldom
while still a child, he inherited along with his vast estates family
traditions of treason and intrigue. There was also a popular
belief, though without foundation, that there was Tudor blood
in his veins; and Burnet afterwards asserted that Gowrie
stood next in succession to the crown of England after King
James VI. Like his father and grandfather before him, the
young earl attached himself to the party of the reforming
preachers, who procured his election in 1592 as provost of
Perth, a post that was almost hereditary in the Ruthven family.
He received an excellent education at the grardmar school of
Perth and the university of Edinburgh, where he was in the
summer of 1593, about the time when his mother, and his sister
the countess of Atholl, aided Bothwell in forcing himself sword
in hand into the king's bedchamber in : Holyrood Palace. A
few months later Gowrie joined with Atholl and Montrose in
offering to serve Queen Elizabeth, then almost openly hostile
to the Scottish king; and it is probable that he had also relations
with the rebellious Bothwell. Gowrie had thus been already
deeply engaged in treasonable conspiracy when; in August
1594, he proceeded to Italy with his tutor* William Rhynd, to
study at the university of Padua. On his way home in 1599
he remained for some months at Geneva with the reformer
Theodore Beza; and at Paris he made acquaintance with the
English ambassador, who reported him to Cecil as devoted to
Elizabeth's service, and a nobleman " of whom there may be
exceeding use made." In Paris he may also at this time have
had further communication with the exfled Bothwell; in London
he was received with marked favour by Queen Elizabeth and her
ministers.
These circumstances owe their importance to the light they
throw on the obscurity of the celebrated " Gowrie conspiracy,"
,301
which resulted in the slaughter of -the earl and his brother by
attendants of King James at Gowrie House, Perth, a few weeks
after Cowrie's return to Scotland in May 1600. This TB0
event ranks among the unsolved enigmas of history, amwm
The mystery is caused by the improbabilities inherent in »«-
any of the alternative hypotheses suggested to account ^ ir *^«
for the unquestionable facts of the occurrence; the discrepancies
in the evidence produced at the time; the apparent lack of
forethought or plan' on the part of the chid actors, whichever
hypothesis be adopted, as well as the thoughtless folly of their
actual procedure; and the insufficiency of motive, whoever
the guilty parties may have been. The solutions of the mystery
that have been suggested are three in number: first, 1 that
Gowrie arid his brother had concocted a plot to murder, or
more probably to kidnap King James, and that they lured him
to Gowrie House for this- purpose; secondly, that James paid
a surprise visit to Gowrie House with the intention, which he
carried out, of slaughtering the two Ruthvens; and thirdly,
that the tragedy was the outcome of an unpremeditated brawl
following high words between the king and the earl, or his
brother. To understand the relative probabilities of these
hypotheses regard must be had to the conditiqn of Scotland in
the year 1600 (see Scotland; History). Here it can only be
recalled that plots to capture the person, of the sovereign for the
purpose of coercing his actions were of frequent occurrence,
more than one of which had been successful, and in several of
which the Ruthven family' had themselves taken- an active
part; that the relations between England and Scotland were
at this time more than usually strained, and that the young
earl Of Gowrie was reckoned in London among the adherents
of Elisabeth; that the Kirk party, being at variance wRh
James, looked upon Gowrie as an hereditary partisan of their
cause, and had recently sent an agent to Paris to recall him
to Scotland as their leader; that Gowrie was believed to be
James's rival for the succession to the English crown. Moreover,
as regards the question of motive it is to be observed, on the
one hand, that the Ruthvens believed Gowrie's father *o have
been treacherously done to death, and bis widow insulted by
the king's favourite minister; while, on the other, James was
indebted in a large sum of money to the earl of Gowrie's estate,
and popular gossip credited either Gowrie or his brother, Alex-
ander Ruthven, with being the lover of the queen. Although
the evidence on these points, and on every minute circumstance
connected with the tragedy itself, has been exhaustively examined
by historians of the Gowrie conspiracy, it cannot be asserted
that the mystery has been entirely dispelled; but, while it is
improbable that complete certainty will ever be arrived at as
to whether the guilt lay with James or with the Ruthven brothers,
the most modern research in the light of materials inaccessible
or overlooked till the 20th century, points pretty clearly to the
conclusion that there was a genuine conspiracy by Gowrie and
his brother to kidnap the king. If this be the true solution,
it follows that King James was innocent of the blood of the
Ruthvens; and it raises the presumption that his own account
of the occurrence was, in spite of the glaring improbabilities
which it involved, substantially true.
The facts as related by James and other witnesses were, in
outline, as follows. On the 5th of August 1600 the king rose
early to 'hunt in the neighbourhood of Falkland Palace, about
14 m. from Perth. Just as he was setting forth in company
with the duke of Lennox, the earl of Mar, Sir Thomas Erskine
and others, he was accosted by Alexander Ruthven (known
as the master of Ruthven), a younger brother of the earl of
Gowrie, who had ridden from Perth that morning to inform
the king that he had met on the previous day a man in posses-
sion of a pitcher full of foreign gold coins, whom he had secretly
locked up in a room at Gowrie House. Ruthven urged the king
to ride to Perth to examine this man for himself and to take
possession of the treasure. After some hesitation James gave
credit to the story, suspecting that the possessor of the coins
was one of the numerous Catholic agents at that time moving
about Scotland in disguise. Without giving a positive reply to
302
■iO
\l
GOWJUE
Alexander Ruthyen,, Janes started, to bunt; but later in tbe
morning he called Ruth Yen to him and said he would ride to
Perth whcnthe hunting was over. Ruthven then despatched a
servant, Henderson, by whom he had been accompanied from
Perth in the early morning, to tell Gowrie that the king was com-
ing to Gowrie House. This messenger gave the information to
Gowrie about ten o'clock in the morning. Meanwhile Alexander
Ruthven was urging the king to lose no time, requesting him
to keep the matter secret from his courtiers, and to bring to
Gowrie House as small a retinue as possible. James, with a
train of some fifteen persons, arrived at Gowrie House about
one o'clock, Alexander Ruthven having spurred forward for
a mile or so to announce the king's approach. But notwithstand-
ing Henderson's warning some three hours earlier, Gowrie. had
made no preparations for the king's entertainment, thus giving
the impression of having been taken by surprise. After a
meagre repast, for which he was kept waiting an hour, James,
forbidding his. retainers to follow him, went with Alexander.
Ruthven up the main staircase and passed through two chambers
and two doors, both of which Ruthven locked behind them,
into a turret-room at the angle of the house, with windows
looking on the courtyard and the. street. Here James expected
to find the mysterious prison** with the foreign gold. He found
instead an armed man, who, as appeared later, was none other
than Gowrie's servant, Henderson. Alexander Ruthven immedi-
ately put on his hat, and drawing Henderson's dagger, presented
it to the king's breast with threats of instant death if James
opened a window or called for help. An allusion by Ruthven
to the execution of his father,, the ist earl of Gowrie, drew
from James a reproof of Ruthven's ingratitude for various
benefits conferred on his family. . Ruthven then uncovered his
head, declaring that James's life should be safe if he remained
quiet; then, committing the king to the custody of Henderson,
he left the turret — ostensibly to consult Gowrie — and locked the
door behind him. While Ruthven was absent the king questioned
Henderson, who professed ignorance of any plot and of the
purpose for which he had been placed in the turret; he also
at James's request opened one of the windows, and was about
to open the other when Ruthven returned. Whether or not
Alexander had seen his brother is uncertain. But Gowrie had
meantime spread the report below that the king had taken horse
and had ridden away; and the royal retinue were seeking
their horses to follow him. Alexander, on re-entering the turret,
attempted to bind James's hands; a struggle ensued, in the
course of which the king was seen at the window by spme of his
followers below in the street, who also heard him cry " treason "
and call for help to the earl of Mar. Gowrie affected not to hear
these cries, but kept asking what was the matter. Lennox,
Mar and most of the other lords and gentlemen ran up the main
. xhe staircase to the king's help, but were stopped by the
Mlmughtrt locked door, which they spent some time in. trying
***** to batter down.* John Ramsay (afterwards earl of
u veaa. Holdernesse)y noticing a small dark stairway leading
directly to the inner chamber adjoining the turret, ran up it
and found the king struggling at grips with Ruthven. Drawing
his dagger, Ramsay wounded Ruthven, who, was then pushed
down the stairway by the king. Sir Thomas Erskine, sum-
moned by RamSay, now followed up the small stairs with Dr
Hugh Hemes, and these two coming upon the wounded Ruthven
despatched him with their swords. Gowrie, entering the court-
yard with his stabler Thomas Cranstoun and seeing his brother's
body, rushed up the staircase after Erskine and Herries, followed
by Cranstoun and others of his retainers; and in the melee 1
Gowrie was killed. Some commotion was caused in the town by
the noise of these proceedings; but it quickly subsided, though
.the king did not deem it safe to return to Falkland for some
.hours.
' The tragedy caused. intense excitement throughout Scotland,:
and the investigation of the circumstances was followed with!
much interest in England also, where all the details were reported:
to Elizabeth's ministers. The preachers of the Kirk, whose 1
influence in Scotland was too extensive for the king to neglect,!
we*e only, with the. greatest difficulty persuaded to* accept
James's account of the occurrence, although he voluntarily
submitted himself to cross-exaniination by one of their number.
Their belief, and that of their partisans, influenced no doubt
by political hostility to James, was that the king had invented
the. story of a conspiracy by Gowrie to. cover bis own design
to extirpate the Ruthven family. James- gave some colour to
this belief* which has not been entirely abandoned) by the relent-
less severity . with which he pursued the two younger, and
unquestionably innocent, brothers of tbe each Great efforts
were made by the government to prove the complicity of others
in the plot. One noted and dissolute conspirator, Sir Robert
Logan of Restalrig, was posthumously convicted of having been
privy to the Gowrie conspiracy on the evidence of certain letters
produced by a notary, George Sprot, who swore they had been
written by Logan to Gowrie and others* These letters, which
are still in existence, were in fact forged by Sprot in imitation
of Logan's handwriting; but the researches of Andrew Lang
have shown cause for suspecting that the most im- _, _^
portant of them was either copied by Sprot from a urg^t
genuine original by Logan, or that it embodied the
substance of such a .letter. If this be correct, it would
appear that the conveyance of the king to Fast Castle, Logan's
impregnable fortress on the coast of Beirockshire, was part
of the plot; and it supplies, at all events, an additional
piece of evidence to prove the genuineness, of the Gowrie
conspiracy.
: Gowrie's two younger brother*, William and Patrick Ruthven,
fled to England; and after the accession of James to the English
throne William escaped abroad, but Patrick: was taken and
imprisoned for nineteen years in the Tower of London. Released
in 1 6*2, Patrick Ruthven resided first at Cambridge and after-
wards in Somersetshire, being granted a small pension by the
crown. He married Elizabeth Woodford* widow of the ist
Lord Gerrard, by whom he had two sons and a, daughter, Mary;
the latter entered, the service of Queen Henrietta Maria, and
married the famous painter van Dyck, .who painted several
portraits of her. Patrick died in poverty in a cell in the King's
Bench in 1652, being buried. as "Lord Ruthven." His son,
Patrick, presented a petition to Oliver Cromwell in 1656, in
which, after reciting that the parliament of. Scotland in 164 1
had restored his father to the barony of Ruthven, be prayed
that his " extreme poverty " might be relieved by the bounty
of the Protector.
See Andrew Lang, James VI. and ike, Gowrie Mystery (London,
1902), and the authorities there cited; Robert Pitcairn, Criminal
Trials in Scotland (3 vols., Edinburgh, 183a) ; David Moysie, Memoirs
of the Affairs of Scotland, 1577-1603 (Edinburgh, 1830); Louis A.
Barbe, The Tragedy of< Gowrie House (London, 1887); Andrew
Bisaet, Essays on Historical Truth (London, 1871); David Calder-
wood, flistoryof the Kirk of Scotland (8 vols., Edinburgh, 1842—
1849); P. F. Tytier, History of Scotland (o vols., Edinburgh, 1828-
1843); John Hill Burton, History of Scotland {f vols., Edinburgh,
1867-1870'). ' W. A. Craigie has edited as SkoUands Rimur some
Icelandic ballads. relating to the Gowrie conspiracy. He has also
printed the Danish translation of the official account of the con-
spiracy, which, was published at Copenhagen in 160 1. (R. J. M.)
GOWRIE, a belt of fertile alluvial land {^cotice, " carse ")
of Perthshire, Scotland. Occupying the northern shore of the
Firth of Tay, it has a generally north-easterly trend and extends
from the eastern boundaries of Perth, city to the confines of
Dundee, It measures 1 5 m. in length, its breadth from the river
towards the base of . the Sidlaw Hills varying from 2 to 4 m.
Probably it is a raised beach, submerged until a comparatively
recent period. Although it contained much bog land and stagnant
water as late as the 18th century, it has since been drained and
cultivated, and is now one of the most productive tracts in
Perthshire. The district is noteworthy for the number of its
castles and . mansions, almost wholly -residential, among which
may be mentioned Kinfaun6 „ Castle, Incbyra House, Pitfour
Castle,. Enrol Park, Megginch Castle^ dating from 1575; Fingask
Castle, Kinnaird Castle, erected in the 1 5th century and occupied
by James VI. in 161 7 ; Rossie Priory, the seat of Lord Kinnaird;
and Huntly Castle, built by the 3rd earl of J^inghorne.
GOYA— GOYAZ
303
GOYA, a river town and port of Corrientes, Argentine Republic,
the commercial centre of the south-western departments of the
province and chief town of a department of the same name,
on a riacho or side channel of the Parana about 5 m. from the
main channel and about 120 m. S. of the city of Corrientes.
Pop. (1905, est.) 7000. The town is built on low ground which
is subject to inundations in very wet weather, but its streets
are broad and the general appearance of its edifices is good.
Among its public buildings is a handsome parish church and a
national normal school. The productions of the neighbourhood
are chiefly pastoral, and its exports include cattle, hides, wool and
oranges. Goya had an export of crudely-made cheese long before
the modern cheese factories of the Argentine Republic came into
existence. The place dates from 1807, and had its origin, it is
said, in the trade established there by a ship captain and his
wife Gregoria or Goya, who supplied passing. vessels with beef.
GOYANNA, or Goiana, a city of Brazil in the N.E. angle of
the state of Pernambuco, about 65 m. N. of the city of Pernam-
buco. Pop. ( 1800) 1 5,436. It is built on a fertile plain between
the rivers Tracunhaem and Capibaribe-mirim near their junction
to form the Goyanna river, and is 1$ m. from the coast. It is
surrounded by, and is the commercial centre for, one of the
richest agricultural districts of the state, which produces sugar,
rum, coffee, tobacco, cotton, cattle, hides and castor oil. The
Goyanna river is navigable for small vessels nearly up to the
city, but its entrance is partly obstructed and difficult. Goyanna
is one of the oldest towns of the state, and was occupied by the
Dutch from 1636 to 1654. It has several old-style churches,
an orphans' asylum, hospital and some small industries.
GOYA Y LUCIENTES, FRANCISCO (1746-1828), Spanish
painter, was born in 1746 at Fuendetodos, a small Aragonese
village near Saragossa. At an early age he commenced his
artistic career under the direction of Jose Luzan Martinez, who
had studied painting at Naples under Mastroleo. It is clear that
the accuracy in drawing Luzan is said to have acquired by
diligent study of the best Italian masters did not much influence
his erratic pupa. Goya, a true son of his province, was bold,
capricious, headstrong and obstinate. He took a prominent
part on more than one occasion in those' rival religious processions
at Saragossa which often ended in unseemly frays; and his
friends were led in consequence to despatch him in his nineteenth'
year to Madrid, where, prior to his departure for Rome, his mode
of life appears to have been anything but that of a quiet orderly
citizen. Being a good musician, and gifted with a voice, he
sallied forth nightly, serenading the caged beauties of the capital,
with whom he seems to have been a very general favourite.
Lacking the necessary royal patronage, and probably scandaliz-
ing by his mode of life the sedate court officials, he did not receive
— perhaps did not seek — the usual honorarium accorded to those
students who visited Rome for the purpose of study. Finding
in convenient to retire for a time from Madrid, he decided to
visit Rome at his own cost; and being withbut resources he joined
a " quadrilla " of bull-fighters, passing from town to town until
he reached the shores of the Mediterranean. We next hear of
him reaching Rome, broken in health and financially bankrupt.
In 1772 he was awarded the second prize in a competition
initiated by the academy of Parma, styling himself " pupil to
Bayeu, painter to the king of Spain." Compelled to quit Rome
somewhat suddenly* he appears again in Madrid in 1775* the
husband of Bayeu's daughter, and father of a son. About this
time he appears to have visited his parents at Fuendetodos,
no doubt noting much which later on he utilized in his genre
works. On returning to Madrid he commenced painting canvases
for the tapestry factory of Santa Barbara, in which the king
took much interest. Between 1776 and 1780 he appears to have
supplied thirty examples, receiving about £1200 for them.
Soon after the revolution of 1868, an officialwas appointed to
take an inventory of all works of art belonging to the nation,
and in one of the cellars of the Madrid palace were discovered
forty-three of these works of Goya on rolls forgotten and neglected
(see Los Tapice* deGoya; for Cruzado VittaaiHtf, Madrid, 1870).
His originality and talent were soon recognized by Mengs,
the king's painter, and royal favour naturally followed.' His
career now becomes intimately connected with the court life
of his time. He was commissioned by the king to design a
series of frescoes for the church of St Anthony of Florida, Madrid,
and he also produced works for Saragossa, Valencia and Toledo.
Ecclesiastical art was not his forte, and although he cannot
be said to have failed in any of his work, his fame was not
enhanced by his religious subjects.
In portraiture, without doubt, Goya excelled: his portraits
are evidently life-like and unexaggerated, and he disdained
flattery. He worked rapidly, and during his long stay at Madrid
painted, amongst many otheifc, the portraits of four sovereigns
; of Spain— Charles III. and IV., Ferdinand VII. and "King
Joseph." The duke of Wellington' also sat to him; but on his
making some remark which raised the artist's choler, Goya
seized a plaster cast and hurled it at the head of the duke. There
are extant two pencil sketches of Wellington, one in the British
Museum, the other in a private collection. One of his best
portraits is that of the lovely Andalusian duchess of Alva.
He now became the spoiled child of fortune, and acquired, at
any rate externally, much of the polish of court manners. He
still worked industriously upon his own lines, and, while there
is a stiffness almost ungainly in the pose of some of his portraits,
the stern individuality is always preserved.
Including the designs for tapestry, Goya's genre works are
numerous and varied, both in style and feeling, from his Watteau-
like "Al Fresco Breakfast," "Romeriade San Isidro," to the
" Curate feeding the Devil's Lamp," the " Meson del GaUo "
and the painfully realistic massacre of the " Dos de Mayo "
(1808). Goya's versatility is proverbial; in his hands the
pencil, brush and graver are equally powerful. Some of his
crayon sketches of scenes in the bull ring are full of force and
character, slight but full of meaning. He was in his thirty-second
year when he commenced his etchings from Velasquez, whose
influence may, however, be traced in his work at an earlier date.
A careful examination of some of the drawings made for these
etchings indicates a steadinessof purpose not usually discovered
in Goya's craft as draughtsman. He is much more widely known
by his etchings than his oils; the latter necessarily must be
sought in pubKc and private collections, principally in Spain,
while the former are known and prized in every capital of Europe. •
The etched collections by which Goya is best known include
" Los Caprichos," which have a satirical meaning known only to
■ the few ; they are bold, weird and full of force; " Los Proverbios "
are also supposed to have some hidden intention. .. "Los
Desastres de la Guerra " may fairly claim to depict Spam during
the French invasion. In the bull-fight series Goya is evidently .
at hohie; he was a skilled master of the barbarous art, and no
doubt every sketch is true to nature, and from Hfe.
Goya retired from Madrid, desiring probably during his latter
years to escape the trying climate of that capital. He died at
Bordeaux on the 16th of April 1828, and a monument has been
erected there over his remains. From the deaths of Velasquez
and Murillo to the advent of Fortuny, Goya's name is the only
important one found in the history of Spanish art.
See also the uvea by Paul Lefort (1877), and Yriarte (1867).
GOYAZ, an inland state of Brazil, bounded by Matto Gtfosso
and Para on the W., Maranhao, Bahia and Minas Geraes on the
E., and Minas Geraes and Matto Grosso on the S. Pop. (1800)
227,572; (1900) 255,284, including many half-civilized Indians
and many half-breeds. Area, 288,549 sq* m. The outline of
the state is that of a roughly-shaped wedge with the thin edge
extending northward between and up to the junction of the
rivers Araguaya and Upper Tocantins, and its length is nearly
1 5 of latitude. The state lies wholly within the great Brazilian
plateau region, but its surface is much broken towards' the N.
,by the deeply eroded valleys of the Araguaya and Upper
Tocantins rivers and their tributaries. The general slope of
the plateau is toward the N., and the drainage of the state is
chiefly through the above-named rivers — the principal tributaries-
of the Araguaya being the Grande and . Vermelho,- and of the-
! Upper Tocantins, the ManoeL Alyes-. Grande, Somno, Paranan.
304
GOYEN^GOZLAN
and Maraoh&o. A considerable part of southern Goy&z, however,
dopes southward and the drainage is through numerous small
streams flowing into the Paranahyba, a large tributary of the
Parani. The general elevation of the plateau is estimated to
be' about 2700 ft., and the highest elevation was reported in
189a to be the Serra dos Pyreneos (5250 ft.)- Crossing the
state N.N.E. to S.S. W. there is a well-defined chain of mountains,
of which the Pyreneos, Santa Rita and Santa Martha ranges
form parts, but their elevation above the plateau is not great.
The surface of the plateau is generally open campo and scrubby
arboreal growth called coatingas, but the streams are generally
bordered with forest, especially in the deeper valleys. Towards
the N. the forest becomes denser and of the character of the
Amazon Valley. The climate of the plateau is usually described
as temperate, but it is essentially sub-tropical. The valley regions
are tropical, and malarial fevers are common. The cultivation
of the soil is limited to local needs, except in the production of
tobacco, which is exported to neighbouring states. The open
campos afford good pasturage, and live stock is largely exported.
Gold-mining has been carried on in a primitive manner for more
than two centuries, but the output has never been large and no
very rich mines have been discovered. Diamonds have been
found, but only to a very limited extent. There is a considerable
export of quartz crystal, commercially known as " Brazilian
pebbles," used in optical work. Although the northern and
southern extremities of Goy&z lie within two great river systems —
the Tocantins and Paran& — the upper courses of which are
navigable, both of them are obstructed by falls. The only
outlet for the state has been by means of mule trains to the
railway termini of S&o Paulo and Minas Geraes, pending the
extension of railways from both of those states, one entering
Goy&z by way of Catal&o, near the southern boundary, and the
other at some point further N.
The capital of the state is GoyAz, or Villa-Boa de Goy&z, a
mining town on the Rio Vermelho, a tributary of the Araguaya
rising on the northern slopes of the Serra de Santa Rita, Pop.
(1890) 6807. Gold was discovered here in 168.2 by Bartholomeu
Bueno, the first European explorer of this region, and the
settlement founded by him was called Santa Anna, which is
still the name of the parish. The site of the town is a barren,
rocky mountain valley, 1900 ft. above sea-level, in which the
heat is most oppressive at times and the nights are unpleasantly
cold. Goy&z is the see of a bishopric founded in 1826, and
possesses a small cathedral and some churches.
GOYEN, JAN JOSBPHSZOON VAN (1 506-1656), Dutch
painter, was born at Leiden on the 13th of January 1596, learned
painting under several masters at Leiden and Haarlem, married
in 1618 and settled at the Hague about 1631. He was one of
the first to emancipate himself from the traditions of minute
imitation embodied in the works of Breughel and Savery.
Though he preserved the dun scale of tone peculiar to those
painters, he studied atmospheric effects in black and white with
considerable skill. He had much influence on Dutch art. He
formed Solomon Ruysdael and Pieter Potter, forced attention
from Rembrandt, and bequeathed some of his precepts to Pieter
de Moryn, Coelenbier, Saftleven, van der Kabel and even
Berghem. His life at the Hague for twenty-five years was very
prosperous, and he rose in 1640 to be president of his gild. A
friend of van Dyck and Bartholomew van der Heist, he sat
to both these artists for his likeness. His daughter Margaret
married Jan Steen, and he had steady patrons in the stadtholder
Frederick Henry, and the chiefs of the municipality of the
Hague. He died at the Hague in 1656, possessed of land and
houses to the amount of 15,000 florins.
Between 1610 and 1616 van Goyen wandered from one school
to the other. He was first apprenticed to Isaak Swanenburgh;
he then passed through the workshops of de Man, Klok and
de Hoorn. In 16 16 he took a decisive step and joined Esaias
van der Velde at Haarlem; amongst his earlier pictures, some
of 1621 (Berlin Museum) and 1623 (Brunswick Gallery) show
the influence of Esaias very perceptibly. The landscape is
minute. Details of branching and foliage are given, and the
figures are important in relation to the distances. After 1625
these peculiarities gradually disappear. Atmospheric effect in
landscapes of cool tints varying from grey green to pearl or brown
and yellow dun is the principal object which, van Goyen holds
in view, and he succeeds admirably in light skies with drifting
misty cloud, and downs with cottages and scanty shrubbery
or stunted trees. Neglecting all detail of forage he now works
in a thin diluted medium, laying on rubbings as of sepia or
Indian ink, and finishing without loss of transparence or lucidity*
Throwing his foreground into darkness, he casts alternate light
and shade upon the more distant planes, and realizes most
pleasing views of large expanse. In buildings and water, with
shipping near the banks, he sometimes has the strength if not
the colour of Albert Cuyp. The defect of his work is chiefly
want of solidity. But even this'had its charm for van Goyen's
contemporaries, and some time elapsed before Cuyp, who
imitated him, restricted his method of transparent tinting to
the foliage of foreground trees.
Van Goyen's pictures are comparatively rare in English collec-
tions, but his work is seen to advantage abroad, and chiefly
at the Louvre, and in Berlin, Gotha, Vienna, Munich and
Augsburg. Twenty-eight of his works were exhibited together
at Vienna in 1873. Though he visited France once or twice,
van Goyen chiefly confined himself to the scenery of Holland
and the Rhine. Nine times from 1633 to 1655 he painted views
of Dordrecht. Nimeguen was one of his favourite resorts.
But he was also fond of Haarlem and Amsterdam, and he did
not neglect Arnheim or Utrecht. One of his largest pieces is
a view of the Hague, executed in 1651 for the municipality , and
now in the town collection of that city. Most of his panels
represent reaches of the Rhine, the Waal and the Maese. But
he sometimes sketched the downs of Scheveningen, or the sea,
at the mouth of the Rhine and Scheldt; and he liked to depict
the calm inshore, and rarely ventured upon seas stirred by more
than a curling breeze or the swell of a coming squall. He often
painted winter scenes, with ice and skaters and sledges, in the
style familiar to Isaac van Ostade. There are numerous varieties
of these subjects in the master's works from. 162 1 to 1653. One
historical picture has been assigned to van Goyen — the " Em-
barkation of Charles II.". in the Bute collection. But this canvas
was executed after van Goyen's death. When he tried this
form of art he properly mistrusted his own powers. But he
produced little in partnership with his contemporaries, and we
can only except the " Watering-place " in the gallery of Vienna,
where the landscape is enlivened with horses and cattle by
Philip Wouvermans. Even Jan Steen, who was his son-in-law,
only painted figures for one of his pictures, and it is probable
that this piece was completed after van Goyen's death. More
than 250 of van Goyen's pictures are known and accessible.
Of this number little more than 70 are undated. None exist
without the full name or monogram, and yet there is no painter
whose hand it is easier to trace without the help of these
adjuncts. An etcher, but a poor one, van Goyen has only
bequeathed to us two very rare plates.
GOZLAN, LfiON (1 806-1 866), French novelist and play-
writer, was born on the 1st of September 1806, at Marseilles.
When he was still a boy, his father, who had made a large
fortune as a ship-broker, met with a series of misfortunes, and
Leon, before completing his education, had to go to sea in order
to earn a living. In 1828 we find him in Paris, determined to
run the risks of literary life. His townsman, Joseph M6ry,
who was then making himself famous by his political satires,
introduced him to several newspapers, and Gozlan's brilliant
articles in the Figaro did much harm to the already tottering
government of Charles X, His first novel was Les Memoires
d'un apothicaire (1828), and this was followed by numberless
others, among which may be mentioned Washing/km Levert
et Socrate Leblanc (1838), Le Notaire deCkantiUy (1836), Arislide
Froissart (1843) (one of the most curious and celebrated of his
productions), Les Nuits du Pert Lochaise (1846), Le Tapis vert
(1855), La Folic du logis (1857), Les Emotions de Polydore Moras-
qinn (1857), &c His best-known works for the theatre are—
GOZO— GOZZOLI
305
La Pluie et le beau temps (1861), and Une Temptte dans un
verre d'eau (1850), two curtain-raisers which have kept the
stage; Le Lion empailU (1848), La Queue du ckien d' Alcibiade
(1849), Louise de Nanteuil (1854), LeGdteaudes femes (1855),
Les Paniers de la comtesse (1852); and he adapted several, of
his own novels to the stage. Gozlan also wrote a romantic
and picturesque description of the old manors and mansions
of his country entitled Les Chdieaux de Prance (2 vols., 1844),
originally published (1836) as Les ToureUes, which has some
archaeological value, and a biographical essay on Balzac {Balzac
chez lui, 1862). He was made a member of the Legion of
Honour in 1846, and in 1859 an officer of that order. Gozlan
died on the 14th of September 1866, in Paris.
See also P. Audebrand, Lion Gozlan (1887).
GOZO (Gozzo), an island of the Maltese group in the Medi-
terranean Sea, second in size to Malta. It lies N.W. and 3i m.
from the nearest point of Malta, is of oval form, 8J m. in length
and 4i m. in extreme breadth, and has an area of nearly 25 m.
Its chief town, Victoria, formerly called Rabato (pop. in 1001,
5057) stands near the middle of the island on one of a cluster
of steep conical hills, 3} m. from the port of Migiarro Bay,
on the south-east shore, below Fort Chambray. The character
of the island is similar to that of Malta. The estimated popula-
tion in 1907 was 21,911.
eOZZI, CARLO, Count (17 22-1806), Italian dramatist,
was descended from an old Venetian family, and was born at
Venice in March 1722. Compelled by the embarrassed condition
of his father's affairs to procure the means of self-support, he,
at the age of sixteen, joined the army in Dalmatia; but three
years afterwards he returned to Venice, where he soon made
a reputation for himself as the wittiest member of the Granel-
leschi society, to which the publication of several satirical
pieces had gained him admission. This society, nominally
devoted to conviviality and wit, had also serious literary aims,
and was especially zealous to preserve the Tuscan literature
pure and untainted by foreign influences. The displacement
of the old Italian comedy by the dramas of Pietro Chiari (1700-
1788) and Goldoni, founded on French models, threatened defeat
to all their efforts; and in 1757 Gozzi came to the rescue by
publishing a satirical poem, Tartana degli influssi per V anno
bisestile, and in 1761 by his comedy, Fiaba dell 9 amore deUe tre
melarancie, a parody of the manner of the two obnoxious poets,
founded on a fairy tale. For its representation he obtained
the services of the Sacchi company of players, who, on account
of the popularity of the comedies of Chiari and Goldoni — which
afforded no scope for the display of their peculiar talents — had
been left without employment; and as their satirical powers
were thus sharpened by personal enmity, the play met with
extraordinary success. Struck by the effect produced on the
audience by the introduction of the supernatural or mythical
element, which he had merely used as a convenient medium
for his satirical purposes, Gozzi now produced a series of dramatic
pieces based on fairy tales, which for a period obtained great
popularity, but after the breaking up of the Sacchi company
were completely disregarded. They have, however, obtained
high praise from Goethe, Schlegel, Madame de Stae! and Sis-
mondi; and one of them, Re Turandote y was translated by
Schiller. In his later years Gozzi set himself to the production
of tragedies in which the comic element was largely introduced;
but as this innovation proved unacceptable to the critics he had
recourse to the Spanish drama, from which he obtained models
for various pieces, which, however, met with only equivocal
success. He died on the 4th of April 1806.
His collected works were published under his own superintend-
ence, at Venice, in 1792, in 10 volumes; and his dramatic works,
translated into German by Werthes, were published at Bern in
1795. See Gozzi's work, Memorie inutili detla vita di Carlo Gozzi
(3 vols., Venice, 1797), translated into French by Paul de Musset
(1848), and into English by J. A. Symonds (1889); F. Horn, Ober
Gozzis dramatische Poesie (Venice, 1803) ; Gherardini, Vita di Gasp.
Gozzi (1821); " Charles Gozzi," by Paul de Musset, in the Revue
des deux monies for 15th November 18 44; Magrini, Carlo Gozzi
e lafiabe: saggi stprici t biografici, e critici (Cremona, 1876), and the
same author s book on Gozzi's life and times (Benevento, 1883).
GOZZI, GASPARO, Count (1713-1786), eldest brother of
Carlo Gozzi, was born on the 4th of December 1713. In 1739
he married the poetess Luise Bergalli, and she undertook the
management of the theatre of Sant' Angelo, Venice, he supplying
the performers with dramas chiefly translated from the French.
The speculation proved unfortunate, but meantime he had
attained a high reputation for his contributions to the Gazzetta
Veneta y and he soon came to be known as one of the ablest
critics and purest and most elegant stylists in Italy. For a
considerable period he was censor of the press in Venice, and in
1774 he was appointed to reorganize the university system at
Padua. He died at Padua on the 26th of December 1 786.
His principal writings are Osservatore Veneto periodico (1 761), on
the model of the English Spectator, and distinguished by its high
moral tone and its light and pleasant satire ; Lettere famigliari
(*755)» a collection of short racy pieces in prose and verse, on subjects
of general interest ; Sermoni, poems in blank verse after the manner
of Horace; // Hondo morale (.1760}, a personification of human
passions with inwoven dialogues in the style of Lucian; and Giudizio
degli antichi poeti sopra la moderna censura di Dante (1755), a defence
of the great poet against the attacks of Bettinelli. He also trans-
lated various works from the French and English, including Mar-
montel's Tales and Pope's Essay on Criticism. His collected works
were published at Venice, 1794-1798, in 12 volumes, and several
editions have appeared since.
GOZZOLI, BENOZZO, Italian painter, was born in Florence,
in 1424, or perhaps 1420, and in the early part of his career
assisted Fra Angelico, whom he followed to Rome and worked
with at Orvieto. In Rome be executed in Santa Maria in
Aracoeli a fresco of " St Anthony and Two Angels." In 1449
he left Angelico, and went to Montefalco, near Foligno in Umbria.
In S. Fortunato, near Montefalco, he painted a " Madonna and
Child with Saints and Angels/' and three other works. One of
these, the altar-piece representing " St Thomas receiving the
Girdle of the Virgin," is now in the Lateran Museum, and
shows the affinity of Gozzoli's early style to Angelico's. He
next painted in the monastery of S. Francesco, Montefalco,
filling the choir with a triple course of subjects from the life
of the saint, with various accessories, including heads of Dante,
Petrarch and Giotto. This work was completed in 1452, and
is still marked by the style of Angelico, crossed here and there
with a more distinctly Giottesque influence. In the same church,
in the chapel of St Jerome, is a fresco by Gozzoli of the Virgin
and Saints, the Crucifixion and other subjects. He remained
at Montefalco (with an interval at Viterbo) probably till 1456,
employing Mesastris as assistant. Thence he went to Perugia,
and painted in a church a " Virgin and Saints," now in the local
academy, and soon afterwards to his native Florence, the head-
quarters of art. By the end of 1459 he had nearly finished
his important labour in the chapel of the. Palazzo Riccardi, the
" Journey of the Magi to Bethlehem," and, in the tribune of
this chapel, a composition of " Angels in a Paradise." His
picture in the National Gallery, London, a " Virgin and Child
with Saints," 146 1, belongs also to the period of his Florentine
sojourn. Another small picture in the same gallery, the " Rape
of Helen," is of dubious authenticity. In 1464 Gozzoli left
Florence for S. Gimignano, where he executed some extensive
works; in the church of S. Agostino, a composition of St
Sebastian protecting the City from the Plague of this same
year, 1464; over the entire choir of the church, a triple course
of scenes from the legends of St Augustine, from the time of
his entering the school of Tegaste on to his burial, seventeen
chief subjects, with some accessories; in the Pieve di S.
Gimignano, the " Martyrdom of Sebastian," and other subjects,
and some further works in the city and its vicinity. Here his
style combined something of Lippo Lippi with its original!
elements, and he received co-operation from Giusto d' Andrea.'
He stayed in this city till 1467, and then began, in the Campo
Santo of Pisa, from 14O9, the vast series of mural paintings
with which his name is specially identified. There are twenty-
four subjects from the Old Testament, from the " Invention of
Wine by Noah " to the " Visit of the Queen of Sheba to Solomon."
He contracted to paint three subjects per year for about ten
ducats each — a sum which may be regarded as equivalent to
3o6
GRAAFF REINET— GRABE
£100 at the present day. It appears, however, that this contract
was not strictly adhered to, for the actual rate of painting was
only three pictures in two years. Perhaps the great multitude
of figures and accessories was accepted as a set-off against the
slower rate of production. By January 1470 he had executed
the fresco of" Noah and his Family,"— followed by the " Curse
of Ham," the "Building of the Tower of Babel " (which contains
portraits of Cosmo de' Medici, the young Lorenzo Politian and
others) , the " Destruction of Sodom," the "Victory of Abraham,"
the" Marriages of Rebecca and of Rachel," the " Life of Moses,"
&c. In the Cappella Ammannati, facing a gate of the Campo
Santo, he painted also an "Adoration of the Magi," wherein
appears a portrait of himself. All this enormous mass of work,
in which .Gozzoli was probably assisted by Zanobi Macchiavelli,
was performed, in addition to several other pictures during his
stay in Pisa (we need only specify the " Glory of St Thomas
Aquinas," now in the Louvre), in sixteen years, lasting up to
1485. This is the latest date which can with certainty be
assigned to any work from his hand, although he is known to
have been alive up to 1498. In 1478 the Pisan authorities had
given him, as a token of their regard, a tomb in the Campo
Santo. He had likewise a house of his own in Pisa, and houses
and land in Florence. In rectitude of life he is said to have been
worthy of his first master, Fra Angelico.
The art of Gozzoli does not rival that of his greatest contem-
poraries either in elevation or in strength, but is pre-eminently
attractive by its sense of what is rich, winning, lively and
abundant in the aspects of men and things. His landscapes,
thronged with birds and quadrupeds, especially dogs, are more
varied, circumstantial and alluring than those of any predecessor;
his compositions are crowded with figures, more characteristically
true when happily and gracefully occupied than when the demands
of the subject require tragic or dramatic intensity, or turmoil
of action; his colour is bright, vivacious and festive. Gozzoli's
genius was, on the whole, more versatile and assimilative than
vigorously original; his drawing not free from considerable
imperfections, especially in the extremities and articulations,
and in the perspective of his gorgeously-schemed buildings.
In fresco-painting he used the methods of tempera, and the decay
of his works has been severe in proportion. Of his untiring
industry the recital of his labours and the number of works
produced are the most forcible attestation.
Vnsari, Crowe and Cavalcaselle, and the other ordinary authori-
ties, can be consulted as to the career of Gozzoli. A separate
Life of him, by H. Stokes, was published in 1903 in Newnes's Art
Uiirary, (W. M. R.)
QRAAFP RBINBT, a town of South Africa, 185 m. by rail
N.W. by N. of Port Elizabeth. Pop. (1904) 10,083, of whom
4055 were whites. The town lies 2463 ft. above the sea and is
built on the banks of the Sunday river , which rises a little farther
north on the southern slopes of the Sneeuwberg, and here
ramifies into several channels. The Dutch church is a handsome
stone building with seating accommodation for 1 500 people. The
college is an educational centre of some importance; it was
rebuilt in iqoo. Graaff Reinet is a flourishing market for
agricultural produce, the district being noted for its mohair
industry, its orchards and vineyards.
The town was founded by the Cape Dutch in 1786, being named
after the then governor of Cape Colony, C. J. van de Graaff,
and his wife. In x 705 the burghers, smarting under the exactions
of the Dutch East India Company proclaimed a republic.
Similar action was taken by the burghers of Swellendam. Before
the authorities at Cape Town could take decisive measures
against the rebels, they were themselves compelled to capitulate
to the British. The burghers having endeavoured, unsuccessfully,
to get aid from a French warship at Algoa Bay surrendered to
Colonel (afterwards General Sir> J. (X Vandeleur, In January
1700 Marthinus Prinsloo, the leader of the republicans in 1705,
again rebelled, but surrendered in April following. Prinsloo
and nineteen others were imprisoned in Cape Town castle.
After trial, Prinsloo and another commandant were sentenced
to death and others to banishment. The sentences were not
carried out and the prisoners were released, March 1803, on the
retrocession of the Cape to Holland. In 1801 there had been
another revolt in Graaff Reinet, but owing to the conciliatory
measures of General F. Dundas (acting governor of the Cape)
peace was soon restored. It was this district, where a republican
government in South Africa was first proclaimed, which furnished
large numbers of the voortrekkers in 1835-1842. It remains a
strong Dutch centre.
See J. C. Voight, Fifty Years of the History of the Republic in
South Africa 1795-184$, vol. i. London, 1899).
GRABBE, CHRISTIAN DIETRICH (1 801-1836), German
dramatist, was born at.Detmold on the nth of December 1801.
Entering the university of Leipzig in 1819 as a student of law,
he continued the reckless habits which he had begun at Detmold,
and neglected his studies. Being introduced into literary
circles, he conceived the idea of becoming an actor and wrote
the drama Herzog Theodor von Gothland (1822). This, though
showing considerable literary talent, lacks artistic form, and
is morally repulsive. Ludwig Tieck, while encouraging the
young author, pointed out its faults, and tried to reform Grabbe
himself. In 1822 Grabbe removed to Berlin University, and in
1824 passed his advocate's examination. He now settled in his
native town as a lawyer and in 1827 was appointed a Milittir-
auditeur. In 1833 he married, but in consequence of his drunken
habits was dismissed from his office, and, separating from his
wife, visited Dilsseldorf, where he was kindly received by Karl
Immermann. After a serious quarrel with the latter, he returned
to Detmold, where, as a result of his excesses, he died on the 12th
of September 1836.
Grabbe had real poetical gifts, and many of his dramas contain
fine passages and a wealth of original ideas. They largely
reflect his own life and character, and are characterized by
cynicism and indelicacy. Their construction also is defective
and little suited to the requirements of the stage. The boldly
conceived Don Juan und Faust (1829) and the historical dramas
Friedrich Barbarossa (1829), Heinrich VI. (1830), arid Napoleon
oder die Hundert Tage (1831), the last of which places the battle
of Waterloo upon the stage, are his best works. Among others
are the unfinished tragedies Marius and Sulla (continued by
Erich Korn, Berlin, 1800); and Hannibal (1835, supplemented
and edited by C. Spielmann, Halle, 1001); and the patriotic
Hermanns schlacht or the battle between Arminius and Varus
(posthumously published with a biographical notice, by £.
Duller, 1838).
Grabbers works have been edited by O. Blumenthal (4 vols.,
1875), and £. Grisebach (4 vols., 1002). For further notices of his
life, see K. Ziegler, Grabbe* Leben und Charakter (1855); O.
Blumenthal, Beitrdge zur Kenntnis Grabbes (1875); C. A. Piper,
Grabbe (1898), and A. Ploch, Grabbes Stellung in der deutschen Litera-
tur (1905).
GRABE, JOHN ERNEST (1666*1711), Anglican divine, was
born on the zoth of July 1666, at Konigsberg, where his father,
Martin Sylvester Grabe, was professor of theology and history.
In his theological studies Grabe succeeded in persuading himself
of the schismatical character of the Reformation, and accordingly
he presented to the consistory of Samland in Prussia a memorial
in which he compared the position of the evangelical Protestant
churches with that of the Novatians and other ancient schis-
matics. He had resolved to join the Church of Rome when a
commission of Lutheran divines pointed out flaws in his written
argument and called his attention to the English Church as
apparently possessing that apostolic succession and manifesting
that ^fidelity to ancient institutions whkh he desired. He
came to England, settled in Oxford, was ordained in 1700, and
became chaplain of Christ Church. His inclination was towards
the party of the nonjurors. The learned labours to which the
remainder of his fife was devoted were rewarded with an Oxford
degree and a royal pension. He died on the 3rd of November
1711, and in 1726 a monument was erected to him by Edward
Harley, earl of Oxford, in Westminster Abbey. He was buried
in St Pancras Church, London.
Some account of Grabe's life is riven in R. Nelson's Life of George
Bull, and by George Hickes in a discourse prefixed to the pamphlet
against W. Whiston's Collection of Testimonies against the True
GRACCHUS
307
Deity of the Son and of the Hdly GhosU His* works, which show him
to have been Learned and laborious but somewhat deficient in
critical acumen, include a Spicilegium SS. Patrum et haereticorum
(1698-1699), which was designed to cover the first three centuries
of the Christian church, but was not continued beyond the close of
the second. A second edition of this work was published in 17 id.
He brought out an edition of Justin Martyr's Apologia prima (1700)1
of Irenaeus, Adversus omnes haereses (1702), of the Septuagint,
and of Bishop Bull's Latin works (1703). His edition of the Septua-
gint was based on the Codex Alexandnnus; it appeared in 4 volumes
(1 707-1 720), and was completed by Francis Lee and by George
Wigan,
0RACCHUS, in ancient Rome, the name of a plebeian family
of the Sempronian gens. Its most distinguished representatives
were the famous tribunes of the people, Tiberius and Gaius
Sempronius Gracchus, (4) and (5) below, usually called simply
" the Gracchi."
1. Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus, consul in 238 B.C.,
carried on successful operations against the Ligurian mountaineers,
and, at the conclusion of the Carthaginian mercenary war,
was in command of the fleet which at the invitation of the
insurgents took possession of the island of Sardinia.
2. Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus, probably the son of
(1), distinguished himself during the second Punic war. Consul
in 215, he defeated the Capuans who had entered into an alliance
with Hannibal, and in 214 gained a signal success over Hanno
near Beneventum, chiefly owing to the volones (slave- volunteers),
to whom he had promised freedom in the event of victory. In
213 Gracchus was consul a second time and carried on the war
in Lucania; in the following year, while advancing northward
to reinforce the consuls in their attack on Capua, he was betrayed
into the hands of the Carthaginian Mago by a Lucanian of rank,
who had formerly supported the Roman cause and was connected
with Gracchus himself by ties of hospitality. Gracchus fell
fighting bravely; his body was sent to Hannibal, who accorded
him a splendid burial.
3. Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus (c. 210-151 B.C.),
father of the tribunes, and husband of Cornelia, the daughter
of the elder Scipio Africanus, was possibly the son of a Publius
Sempronius Gracchus who was tribune in 189. Although a
determined political opponent of the two Scipios (Asiaticus
and Africanus), as tribune in 187 he interfered on their behalf
when they were accused of having accepted bribes from the king
of Syria after the war. In 185 he was a member of the commission
sent to Macedonia to investigate the complaints made by Eumenes
II. of Pergamum against Philip V. of Macedon. In his curule
aedileship (182) he celebrated the games on so magnificent a scale
that the burdens imposed upon the Italian and extra-Italian
communities led to the official interference of the senate. In
181 he went as praetor to Hither Spain, and, after gaining
signal successes in the field, applied himself to the pacification
of the country. His strict sense of justice and sympathetic
attitude. won the respect and affection of the inhabitants; the
land had rest for a quarter of a century. When consul in 177,
he was occupied in putting down a revolt in Sardinia, and brought
back so many prisoners that Sardi venal** (Sardinians for sale)
became a proverbial expression for a drug in the market. In
169 Gracchus was censor, and both he and his colleague (C.
Claudius Pulcher) showed themselves, determined opponents
of the capitalists. They deeply offended the equestrian order
by forbidding any contractor who had obtained contracts under
the previous censors to make fresh offers. Gracchus stringently
enforced the limitation of the.freedmen.to the four city tribes,
which completely destroyed their influence in the comitia. In
165 and 161 he went as ambassador to several Asiatic princes,
with whom he, , established friendly relations. Amongst the
places visited by. him was Rhodes, where he delivered a speech
in Greek, which he, afterwards published. In 163 he was again
consul,
4. Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus (163-133 b.c), son of
(3) , was the elder of the two great reformers. He and his brother
were brought up by their mother Cornelia, assisted by the
rhetorician £)iophanes of Mytilene and the Stoic Blossius of
Cumae. In 147 he served under his brother-in-law the younger
Scipio in Africa during the, last Punic war, and was. the first
to mount the walls in the attack on Carthage. When quaestor
in 137, he accompanied the consul C. Hostilius Mancinus to
Spain* During the Numantine war the Roman army was saved
from annihilation only by the efforts of Tiberius, with whom
alone the Numantines consented to treat, out of respect for the
memory of his father. The senate refused to ratify the agree-
ment; Mancinus was handed over to the enemy as a sign that
it. was annulled, and only personal popularity saved Tiberius
himself from punishment. In 133 he was tribune, and cham-
pioned the impoverished farmer class and the lower orders.
His proposals (see Agrarian Laws) met with violent opposition,
and were not carried until he had, illegally and unconstitutionally,
secured the deposition of his fellow-tribune, M. Octavius, who
had been persuaded by the optimates to veto them. The senate
put every obstacle in the way of the three commissioners ap-
pointed to carry out the provisions of the law, and Tiberius, in
view of the bitter enmity he had aroused, saw that it was necessary
to strengthen his hold on the popular favour. The legacy to
the Roman people of the kingdom and treasures of Attalus III.
of Pergamum gave him an opportunity. He proposed that the
money realized by the sale of the' treasures should be divided,
for the purchase of implements and stock, amongst, those to
whom assignments of land had been made under the new law.
He is also said to have brought forward measures for shortening
the period of military service, for. extending the right of appeal
from the juddces to the people, {or abolishing the exclusive
privilege of the senators to act as jurymen, and even for admit-
ting the Italian allies to citizenship. To strengthen his position
further, Tiberius offered himself for re-election as tribune for the
following. year. The senate declared that it was illegal to hold
this office for two consecutive years; but Tiberius treated this
objection with contempt. To win the sympathy of the people,
he appeared in mourning, and appealed for protection for his
wife and children, and whenever he left his house he was accom-
panied by a bodyguard of 3000 men, chiefly consisting of the
city rabble. The meeting of the tribes for the election of tribunes
broke up in disorder on two successive days, without any result
being attained, although on both occasions the first divisions
voted in favour of Tiberius. A rumour reached the senate that
he was aiming at supreme power, that he had touched his head
with his hand, a sign that he was asking for a crown. An appeal
to the consul P. Mucius Scaevola to order him to be put to death
at once having failed, P. Scipio Nasica exclaimed that Scaevola
was acting treacherously towards the state, and called upon
those who agreed with him to take up arms and follow him.
During the riot that followed, Tiberius attempted to escape,
but stumbled on the slope of the Capitol and was beaten to death
with the end of a bench. At night his body, with those of 300
others, was thrown into the Tiber. The aristocracy boldly
assumed the responsibility for what had occurred, and set up a
commission to inquire into the case of the partisans of Tiberius,
many of whom were banished and others put to death. Even
the moderate Scaevola subsequently maintained that Nasica
was justified in his action; and it was reported that Scipio,
when he heard at Numantia of his brother-in-law's death,
repeated the line of Homer — " So perish all who do the like
again."
See Livy, EpiL.$$; Appian, Bell. civ. L 9-17; Plutarch, Tiberius
Gracchus; Veil. Pat. ii. 2, 3.
5. Gaius Sempronius Gracchus (153-121 b.c), younger
brother of (4), was a man of greater abilities, bolder and more
passionate, although possessed of considerable powers of self-
control, and a vigorous and impressive .orator. When twenty
years of age he was appointed one of the commissioners to
carry out the distribution of land under the provisions of his
brother's agrarian law. . At the time of Tiberius's . death, Gaius
was serving under his brother-in-law Scipio in Spain, but
probably- returned to Rome in the following year (132). In
131 he supported the bill of C. Papirius Carbo, the object of
which was to make it legal for a tribune to offer himself as candi-
date for the office in two consecutive years, and thus to remove
3o8
GRACE, W. G.
one of the chief obstacles that had hampered Tiberius. The bill
was then rejected, but appears to have subsequently passed in
a modified form, as Gaius himself was re-elected without any
disturbance. Possibly, however, his re-election was illegal,
and he had only succeeded where his brother had failed. For
the next few years nothing is heard of Gaius. Public opinion
pointed him out as the man to avenge his brother's death and
carry out his plans, and the aristocratic party, warned by the
example of Tiberius, were anxious to keep him away from Rome.
In 126 Gaius accompanied the consul L. Aurelius Orestes as
quaestor to Sardinia, then in a state of revolt. Here he made
himself so popular that the senate in alarm prolonged the
command of Orestes, in order that Gaius might be obliged to
remain there in his capacity of quaestor. But he returned to
Rome without the permission of the senate, and, when called
to account by the censors, defended himself so successfully
that he was acquitted of having acted illegally. The disappointed
aristocrats then brought him to trial on the charge of being
implicated in the revolt of Fregellae, and in other ways unsuccess-
fully endeavoured to undermine his influence. Gaius then
decided to act; against the wishes of his mother he became
a candidate for the tribuneship, and, in spite of the determined
opposition of the aristocracy, he was elected for the year 123,
although only fourth on the list. The legislative proposals 1
brought forward by him had for their object: — the punish-
ment of his brother's enemies; the relief of distress and the
attachment to himself of the city populace; the diminution
of the power of the senate and the increase of that of the equites;
the amelioration of the political status of the Italians and
provincials.
A law was passed that no Roman citizen should be tried in
a matter affecting his life or political status unless the people had
previously given its assent. This was specially aimed at Popilius
Laenas, who had taken an active part in the prosecution of the
adherents of Tiberius. Another law enacted that any magistrate
who had been deprived of office by decree of the people should be
incapacitated from holding office again. This was directed against
M. Octavius, who had been illegally deprived of his tribunate
through Tiberius. This unfair and vindictive measure was with-
drawn at the earnest request of Cornelia.
He revived his brother's agrarian law, which, although it
had not been repealed, had fallen into abeyance. By his Lex
Frumentaria every citizen resident in Rome was entitled to a certain
amount of corn at about half the usual price; as the distribution
only applied to those living in the capital, the natural result was
that the poorer country citizens flocked into Rome and swelled the
number of Gaius's supporters. No citizen was to be obliged to
serve in the army before the commencement of his eighteenth year,
and his military outfit was to be supplied by the state, instead of
being deducted from his pay. Gaius also proposed the establishment
of colonies in Italy (at Tarentum and Capua), and sent out to the
site of Carthage 6000 colonists to found the new city of Junonia,
the inhabitants of which were to possess the rights of Roman
citizens; this was the first attempt at over-sea colonization. A new
system of roads was constructed which afforded easier access to
Rome. Having thus gained over the city proletariat, in order
to secure a majority in the comitia by its aid, Gaius did away with
the system of voting in the comitia. centuriata, whereby the five
property classes in each tribe gave their votes one after another,
and introduced promiscuous voting in an order fixed by lot.
The judices in the standing commissions for the trial of par-
ticular offences (the most important of' which was that dealing
with the trial of provincial magistrates for extortion, de repetundis)
were in future to be chosen from the equites (q.v.) t not as hitherto
from the senate. The taxes of the new province of Asia were to be
let out by the censors to Roman publicani (who belonged to the
equestrian order), who paid down a lump sum for the right of
collecting them. It is obvious that this afforded the equites ex-
tensive opportunities for money-making and extortion, while the
alteration in the appointment of the judices gave them the same
practical immunity and perpetuated the old abuses, with the differ-
ence that it was no longer senators, but equites, who could look
forward with confidence to being leniently dealt with by men
belonging to their own order; Gaius also expected that this moneyed
aristocracy, which had taken the part of the senate against Tiberius,
would now support him against it. It was enacted that the pro-
vinces to be assigned to the consuls, should be determined before,
1 These measures cannot be arranged in any definite chronological
order , nor can it be decided which belong to his first, which to his
second tribuneship. See W. Warde Fowler in Eng. Hist. Review,
1905, pp. 209 sqq., 417 sqq.
instead of after their election; and the consuls themselves had to
settle, by lot or other arrangement, which province each of them
would take. 1
These measures raised Gaius to the height of his popularity,
and during the year of his first tribuneship he may be considered
the absolute ruler of Rome. He was chosen tribune for the second
time for the year 122. To this period is probably to be assigned
his proposal that the franchise should be given to all the Latin
communities and that the status of the Latins should be con-
ferred upon the Italian allies. In 125 M. Fulvius Flaccus had
brought forward a similar measure, but he was got out of the way
by the senate, who sent him to fight in Gaul. This proposal,
more statesmanlike than any of the others, was naturally opposed
by the aristocratic party, and lessened Gaius's popularity
amongst his own supporters, who viewed with disfavour the
prospect of an increase in the number of Roman citizens. The
senate put up M. Livius Drusus to outbid him, and his absence
from Rome while superintending the organization of the newly-
founded colony, Junonia-Carthago, was taken advantage of by
his enemies to weaken his influence. On his return he found his
popularity diminished. He failed to secure the tribuneship
for the third time, and his bitter enemy L. Opimius was elected
consul. The latter at once decided to propose the abandonment
of the new colony, which was to occupy the site cursed by
Scipio, while its foundation had been attended by unmistakable
manifestations of the wrath of the gods. On the day when the
matter was to be put to the vote, a lictor named Antyllius, who
had insulted the supporters of Gaius, was stabbed to death.
This gave his opponents the desired opportunity. Gaius was
declared a public enemy, and the consuls were invested with
dictatorial powers. The Gracchans, who had taken up their
position in the temple of Diana on the Aventine, offered little
resistance to the attack ordered by Opimius. Gaius managed
to escape across the Tiber, where his dead body was found on
the following day in the grove of Furrina by the side of that
of a slave, who had probably slain his master and then himself.
The property of the Gracchans was confiscated, and a temple
of Concord erected in the Forum from the proceeds. Beneath
the inscription recording the occasion on which the temple had
been built some one during the night wrote the words: "The
work of Discord makes the temple of Concord."
Bibliography.— See Livy, Ejnt. 60; Appian, Bell. Civ. L 21;
Plutarch, Gaius Gracchus: Orosius v. 12; Aulus Gellius x. 3,
xi. 10. For an account ot the two tribunes see Mommsen, Hist,
of Rome (Eng. trans.), bk. iv., chs. 2 and 3; C. Neumann, Geschichte
Roms wahrend des VerfaUes der Republik (1881) ; A. H. J. Greenidge,
History of Rome (1904) ; E. Meyer, Untersuchungen zur Geschichte
der Gracchen (i8oi) ; G. E. Underhill, Plutarch's Lives of the Gracchi
(1892); W. Warde Fowler in English Historical Review (1905),
pp. 209 and 417; Long, Decline of the Roman Republic, chs. 10-13,
17-19, containing a careful examination of the ancient authorities;
G. F. Hertzberg in Ersch and Grater's Allgemeine Encyclopddie;
C. W. Oman, Seven Roman Statesmen of the later Republic (1902) ;
T. Lau, Die Gracchen und ihre Zeit (1854). The exhaustive mono-
graph by C. W. Nitzsch, Die Gracchen und ihre ndchsten Vorgdnger
(1847), also contains an account of the other members of the family,
with full references to ancient authorities in the notes. (J. H. F.)
GRACE, WILLIAM GILBERT (1848- ), English cricketer,
was born at Downend, Gloucestershire, on the x8th of July
1848. He found himself in an atmosphere charged with cricket,
his father (Henry Mills Grace) and his uncle (Alfred Pocock)
being as enthusiastic over the game as his elder brothers, Henry,
Alfred and Edward Mills; indeed, in E. M. Grace the family
name first became famous. A younger brother, George Frederick,
also added to the cricket reputation of the family. "W. G."
witnessed his first great match when he was hardly six years
old, the occasion being a game between W. Clarke's All-England
Eleven and twenty-two of West Gloucestershire. He was
endowed by nature with a splendid physique as well as with
powers of self-restraint and determination. At the acme of his
career he stood full 6 ft. 2 in., being powerfully proportioned,
loose yet strong of limb. A non-smoker, and very moderate
1 It is suggested by W. Warde Fowler that Gracchus proposed
to add a certain number of equites to the senate, thereby increasing
it to 900, but the plan was never carried out.
GRACE
309
in all matters, he kept himself in condition all the year round,
shooting, hunting or running with the beagles as soon as the
cricket season was over. He was also a fine runner, 440 yds.
over 20 hurdles being his best distance; and it may be quoted
as proof of his stamina that on the 30th of July 1866 he scored
224 not out for England v. Surrey, and two days later won a
race in the National and Olympian Association meeting at the
Crystal Palace. The title of " champion " was well earned by
one who for thirty-si* years (1865-1900 inclusive) was actively
engaged in first-class cricket. In each of these years he was
invited to represent the Gentlemen in their matches against the
Players, and, when an Australian eleven visited England, to
play for the mother country. As late as 1899 he played in the
first of the five international contests; in 1900 he played against
the players at the Oval, scoring 58 and 3. At fifty-*hree he
scored nearly 1300 runs in first-class cricket, made 100 runs and
over on three different occasions and could claim an average
of 42 runs. Moreover, his greatest triumphs were achieved
when only the very best cricket grounds received serious atten-
tion; when, as some consider, bowling was maintained at a higher
standard and when all hits had to be run out. He, with his two
brothers, E. M. and G. F*, assisted by some fine amateurs, made
Gloucestershire in one season a first-class County; and it was
he who first enabled the amateurs of England to meet the paid
players on equal terms and to beat them. There was hardly a
" record " connected with the game which did not stand to his
credit. Grace was one of the finest fieldsmen in England, in his
earlier days generally taking long-leg and cover-point, in later
times generally standing point. He was, at his best, a fine
thrower, fast runner and safe " catch." As a bowler he was
long in the first flight, originally bowling fast, but in later times
adopting a slower and more tricky style, frequently very effective.
By profession he was a medical man. In later years he became
secretary and manager of the London County Cricket Club.
He was married in 1873 to Miss Agnes Day, and one of his sons
played for two years in the Cambridge eleven. He was the
recipient of two national testimonials: the first, amounting to
£1500, being presented to him in the form of a clock and a
cheque at Lord's ground by Lord Charles Russell on the 22nd
of July 1879; the second, collected by the M.C.C., the county
of Gloucestershire, the Daily Telegraph and the Sportsman,
amounted to about £10,000, and was presented to him in 1896.
He visited Australia in 1873-1874 (captain), and in 1 891-1892
with Lord Sheffield's Eleven (captain); the United States and
Canada in 1872, with R. A. Fitzgerald's team.
Dr Grace played his first great match in 1863, when, being only
fifteen years of age, he scored 32 against the All-England Eleven
and the bowling of Jackson, Tarrant and Tinley; but the scores
which first made his name prominent were made in 1864, viz.
1 70 and 56 not out for the South Wales Club against the Gentlemen
of Sussex. It was in 1865 that he first took an active part in first-
class cricket, being then 6 ft. in height, and 11 stone in weight,
and playing twice lor the Gentlemen v. the Players, but his selection
was mainly due to his bowling powers, the best exposition of which
was his aggregate of 13 wickets for 84 runs for the Gentlemen of
the South v. the Players of the South. His highest score was 400
not out, made in July 1876 against twenty-two of Grimsby; but
on three occasions he was twice dismissed without scoring in matches
against odds, a fate that never befell him in important cricket.
In first-class matches his highest score was 344, made for theM.C.C.
v. Kent at Canterbury, in August 1876; two days later he made
177 for Gloucestershire v. Notts, and two days after this 318 not
out for Gloucestershire v. Yorkshire, the two last-named opposing
counties being possessed of exceptionally strong bowling; thus in
three consecutive innings Grace scored 839 runs, and was only got
out twice. .His 341 was the third highest individual score made in
a big match in England up to the end of 190! . He also scored 301
for Gloucestershire v. Sussex at Bristol, in August 1896: He made
over 200 runs on ten occasions, the most notable perhaps being in
1 87 1, when he performed the feat twice, each time in benefit matches,
and each time in the second innings, having been each time got out
in the first over of the first innings. He scored over 100 runs on
121 occasions, the hundredth score being 288, made at Bristol for
Gloucestershire v. Somersetshire in 1895. ** e made every figure
from o to 100, on one occasion " closing the innings when he had
made 93, the only total he had never made between these limits.
In 1871 he made ten " centuries/' ranging from 268 to 116. In the
matches between the Gentlemen and Players he scored "three
figures " fifteen times, and at every place where these matches have
been played. He made over 100 in each of his " first appearances "
at Oxford and Cambridge. Three times he made over 100 in each
innings of the same match, viz. at Canterbury, in 1868, for South v.
North of the Thames, 130 and 102 not out; at Clifton, in 1887,
for Gloucestershire v. Kent, 101 and 103 not out; and at Clifton,
in 1888, for Gloucestershire v. Yorkshire, 148 and 153. In 1869,
playing at the Oval for the Gentlemen of the South v. the Players
of the South, Grace and B. B. Cooper put on 283 runs for the first
wicket, Grace scoring 180 and Cooper 101. In 1886 Grace and
Scotton put on 170 runs for the first wicket of England v. Australia;
this occurred at the Oval in August, and Grace s total score was
170. In consecutive innings against the Players from 1871 to 1873
he scored 217, 77 and 1 12, 1 17, 163, 158 and 70. He only twice scored
over 100 in a big match in Australia, nor aid he ever make 200 at
Lord's, his highest being 196 for the M.C.C. v. Cambridge University
in 1894. His highest aggregates were 2739 (1871), 2622 (1876),
2346 (1895). 2139 (1874), 2135 (1896) and 2062 (1887). He scored
three successive centuries in first-class cricket in 187 1, 1 872, 1873,
1874 and 1876. Playing against Kent at Gravesend in 1895, he
was batting, bowling or fielding during the whole time the game
was in progress, his scores being 257 and 73 not out. He scored
over 1000 runs and took over 100 wickets in seven different seasons,
viz. in 1874, 1665 runs and 129 wickets; in 1875, 1498 runs, 192
wickets; in 1876, 2622 runs, 124 wickets; in 1877, r 474 runs, 179
wickets; in 1878, 1151 runs, 153 wickets; in 1885, 1688 runs,
118 wickets; in 1886, 1846 runs, 122 wickets. He never captured
200 wickets in a season, his highest record being 192 in 1875. Play-
ing against Oxford University in 1886, he took all the wickets m
the first innings, at a cost of 49 runs. In 1895 he not only made
his hundredth century, but actually scored 1000 runs in the month
of May alone, his chief scores m that month being 103,. 288, 2j>6, 73
and 169, he being then forty-seven years old. He also made during
that year scores of 125, 119, 118, 104 and 103 not out, his aggregate
for the year being 2346 and his average 51; his innings of 118
was made against the Players fat Lord's), the chief bowlers being
Richardson, Mold, Peel and Attewell; he scored level with his
partner, A. E. Stoddart (his junior by fifteen years), the pair making
151 before a wicket fell, Grace making in all 118 out of 241. This '
may fairly be considered one of his most wonderful years. In 1898
the match between Gentlemen v. Players was, as a special compli-
ment, arranged by the M.C.C. committee to take place on his birth-
day, and he celebrated the event by scoring 43 and 31 not out,
though handicapped by lameness and an injured hand. In twenty-
six different seasons he scored over 1006 runs, in three of these
years being the only man to do so and five times being one out of
two.
During the thirty-six years up to and including 1900 he scored
nearly 51,000 runs, with an average of 43; and in bowling he took
more than 2800 wickets, at an average cost of about 20 runs per
wicket. He made his highest aggregate (2739 runs) and had nis
highest average (78) in 1871 ; his average for the decade 1 868-1 877
was 57 runs. His style as a batsman was more commanding than
graceful, but as to its soundness and efficacy there were never
two opinions; the severest criticism ever passed upon his powers
was to the effect that he did not play slow bowling quite as well
as fast. (W.J.F.)
GRACE (Fr. grdce, Lat. gratia, from grains, beloved, pleasing;
formed from the root era-, Gr. x«w-> cf. x<dpo), x&PM<*> X<*Ptf)>
a word of many shades of meaning, but always connoting the
idea of favour, whether that in which one stands to others
or that which one shows to others. The New English Dictionary
groups the meanings of the word under three main heads:
(1) Pleasing quality, gracefulness, (2) favour, goodwill, (3)
gratitude, thanks.
It is in the second general sense of " favour bestowed " that
the word has its most important connotations. In this sense
it means something given by superior authority as a concession
made of favour and goodwill, not as ah obligation or of right.
Thus, a concession may be made by a sovereign or other public
authority " by way of grace." Previous to the Revolution of
1688 such concessions on the part of the crown were known in
constitutional law as " Graces." " Letters of Grace " (gratiae,
gratiosa rescripta) is the name given to papal rescripts granting
special privileges, indulgences, exemptions and the like. In
the language of the universities the word still survives in a
shadow of this sense. The word "grace" was originally a
dispensation granted by the congregation of the university,
or by one of the faculties, from some statutable conditions re-
quired for a degree. In the English universities these conditions
ceased to be enforced, and the " grace " thus became an essential
preliminary to any degree; so that the word has acquired the
meaning of (a) the licence granted by congregation to take a
3io
GRACES, THE— GRACIAN Y MORALES
degree, (b) other decrees of the governing body (originally dis-
pensations from statutes), all such degrees being called " graces "
at Cambridge, (c) the permission which a candidate for a degree
must obtain from his college or hall.
To this general sense of exceptional favour belong the uses
of the word in such phrases as " do me this grace/' " to be in
some one's good graces " and certain meanings of " the grace of
God." The style " by the grace of God," borne by the king of
Great Britain and Ireland among other sovereigns, though,
as implying the principle of " legitimacy," it has been since the
Revolution sometimes qualified on the continent by the addition
of " and the will of the people," means in effect no more than the
" by Divine Providence," which is the style borne by archbishops.
To the same general sense of exceptional favour belong the
phrases implying the concession of a right to delay in fulfilling
certain obligations, e.g. " a fortnight's grace." In law the " days
of grace " are the period allowed for the payment of a bill of
exchange, after the term for which it has been drawn (in England
three days), or for the payment of an insurance premium, &c.
In religious language the " Day of Grace " is the period still
open to the sinner in which to repent. In the sense of clemency
or mercy, too, " grace " is still, though rarely used: "an Act
of Grace " is a formal pardon or a free and general pardon granted
by act of parliament. Since to grant favours is the prerogative
of the great, " Your Grace," " His Grace," &c, became dutiful
paraphrases for the simple " you " and " he. " Formerly used
in the royal address (" the King's Grace," &c), the style is in
England now confined to dukes and archbishops, though the
style of " his most gracious majesty " is still used. In Germany
the equivalent, Euer Gnaden, is the style of princes who are not
Durchlaucht (i.e. Serene Highness), and is often used as a polite
address to any superior.
In the language of theology, though in the English Bible the
word is used in several of the above senses, " grace " (Gr. x^ptf)
has special meanings. Above all, it signifies the spontaneous,
unmerited activity of the Divine Love in the salvation of sinners,
and the Divine influence operating in man for his regeneration
and sanctification. Those thus regenerated and sanctified are
said to be in a " state of grace." In the New Testament grace
is the forgiving mercy of God, as opposed to any human merit
(Rom. xi. 6; Eph. ii. 5; Col. i. 6, &c); it is applied also to
certain gifts of God freely bestowed , e.g. miracles, tongues, &c.
(Rom. xv. 15; 1 Cor. xv. 10; Eph. ill. 8, &c), to the Christian
virtues, gifts of God also, e.g. charity, holiness, &c. (2 Cor.
viii. 7; 2 Pet. iii. 18). It is also used of the Gospel generally,
as opposed to the Law (John i. 17; Rom. vi. 14; 1 Pet. v. 12,
&c.) ; connected with this is the use of the term " year of grace "
for a year of the Christian era.
The word " grace " is the central subject of three great
theological controversies: (1) that of the nature of human
depravity and regeneration (see Pelagius), (2) that of the
relation between grace and free-will (see Calvin, John, and
Arminius, Jacobus), (3) that of the " means of grace " between
Catholics and Protestants, i.e. whether the efficacy of the
sacraments as channels of the Divine grace is ex opere operate
or dependent on the faith of the recipient.
In the third general sense, of thanks for favours bestowed,
" grace " survives as the name for the thanksgiving before or
after meals. The word was originally used in the plural, and
" to do, give, render, yield graces " was said, in the general
sense of the French rendre grices or Latin grottos agere, of any
giving thanks. The close, and finally exclusive, association
of the phrase " to say grace " with thanksgiving at meals was
possibly due to the formula " Gratias Deo agamus " (" let us
give thanks to God ") with which the ceremony began in monastic
refectories. The custom of saying grace, which obtained in
pre-Christian times among the Jews, Greeks and Romans, and
was adopted universally by Christian peoples, is probably less
widespread in private houses than it used to be. It is, however,
still maintained at public dinners and also in schools, colleges
and institutions generally. Such graces are generally in Latin
and of great antiquity: they are sometimes short, e.g. " Laus
Deo," " Benedictus benedicat," and sometimes, as at the
Oxford and Cambridge colleges*, of considerable length. In
some countries grace has sunk to a polite formula; in Germany,
e.£.. it is usual before and after meals to bow to one's neighbours
and say " Gesegnete Malzeit!" (May your meal be blessed),
a phrase often reduced in practice to "Malzeit " simply.
GRACES, THE, (Gr. Xapires, Lat. Gratiae) r in Greek mythology,
the personification of grace and charm, both in nature and in
moral action. The transition from a single goddess, Charis, to
a number or group of Charites, is marked in Homer. In the
Iliad one Charis is the wife of Hephaestus, another the promised
wife of Sleep, while the plural Charites often occurs. The Charites
are usually described as three in number — Aglaia (brightness),
Euphrosyne (joy fulness), Thalia (bloom) — daughters of Zeus
and Hera (or Eurynome, daughter of Oceanus), or of Helios
and Aegle; in Sparta, however, only two were known, Cleta
(noise) and Phaenna (light), as at Athens Auio (increase) and
Hegemone (queen). They are the friends of the Muses, with
whom they live on Mount Olympus, and the companions of
Aphrodite, of Peitho, the goddess of persuasion, and of Hermes,
the god of eloquence, to each of whom charm is an indispensable
adjunct. The need of their assistance to the artist is indicated
by the union of Hephaestus and Charis. The most ancient
seat of their cult was Orchomenus in Boeotia, where their oldest
images, in the form of stones fallen from heaven, were set up
in their temple. Their worship was said to have been instituted
by Eteocles, whose three daughters fell into a well while dancing
in their honour. At Orchomenus nightly dances took place,
and the festival Charitesia, accompanied by musical contests,
was celebrated; in Paros their worship was celebrated without
music or garlands, since it was there that Minos, while sacrificing
to the Charites, received the news of the death of his son
Androgeus; at Messene they were revered together with the
Eumenides; at Athens, their rites, kept secret from the profane,
were held at the entrance to the Acropolis. It was by Auxo,
Hegemone and Agraulos, the daughter of Cecrops, that young
Athenians, on first receiving their spear and shield, took the
oath to defend their country. In works of art the Charites were
represented in early times as beautiful maidens of slender form,
hand in hand or embracing one another and wearing drapery;
later, the conception predominated of three naked figures
gracefully intertwined. Their attributes were the myrtle, the
rose and musical instruments. In Rome the Graces were
never the objects of special religious reverence, but were described
and represented by poets and artists in accordance with Greek
models.
See F. H. Krause, Musen, Gratien, Horen, und Nympken (1871),
and the articles by Stoll and Furtwangler in Roscher's Lexikon der
Mythologie, and by S. Gsell in Daremberg and Saglio-s Dictionnaire
des antiqviUs, with the bibliography.
GRAClAN T MORALES, BALTASAft (1601-1658), Spanish
prose writer, was born at Calatayud (Aragon) on the 8th of
January 1601. Little is known of his personal history except
that on May 14, 1610, he entered the Society of Jesus, and that
ultimately he became rector of the Jesuit college at Tarazona,
where he died on the 6th of December, 1658. His principal
works are El Heroe (1630), which describes in apophthegmatic
phrases the qualities of the ideal man; the Arte de ingenio,
tratado de la Agudeza (1642), republished six years afterwards
under the title of Agudeza, y arte de ingenio (1648), a system
of rhetoric in which the principles of conceptismo as opposed
to culler anismo are inculcated; El Discrete (1645), a delineation
of the typical courtier; El Ordculo manual y arte de prudencia
(1647), a system of rules far the conduct of life; and El CrUicdn
(1651-1653-1657), an ingenious philosophical allegory of human
existence. The only publication which bears Grecian's name is
El Comulgaterio (1655); his more important books were issued
under the pseudonym of Lorenzo Gracian (possibly a brother
of the writer) or under the anagram of Gracian de Marlones.
Gracian was punished for publishing without his superior's
permission El Criticdn (in which Defoe is alleged to have found
the germ of Robinson Crusoe) ; but no objection was taken to
GRACKLE— GRADUATE
3ii
its substance. He has been excessively praised by Schopenhauer,
whose appreciation of the author induced him to translate the
Ordculo manual, and he has been unduly depreciated by Ticknor
and others. He is an acute thinker and observer, misled by his
systematic misanthropy and by his fantastic literary theories.
See Karl Borinski, Baltasar Gracidn und die HofliUeratur in
Deutschland (Halle, 1894); Benedetto Croce f / TraUatisti italiani del
14 concettismo " e Baltasar Gracidn (Napoli, 1899) ; Narciso Jose"
Linan y Heredia, Baltasar Gracidn (Madrid, 1902). Schopenhauer
and Joseph Jacobs have respectively translated the Ordculo manual
into German and English.
GRACKLE (Lat. Gracculns or Graculus), a word much used in
ornithology, generally in a vague sense, though restricted to
members of the families Sturnidae belonging to the Old World
and Icteridae belonging to the New. Of the former those to which
it has been most commonly applied are the species known as
mynas, mainas, and minors of India and the adjacent countries,
and especially the Gracula religiosa of Linnaeus, who, according
to Jerdon and others, was probably led to confer this epithet
upon it by confounding it with the Sturnus or Acridotheres
tristis, 1 which is regarded by the Hindus as sacred to Ram Deo,
one of their deities, while the true Gracula religiosa does not
seem to be anywhere held in veneration. This last is about 10 in.
; Gracula religiosa.
in length, clothed in a plumage of glossy black, with purple
and green reflections, and a conspicuous patch of white on the
quill-feathers of the wings. The bill is orange and the legs
yellow, but' the bird's most characteristic feature is afforded
by the curious wattles of bright yellow, which, beginning behind
the eyes, run backwards in form of a lappet on each side, and then
return in a narrow stripe to the top of the head. Beneath each
eye also is a bare patch of the same colour. This species is
common in southern India, and is represented farther to the
north, in Ceylon, Burma, and some of the Malay Islands by
cognate forms. They are all frugivorous, and, being easily
tamed and learning to pronounce words very distinctly, are
favourite cage-birds. 2
In America the name Grackle has been applied to several
species of the genera Scolecophagus and Quiscalus, though these
are more commonly called in the United States and Canada
" blackbirds," and some of them " boat-tails." They all belong
to the family Icteridae. The best known of these are the rusty
grackle, S. ferrugineus, which is found in almost the whole of
North America, and Q. purpureus, the purple grackle or crow-
1 By some writers the birds of the genera Acridotheres and Temenu-
chus are considered to be the true mynas, and the species of Gracula
are called " hill mynas " by way of distinction.
2 For a valuable monograph on the various species of Gracula and
its allies see Professor Schlegel's " Bijdrage tot de Kennis von het
Geschlacht Beo' " (Nederlandsch tijdschrifi vopr de Dierkunde i. 1-9).
blackbird, of more limited range, for though abundant in most
parts to the east of the Rocky Mountains, it seems not to appear
on the Pacific side. There is also Brewer's or the blue-headed
grackle, S. cyanocephalus, which has a more western range, not
occurring to the eastward of Kansas and Minnesota. A fourth
species, Q. major, inhabits the Atlantic States as far north as
North Carolina. All these birds are of exceedingly omnivorous
habit, and though destroying large numbers of pernicious
insects are in many places held in bad repute from the mischief
they do to the corn-crops. (A. N.)
GRADISCA, a town of Austria, in the province of Gdrz and
Gradisca, 10 m. S.W. of Gflrz by rail. Pop. (1900) 3843, mostly
Italians. It is situated on the right bank of the Isonzo and was
formerly a strongly fortified place. Its principal industry is silk
spinning. Gradisca originally formed part of the margraviate
of Friuli, came under the patriarchate of Aquileia in 1028,
and in 1420 to Venice. Between 147 1 and 148 1 Gradisca was
fortified by the Venetians, but in 151 1 they surrendered it to
the emperor Maximilian I. In 1647 Gradisca and its territory,
including Aquileia and forty-three smaller places, were erected
into a separate countship in favour of Johann Anton von
Eggenberg, duke of Krumau. On the extinction of his line
in 1 717, it reverted to Austria, and was completely incor-
porated with Gflrz in 1754. The name was revived by the
constitution of 1861, which established the crownland of Gtirz
and Gradisca.
GRADO, a town of northern Spain, in the province of Oviedo;
11 m. W. by N. of the city of Oviedo, on the river Cubia, a
left-hand tributary of the Nalon. Pop. (1000) 17,125. Grado
is built in the midst of a mountainous, well-wooded and fertile
region. It has some trade in timber, live stock, cider and
agricultural produce. The nearest railway station is that of the
Fabrica de Trubia, a royal cannon-foundry and small-arms
factory, 5 m. S.E.
GRADUAL (Med. Lat. gradualis, of or belonging to steps or
degrees; gradus, step), advancing or taking place by degrees
or step by step; hence used of a slow progress or a gentle de-
clivity or dope, opposed to steep or precipitous. As a sub-
stantive, " gradual " (Med. Lat. graduate or gradale) is used of
a service book or antiphonal of the Roman Catholic Church
containing certain antiphons, called " graduate," sung at the
service of the Mass after the reading or singing of the Epistle.
This antiphon received the name either because it was sung
on the steps of the altat or while the deacon was mounting the
steps of the ambd for the reading or singing of the Gospel. For
the so-called Gradual Psalms, cxx.-cxxxiv., the "songs of
degrees," LXX. <^5i) avbpadp&u, see Psalms, Book of.
GRADUATE (Med. Lat. graduare, to admit to an academical
degree, gradus), in Great Britain a verb now only used in the
academical sense intransitively, Le. " to take or proceed to a
university degree/' and figuratively of acquiring knowledge of,
or proficiency in, anything. The original transitive sense of
" to confer or admit to a degree " is, however, still preserved in
America, where the word is, moreover, not strictly confined to
university degrees, but is used also of those successfully com-
pleting a course of study at any educational establishment.
As a substantive, a " graduate " (Med. Lat. graduatus) is one
who has taken a degree in a university. Those who have
matriculated at a university, but not yet taken. a degree, are
known as " undergraduates." The word " student," used of
undergraduates e.g. in Scottish universities, is never applied
generally to those of the EngKsh and Irish universities. At
Oxford the only " students " are the " senior students " (i.e.
fellows) and " junior students " {i.e. undergraduates on the
foundation, or " scholars ") of Christ Church. The verb " to
graduate " is also used of dividing anything into; degrees or parts
in accordance with a given scale. For the scientific application
see Graduation below. It may also mean " to arrange in
gradations " or " to adjust or apportion according to a given
scale." Thus by "a graduated income-tax" is meant the
system by which the percentage paid differs according to the
amount of income on a pre-arranged scale.
312
GRADUATION
GRADUATION (see also Graduate) , the art of dividing straight
scales, circular arcs or whole circumferences into any required
number of equal parts. It is the most important and difficult
part of the work of the mathematical instrument maker, and is
required in the construction of most physical, astronomical,
nautical and surveying instruments.
The art was first practised by clockmakers for cutting the
teeth of their wheels at regular intervals; but so long as it was
confined to them no particular delicacy: or accurate nicety in
its performance was required. This only arose when astronomy
began to be seriously studied, and the exact position of the
heavenly bodies to be determined, which created the necessity
for strictly accurate means of measuring linear and angular
magnitudes. Then it was seen that graduation was an art which
required special talents and training, and the best artists gave
great attention to the perfecting of astronomical instruments.
Of these may be named Abraham Sharp (1651-1742), John
Bird (1709-1776), John Smeaton (1724-1792), Jesse Ramsden
(1 735-1800), John Troughton, Edward Troughton (i753-i835)>
William Simms (1 793-1 860) and Andrew Ross.
The first graduated instrument must have been done by the
hand and eye alone, whether it was in the form of a straight-
edge with equal divisions, or a screw or a divided plate; but,
once in the possession of one such divided instrument, it was a
comparatively easy matter to employ it as a standard. Hence
graduation divides itself into two distinct branches, original
graduation and copying, which latter may be done either by the
hand or by a machine called a dividing engine. Graduation
may therefore be treated under the three heads of original
graduation, copying and machine graduation.
Original Graduation. — In regard to the graduation of straight
scales elementary geometry provides the. means of dividing
a straight line into any number of equal parts by the method
of continual bisection; but the practical realization of the
geometrical construction is so difficult as to render the method
untrustworthy. This method, which employs the common
diagonal scale, was used in dividing a quadrant of 3 ft. radius,
which belonged to Napier of Merchiston, and which only read
to minutes — a result, according to Thomson and Tait (Nat.
Phil.), " giving no greater accuracy than is now attainable by
the pocket sextants of Troughton and Simms, the radius of
whose arc is little more than an inch."
The original graduation of a straight line is done either by the
method of continual bisection or by stepping. In continual bisection
the entire length of the line is first laid down. Then, as nearly as
possible, half that distance is taken in the beam-compass and marked
off by faint arcs from each end of the line. Should these marks
coincide the exact middle point of the line is obtained. If not, as
will almost always be the case, the distance between the marks is
carefully bisected by hand with the aid of a magnifying glass. The
same process is again applied to the halves thus obtained, and so on
in succession, dividing the line into parts represented by 2, 4, 8, 16,
&c. till the desired divisions are reached. In the method of stepping
the smallest division required is first taken, as accurately as possible,
by spring dividers, and that distance is then laid off, by successive
steps, from one end of the line. In this method, any error at starting
will be multiplied at each division by the number of that division.
Errors so made are usually adjusted by the dots being put either
back or forward a little by means of the dividing punch guided by a
magnifying glass. This is an extremely tedious process, as the dots,
when so altered several times, are apt to get insufferably large and
shapeless.
The division of circular arcs is essentially the same in principle
as the graduation of straight lines.
The first example of note is the 8-ft. mural circle which was
graduated by George Graham (1673-1751) for Greenwich Obser-
vatory in 1725. In this two concentric arcs of radii 96-85 and
95- 8 in. respectively were first described by the beam-compass. On
the inner of these the arc of 90 was to be divided into degrees and
1 2th parts of a degree, while the same on the outer was to be divided
into 96 equal parts and these again into 16th parts. The reason for
adopting the latter was that, 96 and 16 being both powers of 2, the
divisions could be got at by continual bisection alone, which, in
Graham's opinion, who first employed it, is the only accurate
method, and would thus serve as a check upon the accuracy of the
divisions of the outer arc. With the same distance on the beam-
compass as was used to describe the inner arc, laid off from o°.
the point 6o° was at once determined. With the points o p and 60*
as. centres successively, and a distance on the beam-compass very
nearly bisecting the arc of 60 °, two slight marks were made on the
arc; the distance between these marks was divided by the hand
aided by a lens, and this gave the point 30°. The chord of 60 °
laid off from the point 30° gave the point 90°, and the quadrant
was now divided into three equal parts. Each of these parts was
similarly bisected, and the resulting divisions again trisected, giving
18 parts of 5° each. Each of these quinquesected gave degrees, the
12th parts of which were arrived at by bisecting and trisecting as
before. The outer arc was divided by continual bisection alone,
and a table was constructed by which the readings of the one arc
could be. converted into those of the other. After the dots indi-
cating theirequired divisions were obtained, either straight strokes
all directed towards the centre were drawn through them by the
dividing knife, or sometimes small arcs were drawn through them
by the beam-compass having its fixed point somewhere on the line
which wa6 a tangent to the quadrantal arc at the point where a
division was to be marked.
The next important example of graduation was done by Bird in
1767. His quadrant, which was also 8-ft. radius, was divided
into degrees and 12th parts of a degree. He employed the method
of continual bisection aided by chords taken from an exact scale of
equal parts, which could read to -ooi of an inch, and which he had
previously graduated by continual bisections. With the beam-
compass an arc of radius 95*938 in. was first drawn. From this
radius the chords of so°, 15 , io° 20', 4 40' and 42* 40' were com-
puted, and each of them by means of the scale of equal parts laid
off on a separate beam-compass to be ready. The radius laid off
from o° gave the point 6o° ; by the chord of 30* the arc of 6o° was
bisected ; from the point 30 the radius laid off gave the point 90 ;
the chord of 15 laid off backwards from 90 gave the point 75°:
from 75 was laid off forwards the chord of io c 20'; and from 00
was laid off backwards the chord of 4 40'; and these were found: to
coincide in the point 85 ° 20'. Now 85 ° 20' being =5' X 1024 =
5'X2 10 , the final divisions of 85 20' were found by continual bi-
sections. For the remainder of the quadrant beyond 85 ° 20',
containing 56 divisions of 5' each, the chord of 64 such divisions
was laid off from the point 85 ° 40', and the corresponding arc
divided by continual bisections as before. There was thus a severe
check upon the accuracy of the points already found, viz. 15 , 30 ,
6o°, 75 » 90°» which, however, were found to coincide with the
corresponding points obtained by continual bisections. The short
lines through the dots were drawn in the way already mentioned.
The next eminent artists in original graduation are the brothers
John and Edward Troughton. The former was the first to devise a
means of graduating the quadrant by continual bisection without
the aid of such a scale of equal parts as was used by Bird. His
method was as follows: The radius of the quadrant laid off from
o° gave the point 60 °. This arc bisected and the half laid off from
6o*gave the point 90 . The arc between 6o° and oo° bisected gave
75°; the arc between 75 and 90 bisected gave the point 82 30',
and the arc between 82 30' and 90 bisected gave the point 86° 15'.
Further, the arc between 82 c 30' and 86° 15' trisected, and two-
thirds of it taken beyond 82 ° 30', gave the point 85°, while the arc
between 85 and 86 15' also trisected, and one-third part laid off
beyond 85 , gave the point 85 25'. Lastly, the arc between 85
and 85 ° 25' being quinquesected, and four-fifths taken beyond 85 °,
gave 85 20', which as before is=5'X2 10 , and so can be finally
divided by continual bisection.
The method of original graduation discovered by Edward Trough-
ton is fully described in the Philosophical Transactions for 1809, as
employed by himself to divide a meridian circle of 4 ft. radius. The
. circle was first accurately turned both on its face and its inner and
outer edges. A roller was next provided, of such diameter that it
revolved 16 times on its own axis while made to roll once round
the outer edge of the circle. This roller, made movable on pivots,
was attached to a frame- work, which could be slid freely, yet tightly,
along the circle, the roller meanwhile revolving, by means of f rictional
contact, on the outer edge. The roller was also, after having been
properly adjusted as tp size, divided as accurately as possible into
16 equal parts by lines parallel to its axis. While the frame carrying
the roller was moved once round along the circle, the points of
contact of the roller-divisions with the circle were accurately ob-
served by two microscopes attached to the frame, one of which
(which we shall call H) commanded the ring on the circle near its
edge, which was to receive the divisions ana the other viewed the
roller-divisions. The points of contact thus ascertained were marked
with faint dots, and the meridian circle thereby divided into 256
very nearly equal parts.
The next part of the operation was to find out and tabulate the
, errors of these dots, which are called apparent errors, in conse-
quence of the error of each dot being ascertained on the supposition
that its neighbours are all correct. For this purpose two micro-
scopes (which we shall call A and B) were taken, with cross wires
ana micrometer adjustments, consisting of a screw and head divided
into 100 divisions, 50 of which read in the one and 50 in the opposite
direction. These microscopes were fixed so that their cross-wires
respectively bisected the dots o and 128, which were supposed to
be diametrically opposite. The circle was now turned half-way
round on its axis, so that dot 128 coincided with the wire of A,
GRADUATION
313
and, should dot o be found to coincide with B, then the two dots
were 180 apart. If not, the cross wire of B was moved till it coin-
cided with dot o, and the number of divisions of the micrometer
bead noted. Half this number gave clearly the error of dot 128,
and it was tabulated + or— according as the arcual distance between
o and 128 was found to exceed or tall short of the remaining part
of the circumference. The microscope B was now shifted, A re-
maining opposite dot o as before, till its wire bisected dot 64, and,
by giving the circle one quarter of a turn on its axis, the difference
of the arcs between dots o and 64 and between 64 and 1 28 was
obtained. The half of this difference gave the apparent error of
dot 64, which was tabulated with its proper sign. With the micro-
scope A still in the same position the error of dot 192 was obtained,
and in the same way by shifting B to dot 32 the errors of dots 32,
96, 160 and 224 were successively ascertained. In this way the
apparent errors of all the 256 dots were tabulated.
From this table of apparent errors a table of real errors was
drawn up by employing the following formula : —
i (*«+#«)+*= the real error of dot b f
where x a is the real error of dot a, # c the real error of dot c, and z
the apparent error of dot b midway between a and c. Having got
the real errors of any two dots, the table of apparent errors gives
the means of finding the real errors of all the other dots.
The last part of Troughton's process was to employ them to cut
the final divisions of the circle, which were to be spaces of 5' each.
Now the mean interval between any two dots is 3607256 ==*'Xi6J,
and hence, in the final division, this interval must be divided into
16} equal parts. To accomplish this a small instrument, called a
subdividing sector, was provided. It was formed of thin brass and
had a radius about four times that of the roller, but made adjustable
as to length. The sector was placed concentrically on the axis,
and rested on the upper end of the roller. It turned by frictional
adhesion along with the roller, but was sufficiently loose to allow
of its being moved back by hand to any position without affecting
the roller. While the roller passes over an angular space equal to
the mean interval between two dots, any point of the sector must
pass over 16 times that interval, that is to say, over an angle re-
presented by 36o°X 16/256 =22° 30'. This interval was therefore
divided by 16J, and a space equal to 16 of the parts taken. This was
laid off on the arc of the sector and divided into 16 equal parts, each
equal to i° 20'; and, to provide for the necessary Jths of a division,
there was laid off at each end of the sector, and beyond the 16
equal parts, two of these parts each subdivided into 8 equal parts.
A microscope with cross wires, which we shall call I, was placed on
the main frame, so as to command a view of the sector divisions,
just as the microscope H viewed the final divisions of the circle,
before the first or zero mark was cut, the zero of the sector was
brought under I and then the division cut at the point on the circle
indicated by H, which also coincided with the dot o. The frame
was then slipped along the circle by the slow screw motion provided
for the purpose, till the first sector-division, by the action of the
roller, was brought under I. The second mark was then cut on the
circle at the point indicated by H. That the marks thus obtained
are 5' apart is evident when we reflect that the distance between
them must be rVth °f a division on the section which by construction
is i° 20'. In this way the first 16 divisions were cut; but before
cutting the 17th it was necessary to adjust the micrometer wires
of H to the real error of dot 1, as indicated by the table, and bring
back the sector, not to zero, but to Jth short of zero. Starting
from this position the divisions between dots 1 and 2 were filled in,
and then H was adjusted to the real error of dot 2, and the sector
brought back to its proper division before commencing the third
course. Proceeding in this manner through the whole circle, the
microscope H was finally found with its wire at zero, and the sector
with its 1 6th division under its microscope indicating that the
circle had been accurately divided.
Copying. — In graduation by copying the pattern must be
either an accurately divided straight scale, or an accurately
divided circle, commonly called a dividing plate.
In copying a straight scale the pattern and scale to be divided,
usually called the work, are first fixed side by side, with their
upper faces in the same plane. The dividing square, which closely
resembles an ordinary joiner's square, is then laid across both,
and the point of the dividing knife dropped into the zero division
of the pattern. The square is now moved up close to the point
of the knife; and, while it is held firmly in this position by the
left hand, the first division on the work is made by drawing the
knife along the edge of the square with the right hand.
It frequently happens that the divisions required on a scale
are either greater or less than those on the pattern. To meet
this case, and still use the same pattern, the work must be fixed
at a certain angle of inclination with the pattern. This angle
is found in the following way. Take the exact ratio of a division
on the pattern to the required division on the scale. Call this
ratio a. Then, if the required divisions are longer than those
of the pattern, the angle is cos~*a, but, if shorter, the angle is
sec~*a. In the former case two operations are required before
the divisions are cut: first, the square is laid on the pattern,
and the corresponding divisions merely notched very faintly
on the edge of the work; and, secondly, the square is applied
to the work and the final divisions drawn opposite each faint
notch. In the second case, that is, when the angle is sec _1 a, the
dividing square is applied to the work, and the divisions cut
when the edge of the square coincides with , tjie end of each
division on the pattern.
In copying circles use is made of the dividing plate. This
is a circular plate of brass, of 36 in. or more in diameter, carefully
graduated near its outer edge. It is turned quite flat, and has
a steel pin fixed in its centre, and at right angles to its plane.
For guiding the dividing knife an instrument called an index
is employed. This is a. straight bar of thin steel of length equal
to the radius of the plate. A piece of metal, having a V notch
with its angle a right angle, is riveted to one end of the bar in
such a position that the vertex of the notch is exactly in a line
with the edge of the steel bar. In this way, when the index is
laid on the plate, with the notch grasping the central pin, the
straight edge of the steel bar lies exactly along a radius. The
work to be graduated is laid flat on the dividing plate, and fixed
by two clamps in a position exactly concentric with it. The
index is now laid on, with its edge coinciding with any required
division on the dividing plate, and the corresponding division
on the work is cut by drawing the dividing knife along the
straight edge of the index.
Machine Graduation. — The first dividing engine was probably
that of Henry Hindley of York, constructed in 1740, and chiefly
used by him for cutting the teeth of clock wheels. This was
followed shortly after by an engine devised by the due de
Chaulnes ;but the first notable engine was that made by Ramsden,
of which an account was published by the Board of Longitude
in 1777. He was rewarded by that board with a sum of £300,
and a further sum of £315 was given to him on condition that he
would divide, at a certain fixed rate, the instruments of other
makers. The essential principles of Ramsden's machine have
been repeated in almost all succeeding engines for dividing
circles.
Ramsden's machine consisted of a large brass plate 45 in. in dia-
meter, carefully turned and movable on a vertical axis. The edge
of the plate was ratched with 2160 teeth, into which a tangent
screw worked, by means of which the plate could be made to turn
through any required angle. Thus six turns of the screw moved
the plate through i°, and ^th of a turn through rl^th of a degree.
On the axis of the tangent screw was placed a cylinder having a
spiral groove cut on its surface. A ratchet-wheel containing 60
teeth was attached to this cylinder, and was. so arranged that, when
the cylinder moved in one direction, it carried the tangent screw
with it, and so turned the plate, but when it moved in the opposite
direction, it left the tangent screw, and with it the plate, stationary.
Round the Spiral groove of the cylinder a catgut band was wound,
one end of which was attached to a treadle and the other to a counter-
poise weight. When the treadle was depressed the tangent screw
turned round, and when the pressure was removed it returned, in
obedience to the weight, to its former position without affecting
the screw. Provision was also made whereby certain stops could be
placed in the way of the screw, which only allowed it the requisite
amount of turning. The work to be divided was firmly fixed on the
plate, and made concentric with it. The divisions were cut, while
the screw was stationary, by means of a dividing knife attached to
a swing frame, which allowed it to have only, a radial motion. In
this way the artist could divide very rapidly by alternately depress-
ing the treadle and working the dividing knife.
Ramsden also constructed alinear dividing engine on essentially
the same principle. If we imagine the rim of the circular
plate with its notches stretched out into a straight line and made
movable in a straight slot, the screw, treadle, &c, remaining
as before, we get a very good idea of the linear engine.
In 1793 Edward Troughton finished a circular dividing
engine, of which the plate was smaller than in Ramsden's, and
which differed considerably in simplifying matters of detail.
The plate was originally divided by Troughton's own method,
already described, and the divisions so obtained were employed
3H
GRADUS— GRAETZ
to ratch the edge of the plate lor receiving the tangent screw
with great accuracy. Andrew Ross (Trans. Soc. Arts, 1830-
183 1) constructed a dividing machine which differs considerably
from those of Ramsden and Troughton.
The essential point of difference is that, in Ross's engine, the
tangent screw does not turn the engine plate; that is done by an
independent apparatus, and the function of the tangent screw is
only to stop the plate after it has passed through the required
angular interval between two divisions on the work to be graduated.
Round the circumference of the plate are fixed 48 projections which
just look as if the circumference had been divided into as many
deep and somewhat peculiarly shaped notches or teeth. Through
each of these teeth a hole is bored parallel to the plane of the plate
and also to a tangent to its circumference. Into these holes are
screwed steel screws with capstan heads and fiat ends. The tangent
screw consists only of a single turn of a large square thread which
works in the teeth or notches of the plate. This thread is pierced
by 90 equally distant holes, all parallel to the axis of the screw,
and at the same distance from it. Into each of these holes is in-
serted a steel screw exactly similar to those in the teeth, but with
its end rounded. It is the rounded and flat ends of these sets of
screws coming together that stop the engine plate at the desired
position, and the exact point can be nicely adjusted by suitably
turning the screws.
A description is given of a dividing engine made by William
Simms in the Memoirs of the Astronomical Society, 1843. Simms
Dividing Engine.
became convinced that to copy upon smaller circles the divisions
which bad been put upon a large plate with very great accuracy
was not only more expeditious but more exact than original
graduation. His machine involved essentially the same prin-
ciple as. Troughton's. The accompanying figure is taken by
permission.
The plate A is 46 in. in diameter, and is composed of gun-metal
cast in one solid piece. It has two sets of 5' divisions — one very
faint on an inlaid ring of silver, and the other stronger on the gun-
metal. These were put on by original graduation, mainly on the
plan of Edward Troughton. One very great improvement in this
engine is that the axis B is tubular, as seen at C. The object of this
hollow is to receive the axis of the circle to be divided, so that it
can be fixed flat to the plate by the clamps E, without having first
to be detached from the axis and other parts to which it has already
been carefully fitted. This obviates the necessity for resetting,
which can hardly be done without some error. D is the tangent
screw, and F the frame carrying it, which turns on carefully polished
steel pivots. The screw is pressed against the edge of the plate
by a spiral spring acting under the end of the lever G, and by screw-
ing the lever down the screw can be altogether removed from contact
with the plate. The edge of the plate is ratched by 4320 teeth which
were cut opposite the original division by a circular cutter attached
to the screw frame. H is the spiral barrel round which the catgut
band is wound, one end of which is attached to the crank L on the
end of the axis J and the other to a counterpoise weight not seen.
On the other end of J is another crank inclined to L and carrying a
band and counterpoise weight seen at K. The object of this weight
is to balance the former and give steadiness to the motion. On the
axis J is seen a pair of bevelled wheels which move the rod I, which,
by another pair of bevelled wheels attached to the box N, gives
motion to the axis M, on the end of which is an eccentric for moving
the bent lever O, which actuates the bar carrying the cutter. Be-
tween the eccentric and the point of the screw r is an undulating
plate by which long divisions can be cut. The cutting apparatus
is supported upon the two parallel rails which can be elevated or
depressed at pleasure by the nuts Q. Also the cutting apparatus
can be moved forward or backward upon these rails to suit circles
of different diameters. The box N is movable upon the bar R, and
the rod I is adjustable as to length by having a kind of telescope
joint. The engine is self-acting, and can be driven either by hand
or by a steam-engine or other motive power. It can be thrown in
or out of gear at once by a handle seen at S.
Mention may be made of Donkin's linear dividing engine,
in which a compensating arrangement is employed whereby
great accuracy is obtained notwithstanding the inequalities of
the screw used to advance the cutting tool. Dividing engines
have also been made by Reichenbach, Repsold and others in
Germany, Gambey in Paris and by several other astronomical
instrument-makers. A machine constructed by E. R. Watts
& Son is described by G. T. McCaw, in the Monthly Not. R. A. S.,
January 1009.
References. — Bird, Method of dividing Astronomical Instruments
(London, 1767); Due de Chaulnes, Nouvelle Mithode pour diviser
les instruments de mathhnaHque et d'astronomie (1768); Ramsden,
Description of an Engine for dividing Mathematical Instruments
(London, 1777); Troughton's memoir, Phil. Trans. (1809); Memoirs
of the Royal Astronomical Society, v. 325, viii. 141, ix. 17, 35.
See also J. E. Watkins, M On the Ramsden Machine,' ' Smithsonian
Rep. (1800), p. 721 ; and L. Ambronn, Astronomische Instrumenten-
kunde (1899). (J. Bl.)
GRADUS, or Gradus ad Parnassum (a step to Parnassus))
a Latin (or Greek) dictionary, in which the quantities of the
vowels of the words are marked. Synonyms, epithets and
poetical expressions and extracts are also included under the
more important headings, the whole being intended as an aid
for students in Greek and Latin verse composition. The first
Latin gradus was compiled in 1702 by the Jesuit Paul Aler
(1656-1727), a famous schoolmaster. There is a Latin gradus
by C. D. Yonge (1850); English-Latin by A. C. Ainger and
H. G. Wintle (1800); Greek by J. Brasse (1828) and E. Maltby
(181 5), bishop of Durham.
GRAETZ, HEINRICH (1817-1891), the foremost Jewish
historian of modern times, was born in Posen in 1817 and died
at Munich in 1891. He received a desultory education, and
was largely self-taught. An important stage in his development
was the period of three years that he spent at Oldenburg as
assistant and pupil of S. R. Hirsch, whose enlightened orthodoxy
was for a time very attractive to Graetz. Later on Graetz
proceeded to Breslau, where he matriculated in 1842. Breslau
was then becoming the headquarters of Abraham Geiger, the
leader of Jewish reform. Graetz was repelled by Geiger's
attitude, and though he subsequently took radical views of the
Bible and tradition (which made him an opponent of Hirsch),
Graetz remained a life-long foe to reform. He contended for
freedom of thought; he had no desire to fight for freedom
of ritual practice. He momentarily thought of entering the
rabbinate, but he was unsuited to that career.. For some years
he supported himself as a tutor. He had previously won repute
by his published essays, but in 1853 the publication of the
fourth volume of his history of the Jews made him famous. This
fourth volume (the first to be published) dealt with the Talmud.
It was a brilliant resuscitation of the past. Graetz's skill in
piecing together detached fragments of information, his vast
learning and extraordinary critical acumen, were equalled by
his vivid power of presenting personalities. No Jewish book
of the 19th century produced such a sensation as this, and
Graetz won at a bound the position he still occupies as recog-
nized master of Jewish history. His Geschichte der Juden,
begun in 1853, was completed in 1875; new editions of the
several volumes were frequent. The work has been translated
into many languages; it appeared in English in five volumes
in 1891-1895. The History is defective in its lack of objectivity;
Graetz's judgments are sometimes biassed, and in particular he
lacks sympathy with mysticism. But the history is a work
GRAEVTOS— GRAFE, K. F, VON
3i5
of genius. Simultaneously with the publication of vol. iv.
Graetz was appointed on the staff of the new Breslau Seminary,
of which the first director was Z. Frankel. Graetz passed the
remainder of his life in this office; in 1869 he was created pro-
fessor by the government, and also lectured at the Breslau
University. Graetz attained considerable repute as a biblical
critic. He was the author of many bold conjectures as to the
date of Ruth, Ecclesiastes, Esther and other biblical books.
His critical edition of the Psalms (1882-1883) was his chief con-
tribution to biblical exegesis, but after his death Professor
Bacher edited Graetz's Emendationes to many parts of the
Hebrew scriptures.
A full bibliography of Graetz's works is given in the Jewish
Quarterly Review, iv. 194; a memoir of Graetz is also to be found
there. Another full memoir was prefixed to the " index " volume
of the History in the American re-issue of the English translation
in six volumes (Philadelphia, 1898). (I. A.)
GRAEVIUS (properly Grave or Grepfe), JOHANN GEORG
(163 2-1 703), German classical scholar and critic, was born at
Naumburg, Saxony, on the 29th of January 1632. He was
originally intended for the law, but having made the acquaintance
of J. F. Gronovius during a casual visit to Deventer, under his
influence he abandoned jurisprudence for philology. He com-
pleted his studies under D. Heinsius at Leiden, and under the
Protestant theologians A. Moms and D. Blondel at Amsterdam.
During his residence in Amsterdam, under Blondel's influence
he abandoned Lutheranism and joined the Reformed Church;
and in 1656 he was called by the elector of Brandenburg to
the chair of rhetoric in the university of Duisburg. Two years
afterwards, on the recommendation of Gronovius, he was chosen
to succeed that scholar at Deventer; in 1662 he was translated
to the university of Utrecht, where he occupied first the chair
of rhetoric, and from 1667 until his death (January nth, 1703)
that of history and politics. Graevius enjoyed a very high
reputation as a teacher, and his lecture-room was crowded
by pupils, many of them of distinguished rank, from all parts
of the civilized world. He was honoured with special recogni-
tion by Louis XIV., and was a particular favourite of William III.
of England, who made him historiographer royal.
His two most important works are the Thesaurus antiquitatum
Romanarum (1694-1699, in 12 volumes), and the Thesaurus anti-
quitatum et historiarum Italiae published after his death, and
continued by the elder Burmann (1 704-1 725). His editions of the
classics, although they marked a distinct advance in scholarship,
are now for the most part superseded. They include Hesiod (1667),
Lucian, Pseudosophista (1668), Justin, Historiae Philippicae (1669),
Suetonius (1672), Catullus, Tibullus et Propertius (1680), and
several of the works of Cicero (his best production). He also edited
many of the writings of contemporary scholars. The Oratio funebris
by r. Burmann (1703) contains an exhaustive list of the works
of this scholar; see also P. H. Kulb in Ersch and Gruber's AUgemeine
Encyklopddie, and J. E. Sandys, History of Classical Scholarship, ii.
(1908).
GRAF, ARTTJRO (1848- ), Italian poet, of German ex-
traction, was born at Athens. He was educated at Naples
University and became a lecturer on Italian literature in Rome,
till in 1882 he was appointed professor at Turin. He was one
of the founders of the Giornale della letteratura italiana, and his
publications include valuable prose criticism; but he is best
known as a poet. His various volumes of verse — Poesie e
novelle (1874), Dopo il tramonto versi (1893), &c. — give him a
high place among the recent lyrical writers of his country.
GRAF, KARL HEINRICH (181 5-1869), German Old Testa-
ment scholar and orientalist, was born at Miilhausen in Alsace
on the 28th of February 181 5. He studied Biblical exegesis
and oriental languages at the university of Strassburg under
E. Reuss, and, after holding various teaching posts, was made
instructor in French and Hebrew at the Landesschule of Meissen,
receiving in 1852 the title of professor. He died on the 16th of
July 1869. Graf was one of the chief founders of Old Testament
criticism. In his principal work, Die geschichUichen BUcher
des Alien Testaments (1866), he sought to show that the priestly
legislation of Exodus, Leviticus and Numbers is of later origin
than the book of Deuteronomy. He still, however, held the
accepted view, that the Elohistic narratives formed part of the
Grundschrift and therefore belonged to the oldest portions of
the Pentateuch. The reasons urged against the contention that
the priestly legislation and the Elohistic narratives were separ-
ated by a space of 500 years were so strong as to induce Graf,
in an essay, " Die sogenannte Grundschrift des Pentateuchs,"
published shortly before his death, to regard the whole Grund-
schrift as post-exilic and as the latest portion of the Pentateuch.
The idea had already been expressed by E. Reuss, but since
Graf was the first to introduce it into Germany, the theory,
as developed by Julius Wellhausen, has been called the Graf-
Wellhausen hypothesis.
Graf also wrote, Der Segen Moses Deut.33 (1857) and Der Prophet
Jeremia erkldrt (1862). See T. K. Cheyne, Founders of Old Testament
Criticism (1893) ; and Otto Pfleiderer's book translated into English
by J. F. Smith as Development of Theology (1890).
GRAFE, ALBRECHT VON (1828-1870), German oculist, son
of Karl Ferdinand von Grafe, was born at Berlin on the 22nd
of May 1828. At an early age he manifested a preference for the
study of mathematics, but this was gradually superseded by an
interest in natural science, which led him ultimately to the study
of medicine. After prosecuting his studies at Berlin, Vienna,
Prague, Paris, London, Dublin and Edinburgh, and devoting
special attention to ophthalmology he, in 1850, began practice
as an oculist in Berlin, where he founded a private institution
for the treatment of the eyes, which became the model of many
similar ones in Germany and Switzerland. In 1853 he was
appointed teacher of ophthalmology in Berlin university; in
1858 he became extraordinary professor, and in 1866 ordinary
professor. Grafe contributed largely to the progress of the
science of ophthalmology, especially by the establishment in
1855 of his Archivfilr Ophthalmologic, in which he had Ferdinand
Arlt (181 2-1887) and F. C. Donders (1818-1889) as collaborators.
Perhaps his two most important discoveries were his method
of treating glaucoma and his new operation for cataract. He
was also regarded as an authority in diseases of the nerves
and brain. He died at Berlin on the. 50th of July 1870.
See Ein Wort der Erinnerung an Albrecht von Grafe (Halle, 1870)
by his cousin, Alfred Grafe (1830-1899), also a distinguished ophthal-
mologist, and the author of Das Sehen der Schielenaen (Wiesbaden,
1897); and £. Michaelis, Albrecht von Grafe. Sein Leben und
Wirken (Berlin, 1877).
GRAFE, HEINRICH (1802-1868), German educationist, was
born at Buttstadt in Saxe- Weimar on the 3rd of May 1802.
He studied mathematics and theology at Jena, and in 1823
obtained a curacy in the town church of Weimar. He was
transferred to Jena as rector of the town school in 1825; in 1840
he was also appointed extraordinary professor of the science
of education (Padagogik) in that university; and in 1842 he
became head of the BUrgerschule (middle class school) in Cassel.
After reorganizing the schools of the town, he became director
of the new Realschule in 1843; and, devoting himself to the
interests of educational reform in electoral Hesse, he became
in 1849 a member of the school commission, and also entered
the house of representatives, where he made himself somewhat
formidable as an agitator. In 1852. for having been implicated
in the September riots and in the movement against the unpopular
minister Hassenpflug, who had dissolved the school commission,
he was condemned to three years 1 imprisonment, a sentence
afterwards reduced to one of twelve months. On his release he
withdrew to Geneva, where he engaged in educational work
till 1855, when he was appointed director of the school of industry
at Bremen. He died in that city on the 21st of July 1868.
Besides being the author of many text-books and occasional
papers on educational subjects, he wrote Das Rechtsverhdltnis der
Volksschule von innen und aussen (1829); Die Schulreform (1834);
Schule und Unterricht (1839); AUgemeine Padagogik (1845); Die
deutsche Volksschule (1847) . Together with Naumann, he also edited
the Archiv fur das praktische Volhsschulwesen (1 828-1 835).
GRAFE, KARL FERDINAND VON (1 787-1840), German
surgeon, was born at Warsaw on the 8th of March 1787. He
studied medicine at Halle and Leipzig, and after obtaining
licence from the Leipzig university, he was in 1807 appointed
private physician to Duke Alexius of Anhalt-Bernburg. In
181 1 he became professor of surgery and director of the surgical
316
GRAFFITO— GRAFTON, DUKES OF
clinic at Berlin, and during the war with Napoleon he was super-
intendent of the military hospitals. When peace was concluded
in 1815, he resumed his professorial duties. He was also appointed
physician to the general staff of the army, and he became a
director of the Friedrich Wilhelm Institute and of the Medico-
Chirurgical Academy. He died suddenly on the 4th of July 1840
at Hanover, whither he had been called to operate on the eyes
of the crown prince. Grafe did much to advance the practice
of surgery in Germany, especially in the treatment of wounds.
He improved the rhinoplastic process, and its revival was chiefly
due to him. His lectures at the university of Berlin attracted
students from all parts of Europe.
The following are his principal works: Normen fUr die Ablosung
grosser Gliedmassen (Berlin, 1812); Rhinoplasty (1818); Neue Bet-
trdge zur Kunst Thetle des Angesichts organisch zu erselzen (1821);
Die epidetnisch-kontagidse Augenblennorrhoi Agyptens in den
europatschen Befreiungsheeren (1824); and Jahresberichte fiber das
klintsch-chirurgisclhaugenarziliche Institut der Universitdt zu Berlin
(1817-1834). He also edited, with Ph. von Walther, the Journal
fUr Ckirurgie und A ugenheilkunde. See E. Michaelis, Karl Ferdinand
von Grafe in seiner 3qjdhrigen Wirken fUr Stoat und Wissenschaft
(Berlin, 1840).
GRAFFITO, plural graffiti, the Italian word meaning " scribb-
ling " or " scratchings " (graffiare, to scribble, Gr. yp6i<i>tu>),
adopted by archaeologists as a general term for the casual
writings, rude drawings and markings on ancient buildings,
in distinction from the more formal or deliberate writings known
as " inscriptions." These " graffiti," either scratched on stone
or plaster by a sharp instrument such as a nail, or, more rarely,
written in red chalk or black charcoal, are found in great abund-
ance, e.g. on the monuments of ancient Egypt. The best-known
" graffiti " are those in Pompeii and in the catacombs and else-
where in Rome. They have been collected by R. Garrucci
(Graffiti di Pompei, Paris, 1856), and L. Correra (" Graffiti di
Roma " in BoUetino della commissione municipale arckaeologica,
Rome, 1893; see also Corp. Ins. Lot. iv., Berlin, 1871).
The subject matter of these scribblings is much the same as
that of the similar scrawls made to-day by boys, street idlers
and the casual " tripper." The schoolboy of Pompeii wrote out
lists of nouns and verbs, alphabets and lines from Virgil for
memorizing, lovers wrote the names of their beloved, " sports-
men " scribbled the names of horses they had been " tipped,"
and wrote those of their favourite gladiators. Personal abuse
is frequent, and rude caricatures are found, such as that of one
Peregrinus with an enormous nose, or of Naso or Nasso with
hardly any. Aulus Vettius Firmus writes up his election address
and appeals to the pUicrepi or ball-players for their votes for
him as aedile. Lines of poetry, chiefly suited for lovers in de-
jection or triumph, are popular, and Ovid and Propertius appear
to be favourites. Apparently private owners of property felt
the nuisance of the defacement of their walls, and at Rome
near the Porta Portuensis has been found an inscription begging
people not to scribble (scariphare) on the walls.
Graffiti are of some importance to the palaeographer and to
the philologist as illustrating the forms and corruptions of the
various alphabets and languages used by the people, and occasion-
ally guide the archaeologist to the date of the building on which
they appear, but they are chiefly valuable for the light they
throw on the everyday life of the " man in the street " of the
period, and for the intimate details of customs and institutions
which no literature or formal inscriptions can give. The graffiti
dealing with the gladiatorial shows at Pompeii are in this respect
particularly noteworthy; the rude drawings such as that of
the secutor caught in the net of the retiarius and lying entirely
at his mercy, give a more vivid picture of what the incidents
of these shows were like than any account in words (see Garrucci,
op. cit., Pis. x.-xiv.; A. Mau, Pompeii in Leben und Kunst, 2nd
ed., 1008, ch. xxx.). In 1866 in the Trastevere quarter of Rome,
near the church of S. Crisogono, was discovered the guard-house
(excubUorium) of the seventh cohort of the city police (vigiles),
the walls being covered by the scribblings of the guards, illustrat-
ing in detail the daily routine, the hardships and dangers, and
the feelings of the men towards their officers (W. Henzen,
" V Escubitorio della Settima coorte dei Vigili " in Bull. Inst^
1867, and Annali Inst., 1874; see also R. Lanciani, Ancient
Rome in the Light of Recent Discoveries, 230, and Ruins and
Excavations of Ancient Rome, 1897, 548). The most famous
graffito yet discovered is that generally accepted as representing
a caricature of Christ upon the cross, found on the walls of the
Domus Gelotiana on the Palatine in 1857, and now preserved
in the Kircherian Museum of the Collegio Romano. Deeply
scratched in the wall is a figure of a man clad in the short tunica
with one hand upraised in salutation to another figure, with
the head of an ass, or possibly a horse, hanging on a cross;
beneath is written in rude Greek letters " Anaxamenos worships
(his) god." It has been suggested that this represents an
adherent of some Gnostic sect worshipping one of the animal-
headed deities of Egypt (see Ferd. Becker, Das Spottcrucifix
der romischen KaiserpaUste, Breslau, 1866; F. X. Kraus, Das
Spottcrucifix vom Palatin, Freiburg in Breisgau, 1872; and
Visconti and Lanciani, fiuida del Palatino).
There is an interesting article, with many quotations of graffiti,
in the Edinburgh Review, October 1859, vol. ex. (C. We.)
GRAFLY, CHARLES (1862- ), American sculptor, was
born at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the 3rd of December
1862. He was a pupil of the schools of the Pennsylvania Academy
of the Fine Arts, Philadelphia, and of Henri M. Chapu and Jean
Dampt, and the ficole des Beaux Arts, Paris. He received an
Honorable Mention in the Paris Salon of 1891 for his " Mauvais
Presage," now at the Detroit Museum of Fine Arts, a gold medal
at the Paris Exposition, in 1900, and medals at Chicago, 1893,
Atlanta, 1895, and Philadelphia (the gold Medal of Honor,
Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts), 1899, In 1892 he
became instructor in sculpture at the Pennsylvania Academy
of the Fine Arts, also filling the same chair at the Drexel Institute,
Philadelphia. He was elected a full member of the National
Academy of Design in 1005. His better-known works include:
" General Reynolds," Fairmount Park, Philadelphia; " Foun-
tain of Man " (made for the Pan-American Exposition at
Buffalo); "From Generation to Generation"; "Symbol of
Life "; " Vulture of War," and many portrait busts.
GRAFRATH, a town in Rhenish Prussia, on the Itterbach,
14 m. E. of Dtisseldorf on the railway Hilden-Vohwinkel. Pop.
(1005) 9030. It has a Roman Catholic and two Evangelical
churches, and there was an abbey here from 1185 to 1803. The
principal industries are iron and steel, while weaving is carried
on in the town.
GRAFT (a modified form of the earlier " graff," through
the French from the Late Lat. graphium, a stylus or pencil) f
a small branch, shoot or " scion," transferred from one plant or
tree to another, the " stock," and inserted in it so that the two
unite (see Horticulture). The name was adopted from the
resemblance in shape of the " graft " to a pencil. The transfer
of living tissue from one portion of an organism to another part
of the same or different organism where it adheres and grows
is also known as " grafting," and is frequently practised in
modern surgery. The word is applied, in carpentry, to an
attachment of the ends of timbers, and, as a nautical term, to
the " whipping " or " pointing " of a rope's end with fine twine
to prevent unravelling. " Graft " is used as a slang term, in
England, for a " piece of hard work." In American usage
Webster's Dictionary (ed. 1904) defines the word as " the act of
any one, especially an official or public employ*, by which he
procures money surreptitiously by virtue of his office or position;
also the surreptitious gain thus procured." It is thus a word
embracing blackmail and illicit commission. The origin of the
English use of the word is probably an obsolete word " graft,"
a portion of earth thrown up by a spade, from the Teutonic root
meaning " to dig," seen in German graben, and English " grave."
GRAFTON, DUKES OF. The English dukes of Grafton are
descended from Henry Fitzroy (1663-1690), the natural son
of Charles II. by Barbara Villiers (countess of Castlemaine and
duchess of Cleveland). In 1672 he was married to the daughter
and heiress of the earl of Arlington and created earl of Euston;
I in 1675 he was created duke of Grafton. He was brought
GRAFTON, R.— GRAHAM, SIR G.
3?7
up as a sailor, and saw military service at the siege of Luxemburg
in 1684. At James II. 's coronation he was lord high constable.
In the rebellion of the duke of Monmouth he commanded the
royal troops in Somersetshire; but later he acted with Churchill
(duke of Marlborough), and joined William of Orange against
the king. He died of a wound received at the storming of Cork,
while leading William's forces, being succeeded as 2nd duke
by his son Charles (1682-17 5 7).
Augustus Henry Fitzroy, 3rd duke of Grafton (1735-1811),
one of the leading politicians of his time, was the grandson of the
2nd duke, and was educated at Westminster and Cambridge. He
first became known in politics as an opponent of Lord Bute; in
1765 he was secretary of state under the marquis of Rockingham;
but he retired next year, and Pitt (becoming earl of Chatham)
formed a ministry in which Grafton was first lord of the treasury
(1766) but only nominally prime minister. Chatham's illness
at the end of 1767 resulted in Grafton becoming the effective
leader, but political differences and the attacks of " Junius "
led to his resignation in January 1770. He became lord privy
seal in Lord North's ministry (1771) but resigned in 1775, being
in favour of conciliatory action towards the American colonists.
In the Rockingham ministry of 1782 he was again lord privy
seal. In later years he was a prominent Unitarian.
Besides his successor, the 4th duke (1760-1844), and numerous
other children, he was the father of General Lord Charles Fitz-
roy (1764-1829), whose sons Sir Charles Fitzroy (1798-1858),
governor of New South Wales, and Robert Fitzroy (g.v.), the
hydrographer, were notable men. The 4th duke's son, who
succeeded as 5th duke, was father of the 6th and 7th dukes.
The 3rd duke left in manuscript a Memoir of his public career,
of which extracts have been printed in Stanhope's History, Walpole's
Memories of George III. (Appendix, vol. iv.), and Campbell's Lives
of the Chancellors. v-* r w * *
GRAFTON, RICHARD (d. 1572), English printer and chron-
icler, was probably born about 1513. He received the freedom
of the Grocers' Company in 1534. Miles Coverdale's version
of the Bible had first been printed in 1535. Grafton was early
brought into touch with the leaders of religious reform, and in
1537 be undertook, in conjunction with Edward Whitchurch,
to produce a modified version of Coverdale's text, generally
known as Matthew's Bible (Antwerp, 1537). He went to Paris
to reprint Coverdale's revised edition (1 538), There Whitchurch
and he began to print the folio known as the Great Bible by
special licence obtained by Henry VIII. from the French govern-
ment. Suddenly, however, the work was officially stopped and
the presses seized. Grafton fled, but Thomas Cromwell eventu-
ally bought the presses and type, and the printing was completed
in England. The Great Bible was reprinted several times under
his direction, the last occasion being 1553. In 1544 Grafton
and Whitchurch secured the exclusive right of printing church
service books, and on the accession of Edward VI. he was
appointed king's printer, an office which he retained throughout
the reign. In this capacity he produced The Booke of the Common
Prater and Administration of the Sacramentes } and other Rites
and Ceremonies of the Churche: after the Use of the Churche of
Englande (1549 fol.), and Actes of Parliament (15 52 and 1553)-
In 1553 he printed Lady Jane Grey's proclamation and signed
himself the queen's printer. For this he was imprisoned for a
short time, and he seems thereafter to have retired from active
business. His historical works include a continuation (1543)
of Hardyng's Chronicle from the beginning of the reign of Edward
IV. down to Grafton's own times. He is said to have taken
considerable liberties with the original, and may practically be
regarded as responsible for the whole work. He printed in 1548
Edward Hall's Union of the . . .Families of Lancastre and
Yorke, adding the history of the years from 1532 to 1547. After
he retired from the printing business he published An Abridge-
ment of the Chronicles of England (1 562), Manuell of the Chronicles
of England (1565), Chronicle at large and meere Historye of the
Ajfayres of England (1568). In these books he chiefly adapted
the work of his predecessors, but in some cases he gives detailed
accounts of contemporary events. His name frequently appears
in the records of St Bartholomew's and Christ's hospitals, and
in 1 553 he was treasurer-general of the hospitals of King Edward's
foundation. In 1553-1554 and 1556-1557 he represented the
City in Parliament, and in 1 562-1 563 he sat for Coventry.
An elaborate account of Grafton was written in 1901 by Mr J. A.
Kingdon under the auspices of the Grocers' Company, with the title
Richard Grafton, Citizen and Grocer of London, &c, in continuation
of Incidents in the Lives of T. Poyntz and R. Grafton (1895). Hia
Chronicle at large was reprinted by Sir Henry Ellis in 1809.
GRAFTON, a city of Clarence county, New South Wales,
lying on both sides of the Clarence river, at a distance of 45 m.
from its mouth, 342 m. N.E. of Sydney by sea. Pop. (1901)
4174, South Grafton, 976. The two sections, North Grafton
and South Grafton, form separate municipalities. The river
is navigable from the sea to the town for ships of moderate
burden, and for small vessels to a point 35 m. beyond it. The
entrance to the river has been artificially improved. Grafton
is the seat of the Anglican jointrbishopric of Grafton and Armidale,
and of a Roman Catholic bishopric created in 1888, both of which
have fine cathedrals. Dairy-farming and sugar-growing are
important industries, and there are several sugar-mills in the
neighbourhood; great numbers of horses, also, are bred for the
Indian and colonial markets. Tobacco, cereals and fruits are
also grown. Grafton has a large shipping trade with Sydney.
There is rail-connexion with Brisbane, &c. The city became a
municipality in 1859.
GRAFTON, a township in the S.E. part of Worcester county,
Massachusetts, U.S.A. Pop. (1905) 5052 ; (1910) 5705. It is
served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford, and the
Boston & Albany railways, and by interurban electric lines.
The township contains several villages (including Grafton, North
Grafton, Saundersville, Fisherville and Farnumsville) ; the
principal village, Grafton, is about 7 m. S.E. of Worcester. The
villages are residential suburbs of Worcester, and attract many
summer residents. In the village of Grafton there is a public
library. There is ample water power from the Blackstone
river and its tributaries, and. among the manufactures of Grafton
are cotton-goods, boots and shoes, &c. Within what is now
Grafton stood the Nipmuck Indian village of Hassanamesit.
John Eliot, the " apostle to the Indians," visited it soon after
1651, and organized the third of his bands of " praying Indians "
there; in 167 1 he established a church for them, the second of
the kind in New England, and also a school In 1654 the Massa-
chusetts General Court granted to the Indians, for their exclusive
use, a tract of about 4 sq. m., of which they remained the sole
proprietors until 1718, when they sold a small farm to Elisha
Johnson, the first permanent white settler in the neighbourhood.
In 1728 a group of residents of Marlboro, Sudbury, Concord and
Stowe, with the permission of the General Court, bought from the
Indians 7500 acres of their lands, and agreed to establish forty
English families on the tract within three years, and to maintain
a church and school of which the Indians should have free use.
The township was incorporated in 1735, and was named in honour
of the 2nd duke of Grafton. The last of the pure-blooded
Indians died about 1825.
GRAFTON,. a city and the county-seat of Taylor county, West
Virginia, U.S.A., on Tygart river, about 100 m. by rail S.E. of
Wheeling. Pop. (1890) 3159; (1900) 5650, including 226 foreign-
born and 162 negroes; (1910) 7563. It is served by four divisions
of the Baltimore & Ohio railway, which maintains extensive car
shops here. The city is about 1000 ft. above sea-level. It has
a small national cemetery, and about 4 m. W., at Pruntytown,
is the West Virginia Reform School. Grafton is situated near
large coal-fields, and is supplied with natural gas. Among its
manufactures are machine-shop and foundry products, window
glass and pressed glass ware, and grist mill and planing-mill
products. The first settlement was made about 1852, and
Grafton was incorporated in 1856 and chartered as a city in
1899. In 1903 the population and area of the city were increased
by the annexation of the town of Fetterman (pop. in 1900, 796),
of Beaumont (unincorporated), and of other territory.
GRAHAM, SIR GERALD (1831-1899), British general, was
born on the 27th of June 1831 at Acton, Middlesex. He was
3*8
GRAHAM, SIR JAMES— GRAHAM, T.
educated at Dresden and Woolwich Academy, and entered the
Royal Engineers in 1850. He served with distinction through
the Russian War of 1854 to 1856, was present at the battles of
the Alma and Inkerman, was twice wounded in the trenches
before Sevastopol, and was awarded the Victoria Cross for
gallantry at the attack on the Redan and for devoted heroism
on numerous occasions. He also received the Legion of Honour,
and was promoted to a brevet majority. In the China War of
i860 he took part in the actions of Sin-ho and Tang-ku, the
storming of the Taku Forts, where he was severely wounded,
and the entry into Peking (brevet lieutenant-colonelcy and C.B.).
Promoted colonel in 1869, he was employed in routine duties
until 1877, when he was appointed assistant-director of works
for barracks at the war office, a position he held until his promo-
tion to major-general in 188 1. In command of the advanced
force in Egypt in 1882, he bore the brunt of the fighting, was
present at the action of Magfar, commanded at the first battle
of Kassassin, took part in the second, and led his brigade at
Tell-el-Kebir. For his services in the campaign he received the
K.C.B. and thanks of parliament. In 1884 he commanded the
expedition to the eastern Sudan, and fought the successful
battles of El Teb and Tamai. On his return home he received
the thanks of parliament and was made a lieutenant-general
for distinguished service in the field. In 1885 he commanded
the 'Suakin expedition, defeated the Arabs at Hashin and
Tamai, and advanced the railway from Suakin to Otao, when the
expedition was withdrawn (thanks of parliament and G.C.M.G.).
In 1896 he was made G.C.B., and in 1899 colonel-commandant
Royal Engineers. He died on the 17th of December 1899.
He published in 1875 a translation of Goetze's Operations of
the German Engineers in ifyo-iSyi, and in 1887 Last Words
with Gordon.
GRAHAM, SIR JAMES ROBERT GEORGE, Bart. (1792-
1861), British statesman, son of a baronet, was born at Na worth,
Cumberland, on the 1st of June 1792, and was educated at
Westminster and Oxford. Shortly after quitting the university,
while making the " grand tour " abroad, he became private
secretary to the British minister in Sicily. Returning to England
in 1 81 8 he was elected to parliament as member for Hull in the
Whig interest; but he was unseated at the election of 1820.
In 1824 he succeeded to the baronetcy; and in 1826 he re-entered
parliament as representative for Carlisle, a seat which he soon
exchanged for the county of Cumberland. In the same year
he published a pamphlet entitled " Corn and Currency," which
brought him into prominence as a man of advanced Liberal
opinions; and he became one of the most energetic advocates
in parliament of the Reform Bill. On the formation of Earl
Grey's administration he received the post of first lord of the
admiralty, with a seat in the cabinet. From 1832 to 1837 he
sat for the eastern division of the county of Cumberland. Dis-
sensions on the Irish Church question led to his withdrawal
from the ministry in 1834, and ultimately to his joining the
Conservative party. Rejected by his former constituents in
1837, he was in 1838 elected for Pembroke, and in 1841 for
Dorchester. In the latter year he took office under Sir Robert
Peel as secretary of state for the home department, a post he
retained until 1846. As home secretary he incurred considerable
odium in Scotland, by his unconciliating policy on the church
question prior to the " disruption " of 1843; and in 1844 the
detention and opening of letters at the post-office by his warrant
raised a storm of public indignation, which was hardly allayed
by the favourable report of a parliamentary committee of
investigation. From 1846 to 1852 he was out of office; but in
the latter year he joined Lord Aberdeen's cabinet as first lord
of the admiralty, in which capacity he acted also for a short
time in the Palmerston ministry of 1855. The appointment of
a select committee of inquiry into the conduct of the Russian
war ultimately led to his withdrawal from official life. He
continued as a private member to exercise a considerable in-
fluence on parliamentary opinion. He died at Netherby,
Cumberland, on the 25th of October 1861.
His Life, by C. S. Parker, was published in 1907*
GRAHAM, SYLVESTER (1794-1851), American dietarian,
was born in Suffield, Connecticut, in 1 794. He studied at Amherst
College, and was ordained to the Presbyterian ministry in 1826,
but he seems to have preached but little. He became an ardent
advocate of temperance reform and of vegetarianism, having
persuaded himself that a flesh diet was the cause of abnormal
cravings. His last years were spent in retirement and he died
at Northampton, Massachusetts, on the nth of September
1 85 1. His name is now remembered because of his advocacy
of unbolted (Graham) flour, and as the originator of " Graham
bread. " But his reform was much broader than this. He urged,
primarily, physiological education, and in his Science of Human
Life (1836; republished, with biographical memoir, 1858)
furnished an exhaustive text-book on the subject. He had
carefully planned a complete regimen including many details
besides a strict diet. A Temperance (or Graham) Boarding
House was opened in New York City about 1832 by Mrs Asenath
Nicholson, who published Nature's Own Book (2nd ed., 1835)
giving Graham's rules for boarders; and in Boston a Graham
House was opened in 1837 at 23 Brattle Street.
There were many Grahamites at Brook Farm, and the American
Physiological Society published in Boston in 1837 and 1838 a weekly
called The Graham Journal of Health and Longevity, designed to
illustrate by facts and sustain by reason and principles the science of
human life as taught by Sylvester Graham, edited by David Campbell.
Graham wrote Essay on Cholera (1832); The Esculapian Tablets
of the Nineteenth Century (1834) ; Lectures to Young Men on Chastity
(2nd ed., 1837); and oread and Bread Making; and projected a
work designed to show that his system was not counter to the
Holy Scriptures.
GRAHAM, THOMAS (1 805-1 869), British chemist, born at
Glasgow on the 20th of December 1805, was the son of a merchant
of that city. In 18 19 he entered the university of Glasgow with
the intention of becoming a minister of the Established Church.
But under the influence of Thomas Thomson (1773-185 2),
the professor of chemistry, he developed a taste for experimental
science and especially for molecular physics, a subject which
formed his main preoccupation throughout his* life. After
graduating in 1824, he spent two years in the laboratory of
Professor T. C. Hope at Edinburgh, and on returning to Glasgow
gave lessons in mathematics, and subsequently chemistry,
until the year 1829, when he was appointed lecturer in the
Mechanics' Institute. In 1830 he succeeded Dr Andrew Ure
(1 778-1857) as professor of chemistry in theAndersonian Institu-
tion, and in 1837, on the death of Dr Edward Turner, he Was
transferred to the chair of chemistry in University College,
London. There he remained till 1855, when he succeeded Sir
John Herschel as Master of the Mint, a post he held until his
death on the 16th of September 1869. The onerous duties
his work at the Mint entailed severely tried his energies, and
in quitting a purely scientific career he was subjected to the
cares of official life, for which he was not fitted by temperament.
The researches, however, which he conducted between 1861
and 1869 were as brilliant as any of those in which he engaged.
Graham was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1836,
and a corresponding member of the Institute of France in 1847,
while Oxford made him a D. C. L. in 1855. He took a leading part
in the foundation of the London Chemical and the Cavendish
societies, and served as first president of both, in 184 1 and 1846.
Towards the close of his life the presidency of the Royal Society
was offered him, but his failing health caused him to decline
the honour.
Graham's work is remarkable at once for its originality and
for the simplicity of the methods employed in obtaining most
important results. He communicated papers to the Philosophical
Society of Glasgow before the work of that society was recorded
in Transactions, but his first published paper, " On the Absorp-
tion of Gases by Liquids," appeared in the Annals of Philosophy
for 1826. The subject with which his name is most prominently
associated is the diffusion of gases. In his first paper on this
subject (1829) he thus summarizes the knowledge experiment
had afforded as to the laws which regulate the movement of
gases. " Fruitful as the miscibility of gases has been in in-
teresting speculations, the experimental information we possess
GRAHAME— GRAHAM'S TOWN
ob the subject amounts to little more than the well-established
fact that gases of a different nature when brought into contact
do not arrange themselves according to their density, but they
spontaneously diffuse through each other so as to remain in an
intimate state of mixture for any length of time." For the
fissured jar of J. W. Dobereiner he substituted a glass tube
closed by a plug of plaster of Paris, and with this simple ap-
pliance he developed the law now known by his name " that
the diffusion rate pf gases is inversely as the square root of their
density." (See Diffusion.) He further studied the passage
of gases by transpiration through fine tubes, and by effusion
through a minute hole in a platinum disk, and was enabled to show
that gas may enter a vacuum in three different ways: (i) by the
molecular movement of diffusion, in virtue of which a gas pene-
trates through the pores of a disk of compressed graphite; (2)
by effusion through an orifice of sensible dimensions in a platinum
disk the relative times of the effusion of gases in mass being
similar to those of the molecular diffusion, although a gas is
usually carried by the former kind of impulse with a velocity
many thousand times as great as is demonstrable by the latter;
and (3) by the peculiar rate of passage due to transpiration through
fine tubes, in which the ratios appear to be in direct relation with
no other known property of the same gases — thus hydrogen has
exactly double the transpiration rate of nitrogen, the relation of
those gases as to density being as 1:14. He subsequently
examined the passage of gases through septa or partitions of india-
rubber, unglazed earthenware and. plates of metals such as
palladium, and proved that gases pass through these septa
neither by diffusion nor effusion nor by transpiration, but in virtue
of a selective absorption which the septa appear to exert on the
gases in contact with them. By this means (" atmolysis ") he
was enabled partially to separate oxygen from air.
His early work on the movements of gases led him to examine
the spontaneous movements of liquids, and as a result of the
experiments he divided bodies into two classes — crystalloids,
such as common salt, and colloids, of which gum-arabic is a type
— the former having high and the latter low diffusibility. He
also proved that the process of liquid diffusion causes partial
decomposition of certain chemical compounds, the potassium
sulphate, for instance, being separated from the aluminium
sulphate in alum by the higher diffusibility of the former salt.
He also extended his work on the transpiration of gases to liquids,
adopting the method of manipulation devised by J. L. M. Poise-
uille. He found that dilution with water does not effect pro-
portionate alteration in the transpiration velocities of different
liquids, and a certain determinable degree of dilution retards
the transpiration velocity.
With regard to Graham's more purely chemical work, in 1833
he showed that phosphoric anhydride and water form three
distinct acids, and he thus established the existence of polybasic
acids, in each of which one or more equivalents of hydrogen are
replaceable by certain metals (see Acid). In 1835 he published
the results of an examination of the properties of water of crys-
tallization as a constituent of salts. Not the least interesting
part of this inquiry was the discovery of certain definite salts with
alcohol analogous to hydrates, to which the name of alcoholates
was given. A brief paper entitled " Speculative Ideas on the
Constitution of Matter " (1863) possesses special interest in con-
nexion with work done since his death, because in it he ex-
pressed the view that the various kinds of matter now recognized
as different elementary substances may possess one and the same
ultimate or atomic molecule in different conditions of movement.
Graham's Elements of Chemistry, first published in 1833, went
through several editions, and appeared also in German, remodelled
under J. Otto's direction. His Chemical and Physical Researches
were collected by Dr James Young and Dr Angus Smith, and
printed "for presentation only " at Edinburgh in 1876, Dr Smith
contributing to the volume a valuable preface and analysis of its
contents. See also T. E. Thorpe, Essays in Historical Chemistry
(1902).
GRAHAMS, JAMES (1765-1811), Scottish poet, was born in
Glasgow on the 22nd of April 1765, the son of a successful
lawyer. After completing his literary course at Glasgow univer-
319
sity, Grahame went in 1784 to Edinburgh, where he qualified
as writer to the signet, and subsequently for the Scottish bar,
of which he was elected a member in 1795. But his preferences
had always been for the Church, and when he was forty-four
he took Anglican orders, and became a curate first at Shipton,
Gloucestershire, and then at Sedgefield, Durham. His works
include a dramatic poem, Mary Queen of Scots (1801), The
Sabbath (1804), British Georgics (1804), The Birds of Scotland
(1806), and Poems on the Abolition of the Slave Trade (1810).
His principal work, The Sabbath, a sacred and descriptive poem
in blank verse, is characterized by devotional feeling and by
happy delineation of Scottish scenery. In the notes to his poems
he expresses enlightened views on popular education, the criminal
law and other public questions. He was emphatically a friend
of humanity — a philanthropist as well as a poet. He died in
Glasgow on the 14th of September 181 1.
GRAHAM'S DYKE (or Sheugh= trench), a local name for the
Roman fortified frontier, consisting of rampart, forts and road,
which ran across the narrow isthmus of Scotland from the Forth
to the Clyde (about 36 m.), and formed from a.d. 140 till about
185 the northern frontier of Roman Britain. The name is
locally explained as recording a victorious assault on the defences
by one Robert Graham and his men; it has also been connected
with the Grampian Hills and the Latin surveying term groma.
But, as is shown by its earliest recorded spelling, Grymisdyke
(Fordun, a.d. 1385), it is the same as the term Grim's Ditch which
occurs several times in England in connexion with early ramparts
— for example, near Wallingford in south Oxfordshire or between
Berkhampstead (Herts) and Bradenham (Bucks). Grim seems
to be a Teutonic god or devil, who might be credited with the
wish to build earthworks in unreasonably short periods of time.
By antiquaries the Graham's Dyke is usually styled the Wall
of Pius or the Antonine Vallum, after the emperor Antoninus
Pius, in whose reign it was constructed. See further Britain:
Roman. (F. J. H.)
GRAHAM'S TOWN, a city of South Africa, the administrative
centre for the eastern part of the Cape province, 106 m. by rail
N.E. of Port Elizabeth and 43 m. by rail N.N.W. of Port Alfred.
Pop. (1904) .13,887, of whom 7283 were whites and 1837 were
electors. The town is built in a basin of the grassy hills forming
the spurs of the Zuurberg, 1760 ft. above sea-level. It is a
pleasant place of residence, has a remarkably healthy climate,
and is regarded as the most English-like town in the Cape. The
streets are broad, and most of them lined with trees. In the
High Street are the law courts, the Anglican cathedral of St
George, built from designs by Sir Gilbert Scott, and Commemora-
tion Chapel, the chief place of worship of the Wesleyans, erected
by the B ritish emigrants of 1 8 20. The Roman Catholic cathedral
of St Patrick, a Gothic building, is to the left of the High Street.
The town hall, also in the Gothic style, has a square clock tower
built on arches over the pavement. Graham's Town is one
of the chief educational centres in the Cape province. Besides
the public schools and the Rhodes University College (which
in 1904 took over part of the work carried on since 1855 by St
Andrew's College), scholastic institutions are maintained by
religious bodies. The town possesses two large hospitals, which
receive patients from all parts of South Africa, and the govern-
ment bacteriological institute. It is the centre of trade for an
extensive pastoral and agricultural, district. Owing to the sour
quality of the herbage in the surrounding zuurveld, stock-breeding
and wool-growing have been, however, to some extent replaced
by ostrich-farming, for which industry Graham's Town is the
most important entrepdt. Dairy farming is much practised in
the neighbourhood.
In 181 2 the site of the town was chosen as the headquarters
of the British troops engaged in protecting the frontier of Cape
Colony from the inroads of the Kaffirs, and it was named after
Colonel John Graham (1778-1821), then commanding the forces.
(Graham had commanded the light infantry battalion at the
taking of the Cape by the British in the action of the 6th of
January 1806. He also took part in campaigns in Italy and
Holland during the Napoleonic wars.) In 1819 an attempt was
320
GRAIL, THE HOLY
made by the Kaffirs to surprise Graham's Town, and 10,000
men attacked it, but they were repulsed by the garrison, which
numbered not more than 320 men, infantry and artillery, under
Lieut.-Colonel (afterwards General Sir) Thomas Wiltshire. In
1822 the town was chosen as the headquarters of the 4000
British immigrants who had reached Cape Colony in 1820. It
has maintained its position as the most important inland town
of the eastern part of the Cape province. In 1864 the Cape
parliament met in Graham's Town, the only instance of the
legislature sitting elsewhere than in Cape Town. It is governed
by a municipality. The rateable value in 1906 was £891,536
and the rate levied 2$d. in the pound.
See T. Sheffield, The Story of the Settlement . . . (2nd ed.,
.. Graham's Town, 1884); C. T. Campbell, British South Africa . . .
with notices of some of the British Settlers of 1820 (London, 1897).
GRAIL, THE HOLY, the famous talisman of Arthurian
romance, the object of quest on the part of the knights of the
Round Table. It is mainly, if not wholly, known to English
readers through the medium of Malory's translation of the
Erench Quite du Saint Graal, where it is the cup or chalice of the
Last Supper, in which the blood which flowed from the wounds
of the crucified Saviour has been miraculously preserved.
Students of the original romances are aware that there is in these
texts an extraordinary diversity of statement as to the nature
and origin of the Grail, and that it is extremely difficult to
determine the precise value of these differing versions. 1 Broadly
speaking the Grail romances have been divided into two main
classes: (1) those dealing with the search for the Grail, the
Quest, and (2) those relating to its early history. These latter
appear to be dependent on the former, for whereas we may
have a Quest romance without any insistence on the previous
history of the Grail, that history is never found without some
allusion to the hero who is destined to bring the quest to its
successful termination. The Quest versions again fall into three
distinct classes, differentiated by the personality of the hero
who is respectively Gawain, Perceval or Galahad. The most
important and interesting group is that connected with Perceval,-
and he was regarded as the original Grail hero, Gawain being,
as it were, his understudy. Recent discoveries, however, point
to a different conclusion, and indicate that the Gawain stories
represent an early tradition, and that we must seek in them
rather than in the Perceval versions for indications as to the
ultimate origin of the Grail.
The character of this talisman or relic varies greatly, as will
be seen from the following summary.
1. Gawain, included in the continuation to Chretien's Perceval
by Wauchier de Denain, and attributed toBleheris the Welshman,
who is probably identical with the Bledhericus of Giraldus
Cambrensis, and considerably earlier than Chr6tien de Troyes.
Here the Grail is a food-providing, self-acting talisman, the pre-
cise nature of which is not specified; it is designated as the
" rich " Grail, and serves the king and his court sans serjant
et sans seneschal, the butlers providing the guests with wine.
In another version, given at an earlier point of the same con-
tinuation, but apparently deriving from a later source, the
Grail is borne in procession by a weeping maiden, and is called
the " holy " Grail, but no details as to its history or character
are given. In a third version, that of Diu Crdne, a long and con-
fused romance, the origin of which has not been determined,
the Grail appears as a reliquary, in which the Host is presented
to the king, who once a year partakes alike of it and of the blood
which flows from the lance. Another account is given in the
j prose Lancelot, but here Gawain has been deposed from his
) post as first hero of the court, and, as is to be expected from the
treatment meted out to him in this romance, the visit ends
in his complete discomfiture. The Grail is here surrounded with
the atmosphere of awe and reverence familiar to us through the
^he etymology of the O. Fr. graal or great, of which "grail"
is an adaptation, has been much discussed. The Low Lat. original,
gradate or grasale, a flat dish or platter, has generally been taken to
represent a diminutive crateUa of crater, bowl, or a lost cratale,
formed from the same word (see W. W. Skeat, Preface to Joseph
of Arimathie t Early Eng. Text Soc.) — Ed.
Quite, and is regarded as the chalice of the Last Supper. These
are the Gawain versions.
2. Perceval. — The most important Perceval text is the
Conte del Grael, or Perceval le Galois of Chretien de Troyes.
Here the Grail is wrought of gold richly set with precious stones;
it is carried in solemn procession, and the light issuing from it
extinguishes that of the candles. What it is is not explained,
but inasmuch as it is the vehicle in which is conveyed the Host
on which the father of the Fisher king depends for nutriment,
it seems not improbable that here, as in Diu Crdne, it is to be
understood as a reliquary. In the Parzival of Wolfram von
Eschenbach, the ultimate source of which is identical with that
of Chretien, on the contrary, the Grail is represented as a precious
stone, brought to earth by angels, and committed to the guardian-
ship of the Grail king and his descendants. It is guarded by a
body of chosen knights, or templars, and acts alike as a life and
youth preserving talisman — no man may die within eight days
of beholding it, and the maiden who bears it retains perennial
youth — and an oracle choosing its own servants, and indicating
whom the Grail king shall wed. The sole link with the Christian
tradition is the statement that its virtue is renewed every Good
Friday by the agency of a dove from heaven. The discrepancy
between this and the other Grail romances is most startling.
In the short prose romance known as the " Didot " Perceval
we have, for the first time, the whole history of the relic logically
set forth. The Perceval forms the third and concluding section of
a group of short romances, the two preceding being the Joseph
of Arimathea and the Merlin. In the first we have the precise
history of the Grail, how it was the dish of the Last Supper,
confided by our Lord to the care of Joseph, whom he miraculously
visited in the prison to which he had been committed by the
Jews. It was subsequently given by Joseph to his brother-in-
law Brons, whose grandson Perceval is destined to be the final
winner and guardian of the relic. The Merlin forms the con-
necting thread between this definitely ecclesiastical romance and
the chivalric atmosphere of Arthur's court; and finally, in the
Perceval, the hero, son of Alain and grandson to Brons, is warned
by Merlin of the quest which awaits him and which he achieves
after various adventures.
In the Perksvaus the Grail is the same, but the working out of
the scheme is much more complex; a son of Joseph of Arimathea,
Josephe, is introduced, and we find a spiritual knighthood similar
to that used so effectively in the Parzival.
3. Galahad. — The Quite du Saint Graal, the only romance
of which Galahad is the hero, is dependent on and a completion
of the Lancelot development of the Arthurian cycle. Lancelot,
as lover of Guinevere, could not be permitted to achieve so
spiritual an emprise, yet as leading knight of Arthur's court it
was impossible to allow him to be surpassed by another. Hence
the invention of Galahad, son to Lancelot by the Grail king's
daughter; predestined by his lineage to achieve the quest,
foredoomed, the quest achieved, to vanish, a sacrifice to his
father's fame, which, enhanced by connexion with the Grail-
winner, could not risk eclipse by his presence. Here the Grail,
the chalice of the Last Supper, is at the same time, as in the
Gawain stories, self-acting and food-supplying.
The last three romances unite, it will be seen, the quest and
the early history. Introductory to the Galahad quest, and deal-
ing only with the early history, is the Grand Saint Graal, a work
of interminable length, based upon the Joseph of Arimathea,
which has undergone numerous revisions and amplifications:
its precise relation to the Lancelot, with which it has now much
matter in common, is not easy to determine.
To be classed also under the head of early history are certain
interpolations in the MSS. of the Perceval, where we find the
Joseph tradition, but in a somewhat different form, e.g. he is
said to have caused the Grail to be made for the purpose of re-
ceiving the holy blood. With this account is also connected the
legend of the Volto Santo of Lucca, a crucifix said to have been
carved by Nicodemus. In the conclusion to Chretien's poem,
composed by Manessier some fifty years later, the Grail is said
to have followed Joseph to Britain, how, is not explained.
GRAIL, THE HOLY
321
Another continuation by Gerbcrt, interpolated between those of
Wauchier and Manessier, relates how the Grail was brought
to Britain by Perceval's mother in the companionship of Joseph.
It will be seen that with the exception of the Grand Saint
Graal, which has now been practically converted into an introduc-
tion to the Quite, no two versions agree with each other; indeed,
with the exception of the oldest Gawain-GraB. visit, that due to
Bleheris, they do not agree with themselves, but all show,
more or less, the influence of different and discordant versions.
Why should the vessel of the Last Supper, jealously guarded at
Castle Corbenic, visit Arthur's court independently? Why
does a sacred relic provide purely material food? What connexion
can there be between a precious stone, a boetylus, as Dr Hagen
has convincingly shown, and Good Friday? These, and such
questions as these, suggest themselves at every turn.
Numerous attempts have been made to solve these problems,
and to construct a theory of the origin of the Grail story, but so
far the difficulty has been to find an hypothesis which would
admit of the practically simultaneous existence of apparently
contradictory features. At one time considered as an introduc-
tion from the East, the theory of the Grail as an Oriental talisman
has now been discarded, and the expert opinion of the day may
be said to fall into two groups: (1) those who hold the Grail
to have been from the first a purely Christian vessel which has
accidentally, and in a manner never clearly explained, acquired
certain folk-lore characteristics; and (2) those who hold, on the
contrary, that the Grail is aborigine folk-lore and Celtic, and
that the Christian development is a later and accidental rather
than an essential feature of the story. The first view is set forth
in the work of Professor Birch-Hirschfeld, the second in that of
Mr Alfred Nutt, the two constituting the only travaux d* ensemble
which have yet appeared on the subject. It now seems probable
that both are in a measure correct, and that the ultimate solution
will be recognized to lie in a blending of two originally inde-
pendent streams of tradition. The researches of Professor
Mannhardt in Germany and of J. G. Frazer in England have
amply demonstrated the enduring influence exercised on popular
thought and custom by certain primitive forms of vegetation
worship, of which the most noteworthy example is the so-called
mysteries of Adonis. Here the ordinary processes of nature
and progression of the seasons were symbolized under the figure
of the death and resuscitation of the god. These rites are found
all over the world, and in his monumental work, The Golden
Bough, Dr Frazer has traced a host of extant beliefs and practices
to this source. The earliest form of the Grail story, the Gawain-
Bleheris version, exhibits a marked affinity with the characteristic
features of the Adonis or Tammuz worship; we have a castle
on the sea-shore, a dead body on a bier, the identity of which is
never revealed, mourned over with solemn rites; a wasted
country, whose desolation is mysteriously connected with the
dead man, and which is restored to iruitfulness when the quester
asks the meaning of the marvels he beholds (the two features
of the weeping women and the wasted land being retained in
versions where they have no significance) ; finally the mysterious
food-providing, self-acting talisman of a common feast — one
and all of these features may be explained as survivals of the
Adonis ritual. Professor Martin long since suggested that a key
to the problems of the Arthurian cycle was to be found in a nature
myth: Professor Rhys regards Arthur as an agricultural hero;
Dr Lewis Mott has pointed out the correspondence between the
so-called Round Table sites and the ritual of nature worship; but
it is only with the discovery of the existence of Bleheris as reputed
authority for Arthurian tradition, and the consequent recogni-
tion that the Grail story connected with his name is the earliest
form of the legend, that we have secured a solid basis for such
theories.
With regard to the religious form of the story, recent research
has again aided us — we know now that a legend similar in all
respects to the Joseph of Arimathea Grail story was widely
current at least a century before our earliest Grail texts. The
story with Nioodemus as. protagonist is told of the Saint-Sang
relic at Fecamp; and, as stated already, a similar origin is
ascribed to the V0U0 Santo at Lucca. In this latter case the
legend professes to date from the 8th century, and scholars who
have examined the texts in their present form consider that there
may be solid ground for this attribution. It is thus demonstrable
that the material for our Grail legend, in its present form,
existed long anterior to any extant text, and there is no impro-
bability in holding that a confused tradition of pagan mysteries
which had assumed the form of a popular folk-tale, became
finally Christianized by combination with an equally popular
ecclesiastical legend, the point of contact being the vessel of the
common ritual feast. Nor can there be much doubt that in this
process of combination the Fecamp legend played an important
role. The best and fullest of the Perceval MSS. refer to a book
written at Fecamp as source for certain Perceval adventures.
What this book was we do not know, but in face of the fact that
certain special Fecamp relics, silver knives, appear in the Grail
procession of the Parzival i it seems most probable that it was a
Perceval-Grail story. The relations between the famous Bene-
dictine abbey and the English court both before and after the
Conquest were of an intimate character. Legends of the part
played by Joseph of Arimathea in the conversion of Britain are
closely connected with Glastonbury, the monks of which founda-
tion showed, in the 12th century, considerable literary activity,
and it seems a by no means improbable hypothesis that the
present form of the Grail legend may be due to a monk of Glaston-
bury elaborating ideas borrowed from Fecamp. This much is
certain, that between the Saint-Song of Fecamp, the Volto Santo
of Lucca, and the Grail tradition, there exists a connecting link,
the precise nature of which has yet to be determined. The two
former were popular objects of pilgrimage; was the third
originally intended to serve the same purpose by attracting
attention to the reputed burial-place of the apostle of the Grail,
Joseph of Arimathea?
Bibliography.— For the Gawain Grail visits see the Potvin
edition of the Perceval, which, however, only gives the Bleheris
version; the second visit is found in the best and most complete
MSS.* such as 12,576 and 12.577 (Fonds frangais) of the Paris library*
Diu Crdne, edited by Scholl (Stuttgart, 1852), vol. vi. of Arthurian
Romances (Nutt), gives a translation of the Bleheris, Diu Crdne
and Prose Lancelot visits.
The Conte del Graal, or Perceval, is only accessible in the edition
of M. Potvin (6 vols., 1866-1871). The Mons MS., from which this
has been printed, has proved to be an exceedingly poor and un-
trustworthy text. Parsival, by Wolfram von Eschenbach, has been
frequently and well edited; the edition by Bartsch (1875-1877),
in Deutsche Classiker des Mittelalters, contains full notes and a
glossary. Suitable for the more advanced student are those by K.
Lachmann (1891), Leitzmann (1002-1903) and £. Martin (1903).
There are modern German translations by Simrock (very close to
the original) and Hertz (excellent notes). English translation with
notes and appendices by J. L. Weston. " Didot " Perceval, ed.
Hucher, Le Saint Graal (1875-1878), vol. I Perlesvaus was printed
by Potvin, under the title of Perceval le Gallois, in vol. i. of the
edition above referred to; a Welsh version from the Hengwert MS.
was published with translation by Canon R. Williams (2 vols.,
1876-1892). Under the title of The High History of the Holy Grail
a fine version was published by Dr Sebastian Evans in the Temple
Classics (2 vols., 1898). The Grand Saint Graal was published by
Hucher as given above ; this edition includes the Joseph of Arimathea,
A 15th century metrical English adaptation by one Henry Lovelich,
was printed by Dr Furnivall for the Roxburghe Club 1 861-1 863;
a new edition was undertaken for the Early English Text Society.
Quite du Saint Graal can best be studied in Malory's somewhat
abridged translation, books xlii.-xviii. of the Morte Arthur. It
has also been printed by Eh- Furnivall for the Roxburghe Club,
from a MS. in the British Museum. Neither of these texts is,
however, very good, and the student who can decipher old Dutch
would do well to read it in the metrical translation published by
Joenckbloet. Roman van Lanceloet, as the original here was con-
siderably fuller.
For general treatment of the subject see Legend of Sir Perceval,
by J. L. Weston, Grimm Library, vol. xvii. (1906) ; Studies on the
Legend of the Holy Grail, by A. Nutt (1888), and a more concise
treatment of the subject by the same writer in No. 14 of Popular
Studies (1902) ; Professor Birch-Hirschfeld 's Die Sage vom Gral
(1877), The late Professor Heinzel's Die alt-franzdsischen Gral-
Romans contains] a mass of valuable matter, but is very confused
and ill-arranged. For the Fecamp legend see Leroux de Lincey's
Essai sur Vabbaye de Fescamp (1840); for the Volto Santo and
kindred legends, Ernest von Dobschutz, Christus-Bilder (Leipzig,
I899). . . O.L.W.)
xn.n
33?
GRAINS-GRAIN TRADE
GRAIN (derived through the French from Lat. granutn, seed,
from an Aryan root meaning " to wear down," which also appears
in the common Teutonic word " corn "), a word particularly
applied to the seed, in botanical language the " fruit," of cereals,
and hence applied, as a collective term to cereal plants generally,
to which, in English, the term " corn " is also applied (see
Grain Trade). Apart from this, the chief meaning, the word
is used of the malt refuse of brewing and distilling, and of many
hard rounded small particles, resembling the seeds of plants,
such as " grains " of sand, salt, gold, gunpowder, &c. " Grain "
is also the name of the smallest unit of weight, both in the
United Kingdom and the United States of America. Its origin
is supposed to be the weight of a grain of wheat, dried and
gathered from the middle of the ear. The troy grain =1/5760
of a lb, the avoirdupois grain- 1/7000 of a lb. In diamond
weighing the grain « i of the carat, *»• -7025 of the troy
grain. The word " grains " was early used, as also in French,
of the small seed-like insects supposed formerly to be the
berries of trees, from which a scarlet dye was extracted (see
Cochineal and Kermes). From the Fr. en graine, literally in
dye, comes the French verb engrainer, Eng. " engrain " or
" ingrain," meaning to dye in any fast colour. From the further
use of " grain " for the texture of substances, such as wood,
meat, &c., " engrained " or " ingrained " means ineradicable,
impregnated, dyed through and through. The "grain" of
leather is the side of a skin showing the fibre after the hair has
been removed. The imitating in paint of the grain of different
kinds of woods is known as " graining " (see Painter-Work).
" Grain," or more commonly in the plural " grains," construed
as a singular, is the name of an instrument with two or more
barbed prongs, used for spearing fish. This word is Scandinavian
in origin, and is connected with Dan. green, Swed. gren, branch,
and means the fork of a tree, of the body, or the prongs of a fork,
&c. It is not connected with " groin," the inguinal parts of the
body, which in its earliest forms appears as grynde.
GRAINS OF PARADISE, Guinea Grains, or Melegueta
PEpper (Ger. Paradieskdrner, Fr. graines de Paradis, muni-
guette), the seeds of Amomum Melegueta, a reed-like plant of the
natural order Zingiberaceae. It is a native of tropical western
Africa, and of Prince's and St Thomas's islands in the Gulf of
Guinea, is cultivated in other tropical countries, and may with
ease be grown in hothouses in temperate climates. The plant
has a branched horizontal rhizome; smooth, nearly sessile,
narrowly lanceolate-oblong alternate leaves; large, white, pale
pink or purplish flowers; and an ovate-oblong fruit, ensheathed
in bracts, which is of a scarlet colour when fresh, and reaches
under cultivation a length of 5 in. The seeds are contained in
the acid pulp of the fruit, are commonly wedge-shaped and
bluntly angular, are about ij lines in diameter and have a glossy
dark-brown husk, with a conical light-coloured membranous
caruncle at the base and a white kernel. They contain, accord-
ing to Fluckiger and Hanbury, 0-3% of a faintly yellowish
neutral essential oil, having an aromatic, not acrid taste, and
a specific gravity at 15-5° C. of 0-825, and giving on analysis the
formula CioHssO, or CioHu+CioHuO; also 5-83 % of an
intensely pungent, viscid, brown resin.
Grains of paradise were formerly officinal in British phar-
macopoeias, and in the 13 th and succeeding centuries were used
as a drug and a spice, the wine known as hippocras being
flavoured with them and with ginger and cinnamon. In 1629
they were employed among the ingredients of the twenty-four
herring pies which were the ancient fee-favour of the city of
Norwich, ordained to be carried to court by the lord of the
manor of Carleton (Johnston and Church, Chem. of Common
Life, p. 355, 1879). Grains of paradise were anciently brought
overland from West Africa to the Mediterranean ports of the
Barbary states, to be shipped for Italy. They are now exported
almost exclusively from the Gold Coast. Grains of paradise are
to some extent used illegally to give a fictitious strength to malt
liquors, gin and cordials. By 56 Geo. III. c. 58, no brewer or
dealer in beer shall have in his possession or use grains of paradise,
under a penalty of £200 for each offence; and no druggist shall
sell the same to a brewer under a penalty of £500. They are,
howevqr, devoid of any injurious physiological action, and ar?
much esteemed as a spice by the natives of Guinea. %
See Bentley and Trimen, Medicinal Plants, tab. 26$; Lanessan,
Hist, des Proguest pp. 456-460 (1878).
GRAIN TRADE. The complexity of the conditions of life
in the 20th century may be well illustrated from the grain trade
of the world. The ordinary bread sold in Great Britain represents,
for example, produce of nearly every country in the world
outside the tropics.
Wheat has been cultivated from remote antiquity. In a
wild state it is practically unknown. It is alleged tjo have been,
found growing wild between the Euphrates and the
Tigris ; but the discovery has never been authenticated, Gene '^ 1
and, unless the plant be sedulously cared f or^ the species ^o^ V*"
dies out in a surprisingly short space of time. Modern
experiments in cross-fertilization in Lancashire by the Garton
Brothers have evolved the most extraordinary " sports," showing,
it is claimed, that the plant has probably passed through stages
of which until the present day there had been no conception.
The tales that grains of wheat found in the cerements of Egyptian
mummies have been planted and come tot maturity are no longer:
credited, for the vital principle in the wheat berry is extremely
evanescent; indeed, it is doubtful whether wheat twenty years
old is capable of reproduction, The Garton artificial fertiliza-
tion experiments have shown endless deviations from the ordinary
type, ranging from minute seeds with a closely adhering husk
to big berries almost as large as sloes and about as worthless.
It is conjectured that the wheat plant, as now known, is a
degenerate form of something much finer which flourished
thousands of years ago, and that possibly it may be restored
to its pristine excellence, yielding an increase twice or thrice
as large as it now does, thus postponing. to a distant period the
famine, doom prophesied by Sir W. Crookes in his presidential
address to the British Association in 1898. Wheat well repays
careful attention; contrast the produce of a carelessly tilled
Russian or Indian field and the bountiful yield on a good Lincoln-
shire farm, the former with its average, yield of 8 bushels, thuo
latter with its 50 bushels per acre; or compare the quality,
as regards the quantity and flavour of the floor from a fine
sample of British wheat, such as is on sale at almost every
agricultural show in Great Britain, with the produce of an
Egyptian or Syrian field; the difference is so great as to cause
one to doubt whether the berries are of the same species.
It may be stated roundly that an average quartern loaf in
Great Britain is made from wheat grown in the following countries
in the proportions named :-r-
U.S.A.
Or.
26
40
U.K.
Oz.
20
Oz.
expr
14
.s
!
Oz.
8
u
&3
Oz.
4
percent ag<
Oz.
3
res as
5
Oz.
2
follow
3
Oz.
1
s:
Oz.
i
For details connected with grain and its handling see Agri-
culture, Corn Laws, Granaries, Flour, Baking, Wheat, &c.
Wheat occupies of all cereals the widest region of any food-
stuff. Rice, which shares with millet the distinction of being
the principal food-stuff of the greatest number of human beings,
is not grown nearly as widely as is wheat, the staple food of the
white races. 1 Wheat grows as far south as* Patagonia, and as
far north as the edge of the Arctic Circle; it -flourishes throughout
Europe, and across the whole of northern Asia. and in Japan;
it is cultivated in Persia, and raised largely in India, as far south'
as the Nizam's dominions. It is grown over nearly the whole of
North America. In Canada a very fine wheat crop was raised
in the autumn of 1898 as far north as. the mission at Fort
Providence, on the Mackenzie river, in a latitude above 62°^-'
or less than 200 m. Bouth of the latitude of Dawson City — the
period between seedtime and harvest having been ninety -one
GRAIN TRADE
323
days. In Africa it was an article of commerce in the days of
Jacob, whose son Joseph may be said to have run the first and
only successful "corner" in wheat. For many centuries
Egypt was famous as a wheat raiser; it was a cargo of wheat
from Alexandria which St Paul helped to jettison on one of his
shipwrecks, as was also, in aH probability, that of the " ship of
Alexandria whose sign was Castor and Pollux/' named in the
same narrative. General Gordon is quoted as having stated
that the Sudan if properly settled would be capable of feeding
the whole of Europe. Along the north coast of Africa are areas
which, if properly irrigated, as was done in the days of Carthage,
could produce enough wheat to feed half of the Caucasian race.
For instance, the vilayet of Tripoli, with an area of 400,000 sq. m.,
or three times the extent of Great Britain and Ireland, according
to the opinion of a British consul, could raise millions of acres of
wheat. The cereal flourishes on all the high plateaus of South
Africa, from Cape Town to the Zambezi. Land is being extens-
ively put under -wheat in the pampas of South America and
in the prairies of Siberia. -
In the raising of the standard of farming to an English level
the volume of the world's crop would be trebled, another fact
which Sir William Crookes seems to have overlooked. The
experiments of the late Sir J. B. Lawes in Hertfordshire have
proved that the natural fruitfulness of the wheat plant can be
increased threefold by the application of the proper fertilizer.
The results of these experiments will be found in a compendium
issued from the Rothamsted Agricultural Experimental Station.
It is by no means, however, the wheat which yields the greatest
number of bushels per acre which is the most valuable from a
miller's standpoint, for the thinness of the bran and the fineness
and strength of the flour are with him important considerations,
too often overlooked by the farmer when buying his seed.
Nevertheless it is the deficient quantity of the wheat raised in
the British Islands, and not the quality of the grain, which has
been the cause of so much anxiety to economists and statesmen.
Sir J. Caird, writing in the year 1880, expressed the opinion
that arable land in Great Britain would always command a
substantial rent of at least 30s. per acre. His figures
were based on the assumption that wheat was imported
duty free. He calculated that the cost of carriage from
abroad of wheat, or the equivalent of the product of an acre of
good wheat land in Great Britain, would not be less than 30s.
per ton. But freights had come down by 1900 to half the rates
predicated by Caird; indeed, during a portion of the interval they
ruled very cfose to zero, as far as steamer freights from America
were concerned. In 1000 an all-round freight rate for wheat
might be taken at 15s. per ton (a ton representing approximately
the produce of an acre of good wheat land in England), say from
ios. for Atlantic American and Russian, to 30s. for Pacific
American and Australian; about midway between these two
extremes we find Indian and Argentine, the greatest bulk
coming at about the 15s. rate. Inferior land bearing less than
4$ quarters per acre would not be protected to the same extent,
and moreover, seeing that a portion of the British wheat crop
has to stand a charge as heavy for land carriage across a county
as that borne by foreign wheat across a continent or an ocean,
the protection is not nearly so substantial as Caird would make
out. The compilation showing the changes in the rates of charges
for the railway and other transportation services issued by the
Division of Statistics, Department of Agriculture, U.S.A.
(Miscellaneous series, Bulletin No. 15, 1898), is a valuable
reference book. . From its pages are culled the following facts
relating to the changes in the rates of freight up to the year
1897. 1 In Table 3 the average rates per ton per mile in cents
are shown since 1846. For the Fitchburg Railroad the rate for
that year was 4-523 cents per ton per mile, since when a great
and almost continuous fall has been taking place, until in 1897,
1 Valuable information wilF arso be found in Bulletin No. 38
(1905), " Crop Export Movement artd Port Facilities on the Atlantic
and Gulf Coasts 'V in Bulletin No. 49 (1907), " Cost of Hauling
Crops from Farms to Shipping Points " ; and in Bulletin No. 69
(1908), " European Grain Trade."
Prelgbt
the latest year given, the rate had declined to -870 of a cent per
ton per mile. The railway which shows the greatest fall is the
Chesapeake & Ohio, for the charge has fallen from over 7 cents
in 1862 and 1863 to -419 of a cent in 1897, whereas the Erie rates
have fallen only from 1-948 in 1852 to -609 in 1897. Putting
the rates of the twelve returning railways together, we find the
average freight in the two years 1859-1860 was 3-006 cents per
ton per mile, and that in 1896- 1897 the average rate had fallen
to -797 of a cent per ton per mile. This difference is very large
compared with the smallness of the unit. Coming to the rates
on grain, we find (in Table 23) a record for the forty years 1858*-
1897 of the charge on wheat from Chicago to New York, via
all rait from 1858, and via lake and rail since 1868, the authority
being the secretary of the Chicago Board of Trade. From 1858
to 1862 the rate varied between 42-37 and 34-80 cents per bushel
for the whole trip of roundly 1000 m., the average rate in the
quinquennium being 38-43. In the five years immediately prior
to the time at which Sir J. Caird expressed the opinion that the
Cost of carriage from abroad would always protect the British
grower, the average all-rail freight from Chicago to New York
was 17-76 cents, while the summer rate (partly by water) was
13-17 cents. These rates in 1897, the last year shown on the
table, had fallen to 12-50 and 7-42 respectively. The ratqs have
been as follows in quinquennial periods, via all rail: —
Chicago to New York in Cents per Bushel,
1858-
1862.
1863-
1867.
1868-
1872.
1873-
1877*
1878-
1882.
1883-
1887.
1888-
1892.
*393-
1897. j
38-43
31.42
27-91
21*29
16-77
14-67
H-52
12*88
Calculating roundly a cent as equal to a halfpenny, and eight
bushels to the quarter, the above would appear ifi English
currency as follows: —
Chicago to New York in Shillings and Pence per Quarter.
1858-
1862.
1863-
1867:
1868-
1872.
1873-
1877.
1878-
r882.
1883-
1887.
1888-;
1892,
1893-
1897.
s. d.
12 8
s. d.
10 6
s. d.
9 3
s. d.
7 1
s. d.
5 7
s. d.
4 roj
s. d.
4 10
s. d.
4 3
Another table (No. ^8) shows the average rates from Chicago
to New York by lakes, canal and river. These in their quin-
quennial' periods are given for the season as follows: —
In Cents per Bushel of 60 lb.
1857-1861.
I 876-1 880.
1 893-1 897.
22-15
1047
4-92
In Shillings and Pence per Quarter of 480 lb.
1857-1861.
1876-1880.
1893-1897.
8. d.
7 4
s. d.
3 6
s. d.
1 7
In Shillings and Pence per Ton of 2240 lb.
1857-1861.
1 876-1 880.
1893-1897.
s. d.
34 6
s. d.
16 6
s. d.
7 6
This latter mode is the cheapest by which grain can be carried
to the eastern seaboard from the American prairies, and it can
now be done at a cost of 7s. 6d. per ton. The ocean freight has
to be added before the grain can be delivered free on the quay
at Liverpool. A rate from New York to Liverpool of 2^d.
per bushel, or 7s. rod. per ton, a low rate, reached in Dec. 1900,
is yet sufficiently high, it is claimed, to leave a profit; indeed,
there have frequently been times when the rate was as low as id.
pear bushel, or 3s. id. per ton; and in periods of great trade
depression wheat is carried from New York to Liverpool as
ballast, being paid for by the ship-owner Another route worked
more cheaply than formerly is that by river, from the centre of
the winter wheat belt, say at St Louis, to New Orleans, and thence
by steamer to Liverpool. The river rate has fallen below five
3H
GRAIN TRADE
cents per bushel, or 7s. per ton, 2240 lb. In Table No. 71 the
cost of transportation is compared year by year with the export
price of the two leading cereals in the States as follows: —
Wheat and Corn — Export Prices and Transportation Rates compared.
Wheat.
Com.
Rate, Chi-
Number
Rate, Chi-
Number
Ytar.
Export
cago to
New York
of Bushels
carried
Export
cago to
New York
of Bushels
carried
Price per
by Lake
for Price
Bushel.
by Lake
for Price
Bushel.
and Canal.
of One
and Canal,
of One
perBushel.
Bushel.
perBushel.
Bushel.
Cents.
Cents.
1867
$0.92
15-95
5-77
8.38
$0-72
14-58
494
6-20
1868
136
16-23
•84-1
13-57
14-98
1869
I05
17-20
6-io
•72-8
4-86
1870
112
14-85
7'54
•80-5
1378
16-53
5-84
1871
i-i8
17-75
6-65
6-o8
•67-9
-6i-8
4-u
1872
I-3I
£8
19-62
3-15
1873
115
6-8i
•54-3
•64-7
15-39
3-53
1874
1-29
"75
10*12
11-29
573
\m
•97
0.90
8-63
10-76
9-80
•73-8
8-93
8-26
III
12-86
•60-3
7-93
7-60
llll
1*12
10-41
•56-0
941
8-27
5-95
1-33
9-10
14-62
*55-8
6-75
!S
107
n-6o
9-22
•47-1
10-43
4-52
4-87
1-25
12-27
10-19
•543
11-14
7-26
1881
in
8-19
13-55
15-08
•55-2
7-60
1882
119
7-89
•66-8
7-66
024
8-93
1883
1-13
8-37
13-50
16*96
-68-4
1884
1-07
6-|i
8.71
•61 • 1
5-64
10-83
1885
1886
•86
1465
•54-o
5-38
10-04
•87
9.99
-49-8
It
6-24
1887
1888
.89
8.51
10-46
•47-9
6-o8
•85
5*93
14*33
•55-0
5-41
10-17
1889
%
6-89
13*06
•47-4
•41*8
6-19
7-66
1890
5-86
14-16
5- xo
8-20
1891
'93
5-96
15-60
18-36
•57-4
5-36
10-71
1892
1 03
5-6i
•55
503
1093
9-28
1893
•80
6-31
12-68
•53
571
1894
i
4.44
15-09
.46
399
"53
189S
4.11
14-11
9
371
1429
5-38
12 -08
4-94
r 6 ?
1897
•75
4-35
17-24
•31
379
8-i8
The farmers of the United States have now to meet a greatly
increased output from Canada — the cost of transport from that
country to England being much the same as from the United
States. So much improved is the position of the farmer in North
America compared with what it was about 1870, that the trans-*
port companies in 1001 carried 17} bushels of his grain to the
seaboard in exchange for the value of one bushel, whereas in
1867 he had to give up one bushel in every six in return for the
service. As regards the British farmer, it does not appear as if
he had improved his position; for he has to send his wheat to
greater distances, owing to the collapse of many country millers
or their removal to the seaboard, while railway rates have fallen
only to a very small extent; again the farmer's wheat is worth
only half of what it was formerly; it may be said that the British
farmer has to give up one bushel in nine to the railway company
for the purpose of transportation, whereas in the 'seventies he
gave up one in eighteen only. Enough has been said to prove
that the advantage of position claimed for the British farmer
by Caird was somewhat illusory. Speaking broadly, the Kansas
or Minnesota farmer's wheat does not have to pay for carriage
to Liverpool more than 2s. 6d. to 7s. 6d. per ton in excess of the
rate paid by a Yorkshire farmer; this, it will be admitted, does
not go very far towards enabling the latter to pay rent, tithes
and rates and taxes.
The subject of the rates of ocean carriage at different periods
requires consideration if a proper understanding of the working
of the foreign grain trade is to be obtained. Only a very small
proportion of the decline in the price of wheat since 1880 is due
to cheapened transport rates; for while the mileage rate has
been falling, the length of haulage has been extending, until
in 1900 the principal wheat fields of America were 2000 m.
farther from the eastern seaboard than was the case in 1870,
and consequently, notwithstanding the fall in the mileage rate
of 50 to 75%, it still costs the United Kingdom nearly as much
to have its quota of foreign wheat fetched from abroad as it did
then. The difference in the cost of the operation is shown in
the following tabular statement, both the cost in the aggregate
on a year's imports and the cost per quarter: —
Quantity of Wheat and Wheaten Flour (as wheat) imported into the
United Kingdom from various sources during the calendar year
1900, together with the average rate of freight.
1900.
Countries of Origin.
Atlantic America .
South Russia .
Pacific America
Canada
Rumania ....
Argentina and Uruguay
France
Bulgaria and Rumelia
India
Austria-Hungary .
Chile
North Russia .
Germany ....
Australasia.
Minor Countries .
Total ....
uantities.
{1-9.480 lb.
11,171,100
569,000
2,389.900
1,877,100
176,400
4.322,300
25L900
30,600
2,200
389.300
)6oo
462,700
438,700
883,900
225,100
Ocean Freight
to United
Kingdom).
Per 480 lb.
d.
3
2
1
8
6
4 10
1 3
2 6
4 o
1 9
i"6
1 6
6 5
2 6
23,190,800 Average 3s. 6d.
Total Cost
of Ocean
Carriage.
£
1,257,100
62,000
966,000
250,000
22,000
1,045.000
16,000
4,000
400
34.ooo
35.ooo
33.ooo
284,000
28,000
£4.036,500
Comparing these figures with a similar statement for the year
1872, the most remote year for which similar facts are available,
it will be found that the actual total cost per quarter for ocean
carriage has not much decreased.
Quantity of Wheat and Wheaten Flour (as wheat) imported into the
united Kingdom from various sources during the calendar year
1872, together with the average rate of freight.
1872.
Countries of Origin.
Quantities.
Qrs.
Ocean Freight
to United
Kingdom.
Per qr.
Total Cost
of Carriage.
South Russia
United States
Germany .
France .
Egypt . .
North Russia
Canada . .
Chile . .
Turkey .
Spain
Scandinavia
*
3,678,000
2,030,000
910,000
660,000
536,000
490,000
400,000
330,000
195,000
130,000
160,000
s. d*
8 6
6 6
2
4 6
2 O
7 6
12
7 6
3 6
2
£
1,563.000
659.000
91,000
99.000
120,000
49.000
150,000
198,000
72,000
23,000
16,000
Total, Chief C
oun
tries
9,5i9.ooo
Average 6s. 5d.
£3,040,000
N.B. — A trifling quantity of California^ and Australian wheat
was imported in the period in question, but the Board of Trade
records do not distinguish the quantities, therefore they cannot
be given. The freight in that year from those countries averaged
about 13s. per quarter.
The exact difference between the average freight for the years
1872 and 1000 amounts to about 2s. nd. per quarter (480 lb),
a trifle in comparison with the actual fall in the price of wheat
during the same years.
The following data bearing upon the subject, for selected
periods, are partly taken from the Corn Trade Year-Book: —
United Kingdom
Ocean Freight
to United
Annual Imports.
Wheat and Flour.
Aggregate Cost
of Carriage.
Year.
Kingdom.
Qrs.
Per qr.
s. d.
£
1872
1682
9,469,000
6 5
3,040,000
14,850,000
7 4
5,420,000
1894
16,229,000
3 9
3,041,000
1895
25,197,000
3
3,825,000
3,258,000
1896
23,431,000
2 9
1900
23,196,000
3 6
4,036,000
GRAM
325
In passing, it may be pointed out that for a period of four years,
from 1 87 1 to 1874, the price of wheat averaged 56s. per quarter
(or 7s. per bushel), with the charge for ocean carriage at 6s. 5d.
per quarter, whereas in 1901 wheat was sold in England at 28s.
(or 38. 6d. per bushel), and the charge for ocean carriage was
3s. 6d. per quarter; the ocean transport companies carried eight
bushels of wheat across the seas in 1901 for the value of one
bushel, or exactly at the same ratio as in 1872.
The contrast between the case of railway freight and ocean
freight is to be explained by the greater length of the present
ocean voyage, which now extends to 10,000 miles in the case of
Europe's importation of white wheat from the Pacific Coast of
the United States and Australia, in contrast with the short
voyage from the Black Sea or across the English Channel or
German Ocean. It is largely due to the overlooking of this phase
of the question that an American statistician has fallen into the
error of stating that about 16s. per quarter of the fall in the price
of wheat, which happened between 1880 and 1804, is attributable
to the lessened cost of transport.
Thus, whatever the cause of the decline in the price of wheat
may be, it cannot be attributed solely to the fall in the rate of
Wheat Pricbs
The following figures show the fluctuations from year to year
of English wheat, chiefly according to a record published by Mr T.
Smith, Melford, the period covered being from 1656 to 1905:
Price per Quarter
s. d.
s. d.
s. d.
s. a.
s. d.
1656
38
2
1706
23 1
1756
40
1
1806
79
1
1856
69 2
1657
4i
5
1707
25 4
1757
53
4
1807
1808
6
4
l lH
56 4
1658
57
1
1708
36 10
1758
44
5
4
1858
44 2
1659
58
1709
69 9
1759
35
3
1809
97
4
1859
43 9
1660
50
2
1710
69 4
1760
32
5
1810
106
5
i860
53 3
1661
62
2
1711
48
1 761
26
9
1811
95
3
1 861
55 4
1662
65
I
1712
41 2
1762
34
8
1812
126
6
1862
55 5
1663
50
1713
45 4
1763
36
1
1813
109
9
1863
44 9
1664
36
1714
44 9
38 2
1764
4 I
5
1814
74
4
1864
40 2
1665
43
10
1715
1765
48
1815
1816
1
7
"SS
41 10
1666
32
1716
42 8
1766
43
1
6
1866
49 »
1667
32
I7I l
1718
40 7
1767
57
4
1817
1818
96
11
1867
64 5
1668
35
6
34 6
1768
53
9
86
3
1868
65 9
48 2
1669
39
5
1719
3i 1
1769
40
7
1819
74
6
1869
1670
37
1720
32 10
1770
43
6
1820
67
10
1870
4 f X J
1671
37
4
1721
33 4
1771
47
2
1821
56
1
1871
56 8
1672
36
5
1722
32
1772
50
8
1822
44
7
1872
5 Z 2
1673
41
5
1723
30 10
1773
51
1823
53
4
;! 73
58 8
1674
61
1724
32 10
1774
5?
8
1824
U
11
1874
55 9
1675
57
5
1725
43 1
1775
48
4
1825
6
1875
45 2
1676
33
9
1726
40 10
1776
38
2
1826
58
8
1876
46 2
1677
37
4
1727
37 4
1777
45
6
1827
58
6
llll
56 9
1678
52
5
1728
48 5
1778
42
1828
60
5
46 5
1679
53
4
1729
4i 7
1779
1780
33
8
1829
66
3
'X 9
43 10
1680
40
1730
32 5
35
8
1830
3
3
1880
44 4
168 1
4i
5
I73i
29 2
1 781
44
8
1831
%
1881
45 4
1682
39
1
1732
23 8
1782
47
10
1832
58
1882
45 1
1683
35
6
1733
25 2
1783
52
8
1833
52
11
■S! 3
41 7
1684
39
1
1734
34 6
38 2
1784
48
10
1834
46
2
1884
35 8
1685
41
5
1735
1785
51
10
1835
39
4
1885
32 10
1686
30
2
1736
35 10
1786
38
10
1836
48 6
1886
31
1687
1688
22
4
1737
33 9
1787
1788
4*
2
1837
55
1887
32 6
40
10
1738
3i 6
45
1838
64
7
1888
31 10
1689
26
8
1739
34 2
1789
5i
2
1839
7?
8
1889
29 9
1690
30
9
1740
45 1
1790
a
9
1840
66
4
1890
31 "
1691
30
2
1 741
4i 5
1791
7
1841
64
4
1891
37
1692
41
5
1742
30 2
1792
43
1842
57
3j
1892
30 3
1693
60
1
1743
22 1
1793
49
3
1843
50
I
1893
26 4
1694
56
10
1744
22 1
1794
52
3
1844
51
3
1894
22 10
1695
tl
1
1745
24 5
1795
9
2
1845
50
10
1895
23 1
1696
1
1746
34 8
1796
7
1846
54
8
1896
26 2
1697
53
4
1747
30 n
1797
53
9
1847
69
9
1897
30 2
1698
60
9
1748
32 10
1798
5i
10
1848
50
6
1898
34
1699
56
10
1749
32 10
1799
69
1849
44
3
1899
25 8
1700
35
6
i75o
28 10
1800
"3
10
1850
40
3
1900
26 11
1 701
33
5
1751
34 2
1 801
119
6
1851
38
6
1 90 1
26 9
1702
26
2
1752
37 2
1802
69
10
1852
40
9
1902
28 1
1703
32
1753
39 8
1803
58
10
1853
53
3
1903
26 9
1704
41
t
1754
30 9
1804
62
3
1854
72
5
1904 128 4
1705
26
1755
30 i|
1805
89
9
1855
74
8
1005 1 29 8
IS*
10
36 ol
51
9
65
10
'42 7
1 Average for 46 years only.
rail or ocean freights. Incidental charges are lower than they
were in 1870; handling charges, brokers' commissions and
insurance premiums have been in many instances reduced, but
all these economies when combined only amount to about 2s.
per quarter. Now if we add together all these savings in the
rate of rail and ocean freights and incidental expenses, we arrive
at an aggregate economy of 8s. per quarter, or not one-third
of the actual difference between the average price of wheat
in 1872 and 1900. To what the remaining difference was due
it is difficult to say with certitude; there are some who argue
that the tendency of prices to fall is inherent, and that the
constant whittling away of intermediaries' profits is sufficient
explanation, while bi-metallists have maintained that the
phenomenon is clearly to be traced to the action of the German
government in demonetizing silver in 1872,
GRAM, or Chick-pea, called also Egyptian pea, or Bengal
gram (from Port, grdo, formerly gram, Lat. granum, Hindi
Chan&, Bengali Ckholti, Ital. cece, Span, garbamo), the
Cicer arielinum of Linnaeus, so named from the resemblance
of its seed to a ram's head. It is a member of the natural order
Leguminosae, largely cultivated as a pulse-food in the south of
Europe, Egypt and western Asia as far as India, but is not known
undoubtedly wild. The plant is an annual herb with fiexuose
branches, and alternately arranged pinnately compound leaves,
with small, oval, serrated leaflets and small eared stipules. The
flowers are borne singly in the leaf-axils on a stalk about half
the length of the leaf and jointed and bent in the middle; the
corolla is blue-purple. The inflated pod, 1 to i\ in. long, contains
two roundish seeds. It was cultivated by the Greeks in Homer's
time under the name erebintkos, and is also referred to by
Dioscorides as krios from the resemblance of the pea to the head
of a ram. The Romans called it cicer, from which is derived
the modern names given to it in the south of Europe. Names,
more or less allied to one another, are in vogue among the peoples
of the Caucasus, the Caspian Sea, Armenia and Persia, and there
is a Sanskrit name and several others analogous or different in
modern Indian languages. The plant has been cultivated in
Egypt from the beginning of the Christian era, but there is no
proof that it was known to the ancient Egyptians. Alphonse de
Candolle (Origin of Cultivated Plants, p. 325) suggests that the
plant originally grew wild in the countries to the south of the
Caucasus and to the north of Persia. " The western Aryans
(Pelasgians, Hellenes) perhaps introduced the plant into southern
Europe, where, however, there is some probability that it was
also indigenous. The western Aryans carried it to India," Gram
is largely cultivated in the East, where the seeds are eaten raw
or cooked in various ways, both in their ripe and unripe condition,
and when roasted and ground subserve the same purposes as
ordinary flour. In Europe the seeds are used as an ingredient
in soups. They contain, in 100 parts without husks, nitrogenous
substances 22-7, fat 3-76, starch 63*18, mineral matters 2-6
parts, with water (Forbes Watson, quoted in Parkes's Hygiene).
The liquid which exudes from the glandular hairs clothing the
leaves and stems of the plant, more especially during the cold
season when the seeds ripen, contains a notable proportion of
oxalic acid. In Mysore the dew containing it is collected by
means of cloths spread on the plant over night, and is used in
domestic medicine. The steam of water in which the fresh plant
is immersed is in the Deccan resorted to by the Portuguese
for the treatment of dysmenorrhoea. The seed of Phaseolus
Mungo, or green gram (Hind, and Beng. moong), a form of which
plant with black seeds (P. Max of Roxburgh) is termed black
gram, is an important article of diet among the labouring classes
in India. The meal is an excellent substitute for soap, and is
stated by Elliot to be an invariable concomitant of the Hindu
bath. A variety, var. radiatus (P. Roxburghii, W. and Arn.,
or P. radiatus, Roxb.) (vern. urid, rndshkaldt), also known as
green gram, is perhaps the most esteemed of the leguminous
plants of India, where the meal of its seed enters into the com-
position of the more delicate cakes and dishes. Horse gram,
Dolichos biflorus (vern. kulthi), which supplies in Madras
the place of the chick-pea, affords seed which, when boiled, is
326
GRAMMAR
Scope of
extensively employed as a food for horses and cattle in South
India, where also it is eaten in curries.
See W. Elliot, " On the Farinaceous Grains and the various kinds
of Pulses used in Southern India," Edin. New Phil. Journ. xvi.
(1862) 16 sq.; H. Drury, The Useful Plants of India (1873);
U. C. Dutt, Materia Medica of the Hindus ( Calcutta, 1877) J G. Watt,
Dictionary of the Economic Products of India (1890).
GRAMMAR (from Lat. grammatica, sc. ars; Gr. ypbpfjia,
letter, from Yp&c/xu', to write) . By the grammar of a language is
meant either the relations borne by the words of a sentence
and by sentences themselves one to another, or the systematized
exposition of these. The exposition may be, and frequently is,
incorrect; but it always presupposes the existence of certain
customary uses of words when in combination. In what follows,
therefore, grammar will be generally employed in its primary
sense, as denoting the mode in which words are connected in
order to express a complete thought, or, as it is termed in logic,
a proposition.
The object of language is to convey thought, and so long
as this object is attained the machinery for attaining it
is of comparatively slight importance. The way in
which we combine our words and sentences matters
little, provided that our meaning is clear to others.
The expressions " horseflesh " and " flesh of a horse "
are equally intelligible to an Englishman and therefore are
equally recognized by English grammar. The Chinese manner
of denoting a genitive is by placing the defining word before
that which it defines, as in koue jin y " man of the kingdom,"
literally " kingdom man," and the only reason why it would be
incorrect in French or Italian is that such a combination would
be unintelligible to a Frenchman or an Italian. Hence it is
evident that the grammatical correctness or incorrectness of an
expression depends upon its intelligibility, that is to say, upon
the ordinary use and custom of a particular language. Whatever
is so unfamiliar as not to be generally understood is also un-
grammatical. In other words, it is contrary to the habit of a
language, as determined by common usage and consent.
In this way we can explain how it happens that the grammar
of a cultivated dialect and that of a local dialect in the same
country so frequently disagree. Thus, in the dialect of West
Somerset, thee is the nominative of the second personal pronoun,
while in cultivated English the plural accusative you (A.-S.
tow) has come to represent a nominative singular. Both
are grammatically correct within the sphere of their respective
dialects, but no further. You would be as ungrammatical in
West Somerset as thee is in classical English; and both you and
thee, as nominatives singular, would have been equally ungram-
matical in Early English. Grammatical propriety is nothing
more than the established usage of a particular body of speakers
at a particular time in their history.
It follows from this that the grammar of a people changes,
like its pronunciation, from age to age. Anglo-Saxon or Early
English grammar is not the grammar of Modern English, any
more than Latin grammar is the grammar of modern Italian;
and to defend an unusual construction or inflexion on the ground
that it once existed in literary Anglo-Saxon is as wrong as to
import a peculiarity of some local dialect into the grammar
of the cultivated speech. It further follows that different
languages will have different grammars, and that the differences
will be more or less according to the nearer or remoter relation-
ship of the languages themselves and the modes of thought
of those who speak them. Consequently, to force the gram-
matical framework of one language upon another is to miscon-
ceive the whole nature of the latter and seriously to mislead
the learner. Chinese grammar, for instance, can never be under-
stood until we discard, not only the terminology of European
grammar, but the very conceptions which underlie it, while
the polysynthetic idioms of America defy all attempts to discover
in them " the parts of speech " and the various grammatical
ideas which occupy so large a place in our school-grammars.
The endeavour to find the distinctions of Latin grammar in that
of English has only resulted in grotesque errors, and a total
misapprehension of the usage of the English language.
It is to the Latin grammarians — or, more correctly, to the
Greek grammarians, upon whose labours those of the Latin
writers were based — that we owe the classification of
the subjects with which grammar is commonly sup- a "**
posed to deal. The grammar of Dionysius Thrax, ^^^
which he wrote for Roman schoolboys in the time
of Pompey, has formed the starting-point for the innumer-
able school-grammars which have since seen the light, and
suggested that division of the matter treated of which they have
followed. He defines grammar as a practical acquaintance with
the language of literary men, and as divided into six parts —
accentuation and phonology, explanation of figurative expressions,
definition, etymology, general rules of flexion and critical
canons. Of these, phonology and accentuation, or prosody,
can properly be included in grammar only in so far as the
construction of a sentence and the grammatical meaning of a
word are determined by accent or letter-change; the accentual
difference in English, for example, between incense and incinse
belongs to the province of grammar, since it indicates a difference
between noun and verb; and the changes of vowel in the Semitic
languages, by which various nominal and verbal forms are
distinguished from one another, constitute a very important
part of their grammatical machinery. But where accent and
pronunciation do not serve to express the relations of words
in a sentence, they fall into the domain of phonology, not of
grammar. The explanation of figurative expressions, again,
must be left to the rhetorician, and definition to the lexicographer;
the grammarian has no more to do with them than he has with
the canons of criticism.
In fact, the old subdivision of grammar, inherited from the
grammarians of Rome and Alexandria, must be given up and
a new one put in its place. What grammar really deals with
are all those contrivances whereby the relations of words and
sentences are pointed out. Sometimes it is pqsition, sometimes
phonetic symbolization, sometimes composition, sometimes
flexion, sometimes the use of auxiliaries, which enables the
speaker to combine his words in such a way that they shall be
intelligible to another. Grammar may accordingly be divided
into the three departments of composition or " word-building,"
syntax and accidence, by which is meant an exposition of the
means adopted by language for expressing the relations of
grammar when recourse is not had to composition or simple
position.
A systematized exposition of grammar may be intended for
the purely practical purpose of teaching the mechanism of a
foreign language. In this case all that is necessary
is a correct and complete statement of the facts. But £*** **
a correct and complete statement of the facts is by no m0a t,
means so easy a matter as might appear at first sight.
The facts will be distorted by a false theory in regard to them,
while they will certainly not be presented in a complete form if
the grammarian is ignorant of the true theory they presuppose.
The Semitic verb, for example, remains unintelligible so long
as the explanation of its forms is sought in the conjugation of
the Aryan verb, since it has no tenses in the Aryan sense of the
word, but denotes relation and not time.
A good practical grammar of a language, therefore, should be
based on a correct appreciation of the facts which it expounds,
and a correct appreciation of the facts is only possible where
they are examined and co-ordinated in accordance with the
scientific method. A practical grammar ought, wherever it is
possible, to be preceded by a scientific grammar.
Comparison is the instrument with which science works, and
a scientific grammar, accordingly, is one in which the comparative
method has been applied to the relations of speech. If we would
understand the origin and real nature of grammatical forms,
and of the relations which they represent, we must compare them
with similar forms in kindred dialects and languages, as well
as with the forms under which they appeared themselves at an
earlier period of their history. We shall thus have a comparative
grammar and an historical grammar, the latter being devoted
to tracing the history of grammatical forms and usages in the
GRAMMAR
327
same language. Of course, an historical grammar is only
possible where a succession of written records exists; where
a language possesses no older literature we must be content
with a comparative grammar only, and look to cognate idioms
to throw light upon its grammatical peculiarities. In this case
we have frequently to leave whole forms unexplained, or at
most conjecturally interpreted, since the machinery by means of
which the relations of grammar are symbolized is often changed
so completely during the growth of a language as to cause its
earlier shape and character to be unrecognizable. Moreover,
our area of comparison must be as wide as possible; where we
have but two or three languages to compare, we are in danger
of building up conclusions on insufficient evidence. The gram-
matical errors of the classical philologists of the 18th century
were in great measure due to the fact that their area of comparison
was confined to Latin and Greek.
The historical grammar of a single language or dialect, which
traces the grammatical forms and usages of the language as far
back as documentary evidence allows, affords material to the
comparative grammarian, whose task it is to compare the
grammatical forms and usages of an allied group of tongues
and thereby reduce them to their earliest forms and senses.
The work thus carried out by the comparative grammarian
within a particular family of languages is made use of by universal
grammar, the object of which is to determine the ideas that under-
lie all grammar whatsoever, as distinct from those that are
peculiar to special families of speech. Universal grammar is
sometimes known as "the metaphysics of language," and it
has to decide such questions as the nature of gender or of the
verb, the true purport of the genitive relation, or the origin of
grammar itself. Such questions, it is clear, can only be answered
by comparing the results gained by the comparative treatment
of the grammars of various groups of language. What historical
grammar is to comparative grammar, comparative grammar is
to universal grammar.
Universal grammar, as founded on the results of the scientific
study of speech, is thus essentially different from that " universal
grammar " so much in vogue at the beginning of the
19th century, which consisted of a series of a priori
assumptions based on the peculiarities of European
grammar and illustrated from the same source. But universal
grammar, as conceived by modern science, is as yet in its infancy;
its materials are still in the process of being collected. The
comparative grammar of the Indo-European languages is alone
in an advanced state, those of the Semitic idioms, of the Finno-
Ugrian tongues and of the Bantu dialects of southern Africa
are still in a backward condition; and the other families of
speech existing in the world, with the exception of the Malayo-
Folynesian and the Sonorian of North America, have not as yet
been treated scientifically. Chinese, it is true, possesses an
historical grammar, and Van Eys, in his comparative grammar
of Basque, endeavoured to solve the problems of that interesting
language by a comparison of its various dialects; but in both
cases the area of comparison is too small for more than a limited
success to be attainable. Instead of attempting the questions
of universal grammar, therefore, it will be better to confine our
attention to three points — the fundamental differences in the
grammatical conceptions of different groups of languages, the
main results of a scientific investigation of Indo-European
grammar, and the light thrown by comparative philology upon
the grammar of our own tongue.
The proposition, or sentence is the unit and starting-point of
speech, and grammar, as we have seen, consists in the relations
of its several parts one to another, together with the
expression of them. These relations may be regarded
from various points of view. In the polysynthetic
^^^ d languages of America the sentence is conceived as a
guagtM. ^^ not cojaposed of independent words, but, like
the thought which it expresses, one and indivisible. What we
should denote by a series of words is consequently denoted by a
single long compound — kuligaichis in Delaware, for instance,
signifying " give me your pretty little paw," and aglekkigiartor-
Untvtnal
Mflfcr-
asuarnipok in Eskimo, " he goes away hastily and exerts himself
to write." Individual words can be, and often are, extracted
from the sentence; but in this case they stand, as it were,
outside it, being represented by a pronoun within the sentence
itself. Thus, in Mexican, we can say not only ni-sotsi-temoa, " I
look for flowers," but also ni-k-temoa sotsitl, where the inter-
polated guttural is the objective pronoun. As a necessary result
of this conception of the sentence the American languages
possess no true verb, each act being expressed as a whole by a
single word. In Cherokee, for example, while there is no verb
signifying " to wash " in the abstract, no less than thirteen
words are used to signify every conceivable mode and object of
washing. In the incorporating languages, again, of which
Basque may be taken as a type, the object cannot be conceived
except as contained in the verbal action. Hence every verbal
form embodies an objective pronoun, even though the object
may be separately expressed. If we pass to an isolating language
like Chinese, we find the exact converse of that which meets us
in the polysynthetic tongues. Here each proposition or thought
is analysed into its several elements, and these are set over
against one another as so many independent words. The
relations of grammar are consequently denoted by position, the
particular position of two or more words determining the relation
they bear to each other. The analysis of the sentence has not
been carried so far in agglutinative languages like Turkish.
In these the relations of grammar are represented by individual
words, which, however, are subordinated to the words expressing
the main ideas intended to be in relation to one another. The
defining words, or indices of grammatical relations, are, in a
large number of instances, placed after the words which they
define; in some cases, however, as, for example, in the Bantu
languages of southern Africa, the relation is conceived from
the opposite point of view, the defining words being prefixed.
The inflexional languages call in the aid of a new principle.
The relations of grammar are denoted symbolically either
by a change of vowel or by a change of termination, more
rarely by a change at the beginning of a word. Each
idea, together with the relation which it bears to the other
ideas of a proposition, is thus represented by a single word;
that is to say, the ideas which make up the elements of a
sentence are not conceived severally and independently, as in
Chinese, but as always having a certain connexion with one
another. Inflexional languages, however, tend to become
analytical by the logical separation of the flexion from the idea
to which it is attached, though the primitive point of view is
never altogether discarded, and traces of flexion remain even in
English and Persian. In fact, there is no example of a language
which has wholly forsaken the conception of the sentence and
the relation of its elements with which it started, although each
class of languages occasionally trespasses on the grammatical
usages of the others. In language, as elsewhere in nature, there
are no sharp lines of division, no sudden leaps; species passes
insensibly into species, class into class. At the same time the
several types of speech — polysynthetic, isolating, agglutinative
and inflexional — remain clear and fixed; and even where two
languages belong to the same general type, as, for instance, an
Indo-European and a Semitic language in the inflexional group,
or a Bantu and a Turkish language in the agglutinative group,
we find no certain example of grammatical interchange. A mixed
grammar, in which the grammatical procedure of two distinct
families of speech is intermingled, is almost, if not altogether,
unknown.
It is obvious, therefore, that grammar constitutes the surest
and most important basis for a classification of languages.
Words may be borrowed freely by one dialect from another, or,
though originally unrelated, may, by the action of phonetic
decay, come to assume the same forms, while the limited number
of articulate sounds and conceptions out of which language was
first developed, and the similarity of the circumstances by which
the first speakers were everywhere surrounded, naturally produce
a, resemblance between the roots of many unconnected tongues.
Where, however, the fundamental conceptions of grammar and
328
GRAMMAR
the machinery by which they are expressed are the same, we
may have no hesitation in inferring a common origin.
The main results of scientific inquiry into the origin and
primitive meaning of the forms of Indo-European grammar
Forms oi mav DC summed up as follows. We start with stems
lado- or themes, by which are meant words of two or
more syllables which terminate in a limited number
of sounds. These stems can be classed in groups of
two kinds, one in which the groups consist of stems of similar
meanings and similar initial syllables, and another in which
the final syllables alone coincide. In the first case we have
what are termed roots, the simplest elements into which
words can be decomposed; in the second case stems proper,
which may be described as consisting of suffixes attached to
roots. Roots, therefore, are merely the materials out of which
speech can be made, the embodiments of isolated conceptions
with which the lexicographer alone has to deal, whereas stems
present us with words already combined in a sentence and
embodying the relations of grammar. If we would rightly
understand primitive Indo-European grammar, we must conceive
it as having been expressed or implied in the suffixes of the stems,
and in the order according to which the stems were arranged in
a sentence. In other words, the relations of grammar were
denoted partly by juxtaposition or syntax, partly by the suffixes
of stems.
These suffixes were probably at first unmeaning, or rather
clothed with vague significations, which changed according to
the place occupied in the sentence by the stem to which they
were joined. Gradually this vagueness of signification dis-
appeared, and particular suffixes came to be set apart to represent
particular relations of grammar. What had hitherto been
expressed by mere position now attached itself to the terminations
or suffixes of stems, which accordingly became full-grown words.
Some of the suffixes denoted purely grammatical ideas, that is
to say, were flexions; others were classificatory, serving to
distinguish nouns from verbs, presents from aorists, objects
from agents and the like; while others, again, remained un-
meaning adjuncts of the root. This origin of the flexions explains
the otherwise strange fact that the same suffix may symbolize
wholly different grammatical relations. In Latin, for instance,
the context and dictionary will alone tell us that mus-as is the
accusative plural of a noun, and am-as the second person singular
of a verb, or that mus-a is the nominative singular of a feminine
substantive, bon-a the accusative plural of a neuter adjective.
In short, the flexions were originally merely the terminations of
stems which were adapted to express the various relations of
words to each other in a sentence, as these gradually presented
themselves to the consciousness and were extracted from what
had been previously implied by position. Necessarily, the same
suffix might be used sometimes in a classificatory, sometimes in a
flexional sense, and sometimes without any definite sense at all.
In the Greek dative-locative ToS-or-ox, for example, the suffix
-€$ is classificatory; in the nominative icod-es it is flexional.
When a particular termination or suffix once acquired a
special sense, it would be separated in thought from the stem to
which it belonged, and attached in the same sense to other stems
and other terminations. Thus in modern English we can attach
the suffix -4ze to almost any word whatsoever, in order to give
the latter a transitive meaning, and the Gr. Tofanri, quoted
above, really contains no less than three suffixes, -€$, -<rv and
-i, the last two both denoting the locative, and coalescing,
through afi, into a single syllable -at. The latter instance shows
us how two or more suffixes denoting exactly the same idea may
be tacked on one to another, if the original force and signification
of the first of them comes to be forgotten. Thus, in O. Eng.
sang-estre was the feminine of sang-ere, " singer," but the meaning
of the termination has so entirely died out of the memory that
we have to add the Romanic -ess to it if we would still distinguish
it from the masculine singer. A familiar example of the way
in which the full sense of the exponent of a grammatical idea
fades from the mind and has to be supplied by a new exponent
is afforded by the use of expletives in conversational English
to denote the superlative. " Very warm " expresses little more
than the positive, and to represent the intensity of his feelings
the Englishman has recourse to such expressions as " awfully
warm " like the Ger. " schrecklich warm."
Such words as " very," " awfully," " schrecklich," illustrate
a second mode in which Indo-European grammar has found
means of expression. Words may lose their true signification
and become the mere exponents of grammatical ideas. Professor
Earle divides all words into presentive and symbolic, the former
denoting objects and conceptions, the latter the relations which
exist between these. Symbolic words, therefore, are what the
Chinese grammarians call " empty words " — words, that is, which
have been divested of their proper signification and serve a gram-
matical purpose only. Many of the classificatory and some of
the flexional suffixes of Indo-European speech can be shown
to have had this origin. Thus the suffix tar, which denotes
names of kinship and agency, seems to come from the same root
as the Lat. terminus and trans, our through, the Sans, tar-dmi,
" I pass over," and to have primarily signified " one that goes
through " a thing. Thus, too, the Eng. head or hood, in words
like godhead and brotherhood, is the A.-S. hdd, "character"
or "rank"; dom, in kingdom, the A.-S. ddm, "judgment";
and lock or ledge, in wedlock and knowledge, the A.-S. Idc, " sport "
or " gift." In all these cases the " empty words," after first
losing every trace of their original significance, have followed
the general analogy of the language and assumed the form and
functions of the suffixes with which they had been confused.
A third mode of representing the relations of grammar is
by the symbolic use of vowels and diphthongs. In Greek, for
instance, the distinction between the reduplicated present #do>/it
and the reduplicated perfect 6&kaKa is indicated by a distinction
of vowel, and in primitive Aryan grammar the vowel d seems
to have been set apart to denote the subjunctive mood just as
ya or i was set apart to denote the potential. So, too, according
to M. Hovelacque, the change of a into i or u in the parent Indo-
European symbolized a change of meaning from passive to active.
This symbolic use of the vowels, which is the purest application
of the principle of flexion, is far less extensively carried out in
the Indo-European than in the Semitic languages. The Semitic
family of speech is therefore a much more characteristic type of
the inflexional languages than is the Indo-European.
The primitive Indo-European noun possessed at least eight
cases — nominative, accusative, vocative, instrumental, dative,
genitive, ablative and locative. M. Bergaigne has attempted
to show that the first three of these, the " strong cases " as
they are termed, are really abstracts formed by the suffixes
-as (-5), -an, -m, 4, -i, -& and -ya (-*), the plural being nothing
more than an abstract singular, as may be readily seen by
comparing words like the Gr. &no-s, and Jbrc-s, which mean
precisely the same. The remaining " weak " cases, formed by
the suffixes -sma, -sya, -syd, -yd, -i, -an, -4, -bki, -su, -*, -a and -d,
are really adjectives and adverbs. No distinction, for example,
can be drawn between " a cup of gold " and " a golden cup,"
and the instrumental, the dative, the ablative and the locative
are, when closely examined, merely adverbs attached to a verb.
The terminations of the strong cases do not displace the accent
of the stem to which they are suffixed; the suffixes of the weak
cases, on the other hand, generally draw the accent upon
themselves.
According to Htibschmann, the nominative, accusative and
genitive cases are purely grammatical, distinguished from one
another through the exigencies of the sentence only, whereas
the locative, ablative and instrumental have a logical origin and
determine the logical relation which the three other cases bear
to each other and the verb. The nature of the dative is left
undecided. The locative primarily denotes rest in a place, the
ablative motion from a place, and the instrumental the means or
concomitance of an action. The dative Htibschmann regards
as " the case of the participant object." Like Htibschmann,
Holzweissig divides the cases into two classes — the one gram-
matical and the other logical; and his analysis of their primitive
meaning is the same as that of Htibschmann, except as regards
GRAMMAR
329
the dative, the primary sense of which he thinks to have been
motion towards a place. This is also the view of Delbrttck, who
makes it denote tendency towards an object. Delbriick, how-
ever, holds that the primary sense of the ablative was that of
separation, the instrumental originally indicating concomitance,
while there was a double locative, one used like the ablative
absolute in Latin, the other being a locative of the object.
The dual was older than the plural, and after the development
of the latter survived as a merely useless encumbrance, of which
most of the Indo-European languages contrived in time to get
rid. There are still many savage idioms in which the conception
of plurality has not advanced beyond that of duality. In the
Bushman dialects, for instance, the plural, or rather that which
is more than one, is expressed by repeating the word; thus tu
is " mouth," tutu " mouths." It may be shown that most of
the suffixes of the Indo-European dual are the longer and more
primitive forms of those of the plural which have grown out of
them by the help of phonetic decay. The plural of the weak cases,
on the other hand (the accusative alone excepted), was identical
with the singular of abstract nouns; so far as both form and
meaning are concerned, no distinction can be drawn between
tores and frros. Similarly, humanity and men signify one and
the same thing, and the use of English words like sheep or fish
for both singular and plural shows to what an extent our apprecia-
tion of number is determined by the context rather than by the
form of the noun. The so-called " broken plurals " of Arabic
and Ethiopic are really singular collectives employed to denote
the plural.
Gender is the product partly of analogy, partly of phonetic
decay. In many languages, such as Eskimo and Choctaw, its
place is taken by a division of objects into animate and inanimate,
while in other languages they are separated into rational and
irrational. There are many indications that the parent Indo-
European in an early stage of its existence had no signs of gender
at all. The terminations of the names of father and mother,
pater and mater , for example, are exactly the same, and in Latin
and Greek many diphthongal stems, as well as stems in * or ya
and u (like vavs and vkiws, ?r6\is and XZs), may be indifferently
masculine and feminine. Even stems in and a (of the second
and first declensions), though the first are generally masculine
and the second generally feminine, by no means invariably
maintain the rule; and feminines like humus and o3&, or
masculines like advena and xoXtnp, show that there was a time
when these stems also indicated no particular gender, but owed
their subsequent adaptation, the one to mark the masculine
and the other to mark the feminine, to the influence of analogy*
The idea of gender was first suggested by the difference between
man and woman, male and female, and, as in so many languages
at the present day, was represented not by any outward sign
but by the meaning of the words themselves. When once arrived
at, the conception of gender was extended to other objects besides
those to which it properly belonged. The primitive Indo-
European did not distinguish between subject and object, but
personified objects by ascribing to them the motives and powers
of living beings. Accordingly they were referred to by different
pronouns, one class denoting the masculine and another class
the feminine, and the distinction that existed between these two
classes of pronouns was after a time transferred to the nouns.
As soon as the preponderant number of stems in in daily use
had come to be regarded as masculine on account of their mean-
ing, other stems in o, whatever might be their signification,
were made to follow the general analogy and were similarly
classed as masculines. In the same way, the suffix i or ya
acquired a feminine sense, and was set apart to represent the
feminine gender. Unlike the Semites, the Indo-Europeans were
not satisfied with these two genders, masculine and feminine.
As soon as object and subject, patient and agent, were clearly
distinguished from each other, there arose a need for a third
gender, which should be neither masculine nor feminine, but
denote things without life. This third gender was fittingly
expressed either by the objective case used as a nominative (e.g.
regnum), or by a stem without any case ending at all (e.g. virus).
The adverbial meaning of so many of the cases explains the
readiness with which they became crystallized into adverbs and
prepositions. An adverb is the attribute of an attribute — " the
rose smells sweetly," for example, being resolvable into "the
rose has the attribute of scent with the further attribute of
sweetness." In our own language once, twice, needs, are all
genitives; seldom is a dative. The Latin and Greek humi and
Xa/AoX are locatives, facillime (facUlumed) and efrvx&s ablatives,
tAwj and &jua instrumental, T&pos, i&js and tijXoO genitives.
The frequency with which particular cases of particular nouns
were used in a specifically attributive sense caused them to
become, as it were, petrified, the other cases of the nouns in
question passing out of use, and the original force of those that
were retained being gradually forgotten. Prepositions are
adverbs employed to define nouns instead of verbs and adjectives.
Their appearance in the Indo-European languages is compara-
tively late, and the Homeric poems allow us to trace their growth
in Greek. The adverb, originally intended to define the verb,
came to be construed with the noun, and the government of
the case with which it was construed was accordingly transferred
from the verb to the noun. Thus when we read in the Odyssey
(iv. 43), airrovs 6* elaijyov Btiov dfyiov, we see that c($ is still an
adverb, and that the accusative is governed by the verb; it is
quite otherwise, however, with a line like 'ArpeUhp 51 ykpovras
do\\£as Irytv 'Axauor ks KKurhjv (II. i. 89) where the adverb has
passed into a preposition. The same process of transformation
is still going on in English, where we can say indifferently,
" What are you looking at ? " using " at " as an adverb, and
governing the pronoun by the verb, and " At what are you
looking?" where "at" has become a preposition. With the
growth and increase of prepositions the need of the case-endings
diminished, and in some languages the latter disappeared
altogether.
Like prepositions, conjunctions also are primarily adverbs
used in a demonstrative and relative sense. Hence most of the
conjunctions are petrified cases of pronouns. The relation
between two sentences was originally expressed by simply setting
them side by side, afterwards by employing a demonstrative
at the beginning of the second clause to refer to the whole pre-
ceding one. The relative pronoun can be shown to have been
in the first instance a demonstrative; indeed, we can still use
that in English in a relative sense. Since the demonstrative
at the beginning of the second clause represented the first clause,
and was consequently an attribute of the second, it had to stand
in some case, and this case became a conjunction. How closely
allied the adverb and the conjunction are may be seen from
Greek and Latin, where us or quum can be used as either the one
or the other. Our own and, it may be observed, has probably
the same root as the Greek locative adverb grt, and originally
signified " going further."
Another form of adverb is the infinitive, the adverbial force
of which appears clearly in such a phrase as " A wonderful thing
to see." Various cases, such as the locative, the dative or the
instrumental, are employed in Vedic Sanskrit in the sense of
the infinitive, besides the bare stem or neuter formed by the
suffixes man and van. In Greek the neuter stem and the dative
case were alone retained for the purpose. The first is found in
infinitives like ddytv and Qkptw (for an earlier fope-for), the
second in the infinitives in -<u. Thus the Gr. dovvcu answers
letter for letter to the Vedic dative dav&ne, " to give," and the
form \fcbfeoQu is explained by the Vedic vayodhai, for vayds-dhai,
literally " to do living," dhai being the dative of a noun from
the root dhd, " to place " or " do." When the form ^cifooflai
had once come into existence, analogy was ready to create such
false imitations as yp6i\f/aa6cu or ypa^ijaeadou. The Latin
infinitive in -re for -se has the same origin, amare, for instance,
being the dative of an old stem amas. In fieri for fierei or fiesei,
from the same root as our English be, the original length of the
final syllable is preserved. The suffix in -um is an accusative, like
the corresponding infinitive of classical Sanskrit. This origin
of the infinitive explains the Latin construction of the accusative
and infinitive. When the Roman said, " Miror te ad me nihil
xn. 11 a
330
GRAMMAR
scribere," all that he meant at first was, " I wonder at you for
writing nothing to me," where the infinitive was merely a dative
case used adverbially.
The history of the infinitive makes it dear how little distinction
must have been felt at the outset between the noun and the verb.
Indeed, the growth of the verb was a slow process. There was a
time in the history of Indo-European speech when it had not as
yet risen to the consciousness of the speaker, and in the period
when the noun did not possess a plural there was as yet also no
verb. The attachment of the first and second personal pronouns,
or of suffixes resembling them, to certain stems, was the first
stage in the development of the latter. Like the Semitic verb,
the Indo-European verb seems primarily to have denoted relation
only, and to have been attached as an attribute to the subject.
The idea of time, however, was soon put into it, and two tenses
were created, the one expressing a present or continuous action, the
other an aoristic or momentary one. The distinction of sense was
symbolized by a distinction of pronunciation, the root-syllable
of the aorist being an abbreviated form of that of the present.
This abbreviation was due to a change in the position of the accent
(which was shifted from the stem-syllable to the termination),
and this change again was probably occasioned by the prefixing
of the so-called augment to the aorist, which survived into his-
torical times only in Sanskrit, Zend and Greek, and the origin of
which is still a mystery. The weight of the first syllable in the
aorist further caused the person-endings to be shortened, and so
two sets of person-endings, usually termed primary and secondary,
sprang into existence. By reduplicating the root-syllable of
the present tense a perfect was formed; but originally no dis-
tinction was made between present and perfect, and Greek verbs
like 5lSo)fu and flaw are memorials of a time when the difference
between " I am come " and " I have come " was not yet felt.
Reduplication was further adapted to the expression of intensity
and desire (in the so-called intensive and desiderative forms).
By the side of the aorist stood the imperfect, which differed
from the aorist, so far as outward form was concerned, only
in possessing the longer and more original stem of the present.
Indeed, as Benfey first saw, the aorist itself was primitively
an imperfect, and the distinction between aorist and im-
perfect is not older than the period when the stem-syllables of
certain imperfects were shortened through the influence of the
accent, and this differentiation of forms appropriated to denote
a difference between the sense of the aorist and the imperfect
which was beginning to be felt. After the analogy of the im-
perfect, a pluperfect was created out of the perfect by prefixing
the augment (of which the Greek kpifflicov is an illustration);
though the pluperfect, too, was originally an imperfect formed
from the reduplicated present.
Besides time, mood was also expressed by the primitive
Indo-European verb, recourse being had to symbolization for
the purpose. The imperative was represented by the bare stem,
like the vocative, the accent being drawn back to the first
syllable, though other modes of denoting it soon came into
vogue. Possibility was symbolized by the attachment of
the suffix -ya to the stem, probability by the attachment of
-a and -d, and in this way the optative and conjunctive moods
first arose. The creation of a future by the help of the suffix
-sya seems to belong to the same period in the history of the
verb. This suffix is probably identical with that used to form
a large class of adjectives and genitives (like the Greek tmroio
for iincxxTU)); in this case future time will have been regarded
as an attribute of the subject, no distinction being drawn, for
instance, between " rising sun " and " the sun will rise." It
is possible, however, that the auxiliary verb as, " to be," enters
into the composition of the future; if so, the future will be
the product of the second stage in the development of the Indo-
European verb when new forms were created by means of
composition. The sigmatic or first aorist is in favour of this
view, as it certainly belongs to the age of Indo-European unity,
and may be a compound of the verbal stem with the auxiliary as.
After the separation of the Indo-European languages, com-
position was largely employed in the formation of new tenses.
Thus in Latin we have perfects like scrip~si and ama-n, formed
by the help of the auxiliaries as (sum) smdfuo, while such forms
as amaveram (amavi-eram) or amarem (ama-sem) bear their
origin on their face. So, too, the future in Latin and Old Celtic
(atnabo, Irish carub) is based upon the substantive verb fuo,
" to be," and the English preterite in -ed goes back to a suffixed
did, the reduplicated perfect of do. New tenses and moods,
however, were created by the aid of suffixes as well as by the
aid of composition, or rather were formed from nouns whose
stems terminated in the suffixes in question. Thus in Greek
we have aorists and perfects in -ica, and the characteristics of
the two passive aorists, ye and the, are more probably the suffixes
of nominal stems than the roots of the two verbs ya, " to go,"
and dhd, " to place," as Bopp supposed. How late some of these
new formations were may be seen in Greek, where the Homeric
poems are still ignorant of the weak future passive, the optative
future, and the aspirated perfect, and where the strong future
passive occurs but once and the desiderative but twice. On
the other hand, many of the older tenses were disused and lost.
In classical Sanskrit, for instance, of the modal aorist forms
the precative and benedictive almost alone remain, while the
pluperfect, of which Delbriick has found traces in the Veda,
has wholly disappeared.
The passive voice did not exist in the parent Indo-European
speech. No need for it had arisen, since such a sentence as " I
am pleased " could be as well represented by " This pleases me,"
or " I please myself." It was long before the speaker was able
to imagine an action without an object, and when he did so,
it was a neuter or substantival rather than a passive verb that
he formed. The passive, in fact, grew out of the middle or
reflexive, and, except in lie two aorists, continued to be repre-
sented by the middle in Greek. So, too, in Latin the second
person plural is really the middle participle with estis understood,
and the whole class of deponent or reflexive verbs proves that
the characteristic r which Latin shares with Celtic could have
had at the outset no passive force.
Much light has been thrown on the character and construction
of the primitive Indo-European sentence by comparative syntax.
In contradistinction to Semitic, where the defining word follows
that which is defined, the Indo-European languages place that
which is defined after that which defines it; and Bergaigne
has made it clear that the original order of the sentence was
(i) object, (2) verb, and (3) subject. Greater complication of
thought and its expression, the connexion "of sentences by the
aid of conjunctions, and rhetorical inversion caused that dis-
location of the original order of the sentence which reaches its
culminating point in the involved periods of Latin literature.
Our own language still remains true, however, to the syntax
of the parent Indo-European when, it sets both adjective and
genitive before the nouns which they define. In course of time
a distinction came to be made between an attribute used as a
mere qualificative and an attribute used predicatively, and
this distinction was expressed by placing the predicate in op-
position to the subject and accordingly after it. The opposition
was of itself sufficient to indicate the logical copula or sub-
stantive verb; indeed, the word which afterwards commonly
stood for the latter at first signified " existence," and it was only
through the wear and tear of time that a phrase like Deus bonus
est, " God exists as good," came to mean simply " God is good."
It is needless to observe that neither of the two articles was
known to the parent Indo-European; indeed, the definite article,
which is merely a decayed demonstrative pronoun, has not yet
been developed in several of the languages of the Indo-European
family.
We must now glance briefly at the results of a scientific in-
vestigation of English grammar and the modifications they
necessitate in our conception of it. The idea that i nV99 ttea-
the free use of speech is tied down by the rules of Hon of
the grammarian must first be given up; all that the Bagfitt
grammarian can do is to formulate the current uses **"««*
of his time, which are determined by habit and custom,
and are accordingly in a perpetual state of flux. We must n£xt
GRAMMAR
33i
get rid of the notion that English grammar should be modelled
after that of ancient Rome; until we do so we shall never
understand even the elementary principles upon which it is
based. We cannot speak of declensions, since English has no
genders except in the pronouns of the third person, and no
cases except the genitive and a few faint traces of an old dative.
Its verbal conjugation is essentially different from that of an
inflexional language like Latin, and cannot be compressed into
the same categories. In English the syntax has been enlarged
at the expense of the accidence; position has taken the place
of forms. To speak of an adjective " agreeing " with its sub-
stantive is as misleading as to speak of a verb " governing "
a case. In fact, the distinction between noun and adjective
is inapplicable to English grammar, and should be replaced
by a distinction between objective and attributive words. In
a phrase like " this is a cannon," cannon is objective; in a phrase
like " a cannon-ball," it is attributive; and to call it a sub-
stantive in the one case and an adjective in the other is only
to introduce confusion. With the exception of the nominative,
tfee various forms of the noun are all attributive; there is no
difference, for example, between " doing a thing " and " doing
badly." Apart from the personal pronouns, the accusative
of the classical languages can be represented only by position;
but if we were to say that a noun which follows a verb is in the
accusative case we should have to define " king " as an accusative
in such sentences as " he became king " or " he is king." In
conversational English " it is me " is as correct as " c'est moi "
in French, or " det er mig " in Danish; the literary " it is I "
is due to the influence of classical grammar. The combination
of noun or pronoun and preposition results in a compound
attribute. As for the verb, Sweet has well said that " the really
characteristic feature of the English finite verb is its inability
to stand alone without a pronominal prefix." Thus " dream "
by itself is a noun; " I dream " is a verb. The place of the
pronominal prefix may be taken by a noun, though both poetry
and vulgar English frequently insert the pronoun even when
the noun precedes. The number of inflected verbal forms is
but small, being confined to the third person singular and the
special forms of the preterite and past participle, though the
latter may with more justice be regarded as belonging to the
province of the lexicographer rather than to that of the gram-
marian. The inflected subjunctive (be, were, save in " God save
the King," &c.) is rapidly disappearing. New inflected forms,
however, are coming into existence; at all events, we have
as good a right to consider wont, shant, cant new inflected forms
as the French aimer ai (amare habeo), aimer ais (amare kabebam).
If the ordinary grammars are correct in treating forms like
"I am loving," " I was loving," " I did love," as separate
tenses, they are strangely inconsistent in omitting to notice
the equally important emphatic form '' I do love " or the negative
form "Ido not love " ("I don't love "), as weU as the semi-
inflexional " I'll love," 4< he's loving." It is true that these
latter contracted forms are heard only in conversation and not
seen in books; but the grammar of a language, it must be
remembered, is made by those who speak it and not by the
printers.
Our school grammars are the inheritance we have received
from Greece and Rome. The necessities of rhetoric obliged the
Sophists to investigate the structure of the Greek
fo^Tlf °* language, and to them was accordingly due the first
grammar, analysis of Greek grammar. Protagoras distinguished
the three genders and the verbal moods, while Pro-
dicus busied himself with the definition of synonyms. Aristotle,
taking the side of Democritus, who had held that the meaning
of words is put into them by the speaker, and that there is no
necessary connexion between sound and sense, laid down that
words " symbolize " objects according to the will of those who
use them, and added to the 6vopa or " noun," and the prjtxa or
" verb," the fffofar/jos or " particle." He also introduced the
term irrZxns, " case," to denote any flexion whatsoever. He
further divided nouns into simple and compound, invented for
the neuter another name than that given by Protagoras, and
starting from the termination of the nominative singular, en-
deavoured to ascertain the rules for indicating a difference of
gender. Aristotle was followed by the Stoics, who separated the
aoBoov or " article " from the particles, determined a fifth part
of speech, the iravdhtcrrfi or "adverb," confined the term "case"
to the flexions of the nouns, distinguishing the four principal
cases by names, and divided the verb into its tenses, moods
and classes. Meanwhile the Alexandrian critics were studying
the language of Homer and the Attic writers, and comparing
it with the language of their own day, the result being a minute
examination of the facts and rules of grammar. Two schools of
grammarians sprang up — the Analogists, headed by Aristarchus,
who held that a strict law of analogy existed between idea
and word, and refused to admit exceptions to the grammatical
rules they laid down, and the Anomalists, who denied general
rules of any kind, except in so far as they were consecrated by
custom. Foremost among the Anomalists was Crates of Mallos,
the leader of the Pergamenian school, to whom we owe the first
formal Greek grammar and collection of the grammatical facts
obtained by the labours of the Alexandrian critics, as well as an
attempt to reform Greek orthography. The immediate cause
of this grammar seems to have been a comparison of Latin with
Greek, Crates having lectured on the subject while ambassador
of Attalus at Rome in 1 59 B.C. The zeal with which the Romans
threw themselves into the study of Greek resulted in the school
grammar of Dionysius Thrax, a pupil of Aristarchus, which he
published at Rome in the time of Pompey and which is still
in existence. Latin grammars were soon modelled upon it,
and the attempt to translate the technical terms of the Greek
grammarians into Latin was productive of numerous blunders
which have been perpetuated to our own day. Thus tenues
is a mistranslation of the Greek i/a\<£, " unaspirated "; genetivus
of ycvurff, the case " of the genus "; accusativus of alnaTucfj,
the case " of the object "; inftnitivus of inraokfuparos, "without
a secondary meaning " of tense or person. New names were
coined to denote forms possessed by Latin and not by Greek;
ablative, for instance, was invented by Julius Caesar, who also
wrote a treatise De analogia. By the 2nd century of the Christian
era the dispute between the Anomalists and the Analogists was
finally settled, analogy being recognized as the principle that
underlies language, though every rule admits of exceptions.
Two eminent grammarians of Alexandria, Apollonius Dyscolus
and his son Herodian, summed up the labours and controversies
of their predecessors, and upon their works were based the Latin
grammar composed by Aelius Donatus in the 4th century, and
the eighteen books on grammar compiled by Priscian in the age
of Justinian. The grammar of Donatus dominated the schools
of the middle ages, and, along with the productions of Priscian,
formed the type and source of the Latin and Greek school-
grammars of modern Europe.
A few words remain to be said, in conclusion, on the bearing
of a scientific study of grammar upon the practical task of
teaching and learning foreign languages. The grammar Learn iar
of a language is not to be confined within the rules 9 t
laid down by grammarians, much less is it the creation grammar
of grammarians, and consequently the usual mode • //iw *fc a
of making the pupil learn by heart certain fixed rules Mngua * 99 '
and paradigms not only gives a false idea of what grammar
really is, but also throws obstacles in the way of acquiring it.
The unit of speech is the sentence; and it is with the sentence
therefore, and not with lists of words and forms, that the pupil
should begin. When once a sufficient number of sentences has
been, so to speak, assimilated, it will be easy to analyse them
into their component parts, to show the relations that these
bear to one another, and to indicate the nature and varieties of
the latter. In this way the learner will be prevented from
regarding grammar as a piece of dead mechanism or a Chinese
puzzle, of which the parts must be fitted together in accordance
with certain artificial rules, and will realize that it is a living
organism which has a history and a reason of its own. The
method of nature and science alike is analytic; and if we would
learn a foreign language properly we must learn it as we did
332
GRAMMICHELE— GRAMONT, COMTE DE
our mother-tongue, by first mastering the expression of a com-
plete thought and then breaking up this expression into its
several elements. (A. H. S.)
See Philology, and articles on the various languages. Also
Steinthal, Charakteristik der haupts&chlichsten Typen des Sprach-
baues (Berlin, i860); Schleicher, Compendium of the Comparative
Grammar of the Indo-European Languages t translated by H. Kendall
(London, 1874) ; Pezzi, Aryan Philology according to the most recent
Researches, translated by E. S. Roberts (London, 1879); Sayce,
Introduction to the Science of Language (London, 1879) ; Lersch, Die
Sprachphilosophie der Allen (Bonn, 1838-1841) ; Steinthal, Geschichte
der Sprachwissenschaft bei den Griechen una Rdmern mil besonderer
Rucksicht auf die Logik (Berlin, 1863, 2nd ed. 1890); DelbrQck,
Ablativ locaUs instrumentalis im Alttndischen, Lateinischen, Grie-
chischen, und Deuischen (Berlin, 1864); Jolly, Ein Katritel ver-
gleichender Syntax (Munich, 1873); Hiibschmann, Zur Casuslehre
(Munich, 1875) ; Holzweissig, Wahrheit und Irrthum der localistischen
Casustheorie (Leipzig, 1877); Draeger, Historische Syntax der
lateinischen Sprache (Leipzig, 1874-1876); Sweet, Words, Logic,
and Grammar (London, 1876) ; P. Giles, Manual of Comp. Philology
(1901); C. Abel, AgyptAndo-eur. Sprachverwandschaft (1903);
Brugmann and Delbrtlck, Grundriss d. vergl. Gram. d. indogerm. Spr.
( 1 886-1 900); Fritz Mauthner, Beitrage zur einer Kritik der Sprache
vol. iii. (1902); T. G. Tucker, Introd. to a Nat. HisL of Language
(1008).
GRAMMICHELE, a town of Sicily, in the province of Catania,
55 m. S.W. of it by rail and 31 m. direct. Pop. (1001) 15,075.
It was built in 1693, after the destruction by an earthquake
of the old town of Occhiali to the north; the latter, on account of
the similarity of name, is generally identified with Echetla, a
frontier city between Syracusan and Carthaginian territory
in the time of Hiero II., which appears to have been originally
a Sicel city in which Greek civilization prevailed from the 5th
century onwards. To the east of Grammichele a cave shrine
of Demeter, with fine votive terra-cottas, has been discovered.
See Mon. Lincei, vii. (1897), 201 ; Not. degli scavi (1902), 223.
GRAMMONT (the Flemish name Gheeraardsbergen more
dearly reveals its etymology Gerardi-mons), a town in East
Flanders, Belgium, near the meeting point with the provinces of
Brabant and Hainaut. It is on the Dender almost due south
of Alost, and is chiefly famous because the charter of Grammont
given by Baldwin VI., count of Flanders, in a.d. 1068 was the first
of its kind. This charter has been styled " the most ancient
written monument of civil and criminal laws in Flanders.' ' The
modern town is a busy industrial centre. Pop. (1004) 12,835.
GRAMONT, ANTOINE AGfcNOR ALFRED, Due de, Due de
Guiche, Prince de Bidache (18 10-1880), French diplomatist
and statesman, was born at Paris on the 14th of August 1819, of
one of the most illustrious families of the old noblesse, a cadet
branch of the viscounts of Aure, which took its name from
the seigniory of Gramont in Navarre. His grandfather, Antoine
Louis Marie, due de Gramont (1755-1*36), bad emigrated during
the Revolution, and his father, Antoine Heraclius Genevieve
Ag6nor (1 780-1855), due de Gramont and de Guiche, fought under
the British flag in the Peninsular War, became a lieutenant-
general in the French army in 1823, and in 1830 accompanied
Charles X. to Scotland. The younger generation, however,
were Bonapartist in sympathy; Gramont *s cousin Antoine
Louis Raymond, comte de Gramont (1787-1825), though also
the son of an tmigrt, served with distinction in Napoleon's
armies, while Antoine Ag6nor, due de Gramont, owed his career
to his early friendship for Louis Napoleon.
Educated at the ficole Polytechnique, Gramont early gave
up the army for diplomacy. It was not, however, till after the
coup d'Stat of the 2nd of December 1851, which made Louis
Napoleon supreme in France, that he became conspicuous as
a diplomat. He was successively minister plenipotentiary at
Cassel and Stuttgart (1852), at Turin (1853), ambassador at
Rome (1857) and at Vienna (1861). On the 15th of May 1870
he was appointed minister of foreign affairs in the Ollivier
cabinet, and was thus largely, though not entirely, responsible
for the bungling of the negotiations between France and Prussia
arising out of the candidature of Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern
for the throne of Spain, which led to the disastrous war of
1870-71. The exact share of Gramont in this responsibility has
been the subject of much controversy. The last word may be
said to have been uttered by M. £mile Ollivier himself in his
U Empire liberal (tome xii., 1909, passim). The famous declara-
tion read by Gramont in the Chamber on the 6th of July, the
" threat with the hand on the sword-hilt," as Bismarck called
it, was the joint work of the whole cabinet; the original draft
presented by Gramont was judged to be too " elliptical " in its
conclusion and not sufficiently vigorous; the reference to a
revival of the empire of Charles V. was suggested by Ollivier;
the paragraph asserting that France would not allow a foreign
power to disturb to her own detriment the actual equilibrium
of Europe was inserted by the emperor. So far, then, as this
declaration is concerned, it is clear that Gramont's responsiblity
must be shared with his sovereign and his colleagues (Ollivier
op. cil. xii. 107; see also the two projels de declaration given
on p. 570). It is clear, however that he did not share the
"passion" of his colleagues for "peace with honour," clear
also that he wholly misread the intentions of the European
powers in the event of war. That he reckoned upon the active
alliance of Austria was due, according to M. Ollivier, to the fact
that for nine years he had been a persona grata in the aristocratic
society of Vienna, where the necessity for revenging the humilia-
tion of 1866 was an article of faith. This confidence made him
less disposed than many of his colleagues to make the best of the
renunciation of the candidature made, on behalf of his son,
by the prince of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen. It was Gramont
who pointed out to the emperor, on the evening of the 12th,
the dubious circumstances of the act of renunciation, and on
the same night, without informing M. Ollivier, despatched to"
Benedetti at Ems the fatal telegram demanding the king of
Prussia's guarantee that the candidature would not be revived.
The supreme responsibility for this act must rest with the
emperor, " who imposed it by an exercise of personal power on
the only one cf his ministers who could have lent himself to such
a forgetfulness of the safeguards of a parliamentary regime."
As for Gramont, he had " no conception of the exigencies of
this regime; he remained an ambassador accustomed to obey
the orders of his sovereign; in all good faith he had no idea that
this was not correct, and that, himself a parliamentary minister,
he had associated himself with an act destructive of the authority
of parliament." 1 "On his part," adds M. Ollivier, "it was the
result only of obedience, not of warlike premeditation " {op. cit.
p. 262). The apology may be taken for what it is worth. To
France and to the world Gramont was responsible for the policy
which put his country definitely into the wrong in the eyes of
Europe, and enabled Bismarck to administer to her the " slap
in the face " {soufflet) — as Gramont called it in the Chamber —
by means of the mutilated " Ems telegram," which was the
immediate cause of the French declaration of war on the 15th.
After the defeat of Weissenburg (August 4) Gramont resigned
office with the rest of the Ollivier ministry (August 9), and after
the revolution of September he went to England, returning after
the war to Paris, where he died on the 18th of January 1880.
His marriage in 1848 with Miss Mackinnon, a Scottish lady,
remained without issue. During his retirement he published
various apologies for his policy in 1870, notably La France et
la Prusse avant la guerre (Paris, 1872).
Besides M. Ollivier's work quoted in the text, see L. Thouvenel,
Le Secret de Vempereur, correspondence . . . 4charig6e entre if.
Thouvenel, le due de Gramont, et le gSnSral comte de Flahaut 1860-
1863 (2nd ed., 2 vols., 1889). A ^ small pamphlet containing his
Souvenirs 1848-1850 was published in 1901 by nis brother Antoine
Leon Philibert Auguste de Gramont, due de Lesparre.
GRAMONT, PHILIBERT, Comte de (1 621-1707), the subject
of the famous Memoirs, came of a noble Gascon family, said
to have been of Basque origin. His grandmother, Diane
d'Andouins, comtesse de Gramont, was " la belle Corisande,"
one of the mistresses of Henry IV. The grandson assumed that
1 Compare with this Bismarck's remarks to Hohenlohe (Hohenlohe,
Denkwurdigkeiten, ii. 71): "When Gramont was made minister,
Bismarck said to Benedetti that this indicated that the emperor
was meditating something evil, otherwise he would not have made
so stupid a person minister. Benedetti replied that the emperor
knew too little of him, whereupon Bismarck said that the emperor
had once described Gramont to him as ' un ancien beliatre.' "
GRAMOPHONE— GRAMPOUND
333
bis father Antoine II. de Gramont, viceroy of Navarre, was the
son of Henry IV., and regretted that he had not claimed the
j privileges of royal birth, Philibert de Gramont was the son of
Antoine II. by his second marriage with Claude de Montmorency,
and was born in i6ai, probably at the family seat of Bidache.
He was destined for the church, and was educated at the college
of Pau, in Bearn. He refused the ecclesiastical life, however,
and joined the army of Prince Thomas of Savoy, then besieging
Trino in Piedmont. He afterwards served under his elder
half-brother, Antoine, marshal de Gramont, and the prince
of Conde*. He was present at Fribourg and Nordlingen, and
also served with distinction in Spain and Flanders in 1647 and
1648. He favoured Condi's party at the beginning of the
Fronde, but changed sides before he was too severely com*
promised. In spite of his record in the army he never received
any important commission either military or diplomatic, perhaps
because of an incurable levity in his outlook. He was, however,
made a governor of the Pays d'Aunis and lieutenant of B6arn.
During the Commonwealth he visited England, and in 1662
he was exiled from Paris for paying court to Mademoiselle de la;
Motte Houdancourt, one of the king's mistresses. He went to
London, where he found at the court of Charles II. an atmosphere
congenial to his. talents for intrigue, gallantry and pleasure.
He married in London, under pressure from her two brothers,
Elizabeth Hamilton, the sister of Ms future biographer. She
was one of the great beauties of the English court, and was,)
according to her brother's optimistic account, able to fix the
count's affections. She was a woman of considerable wit, and
held her own at the court of Louis XIV,, but her husband pursued
his gallant exploits to the close of a long life, being, said Ninon
de l'Enclos, the only old man who could affect the follies of
youth without . being ridiculous* In 1664 he was allowed to
return to France. He revisited England in 1670 in connexion
with the sale of Dunkirk, and again in 167 1 and 1676. In 1688
he was sent by Louis XIV. to congratulate James II. on the
birth of an heir. From all these small diplomatic missions he
succeeded in obtaining considerable profits, being destitute
of scruples whenever money was in question. At the age of
seventy-five he had a dangerous illness, during which he became
reconciled to the church. His penitence does not seem to have
survived his recovery. He was eighty years old when he supplied
his brother-in-law, Anthony Hamilton (q.v.), with the materials
for his Mtmoircs. Hamilton said that they had been dictated
to him, but there is no doubt that he was the real author. The
account of Gramont's early career was doubtless provided by
himself, but Hamilton was probably more familiar with the
history of the court of Charles IL, which forms the most interest-
ing section of the book. Moreover Gramont, though he had a
reputation for wit, was no writer, and there is no reason to
suppose that he was capable of producing a work which remains
a masterpiece of style and of witty portraiture. When the
MSmoires were finished it is said that Gramont sold the MS.
for 1 500 francs, and kept most of the money himself. Fontenelle,
then censor of the press, refused to license the book from con-
siderations of respect to the strange old man, whose gambling,
cheating and meannesses were so ruthlessly exposed. But
Gramont himself appealed to the chancellor and the prohibition
wa$ removed. He died on the 10th of January 1707, and the
MSmoires appeared six years later.
Hamilton was far superior to the comte de Gramont, but he
relates the story of his hero without comment, and no condemna-
tion of the prevalent code of morals is allowed to appear, unless
in an occasional touch of irony. The portrait is drawn with
such skill that the count, in spite of his biographer's candour,
imposes by his grand air on the reader much as he appears to
have done on his contemporaries. The book is the most entertain-
ing of contemporary memoirs, and in no other book is there a
description so vivid, truthful, and graceful of the licentious court
of Charles II. There are other and less flattering accounts of
the count. His scandalous tongue knew no restraint, and he
was a privileged person who was allowed to state even the most
unpleasing truths to Louis XIV. Saint-Simon in his memoirs
describes the relief that was felt at court when the old man's
death was announced.
MSmoires delaviedu comte de Grammont contenant particuUeremeni
I'histoire amoureuse de la cour d'Angleterrc sous le r&gne de Charles II
was printed in Holland with the inscription Cologne, 1713. Other
editions followed in 17 15 and 1716. Memoirs of the Life of Count de
Grammont ... translated out of the French by Mr [Abel] Boyer
(1714), was supplemented by a " compleat key " in 1719. The
MSmoires " augmentees de notes et d'eclaircissemens " was edited
by Horace Walpole in 1772. In 1703 appeared in London an edition
adorned with portraits engraved after originals in the royal collec-
tion. An English edition by Sir Walter Scott was published by
H. G. Bohn (1846), and this with additions was reprinted in 1889,
1890, 1896, &c Among other modern editions are an excellent one
in the Bibliotheque Charpentier edited by M. Gustave Brunet (1859) ;
MSmoires . . . (Paris, 1888) with etchings by L. Boisson after C.
Delort and an introduction by H. Gausseron; Memoirs . . .
(1889), edited by Mr H. Vizetelly; and Memoirs . . . (1903),
edited by Mr Gordon Goodwin.
GRAMOPHONE (an invented word, formed on an inversion
of " phonogram "; frovfi, sound, ?p&0/xa, letter), an instrument
for recording and reproducing sounds. It depends on the same
general principles as the phonograph (?-*.), but it differs in
certain details of construction, especially in having the sound-
record cut spirally on a flat disk instead of round a cylinder.
GRAMPIANS, THE, a mass of mountains in central Scotland.
Owing to the number of ramifications and ridges it is difficult
to assign their precise limits, but they may be described as
occupying the area between a line drawn from Dumbartonshire
to the North Sea at Stonehaven, and the valley of the Spey or
even Glenmore (the Caledonian Canal). Their trend is from
south-west to north-east, the southern face forming the natural
division between the Lowlands and Highlands. They he in the
shires of Argyll, Dumbarton, Stirling, Perth, Forfar, Kincardine,
Aberdeen, Banff and Inverness. Among the highest summits
are Ben Nevis, Ben Macdhui, and Cairngorms, Ben Lawers, Ben
More, Ben Alder, Ben Cruachanand Ben Lomond. The principal
rivers flowing from the watershed northward are the Findhorn,
Spey, Don, Dee and their tributaries, and southward the South
Esk, Tay and Forth with their affluents. On the north the mass
is wild and rugged; on the south the slope is often gentle, afford-
ing excellent pasture in many places, but both sections contain
some of the finest deer-forests in Scotland. They are crossed
by the Highland, West Highland and Callander to Oban railways,
and present some of the finest scenery in the kingdom. The
rocks consist chiefly of granite, gneiss, schists, quartzite, porphyry
and cUoxite. Their fastnesses were originally inhabited by the
northern Picts, the Caledonians who, under Galgacus, were
defeated by Agricola in a,d, £4 at Mons Graupius— the false
reading of which, Grampius, has been perpetuated in the name
of the mountains — the site of which has not been ascertained.
Some authorities place it at Ardoch; others near the junction
of the Tay and Isla, or at Dalginross near Gomrie; while some,
contending for a position nearer the east coast, refer it to a site
in west Forfarshire or to Raedykes near Stonehaven.
GRAMPOUND, a small market town in the mid-parliamentary
division of Cornwall, England, 9 m. E.N.E. of Truro, and 2 m.
from its station (Grampound Road) on the Great Western
railway. It is situated on the river Fal, and has some industry
in tanning. It retains an ancient town hall; there is a good
market cross; and in the neighbourhood, along the Fal, are
several early earthworks.
Grampound (Ponsmure, Graundpont, Grauntpount, Graund-
pond) and the hundred, manor and vill of Tibeste were formerly
so closely associated that in 1400 the former is found styled the
vill of Grauntpond called Tibeste* At the time of the Domesday
Survey Tibeste was amongst the most valuable of the manors
granted to the count of Mortain. The burgensic character of
Ponsmure first appears in 1299. Thirty-five years later John
of Eltham granted to the burgesses the whole town of Graunt-
pount. This grant was confirmed in 1378 when its extent and
jurisdiction were defined. It was provided that the hundred
court of Powdershire should always be held there and two fairs at
the feasts of St Peter in Cathedra and St Barnabas, both of
which are still held, an&a Tuesday market (now held on Friday)
334
GRAMPUS— GRANADA
and that it should be a free borough rendering a yearly rent to
the earl of Cornwall. Two members were summoned to parlia-
ment by Edward VI. in 1553. The electors consisted of an
indefinite number of freemen, about 50 in all, indirectly nomin-
ated by the mayor and corporation, which existed by prescription.
The venality of the electors, became notorious. In .1780 £3000
was paid for a seat: in 18 12 each supporter of one of the
candidates received £100; The defeat of this candidate in 18 18
led to a parliamentary inquiry which disclosed a system of
wholesale corruption, and in 182 1 the borough was disfranchised.
A former woollen trade is extinct.
GRAMPUS (Orca gladiator, or Orca area), a cetacean belonging
to the Ddphiriidae or dolphin family, characterized by its rounded
head without distinct beak, high dorsal fin and large conical
teeth. The upper parts are nearly uniform glossy black, and
the under parts white, with a strip of the same colour over
each eye. The O. Fr. word was grapois, graspeis or craspeis,
from Med. Lat. crassus piscis, fat fish. This was adapted into
English as grapeys, graspeys, &c, and in the 16th century becomes
graunde pose as if from grand poisson. The final corruption to
" grampus" appears in the 18th century and was probably
nautical in origin* >The animal is also known as the " killer, 1 '
in allusion ta its ferocity in attacking its prey, which consists
largely of seals, porpoises and the smaller dolphins. Its fierce-
ness is only equalled by its voracity, which is such that in a
specimen measuring 21 ft. in length, the remains of thirteen
seals and thirteen porpoises were found, in a more or less digested
state, while the animal appeared to have been choked in the
endeavour to swallow another seal, the skin of which was found
entangled in its teeth. These cetaceans sometimes hunt in packs
or schools, and commit great havoc among the belugas or white
whales, which occasionally throw themselves ashore to escape
their persecutors. The grampus is an inhabitant of northern
seas, occurring on the shores of Greenland, and having been
caught, although rarely, as far south as the Mediterranean.
There are numerous instances of its capture on the British coasts.
(See Cetacea.)
GRANADA, LUIS DE (1504-1588), Spanish preacher and
ascetic writer, born of poor parents named Sarrii at Granada.
He lost his father at an early age and his widowed mother was
supported by the charity of the Dominicans. A child of the
Alhambra, he entered the service of the alcalde as page, and,
his ability being discovered, received his education with the
sons of the house. When nineteen he entered the Dominican
convent and in 1525 took the vows; and, with the leave of his
prior, shared his daily allowance of food with his mother. He
was sent to ValladoHd to continue his studies and then was
appointed procurator at Granada. Seven years after he was
elected prior of the convent of Scala Caeli in the mountains of
Cordova, which after eight years he succeeded in restoring from
its ruinous state, and there he began his work as a zealous
reformer. His preaching gifts were developed by the orator
Juan de Avila, and he became one of the most famous of Spanish
preachers. He was invited to Portugal in 1555 and became
provincial of his order, declining the offer of the archbishopric
of Braga but accepting the position of confessor and counsellor
to Catherine, the queen regent. At the expiration of his tenure
of the provincialship, he retired to the Dominican convent at
Lisbon, where he lived till his death on the last day of 1588.
Aiming, both in his sermons and ascetical writings, at develop-
ment of the religious view, the danger of the times as he saw it
was not so much in the Protestant reformation, which was an
outside influence, but in the direction that religion had taken
among the masses. He held that in Spain the Catholic faith
was not understood by the people, and that their ignorance was
the pressing danger. He fell under the suspicion of the In-
quisition; his mystical teaching was said to be heretical, and
his most famous book, the Guia de Pescadores, still a favourite
treatise and one that has been translated into nearly every
European tongue, was put on the Index of the Spanish Inquisi-
tion, together with his book on prayer, in 1559. His great
opponent was the restless and ambitious Melchior Cano, who
stigmatized the second book as containing grave errors smacking'
of the heresy of the Alumbrados and manifestly contradicting
Catholic faith and teaching. But in 1576 the prohibition was
removed: and the works of Luis de Granada, so prized by St
Francis de Sales, have never lost their value. The friend of St-
Teresa, St Peter of Alcantara, and of all the noble minds of Spain
of his day, no one among the three hundred Spanish mystics
excels Luis de Granada in the beauty of a didactic style, variety
of illustration and soberness of statement.
The last collected edition of his works is that published in o, vols;
at Antwerp in 1578. A biography by L. Monoz, La Vida y vtrtudes
de Luis de Granada (Madrid, 1639); a study of his system by P.
Rousselot in Mystiques espaqnoles (Paris, 1867); Ticknor, History
of Spanish Literature (vol. iii.), and Fitzmaurice Kelly, History
of Spanish Literature, pp. 200-202 (London, 1898), may also be
consulted-
GRANADA, the capital of the department of Granada,
Nicaragua; 32 m. by rail S.E. of Managua, the capital of the
republic Pop. (1900) about 25,000. Granada is built on the
north-western shore of Lake Nicaragua, of which it is the principal
port. Its houses are of the usual central American type, con-
structed of adobe, rarely more than one storey high, and sur-
rounded by courtyards with ornamental gateways. The suburbs,
scattered over a large area, consist chiefly of cane huts occupied
by Indians and half-castes. There are several ancient churches
and convents, in one of which the interior of the chancel roof
is inlaid with mother-of-pearl. An electric tramway connects the
railway station and the adjacent wharves with the market,
about r m. distant. Ice, cigars, hats, boots and shoes are
manufactured, but the characteristic local industry is the pro-
duction of " Panama chains," ornaments made of thin gold wire.
In the neighbourhood there are large cocoa plantations; and the
city has a thriving trade in cocoa, coffee, hides, cotton, native
tobacco and indigo.
Granada was founded in 1523 by Francisco Fernandez de
C6rdoba. It became one of the wealthiest of central American
cities, although it had always a keen commercial rival in Leon,
which now surpasses it in size and importance. In the 17th
century it was often raided by buccaneers, notably in 1606/
when it was completely sacked. In 1855 it was captured and
partly burned by the adventurer William Walker (see Central,
America: History).
GRANADA, a maritime province of southern Spain, formed
in 1833 of districts belonging to Andalusia, and coinciding with
the central parts of the ancient kingdom of Granada. Pop.
(1900) 492,460; area, 4928 sq. m. Granada is bounded on the
N. by Cordova, Jaen and Albacete, E. by Murtia and Almerla,
S. by the Mediterranean Sea, and W. by Malaga. It includes the
western and loftier portion of the Sierra Nevada (q.v.) f a vast
ridge rising parallel to the sea and attaining its greatest altitudes
in the Cerro de Mulhacen (11,421 ft.) and Picacho de la Veleta
(11,148), which overlook the city of Granada. Lesser ranges,
such as the Sierras of Parapanda, Alhama, Almijara or Harana,
adjoin the main ridge. From this central watershed the three
principal rivers of the province take their rise, viz. : the Guadiana
Menor, which, flowing past Guadix in a northerly direction, falls
into the Guadalquivir in the neighbourhood of Ubeda; the
Genii which, after traversing the Vega, or Plain of Granada, leaves
the province a little to the westward of Loja and joins the Guadal-
quivir between Cordova and Seville; and the Rio Grande or
Guadalfeo, which falls into the Mediterranean at Motril. The
coast is little indented and none of its three harbours, Almufkecar,
Albunol and Motril, ranks high in commercial importance.
The climate in the lower valleys and the narrow fringe along the
coast is warm, but on the higher grounds of the interior is
somewhat severe; and the vegetation varies accordingly from
the subtropical to the alpine. The soil of the plains is very
productive, and that of the Vega of Granada is considered the
richest in the whole peninsula; from the days of the Moors it
has been systematically irrigated, and it continues to yield in
great abundance and in good quality wheat, barley, maize, wine,
oil, sugar, flax, cotton, silk and almost every variety of fruit.
In the mountains immediately surrounding the city of Granada
(SftANAM'
>
335
occur many kinds 6f alabaster, some very fine; there are also
quantities of jasper and other precious stones. Mineral waters
chiefly chalybeate and sulphurous, are abundant, the most
important springs being those of Alhama, which have a tempera-
ture of ii2° rV There are valuable iron mines, and small
quantities of zuic, lead and ifeercury are obtained. The cane
and beet sugar industries, for which there are factories at Loja;
at Motril, and in the Vega, developed rapidly after the loss of
the Spanish West Indies and the Philippine Islands in 1808,
with the consequent decrease ifi competition. There are also
tanneries, foundries and manufactories of woollen, linen, cotton,
and rough frieze stuffs, cards, soap, spirits, gunpowder and
machinery. Apart from the great highways traversing the pro-
vince, which are excellent, the roads are few and ill-kept. The
railway from Madrid enters the province on the north and
bifurcates north-west of Guadix; one branch going eastward
to Almerfa, the other westward to Loja, Malaga and Algeciras.
Baza is the terminus of a railway from Lorca. The chief towns
include Granada, the capital (pop. 1900, 75,900) with Alhama
de Granada (7697), Baza (1 2,770), Guadix (1 2,652), Loja (19,143),
Montefrfo (10,725), and Motril (18,528). These are described in
separate articles. ' Other towns with upwards of 7000 inhabitants
are Albufiol (8646), Almufi6car (8022), Cullar de Baza (8007),
Hu6scar (7763), IHora (9496) and Puebla de Don Fadrique
(7420). The history of the ancient kingdom is inseparable from
that of the city of Granada (q.v.).
GRANADA, the capital of the province, and formerly' of the
kingdom of Granada, in southern Spain; on the Madrid-Granada-
Algeciras railway. Pop. (1900) 75,900. Granada is magnifi-
cently situated, 2195 ft, above the sea, on the north-western
slope of the Sierra Nevada, overlooking the fertile lowlands
known as the Vega de Granada on the west and overshadowed
by the peaks of Veleta (11,148 ft.) and Mulhacen (11,421 ft.) on
the south-east. The southern limit of the city is the river Genii,
the Roman SingUis and Moorish Shenil, a swift stream flowing
westward from the Sierra Nevada, with a considerable volume
of water in summer, when the snows have thawed. Its tributary
the Darro, the Roman Salon and Moorish Hadarro, enters
Granada on the east, flows for upwards of a mile from east to
west, and then turns sharply southward to join the main river,
which is spanned by a bridge just above the point of confluence.
The waters of the Darro are much reduced by irrigation works
along its lower course, and within the city it has been canalized
and partly covered with a roof.
Granada comprises three mafn divisions, the Antequeruela,
the Albaicin (or Albaycin); and Granada properly so-called.
The first division, founded by refugees from Antequera in 1410,
consists of the districts enclosed by the Darro, besides a small
area on its right, or western bank. It is bounded on the east
by the gardens and hill of the Alhambra (q.t.) , the most celebrated
of all the monuments left by the Moors. The Albaicin (Moorish
Rabad al Bayazin, " Falconers' Quarter ") lies north-west of
the Antequeruela. Its name is sometimes associated with that
of Baeza, since, according to one tradition, it was colonized by
citizens of Baeza, wlio fled hither in 1246, after the capture
of their town by the Christians. It was long the favourite
abode of the Moorish nobles, but is now mainly inhabited by
gipsies and artisans. Granada, properly so-called, is north
of the Antequeruela, and west of the Albaicin. The origin of
its name is obscure; it has been sometimes, thdugh with little
probability, derived from granada, a pomegranate, in allusion
to the abundance of pomegranate trees in the neighbourhood.
A pomegranate appears on the city amis. The Moors, however,
called Granada Karnatiah or Karnattah^d^ Yahud t and possibly
the name is composed of the Arabic words kurn, " a hill," and
naltah, "stranger,"— the " city » or " hill of strangers."
Although the city has been to some extent modernized, the
architecture of its more ancient quarters has many Moorish
characteristics. The streets are, as a rule, ill-lighted, ill-paved
and irregular; but there are several fine squares and avenues,
such as the Bibarrambla, where tournaments were held by the
Moors; the spacious Plaza del Trionfo, adjoining the bull-ring,
on the north; the Alameda, planted with plaitie trees, and the
Paseo del Salon. The business centre of the city is the Puerta
Real, a square named after a gate now 1 demolished.
Granada is the see of an archbishop. Its caf hedral, which
commemorates the recoriquest of soutbern.Spain from the Moors,
is a somewhat heaVy classical building, begun in 1529 by Diego
de Siloe, and only finished in 1 703: It is profusely ornamented
with jasper and coloured marbles, and surmounted by a dome.
The interior contains many paintings and scitilptures by Alonso
Cano (1601-1667) , the architect of the fine west facade, and other
artists. In one of the numerous chapels, known as the Chapel
Royal (Capilla Real), is the monument of Philip I. of Castile
(1478-1506), and his queen Joanna; with the tomb of Ferdinand
and Isabella, the first rulers of united Spain (1452-1516). The
church of Santa Maria (1705-17 59), which may be regarded as
an annexe of the cathedral, occupies the site of the chief
mosque of Granada. This was used as a church until 1661.
Santa Ana (1 541) also replaced a mosque; Nuestra Sefiora de
las Angustias (1664-1671) is noteworthy for its fine towers, and
the rich decoration of if£ high altar. The convent of San
Geronimo (or Jeronimo), founded in 1492 by Ferdinand and
Isabella, was converted into barracks in 1810; its church contains
the tomb of the famous captain Gons&hro or Gonzalo de Cordova
(1453-1515). The Cartuja, or Carthusian monastery north of
the city, was built in 1516 on Gonzalo 's estate, and in his memory.
It contains several fine paintings, and an interesting church of
the 17th and 18th centuries.
After the Alhambra, and such adjacent buildings as the
Generate and Torres Bermejas, which are more fitly described
in connexion with it, the principal Moorish antiquities of Granada
are the 13th-century villa known as the Cuarto Real de San
Domingo, admirably preserved, and surrounded by beautiful
gardens; the Alcazar de Genii, built in the middle of the 14th
century as a palace for the Moorish queens; and the Casa del
Cabildo, a university of the same period, converted into a ware*
house in the 19th century. Few Spanish cities possess a greater
number of educational and charitable establishments. The
university was founded by Charles V. in 153 1, and transferred
to its present buildings in 1769. It is attended by about 600
students. In 1000, the primary schools of Granada numbered
22, in addition to an ecclesiastical seminary, a training-school
for teachers, schools of art and jurisprudence, and museums of
art and archaeology. There were twelve hospitals and orphanages
for both sexes, including a leper hospital in one of the convents.
Granada has an active trade in the agricultural* produce of the
Vega, and manufactures liqueurs, soap, paper and coarse linen
and woollen fabrics. Silk-weaving was once extensively
carried on, and large quantities of silk were exported to Italy,
France, Germany and even America, but this industry di«d
during the 19th century.
History. — The identity of Granada with the Iberian city of
Itiberris or iHberri, which afterwards became a flourishing
Roman colony, has never been fully established; but Roman
tombs, coins, inscriptions, &c, have been discovered in the
neighbourhood. With the rest of Andalusia, as a result of the
great invasion from the north in the 5th century, Granada feU
to the lot of the Vandals. Under the caliphs of Cordova, onwards
from the 8th century, it rapidly gained in importance, and
ultimately became the seat of a provincial government, which,
after the fall of the Omayyad dynasty in 103 1, or, according to
some authorities, 1038, ranked with Seville, Jaen and others
as an independent principality. The family of the Zeri, Ziri
or Zeiri maintained itself as the ruling dynasty until 1090;
it was then displaced by the Almohades, who were in turn
overthrown by the Almoravides, in n 54. The dominion of
the Almoravides continued unbroken, save for ah interval of
one year (1160-1161), until 1229. From 1229 to 1238 Granada
formed part of the kingdom of Murcia; but in the last-named
year it passed into the hands of Abu Abdullah Mahommed Ibn
Al Ahmar, prince of Jaen and founder of the dynasty of the
Nasrides. Al Ahmar was deprived of Jaen in 1246, but united
Granada, Almerfa and Malaga under his sceptre, and, as the
33&
GRANADILLA— QRANARIES
fervour of the Christian crusade against the Moors had temporarily
abated, he made peace with Castile, and even aided the Christians
to vanquish the Moslem princes of Seville. At the same time
he offered asylum to refugees from Valencia, Murcia and other
territories in which the Moors had been overcome. Al Ahmar
and his successors ruled over Granada until 1492, in an unbroken
line of twenty-five sovereigns who maintained their independence
partly by force, and partly by payment of tribute to their stronger
neighbours. Their encouragement of commerce — notably the
silk trade with Italy — rendered Granada the wealthiest of
Spanish cities; their patronage of art, literature and science
attracted many learned Moslems, such as the historian Ibn
Khaldun and the geographer Ibn Batuta, to their court, and
resulted in a brilliant civilization, of which the Alhambra is
the supreme monument.
The kingdom of Granada, which outlasted all the other
Moorish states in Spain, fell at last through dynastic rivalries
and a harem intrigue. The two noble families of the Zegri and
the Beni Serraj (better known in history and legend as the
Abencerrages) encroached greatly upon the royal prerogatives
during the middle years of the 15th century. A crisis arose
in 146a, when an endeavour to control the Abencerrages resulted
in the dethronement of Abu Nasr Saad, and the accession of his
son, Muley Abu'l Hassan, whose name is preserved in that of
Mulhacen, the loftiest peak of the Sierra Nevada, and in a score
of legends, Muley Hassan weakened his position by resigning
Malaga to his brother Ez Zagal, and incurred the enmity of
his first wife Aisha by marrying a beautiful Spanish slave,
Isabella de Solis, who had adopted the creed of Islam and taken
the name of Zorayah, " morning star." Aisha or Ayesha, who
thus saw her sons Abu Abdullah Mahommed (Boabdil) and Yusuf
in danger of being supplanted, appealed to the Abencerrages,
whose leaders, according to tradition, paid for their sympathy
with their lives (see Alhambra). In 1482 Boabdil succeeded
in deposing his father, who fled to Malaga, but the gradual
advance of the Christians under Ferdinand and Isabella forced
him to resign the task of defence into the more warlike hands
of Muley Hassan and Ez Zagal (1 483-1486). Jn 1491 after the
loss of these leaders, the Moors were decisively beaten; Boabdil,
who had already been twice captured and liberated by the
Spaniards, was compelled to sign away his kingdom; and on
the 2nd of January 1492 the Spanish army entered Granada,
and the Moorish power in Spain was ended. The campaign
had aroused intense interest throughout Christendom; when
the news reached London a special thanksgiving service was held
in St Paul's Cathedral by order of Henry VII.
GRANADILLA, the name applied to Passiflora quadrangular is,
Linn., a plant of the natural order Passifloreae, a native of
tropical America, having smooth, cordate, ovate or acuminate
leaves; petioles bearing from 4 to 6 glands; an emetic and
narcotic root; scented flowers; and a large, oblong fruit,
containing numerous seeds, imbedded in a subacid edible pulp.
The granadilla is sometimes grown in British hothouses* The
fruits of several other species of Passifiora are eaten. P.
laurijolia is the " water lemon," and i\ matiformis the " sweet
calabash " of the West Indies.
GRANARIES, From ancient times grain has been stored in
greater or lesser bulk. The ancient Egyptians made a practice
of preserving grain in years of plenty against years of scarcity,
and probably Joseph only carried out on a large scale an habitual
practice. The climate of Egypt being very dry, grain could be
stored in pits for a long time without sensible loss of quality.
The silo pit, as it has been termed, has been a favourite way of
storing grain from time immemorial in all oriental lands. In
Turkey and Persia usurers used to buy up wheat or barley when
comparatively cheap, and store it in hidden pits against seasons
of dearth. Probably that custom is not yet dead. In Malta
a relatively large stock of wheat is always preserved in some
hundreds of pits (silos) cut in the rock. A single silo will store
from 60 to 80 tons of wheat, which, with proper precautions,
will keep in good condition for four years or more. The silos
are shaped like a cylinder resting on a truncated cone, and
surmounted by the same figure. The mouth of the pit is round
and small and covered by a stone slab, and the inside is lined
with barley straw and kept very dry. Samples are occasionally
taken from the wheat as from the hold of a ship, and at any
signs of fermentation the granary is cleared and the wheat
turned over, but such is the dryness of these silos that little
trouble of this kind is experienced.
Towards the close of the 19th century warehouses specially
intended for holding grain began to multiply in Great Britain,
but America is the home of great granaries, known there as
elevators. There are climatic difficulties in the way of storing
grain in Great Britain on a large scale, but these difficulties
have been largely overcome. To preserve grain in good condition
it must be kept as much as possible from moisture and heat.
New grain when brought into a warehouse has a tendency to
sweat, and in this condition will easily heat. If the heating is
allowed to continue the quality of the grain suffers. An effectual
remedy is to turn out the grain in layers, not too thick, on a
floor, and to keep turning it over so as to aerate it thoroughly.
Grain can thus be conditioned for storage in silos. There is
reason to think that grain in a sound and dry condition can be
better stored in bins or dry pits than in the open air; from a
series of experiments carried out on behalf of the French govern-
ment it would seem that grain exposed to the air is decomposed
at 3} times the rate of grain stored in silo or other bins.
In comparing the grain-storage system of Great Britain with
that of North America it must be borne in mind that whereas
Great Britain raises a comparatively small amount of grain*
which is more or less rapidly consumed, grain-growing is one of
the greatest industries of the United States and of Canada.
The enormous surplus of wheat and maize produced in America
can only be profitably dealt with by such a system of storage
as has grown up there since the middle of the 19th century.
The American farmer can store his wheat or maize at a moderate
rate, and can get an advance on his warrant if he is in need of
money. A holder of wheat in Chicago can withdraw a similar
grade of wheat from a New York elevator.
Modern granaries are all built on much the same plan. The
mechanical equipment for receiving and discharging grain is
very similar in all modern warehouses. A granary is usually
erected on a quay at which large vessels can lie and discharge.
On the land side railway sidings connect the warehouse with
the chief lines in its district; accessibility to a canal is an ad-
vantage. Ships are usually cleared by bucket elevators which are
dipped into the cargo, though in some cases pneumatic elevators
are substituted (see Conveyors) . A travelling band with throw-
off carriage will speedily distribute a heavy load of grain.
Band conveyors serve equally well for charging or discharging
the bins. Bins are invariably provided with hopper bottoms,
and any bin can be effectively cleared by the band, which runs
underneath, either in a cellar or in a specially constructed
tunnel. All granaries should be provided with a sufficient
plant of cleaning machinery to take from the grain impurities
as would be likely to be detrimental to its storing qualities.
Chief among such machines axe the warehouse separators
which work by sieves and air currents (see Flour and Flour
Manufacture).
The typical grain warehouse is furnished with a number of
chambers for grain storage which are known as silos, and may
be built of wood, brick, iron or ferro-concrete. Wood silos
are usually square, made of flat strips of wood nailed one on top
of the other, and so overlapping each other at the corners that
alternately a longitudinal and a transverse batten extends
past the corner. The gaps are filled by short pieces of timber
securely nailed, and the whole silo wall is thus solid. This type
of bin was formerly in great favour, but it has certain draw-
backs, such as the possibility of dry rot, while weevils are apt
to harbour in the interstices unless lime washing is practised.
Bricks and cement are good materials for constructing silos
of hexagonal form, but necessitate deep foundations and sub-
stantial walls. Iron silos of circular form are used to some
extent in Great Britain, but are more common in North and
GRANARIES
337
South America. In their case the walls are much thinner than
with any other material, but the condensation against the inner
wall in wet weather is a drawback in damp climates. Cylindrical
tank silos have also been made of fire-proof tiles. Ferro-concrete
silos have been built on both the Monier and the Hennebique
systems. In the earlier type the bin was made of an iron or
steel framework filled in with concrete, but more recent struc-
tures are composed entirely of steel rods embedded in cement.
Granaries built of this material have the great advantage, if
properly constructed, of being free from any risk of failure even
in case of uneven expansion of the material. With brick silos
collapses through pressure of the stored material are not unknown.
One of the largest and most complete grain elevators or ware-
houses in the world belongs to the Canadian Northern Railway
p^i Company, and was erected at Port Arthur, Canada, in
fjiJI 1901-1904. It has a total storage capacity of 7,000,000
Cmmad*. bushels, or 875,000 qrs. of 480 lb. The range of buildings
and bins forms an oblong, and consists of two storage
houses, B and C, placed between two working or receiving houses
A and D (fig. 1). The receiving houses are fed by railway sidings.
House A, for example, has two sidings, one running through it and
repaired since they can be removed and replaced without affecting
the main bin walls. It is claimed that these facers constitute the
best possible protection against fire. A steel framework, covered
with tiles, crowns these circular bins and contains the conveyors
and spouts which are used to fill the bins. Five tunnels in the
concrete bedding that supports the bins carry the belt conveyors
which bring back the grain to the working house for cleaning or
shipment. There are altogether in each of the storage houses 80
circular bins, each 21 ft. in diameter, and so grouped as to form
63 smaller interspace bins, or 143 bins in all. Each bin will store
grain in a column 85 ft. deep, and the whole group has a capacity
of 2,500,000 bushels. These bins were all constructed by the Barnett
& Record Company of Minneapolis, Minnesota, U.S. A., in ac-
cordance with the Johnson & Record patent system of fire-proof
tile grain storage construction. In case one of the working houses
is attacked by fire the fire-proof storage houses protect not only
their own contents but also the other working house, and in the
event of its disablement or destruction the remaining one can be
easily connected with both the storage houses and handle their
contents.
Circular tank silos have not been extensively adopted in Great
Britain, but a typical silo tank installation exists at the Walmsley
& Smith flour mills which stand beside the Devonshire dock at
Barrow-inrFurness. There four circular bins, built of riveted steel
Fig. 1.
the other beside it. Each siding serves five receiving pits, and a
receiving elevator of 10,000 lb capacity per minute, or 60,000
bushels per hour, can draw grain from either of two pits. Five
elevators of 12,000 bushels per hour on the other side of the house
serve five warehouse separators, and all the grain received or dis-
charged is weighed, there being ten sets of automatic scales in the
upper part of the house, known as the cupola. The hopper of each
weigher can take a charge of 1400 bushels (84,000 R>). Grain can
be conveyed either vertically or horizontally to any part of the
house, into any of the bins in the annex B, or into any truck or lake
steamer. This house is constructed of timber and roofed with
corrugated iron. The conveyor belts are 36 in. wide; those at the
top of the house are provided with throw-off carriages. The dust
from the cleaning machinery is carefully collected and spouted to
the furnace under the boiler house, where it is consumed. The
cylindrical silo bins in the storage houses consist of hollow tiles of
burned clay which, it is claimed, are fire-proof. The tiles are laid
on end and are about 12 in. by 12 in. and from 4 in. to 6 in. in thick-
ness according to the size of the bin. Each alternate course consists
of grooved blocks of channel tile forming a continuous groove or
belt round the bin. This groove receives a steel band acting as a
tension member and resisting the lateral pressure of the grain.
The steel bands once in position, the groove is completely filled with
cement grout by which the steel is encased and protected. Usually
the bottoms of the bins are furnished with self-discharging hoppers
of weak cinder or gravel concrete finished with cement mortar.
For the foundation or supporting floor reinforced concrete is fre-
quently used. The tiles already described are faced with tiles J to
I in. thick, which are laid solid in cement mortar covering the whole
exterior of the bin. Any damage to the facing tiles can easily be
and rest on foundations of concrete and steel. Each has a
separate conical roof and they are flat-bottomed, the grain rest in
plates, stand in a group on a quadrangle close to the mill ware-
house. A covered gantry, through which passes a band conveyor,
runs from the mill warehouse to the working silo house
which stands in the central space amid the four steel
tanks. The tanks are 70 ft. high, with a diameter of 45 ft.,
1 has;
_rain resting
directly on the steel and concrete foundation bed. As the load oT
the full tank is very heavy its even distribution on the bed is con-
sidered a point of importance. Each tank can hold about 2500 tons
of wheat, which gives a total storage capacity for the four bins of
over 45,000 qrs. of 480 lb. Attached to the mill warehouse is a skip
elevator with a discharging capacity of 75 tons an hour. The grain
is cleared by this elevator from the hold or holds of the vessel to be
unloaded, and is delivered to the basement of the warehouse. Thence
it is elevated to an upper storey and passed through an automatic
weigher capable of talcing a charge of 1 ton. From the weighing
machine it can be taken, with or without a preliminary cleaning,
to any floor of the warehouse, which has a total storing capacity
of 8000 tons, or it can be carried by the band conveyor through the
gantry to the working house of the silo installation and distributed
to any one of the four tank silos. There is also a connexion by a
band conveyor running through a covered gantry into the mill,
which stands immediately in the rear. It is perfectly easy to turn
over the contents of any tank into any other tank. The whole
intake and wheat handling plant is moved by two electro-motors of
35 H.P. each, one installed in the warehouse and the other in the
silo working house. Steel silo tanks have the advantage of storing
a heavy stock of wheat at comparatively small capital outlay.
On an average an ordinary silo bin will not hold more than 500 to
33»
GRANARIES
iooo qrs., but each of the bins at Barrow will contain 2500 tons or
over 1 1 oO qrs. ' The steel construction also reduces the risk of fire
and consequently lessens the fire premium.
The important granaries at the Liverpool docks date from 1868,
but have since been brought up to modern requirements. The
Liverpool, warehouses on the Waterloo docks have an aggregate
^^ storage area of n| acres, while the sister warehouses on
the Birkenhead side, which stand on the margin of the great float,
have an area of 11 acres. The total capacity of these warehouses
is about 200,000 ors.
The grain warehouse of the Manchester docks at Trafford wharf
is locally known as the grain elevator, because it was built to a
Man' S reat extent on tne model of an American elevator.
cbctter. Some of the mechanical equipment was supplied by a
Chicago firm. The total capacity is 1,500,000 bushels or
40,000 tons of grain, which is stored in 226 separate bins. The
granary proper stands about 340 ft. from the side of the dock, but
is directly connected with the receiving tower, which rises at the
=
per hour; weighing in the tower; conveying grain inta the ware-
house and distributing it into any of the 226 bins; moving grain
from bin to bin either for aerating or delivery, and simultaneously
weighing in bulk at the rate of 500 tons per hour; sacking grain,
weighing and loading the sacks into 40 railway trucks and 10 carts
simultaneously; loading grain from the warehouse into barges or
coasting craft at the rate of 150 tons per hour in bulk or of 250 sacks
per hour. This warehouse is equipped with a dryer of American
construction, which can deal with 50 tons of «lamp grain at one time,
and is connected with the whole bin system so that grain can be
readily moved from any bin to the dryer or conversely.
A grain warehouse at the Victoria docks, London, belonging to the
London and India Docks Company (fig. 2) has a storing capacity
of about 25,000 qrs. or 200,000 bushels. It is over London,
1 00 ft. high , and is built on the American plan of interlaced
timbers resting on iron columns. The walls are externally cased
with steel plates. The grain is stored in 56 silos, most of which are
about 10 ft. square by 50 ft. deep. The intake plant has a capacity
Dock Company &
Fig. 2.
water's edge, by a band conveyor protected by a gantry. The
main building is 448 ft. long by 80 ft. wide; the whole of the super-
structure was constructed of wood with an external casing of brick-
work and tiles. The receiving tower is fitted with a bucket elevator
capable, within fairly wide limits, of adjustment to the level of the
hold to be unloaded. The elevator has the large unloading capacity
of 350 tons per hour, assuming it to be working in a full hold. It
is supplemented by a pneumatic elevator (Duckham system) which
can raise 200 tons per hour and is used chiefly in dealing with parcels
of grain or in clearing grain out of holds which the ordinary elevator
cannot reach. The power required to work the large elevator as
well as the various band conveyors is supplied by two sets of hori-
zontal Corliss compound engines of 500 H.P. jointly, which are fed
by two Galloway boilers working at 100 lb pressure. The pneumatic
elevator is driven by two sets of triple expansion vertical engines
of 600 H.P. fed by three boilers working at a pressure of 160 lb.
The grain received in the tower is automatically weighed. From
the receiving tower the grain is conveyed into the warehouse where
it is at once elevated to the top of a central tower, and is thence
distributed to any of the bins by band conveyors in the usual way.
The mechanical equipment of this warehouse is very complete,
and the following several operations can be simultaneously effected :
discharging grain from vessels in the dock at the rate of 350 tons
of 100 tons of wheat an hour p and in-
cludes six automatic grain scales, each
of which can weigh off one sack at a
time. The main delivery floor of the
warehouse is at a convenient height
above the ground level. Portable
automatic weighing machines can be
placed under any bin. The whole of
the plant is driven by electric motors,
one being allotted to each machine.
The transit silos of the London Grain
Elevator Company, also at the Victoria
docks, consist of four complete and in-
dependent installations standing on
three tongues of land which project
into the water (figs* 2 and 3). Each
silo house is furnished with eight bins,
each of which, 12 ft, square by &o ft*
deep* has a capacity of 1000 qrs.
of grain. A kind of well in the middle
of each silo house contains the neces-
sary elevators, staircases, &c. The silo
bins in each granary are erected on a
massive cast iron tank forming a sort
of cellar, which rests on a concrete
foundation 6 ft- thick. The base of
the tank is 30 ft. below the water level.
The silos are formed of wooden battens
nailed one on top of the other, the
pieces interlacing. Rolled steel girders
resting on cast iron columns support
the silos. To ensure a clean discharge
the hopper bottoms were designed so
as to avoid joints and thus to be
free from rivets or similar protuber-
ances. m The exterior of each silo house is covered with corru-
gated iron, and the same material is used for the roofing. No
conveyors serve the silo bins, as the elevators which rise above the
tops of the silos can feed any one of them by gravity. There are
three delivery elevators to each granary, one with a capacity of
120 tons and the other two of 100 tons each an hour. Each silo
house is served by a large elevator with a capacity of 120 tons per
hour, which discharges into the elevator well inside the house.
The delivery elevators discharge into a receiving shed in which
there is a large hopper feeding six automatic weighing machines.
Each charge as it is weighed empties itself automatically into sacks,
which are then ready for loading. Each pair of warehouses is pro-
vided with a conveyor band 308 ft. long, used either for carrying
sacks from the weighing sheds to railway trucks or for carrying
grain in bulk to barges or trucks. Each silo house has an identical
mechanical equipment apart from the delivery band it shares with
its fellow warehouse. All operations in connexion with the silo
houses are effected under cover. The silos are normally fed by a
fleet of twenty-six of Philip's patent self -discharging lighters. These
craft are hopper-bottomed and fitted with band conveyors of the
ordinary type, running between the double keelson of the lighter and
delivering into an elevator erected at the stern of the lighter. By
this means little trimming is required after the barge, which holds
General Plan of Storage & Transit Silos,
Vktorio Docks, London*
Scale r 140 feet = I inch.
GRANARIES
339
about 200 tons of grain, has been cleared. Ocean steamers of such.
draft as to preclude their entry into any of the up river docks are
cleared at Tilbury by these lighters. It is said that grain loaded
at Tilbury into these lighters can be delivered from the transit silos
to railway trucks or barges in about six hours. The total storage
capacity of the silos amounts to 32,000 qrs. The motive power is
furnished by 14 gas engines of a total capacity of 366 H.P.
Two of the largest granaries on the continent of Europe are
situated at the mouth of the Danube, at Braila and Galatz, in
Rama/tin. R uman * a » anc * 8erv e f° r both the reception and discharge
of g^ain. At the edge of the quay on which these ware-
houses are built there are rails with a gauge of 11} ft., upon which
run two mechanical loading and unloading appliances. The first
consists of a telescopic elevator which raises the grain and delivers
it to one of the two band conveyors at the head of the apparatus.
Each of these bands feeds automatic weighing machines with an
hourly capacity of 75 tons. From these weighers the grain is either
discharged through a manhole in the ground to a band conveyor
running in a tunnel parallel to the quay wall, or it is raised by a
second elevator (part of the same unloading apparatus), set at an
inclined angle, which delivers at a sufficient height to load railway
trucks on the siding running parallel to the quay. A turning gear
is provided so as to reverse, if required, the operation of the whole
apparatus, that the portion overhanging the water can be turned
to the land side. The unloading capacity is 150 tons of grain per
hour. If it be desired to load a ship the telescopic elevator has
only to be turned round and dipped into any one of 15 wells, which
A. Borgi Ehvaton
C SiloBiif
capacity of the elevators and conveyors is 100 tons of grain per hour.
The mechanical equipment is so complete that four distinct opera-
tions are claimed as possible. A ship may be unloaded into silos
or into the granary floors, and may simultaneously be loaded either
from silos or floors with different kinds of grain. Again, a cargo may
be discharged either into silos or upon the floors, and simultaneously
the grain may be cleaned. Grain may also be cleared from a vessel,
muted with other grain already received, and then distributed to
any desired point* With equal facility grain may be cleaned, blended
with other varieties, re-stored in any section of the granary, and
transferred from one ship to another.
A granary with special features of interest, erected on the quay
at Dortmund, Germany, by a co-operative society, is built of brick
on a base of hewn stone, with beams and supports of -. .
timber. It is 78 ft. high and consists of seven floors, MJ * nmua *
including basement and attic. Here again there are two sections,
the larger being devoted to the storage of grain in low bins, while
the smaller section consists of an ordinary silo house. Grain in
sacks may be stored in the basement of the larger section which has
a capacity of 1675 tons as compared with 825 tons in the silo depart-
ment. Thus the total storage capacity is 2500 tons. In the silo
house the bins, constructed of planks nailed one over the other, ace
of varying size and are capable of storing grain to a depth of $2 to
47 ft. Some of the bins have been specially adapted for receiving
damp grain by being provided internally with transverse wooden
arms which form square or lozenge-shaped sections. The object of
this arrangement is to break up and aerate the stored grain. The
Transit Silos of tfee
Loodos Grain Elevator Co. Ltd
Victoria Docks, London.
Lonffitodhul EkrmtiaB lookter
Bftsv* Elevators.
Fig. 3.
Cross Section througk Tr*a*it Silos.
can be filled up with grain from the land side. The capacity of
each granary is 233,333 qrs.
Many large granaries nave been built, in which grain is stored
on open floors, in bulk or in sacks. A notable instance is the ware-
<htHvnrL house of the city of Stuttgart. This is a structure of
Stuttgart. sevcn fl oorSf including a basement and entresol. An
engine house accommodates two gas engines as well as an
hydraulic installation for the lifts. The grain is received by an
elevator from the railway trucks, and is delivered to a weighing
machine from which it is carried by a second elevator to the top
storey, where it is fed to a band running the length of the building.
A system of pipes runs from floor to floor, and by means of the
band conveyor with its movable throw-off carriage grain can be
shot to any floor. A second band conveyor is installed in the
entresol floor, and serves to convey grain either to the elevator,
if it is desired to elevate it to the top floor, or to the loading shed.
A second elevator runs through the centre of the building, and is
provided with a spout by means of which grain can be delivered
into the hopper feeding the cleaning machine, whence the grain
passes into a second hopper under which is an automatic weigher;
directly under this weigher the grain is sacked.
A good example of a grain warehouse on the combined silo bin
and floor storage system is afforded by the granary at Mannheim
_. . . on the Rhine, which has the storage capacity of 2100
jnsnnoetm. tQn ^ The building is 370 ft. in length, 78 ft. wide and
78 ft. high, and by means of transverse walls it is divided into three
sections; of these one contains silos, in another section grain is
stored on open floors, while the third, which is situated between
the other two, is the grain-cleaning department. This granary
stands by the quav side, and a ship elevator of great capacity,
which serves the cleaning department, can rapidly clear any ship
or barge beneath. The central or screening house section contains
machinery specially designed for cleaning barley as well as wheat.
The barley plant has a capacity of 5 tons per hour. There are four
main elevators in this warehouse, while two more serve the screen
house. The usual band conveyors fitted with throw-off carriages
are provided, and are supplemented by an elaborate system of pipes
which receive grain from the elevators and bands and distribute
it at any required point. The plant is operated by electric motors.
If desired the floors of the non-silo section can be utilized for storing
other goods than grain, and to this end a lift with a capacity of 1
ton runs from the basement to the top storey. The combined
arms are of triangular section and are slightly hollowed at the base
so as to bring a current of air into direct contact with the grain.
The air can be warmed if necessary. The other and larger section of
the granary is provided with 105 bins of moderate height arranged
in groups of 21 on the five floors between the basement and attic.
On the intermediate floors and the bottom floor each bin lies exactly
under the bin above. Grain is not stored in these bins to a greater
depth than 5 ft. The bins are fitted with removable side walls,
and damp grain is only stored in certain bins aerated for half the
area of their side walls through a wire mesh. The arrangements
for distributing grain in this warehouse are very complete. The
uncleaned grain is taken by the receiving elevator, with a lifting
capacity of 20 tons per hour, to a warehouse separator, whence it is
passed through an automatic weigher and is then either sacked or
spouted to the main elevator (capacity 25 tons per hour) and ele-
vated to the attic. From the head of this main elevator the grain
can either be fed to a bin in one or other of the main granary floors,
or shot to one of the bins in the silo house. In the attic the grain is
carried by a spout and belt conveyor to one or other of the turn-
tables, as the appliances may be termed, which serve to distribute
through spouts the grain to any one of the floor or silo bins. Alter-
natively, the grain may be shot into the basement and there fed
back into the main elevator by a band conveyor. In this way the
grain may be turned over as often as it is deemed necessary. At
the bottom of each bin are four apertures connected by spouts,
both with the bin below and with the central vertical pipe which
passes down through the centre of each group of bins. To regulate
the course of the grain from bin to bin or from bin to central pipe,
the connecting spouts are fitted wjth valves of ingenious yet simple
construction which deflect the grain in any desired direction, so
that the contents of two or more bins may be blended, or grain
may be transferred from a bin on one floor to a bin on a lower
floor, missing the bin on the floor between. The valves are con-
trolled by chains from the basement.
With reference to the floor bins used at Dortmund, it may be
observed that there are granaries built on a similar principle in the
United Kingdom. It is probable that bins of moderate height are
more suitable for storing grain containing a considerable amount of
moisture than deep silos, whether made of wood, ferro-concrete or
other material. For one thing floor bins of the Dortmund pattern
can be more effectually aerated than deep silos. German wheat
has many characteristics in common with British, and, especially
340
GRANARIES
Amount ot
in north Germany, is not infrequently harvested in a more or less
damp condition. In the United Kingdom, Messrs Spencer & Co., of
Melksham, have erected several granaries on the floor-bin principle,
and have adopted an ingenious system of " telescopic " spouting,
by means of which grain may be discharged from one bin to another
or at any desired point. This spouting can be applied to bins
either with level floors or with hoppered bottoms, if they are arranged
one above the other on the different floors, and is so constructed tnat
an opening can be effected at certain points by simply sliding
upwards a section of the spout.
National Granaries. — Wheat forms the staple food of a large
proportion of the population of the British Isles, and of the total
amount consumed about four-fifths is sea-borne. The stocks
normally held in the country being limited, serious consequences
might result from any interruption of the supply, such as might
occur were Great Britain involved in war with a power or powers
commanding a strong fleet. To meet this contingency it has
been suggested that the State should establish granaries contain-
ing a national reserve of wheat for use in emergency, or should
adopt measures calculated to induce merchants, millers, &c, to
hold larger stocks than at present and to stimulate the production
of home-grown wheat.
Stocks of wheat (and of flour expressed in its equivalent weight
of wheat) are held by merchants, millers and farmers. Merchants'
stocks are kept in granaries, at ports of importation
and are known as first-hand stocks. Stocks of wheat
and flour in the hands of millers and of flour held by
bakers are termed second-hand stocks, while farmers' stocks only
consist of native wheat. Periodical returns are generally made
of first-hand or port stocks, nor should a wide margin of error be
possible in the case of farmers' stocks, but second-hand stocks are
more difficult to gauge. Since the last decade of the 19th century
the storage capacity of British mills has considerably increased.
As the number of small mills has diminished the capacity of the
bigger ones has increased, and proportionately their warehousing
accommodation has been enlarged. At the present time first-hand
stocks tend to diminish because a larger proportion of millers'
holdings are in mill granaries and silo houses. The immense
preponderance of steamers over sailing vessels in the grain trade
has also had the effect of greatly diminishing stocks. With his
cargo or parcel on a steamer a corn merchant can tell almost to a
day when it will be due. In fact foreign wheat owned by British
merchants is to a great extent stored in foreign granaries in
preference to British warehouses. The merchant's risk is thereby
lessened to a certain extent. When his wheat has been brought
into a British port, to send it farther afield means extra expense.
But wheat in an American or Argentine elevator may be ordered
wherever the best price can be obtained for it. Options or
" futures," too, have helped to restrict the size of wheat stocks
in the United Kingdom. A merchant buys a cargo of wheat on
passage for arrival at a definite time, and, lest the market value
of grain should have depreciated by the time it arrives, he sells
an option against it. In this way he hedges his deal, the option
serving as insurance against loss. This is why the British corn
trade finds it less risky to limit purchases to bare needs, protecting
itself by option deals, than to store large quantities which may
depreciate and involve their owners in loss.
Varying estimates have been made of the number of weeks'
supply of breadstuffs (wheat and flour) held by millers at various
seasons of the year. A table compiled by the secretary of the
National Association of British and Irish Millers from returns
for 1902 made by 170 milling firms showed 4-7, 4-9, 49 and
5 weeks' supply at the end of March, June, September and
December respectively. These 170 mills were said to represent
46% of the milling capacity of the United Kingdom, and claimed
to have ground 12,000,000 qrs. out of 25,349,000 qrs. milled in
1902. These were obviously large mills; it is probable that the
other mills would not have shown anything like such a proportion
of stock of either raw or finished material. A fair estimate of the
stocks normally held by millers and bakers throughout the
United Kingdom would be about four weeks' supply. First-hand
stocks vary considerably, but the limits are definite, ranging from
1,000,000 to 3,500,000 qrs., the latter being a high figure. The
tendency is for first-hand stocks to decline, but two weeks' supply
must be a minimum. Farmers' stocks necessarily vary with the
size of the crop and the period of the year; they will range from
9 or 10 weeks on the 1st of September to a half week on the 1st of
August. Taking all the stocks together, it is very exceptional
for the stock of breadstuffs to fall below 7 weeks' supply. Be-
tween the cereal years 1893-1894 and 1903-1904, a period of
570 weeks, the stocks of all kinds fell below 7 weeks' supply in
only 9 weeks; of these 9 weeks 7 were between the beginning of
June and the end of August 1898. This was immediately after
the Leiter collapse. In seven of these eleven years there is no
instance of stocks falling below 8 weeks' supply. In 21 out of
these 570 weeks and in 39 weeks during the same period stocks
dropped below 7} and 8 weeks' supply respectively. Roughly
speaking the stock of wheat available for bread-making varies
from a two to four months' supply and is at times well above
the latter figure.
The formation of a national reserve of wheat, to be held at
the disposal of the state in case of urgent need during war, is
beset by many practical difficulties. The father of
the scheme was probably The MiUer f a well-known
trade journal. In March and April 1886 two articles
appeared in that paper under the heading " Years of Plenty
and State Granaries," in which it was urged that to meet the
risk of hostile cruisers interrupting the supplies it would be
desirable to lay up in granaries on British soil and under govern-
ment control a stock of wheat sufficient for 12 or alternatively
6 months' consumption. This was to be national property, not
to be touched except when the fortune of war sent up the price
of wheat to a famine level or caused severe distress. The State
holding this large stock — a year's supply of foreign grain would
have meant at least 15,000,000 qrs., and have cost about
£25,000,000 exclusive of warehousing — was in peace time to sell
no wheat except when it became necessary to part with stock
as a precautionary measure. In that case the wheat sold was to
be replaced by the same amount of new grain. The idea was
to provide the country with a supply of wheat until sufficient
wheat-growing soil could be broken up to make it practically
self-sufficing in respect of wheat. The original suggestion fell
quite flat. Two years later Captain Warren, R.N., read a paper
on " Great Britain's Corn Supplies in War," before the London
Chamber of Commerce, and accepted national granaries as the
only practicable safeguard against what appeared to him a great
peril. The representatives of the shipping interest opposed the
scheme, probably because it appeared to them likely to divert
the public from insisting on an all-powerful navy. The corn
trade opposed the project on account of its great practical
difficulties. But constant contraction of the British wheat
acreage kept the question alive, and during the earlier half of the
'nineties it was a favourite theme with agriculturists. Some
influential members of parliament pressed the matter on the
government, who, acting, no doubt, on the advice of their military
and naval experts, refused either a royal commission or a depart-
mental committee. While the then technical advisers of the
government were divided on the advisability of establishing
national granaries as a defensive measure, the balance of expert
opinion was adverse to the scheme. Lord Wolseley, then
commander-in-chief, publicly stigmatized the theory that Great
Britain might in war be starved into submission as " unmitigated
humbug."
In spite of official discouragement the agitation continued,
and early in 1897 the council of the Central and Associated
Chambers of Agriculture, at the suggestion to a
great extent of Mr R. A. Yerburgh, M.P., nominated £„*?***
a committee to examine the question of national mktee.
wheat stores. This committee held thirteen sittings
and examined fifty-four witnesses. Its report, which was
published (L. G. Newman & Co., 12 Finsbury Square, London,
E.C.) with minutes of the evidence taken, practically recom-
mended that a national reserve of wheat on the lines already
sketched should be formed and administered by the State, and
that the government should be strongly urged to obtain the
GRANBY
34i
appointment of a royal commission, comprising representatives
of agriculture, the corn trade, shipping, and the army and navy,
to conduct an exhaustive inquiry into the whole subject of the
national food-supply in case of war. This recommendation was
ultimately carried into effect, but not till nearly five years had
elapsed. Of two schemes for national granaries put before the
Yerburgh committee, one was formulated by Mr Seth Taylor,
a London miller and corn merchant, who reckoned that a store
of 10,000,000 qrs. of wheat might be accumulated at an average
cost of 40s. per qr. — this was in the Leiter year of high prices —
and distributed in six specially constructed granaries to be
erected at London, Liverpool, Hull, Bristol, Glasgow and
Dublin. The cost of the granaries was put at £7,500,000. Mr
Taylor's scheme, all charges included, such as 2$% interest on
capital, C03t of storage (at 6d. per qr.), and 2s. per qr. for cost
of replacing wheat, involved an annual expenditure of £1,250,000,
The Yerburgh committee also considered a proposal to stimulate
the home supply of wheat by offering a bounty to farmers for
every quarter of wheat grown. This proposal has taken different
shapes; some have suggested that a bounty should be given
on every acre of land covered with wheat, while others would
only allow the bounty on wheat raised and kept in good condition
up to a certain date, say the beginning of the following harvest.
It is obvious that a bounty on the area of land covered by
wheat, irrespective of yield, would be a premium on poor farming,
and might divert to wheat-growing land unsuitable for that
purpose. The suggestion to pay a bounty of say 3s. to 5s. per qr.
for all wheat grown and stacked for a certain time stands on a
different basis; it is conceivable that a bounty of 5s. might
expand the British production of wheat from say 7,000,000 to
9,000,000 qrs., which would mean that a bounty of £2,250,000
per annum, plus costs of administration, had secured an extra
home production of 2,000,000 qrs. Whether such a price would
be worth paying is another matter; the Yerburgh committee's
conclusion was decidedly in the negative. It has also been
suggested that the State might subsidize millers to the extent
of 2s. 6d. per sack of 280 lb. per annum on condition that each
maintained a minimum supply of two months' flour. This may
be taken to mean that for keeping a special stock of flour over
and above his usual output a miller would be entitled to an
annual subsidy of 2s. 6d. per sack. An extra stock of 10,000,000
sacks might be thus kept up at an annual cost of £1,250,000,
plus the expenditure of administration, which would probably
be heavy. With regard to this suggestion, it is very probable
that a few large mills which have plenty of warehouse accom-
modation and depots all over the country would be ready to
keep up a permanent extra stock of 100,000 sacks. Thus a mill
of 10,000 sacks' capacity per week, which habitually maintains
a total stock of 50,000 sacks, might bring up its stock to 150,000
sacks. Such a mill, being a good customer to railways, could
get from them the storage it required for little or nothing. But
the bulk of the mills have no such advantages. They have little
or no spare warehousing room, and are not accustomed to keep
any stock, sending their flour out almost as fast as it is milled.
It is doubtful therefore if a bounty of 2s. 6d. per sack would
have the desired effect of keeping up a stock of 10,000,000 sacks,
sufficient for two to three months' bread consumption.
The controversy reached a climax in the royal commission
appointed in 1903, to which was also referred the importation
of raw material in war time. Its report appeared in
m/««tofl OID " I0o 5* ^° ^ e <l ues ti on whether the unquestioned
1903*1908* dependence of the United Kingdom on an uninterrupted
supply of sea-borne breadstuffs renders it advisable or
not to maintain at all times a six months' stock of wheat and
flour, it returned no decided answer, or perhaps it would be
more correct to say that the commission was hopelessly divided.
The main report was distinctly optimistic so far as the liability
of the country to harass and distress at the hands of a hostile
naval power or combination of powers was concerned. But
there were several dissentients, and there was hardly any
portion of the report in chief which did not provoke some
reservation or another. That a maritime war would cause
freights and insurance to rise in a high degree was freely admitted,
and it was also admitted that the price of bread must also rise
very appreciably. But, provided the navy did not break down,
the risk of starvation was dismissed. Therefore all the proposals
for providing national granaries or inducing merchants and
millers to carry bigger stocks were put aside as unpractical and
unnecessary. The commission was, however, inclined to consider
more favourably a suggestion for providing free storage for
wheat at the expense of the State. The idea was that if the State
would subsidize any large granary company to the extent of 6d.
or 5d. per qr., grain now warehoused in foreign lands would be
attracted to the British Isles. But on the whole the commission
held that the main effect of the scheme would be to saddle the
government with the rent of all grain stored in public warehouses
in the United Kingdom without materially increasing stocks.
The proposal to offer bounties to farmers to hold stocks for a
longer period and to grow more wheat met with equally little
favour.
To sum up the advantages of national granaries, assuming
any sort of disaster to the navy, the possession of a reserve
of even six months' wheat-supply in addition to ordinary stocks
would prevent panic prices. On the other hand, the difficulties
in the way of forming and administering; such a reserve are very
great, 'the world grows no great surplus of wheat, xtnd to' forhi
a six months', mucin more a twelve months*, 1 stock would be
the work of years. The government in buying up the wheat
would have to go carefully if they would avoid sending uj>
prices with a rush. They would have to buy dearly, and when
they let go a certain amount of stock they would be bound to
sell cheaply. A stock once formed might be held by the State
with little or no disturbance of the corn market, although the
existence of such an emergency stock would hardly encourage
British farmers to grow more wheat. The cost of erecting,
equipping and keeping in good order the necessary warehouses
would be, probably, much heavier than the most liberal estimate
hitherto made by advocates of national granaries. (G. F. Z.)
GRANBY, JOHN MANNERS, Ma&quess Of (1721-1770),
British soldier, was the eldest son of the third duke of Rutland.
He was born in 172 1 and educated at Eton and Trinity College,
Cambridge, and was returned as member of parliament for
Grantham in 1741. Four years later he received a commission
as colonel of a regiment raised by the Rutland interest in and
about Leicester to assist in quelling the Highland revolt of 1745.
This corps never got beyond Newcastle, but young Granny
went to the front as a volunteer on the duke of Cumberland's
staff, and saw active service in the last stages of the insurrection.
Very soon his regiment was disbanded. He continued in parlia-
ment, combining with it military duties, making the campaign
of Flanders (1747). Promoted major-general in 1755, three
years later he was appointed colonel of the Royal Horse Guards
(Blues). Meanwhile he had married the daughter of the duke
of Somerset, and in 1754 had begun his parliamentary connexion
with Cambridgeshire, for which county he sat until his death.
The same year that saw Granby made colonel of the Blues,
saw also the despatch of a considerable British contingent to
Germany. Minden was Granby's first great battle. At the head
of the Blues he was one of the cavalry leaders halted at the
critical moment by Sackville, and when in consequence that
officer was sent home in disgrace, Lieut .-General Lord
Granby succeeded to the command of the British contingent
in Ferdinand's army, having 32,000 men under his orders at
the beginning of 1760. In the remaining campaigns of the Seven
Years' War the English contingent was more conspicuous by its
conduct than the Prussians themselves. On the 31st of July
1760 Granby brilliantly stormed W T arburg at the head of the
British cavalry, capturing 1500 men and ten pieces of artillery.
A year later (15th of July 1761) the British defended the heights
of Vellinghausen with what Ferdinand himself styled " indescrib-
able bravery." In the last campaign, at Gravenstein und
Wilhelmsthal, Homburg and Cassel, Granby's men bore the brunt
of the fighting and earned the greatest share of the glory.
Returning to England in 1763 the marquess found himself
342
GRAN CHACO— GRAND ALLIANCE
the popular hero of the war. It is said that couriers awaited
his arrival at all the home ports to offer him the choice of the
Ordnance or the Horse Guards. His appointment to the Ordnance
bore the date of the xst of July 1763, and three years later he
became commander-in-chief. In this position he was attacked
by " Junius/ 1 and a heated discussion arose, as the writer had
taken the greatest pains in assailing the most popular member
of the Grafton ministry. In 1770 Granby, worn out by political
and financial trouble, resigned ail his offices, except the colonelcy
of the Blues. He died at Scarborough on the 18th of October
1770. He had been made a privy councillor in 1760, lord
lieutenant of Derbyshire in 1762, and LL.D. of Cambridge in
1769.
Two portrait* of Granby were painted by Sir Joshua Reynolds,
one of which is now in the National Gallery. His contemporary
popularity is indicated by the number of inns and public-nouses
which took his name and had his portrait as sign-board.
GRAN CHACO, an extensive region in the heart of South
America belonging to the La Plata basin, stretching from 20
to 29 S. lat., and divided between the republics of Argentine,
Bolivia and Paraguay, with a small district of south-western
Matto Grosso (Brazil). Its area is estimated at from 250,000
to 425,000 sq. m., but the true Chaco region probably does not
exceed 300,000 sq. m. The greater part is covered with marshes,
lagoons and dense tropical jungle and forest, and is still un-
explored. On its southern and western borders there are ex-
tensive tracts of open woodland, intermingled with grassy plains,
while on the northern side in Bolivia are large areas of open
country subject to inundations in the rainy season. In general
terms the Gran Chaco may be described as a great plain sloping
gently to the S.E., traversed in the same direction by two great
rivers, the Pilcomayo and Bermejo, whose sluggish courses are
not navigable because of sand-banks, barriers of overturned trees
and floating vegetation, and confusing channels. This excludes
that part of eastern Bolivia belonging to the Amazon basin,
which is sometimes described as part of the Chaco. The greater
part of its territory is occupied by nomadic tribes of Indians,
some of whom are still unsubdued, while others, like the Matacos,
are sometimes to be found on neighbouring sugar estates and
estancias as labourers during the busy season. The forest wealth
of the Chaco region is incalculable and apparently inexhaustible,
consisting of a great variety of palms and valuable cabinet
woods, building timber, &c. Its extensive tracts of " quebracho
Colorado " {Loxopierygium Lorentzii) are of very great value
because of its use in tanning leather. Both the wood and its
extract are largely exported. Civilization is slowly gaining
footholds in this region along the southern and eastern borders.
GRAND ALLIANCE, WAR OF THE (alternatively called the
War of the League of Augsburg), the third 1 of the great aggressive
wars waged by Louis XIV. of France against Spain, the Empire,
Great Britain, Holland and other states. The two earlier wars,
which are redeemed from oblivion by the fact that in them
three great captains, Turenne, Conde* and Montecucculi, played
leading parts, are described in the article Dutch Wars. In
the third war the leading figures are: Henri de Montmorency-
Boutteville, duke of Luxemburg, the former aide-de-camp of
Conde" and heir to his daring method of warfare; William of
Orange, who had fought against both CondS and Luxemburg
in the earlier wars, and was now king of England; Vauban,
the founder of the sciences of fortification and siegecraft, and
Catinat, the follower of Turenne's cautious and systematic
strategy, who was the first commoner to receive high command
in the army of Louis XIV. But as soldiers, these men— except
Vauban— are overshadowed by the great figures of the preceding
generation, and except for a half-dozen outstanding episodes,
the war of 16SQ-Q7 was an affair of positions and manoeuvres.
It was within these years that the art and practice of war
began to crystallize into the form called " linear " in its strategic
1 The name " Grand Alliance " is applied to the coalition against
Louis XIV. begun by the League of Augsburg. This coalition not
onlv wagrd the war dealt with in the present article, but (with only
dignt modifications and with practically unbroken continuity) the
war of the Spanish Succession (g*.) that followed.
and tactical aspect, and " cabinet-war " in its political and moral
aspect. In the Dutch wars, and in the minor wars that pre-
ceded the formation of the League of Augsburg, there were
still survivals of the loose organization, violence and wasteful
barbarity typical of the Thirty Years , War; and even in the
War of the Grand Alliance (in its earlier years) occasional
brutalities and devastations showed that the old spirit died hard.
But outrages that would have been borne in dumb misery in
the old days now provoked loud indignation, and when the
fierce Louvois disappeared from the scene it became generally
understood that barbarity was impolitic, not only as alienating
popular sympathies, but also as rendering operations a physical
impossibility for want of supplies.
Thus in 1700, so far from terrorizing the country people
into submission, armies systematically conciliated them by
paying cash and bringing trade into the country. Ck ^^
Formerly, wars had been fought to compel a people &/th0 w ^
to abjure their faith or to change sides in some
personal or dynastic quarrel. But since 1648 this had no
longer been the case. The Peace of Westphalia established
the general relationship of kings, priests and peoples on a basis
that was not really shaken until the French Revolution, and
in the intervening hundred and forty years the peoples at large,
except at the highest and gravest moments (as in Germany in
1689, France in 1709 and Prussia in 1757) held aloof from active
participation in politics and war. This was the beginning of
the theory that war was an affair of the regular forces only,
and that intervention in it by the civil population was a punish-
able offence. Thus wars became the business of the professional
soldiers in the kingls own service, and the scarcity and costliness
of these soldiers combined with the purely political character
of the quarrels that arose to reduce a campaign from an " intense
and passionate drama " to a humdrum affair, to which only
rarely a few men of genius imparted some degree of vigour, and
which in the main was an attempt to gain small ends by a small
expenditure of force and with the minimum of risk. As between
a prince and his subjects there were still quarrels that stirred
the average man — the Dragonnades, for instance, or the English
Revolution — but foreign wars were " a stronger form of diplo-
matic notes," as Clausewitz called them, and were waged with
the object of adding a codicil to the treaty of peace that had
closed the last incident.
Other causes contributed to stifle the former ardour of war.
Campaigns were no longer conducted by armies of ten to thirty
thousand men. Large regular armies had come into fashion,
and, as Guibert points out, instead of small armies charged with
grand operations we find grand armies charged with small
operations. The average general, under the prevailing conditions
of supply and armament, was not equal to the task of commanding
such armies. Any real concentration of the great forces that
Louis XIV. had created was therefore out of the question, and
the field armies split into six or eight independent fractions,
each charged with operations on a particular theatre of war.
From such a policy nothing remotely resembling the crushing
of a great power could be expected to be gained. The one
tangible asset, in view of future peace negotiations, was therefore
a fortress, and it was on the preservation or capture of fortresses
that operations in all these wars chiefly turned. The idea of
the decisive battle for its own sake, as a settlement of the quarrel,
was far distant; for, strictly speaking, there was no quarrel,
and to use nip highly trained and exceedingly expensive soldiers
in gaining by brute force an advantage that might equally well
be obtained by chicanery was regarded as foolish.
The fortress was, moreover, of immediate as well as contingent
value to a state at war. A century of constant warfare had
impoverished middle Europe, and armies had to spread over a
large area if they desired to " live on the country." This was
dangerous in the face of the enemy (cf. the Peninsular War),
and it was also uneconomical. The only way to prevent the
country people from sending their produce into the fortresses
for safety was to announce beforehand that cash would be paid,
at a high rate, for whatever the army needed. But even promises
GRAND ALLIANCE
343
rarely brought this about, and to live at all, whether oil supplies
brought up from the home country and stored in magazines
(which had to be guarded) or on local resources, an army had
as a rule to maintain or to capture a large fortress. Sieges,
therefore, and manceuvres are the features of this form of war,
wherein armies progressed not with the giant strides of modern
war, but in a succession of short hops from one foothold to the
next. This was the procedure of the average commander, and
even when a more intense spirit of conflict was evoked by the
Luxemburgs and Marlboroughs it was but momentary and
spasmodic.
The general character of the war being borne in mind, nine-
tenths of its marches and manceuvres can be almost " taken as
read"; the remaining tenth, the exceptional and abnormal
part of it, alone possesses an interest for modern readers.
In pursuance of a new aggressive policy in Germany Louis XIV.
sent his troops, as a diplomatic menace rather than for conquest,
into that country in the autumn of 1688. Some of their raiding
parties plundered the country as far south as Augsburg, for the
political intent of their advance suggested terrorism rather than
conciliation as the best method. The league of Augsburg at
once took up the challenge, and the addition of new members
(Treaty of Vienna, May 1689) converted it into the " Grand
Alliance " of Spain, Holland, Sweden, Savoy and certain Italian
states, Gieat Britain, the emperor, the elector of Branden-
burg, &c.
"Those who condemned the king for raising up so many
enemies, admired him for having so fully prepared to defend
himself and even to forestall them," says Voltaire. Louvois
had in fact completed the work of organizing the French army
on a regular and permanent basis, and had made it not merely
the best, but also by far the most numerous in Europe, for Louis
disposed in 1688 of no fewer than 375,000 soldiers and 60,000
sailors. The infantry was uniformed and drilled, and the socket
bayonet and the flint-lock musket had been introduced. The
only relic of the old armament was the pike, which was retained
for one-quarter of the foot, though it had been discarded by the
Imperialists in the course of the Turkish wars described below.
The first artillery regiment was created in 1684, to replace the
former semi-civilian organization by a body of artillerymen
susceptible of uniform training and amenable to discipline
and orders.
In 1689 Louis had six armies on foot. That in Germany,
which had executed the raid of the previous autumn, was not
Devasta- m a position to resist the principal army of the coalition
Ooao/the so far from support. Louvois therefore ordered it
PatmtinatB, to lay waste the Palatinate, and the devastation of
1689 ' the country around Heidelberg, Mannheim, Spires,
Oppenheim and Worms was pitilessly and methodically carried
into effect in January and February. There had been devasta-
tions in previous wars, even the high-minded Turenne had
used the argument of fire and sword to terrify a population
or a prince, while the whole story of the last ten years of the
great war had been one of incendiary armies leaving traces
of their passage that it took a century to remove. But here the
devastation was a purely military measure, executed systemati-
cally over a given strategic front for no other purpose than to
delay the advance of the enemy's army. It differed from the
method of Turenne or Cromwell in that the sufferers were not
those people whom it was the purpose of the war to reduce to
submission, but others who had no interest in the quarrel. It
differed from Wellington's laying waste of Portugal in 1810 in
that it was not done for the defence of the Palatinate against
a national enemy, but because the Palatinate was where it was.
The feudal theory that every subject of a prince at war was an
armed vassal, and therefore an enemy of the prince's enemy,
had in practice been obsolete for two centuries past; by 1600
the organization of war, its causes, its methods and its instru-
ments had passed out of touch with the people at large, and it
had become thoroughly understood that the army alone was
concerned with the army's business. Thus it was that this
devastation excited universal reprobation, and that, in the words
of a modern French writer 'the "idea 1 df Germany came toj
birth in the flames of the Palatinate." " !
As a military measure this crime was* moreover, quite unprofit-
able; for it became impossible for Marshal Duras, the French/
commander, to hold out on the east side of the middle Rhine,
and he could think of nothing better to do than to go farther
south and to ravage Baden and the Breisgau, which was not
even a military necessity. The grand army of the Allies, coming
farther north, was practically unopposed. Charles of Lorraine
and the elector of Bavaria — lately comrades in the Turkish war'
(see below) — invested Mainz, the elector of Brandenburg Bonn.
The latter, following the evil precedent of his enemies, shelled
the town uselessly instead of making a breach in its walls and
overpowering its French garrison, an incident not calculated
to advance the nascent idea of German unity. Mainz, valiantly
defended by Nicolas .duB16, marquis d'UxeUes, had to surrender
on the 8th of September. The governor of Bonn , baron d' Asf eld,
not in the least intimidated by the bombardment, held out till
the army that had taken Mainz reinforced the elector of Branden-
burg, and then, rejecting the hard terms of surrender offered
him by the latter, he fell in resisting a last assault on the 12th
of October. Only 850 men out of his 6000 were left to surrender
on the 16th, and the duke of Lorraine, less truculent than the
elector, escorted them safely to Thionville. Boufilers, with
another of Louis's armies, operated from Luxemburg (captured
by the French in 1684 and since held) and Trarbach towards the;
Rhine, but in spite of a minor victory at Kochheim on the 21st
of August^ he was unable to relieve either Mainz or Bonn.
In the Low Countries the French marshal d'Humieres, being
in superior force, had obtained special permission to offer battle
to the Allies. Leaving the garrison of Lille and Tournay to
amuse the Spaniards, he hurried from Maubeuge to oppose the
Dutch, who from Namur had advanced slowly on Philippeville.
Coming upon their army (which was commanded by the prince
of Waldeck) in position behind the river Heure, with an advanced
post in the little walled town of Wakourt, he flung his advanced
guard against the bridge and fortifications of this place to clear
the way for his deployment beyond the river Heure (27th
August). After wasting a thousand brave men in this attempt,
he drew back. For a few days the two armies remained face
to face, cannonading one another at intervals, but no further
fighting occurred, Humi&es returned to the region of the
Scheldt fortresses, and Waldeck to Brussels, For the others
of Louis' six armies the year's campaign passed off . quite
uneventfully.
Simultaneously with these operations, the Jacobite cause was
being fought to an issue in Ireland. War began early in 1689 with
desultory engagements between the Orangemen of the Th
north and the Irish regular army, most of which the earl J^LZY
of Tyrconnel had induced to declare for King Tames. vSS^Jn*
The northern struggle after a time condensed itself into * y * /oy# •
the defence of Derry and Enniskillen. The siege of the former
place, begun by James himself and carried on by the French
general Rosen, lasted 105 days. In marked contrast to the sieges
of the continent, this was resisted by the townsmen themselves,
under the leadership of the clergyman George Walker. But the
relieving force (consisting of two frigates, a supply ship and a force
under Major-general Percy Kirke) was dilatory, and it was not
until the defenders were in the last extremity that Kirke actually
broke through the blockade (July 31st). Enniskillen was less
closely invested, and its inhabitants, organized by Colonel Wolseley
and other officers sent by Kirke, actually kept the open field and
defeated the Jacobites at Newtown Butler (July 31st). A few days
later the Jacobite army withdrew from the north. But it was long
before an adequate army could be sent over from England to deal
with it. Marshal Schomberg (q.v.), one of the most distinguished
soldiers of the time, who had been expelled from the French service
as a Huguenot, was indeed sent over in August, but the army he
brought, some 10,000 strong, was composed of raw recruits, and
when it was assembled in camp at Dundalk to be trained for its
work, it was quickly ruined by an epidemic of fever. But James
failea to take advantage of his opportunity to renew the war in the
north, and the relics of Schomberg's army wintered in security,
covered by the Enniskillen troops. In the spring of 1690, however,
more troops, this time experienced regiments from Holland, Denmark
and Brandenburg, were sent, and in June, Schomberg in Ireland and
Major-general Scravemore in Chester having thoroughly organized
and equipped the field army, King William assumed the command
344
GRAND ALLIANCE
himself. Five days after his arrival he began his advance from
Loughbrickland near Newry, and on the 1st of July he engaged
James's main army on the river Boyne, close to Drogheda. Schom-
berg was killed and William himself wounded, but the Irish army
was routed.
No stand was made by the defeated party either in the Dublin
or in the Waterford district. Lauzun, the commander of the French
auxiliary corps in James's army, and Tyrconnel both discounten-
anced any attempt to defend Limerick, where the Jacobite forces
had reassembled; but Patrick Sarsfield (earl of Lucan), as the
spokesman of the younger and more ardent of the Irish officers,
pleaded for its retention. He was left, therefore, to hold Limerick,
while Tyrconnel and Lauzun moved northward into Galway. Here,
as in the north, the quarrel enlisted the active sympathies of the
people against the invader, and Sarsheld not only surprised and
destroyed the artillery train of William's army, but repulsed every
assault made on the walls that Lauzun had said " could be battered
down by rotten apples." William gave up the siejge on the 30th
of August. The failure was, however, compensated in a measure by
the arrival in Ireland of an expedition under Lord Marlborough,
which captured Cork and Kinsale, and next year (1601) the Jacobite
cause was finally crushed by William's general Ginckell (afterwards
earl of Athlone) in the battle of Aughrim in Galway (July 12th),
in which St Ruth, the French commander, was killed and the
Jacobite army dissipated. Ginckell, following up his victory, be-
sieged Limerick afresh. Tyrconnel died of apoplexy while organizing
the defence* and this time the town was invested by sea as well as
by land. After six weeks' resistance the defenders offered to
capitulate, and with the signing of the treaty of Limerick on the
1st of October the Irish war came to an end. Sarsheld and the
most energetic of King Taraes's supporters retired to France and
were there formed into the famous Irish brigade." Sarsheld was
killed at the battle of Neerwinden two years later.
The campaign of 1600 on the continent of Europe is marked
by two battles, one of which, Luxemburg's victory of Fleurus,
belongs to the category of the world's great battles. It is
described under Fleurus, and the present article only deals
summarily with the conditions in which it was fought. These,
though they in fact led to an encounter that could, in itself,
fairly be called decisive, were in closer accord with the general
spirit of the war than was the decision that arose out of them.
Luxemburg had a powerful enemy in Louvois, and he had
consequently been allotted only an insignificant part in the first
campaign. But after the disasters of 1689 Louis re-arranged
the commands on the north-east frontier so as to allow Humteres,
Luxemburg and Boufflers to combine for united action. " I
will take care that Louvois plays fair," Louis said to the duke
when he gave him his letters of service. Though apparently
Luxemburg was not authorized to order such a combination
himself, as senior officer he would automatically take command
if it came about. The whole force available was probably close
on 100,000, but not half of these were present at the decisive
battle, though Luxemburg certainly practised the utmost
" economy of force " as this was understood in those days (see
also Neerwinden). On the remaining theatres of war, the
dauphin, assisted by the due de Lorge, held the middle Rhine,
and Catinat the Alps, while other forces were in Roussillon, &c,
as before. Catinat's operations are briefly described below.
Those of the others need no description, for though the Allies
formed a plan for a grand concentric advance on Paris, the
preliminaries to this advance were so numerous and so closely
interdependent that on the most favourable estimate the winter
would necessarily find the Allied armies many leagues short of
Paris. In fact, the Rhine offensive collapsed when Charles of
Lorraine died (17th April), and the reconquest of his lost duchy
ceased to be a direct object of the war.
Luxemburg began operations by drawing in from the Sambre
country, where he had hitherto been stationed, to the Scheldt
and " eating up " the country between Oudenarde
1690^* an( * Ghent in the face of a Spanish army concentrated
at the latter place (15th May-i2th June). He then
left Humieres with a containing force in the Scheldt region and
hurried back to the Sambre to. interpose between the Allied
army under Waldeck and the fortress of Dinant which Waldeck
was credited with the intention of besieging. His march from
Tournay to Gerpinnes was counted a model of skill — the locus
classicus for the maxim that ruled till the advent of Napoleon —
" march always in the order in which you encamp, or purpose
to encamp, or fight." For four days the army marched across
country in close order, covered in all directions by reconnoitring
cavalry and advanced, flank and rear guards. Under these
conditions eleven miles a day was practically forced marching,
and on arriving at Jeumont-sur-Sambre the army was given
three days' rest. Then followed a few leisurely marches in the
direction of Charleroi, during which a detachment of BoiuHers's
army came in, and the cavalry explored the country to the north.
On news of the enemy's army being at Trazegnies, Luxemburg
hurried across a ford of the Sambre above Charleroi, but this
proved to be a detachment only, and soon information came
in that Waldeck was encamped near Fleurus. Thereupon
Luxemburg, without consulting his subordinate generals, took
his army to Velaine. He knew that the enemy was marking
time till the troops of Liege and the Brandenburgers from the
Rhine were near enough to co-operate in the Dinant enterprise,
and he was determined to fight a battle at once. From Velaine,
therefore, on the morning of the 1st of July, the army moved
forward to Fleurus and there won one of the most brilliant
victories in the history of the Royal army. But Luxemburg
was not allowed to pursue his advantage. He was ordered to
hold his army in readiness to besiege either Namur, Mons,
Charleroi or Ath, according as later orders dictated; and to
send back the borrowed regiments to Boufflers, who was being
pressed back by the Brandenburg and Li6ge troops. Thus
Waldeck reformed his army in peace at Brussels, where William
III. of England soon afterwards assumed command of the
Allied forces in the Netherlands, and Luxemburg and the other
marshals stood fast for the rest of the campaign, being forbidden
to advance until Catinat — in Italy — should have won a battle.
In this quarter the armed neutrality of the duke of Savoy
had long disquieted the French court. His personal connexions
with the imperial family and his resentment against staitu***
Louvois, who had on some occasion treated him with
his usual patronizing arrogance, inclined him to join the
Allies, while on the other hand he could hope for extensions
of his scanty territory only by siding with Louis. In view of
this doubtful condition of affairs the French army under Catinat
had for some time been maintained on the Alpine frontier, and
in the summer of 1690 Louis XIV. sent an ultimatum to Victor
Amadeus to compel him to take one side or the other actively
and openly. The result was that Victor Emmanuel threw in
his lot with the Allies and obtained help from the Spaniards
and Austrians in the Milanese. Catinat thereupon advanced
into Piedmont, and won, principally by virtue of his own watchful-
ness and the high efficiency of his troops, the important victory
of Staffarda (August 18th, 1690). This did not, however, enable
him to overrun Piedmont, and as the duke was soon reinforced,
he had to be content with the methodical conquest of a few
frontier districts. On the side of Spain, a small French army
under the due de Noailles passed into Catalonia and there lived
at the enemy's expense for the duration of the campaign.
In these theatres of war, and on the Rhine, where the disunion
of the German princes prevented vigorous action, the following
year, 169 1, was uneventful. But in the Netherlands there
were a siege, a war of manoeuvres and a cavalry combat, each
in its way somewhat remarkable. The siege was that of Mons,
which was, like many sieges in the former wars, conducted with
much pomp by Louis XIV. himself, with Boufflers and Vauban
under him. On the surrender of the place, which was hastened
by red-hot shot (April 8th), Louis returned to Versailles and
divided his army between Boufflers and Luxemburg, the former
of whom departed to the Meuse. There he attempted by bom-
bardment to enforce the surrender of Liege, but had to desist when
the elector of Brandenburg threatened Dinant. The principal
armies on either side faced one another under the command
respectively of William III. and of Luxemburg. The Allies
were first concentrated to the south of Namur, and Luxemburg
hurried thither, but neither party found any tempting opportunity
for battle, and when the cavalry had consumed all the forage
available in the district, the two armies edged away gradually
towards Flanders. The war of manoeuvre continued, with a
GRAND ALLIANCE
345
slight balance of advantage on Luxemburg's side, until September,
when William returned to England, leaving Waldeck in command
of the Allied army, with orders to distribute it in winter quarters
amongst the garrison towns. This gave the momentary oppor-
tunity for which Luxemburg had been watching, and at Leuze
(20th Sept.) he fell upon the cavalry of Waldeck's rearguard
and drove it back in disorder with heavy losses until the pursuit
was checked by the Allied infantry.
In 1692 l the Rhine campaign was no more decisive than
before, although Lorge made a successful raid into Wurttemberg
in September and foraged his cavalry in German territory till
the approach of winter. The Spanish campaign was unimportant,
but on the Alpine side the Allies under the duke of Savoy drove
back Catinat into Dauphine, which they ravaged with fire and
sword. But the French peasantry were quicker to take arms
than the Germans, and, inspired by the local gentry — amongst
whom figured the heroine, Philis de la Tour du Pin (1645-1708),
daughter of the marquis de la Charce — they beset every road
with such success that the small regular army of the invaders
was powerless. Brought practically to a standstill, the Allies
soon consumed the provisions that could be gathered in, and
then, fearing lest the snow should close the passes behind them,
they retreated.
In the Low Countries the campaign as before began with a
great siege. Louis and Vauban invested Namur on the 26th
of May. The place was defended by the prince de
JJJT^f Barbancon (who had been governor of Luxemburg
1692. ' when that place was besieged in 1684) and Coehoorn
(q.v.), Vauban's rival in the science of fortification.
Luxemburg, with a small army, manoeuvred to cover the siege
against William IIL's army at Louvain. The place fell on the
5th of June,* after a very few days of Vauban's " regular "
attack, but the citadel held out until the 23rd. Then, as before,
Louis returned to Versailles, giving injunctions to Luxemburg
to " preserve the strong places and the country, while opposing
the enemy's enterprises and subsisting the army at his expense."
This negative policy, contrary to expectation, led to a hard-
fought battle. William, employing a common device, announced
his intention of retaking Namur, but Set his army in motion
for Flanders and the sea-coast fortresses held by the French.
Luxemburg, warned in time, hurried towards the Scheldt, and
the two armies were soon face to face again, Luxemburg about
SteenUrk. Steenkirk, William in front of Hal. William then
formed the plan of surprising Luxemburg's right
wing before it could be supported by the rest of his army,
relying chiefly on false information that a detected spy
at his headquarters was forced to send, to mislead the duke.
But Luxemburg had the material protection of a widespread
net of outposts as well as a secret service, and although ill in
bed when William's advance was reported, he shook off his
apathy, mounted his horse and, enabled by his outpost reports
to divine his opponent's plan, he met it (3rd August) by a swift
concentration of his army, against which the Allies, whose
advance and deployment had been mismanaged, were powerless
(see Steenkirk). In this almost accidental battle both sides
suffered enormous losses, and neither attempted to bring about,
or even to risk, a second resultless trial of strength. Boufflers's
army returned to the Sambre and Luxemburg and William
established themselves for the rest of the season at Lessines
and Ninove respectively, 13 m. apart. After both armies
had broken up into their winter quarters, Louis ordered
Boufflers to attempt the capture of Charleroi. But a bombard-
ment failed to intimidate the garrison, and when the Allies
began to re-assemble, the attempt was given up (i9th-2 xst Oct.).
This failure was, however, compensated by the siege and capture
of Fumes (28th Dec. 1692-7^ Jan. 1693).
In 1693, the culminating point of the war was reached. It
began, as mentioned above, with a winter enterprise that at
1 Louvois died in July 1691.
* A few days before this the great naval reverse of La Hogue put
an end to the projects of invading England hitherto entertained at
Versailles.
least indicated the aggressive spirit of the French generals.
The king promoted his admiral, Tourville, and Catinat, the
rotnrier, to the marshalship, and founded the military order of
St Louis on the 10th of April. The grand army.in the Netherlands
this year numbered 120,000, to oppose whom William III. had
only some 40,000 at hand. But at the very beginning of opera-
tions Louis, after reviewing this large force at Gembloux, broke
it up, in order to send 30,000 under the dauphin to Germany,
where Lorge had captured Heidelberg and seemed able, if re-
inforced, to overrun south Germany. But the imperial general
Prince Louis of Baden took up a position near Heilbronn so
strong that the dauphin and Lorge did not venture to attack
him. Thus King Louis sacrificed a reality to a dream, and for
the third time lost the opportunity, for which he always longed,
of commanding in chief in a great battle. He himself, to judge
by his letter to Monsieur on the 8th of June, regarded his action
as a sacrifice of personal dreams to tangible realities. And,
before the event falsified predictions, there was much to be said
for the course he took, which accorded better with the prevailing
system of war than a Fleurus or a Neerwinden. In this system
of war the rival armies, as armies, were almost in a state of
equilibrium, and more was to be expected from an army dealing
with something dissimilar to itself — a fortress or a patch of land
or a convoy — than from its collision with another army of equal
force.
Thus Luxemburg obtained his last and greatest opportunity.
He was still superior in numbers, but William at Louvain had
the advantage of position. The former, authorized
by his master this year " nan settlement d'emptcher les w i a den»
ennemis de rien entreprendre, mats d'emporter quelques
avantages sur eux f " threatened Li6ge, drew William over to its
defence and then advanced to attack him. The Allies, however,
retired to another position, between the Great and Little Geete
rivers, and there, in a strongly entrenched position around
Neerwinden, they were attacked by Luxemburg on the 29th of
July. The long and doubtful battle, one of the greatest victories
ever won by the French army, is briefly described under Neer-
winden. It ended in a brilliant victory for the assailant, but
Luxemburg's exhausted army did not pursue; William was as
unshaken and determined as ever; and the campaign closed,
not with a treaty of peace, but with a few manoeuvres which,
by inducing William to believe in an attack on Ath, enabled
Luxemburg to besiege and capture Charleroi (October).
Neerwinden was not the only French victory of the year.
Catinat, advancing from Fenestrelle and Susa to the relief of
Pinerolo (Pignerol), which the duke of Savoy was jh^™,^
besieging, took up a position in formal order of battle
north of the village of Marsaglia. Here on the 4th of
October the duke of Savoy attacked him with his whole army,
front to front. But the greatly superior regimental efficiency
of the French, and Catinat's minute attention to details' in
arraying them, gave the new marshal a victory that was a not
unworthy pendant to Neerwinden. The Piedmontese and their
allies lost, it is said, 10,000 killed, wounded and prisoners, as
against Catinat's 1800. But here, too, the results were trifling,
and this year of victory is remembered chiefly as the year in
which " people perished of want to the accompaniment of
TeDeums."
In 1694 (late in the season owing to the prevailing distress and
famine) Louis opened a fresh campaign in the Netherlands. The
armies were larger and more ineffective than ever, and William
offered no further opportunities to his formidable opponent. In
September, after inducing William to desist from his intention of
besieging Dunkirk by appearing on his flank with a mass of cavalry, 4
which had ridden from the Meuse, 100 m., in 4 days, Luxemburg
gave up his command. He died on the 4th of January following,
and with him the tradition of the Cond6 school of warfare dis*
appeared from Europe. In Catalonia the marshal de Noailles won
a victory (27th May) over the Spaniards at the ford of the Ter
1 Marsaglia is, if not the first, at any rate, one of the first, instances
of a bayonet charge by a long deployed line of infantry.
4 Hussars figured here for the first time in western Europe. A
regiment of them had been raised in 1692 from deserters from the
Austrian service.
346
GRAND ALLIANCE
(TorroeUa, 5 m. above the mouth of the river)* and in consequence
captured a number of walled towns. '
In 1695' William found Marshal Villeroi a far less formidable
opponent than Luxemburg had been, and easily succeeded in
Later keeping him in Flanders while a corps of the Allies in-
camostos vested Namur. Coehoom directed the siege-works, and
otthTwrnr. Boufflers the defence. Gradually, as in 1692, the de-
fenders were dislodged from the town, the citadel
outworks and the citadel itself, the last being assaulted with
success by the " British grenadiers," as the song commemorates,
on the 30th of August. Boufflers was rewarded for his sixty-seven
days' defence by tne grade of marshal.
By 1696 necessity had compelled Louis to renounce his vague
and indefinite offensive policy, and he now frankly restricted his
efforts to the maintenance . 01 what he had won in the preceding
campaigns. In this new policy he met with much success.
Boufflers, Lorgp, Noailles ana even the incompetent Villeroi held
the field in their various spheres of operations without allowing the
Allies to inflict any material injury, and also (by having recourse
again to the policy of living by plunder) preserving French soil
from the burden of their own maintenance. In this, as before, they
were powerfully assisted by the disunion and divided counsels of
their heterogeneous enemies. In Piedmont, Catinat crowned his
work by making peace and alliance with the duke of Savoy, and
the two late enemies having joined forces captured one of the
fortresses of the Milanese. The last campaign was in 1697. Catinat
and Vauban besieged Ath. This siege was perhaps the most regular
and methodical of the great engineer's career. It lasted 23 days
and cost the assailants only 50 men. King William did not stir
from his entrenched position at Brussels, nor did Villeroi dare to
attack him there. Lastly, in August 1697 Vendome, Noailles'
successor, captured Barcelona. The peace of Ryswijk, signed on
the 30th of October, closed this war by practically restoring the
status quo ante; but neither the ambitions of Louis nor the Grand
Alliance that opposed them ceased to have force, and three years
later the struggle began anew (see Spanish Succession, War of the) .
Concurrently with these campaigns, the emperor had been en-
gaged in a much more serious war on his eastern marches against
Aastro- *ke °ld enemy, the Turks. This war arose in 1682 out
Turkish °* internal disturbances in Hungary. The campaign of
wan, t ne following year is memorable for all time as the last
1662-1699. great wave of Turkish invasion. Mahommed IV. ad-
vanced from Belgrade in May, with 200,000 men, drove
back the small imperial army of Prince Charles of Lorraine,
and early in July invested Vienna itself. The two months' defence
of Vienna by Count Rttdiger Starhemberg (1635-1701) and the
brilliant victory of the relieving army led by John Sobieski, king of
Poland, and Prince Charles on the 12th ol September 1683, were
events which, besides their intrinsic importance, possess the romantic
interest of an old knightly crusade against the heathen.
But the course of the war, after the tide of invasion had ebbed,
differed little from the wars of contemporary western Europe.
Turkey figured rather as a factor in the balance of power than as
the " infidel," and although the battles and sieges in Hungary were
characterized by the bitter personal hostility of Christian to Turk
which had no counterpart in the West, the war as a whole was as
methodical and tedious as any Rhine or Low Countries campaign.
In 1684 Charles of Lorraine gained a victory at Waitzen on the 27th
of June and another at Eperies on the 18th of September, and
unsuccessfully besieged Budapest.
In 1685 the Germans were uniformly successful, though a victory
at Gran (August 16th) and the storming of Neuhausel (August iQthi)
were the only outstanding incidents, in 1686 Charles, assisted by
the elector Max Emanuel of Bavaria, besieged and stormed Buda-
pest (Sept. 2nd). In 1687 they followed up their success by a great
victory at Mohacz (Aug. 12th). In 1688 the Austriaus advanced
still further, took Belgrade, threatened Widin and entered Bosnia.
The marerave Louis of Baden, who afterward became one of the
most celebrated of the methodical generals of the day, won a victory
at Derbent on the 5th of September 1688, and next year, in spite of
the outbreak of. a general European war, he managed to win another
battle at Nisch (Sept. 24th), to capture Widin (Oct. 14th) and to
advance to the Balkans, but in 1690, more troops having to be
withdrawn for the European war, the imperialist generals lost
Nisch, Widin and Belgrade one after the other. There was, however,
no repetition of the scenes of 1683, for in 1691 Louis won the battle
of Szlankamen (Aug. 19th). After two more desultory if successful
campaigns he was called to serve in western Europe, and for three
years more the war dragged on without result, until in 1697 the
young Prince Eugene was appointed to command the imperialists
and won a great and decisive victory at Zenta on the Theiss (Sept.
nth). This induced a last general advance of the Germans east-
ward, which was definitively successful and brought about the
peace of Carlowitz (January 1699). (C. F. A.)
Naval Operations
The naval side of the war waged by the powers of western
Europe from 1689 to 1697, to reduce the predominance of King
Louis XIV., was not marked by any very conspicuous exhibition
of energy or capacity, but it was singularly decisive in its results.
At the beginning of the struggle the French fleet kept the sea
in face of the united fleets of Great Britain and Holland. It
displayed even in 1690 a marked superiority over them. Before
the struggle ended it had been fairly driven into port, and though
its failure was to a great extent due to the exhaustion of the
French finances, yet the inability of the French admirals to
make a proper use of their fleets, and the incapacity of the king's
ministers to direct the efforts of his naval officers to the most
effective aims, were largely responsible for the result.
When the war began in 1689, the British Admiralty was still
suffering from the disorders of the reign of King Charles II.,
which had been only in part corrected during the short reign of
James II. The first squadrons were sent out late and in in-
sufficient strength. The Dutch, crushed by the obligation to
maintain a great army, found an increasing difficulty in preparing
their fleet for action early. Louis XIV., a despotic monarch,
with as yet unexhausted resources, had it within his power to
strike first. The opportunity offered him was a very tempting
one. Ireland was still loyal to King James II., and would there-
fore have afforded an admirable basis of operations to a French
fleet. No serious attempt was made to profit by the advantage
thus presented. In March 1689 King James was landed and
reinforcements were prepared for him at Brest. A British
squadron under the command of Arthur Herbert (afterwards
Lord Torrington), sent to intercept them, reached the French
port too late, and on returning to the coast of Ireland sighted
the convoy off the Old Head of Kinsale on the 10th of May.
The French admiral Chateaurenault held on to Bantry Bay,
and an indecisive encounter took place on the nth of May.
The troops and stores for King James were successfully landed.
Then both admirals, the British and the French, returned home,
and neither in that nor in the following year was any serious
effort made by the French to gain command of the sea between
Ireland and England. On the contrary, a great French fleet
entered the Channel, and gained a success over the combined
British and Dutch fleets on the 10th of July 1600 (see Beach?
Head, Battle of), which was not followed up by vigorous
action. In the meantime King William III. passed over to
Ireland and won the battle of the Boyne. During the following
year, while the cause of King James was being finally ruined
in Ireland, the main French fleet was cruising in the Bay of
Biscay, principally for the purpose of avoiding battle. During
the whole of 1689, 1690 and 169 1, British squadrons were active
on the Irish coast. One raised the siege of Londonderry in July
1689, and another convoyed the first British forces sent over
under the duke of Schomberg. Immediately after Beachy
Head in 1690, a part of the Channel fleet carried out an expedition
under the earl (afterwards duke) of Marlborough, which took
Cork and reduced a large part of the south of the island. In
1 69 1 the French did little more than help to carry away the
wreckage of their allies and their own detachments. In 1692
a vigorous but tardy attempt was made to employ their fleet
to cover an invasion of England (see La Hogue, Battle of).
It ended in defeat, and the allies remained masters of the Channel.
The defeat of La Hogue did not do so much harm to the naval
power of King Louis as has sometimes been supposed. In the
next year, 1693, he was able to strike a severe blow at the Allies.
The important Mediterranean trade of Great Britain and
Holland, called for convenience the Smyrna convoy, having
been delayed during the previous year, anxious measures were
taken to see it safe on its road in 1693. But the arrangements
of the allied governments and admirals were not good. They
made no effort to blockade Brest, nor did they take effective steps
to discover whether or not the French fleet had left the port.
The convoy was seen beyond the Scilly Isles by the main fleet.
But as the French admiral Tourville had left Brest for the Straits
of Gibraltar with a powerful force and had been joined by a
squadron from Toulon, the whole convoy was scattered or taken
by him, in. the latter days of June, near Lagos. But though
this success was a very fair equivalent for the defeat at La
GRAND CANARY— GRAND CANYON
347
Hogue, it was the last serious effort made by the navy of Louis
XIV. in this war. Want of money compelled him to lay his
fleet up. The allies were now free to make full use of their own,
to harass the French coast, to intercept French commerce, and
to co-operate with the armies acting against France. Some of
the operations undertaken by them were more remarkable for
the violence of the effort than for the magnitude of the results.
The numerous bombardments of French Channel ports, and the
attempts to destroy St Malo, the great nursery of the active
French privateers, by infernal machines, did little harm. A
British attack on Brest in June 1694 was beaten off with heavy
loss. The scheme had been betrayed by Jacobite correspondents.
Yet the inability of the French king to avert these enterprises
showed the weakness of his navy and the limitations of his power.
The protection of British and Dutch commerce was never com-
plete, for the French privateers were active to the end. But
French commerce was wholly ruined.
It was the: misfortune of the allies that their co-operation
with armies was largely with the forces of a power so languid
and so bankrupt as Spain* Yet the series of operations directed
by Russel in the Mediterranean throughout 1694 and 1695
demonstrated the superiority of the allied fleet, and checked
the advance of the French in Catalonia. Contemporary with
the campaigns in Europe was a long series of cruises against the
French in the West Indies, undertaken by the British navy,
with more or less help from the Dutch and a little feeble assistance
from the Spaniards. They began with the cruise of Captain
Lawrence Wright in 1 600-1691, and ended with that of Admiral
Nevil in 1696-1697. It cannot be said that they attained to any
very honourable achievement, or even did much to weaken the
French hold on their possessions in the West Indies and North
America. Some, and notably the attack made on Quebec by
Sir William Phips in 1690, with a force raised in the British
colonies, ended in defeat. None of them was so triumphant
as the plunder of Cartagena in South America by the Frenchman
Pointis, in 1697, at the head of a semi-piratical force. Too often
there was absolute misconduct. In the buccaneering and piratical
atmosphere of the West Indies, the naval officers of the day,
who were still infected with the corruption of the reign of Charles
II., and who calculated on distance from home to secure them
immunity, sank nearly to the level of pirates and buccaneers.
The indifference of the age to the laws of health, and its ignorance
of them, caused the ravages of disease to be frightful. In the
case of Admiral Nevil's squadron, the admiral himself and all
his captains except one, died during the cruise, and the ships
were unmanned. Yet it was their own vices which caused
these expeditions to fail, and not the strength of the French
defence. When the war ended, the navy of King Louis XIV.
had disappeared from the sea.
See Burchett, Memoirs of Transactions at Sea during the War
with France, i688-i6q7 (London, 1703); Lediard, Natal History
(London, 1735), particularly valuable for the quotations in his
notes. For the West Indian voyages, Tronde, Batailles navales de
la France (Paris, 1867); De Yonghe, Geschiedenis van het Neder-
laudsche Zeewezen (Haarlem, i860). (D. H.)
GRAND CANARY (Gran Caharia), an island in the Atlantic
Ocean, forming part of the Spanish archipelago of the Canary
Islands (q.v.). Pop. (1900) 127,471; area 523 sq. m. Grand
Canary, the most fertile island of the group, is nearly circular
in shape, with a diameter of 24 m. and a circumference of 75 m.
The interior is a mass of mountain with ravines radiating to
the shore. Its highest peak, Los Pexos, is 6400 ft. Large
tracts are covered with native pine (P. canariensis). There are
several mineral springs on the island. Las Palmas (pop. 44,51 7),
the capital, is described in a separate article. Telde (8978),
the second place in the island, stands on a plain, surrounded
by palm trees. At Atalaya, a short distance from Las Palmas,
the making of earthenware vessels employs some hundreds
of people, who inhabit holes made in the tufa.
GRAND CANTON, a profound gorge in the north-west corner
oi Arizona, in the south-western part of the United States of
America, carved in the plateau region by the Colorado river.
Of it Captain Dutton says: " Those who have long and carefully
studied the Grand Canyon of the Colorado do not hesitate for
a moment to pronounce it by far the most sublime of all
earthly spectacles "; and this is also the verdict of many who
have only viewed it in one or two of its parts.
The Colorado river is made by the junction of two large streams,
the Green and Grand, fed by the rains and snows of the Rocky
Mountains. It has a length of about 2000 m. and a drainage
area of 255,000 sq. m., emptying into the head of the Gulf of
California. In its course the Colorado passes through a mountain
section; then a plateau section; and finally a desert lowland
section which extends to its mouth. It is in the plateau section
that the Grand Canyon is situated. Here the surface of the
country lies from 5000 to 9000 ft. above sea-level, being a table-
land region of buttes and mesas diversified by lava intrusions,
flows and cinder cones. The region consists in the main of
stratified rocks bodily uplifted in a nearly horizontal position,
though profoundly faulted here and there, and with some
moderate folding. For a thousand miles the river has cut a
series of canyons, bearing different names, which reach their
culmination in the Marble Canyon, 66 m. long, and the contiguous
Grand Canyon which extends for a distance of 217 m. farther
down stream, making a total length of continuous canyon from
2000 to 6000 ft. in depth, for a distance of 283 m., the longest
and deepest canyon in the world. This huge gash in the earth
is the work of the Colorado river, with accompanying weathering,
through long ages; and the river is still engaged in deepening
it as it rushes along the canyon bottom.
The higher parts of the enclosing plateau have sufficient
rainfall for forests, whose growth is also made possible in part
by the cool climate and consequently retarded evaporation;
but the less elevated portions have an arid climate, while the
climate in the canyon bottom is that of the true desert. Thus
the canyon is really in a desert region, as is shown by the fact
that only two living streams enter the river for a distance of
500 m. from the Green river to the lower end of the Grand
Canyon; and only one, the Kanab Creek, enters the Grand
Canyon itself. This, moreover, is dry during most of the year.
In spite of this lack of tributaries, a large volume of water flows
through the canyon at all seasons of the year, some coming
from the scattered tributaries, some from springs, but most
from the rains and snows of the distant mountains about the
headwaters. Owing to enclosure between steeply rising canyon
walls, evaporation is retarded, thus increasing the possibility
of the long journey of the water from the mountains to the sea
across a vast stretch of arid land.
The river in the canyon varies from a few feet to an unknown
depth, and at times of flood has a greatly increased volume.
The river varies in width from 50 ft. in some of the narrow
Granite Gorges, where it bathes both rock walls, to 500 or 600
ft. in more open places. In the 283 m. of the Marble and Grand
Canyons, the river falls 2330 ft., and at one point has a fall of
210 ft. in 10 m. The current velocity varies from 3 to 20 or
more miles per hour, being increased in places by low falls and
rapids; but there are no high falls below the junction of the
Green and Grand.
Besides the canyons of the main river, there are a multitude
of lateral canyons occupied by streams at intervals of heavy
rain. As Powell says, the region " is a composite of thousands,
and tens of thousands of gorges." There are "thousands of
gorges like that below Niagara Falls, and there are a thousand
Yosemites." The largest of all, the Grand Canyon, has an
average depth of 4000 ft. and a width of 4§ to 12 m. For a
long distance, where crossing the Kaibab plateau, the depth
is 6000 ft. For much of the distance there is an inner narrower
gorge sunk in the bottom of a broad outer canyon. The narrow
gorge is in some places no more than 3500 ft. wide at the top.
To illustrate the depth of the Grand Canyon, Powell writes:
u Pluck up Mount Washington (6293 ft. high) by the roots to
the level of the sea, and drop it head first into the Grand Canyon,
and the dam will not force its waters over the wall."
While there are notable differences in the Grand Canyon
from point to point, the main elements are much alike throughout
34»
GRAND-DUKE
iti lengthy and are due to the succession of rock strata revealed
in the canyon walls. At the base, for some 800 ft., there is a
complex of crystalline rocks of early geological age, consisting
of gneiss, schist, slate and other rocks, greatly plicated and
traversed by dikes and granite intrusions. This is an ancient
mountain mass, which has been greatly denuded. On it rest
a series of durable quartzite beds inclined to the horizontal,
forming about 800 ft. more of the lower canyon wall. On this
come first 500 ft. of greenish sandstones and then 700 ft. of
bedded sandstone and limestone strata, some massive and some
thin, which on weathering form a series of alcoves. These beds,
like those above, are in nearly horizontal position. Above this
comes 1600 ft. of limestone — often a beautiful marble, as in the
Marble Canyon, but in the Grand Canyon stained a brilliant
red by iron oxide washed from overlying beds. Above this
" red wall " are 800 ft. of grey and bright red sandstone beds
looking " like vast ribbons of landscape. 1 ' At the top of the
canyon it zooo ft. of limestone with gypsum and chert, noted
for the pinnacles and towers which denudation has developed.
It is these different rock beds, with their various colours, and
the differences in the effect of weathering upon them, that give
the great variety and grandeur to the canyon scenery. There
are towers and turrets, pinnacles and alcoves, cliffs, ledges,
crags and moderate talus slopes, each with its characteristic
coioui and form according to the set of strata in which it lies.
The main river has cleft the plateau in a huge gash; innumerable
side gorges have cut it to right and left; and weathering has
etched out the cliffs and crags and helped to paint it in the gaudy
colour bands that stretch before the eye. There is grandeur
here and weirdness in abundance, but beauty is lacking. Powell
puts the case graphically when he writes: " A wall of homo-
geneous granite like that in the Yosemite is but a naked wall,
whether it be 1000 or 5000 ft. high. Hundreds and thousands of
feet mean nothing to the eye when they stand in a meaningless
front. A mountain covered by pure snow 10,000 ft. high has
but little more effect on the imagination than a mountain of
snow 1000 ft. high — it is but more of the same thing; but a
facade of seven systems of rock has its sublimity multiplied
sevenfold."
To the ordinary person most of the Grand Canyon is at
present inaccessible, for, as Powell states, "a year scarcely
suffices to see it all "; and " it is a region more difficult to
traverse than the Alps or the Himalayas." But a part of the
canyon is now easily accessible to tourists. A trail leads from
the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fc railway at Flagstaff, Arizona;
and a branch line of the railway extends from Williams, Arizona,
to a hotel on the very brink of the canyon. The plateau, which
in places bears an open forest, mainly of pine, varies in elevation,
but is for the most part a series of fairly level terrace tops with
steep faces, with mesas and buttes here and there, and, especially
near the huge extinct volcano of San Francisco mountain,
with much evidence of former volcanic activity, including
numerous cinder cones. The traveller comes abruptly to the
edge of the canyon, at whose bottom, over a mile below, is seen
the silvery thread of water where the muddy torrent rushes
along on its never-ceasing task of sawing its way into the depths
of the earth. Opposite rise the highly coloured and terraced
slopes of the other canyon wall, whose crest is fully 12 m. distant.
Down by the river are the folded rocks of an ancient mountain
system, formed before vertebrate life appeared on the earth,
then worn to an almost level condition through untold ages of
slow denudation* Slowly, then, the mountains sank beneath the
level of the sea* and in the Carboniferous Period — about the
time of the formation of the coal-beds — sediments began to
bury the ancient mountains* This lasted through other untold
ages until the Tertiary Period — through much of the Palaeozoic
and all of the Mesoaoic time — and a total of from 1 2,000 to 16,000
ft. of sediments were deposited. Since then erosion has been
dominant* and the river has eaten its way down to, and into,
the deeply buried mountains, opening the strata for us to read,
like the pages of a book. In some parts of the plateau region as
much as jo.ooo ft. of rock have been stripped away, and over
an area of 200,000 sq. m. an average of over 6000 ft. has been
removed.
The Grand Canyon was probably discovered by G.L. de Cardenas
in 1540, but for 329 years the inaccessibility of the region
prevented its exploration. Various people visited parts of it
or made reports regarding it; and the Ives Expedition of 1858
contains a report upon the canyon written by Prof. J. S. New-
berry. But it was not until 1869 that the first real exploration
of the Grand Canyon was made. In that year Major J. W.
Powell, with five associates (three left the party in the Grand
Canyon), made the complete journey by boat from the junction
of the Green and Grand rivers to the lower end of the Grand
Canyon. This hazardous journey ranks as one of the most
daring and remarkable explorations ever undertaken in North
America; and Powell's descriptions of the expedition are
among the most fascinating accounts of travel relating to the
continent. Powell made another expedition in 187 1, but did
not go the whole length of the canyon. The government survey
conducted by Lieut. George M. Wheeler also explored parts
of the canyon, and C. £. Dutton carried on extensive
studies of the canyon and the contiguous plateau region.
In 1890 Robert B. Stanton, with six associates, went through
the canyon in boats, making a survey to determine the
feasibility of building a railway along its base. Two other
parties, one in 1896 (Nat. Galloway and William Richmond)
the other in 1897 (George F. Flavell and companion), have
made the journey through the canyon. So far as there is
record these are the only four parties that have ever made
the complete journey through the Grand Canyon. It has
sometimes been said that James White made the passage of
the canyon before Powell did; but this story rests upon no
real basis.
For accounts of the Grand Canyon of the Colorado see J. W.
Powell, Explorations of the Colorado River of the West and its Tribu-
taries (Washington, 1875) ; J. W. Powell, Canyons of the Colorado
(Meadville, Pa., 1895); F. S. Dellcnbaugh, The Romance of the
Colorado River (New York, 1902); Capt. C. E. Dutton, Tertiary
History of the Grand Canyon District, with Atlas (Washington, 1862),
being Monograph No. 2 , U.S. Geological Survey. See also the excellent
topographic map of the Grand Canyon prepared by F. E. Matthes
and published by the U.S. Geological Survey. (R. S. T.)
GRAND-DUKE (Fr. grand-due, Ital. granduca, Ger. Gross-
herzog), a title borne by princes ranking between king and duke.
The dignity was first bestowed in 1567 by Pope Pius V. on Duke
Cosimo I. of Florence, his son Francis obtaining the emperor's
confirmation in 1576; and the predicate " Royal Highness "
was added in 1699. In 1806 Napoleon created his brother-in-law
Joachim Murat, grand-duke of Berg, and in the same year the
title was assumed by the landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt, the
elector of Baden, and the new ruler of the secularized bishopric
of Wurzburg (formerly Ferdinand III., grand-duke of Tuscany)
on joining the Confederation of the Rhine. At the present time,
according to the decision of the Congress of Vienna, the title is
borne by the sovereigns of Luxemburg, Saxe-Weimar (grand-
duke of Saxony), Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Mecklenburg-Strelitt,
and Oldenburg (since 1829), as well as by those of Hesse-Darm-
stadt and Baden. The emperor of Austria includes among his
titles those of grand-duke of Cracow and Tuscany, and the king
of Prussia those of grand-duke of the Lower Rhine and Posen.
The title is also retained by the dispossessed Habsburg-Lorraine
dynasty of Tuscany.
Grand-duke is also the conventional English equivalent of
the Russian vdikiy knyaz, more properly " grand-prince " (Ger.
Grossfurst), at one time the title of the rulers of Russia, who,
as the eldest born of the house of Rurik, exercised overlordship
over the udydniye knyazi or local princes. On the partition of
the inheritance of Rurik, the eldest of each branch assumed
the title of grand-prince. Under the domination of the Golden
Horde the right to bestow the title velikiy knyaz was reserved by
the Tatar Khan, who gave it to the prince of Moskow. In
Lithuania this title also symbolized a similar overlordship, and
it passed to the kings of Poland on the union of Lithuania with
the Polish republic The style of the emperor of Russia now
GRANDEE— GRANDMONTINES
349
includes the titles of grand-duke (velikiy knyaz) of Smolensk,
Lithuania, Volhynia, Podolia and Finland. Until 1886 this
title grand-duke or grand-duchess, with the style "Imperial
Highness/' was borne by all descendants of the imperial house.
It is now confined to the sons and daughters, brothers and sisters,
and male grandchildren of the emperor. The other members of
the imperial house bear the title of prince {knyaz) and princess
{hnyaginya, if married, knyaxhna, if unmarried) with the style of
"Highness." The emperor of Austria, as king of Hungary,
also bears this title as " grand-duke " of Transylvania, which
was erected into a " grand-princedom " (GrossfUrstentum) in
1765 by Maria Theresa.
GRANDEB (Span. Grande), a title of honour borne by the
highest class of the Spanish nobility. It would appear to have
been originally assumed by the most important nobles to dis-
tinguish them from the mass of the ricos hombres, or great barons
of the realm. It was thus, as Selden points out, not a general
term denoting a class, but " an additional dignity not only to
all dukes, but to some marquesses and condes also " {Titles of
Honor, ed. 1672, p. 478). It formerly implied certain privileges;
notably that of sitting, covered in the royal presence. Until
the time of Ferdinand and Isabella, when the power of the
territorial nobles was broken, the grandees had also certain more
important rights, e^. freedom from taxation, immunity from
arrest save at the king's express command, and even — in certain
cases — the right to renounce their allegiance and make war on
the king. Their number and privileges were further restricted
by Charles I. (the emperor Charles V.), who reserved to the
crown the right to bestow the title. The grandees of Spain were
further divided into three classes: (1) those who spoke to the
king and received his reply with their heads covered; (2) those
who addressed him uncovered, but put on their hats to hear his
answer; (3) those who awaited the permission of the king before
covering themselves. All grandees were addressed by the king
as " my cousin " (mi primo), whereas ordinary nobles were
only qualified as " my kinsman " {mi poriente). The title of
" grandee," abolished under King Joseph Bonaparte, was revived
in 1834, when by the Estatudo real grandees were given precedence
in the Chamber of Peers. The designation is now, however,
purely titular, and implies neither privilege nor power.
GRAND FORKS, a city in the Boundary district of British
Columbia; situated at the junction of the north and south forks
of the Kettle river, 2 m. N. of the international boundary. Pop.
(1908) about 2500. It is in a good agricultural district, but
owes its importance largely to the erection here* of the extensive
smelting plant of the Granby Consolidated Company, which
smelts the ores obtained from the various parts of the Boundary
country, but chiefly those from the Knob Hill and Old Ironsides
mines. The Canadian Pacific railway, as well as the Great
Northern railway, runs to Grand Forks, which thus has excellent
railway communication with the south and east.
GRAND FORKS, a city and the county-seat of Grand Forks
county, North Dakota, U.S.A., at the junction of the Red river
(of the North) and Red Lake river (whence its name), about
80 m. N. of Fargo. Pop. (1900) 7652, of whom 2781 were
foreign-born; (1905) 10,127; (1910) 27,888. 'It is served by the
Northern Pacific and the Great Northern railways, and has a
considerable river traffic, the Red river (when dredged) having a
channel 60 ft. wide and 4 ft. deep at low water below Grand
Forks. At University, a small suburb, is the University of
North Dakota (co-educational; opened 1884). Affiliated with
it is Wesley College (Methodist Episcopal), now at Grand Forks
(with a campus adjoining that of the University), but formerly
the Red River Valley University at Wahpeton, North Dakota,
In 1907-1908 the University had 57 instructors and 861 students;
its library had 25,000 bound volumes and 5000 pamphlets. At
Grand Forks, also, are St Bernard's Ursuline Academy (Roman
Catholic) and Grand Forks College (Lutheran). Among the
city's principal buildings are the public library, the Federal
building and a Y.M.C.A. building. As the centre of the great
wheat valley of the Red river, it has a busy trade in wheat, flour
and agricultural machinery and implements, as well as large
jobbing interests. There are railway car-shops hetfe, and among
the manufactures are crackers, brooms, bricks and tiles and
cement. The municipality owns its water-works and an electric
lighting plant for street lighting. In 1801 John Cameron (d. 1 804)
erected a temporary trading post for the North-West Fur
Company on the site of the present city; it afterwards became
a trading post of the Hudson's Bay Company. The first per-
manent settlement was made in 187 1, and Grand Forks was
reached by the Northern Pacific and chartered as a city in 1881.
GRAND HAVEN, a city, port of entry, and the county-seat of
Ottawa county, Michigan, U.S.A., on Lake Michigan, at the
mouth of Grand river, 30 m. W. by N. of Grand Rapids and
78 m. £. of Milwaukee. Pop. (1900) 4743, of whom 1277 were
foreign-born; (1904) 5239; (19x0) 5856. It is served by the
Grand Trunk and the P£re Marquette railways, and by steamboat
lines to Chicago, Milwaukee and other lake ports, and is connected
with Grand Rapids and Muskegon by an electric line. The
city manufactures pianos, refrigerators, printing presses and
leather; is a centre for the shipment of fruit and celery; and
has valuable fisheries near — fresh, salt and smoked fish, especially
whitefish, are shipped in considerable quantities. Grand Haven
is the port of entry for the Customs District of Michigan, and has
a small export and import trade. The municipality owns and
operates its water-works and electric-lighting plant. A trading
post was established here about 1821 by an agent of the American
Fur Company, but the permanent settlement of the city did not
begin until 1834. Grand Haven was laid out as a town in 1836,
and was chartered as a city in 1867.
GRANDIER, URBAN (1590-1634), priest of the church of
Sainte Croix at Loudun in the department of Vienne, France, was
accused of witchcraft in 1632 by some hysterical novices of
the Carmelite Convent, where the trial, protracted for two
years, was held. Grandier was found guilty and burnt alive
at Loudun on the 18th of August 1634.
GRAND ISLAND, a city and the county-seat of Hall county,
Nebraska, U.S.A., on the Platte river, about 154 m. W. by S.
of Omaha. Pop. (1900) 7554 (1339 foreign-born); (1910) 10,326.
It is served by the Union Pacific, the Chicago, Burlington &
Quincy, and the St Joseph & Grand Island railways, being the
western terminus of the last-named line and a southern terminus
of a branch of the Union Pacific* The city is situated on a slope
skirting the broad, level bottom-lands of the Platte river, in the
midst of a fertile farming region. Grand Island College (Baptist ;
co-educational) was established in 1892 and the Grand Island
Business and Normal College in 1890; and the city is the seat
of a state Sailors' and Soldiers' Home, established in 1888.
Grand Island has a large wholesale trade in groceries, fruits, &c;
is an important horse-market, and has large stock-yards. There
are shops of the Union Pacific in the city, and among its manu-
factures are beet-sugar — Grand Island is in one of the principal
beet-sugar-growing districts of the state — brooms, wire fences,
confectionery and canned corn. The most important industry
of the county is the raising and feeding of sheep and neat cattle.
A " Grand Island " was founded in 1857, and was named from
a large island (nearly 50 m. long) in the Platte opposite its site;
but the present city was laid out by the Union Pacific in 1866.
It was chartered as a city in 1873.
GRANDMONTINES, a religious order founded by St Stephen
of Thiers in Auvergne towards the end of the nth century.
St Stephen was so impressed by the lives of the hermits whom he
saw in Calabria that he desired to introduce the same manner
of life into his native country. He was ordained, and in 1073
obtained the pope's permission to establish an order. He
betook himself to Auvergne, and in the desert of Muret, near
Limoges, he made himself a hut of branches of trees and lived
there for some time in complete solitude. A few disciples
gathered round him, and a community was formed. The rule
was not reduced to writing until after Stephen's death, n 24.
The life was eremitical and very severe in regard to silence,
diet and bodily austerities; it was modelled after the rule of
the Camaldolese, but various regulations were adopted from
the Augustinian canons. The superior was called the "Corrector."
350
GRAND RAPIDS— GRANET
About 1150 the hermits, being compelled to leave Muret, settled
in the neighbouring desert of Grandmont, whence the order
derived its name. Louis VII. founded a house at Vincennes
near Paris, and the order had a great vogue in France, as many
as sixty houses being established by 11 70, but it seems never to
have found favour out of France; it had, however, a couple of
cells in England up to the middle of the 15th century. The
system of lay brothers was introduced on a large scale, and the
management of the temporals was in great measure left in their
hands; the arrangement did not work well, and the quarrels
between the lay brothers and the choir monks were a constant
source of weakness. Later centuries witnessed mitigations and
reforms in the life, and at last the order came to an end just
before the French Revolution. There were two or three convents of
Grandmontine nuns. The order played no great part in history.
See Helyot, Hist, des ordres reHgieux (I7H)* vii. cc. 54, 55; Max
Heimbucher, Orden und Kottfregationen (1896), i. § 31 ; and the
art. in Wetxer and Welte, Ktrchenlexicon (ed. 2), and in Herzog,
Realencyklopddie (ed. 3). (E. C. B.)
GRAND RAPIDS, a city and the county-seat of Kent county,
Michigan, U.S.A., at the head of navigation on the Grand river,
about 30 m. from Lake Michigan and 145 m. W.N.W. of Detroit.
Pop. (1800) 60,378; (1000) 87,565, of whom 23,896 were
foreign-born and 604 were negroes; (1910 census) 112,571.
Of the foreign-born population in 1900, 11,137 were Hollanders;
3318 English-Canadians; 3253 Germans; 1137 Irish; 1060 from
German Poland; and 1026 from England. Grand Rapids is
served by the Michigan Central, the Lake Shore & Michigan
Southern, the Grand Trunk, the Pere Marquette and the Grand
Rapids & Indiana railways, and by electric interurban railways.
The valley here is about 2 m. wide, with a range of hills on
either side, and about midway between these hills the river flows
over a limestone bed, falling about 18 ft. in x m. Factories and
mills line both banks, but the business blocks are nearly all
along the foot of the E. range of hills; the finest residences
command picturesque views from the hills farther back, the
residences on the W. side being less pretentious and standing
on bottom-lands. The principal business thoroughfares are
Canal, Monroe and Division streets. Among the important
buildings are the United States Government building (Grand
Rapids is the seat of the southern division of the Federal judicial
district of western Michigan), the County Court house, the city
hall, the public library (presented by Martin A. Ryerson of
Chicago), the Manufacturer's building, the Evening Press
building, the Michigan Trust building and several handsome
churches. The principal charitable institutions are the municipal
Tuberculosis Sanatorium; the city hospital; the Union Benevo-
lent Association, which maintains a home and hospital for the
indigent, together with a training school for nurses; Saint
John's orphan asylum (under the superintendence of the
Dominican Sisters); Saint Mary's hospital (in charge of the
Sisters of Mercy) ; Butterworth hospital (with a training school
for nurses); the Woman's Home and Hospital, maintained
largely by the Woman's Christian Temperance Union; the
Aldrich Memorial Deaconess 1 Home; the D. A. Blodgett
Memorial Children's Home, and the Michigan Masonic Home.
About 1 m. N. of the city, overlooking the river, is the Michigan
Soldiers' Home, with accommodation for 500. On the E.
limits of the city is Reed's Lake, a popular resort during the
summer season. The city is the see of Roman Catholic and
Protestant Episcopal bishops. In 1007-1008, through the
efforts of a committee of the Board of Trade, interest was aroused
in the improvement of the city, appropriations were made for
a " city plan," and flood walls were completed for the protection
of the lower parts of the city from inundation. The large
quantities of fruit, cereals and vegetables from the surrounding
country, and ample facilities for transportation by rail and by
the river, which is navigable from below the rapids to its mouth,
make the commerce and trade of Grand Rapids very important.
The manufacturing interests are greatly promoted by the fine
water-power, and as a furniture centre the city has a world-wide
reputation— the value of the furniture manufactured within its
limits in 1004 amounted to $9,400,007, about 5*5% of the value
of all furniture manufactured in the United States. Grand
Rapids manufactures carpet sweepers — a large proportion of
the whole world's product, — flour and grist mill products,
foundry and machine-shop products, planing-mill products,
school seats, wood-working tools, fly paper, calcined plaster,
barrels, kegs, carriages, wagons, agricultural implements and
bricks and tile. The total factory product in 1904 was valued
at $31,032,589, an increase of 39-6% in four years.
On the site of Grand Rapids there was for a long time a large
Ottawa Indian village, and for the conversion of the Indians a
Baptist mission was established in 1824. Two years later a trad-
ing post joined the mission, in 1833 a saw mill was built, and for
the next few years the growth was rapid. The settlement was
organized as a town in 1834, was incorporated as a village in 1838,
and was chartered as a city in 1850, the city charter being revised
in 1857, 1871, 1877 and 1905.
GRAND RAPIDS, a City and the county-seat of Wood county,
Wisconsin, U.S.A., on both sides of the Wisconsin river, about
137 m. N.W. of Milwaukee. Pop. (1000) 4493, of whom 1073
were foreign-born; (1905) 6157; (1910) 6521. It is served
by the Minneapolis, St Paul & Sault Ste Marie, the Green Bay &
Western, the Chicago & North- Western, and the Chicago, Mil-
waukee & St Paul railways. It is a railway and distributing
centre, and has manufactories of lumber, sash, doors and blinds,
hubs and spokes, woodenware, paper, wood-pulp, furniture and
flour. The public buildings include a post office, court house, city
hall, city hospital and the T. B. Scott Free Public Library (1892).
The city owns and operates its water-works; the electric-lighting
and telephone companies are co-operative. Grand Rapids was
first chartered as a city in 1869.* That part of Grand Rapids on
the west bank of the Wisconsin river was formerly the city of
Centralia (pop. in 1800, 1435); it was annexed in 1900.
GRANDSON (Ger. Grandsee), a town in the Swiss canton of
Vaud, near the south-western end of the Lake of Neuchatel,
and by rail 20 m. S.W. of Neuchatel and 3 m. N. of Yverdon.
Its population in 1000 was 1771, mainly French-speaking and
Protestant. Its ancient castle was long the home of a noted race
of barons, while in the very old church (once belonging to a
Benedictine monastery) there are a number of Roman columns,
&c, from Avenches and Yverdon. It has now a tobacco factory.
Its lords were vassals of the house of Savoy, till in 1475 the castle
was taken by the Swiss at the beginning of their war with Charles
the Bold, duke of Burgundy, whose ally was the duchess df Savoy.
It was retaken by Charles in February 1476, and the garrison
put to death. The Swiss hastened to revenge this deed, and in
a famous battle (2nd March 1476) defeated Charles with great
loss, capturing much booty. The scene of the battle was between
Concise and Corcelles, north-east of the town, and is marked by
several columns, perhaps ancient menhirs. Grandson was thence-
forward till 1798 ruled in common by Berne and Fribourg, and
then was given to the canton du Leman, which in 1803 became
that of Vaud.
See F. Chablo2, La Balaille de Grandson (Lausanne, 1897).
GRANET, FRANCOIS MARIUS (1777-1849), French painter,
was born at Aix in Provence, on the 17th of December 1777; his
father was a small builder. The boy's strong desires led his
parents to place him — after some preliminary teaching from
a passing Italian artist — in a free school of art directed by
M. Constantin, a landscape painter of some reputation. In 1793
Granet followed the volunteers of Aix to the siege of Toulon,
at the dose of which he obtained employment as a decorator in
the arsenal. Whilst a lad he had, at Aix, made the acquaintance
of the young comte de Forbin, and upon his invitation Granet,
in the year 1797, went to Paris. De Forbin was one of the
pupils of David, and Granet entered the same studio. Later he
got possession of a cell in the convent of Capuchins, which,
having served for a manufactory of assignats during the Revolu-
tion, was afterwards inhabited almost exclusively by artists.
In the changing lights and shadows of the corridors of the
Capuchins, Granet found the materials for that one picture to
the painting of which, with varying success, he devoted his life.
GRANGER-GRANITE
35*
In 1802 he left Paris for Rome, where he remained until 1819,
when he returned to Paris, bringing with him besides various
other works one of fourteen repetitions of his celebrated Choeur
des Capucins, executed in 181 1. The figures of the monks
celebrating mass are taken in this subject as a substantive part
of the architectural effect, and this is the case with all Granet's
works, even with those in which the figure subject would seem
to assert its importance, and its historical or romantic interest.
" Stella painting a Madonna on his Prison Wall/' 1810 (Leuchten-
berg collection); "Sodoma a I'hopital," 1815 (Louvre);
"Basilique basse de St Francois d'Assise," 1823 (Louvre);
"Racbat de prisonniers," 1831 (Louvre); "Mort de Poussin,"
1834 (Villa Demidoff, Florence), are among his principal works;
all are marked by the same peculiarities, everything is sacrificed
to tone. In 1810 Louis Philippe decorated Granet, and after-
wards named him Chevalier de l'Ordre St Michel, and Conser-
vateur des tableaux de Versailles (1826). He became member of
the institute in 1830; but in spite of these honours, and the
ties which bound him to M. de Forbin, then director of the Louvre,
Granet constantly returned to Rome. After 1848 he retired to
Aix, immediately lost his wife, and died himself on the 21st of
November 1849. He bequeathed to his native town the greater
part of his fortune and all his collections, now exhibited in the
Mus6e, together with a very fine portrait of the donor painted
by Ingres in 1811.
GRANGE (through the A.-Fr. graunge, from the Med. Lat.
granea, a place for storing grain, granum), properly a granary
or barn. In the middle ages a " grange " was a detached portion
of a manor with farm-houses and barns belonging to a lord or to
a religious house; in it the crops could be conveniently stored for
the purpose of collecting rent or tithe. Thus, such barns are often
known as " tithe-barns." In many cases a chapel was included
among the buildings or stood apart as a separate edifice. The
word is still used as a name for a superior kind of farm-house,
or for a country-house which has farm-buildings and agricultural
land attached to it.
Architecturally considered, the " grange " was usually a long
building with high wooden roof, sometimes divided by posts or
columns into a sort of nave and aisles, and with walls strongly
buttressed. Sometimes these granges were of very great extent;
one at St Leonards, Hampshire, was originally 225 ft. long by
75 ft. wide, and a still larger one (303 ft. long) existed at Chertsey.
Ancient granges, or tithe-barns, still exist at Glastonbury,
Bradford-on-Avon, St Mary's Abbey, York, and at Coxwold.
A fine example at Peterborough was pulled down at the end of
the 19th century. In France there are many examples in stone of
the 1 2th, 13th and 14th centuries; some divided into a central
and two side aisles by arcades in stone. Externally granges are
noticeable on account of their great roofs and the slight elevation
of the eaves, from 8 to 10 ft. only in height. In the 15th century
they were sometimes protected by moats and towers. At
Ardennes in Normandy, where the grange was 154 ft. long;
Vauclerc near Laon, Picardy, 246 ft. long and in two storeys;
at Perrieres, St Vigor, near Bayeux, and Ouilly near Falaise, all
in Normandy; and at St Martin-au-Bois (Oise) are a series of
fine examples. Attached to the abbey of Longchamps, near
Paris, is one of the best-preserved granges in France, with walls
in stone and internally divided into three aisles in oak timber
of extremely fine construction.
In the social economic movement in the United States of
America, which began in 1867 and was known as the " Farmers'
Movement," "grange" was adopted as the name for a local
chapter of the Order of the Patrons of Husbandry, and the move-
ment is thus often known as the " Grangers' Movement "(see
Farmers' Movement). There are a National Grange at Wash-
ington, supervising the local divisions, and state granges in
most states.
GRANGEMOUTH, a police burgh and seaport of Stirlingshire,
Scotland. Pop. (1901) 8386. It is situated on the south shore
of the estuary of the Forth, at the mouth of the Carron and also
of Grange Burn, a right-hand tributary of the Carron, 3 m. N.E.
of Falkirk by the North British and Caledonian railways. It
is the terminus of the Forth and Clyde Canal, from the opening
of which (1 789) its history may be dated. The principal buildings
are the town hall (in the Greek style), public hall, public institute
and free library, and there is a public park presented by the
marquess of Zetland. Since 18 10, when it became a head port, it
has gradually attained the position of the chief port of the Forth
west of Leith. The first dock (opened in 1846), the second
(1859) and the third (1882) cover an area of 28 acres, with timber
ponds of 44 acres and a total quayage of 2500 yards. New
docks, 93 acres in extent, with an entrance from the firth, were
opened in 1005 at a cost of more than £i,ooo,ooo v The works
rendered it necessary to divert the influx of the Grange from the
Carron to the Forth. Timber, pig-iron and iron ore are the lead-
ing imports, and coal, produce and iron the chief exports. The
industries include shipbuilding, rope and sail making and iron
founding. There is regular steamer communication with London,
Christiania, Hamburg, Rotterdam and Amsterdam. Experi-
ments in steam navigation were carried out in 1802 with the
" Charlotte Dundas " on the Forth and Clyde Canal at Grange-
mouth. Kersa House adjoining the town on the S.W. is a seat
of the marquess of Zetland.
GRANGER, JAMES (1723-1776), English clergyman and print-
collector, was born in Dorset in 1723. He went to Oxford,
and then entered holy orders, becoming vicar of Shiplake; but
apart from his hobby of portrait-collecting, which resulted in
the principal work associated with his name, and the publication
of some sermons, his life was uneventful. Yet a new word was
added to the language — " to grangerize " — on account of him.
In 1769 he published in two quarto volumes a Biographical
History of England " consisting of characters dispersed in different
classes, and adapted to a methodical catalogue of engraved
British heads"; this was "intended as an essay towards re-
ducing our biography to a system, and a help to the knowledge
of portraits." The work was supplemented in later editions by
Granger, and still further editions were brought out by the Rev.
Mark Noble, with additions from Granger's materials. Blank
leaves were left for the filling in of engraved portraits for extra
illustration of the text, and it became a favourite pursuit to
discover such illustrations and insert them in a Granger, so that
" grangerizing " became a term for such an extra-illustration
of any work, especially with cuts taken from other books. The
immediate result of the appearance of Granger's own work was
the rise in value of books containing portraits, which were cut out
and inserted in collector's copies.
GRANITE (adapted from the Ital. 'granite, grained; Lat.
granum, grain), the group designation for a family of igneous
rocks whose essential characteristics are that they are of acid
composition (containing high percentages of silica), consist
principally of quartz and felspar, with some mica, hornblende
or augite, and are of holocrystalline or " granitoid " structure.
In popular usage the term is given to almost any crystalline rock
which resembles granite in appearance or properties. Thus
syenites, diorites, gabbros, diabases, porphyries, gneiss, and even
limestones and dolomites, are bought and sold daily as "granites."
True granites are common rocks, especially among the older
strata of the earth's crust. They have great variety in colour
and general appearance, some being white or grey, while others
are pink, greenish or yellow: this depends mainly on the state
of preservation of their felspars, which are their most abundant
minerals, and partly also on the relative proportion in which
they contain biotite and other dark coloured silicates. Many
granites have large rounded or angular crystals of felspar (Shap
granite, many Cornish granites), well seen on polished faces.
Others show an elementary foliation or banding (e.g. Aberdeen
granite). Rounded or oval dark patches frequently appear in
the granitic matrix of many Cornish rocks of this group.
In the field granite usually occurs in great masses, covering
wide areas. These are generally elliptical or nearly circular
and may be 20 m. in diameter or more. In the same district
separate areas or " bosses " of granite may be found, all having
much in common in their mineralogical and structural features,
and such groups have probably all proceeded from the same
35*
GRANITE
focus or deep-seated source. Towards their margins these
granite outcrops often show modifications by which they pass into
diorite or syenite, &c; they may also be finer grained (like
porphyries) or rich in tourmaline, or intersected by many veins of
pegmatite. From the main granite dikes or veins often run out
into the surrounding rocks, thus proving that the granite is
intrusive and has forced its way upwards by splitting apart the
strata among which it lies. Further evidence of this is afforded
by the alteration which the granite has produced through a zone
which varies from a few yards to a mile or more in breadth
around it. In the vicinity of intrusive granites slates become
converted into hornfelses containing biotite, chiastolite or
andalusite, sillimanite and a variety of other minerals; lime-
stones recrystallize as marbles, and all rocks, according to their
composition, are more or less profoundly modified in such a way
as to prove that they have been raised to a high temperature by
proximity to the molten intrusive mass. Where exposed in
cliffs and other natural sections many granites have a rudely
columnar appearance. Others weather into large cuboidal
blocks which may produce structures resembling cyclopean
masonry. The tors of the west of England are of this nature.
These differences depend on the disposition of the joint cracks
which traverse the rock and are opened up by the action of
frost and weathering.
The majority of granites are so coarse in grain that their
principal component minerals may be identified in the hand
specimens by the unaided eye. The felspar is pearly, white
or pink, with smooth cleaved surfaces; the quartz is usually
transparent, glassy with rough irregular fractures; the micas
appear as shining black or white flakes. Very coarse granites
are called pegmatite or giant granite, while very fine granites
are known as microgranites (though the latter term has also been
applied to certain porphyries). Many granites show pearly
scales of white mica; others contain dark green or black horn-
blende in small prisms. Reddish grains of sphene or of garnet
are occasionally visible. In the tourmaline granites prisms of
black schorl occur either singly or in stellate groups. The
parallel banded structures of many granites, which may be
original or due to crushing, connect these rocks with the granite
gneisses or orthogneisses.
Under the microscope the felspar is mainly orthoclase with
perthite or microcline, while a small amount of plagioclase
(ranging from oligoclase to albite) is practically never absent.
These minerals are often clouded by a deposit of fine mica and
kaolin, due to weathering. The quartz is transparent, irregular
in form, destitute of cleavage, and is filled with very small
cavities which contain a fluid, a mobile bubble and sometimes
a minute crystal. The micas, brown and white, are often in
parallel growth. The hornblende of granites is usually pale
green in section, the augite and enstatite nearly colourless.
Tourmaline may be brown, yellow or blue, and often the same
crystal shows zones of different colours. Apatite, zircon and
iron oxides, in small crystals, are always present. Among the
less common accessories may be mentioned pinkish garnets;
andalusite in small pleochroic crystals; colourless grains of
topaz; six-sided compound crystals of cordierite, which weather
to dark green pinite; blue-black hornblende (riebeckite), beryl,
tinstone, orthite and pyrites.
The sequence of crystallization in the granites is of a normal
type, and may be ascertained by observing the perfection with
which the different minerals have crystallized and the order in
which they enclose one another. Zircon, apatite and iron oxides
are the first; their crystals are small, very perfect and nearly
free from enclosures; they are followed by hornblende and
biotite; if muscovite is present it succeeds the brown mica.
Of the felspars the plagioclase separates first and forms well-
shaped crystals of which the central parts may be more basic
than the outer zones. Last come orthoclase, quartz, microcline
and micropegmatite, which fill up the irregular spaces left
between the earlier minerals. Exceptions to this sequence are
unusual; sometimes the first of the felspars have preceded the
hornblende or biotite which may envelop them in ophitic manner.
An earlier generation of felspar, and occasionally also of quartz,
may be represented by large and perfect crystals of these minerals
giving the rock a porphyritic character.
Many granites have suffered modification by the action of
vapours emitted during cooling. Hydrofluoric and boric
emanations exert a profound influence on granitic rocks; their
felspar is resolved into aggregates of kaolin, muscovite and
quartz; tourmaline appears, largely replacing the brown mica;
topaz also is not uncommon. In this way the rotten granite or
china stone, used in pottery, originates; and over considerable
areas kaolin replaces the felspar and forms valuable sources of
china clay. Veins of quartz, tourmaline and chlorite may
traverse the granite, containing tinstone often in workable
quantities. These veins are the principal sources of tin in Corn-
wall, but the same changes may appear in the body of the
granite without being restricted to veins, and tinstone occurs
also as an original constituent of some granite pegmatites.
Granites may also be modified by crushing. Their crystals
tend to lose their original forms and to break into mosaics of
interlocking grains. The latter structure is very well seen in the
quartz, which is a brittle mineral under stress. White mica
develops in the felspars. The larger crystals are converted into
lenticular or elliptical " augen," which may be shattered through-
out or may have a peripheral seam of small detached granules
surrounding a still undisintegrated core. Streaks of "granu-
litic " or pulverized material wind irregularly through the rock,
giving it a roughly foliated character.
The interesting structural variation of granite in which there
are spheroidal masses surrounded by a granitic matrix is known
as " orbicular granite." The spheroids range from a fraction
of an inch to a foot in diameter, and may have a felspar crystal
at the centre. Around this there may be several zones, alternately
lighter and darker in colour, consisting of the essential minerals
of the rock in different proportions. Radiate arrangement is
sometimes visible in the crystals of the whole or part of the
spheroid. Spheroidal granites of this sort are found in Sweden,
Finland, Ireland, &c. In other cases the spheroids are simply
dark rounded lumps of biotite, in fine scales. These are probably
due to the adhesion of the biotite crystals to one another as
they separated from the rock magma at an early stage in its
crystallization. The Rapakiwi granites of Finland have many
round or ovoidal felspar crystals scattered through a granitic
matrix. These larger felspars have no crystalline outlines and
consist of orthoclase or microcline surrounded by borders of
white oligoclase. Often they enclose dark crystals of biotite
and hornblende, arranged zonally. Many of these granites
contain tourmaline, fluorite and monazite. In most granite
masses, especially near their contacts with the surrounding rocks,
it is common to find enclosures of altered sedimentary or igneous
materials which are more or less dissolved and permeated by
the granitic magma.
The chemical composition of a few granites from different parts
of the world is given below : — ^
SiO,.
AUO..
Fe,0*
FeO.
MgO.
CaO.
Na,0.
K.O.
I.
74-69
16-21
i-i6
0-48
0-28
1-18
364
11.
71*33
Iii8
3-96
i-45
o-88
2-IO
3-51
349
ill.
72-93
13-87
1.94
0-79
051
0-74
3-68
3*74
IV.
76-12
I2-I8
1-21
0-72
I-I2
i-54
2-55
3*21
V.
73-90
1365
0-28
0-42
0-14
023
253
i-8o
799
VI.
68-87
1662
o-43
2-72
i-6o
0-71
6-48
I. Cam Brea, Cornwall (Phillips); II. Mazaruni, Brit. Guiana
(Harrison); III. Rodo, near Alno, Vesternorrland, Sweden (Holm-
quist) ; IV. Abruzzen, a group of hills in the Riesengebirge (Milch) ;
V. Pikes Peak, Colorado (Matthews); VI. Wilson's Creek, near
Omeo, Victoria (Howitt).
Onlv the most important components are shown in the table,
but all granites contain also small amounts of zirconia, titanium
oxide, phosphoric acid, sulphur, oxides of barium, strontium,
manganese and water. These are in all cases less than I %, and
usually much less than this, except the water, which may be 2 or
3 % in weathered rocks. From the chemical composition it may be
computed that granites contain, on an average, 35 to 55 % of quartz,
20 to jo % of orthoclase, 20 to 30 % of plagioclase felspar (including
the albite of microperthite) and 5 to 10% of ferromagnesian
GRAN SASSO DlTALlA— GRANT*, SIR ; ) F.
silicates and minor accessaries such as apatite, zircon, sphene and
iron oxides. The apike^: pegmatites, graphic granites and musco-
vite granites are usually richest in silica, while with increase of biotite
and hornblende, augite and enstatite the analyses show the presence
of more magnesia, iron and lime.
In the weathering of granite the quartz suffers little change;
the felspar passes into dull cloudy, soft aggregates of kaolin, mus-
covite and secondary quartz, while chlpnte, quartz and calcite
replace the biotite, hornblende and augite. The rock often assumes
a rusty brown colour from the liberation of the oxides of iron, and
the decomposed mass is friable and can easily be dug with a spade;
where the granite has been cut by joint planes not too close together
weathering proceeds from their surfaces and large rounded blocks:
may be left embedded in rotted materials. The amount of water
in the rock increases and part of the alkalis is carried away in
solution; they form valuable sources of mineral food to plants.
The chemical changes are shown by the following analyses:
H,0.
SiO,.
TiO,.
AlfO*
FeO.
FejO,.
CaO.
MgO.
Na.O.
K*0.
PjO«.
I.
II.
III.
470
6>33
6682
6569
n.d.
n.d.
,?"3X
14-33
15-62
15-23
3'6o
169
i-88
4-39
3-21
3^3
2-63
2-44
2-76
2*64
2-70
2.58
2*t2
2*67
2.44
2'0O
0«10
n-d.
0-06
Analyses of I., fresh grey granite; TI. brown moderately firm
granite; HI. residual sand, produced by the weathering of the
same mass (anah G. P. Merrill). _ <
The differences are surprisingly small and are principally
an increase in the water and a diminution in the amount of
alkalis and lime together with the oxidation of the ferrous
oxide. (J.S.F.)
GRAN SASSO 1TITALIA (" Great Rock of Italy "), a mountain
of the Abruzzi, Italy, the culminating point of the Apennines,
9560 ft. in height. In formation it resembles the limestone Alps
of Tirol and there are on its elevated plateaus a number of doline
or funnel-shaped depressions in,to which the melted snow and
the rain sink. The summit is covered with snow for the greater
part of^the year. Seen from the Adriatic, Monte Corno, as it is
sometimes called, from its resemblance to a horn, affords a
magnificent spectacle; the Alpine region beneath its summit
is still the home of the wild boar, and here and there are dense
woods of beech and pine. The group has numerous other lofty
peaks, of which the chief are the Pizzo d Intermesole (8680 ft.),
the Corno Piccolo (8650 ft.), the Pizzo Cefalone (8307 ft.) and
the Monte della Portella (7835 ft.). The most convenient
starting-point for the ascent is Assergi, 10 m. N.E. of Aquila,
at the S. foot of the Gran Sasso. The Italian Alpine Club has
erected a hut S.W. of the principal summit, and has published a
special guidebook (E. Abbate, Guida al Gran Sasso d' Italia,
Rome, 1888). The view from the summit extends to the
Tyrrhenian Sea on the west and the mountains of Dalmatia on
the east in clear weather. The ascent was first made in 1794
by Orazio Delfico from the Teramo side. In Assergi is the
interesting church of Sta. Maria Assunta, dating from 1150,
with later alterations (see Gavini, in V Arte, 1901, 316, 391).
GRANT, SIR ALEXANDER, 8th Bart. (1826-1884), British
scholar and educationalist, was born in New York on the 13th of
September 1826, After a childhood spent in the West Indies,
he was educated at Harrow and Oxford. He entered Oxford
as scholar of Balliol, and subsequently held a fellowship at Oriel
from 1849 to i860. He made a special study of the Aristotelian
philosophy, and in 1857 published an edition of the Ethics
(4th ed. 1885) which became a standard text-book, at Oxford.
In 1855 he was one of the examiners for the Indian Civil Service,
and in 1856 a public examiner in classics at Oxford. In the
latter year he succeeded to the baronetcy. In 1859 he went to
Madras with Sir Charles Trevelyan, and was appointed inspector
of schools; the next year he removed to Bombay, to fill the post
of Professor of Itistory and Political Economy in the Elphinstone
College. Of this he became Principal in 1862; and, a year
later, vice-chancellor of Bombay University, a post he held from
1863 to.1865 and again from 1,865 to 1868, In 1865 he took upon
himself also the duties of Director of Public Instruction, for
Bombay Presidency.., In 1868 he was appointed a member of
the Legislative CounciL, (! Inthe same year, upon the death of
Sir David Brewster, he was appointed Principal of Edinburgh
12
353
University, which had conferred an honorary LL.JX degree upon
him in 1865. From that time till his death (which occurred in
Edinburgh on the 30th of November 1884) his energies were
entirely devoted to the well-being of the University. The
institution of the medical school in the University was almost
solely due to his initiative; and the Tercentenary Festival,
celebrated in 1884, was the result of his wisely directed ethu-
siasm. In that year he published The Story of the University of
Edinburgh during its First Three Hundred Years. He was
created Hon. D.C.L. of Oxford in 1880, and an honorary fellow
of Oriel College in 1882.
GRANT, ANNE (1755-1838), Scottish writer, generally known
as Mrs Grant of Laggan, was born in Glasgow, on the 21st of
February 1755. Her childhood was spent in America, her father,
Duncan Mac Vicar, being an army officer on
service there. In 1768 the family returned
to Scotland, and in 1779 Aniie married
James Grant, an army chaplain, who was
also minister of the parish of Laggan, near
Fort Augustus, Inverness, where her father
was barrack-master. On her husband's death in 1801 she
was left with a large family and a small income. In 1802 she
published by subscription a volume of Original Poems, with
some Translations from the Gaelic, which'was favourably received.
In 1806 her Letters from the Mountains , with their spirited descrip-
tion of Highland scenery and legends, awakened much interest.
Her other works are Memoirs of an American Lady, with Sketches
of Manners and Scenery in America as they existed previous to
the Revolution (1808), containing reminiscences of her childhood;
Essays on the Superstitions of the Highlanders of Scotland (1811);
and Eighteen Hundred and Thirteen, a Poem (1814). In 1810
she went to live in Edinburgh. For the last twelve years of her
life she received a pension from government. She died on the
7 th of November 1838. .
See Memoir and Correspondence of Mrs Grant of Laggan, edited
hy her son J. P. Grant (3 vols., 1844).
GRANT, CHARLES (1746-1823), British politician, was born
at Aldourie, Inverness-shire, on the 16th of April 1746, the day
on which his father, Alexander Grant, was killed whilst fighting
for the Jacobites at Culloden. When a young man Charles
went to India, where he became secretary, and later a member
of the board of trade. He returned to Scotland in 1700, and in
1802 was elected to parliament as member for the county of
Inverness. In the House of Commons his chief interests were in
Indian affairs, and he was especially vigorous in his hostility
to the policy of the Marquess Wellesley. In 1805 he was chosen
chairman of the directors of the East India Company and he
retired from parliament in 1 8 1 8. A friend of William Wilberf orce,
Grant was a prominent member of the evangelical party in the
Church of England; he was a generous supporter of the church's
missionary undertakings. He was largely responsible for the
establishment of the East India college, which was afterwards
erected at Haileybury. He died in London on the 3 1st of October
1823. His eldest son, Charles, was created, a peer in 1835 as
Baron Glenelg.
See Henry Morris, Life of Charles Grant (1904).
GRANT, SIR FRANCIS (1803-1878), English portrait-painter,
fourth son of Francis Grant of Kjjgraston, Perthshire, was born
at Edinburgh in 1803, He was educated for the bar, but at the
age of twenty-four he began at Edinburgh systematically to
study the practice of art. On completing a course of instruction
he removed to London, and as early as 1843 exhibited at the
Royal Academy. At the beginning of his career he utilized his
sporting experiences by painting groups of huntsmen, horse9
and hounds, such as the u Meet of H.M. Staghounds " and the
" Melton Hunt "; but his position in society gradually made
him a fashionable portrait-painter. In drapery he had the taste
of a connoisseur, and rendered the minutest details of costume
■with felicitous accuracy. In. female portraiture he achieved
considerable success, although . rather in depicting, the high-
born graces and external characteristics than the true personality.
Among his portraits of this class may be mentioned Lady
xn. 12
:GRANT,. Q. M— GRANT, ■, SIR J. H.
354
Glenlyqn, the marchioness of Waterford, Lady Rodney and Mrs
Beauderk. In his portraits of generals and sportsmen he
proved himself more equal to his subjects than in those of states-
men and men of letters. He painted many of the principal
celebrities of the time, including Scott, Macaulay, Lockhart,
Disraeli, Hardinge, Gough, Derby, Palmerston and Russell, his
brother Sir J. Hope Grant and his friend Sir Edwin Landseer.
From the first his career was rapidly prosperous. In 1842 he
was elected an associate of the Royal Academy, and in 185 1 an
Academician; and in 1866 he was chosen to succeed Sir C.
Eastlake in the post of president, for which his chief recom-
mendations were his social distinction, tact, urbanity and
friendly and liberal consideration of his brother artists. Shortly
after his election as president he was knighted, and in 1870 the
degree of D.C.L. was conferred upon him by the university of
Oxford. He died on the 5th of October 1878.
GRANT* GEORGE MONRO (1835-1902), principal of Queen's
University, Kingston, Ontario, was born in Nova Scotia in 1835.
He was educated at Glasgow university, where he had a brilliant
academic career; and having entered the ministry of the
Presbyterian Church, he returned to Canada and obtained a
pastoral change in Halifax, Nova Scotia, which he held from
1863 to 1877. He quickly gained a high reputation as a preacher
and as an eloquent speaker on political subjects. When Canada
was confederated in 1867 Nova Scotia was the province most
strongly opposed to federal union. Grant threw the whole
weight of his great influence in favour of confederation, and his
oratory played an important part in securing the success of
the movement. When the consolidation of the Dominion by
means of railway construction was under discussion in 1872,
Grant travelled from the Atlantic to the Pacific with the engineers
who surveyed the route of the Canadian Pacific railway, and his
book Ocean to Ocean (1873) was one of the first things that opened
the eyes of Canadians to the value of the immense heritage
they enjoyed. He never lost an opportunity, whether in the
pulpit or on the platform, of pressing on his hearers that the
greatest future for Canada lay in unity with the rest of the
British Empire; and his broad statesman-like judgment made him
an authority which politicians of all parties were glad to consult.
In 1877 Grant was appointed principal of Queen's University,
Kingston, Ontario, which through his exertions and influence
expanded from a small denominational college into a large and
influential educational centre; and he attracted to it an excep-
tionally able body of professors whose influence in speculation,
and research was widely felt during the quarter of a century that
he remained at its head. In 1888 he visited Australia, New
Zealand and South Africa, the effect of this experience being to
strengthen still further the Imperialism which was the guiding
principle of his political opinions. On the outbreak of the South
African War in 1899 Grant was at first disposed to be hostile
to the policy of Lord Salisbury and Mr Chamberlain; but his
eyes were soon opened to the real nature of President Kruger's
government, and he enthusiastically welcomed and supported the
national feeling which sent men from the outlying portions of the
Empire to assist in upholding British supremacy in South Africa.
Grant did not live to see the conclusion of peace, his death occur-
ring at Kingston on the 10th of May 1902. At the time of his
death The Times observed that " it is acknowledge^ on all hands
that in him the Dominion has lost one of the ablest men that it
has yet produced." He was the author of a number of works, of
which the most notable besides Ocean to Ocean are, Advantages of
Imperial Federation (1889), Our National Objects and Aims (1890) ,
Religions of the World in Relation to Christianity (1894) and
volumes of sermons and lectures. Grant married in 1872 Jessie,
daughter of William Lawson of Halifax.
GRANT, JAMES (1822-1887), British novelist, was born in
Edinburgh on the 1st of August 1822. His father, John Grant, was
a captain in the 92nd Gordon Highlanders and had served through
the Peninsular War. For several years James Grant was in New-
foundland with his father, but in 1839 he returned to England,
and entered the 62nd Foot as an ensign. In 1843 he resigned
his commission and devoted himself to writing, first magazine
articles, but soon a profusion of novels,. fulLof vivacity and
incident, and dealing mainly with military scenes and characters.
His best stories, perhaps, were The Romance of War (his first,
1845), Bothwell (1851), Frank Hilton; or, The Queen's Own (1855),
The Phantom Regiment and Harry Ogilvie (1856), Lucy Arden
(1858), The White Cockade (1867), Only an Ensign (1871), Shall
I Win Her ? (1874), Playing with Fire (1887). Grant also wrote
British Battles on Land and Sea (1873-1875) and valuable books
on Scottish history. Permanent value attaches to his great
work, in three volumes, on Old and New Edinburgh (1880).
He was the founder and energetic promoter of the National
Association for the Vindication of Scottish Rights. In 1875 he
became a Roman Catholic. He died on the 5th of May 1887.
GRANT, JAMES AUGUSTUS (182 7-1 892), Scottish explorer
of eastern equatorial Africa, was born at Nairn, where his father
was the parish minister, on the nth of April 1827. He was
educated at the grammar school and Marischal College, Aberdeen,
and in 1846 joined the Indian army. He saw active service in the
Sikh War (1848-49), served throughout the mutiny of 1857,
and was wounded in the_operations for the relief of Lucknow.
He returned to England in 1858, and in i860, joined J. H. Speke
(q.v.) in the memorable expedition which solved the problem of
the Nile sources. The expedition left Zanzibar in October i860
and reached Gondokoro, where the travellers were again in touch
with civilization, in February 1863. Speke was the leader, but
Grant carried out several investigations independently and made
valuable botanical collections. He acted throughout in absolute
loyalty to his comrade. In 1864 he published, a* supplementary
to Speke's account of their journey, A Walk across Africa, in
which he dealt particularly with " the ordinary life and pursuits,
the habits and feelings of the natives " and the economic value
of the countries traversed. In 1864 he was awarded the patron's
medal of the Royal Geographical Society, arid in 1866 given the
Companionship of the Bath in recognition of his services in
the expedition. He served in the intelligence department of the
Abyssinian expedition of 1868; for this he was made C.S.I, and
received the Abyssinian medal. At the close of the war he re- 1
tired from the army with the rank of lieutenant-colonel. . He had
married in 1865, and he now settled down at Nairn, where he
died on the nth of February 1892. He made contributions to
the journals of various learned societies, the most notable being
the " Botany of the Speke and Grant Expedition " in vol. xxix.
of the Transactions of the Linnaean Society.
GRANT, SIR JAMES HOPE (1808-1875), English general,
fifth and youngest son of Francis Grant of KUjgraston, Perthshire,
and brother of Sir Francis Grant, P.R.A., was born on the 22nd
of July 1808. He entered the army in 1826 as cornet in the 9th
Lancers, and became lieutenant in 1828 and captain in 1835.
In 1842 he was brigade-major to Lord Saltoun in the Chinese War,
and specially distinguished himself at the capture of Chin-Kiang,
after which he received the rank of major and the C.B. In the
first Sikh War of 1845-46 he took part in the battle of Sobraon;
and in the Punjab campaign of 1848-49 he commanded
the 9th Lancers, and won high reputation in the battles of
Chillianwalla and Guzerat (Gujarat). He was promoted brevet
lieutenant-colonel and shortly afterwards to the same substantive
rank. In 1854 he became brevet-colonel, and in 1856 brigadier
of cavalry. He took a leading part in the suppression of the
Indian mutiny of 1857, holding for some time the command
of the cavalry division, and afterwards of a movable column of
horse and foot. After rendering valuable service in the operations
before Delhi and in the final assault on the city, he directed the
victorious march of the cavalry and horse artillery despatched in
the direction of Cawnpore to open up communication with the
commander-in-chief Sir Colin Campbell, whom he met near the
Alambagh, and who raised him to the rank of brigadier-general,
and placed the whole force under his command during what
remained of the perilous march to Lucknow for the relief of the
residency. After the retirement towards Cawnpore he greatly
aided in effecting there the total rout of the rebel troops, by
making a detour which threatened their rear; and following in
pursuit with a flying column, he defeated them with the loss of
GRANT, SIR P.— GRANT, U. S.
355
nearly all their guns at Serai Ghat. He also took part in the
operations connected with the recapture of Lucknow, shortly
after which he was promoted to the rank of major-general,
and appointed to the command of the force employed for the final
pacification of India, a position in which his unwearied energy,
and his vigilance and caution united to high personal daring,
tendered very valuable service. Before the work of pacification
was quite completed he was created K.C.B. In 1859 he was
appointed, with the local rank of lieutenant-general, to the com-
mand of the British land fotces in the united French and British
expedition against China. The object of the campaign was
accomplished within three months of the landing of the forces at
Pei-tang (1st of August i860). The Taku Forts had been carried
by assault, the Chinese defeated three times in the open and
Peking occupied. For his conduct in this, which has been called
the "most successful and the best carried out of England's
little wars," he received the thanks of parliament and was
gazetted G.C.B. In 1861 he was made lieutenant-general and
appointed commander-in-chief of the army of Madras; on his
return to England in 1865 he was made quartermaster-general
at headquarters; and in 1870 he was transferred to the command
of the camp at Aldershot, where he took a leading part in the
reform of the educational and training systems of the forces,
which followed the Franco-German War. The introduction of
annual army manoeuvres was largely due to Sir Hope Grant.
In 1872 he was gazetted general. He died in London on the
7th of March 1875.
Incidents in the $e$oy War of 1857-58, compiled from the Private
Journal of General Sir Hope Grant, K..C.B., together with some ex-
planatory chapters by Capt. H. Knotty s. Royal Artillery, was published
in 1873, and Incidents %n the China War of i860 appeared posthum-
ously under the same editorship in 1875.
GRANT, SIR PATRICK (1804-1895), British field marshal, was
the second son of Major John Grant, 97th Foot, of Auchterblair,
Inverness-shire, where he was born on the nth of September
1804. He entered the Bengal native infantry as ensign in 1820,
and became captain in 1832. He served in Oudh from 1834 to
1838, and raised the Hariana Light Infantry. Employed in the
adjutant-general's department of the Bengal army from 1838
until 1854, he became adjutant-general in 1846. He served
under Sir Hugh Gough at the battle of Maharajpur in 1843,
winning a brevet majority, was adjutant-general of the army
at the battles of Moodkee in 1845 (twice severely wounded),
and of Ferozshah and Sobraon in 1846, receiving the C.B. and the
brevet rank of lieutenant-colonel. He took part in the battles
of Chillian walla and Gujarat in 1849, gaining further promotion,
and was appointed aide-de-camp to the queen. He served also
in Kohat in 1851 under Sir Charles Napier. Promoted major-
general in 1854, he was commander-in-chief of the Madras army
from 1.856 to 186 1. He was made K.C.B. in 1857, and on General
Anson's death was summoned to Calcutta to take supreme,
command of the army in India. From Calcutta he directed
the operations against the mutineers, sending forces under
Havelock and Outram for the Telief of Cawnpore and Lucknow,
until the arrival of Sir Colin Campbell from England as com-
mander-in-chief, when he returned to Madras. On leaving
India in 1861 he was decorated with the G.C.B. He was promoted
lieutenant-general in 1862; was governor of Malta from 1867 to
1872, was made G.C.M.G. in 1868, promoted general in 1870,
field marshal in 1883 and colonel of the Royal Horse Guards
and gold-stick-in- waiting to the queen in 1885. He married as
his second wife, in 1844, Frances Maria, daughter of Sir Hugh
(afterwards Lord) Gough. He was governor of the Royal
Hospital, Chelsea, from 1874 until his death there on the 28th
of March 1895.
GRANT, ROBERT (1814-1892), British astronomer, was born
at Grantown, Scotland, cm the 17th of June 18x4. At the age
of thirteen the promise of a brilliant career was clouded by a
prolonged illness of such a serious character as to incapacitate
him from all school-work for six years. At twenty, however,
, his health greatly improved, and he set himself resolutely, without
assistance, to repair his earlier disadvantages by the diligent
study of Greek, Latin, Italian and mathematics. Astronomy
also occupied his attention, and it was stimulated by the return
of Halley's comet in 1835, as well as by his success in observing
the annular eclipse of the sun of the 15th of May 1836. After
a short course at King's College, Aberdeen, he obtained in 1841
employment in his brother's counting-house in London. During
this period the idea occurred to him of writing a history of
physical astronomy. Before definitely beginning the work he
had to search, amongst other records, those of the French
Academy, and for that purpose took up his residence in Paris
in 1845, supporting himself by giving lessons in English. He
returned to London in 1847. The History of Physical Astronomy
from the Earliest Ages to the Middle of the Nineteenth Century was
first published in parts in The Library of Useful Knowledge, but
after the issue of the ninth part this mode of publication was
discontinued, and the work appeared as a whole in 1852. The
main object of the work is, in the author's words, " to exhibit
a view of the labours of successive inquirers in establishing a
knowledge of the mechanical principles which regulate the
movements of the celestial bodies, and in explaining the various
phenomena relative to their physical constitution which observa-
tion with the telescope has disclosed." The lucidity and complete-
ness with which a great variety of abstruse subjects were treated,
the extent of research and the maturity of judgment it displayed,
were the more remarkable, when it is remembered that this was
the first published work of one who enjoyed no special oppor-
tunities, either for acquiring materials, or for discussing with
others engaged in similar pursuits the subjects it treats of.
The book at once took a leading place in astronomical literature,
and earned for its author in 1856 the award of the Royal
Astronomical Society's gold medal. In ^859 he succeeded John
Pringle Nichol as professor of astronomy in the University of
Glasgow. From time to time he contributed astronomical
papers to the Monthly Notices, Astronomische Nachrichten,
Comptes rendus and other scientific serials; but his principal
work at Glasgow consisted in determining the places of a large
number of stars with the Ertel transit-circle of the Observatory.
The results of these labours, extending over twenty-one years,
are contained in the Glasgow Catalogue of 641$ Stars, published
in 1883. This was followed in 1892 by the Second Glasgow
Catalogue of 2156 Stars, published a few weeks after his death,
which took place on the 24th of October 1892.
See Month. Notices Roy. Astr. Society, liii., 210 (E. Dunkin);
Nature, Nov. 10, 1892; The Times, Nov. 2, 1892; Koy. Society's
Catalogue of Scient. Papers. (A. A. R.*)
GRANT, ULYSSES SIMPSON (1822-1885), American soldier,
and eighteenth president of the United States, was born at
Point Pleasant, Ohio, on the 27th of April 1822. He was a
descendant of Matthew Grant, a Scotchman, who settled in
Dorchester, Massachusetts, in 1630. His earlier years were
spent in helping his father, Jesse R. Grant, upon his farm in
Ohio. In 1839 he was appointed to a place in the military
academy at West Point, and it was then that his name assumed
the form by which it is generally known. He was christened
Hiram, after an ancestor, with Ulysses for a middle name.
As he was usually called by his middle name, the congressman
who recommended him for West Point supposed it to be his
first name, and added thereto the name of his mother's family,
Simpson. Grant was the best horseman of his class, and took
a respectable place in mathematics, but at his graduation m
1843 he only ranked twenty-first in a class of thirty-nine. In
September 1845 he went with his regiment to join the forces of
General Taylor in Mexico; there he took part in the battles of
Palo Alto, Resacade la Palma and Monterey, and, after his transfer
to General Scott's army, which he joined in. March 1847, served
at Vera Cruz, Cerro Gordo, Churubusco, Molino del Rey and at
the storming of Chapultepec. He was breveted first lieutenant
for gallantry at Molino del Rey and captain for gallantry at
Chapultepec. In August 1848, after the close of the war, he
married Julia T. Dent (1 826-1 902), and was for a while stationed
in California and Oregon, but in 1854 he resigned his commission.
His reputation in the service had suffered from allegations of
intemperate drinking, which, whether well founded or not,
356
GRANT, U. S.
certainly impaired his usefulness as a soldier. For the next
six years he lived in St Louis, Missouri, earning a scanty subsist-
ence by farming and dealings in real estate. In i860 he removed
to Galena, Illinois, and became a clerk in a leather store kept
by his father. At that time his earning capacity seems not to
have exceeded $800 a year, and he was regarded by his friends
as a broken and disappointed man. He was living at Galena
at the outbreak of hostilities between the North and South.
[For the history of the Civil War, and of Grant's battles and
campaigns, the reader is referred to the article American Civil
Wae. To the " call to arms " of 1861 Grant promptly
CtvSwmr re*P°nded. After some delay he was commissioned
ouw. colonel of the axst Illinois regiment and soon after-
wards brigadier-general* He was shortly assigned to
a territorial command on the Mississippi, and first won distinction
by his energy in seizing, on his own responsibility, the important
point of Paducah, Kentucky, situated at the confluence of
the two great waterways of the Tennessee and the Ohio (6th
Sept. 1861). On the 7th of November he fought his first
battle as a commander, that of Belmont (Missouri), which, if
it failed to achieve any material result, certainly showed him
to be a capable and skilful leader. Early in 1862 he was en-
trusted by General H. W. Halleck with the command of a large
force to clear the lower reaches of the Cumberland and the
Tennessee, and, whatever criticism may be passed on the general
strategy of the campaign, Grant himself, by his able and
energetic work, thoroughly deserved the ciedit of his brilliant
success of Fort Donelson, where 15,000 Confederates were forced
to capitulate. Grant and his division commanders were pro-
moted to the rank of major-general U.S.V. soon afterwards,
but Grant's own fortunes suffered a temporary eclipse owing to a
disagreement with Halleck. When, after being virtually under
arrest, he rejoined his army, it was concentrated about Savannah
on the Tennessee, preparing for a campaign towards Corinth,
Miss. On the 6th of April 1862 a furious assault on Grant's
camps brought on the battle of Shiloh (q. v.). After two days'
desperate fighting the Confederates withdrew before the com-
bined attack of the Army of the Tennessee under Grant and the
Army of the Ohio under Buell. But the Army of the Tennessee
had been on the verge of annihilation on the evening of the first
day, and Grant's leadership throughout was by no means equal
to the emergency, though he displayed his usual personal
bravery and resolution. In the grand advance of Halleck's
armies which followed Shiloh, Grant was relieved of all important
duties by his assignment as second in command of the whole
force, and was thought by the army at large to be in disgrace.
But Halleck soon went to Washington as general-in-chief, and
Grant took command of his old army and of Rosecrans' Army
of the Mississippi. Two victories (Iuka and Corinth) were won
in the autumn of 1862, but the credit of both fell to Rosecrans,
who commanded in the field, and the nadir of Grant's military
fortunes was reached when the first advance on Vicksburg (?.«.),
planned on an unsound basis, and complicated by a series of
political intrigues (which had also caused the adoption of the
original scheme), collapsed after the minor reverses of Holly
Springs and Chickasaw Bayou (December 1862).
It is fair to assume that Grant would have followed other
unsuccessful generals into retirement, had he not shown that,
whatever his mistakes or failures, and whether he was or was
not sober and temperate in his habits, he possessed the iron
determination and energy whidi in the eyes of Lincoln and
Stanton, 1 and of the whole Northern people, was the first requisite
of their generals. He remained then with his army near Vicks-
1 President Lincoln was Grant's most unwavering supporter.
Many amusing stories are told of his replies to various deputations
which waited upon him to ask for Grant's removal. On one occasion
he asked the critics to ascertain the brand of whisky favoured by
Grant, so that he could send kegs of it to the other generals. The
question of Grant's abstemiousness was and is of little importance.
The cause at stake over-rode every prejudice and the people of the
United States, since the war, have been in general content to leave
the question alone, as was evidenced by the outcry raised in 1908,
when President Taft reopened it in a speech at Grant's tomb.
burg, trying one plan after another without result* until at last
after months of almost hopeless work his perseverance was
crowned with success — a success directly consequent upon a
strange and bizarre campaign of ten weeks, in which his daring
and vigour were more conspicuous than ever before. On the
4th of July 1863 the great fortress surrendered with 29,491 men,
this being one of the most important victories won by the Union
arms in the whole war. Grant was at once made a major-general
in the regular army. A few months latex the great reverse of
Chickaxnauga created an alarm in the North commensurate with
the elation that had been felt at the double victory of Vicksburg
and Gettysburg, and Grant was at once ordered to Chattanooga,
to decide the fate of the Army of the Cumberland in a second
battle. Four armies were placed under his command, and
three of these concentrated at Chattanooga. On the 25th of
November 1863 a great three-days' battle ended, with the
crushing defeat of the Confederates, who from this day had np
foothold in the centre and west.
After this, in preparation for a grand combined effort of all
the Union forces, Grant was placed in supreme command, and
the rank of lieutenant-general revived for him (March 1864).
Grant's headquarters henceforth accompanied the Army of the
Potomac, and the lieutenant-general directed the campaign in
Virginia. This, with Grant's driving energy infused into the
best army that the Union possessed, resolved itself into a
series, almost uninterrupted, of terrible battles. Tactically the
Confederates were almost always victorious, strategically, Grant,
disposing of greatly superior forces, pressed back Lee and the
Army of Northern Virginia to the lines of Richmond and Peters-
burg, while above all, in pursuance of his explicit policy of
" attrition," the Federal leader used his men with a merciless
energy that has few, if any, parallels, in modern history. At
Cold Harbor six thousand men fell in one useless assault lasting
an hour, and after two months the Union armies lay before
Richmond and Petersburg indeed, but had lost no fewer than
72,000 men. But Grant was unshaken in his determination.
" I purpose to fight it out on this line, if it takes all summer,"
was his message from the battlefield of Spottsylvania to the
chief of staff at Washington. , Through many weary months he
never relaxed his hold on Lee's army, and, in spite of repeated
partial reverses, that would have been defeats for his predeces-
sors, he gradually wore down his gallant adversary. The terrible
cost of these operations did not check him: only on one occasion
of grave peril were any troops sent from his lines to serve else-
where, and he drew to himself the bulk of the men wboUx the
Union government was recruiting by thousands for the final
effort. Meanwhile all the other campaigns had been closely
supervised by Grant, preoccupied though he was with the
operations against his own adversary. At a critical moment
he actually left the Virginian armies to their own commanders,
and started to take personal command in a threatened quarter,
and throughout he was in close touch with Sherman and Thomas,
who conducted the campaigns on the south-east and the centre.
That he succeeded in the efficient exercise of the chief command
of armies of a total strength of over one mimon men, operating
many thousands of miles apart from each other, while at the
same time he watched and manoeuvred against a great captain
and a veteran army in one field of the war, must be the greatest
proof of Grant's powers as a genexaL In the end complete success
rewarded the sacrifices and efforts of the Federals on every theatre
of war; in Virginia, where Grant was in personal control, the
merciless policy of attrition wor* down Lee's army until a mere
remnant was left for the final surrender.
Grant had thus brought the great struggle to an end, and was
universally regarded as the saviour, of the Union. A careful
study of the history of the war thoroughly tears out the popular
view. There were soldiers more accomplished, as was McClellan,
more brilliant, as was Rosecrans, and more exact, as was Bueti,
but it would be difficult to prove that these generals, or indeed
any others in the service, cotild have accomplished the task
which Grant brought to complete success. Nor must it be sap-
posed that Grant learned little from, three years 1 campaigning
GRANT, U. S.
357
in high command. There is less in common than is often supposed
between the buoyant energy that led Grant to Shiloh and the
grim plodding determination that led hita to Vicksburg and
to Appomattox. Shiloh revealed to Grant the intensity of the
struggle, and after that battle, appreciating to the full the
material and moral factors with which he had to deal, he gradually
trained his military character on those lines which alone could
conduce to ultimate success. Singleness of purpose, and relent-
less vigour in the execution of the purpose, were the qualities
necessary to the conduct of the vast enterprise of subduing the
Confederacy. Grant possessed or acquired both to such a degree
that he proved fully equal to the emergency. If in technical
finesse he was surpassed by many of his predecessors and his
subordinates, he had the most important qualities of a great
captain, courage that rose higher with each obstacle, and the
clear judgment to distinguish the essential from the minor
issues in war. — (C. F. A.)]
After the assassination of President Lincoln a disposition was
shown by his successor, Andrew Johnson, to deal severely with
the Confederate leaders, and it was understood that indictments
for treason were to be brought against General Lee and others.
Grant, however, insisted that the United States government
was bound by the terms accorded to Lee and his army at
Appomattox. He went so far as to threaten to resign his com-
mission if the president disregarded his protest. This energetic
action on Grant's part saved the United States from a foul
stain upon its escutcheon. In July 1866 the grade of general was
created, for the first time since the organization of the govern-
ment, and Grant was promoted to that position. In the follow-
ing year he became involved in the deadly quarrel between
President Johnson and Congress. To tie the president's hands
Congress had passed the Tenure of Office Act, forbidding the
president to remove any cabinet officer without the consent of
the Senate; but in August 1867 President Johnson suspended
Secretary Stanton and appointed Grant secretary of war ad
interim until the pleasure of the Senate should be ascertained.
Grant accepted the appointment under protest, and held it
until the following January, when the Senate refused to confirm
the president's action, and Secretary Stanton resumed his
office. President Johnson was much disgusted at the readiness
with which Grant turned over the office to Stanton, and a bitter
controversy ensued between Johnson and Grant. Hitherto
Grant had taken little part in politics. The only vote which
he had ever cast for a presidential candidate was in 1856 for
James Buchanan; and leading Democrats, so late as
2jj£ the beginning of 1868, hoped to make him their can-
1868. ' didate in the election of that year; but the effect of
the controversy with President Johnson was to bring
Grant forward as the candidate of the Republican party. At the
convention in Chicago on the 20th of May 1868 he was unani-
mously nominated on the first ballot. The Democratic party
nominated the one available Democrat who had the smallest
chance of beating him— Horatio Seymour, lately governor of
New York, an excellent statesman, but at that time hopeless
as a candidate because of his attitude during the war. The
result of the contest was at no time in doubt; Grant received
214 electoral votes and Seymour 80.
The most important domestic event of Grant's first term as
president was the adoption of the fifteenth amendment to the
Constitution on the 30th of March 1870, providing that suffrage
throughout the United States should not be restricted on account
of race, colour or previous condition of servitude. The most
important event in foreign policy was the treaty with Great.
Britain of the 8th of May 1871, commonly known as the Treaty
of Washington,' 1 whereby several controversies between the
United States and Great Britain, including the bitter questions
as to damage inflicted upon the United States by the "Alabama" '
and other Confederate cruisers built and equipped in England,
were referred to arbitration: In 1869 the government of Santo
Domingo (or the Dominican Republic) expressed a wish for
annexation by the United States, and such a step was favoured
by Grant, but a treaty negotiated with this end in view failed
to obtain the requisite two-thirds vote in the Senate. In May
1872 something was done towards alleviating the odious Recon-
struction laws for dragooning the South, which had been passed
by Congress in spite of the vetoes of President Johnson. The
Amnesty Bill restored civil rights to all persons in the South,
save from 300 to 500 who had held high positions under the
Confederacy. As early as 1870 President Grant recommended
measures of civil service reform, and succeeded in obtaining an
act authorizing him to appoint a Civil Service commission.
A commission was created, but owing to the hostility of the
politicians in Congress it accomplished little. During the fifty
years since Crawford's Tenure of Office Act was passed in 1820,
the country had been growing more and more familiar with the
spectacle of corruption in high places. The evil rose to alarming
proportions during Grant's presidency, partly because of the
immense extension of the civil service, partly because of the
growing tendency to alliance between spoilsmen and the persons
benefited by protective tariffs, and partly because the public
attention was still so much absorbed in Southern affairs that little
energy was left for curbing rascality in the North. The scandals,
indeed, were rife in Washington, and affected persons in close
relations with the president. Grant was ill-fitted for coping
with the difficulties of such a situation. Along with high in-
tellectual powers in certain directions, he had a simplicity of
nature charming in itself, but often calculated to render him
the easy prey of sharpers. He found it almost impossible to
believe that anything could be wrong in persons to whom he
had given his friendship, and on several occasions such friends
proved themselves unworthy of him. The feeling was widely
prevalent in the spring of 1872 that the interests of pure govern-
ment in the United States demanded that President Grant should
not be elected to a second term. This feeling led a number of
high-minded gentlemen to form themselves into an organization
under the name of Liberal Republicans. They held a convention
at Cincinnati in May with the intention of nominating for the
presidency Charles Francis Adams, who had ably represented
the United States at the court of St James's during the Civil
War. The convention, was, however, captured by politicians
who converted the whole affair into a farce by nominating
Horace Greeley, editor of the New York Tribune, who represented
almost anything rather than the object for which the convention
had been caned together. The Democrats had despaired of
electing a candidate of their own, and hoped to achieve success
by adopting the Cincinnati nominee, should he prove to be an
eligible person. The event showed that while their defeat in
1868 had taught them despondency, it had not taught them
wisdom; it was still In their power to make a gallant fight by
nominating a person for whom Republican reformers could
vote. But with almost incredible fatuity, they adopted Greeley
as their candidate. As a natural result Grant was re-elected
by an overwhelming majority.
The most important event of his second term was his veto
of the Inflation Bill in 1874 followed by the passage of the
Resumption Act in the following year. The country
was still labouring under the curse of an inconvertible fjJJ!*
paper currency originating with the Legal Tender Act deocy.
of 1862. There was a considerable party in favour of
debasing the currency indefinitely by inflation, and a bill with
that object was passed by Congress in April 1874. It was
promptly vetoed by President Grant, and two months later he
wrote a very sensible letter to Senator J. P. Jones of Nevada
advocating a speedy return to specie payments. The passage of
the Resumption Act in January 1875 was largely due to his con-
sistent advocacy, and for these measures he deserves as high
credit as for his victories in the field. In spite of these great
services, popular dissatisfaction with the Republican party
rapidly increased during the years 1874-1876. The causes were
twofold: firstly, there was great dissatisfaction with the troubles
in the Southern states, owing to the harsh Reconstruction
laws and. the robberies committed by the carpet-bag govern-
ments which those laws kept in power; secondly, the scandals at
35»
GRANT-^GRANTH
Washington, comprising wholesale frauds on the public revenue,
awakened lively-disgust. In some cases the culprits were so near
to President Grant that many persons found it difficult to avoid
the suspicion that he was himself implicated, and never perhaps
was his hold upon popular favour so slight as in the summer
and autumn of 1876.
After the close of his presidency in the spring of 1877 Grant
started on a journey round the world, accompanied by his wife
and one son. He was received with distinguished
jj£ er honours in England and on the continent of Europe,
whence he made his way to India, China and Japan.
After his return to America in September 1880 he went back to
his old home in Galena, Illinois. A faction among the managers
of the Republican party attempted to secure his nomination for
a third term as president, and in the convention at Chicago in
June 1880 he received a vote exceeding 300 during 36 consecutive
ballots. Nevertheless, his opponents made such effective use of
the papular prejudice against third terms that the scheme was
defeated, and Garfield was named in his stead. In August 1881
General Grant bought a house in the city of New York. His
income was insufficient for the proper support of his family, and
accordingly he had become partner in a banking house in which
one of his sons was interested along with other persons. The
name of the firm was Grant and Ward. The ex-president
invested in it all his available property, but paid no attention to
the management of the business. His facility in giving his con-
fidence to unworthy people was now to be visited with dire
calamity. In 1884 the firm became bankrupt, and it was dis-
covered that two of the partners had been perpetrating systematic
and gigantic frauds. This severe blow left General Grant
penniless, just at the time when he was beginning to suffer
acutely from the disease which finally caused his death. Down
to this time he had never made any pretensions to literary skill
or talent, but on being approached by the Century Magazine
with a request for some articles he undertook the work in order
to keep the wolf from the door. It proved a congenial task, and
led to the writing of his Personal Memoirs, a frank, modest
and charming book, which ranks among the best standard
military biographies. The sales earned for the general and his
family something like half a million dollars. The circumstances
in which it was written made it an act of heroism comparable
with any that Grant ever showed as a soldier. During most of
the time he was suffering tortures from cancer in the throat, and
it was only four days before his death that he finished the manu-
script. In the spring of 1885 Congress passed a bill creating him
a general on the retired list; and in the summer he was removed
to a cottage at Mount M'Gregor; near Saratoga, where he passed
the last five weeks of his life, and where he died on the 23rd of
July 1885. His body was placed in a temporary tomb in
Riverside Drive, in New York City, overlooking the Hudson
river.*
Grant showed many admirable and lovable traits. There was
a charming side to his trustful simplicity, which was at times
almost like that of a sailor set ashore. He abounded in kindli-
ness and generosity, and if there was anything especially difficult
for him to endure, it was the sight of human suffering, as was
shown on the night at Shiloh, where he lay out of doors in the
icy rain rather than stay in a comfortable room where the
surgeons were at work. His good sense was strong, as well as his
sense of justice, and these qualities stood him in good service as
president, especially in his triumphant fight against the green-
back monster. Altogether, in spite of some shortcomings,
Grant was a massive, noble and lovable personality, well fit to
be remembered as one of the heroes of a great nation. (J. Fi.)
1 The permanent tomb is of white eranite and white marble and
is 150 ft. high with a circular cupola topping a square building
90 ft, on the side and 72 ft. high ; the sarcophagus, in the centre
of the building, is of red Wisconsin porphyry. The cornerstone
was laid by President Harrison in 1802, and the tomb was dedicated
on the 27th of April 1897 with a splendid parade and addresses by
President McKinley and General Horace Porter, president of the
Grant Monument Association, which from 90,000 contributions
raised the funds for the tomb.
General Grant's son, Frederick Dent Grant (b. 1850),
graduated at the U.S. Military Academy in 187 1, was aide-de-
camp to General Philip Sheridan in 1873-1881, and resigned from
the army in 1881, after having attained the rank of lieutenant-
colonel. He was U.S. minister to Austria in 1889-1893, and
police commissioner of New York city in 1804-1898. He served
as a brigadier-general of volunteers in the Spanish-American
War of 1898, and then in the Philippines, becoming brigadier-
general in the regular army in February 1001 and major-general
in February 1906.
Bibliography. — Adam Badeau's Military History of U. S. Grant
(3 vols., New York, 1867-1881), and Grant in Peace (Hartford,
1887), are appreciative but lacking in discrimination. William
Conant Church's Ulysses 5. Grant and the Period of National Pre-
servation and Reconstruction (New York, 1897) is a good succinct
account. Hamlin Garland's Ulysses 5. Grant, His Life and Char-
acter (New York, 1898) gives especial attention to the personal
traits of Grant and abounds in anecdote. See also Grant's Personal
Memoirs (2 vols., New York, 1885-1886); J. G. Wilson's Life and
Public Services of U. 5. Grant (New York, 1886) ; J. R. Young's
Around the World with General Grant (New York, 1880); Horace
Porter's Campaigning with Grant (New York, 1807) ; Tames Ford
Rhodes's History of the United Slates (vols, iii-vii.. New York, i8g6-
1906) ; James K. flosmer's Appeal to Arms and Outcome of the Civil
War (New York, 1907) ; John Eaton's Grant, Lincoln, and the
Freedmen (New York, 1907), and various works mentioned in the
articles American Civil war, Wilderness Campaign, &c
GRANT (from A.-Fr. graunter, O. Fr. greanter for cr center,
popular Lat. creantare, for credentare, to entrust, Lat. credere, to
believe, trust), originally permission, acknowledgment, hence the
gift of privileges, rights, &c, specifically in law, the transfer of
property by an instrument in writing, termed a deed of grant.
According to the old rule of common law, the immediate freehold
in corporeal hereditaments lay in livery (see Feoffment),
whereas incorporeal hereditaments, such as a reversion, re-
mainder, advowson, &c, lay in grant, that is, passed by the
delivery of the deed of conveyance or grant without further
ceremony. The distinction between property lying in livery and
in grant is now abolished, the Real Property Act 1845 providing
that all corporeal tenements and hereditaments shall be trans-
ferable as well by grant as by livery (see Conveyancing). A
grant of personal property is properly termed an assignment or
bill of sale.
GRANTH* the holy scriptures of the Sikhs, containing the
spiritual and moral teaching of Sikhism (q.v.). The book is called
the Adi Granth Sahib by the Sikhs as a title of respect, because it
is believed by them to be an embodiment of the gurus. The title
is generally applied to the volume compiled by the fifth guru
Arjan, which contains the compositions of Guru Nanak, the
founder of the Sikh religion; of his successors, Guru Angad,
Amar Das, Ram Das and Arjan; hymns of the Hindu bhagats or
saints, Jaidev, Namdev, Trilochan, Sain, Ramanand, Kabir,
Rai Das, Pipa, Bhikhan, Beni, Parmanand Das, Sur Das, Sadhna
and Dhanna Jat; verses of the Mahommedan saint called Farid;
and panegyrics of the gurus by bards who either attended them or
admired their characters. The compositions of the ninth guru,
Teg Bahadur, were subsequently added to the Adi Granth by
Guru Govind Singh. One recension of the sacred volume pre-
served at Mangat in the Gujrat district contains a hymn com*
posed by Mira Bai, queen of Chitor. The Adi Granth contains
passages of great picturesqueness and beauty. The original
copy is said to be in Kartarpur in the Jullundur district, but the
chief copy in use is now in the Har Mandar or Golden Temple
at Amritsar, where it is daily read aloud by the attendant
Granthis or scripture readers.
There is also a second Granth which was compiled by the
Sikhs in 1734, and popularly known as the Granth of the tenth
Guru, but it has not the same authority as the Adi Granth. It
contains Guru Govind Singh's Jdpji, the AhSl Ustit or Praise of
the Creator, thirty-three sawaias (quatrains containing some of
the main tenets of the guru and strong reprobation of idolatry
and hypocrisy), and the Vachiiar Natak or wonderful drama, in
which the guru gives an account of his parentage, divine mission
and the battles in which he was engaged. Then come three
abridged translations by different hands of the Devi MahatamyOy
; GRANTHAM, LORD
359
the
Qmmih,
an episode in the Markatukya Puran r in praise of Durga, the
goddess of war. Then follow the Cyan Parbodk or awakening of.
knowledge, accounts of twenty-four incarnations of the deity,
selected because of their warlike character; the Hazare de
Shabd; the Shastar Nam Mala, which is a list of offensive and
defensive weapons used in the guru's time, with special reference
to the attributes of the Creator; the Tria Chariiar or tales illus-
trating the qualities, but principally the deceit of women; the
Kabit, compositions of a miscellaneous character; the Zafarnama
containing the tenth guru's epistle to the emperor Aurangzeb, and
several metrical tales in the Persian language. This GratUh is
only partially the composition of the tenth guru. The greater
portion of it was written by bards in his employ.
The two volumes are written in several different languages
and dialects. The Adi GratUh is largely in old Punjabi and Hindi,
but Prakrit, Persian, Mahratti and Gujrati are also
** represented. The GratUh of the Tenth Guru is written
in the old and very difficult Hindi affected by literary
men in the Patna district in the 16th century. In
neither of these sacred volumes is there any separation of words.
As there is no separation of words in Sanskrit, the gyanis or
interpreters of the guru's hymns prefer to follow the ancient
practice of junction of words. This makes the reading of the Sikh
scriptures very difficult, and is one of the causes of the decline
of the Sikh religion.
The hymns in the Adi GratUh are arranged not according to
the gurus or bhagats who compose them, but according to rags
or musical measures. There are thirty-one such measures in
the Adi GwtUh, and the hymns are arranged according to the
neasures to which they are composed. The gurus who composed
hymns, namely the first, second, third, fourth, fifth and ninth
gurus, all used the name Nanak as their nom-de-plume. Their
compositions are distinguished by mahallas or wards. Thus the
compositions of Guru Nanak are styled mahalla one, the com-
positions of Guru Angad are styled mahalla two, and so on-
After the hymns of the gurus are found the hymns of the bhagats
under their several musical measures. The Sikhs generally dis-
like any arrangement of the Adi GratUh by which the composi-
tions of each guru or bhagat should be separately s>own.
All the doctrines of the Sikhs are found set forth in the two
Granths and in compositions called Rahii Namas and Tanakkwah
Nomas, which are believed to have been the utterances
**• of the tenth guru. The cardinal principle of the sacred
todftogs. books is the unity of God, and starting from this
premiss tie rejection of idolatry and superstition.
Thus Guru Govind Singh writes:
" Some worshipping stones, put them on their heads;
Some suspend Gngams from their necks;
Some see the God m the South; some bow their heads to the
West.
Some fools worship idols, others busy themselves with won
shipping the dead.
The whole world entangled in false ceremonies hath not found
God's secret."
Next to the unity of God comes the equality of all men in His
sight, and so the abolition of caste distinctions. Guru Nanak
says:
" Caste hath no power in the next world ; there is a new order of
beings,
Those whose accounts are honoured are the good."
The concremation of widows, though practised in later times by
Hinduized Sikhs, is forbidden in the GratUh. Guru Arjan
writes:
11 She who consideretn her beloved as her God,
Is the blessed sati who shall be acceptable in God's Court."
It is a common belief that the Sikhs are allowed to drink wine
and other intoxicants. This is not the case. Guru Nanak
wrote:
" By drinking wine man committeth many sins."
Guru Arjan wrote:
11 The fool who drinketh evil wine is involved in sin."
And in the Rahit Nama of Bhai Desa Singh there is the follow-
ing:
, " Let a Sikh take no intoxicant; it maketh the body lazy; it
diverteth men from their temporal and spiritual duties, and inciteth
them to evil deeds."
It is also generally believed that the Sikhs are bound to
abstain from the flesh of kine. This, too, is a mistake, arising
from the Sikh adoption of Hindu usages. The two Granths of
the Sikhs and all their canonical works are absolutely silent on
the subject. The Sikhs are not bound to abstain from any flesh,
except that which is obviously unfit for human food, or what is
killed in the Mahommedan fashion by jagging an animal's throat
with a knife. This flesh-eating practice is one of the main sources
of their physical strength. Smoking is strictly prohibited by
the Sikh religion. Guru Teg Bahadur preached to his host as
follows:
11 Save the people from the vile drug, and employ thyself in the
service of Sikhs and holy men. When the people abandon the
degrading smoke and cultivate their lands, their wealth and pro*
sperity shall increase, and they shall want for nothing . . . but
when they smoke the vile vegetable, they shall grow poor and lose
their wealth."
Guru Govind Singh also said:
"Wine is bad, bhang destroyeth one generation, but tobacco
destroyeth all generations."
In addition to these prohibitions Sikhism inculcates most
of the positive virtues of Christianity, and specially loyalty to
rulers, a quality which has made the Sikhs valuable servants of
the British crown.
The GratUh was translated by Dr Trumpp, a German missionary*
on behalf of the Punjab government in i877.» but his rendering is
in many respects incorrect, owing to insufficient knowledge of the
Punjabi dialects. The Sikh Religion, &c. , in 6 vols. (London, 1909) is
an authoritative version prepared by M. Macauliffe, in concert with
the modern leaders of the Sikh sect. (M. M.)
GRANTHAM, THOMAS ROBINSON, 1st Baron (c. 1695-1770),
English diplomatist and politician, was a younger son of Sir
William Robinson, Bart. (1655-1736) of Newby, Yorkshire,
who was member of parliament for York from 1697 to 1722,
Having been a scholar and minor fellow of Trinity College,
Cambridge, Thomas Robinson gained his earliest diplomatic
experience in Paris and then went to .Vienna, where he was
English ambassador from 1730 to 1748. During 1741 he sought
to make peace between the empress Maria Theresa and Frederick
the Great, but in vain, and in 1748 he represented his country
at the congress of Aix-la-Chapelle. Returning to England he
sat in parliament for Christchurch from 1749 to 1761. In 1754
Robinson was appointed a secretary of state and leader of the
House of Commons by the prime minister, the duke of Newcastle,
and it was on this occasion that Pitt made the famous remark
to Fox, " the duke might as well have sent us his jackboot
to lead us." In November 1755 he resigned, and in April 1761
he was created Baron Grantham. He was master of the wardrobe
from 1749 to 1754 and again from 1755 to 1760, and was joint
postmaster-general in 1 765 and 1 766. He died in London on the
30th of September 1770.
Grantham's elder son, Thomas Robinson (i 738-1 786), who
became the 2nd baron, was born at Vienna on the 30th of
November 1 738. Educated at Westminster School and at Christ's
College, Cambridge, he entered parliament as member for Christ-
church in 1 761 , and succeeded to the peerage in 1 7 70. In 1 7 7 1 he
was sent as ambassador to Madrid and retained this post until
war broke out between England and Spain in 1779. From 1780
to 1782 Grantham was first commissioner of the board of trade
and foreign plantations, and from July 1782 to April 1783
secretary for the foreign department under Lord Shelburne.
He died on the 20th of July 1786, leaving two sons, Thomas
Philip, who became the 3rd baron, and Frederick John after-
wards 1st earl of Ripon.
Thomas Philip Robinson, 3rd Baron Grantham (1781-1859),
in 1803 took the name of Weddell instead of that of Robinson.
In May 1833 he became Earl de Grey of Wrest on the death of
his maternal aunt, Amabell Hume-Campbell, Countess de Grey
(1,751-1833), and he now took the name of de Grey. He was
first lord of the admiralty under Sir Robert Peel in 1834-1835,
3&o
GRANTHAM— GRANULITE
and from 1841 to 1844 lord-lieutenant of Ireland. On his death
without male issue his nephew, George Frederick Samuel Robin-
son, afterwards marquess of Ripon (q.v.) f succeeded as Earl de
Grey.
GRANTHAM, a municipal and parliamentary borough of
Lincolnshire, England; situated in a pleasant undulating
country on the river Witham. Pop. (1001) 17,593. It is an
important junction of the Great Northern railway, 105 m. N.
by W. from London, with branch lines to Nottingham, Lincoln
and Boston; while there is communication with Nottingham
and the Trent by the Grantham canal. The parish church of St
Wulfram is a splendid building, exhibiting all the Gothic styles,
but mainly Early English and Decorated. The massive and
ornate western tower and spire, about 280 ft. in height, are of
early Decorated workmanship. There is a double Decorated
crypt beneath the lady chapel. The north and south porches are
fine examples of a later period of the same style. The delicately
carved font is noteworthy. Two libraries, respectively of the
1 6th and 17th centuries, are preserved in the church. At the
King Edward VI. grammar school Sir Isaac Newton received
part of his education. A bronze statue commemorates him.
The late Perpendicular building is picturesque, and the school was
greatly enlarged in 1004. The Angel Hotel is a hostelry of the
15th century, with a gateway of earlier date. A conduit dating
from 1597 stands in the wide market-place. Modern public
buildings are a gild hall, exchange hall, and several churches
and chapels. The Queen Victoria Memorial home for nurses was
erected in 1 902-1903. The chief industries are malting and the
manufacture of agricultural implements. Grantham returns one
member to parliament. The borough falls within the S. Kesteven
or Stamford division of the county. Grantham was created a
suffragan bishopric in the diocese of Lincoln in 1905. The
municipal borough is under a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12
councillors. Area, 1726 acres.
Although there is no authentic evidence of Roman occupation,
Grantham (Graham, Granham in Domesday Book) from its
situation on the Ermine Street, is supposed to have been a
Roman station. It was possibly a borough in the Saxon period,
and by the time of the Domesday Survey it was a royal borough
with in burgesses. Charters of liberties existing now only in
the confirmation charter of 1377 were granted by various kings.
From the first the town was governed by a bailiff appointed
by the lord of the manor, but by the end of the 14th century the
office of alderman had come into existence. Finally government
under a mayor and alderman was granted by Edward IV. in
1463, and Grantham became a corporate town. Among later
charters, that of James II., given in 1685, changed the title to
that of government by a mayor and 6 aldermen, but this was
afterwards reversed and the old order resumed. Grantham
was first represented in parliament in 1467, and returned two
members; but by the Redistribution Act of 1885 the number
was reduced to one. Richard III. in 1483 granted a Wednesday
market and two fairs yearly, namely on the feast of St Nicholas
the Bishop, and the two following days, and on Passion Sunday
and the day following. At the present day the market is held
on Saturday, and fairs are held on the Monday, Tuesday and
Wednesday following the fifth Sunday in Lent; a cherry fan-
on the nth of July and two stock fairs on the 26th of October
and the 17th of December.
GRANTLEY, FLETCHER NORTON, ist Baron (1716-1780),
English politician, was the eldest son of Thomas Norton of
Grantley, Yorkshire, where he was born on the 23rd of June 1716.
He became a barrister in 1730, and, after a period of inactivity,
obtained a large and profitable practice, becoming a K.C. in
1754, and afterwards attorney-general for the county palatine
of Lancaster. In 1756 he was elected member of parliament for
Appleby; he represented Wigan from 1761 to 1768, and was
appointed solicitor-general for England and knighted in 1762.
He took part in the proceedings against John Wilkes, and,
having become attorney-general in 1763, prosecuted the 5th
Lord Byron for the murder of William Chaworth, losing his
office when the marquess of Rockingham came into power in
July 1765. In 1769, being now member of parliament for
Guildford, Norton became a privy councillor and chief justice
in eyre of the forests south of the Trent, and in 1770 was chosen
Speaker of the House of Commons. In 1777, when presenting
the bill for the increase of the civil list to the king, he told
George III. that parliament has "not only granted to your
majesty a large present supply, but also a very great additional
revenue; great beyond example; great beyond your majesty *g
highest expense." This speech aroused general attention and
caused some irritation; but the Speaker was supported by Fox
and by the city of London, and received the thanks of the House
of Commons. George, however, did not forget these plain words,
and after the general election of 1780, the prime minister, Lord
North, and his followers declined to support the re-election of the
retiring Speaker, alleging that his health was not equal to the
duties of the office, and he was defeated when the voting took
place. In 1782 he was made a peer as Baton Grantley of
Markenfield. He died in London on the 1st of January 1789.
He was succeeded as Baron Grantley by his eldest son William
(1 742-1822). Wraxall describes Norton as "a bold, able and
eloquent, but not a popular pleader," and as Speaker he was
aggressive and indiscreet. Derided by satirists as " Sir Bullface
Doublefee," and described by Horace Walpble as one who " rose
from obscure infamy to that infamous fame which will long stick
to him," his character was also assailed by Junius, and the general
impression is that he was a hot-tempered, avaricious and un-
principled man.
See H. Walpole, Memoirs of the Reign of George 777., "edited by
G. F. R. Barker (1894); Sir N. W. Wraxall, Historical and Post-
humous Memoirs, edited by H. B. Wheatley (1884); and J. A.
Manning, Lives of the Speakers (1850).
GRANTOWN, the capital of Speyside, Elginshire, Scotland.
Pop. (1001) 1568. It lies on the left bank of the Spey, 23 J m.
S. of Forres by the Highland railway, with a station on the Great
North of Scotland's Speyside line connecting Craigellachie with
Boat of Garten. It was founded in 1776 by Sir James Grant of
Grant, and became the chief seat of that ancient family, who had
lived on their adjoining estate of Freuchie (Gaelic, fraochach,
"heathery") since the beginning of the 15th century, and
hence were usually described as the lairds of Freuchfe. The
public buildings include the town hall, court house and orphan
hospital; and the industries are mainly connected with the
cattle trade and the distilling of whisky. The town, built of grey
granite, presents a handsome appearance, and being delightfully
situated in the midst of the most beautiful pine and birch woods
in Scotland, with pure air and a bracing climate, is an attractive
resort. Castle Grant, immediately to the north, is the principal
mansion of the earl of Seafield, the head of the Clan Grant.
In a cave, still called " Lord Huntly's Cave," in a rocky glen in
the vicinity, George, marquess of Huntly, lay hid during
Montrose's campaign in 1644-45.
GRANULITE (Lat. granulum, a little grain), a name used by
petrographers to designate two distinct classes of rocks. Accord-
ing to the terminology of the French school it signifies a granite
in which both kinds of mica (muscovite and biotite) occur, and
corresponds to the German Granit, or to the English " muscovite
biotite granite." This application has not been accepted
generally. To the German penologists " grapulite " means a
more or less banded fine-grained metamorphic rock, consisting
mainly of quartz and felspar in very small irregular crystals,
and containing usually also a fair number of minute rounded
pale-red garnets. Among English and American geologists the
term is generally employed in this sense. The granulites are
very closely allied to the gneisses, as they consist of nearly the
same minerals, but they are finer grained, have usually less
perfect foliation, are more frequently garnetiferous, and have
some special features of microscopic structure. In the rocks of
this group the minerals, as seen in a microscopic slide, occur as
small rounded grains forming a mosaic closely fitted together.
The individual crystals have never perfect form, and indeed
rarely any traces of it. In some granuKtes they interlock, with
irregular borders; in others they have been drawn out and
GRANVELLA
361
flattened into tapering lenticles by crushing. In most cases they
are somewhat rounded with smaller grains between the larger.
This is especially true of the quartz and felspar which are the
predominant minerals; mica always appears as flat scales
(irregular or rounded but riot hexagonal). Both muscovite and
biotite may be present and vary considerably in abundance;
very commonly they have their flat sides parallel and give the
rock a rudimentary schistosity, and they may be Aggregated
into bands — in which case the granulites are indistinguishable
from certain varieties of gneiss. The garnets are very generally
larger than the above-mentioned ingredients, and easily visible'
with the eye as pink spots on the broken surfaces of the rock.
They usually are filled with enclosed grains of the other minerals.
The felspar of the granulites is mostly orthoclase or crypto-
perthite; microcline, oligoclase and albite are also common.
Basic felspars occur only rarely. Among accessory minerals, in
addition to apatite, zircon, and iron oxides, the following may
be mentioned: hornblende (not common), riebeckite (rare),
epidote and zoisite, calcite, sphene, andalusite, sillimanite,
kyanite, hercynite (a green spinel), rutile, orthite and tourmaline.
Though occasionally we may find larger grains of felspar, quartz
or epidote, it is more characteristic of these rocks that all the
minerals are in small, nearly uniform, imperfectly shaped
individuals.
On account of the minuteness with wnich it has been described
and the important controversies on points of theoretical geology
which have arisen regarding it, the granulite district of Saxony
(around Rosswein, Penig, fee.) may be considered the typical
region for rocks of this group. It should be remembered that
though granulites are probably the commonest rocks of this
country, they are mingled with granites, gneisses, gabbros,
amphibolites, mica schists and many other petrographical types*
All of these rocks show more or less metamorphism either of a
thermal character or due to pressure and crushing. The granites
pass into gneiss and granulite; the gabbros into flaser gabbro and
amphibolite; the slates often contain andalusite or chiastolite,
and show transitions to mica schists. At one time these rocks
were regarded as Arcbean gneisses of a special type. Johannes
Georg Lehmann propounded the hypothesis that their present
state was due principally to crushing acting on them in a solid
condition, grinding them down and breaking up their minerals,
while the pressure to which they were subjected welded them
together into coherent rock. It is now believed, however, that
they are comparatively recent and include sedimentary rocks,
partly of Palaeozoic age, and intrusive masses which may be
nearly massive or may have gneissose, flaser or granulitic
structures. These have been developed largely by the injection
of semi-consolidated highly viscous intrusions, and the varieties
of texture are original or were produced very shortly after the
crystallization of the rocks. Meanwhile, however, Lehmann's
advocacy of post-consolidation crushing as a factor in the
development of granulites has been so successful that the terms
granulitization and granulitic structures are widely employed
to indicate the results of dynamometamorphism acting on rocks
at a period long after their solidification.
The Saxon granulites are apparently for the most part igneous
and correspond in composition to granites and porphyries.
There are, however, many granulites which undoubtedly were
originally sediments (arkoses, grits and sandstones) . A large part
of the highlands of Scotland consists of paragranulites of this
kind, which have received the group name of " Maine gneisses."
Along with the typical acid granulites above described, in
Saxony, India, Scotland and other countries there occur dark-
coloured basic granulites ("trap granulites "). These are
fine-grained rocks, not usually banded, nearly black in colour
with small red spots of garnet. Their essential minerals are
pyroxene, plagioclase and garnet: chemically they resemble
the gabbros. Green augite and hypersthene form a considerable
part of these rocks, they may contain also biotite, hornblende and
quartz. Around the garnets there is often a radial grouping of
small grains of pyroxene and hornblende in a clear matrix of
felspar: these " centric " structures are frequent in granu-
lites. The rocks of this group accompany gabbro and serpen-
tine, but the exact conditions under which they are formed
and the significance of their structures is not very clearly
understood. (J. S. F.)
GRANVELLA, ANTOINB PERRENOT, Cardinal de (1517-
1586), one of the ablest and most influential of the princes of
the church during the great political and ecclesiastical movements
which immediately followed the appearance of Protestantism
in Europe, was born on the 20th of August 1517 at Besancon,
where his father, Nicolas Perrenot de Granvella (1484-15 56),
who afterwards became chancellor of the empire under Charles V.,
was practising as a lawyer. Later Nicolas held an influential
position in the Netherlands, and from 1530 until his death he
was one of the emperor's most trusted advisers in Germany.
On the completion of his studies in law at Padua and in divinity
at Louvain, Antoine held a canonry at Besancon, but he was
promoted to the bishopric of Arras when barely twenty-three
(1540). In his episcopal capacity he attended several diets of
the empire, as well as the opening meetings of the council of
Trent; and the influence of his father, now chancellor, led to
his being entrusted with many difficult and delicate pieces of
public business, in the execution of which he developed a rare
talent for diplomacy, and at the same time acquired an intimate
acquaintance with most of the currents of European politics.
One of his specially noteworthy performances was the settlement
of the terms of peace after the defeat of the league of Schmalkalden
at Mtihlberg in 1547, a settlement in which, to say the least*
some particularly sharp practice was exhibited. In 1550 he
succeeded' his father in the office of secretary of state; in this
capacity he attended Charles in the war with Maurice, elector
of Saxony, accompanied him in the flight from Innsbruck, and
afterwards drew up the treaty of Pass'au (August 1552). In the
following year he conducted the negotiations for the marriage
of Mary of England and Philip II. of Spain, to whom, in 1555^
on the abdication of the emperor, he transferred his services*
and by whom he was employed in the Netherlands'. In April
1 550 Granvella was one of the Spanish commissioners who
arranged the peace of Cateau Cambresis, and on Philip's with-
drawal from the Netherlands in 'August of the same year he
was appointed prime minister to the regent, Margaret of Parma.
The policy of repression which in this capacity he pursued
during the next five years secured for him many tangible rewards,
in 1560 he was elevated to the archiepiscopal see of Malines,
and in 1561 he received the cardinal's hat; but the growing
hostility of a people whose religious convictions he had set
himself to trample under foot ultimately made it impossible
for him to continue in the Low Countries; and by the advice
of his roval master he, in March 1564, retired to Franche Comte\
Nominally this withdrawal was only of a temporary character,
but it proved to be final. The following six years were spent
in comparative quiet, broken, however, by a visit to Rome in
1565; but in 1570 Granvella, at the call of Philip, resumed
public life by accepting another mission to Rome. Here he
helped to arrange the alliance between the Papacy, Venice and
Spain against the Turks, an alliance which was responsible for
the victory of Lepanto. In the same yedr he became viceroy
of Naples, a post of some difficulty and danger, which for five
years he occupied with ability and success. He was summoned
to Madrid in 1575 by Philip II. to be president of the council
for Italian affairs. Among the more delicate negotiations of
his later years were those of 1580^ which had for their object
the ultimate union of the crowns of Spain and Portugal, and
those of 1 584, which resulted in a check to France by the marriage
of the Spanish infanta Catherine to Charles Emmanuel, duke of
Savoy. In the same year he was made archbishop of Besancon,
but meanwhile lie had been stricken with a lingering disease;
he was never enthroned, but died at Madrid on the 21st of
September 1586. His body was removed to Besancon, where
his father had been buried. Granvella was a man of great
learning, which was 'equalled by his industry, and these qualities
made him almost indispensable both to Charles V. and to
Philip H.
xn. 12 a
3&2
GRANVILLE, EARLS
Numerous letters and memoirs of Granvella are preserved in the
archives of Besancon. These were to some extent made use of by
Prosper Leveque in his Memoires pour servir (i753)i a s well as by
the Abta Boisot in the Trisor de Granvella. A commission for
publishing the whole of the letters and memoirs was appointed by
Guizot in 1834, and the result has been the issue of nine volumes
of the Papiers d'Etat du cardinal de GranveUe, edited by C. Weiss
Correspondence _„.„
Poullet and G. J, C. Piot (12 vols,, Brussels, 1878-1896). See also
the anonymous Histoire du cardinal de Granville, attributed to
Courchetet D'Esnans (Paris, 1761); J. L. Motley, Rise of the Dutch
Republic; M. Philippson, Ein Ministerium unter Phtiipp II. (Berlin,
1895); and the Cambridge Modem History (vol. iii. 1904).
GRANVILLE, GRANVILLE GEORGE LEVESON-GOWER,
aND Eaki (1815-1891), English statesman, eldest son of the
xst Earl Granville (1773-1846), by his marriage with Lady
Harriet, daughter of the duke of Devonshire, was born in London
on the 1 ith of May x8i 5, His father, Granville Leveson-Gower,
was a younger son of Granville, 2nd Lord Gower and 1st marquess
of Stafford (1720-1803), by his third wife; an elder son by the
second wife (a daughter of the 1st duke of Bridgwater) became
the 2nd marquess of Stafford, and his marriage with the daughter
and heiress of the 1 7th earl of Sutherland (countess of Sutherland
in her own right) led to the merging of the Gower and Stafford
titles in that of the dukes of Sutherland (created 1833), who
represent the elder branch of the family. As Lord Granville
Leveson-Gower, the 1st Earl Granville (created viscount in
2815 and earl in 1833) entered the diplomatic service and was
ambassador at St Petersburg (1804-1807) and at Paris (1824-
1841). He was a Liberal in politics and an intimate friend of
Canning. The title of Earl Granville had been previously held
in the Carteret family.
After being at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, young Lord
Leveson went to Paris for a short time under his father, and in
1836 was returned to parliament in the Whig interest for Morpeth.
For a short time he was under-secretary for foreign affairs in
Lord Melbourne's ministry. In 1840 he married Lady Acton
(Marie Louise Pelline de Dalberg, widow of Sir Richard Acton;
see Acton and Dalberg). From 4841 till his father's death
in 1846, when he succeeded to the title, he sat for Lichfield.
In the House of Lords he signalised himself as a Free Trader,
and Lord John Russell made him master of the buckhounds
(1846). He proved a useful member of the party, and his
influence and amiable character were valuable in all matters
needing diplomacy and good breeding. He became vice-
president of the Board of Trade in 1848, and took a prominent
part in promoting the great exhibition of 1851. In the latter
year, having already been admitted to the cabinet, he succeeded
Palmerston at the foreign office until Lord John Russell's defeat
in 1852; and when Lord Aberdeen formed his government at
the end of the year, he became first president of the council,
and then chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster (1854). Under
Lord Palmerston (1855) he was president of the council. His
interest in education (a subject associated with this office) led
to his election (1856) aa chancellor of the London University,
a post he held for thirty-five years; and he was a prominent
champion of the movement for the admission of women, and
also of the teaching of modern languages. From 1855 Lord
Granville led the Liberals in the Upper House, both in office,
and, after Palmerston's resignation in 1858, in opposition.
He went in 1856 as head of the British mission to the tsar's
coronation in Moscow. In June 1859 the queen, embarrassed
by the rival ambitions of Palmerston and Russell, sent for him
to form a ministry, but he was unable to do so, and Palmerston
again became prime minister, with Lord John as foreign secretary
and Granville as president of the council. In i860 his wife
died, and to this heavy loss was shortly added that of his great
friends Lord and Lady Canning and of his mother (1863); but
he devoted himself to his political work, and retained his office
when, on Palmerston's death in 1865, Lord Russell (now a peer)
became prime minister and took over the leadership in the
House of Lords. He was made Lord Warden of the Cinque
Ports, and in the same year married again, his second wife
being Miss Castalia Campbell. From 1866 to 1868 he was in
opposition, but in December 1868 he became colonial secretary
in Gladstone's first ministry. His tact was invaluable to the
government in carrying the Irish Church and Land Bills through
the House of Lords. On the 27th of June 1870, on Lord
Clarendon's death, he was transferred to the foreign office.
Lord Granville's name is mainly associated with his career as
foreign secretary (1870-1874 and 1880-1885); but the Liberal
foreign policy of that period was not distinguished by enterprise
or "backbone." Lord Granville personally was patient and
polite, but his courteous and pacific methods were somewhat
inadequate in dealing with the new situation then arising in
Europe and outside it; and foreign governments had little
scruple in creating embarrassments for Great Britain, and rely-
ing on the disinclination of the Liberal leaders to take strong
measures. The Franco-German War of 1870 broke out within
a few days of Lord Granville's quoting in the House of Lords
(xith of July) the curiously unprophetic opinion of the per-
manent under-secretary (Mr Hammond) that "he had never
known so great a lull in foreign affairs." Russia took advantage
of the situation to denounce the Black Sea clauses of the treaty
of Paris, and Lord Granville's protest was ineffectual. In 1871
an intermediate zone between Asiatic Russia and Afghanistan
was agreed on between him and Shuv&lov; but in 1873 Russia
took possession of Khiva, within the neutral zone, and Lord
Granville had to accept the aggression. When the Conservatives
came into power in 1874, his part for the next six years was to
criticize Disraeli's " spirited " foreign policy, and to defend his
own more pliant methods. He returned to the foreign office in
1880, only to find an anti-British spirit developing in German
policy which the temporizing methods of the Liberal leaders
were generally powerless to deal with. Lord Granville failed
to realize in time the importance of the Angra Pequefia question
in 1883-1884, and ,he was forced, somewhat ignominiously, to
yield to Bismarck over it. Whether in Egypt, Afghanistan,
or equatorial and south-west Africa, British foreign policy was
dominated by suavity rather than by the strength which com-
mands respect. Finally, when Gladstone took up Home Rule
for Ireland, Lord Granville, whose mind was similarly receptive
to new ideas, adhered to his chief (1886), and gracefully gave
way to Lord Rosebery when the latter was preferred to the foreign
office; the Liberals had now realized that they had lost ground
in the country by Lord Granville's occupancy of the post. He
went to the Colonial Office for six months, and in July 1886
retired from public life. He died in London on the 31st of March
1801, being succeeded in the title by his son, born in 1872.
Lord Granville was a man of much charm and many friendships,
and an admirable after-dinner speaker. He spoke French like
a Parisian, and was essentially a diplomatist; but he has no
place in history as a constructive statesman.
The life of Lord Granville (1905), by Lord Fitzmaurice, is full of
interesting material for the history of the period, but being written
by a Liberal, himself an under-secretary for foreign affairs, it
explains rather than criticizes Lord Granville's work in that depart-
ment. (H. Ch.)
GRANVILLE, JOHN CARTERET, Earl (1690-1763), English
statesman, commonly known by his earlier title as Lord Carteret,
born on the 22nd of April 1600, was the son of George, 1st Lord
Carteret, by his marriage with Grace Granville, daughter of
Sir John Granville, 1st earl of Bath, and great grandson of
the Elizabethan admiral, Sir Richard Grenville, famous for his
death in the " Revenge." The family of Carteret was settled
in the Channel Islands, and was of Norman descent. John
Carteret was educated at Westminster, and at Christ Church,
Oxford. Swift says that "with a singularity scarce to be
justified he carried away more Greek, Latin and philosophy
than properly became a perspn of his rank." Throughout life
Carteret not only showed a keen love of the classics, but a taste
for, and a knowledge of, modern languages and literatures.
He was almost the only Englishman of his time who knew
German. Harte, the author of the Life of Gustavus Adolphus,
acknowledged the aid which Carteret had given him. On the
GRANVILLE
3^3
17th o! October 17 10 he married at Longleat Lady Frances
Worsley, grand-daughter of the first Viscount Weymouth.
He took his seat in the Lords on the 25th of May 1711. Though
his family, on both sides, had been devoted to the house of
Stuart, Carteret was a steady adherent of the Hanoverian
dynasty. He was a friend of the Whig leaders Stanhope and
Sunderland, took a share in defeating the Jacobite conspiracy
of Bolingbroke on the death of Queen Anne, and supported the
passing of the Septennial Act. Carteret's interests were however
in foreign, and not in domestic policy. His serious work in
public life began with his appointment, early in 17 19, as
ambassador to Sweden. During this and the following year
he was employed in saving Sweden from the attacks of Peter
the Great, and in arranging the pacification of the north. His
efforts were finally successful. During this period of diplomatic
work he acquired an exceptional knowledge of the affairs of
Europe, and in particular of Germany, and displayed great tact
and temper in dealing with the Swedish senate, with Queen
Ulrica, with the king of Denmark and Frederick William I.
of Prussia. But he was not qualified to hold his own in the
intrigues of court and parliament in London. Named secretary
of state for the southern department on his return home, he soon
became helplessly in conflict with the intrigues of Townshend
and Sir Robert Walpole. To Walpole, who looked upon every
able colleague, or subordinate, as an enemy to be removed,
Carteret was exceptionally odious. His capacity to speak
German with the king would alone have made Sir Robert detest
him. When, therefore, the violent agitation in Ireland against
Wood's halfpence (see Swift, Jonathan) made it necessary
to replace the duke of Grafton as lord lieutenant, Carteret was
sent to Dublin. He landed in Dublin on the 23rd of October
1724, and remained there till 1730. In the first months of his
tenure of office he had to deal with the furious opposition to
Wood's halfpence, and to counteract the effect of Swift's
Draper's Letters. The lord lieutenant had a .strong personal
liking for Swift, who was also a friend of Lady Carteret's family.
It is highly doubtful whether Carteret could have reconciled
his duty to the crown with his private friendships, if government
had persisted in endeavouring to force the detested coinage
on the Irish people. Wood's patent was however withdrawn,
and Ireland settled down. Carteret was a profuse and
popular lord lieutenant who pleased both the " English interest "
and the native Irish. He was at all times addicted to lavish
hospitality, and according to the testimony of contemporaries
was too fond of burgundy. When he returned to London in
1730, Walpole was firmly established as master of the House of
Commons, and as the trusted minister of King George II. He
had the full confidence of Queen Caroline, whom he prejudiced
against Carteret. Till the fall of Walpole in 1742, Carteret
could take no share in public affairs except as a leader of opposi-
tion of the Lords. His brilliant parts were somewhat obscured
by his rather erratic conduct, and a certain contempt, partly
aristocratic and partly intellectual, for commonplace men and
ways. He endeavoured to please Queen Caroline, who loved
literature, and he has the credit, on good grounds, of having
paid the expenses of the first handsome edition of Don Quixote
to please ier. But he reluctantly, and most unwisely, allowed
himself to be entangled in the scandalous family quarrel between
Frederick, prince of Wales, and his parents. Queen Caroline
was provoked into classing him and Bolingbroke, as " the two
most worthless men of parts in the country." Carteret took
the popular side in the outcry against Walpole for not making
war on Spain. When the War of the Austrian Succession ap-
proached, his sympathies were entirely with Maria Theresa —
mainly on the ground that the fall of the house of Austria would
dangerously increase the power of France, even if she gained
no accession of territory. These views made him welcome to
George II., who gladly accepted him as secretary of state in 1742.
In 1743 he accompanied the king of Germany, and was present
at the battle of Dettingen on the 27th of June. He held the
secretaryship till November 1744. He succeeded in promoting
an agreement between Maria Theresa and Frederick. He under-
stood the relations of the European states, and the interests
of Great Britain among them. But the defects which had
rendered him unable to baffle the intrigues of Walpole made him
equally unable to contend with the Pelhams. His support of
the king's policy was denounced as subservience to Hanover.
Pitt called him " an execrable, a sole minister who had renounced
the British nation.',' A few years later Pitt adopted an identical
policy, and professed that whatever he knew he had learnt
from Carteret. .On the 18th of October 1744 Carteret became
Earl Granville on the death of his mother. His first wife died
in June 1743 at Aschaffenburg, and in April 1744 he married
Lady Sophia Fermor, daughter of Lord Pomf ret — a fashionable
beauty and " reigning toast " of London society, who was
younger than his daughters. "The nuptials of our great
Quixote and the fair Sophia," and Granville's ostentatious
performance of the parfof lover, were ridiculed by Horace
Walpole. The countess Granville died on the 7th of October
1745, leaving one daughter Sophia, who married Lord Shelburae,
1st marquis of Lansdowne. This marriage may have done
something to increase Granville's reputation for eccentricity.
In February 1746 he allowed himself to be entrapped by the
intrigues of the Pelhams into accepting the secretaryship, but
resigned in forty-eight hours. In June 1 7 5 1 he became president
of the council, and was still liked and trusted by the king, but
his share in government did not go beyond giving advice, and
endeavouring to forward ministerial arrangements. In 1756
he was asked by Newcastle to become prime minister as the
alternative to Pitt, but Granville, who perfectly understood
why the offer was made, declined and supported Pitt. When
in October 1761 Pitt, who had information of the signing of
the " Family Compact " wished to declare war on Spain, and
declared his intention to resign unless his advice was accepted,
Granville replied that " the opinion of the majority (of the
Cabinet) must decide." He spoke in complimentary terms of
Pitt, but resisted his claim to be considered as a " sole minister "
or, in the modern phrase, " a prime minister." Whether he used
the words attributed to him in the Annual Register for 1761
is more than doubtful, but the minutes of council show that they
express his meaning. Granville remained in office as president
till his death. His last act was to listen while on his death-bed
to the reading of the preliminaries of the treaty of Paris. He
was so weak that the under-secret ary, Robert Wood, author
of an essay on The Original Genius of Homer, would have post*
poned the business, but Granville said that it. " could not pro-
long his life to neglect his duty," and quoted the speech of
Sarpedon from Iliad xii. 322-328, repeating the last word
(JjouGf) " with a calm and determined resignation." He died
in his house in Arlington Street, London, on the 22nd of January
1763. The title of Granville descended to his son Robert, who
died without issue in 1776, when the earldom of this creation
became extinct.
A somewhat partisan life of Granville was published in 1887, by
Archibald Ballantyne, under tbe title of Lord Carteret, a Political
Biography.
GRANVILLE, a town of Cumberland county, New South
Wales, 13 m. by rail W, of Sydney. Pop. (1001) 5094. It is
an important railway junction and manufacturing town, pro-
ducing agricultural implements, tweed, pipes, tiles and bricks;
there are also tanneries, flour-mills, and kerosene and meat
export works. It became a municipality in 1885.
GRANVILLE, a fortified sea-port and bathing-resort of north-
western France, in the department of Manche, at the mouth of
the Bosq, 85 m. S. by W. of Cherbourg by rail. Pop. (1906)
io>530» Granville consists of two quarters, the upper town
built on a promontory jutting into the sea and surrounded
by ramparts, and the lower town and harbour lying below it.
The barracks and the church of Notre-Dame, a low building
of granite, partly Romanesque, partly late Gothic in style, are in
the upper town. The port consists of a tidal harbour, two
floating basins and a dry dock. Its fleets take an active part
in deep sea fishing, including the cod-fishing off Newfoundland,
and oyster-fishing is carried on. It has regular communication
3&4
GRANVILLE— GRAPHITE
with Guernsey and Jersey, and with the islands of St Pierre
and Miquclon. The principal exports are eggs, vegetables and
fish; coal, timber and chemical manures are imported. The
Industries include ship-building, fish-salting, the manufacture
of cod-liver oil, the preserving of vegetables, dyeing, metal-
founding, rope-making and the manufacture of chemical
manures. Among the public Institutions are a tribunal and
a chamber of commerce. In the commune are included the
lies Chausey about 7} m. N.W. of Granville (see Channel
Islands) . Granville, before an insignificant village, was fortified
by the English in 1437, taken by the French in 144 1, bombarded
and burned by the English in 1695, and unsuccessfully besieged
by the Vcndcan troops in 1793. It was again bombarded by
the English in 1803.
GRANVILLE, a village in Licking county, Ohio, U.S.A., in
the township of Granville, about 6 mT W. of Newark and 27 m.
E. by N. of Columbus. Pop. of the village (1900) 1425; of the
township (1900) 2399. Granville is served by the Toledo & Ohio
Central and the Ohio Electric railways, the latter reaching
Newark (where it connects with the Pittsburg, Cincinnati,
Chicago & St Louis and the Baltimore & Ohio rail ways), Columbus,
Dayton, Zanesviile and Springfield. Granville is the seat of
Denison University, founded in 1831 by the Ohio Baptist
Education Society and opened as a manual labour school, called
the Granville Literary and Theological Institution, It was
renamed Granville College in 1845, and took its present name
in 1854 in honour of William S. Denison of Adamsville, Ohio,
who had given $10,000 to the college. The university comprised
in IQ07-1908 five departments: Granville College (229 students),
the collegiate department for men; Shepardson College (246
students, including 82 in the preparatory department), the col-
legiate department for women, founded as the Young Ladies'
Institute of Granville in 1859, given to the Baptist denomination
in 1887 by Dr Daniel Shepardson, its principal and owner,
and closely affiliated for scholastic purposes, since 1900, with the
university, though legally it is still a distinct institution ;
Doane Academy (137 students), the preparatory department
for boys, established in 1831, named Granville Academy in
1887, and renamed in 1895 in honour of William H. Doane of
Cincinnati, who gave to it its building; a conservatory of music
(137 students) ; and a school of art (38 students).
In 1805 the Licking Land Company, organized in the preceding
year in Granville, Massachusetts, bought 29,040 acres of land
in Ohio, including the site of Granville; the town was laid out,
and in the last months of that year settlers from Granville, Mass.,
began to arrive* By January 1806 the colony numbered 234
persons; the township was incorporated in 1806 and the village
waa incorporated in 183 1. There are several remarkable Indian
mounds near Granville, notably one shaped like an alligator.
See Henry Bushnell, H tsicryofGramniU, Ohio (Columbus, O., 1889).
GRAPE, the fruit of the vine (?.*.). The word is adopted
from the O. Fr. grape* mod. grappt, bunch or cluster of flowers
or fruit » grappes de raisin, bunch of grapes. The French word
meant properly a hook; cf. MJHLG. krapfe, Eng, " grapnel," and
" cramp. 1 ' The development of meaning seems to be vine-hook,
cluster of grapes cut with a hook, and thence in English a single
grape of a cluster. The projectile called * 4 grape " or " grape-
shot," formerly used with smooth-bore ordnance, took its name
from its general resemblance to a bunch of grapes. It consisted
of a number of spherical bullets (heavier than those of the con-
temporary musket) arranged in layers separated by thin iron
plates, a bolt passing through the centre of the plates binding
the whole together. On being discharged the projectile delivered
the bullets in a shower somewhat after the fashion of case-shot.
GRAPHICAL METHODS* devices for representing by geometri-
cal figures the numerical data which result from the quantitative
investigation of phenomena. The simplest application is met
with in the representation of tabular data such as occur in
statistics. Such tables axe usually of single entry, ue~ to a certain
value of one variable there corresponds one, and only one, vahie
of the other variable. To construct the graph, as it b called,
of such a table, Cartesian co-ordinates axe usually employed.
Two lines or axes at right angles to each other are chosen, inter*
secting at a point called the origin; the horizontal axis is the
axis of abscissae, the vertical one the axis of ordinates. Along
one, say the axis of abscissae, distances are taken from the origin
corresponding to the values of one of the variables; at these
points perpendiculars are erected, and along these ordinates
distances are taken corresponding to the related values of the
other variable. The curve drawn through these points is the
graph. A general inspection of the graph shows in bold relief
the essential characters of the table. For example, if the world's
production of corn over a number of years be plotted, a poor
yield is represented by a depression, a rich one by a peak, a
uniform one over several years by a horizontal line and so on.
Moreover, such graphs permit a convenient comparison of two
or more different phenomena, and the curves render apparent
at first sight similarities or differences which can be made out from
the tables only after close examination. In making graphs for
comparison, the scales chosen must give a similar range of
variation, otherwise the correspondence may not be discerned.
For example, the scales adopted for the average consumption of
tea and sugar must be ounces for the former and pounds for the
latter. Cartesian graphs are almost always yielded by automatic
recording instruments, such as the barograph, meteorograph,
seismometer, &c. The method of polar co-drdinates ' is more
rarely used, being only specially applicable when one of the
variables is a direction or recorded as an angle. A simple case is
the representation of photometric data, i.e. the value of the
intensity of the light emitted in different directions from a
luminous source (see Lighting).
The geometrical solution of arithmetical and algebraical problems
is usually termed graphical analysis; the application to problems
in mechanics is treated in Mechanics, § 5, Graphic Statics, and
Diagram. A special phase is presented in Vector Analysis.
GRAPHITE, a mineral species consisting of the element
carbon crystallized in the rhombohedral system. Chemically,
it is thus indentical with the cubic mineral diamond, but between
the two there are very wide differences in physical characters.
Graphite is black and opaque, whilst diamond is colourless and
transparent; it is one of the softest (H=i) of minerals, and
diamond the hardest of all; it is a good conductor of electricity,
whilst diamond is a bad conductor. The specific gravity is 2-2,
that of diamond is 3-5. Further, unlike diamond, it never
occurs as distinctly developed crystals, but only as imperfect
six-sided plates and scales. There is a perfect cleavage parallel
to the surface of the scales, and the cleavage flakes are flexible
but not elastic. The material is greasy to the touch, and soils
everything with which it comes into contact. The lustre is
bright and metallic. In its external characters graphite is thus
strikingly similar to molybdenite (q. v.).
The name graphite, given by A. G. Werner in 1789, is from
the Greek ypALtfxw, " to write," because the mineral is used for
making pencils. Earlier names, still in common use, are plum-
bago and black-lead, but since the mineral contains no lead these
names are singularly inappropriate. Plumbago (Lat. plumbum,
lead) was originally used for an artificial product obtained from
lead ore, and afterwards for the ore (galena) itself; it was con-
fused both with graphite and with molybdenite. The true
chemical nature of graphite was determined by K. W. Scheele
in 1779.
Graphite occurs mainly in the older crystalline rc£ks — gneiss,
granulite, schist and crystalline limestone — and also sometimes in
granite: it 4s found as isolated scales embedded in these rocks,
or as large irregular masses or filling veins. It has also been
observed as a product of contact-metamorphism in carbonaceous
day-slates near their contact with granite, and where igneous
rocks have been intruded into beds of coal; in these cases the
mineral has clearly been derived from organic matter. The
graphite found in granite and in veins in gneiss, as well as that
contained in meteoric irons, cannot have had such an origin.
As an artificial product, graphite is well known as dark lustrous
scales in grey pig-iron, and in the " kish " of iron furnaces:
it is also produced artificially on a large scale, together with
GRAPTOLITES
36$
carborundum, in the electric furnace (see below). The graphite
veins in the older crystalline rocks are probably akin to metalli-
ferous veins and the material derived from deep-seated sources;
the decomposition of metallic carbides by water and the reduction
of hydrocarbon vapours have been suggested as possible modes
of origin. 3uch veins often attain a thickness of several feet, and
sometimes possess a columnar structure perpendicular to the
enclosing walls; they are met with in the crystalline limestones
and other Laurentian rocks of New York and Canada, in the
gneisses of the Austrian Alps and the granulites of Ceylon.
Other localities which have yielded the mineral in large amount
are the Albert mine in Irkutsk, Siberia and the Borfowdale
mine in Cumberland, fhe Santa Maria mines of Sonora, Mexico,
probably the richest deposits in the world, supply the American
lead pencil manufacturers. The graphite of New York, Penn-
sylvania and AJabama is " flake " and unsuitable for this purpose.
Graphite is used for the manufacture of pencils, dry lubricants,
grate polish, paints, crucibles and for foundry facings. The
material as mined usually does not contain more than 20 to
50% of graphite: the ore has therefore to be crushed and the
graphite floated off in water from the heavier impurities. Even
the purest forms contain a small percentage of volatile matter
and ash. The Cumberland graphite,, which is especially suitable
for pencils, contains, about, 12 % of impurities. ,. . (L. J. §.)
Artificial M anufactur ■<?.— tlie alteration of carbon at high
temperatures into a material resembling graphite has long been
known. In 1893 Girard and Street patented a furnace and a
process by which this transformation could be effected. Carbon
powder compressed into a rod was slowly passed through a tube
in which it was subjected to the action of one or more electric
arcs. E. G. Acheson, in ,1896, patented an application of his
carborundum process to graphite manufacture, and in 1899
the International Acheson Graphite Co. was formed, employing
electric current from the Niagara Falls. Two procedures are
adopted? (i) graphitization of moulded carbons; (2) graphitiza-
tion of anthracite en masse. The former includes electrodes,
lamp carbons, &c. Coke, or some other form of amorphous
carbon, is mixed with a little tar, and the required article moulded
in a press or by a die. The articles are stacked transversely in a
furnace, each being packed in granular coke and covered with
carborundum. At first the current Is 3000 amperes at 220 volts,
increasing to 9000 amperes at 20 volts after 30 hours. In graphi-
tizing en masse large lumps, of anthracite are treated in the
electric furnace. . A soft, unctuous form results on treating
carbon with ash or silica in special furnaces, and this gives the
so-called " deflocculated " variety when treated with gallo-
tannic acid. These two modifications are valuable lubricants.
The massive graphite is very easily machined and is widely used
for electrodes, dynamo brushes, lead pencils and the like,,
See " Graphite and its l^ses," Bull. Imperial Institute, (1906)
P- 353i (i9<>7) P- 7o; F. Cirkel, Graphite (Ottawa, 1907). (W. G. M.)
GRAPTOUTBfi, an assemblage of extinct zoophytes whose
skeletal remains are found in the Palaeozoic rocks, occasionally
in great abundance. They are usually preserved as branching
or unbranching carbonized bodies, tree-like, leaf -like or rod-like in
shape, their edges regularly toothed or denticulated. Most
frequently they occur lying on the bedding planes of black
shales; less commonly they are met with in many other kinds of
sediment, and when in, limestone they may retain much of their
original relief and admit of a detailed microscopic study.
Each Graptolite represents the common horny or chitinous
investment or supporting structure, of a colony of zoeids, each
tooth-like projection marking the position of the sheath or theca
of an individual zooid. Some of the branching forms have a
distinct outward resemblance to the polyparies of Sertularia and
Plumularia among the recent Hydroida (CalyptoWastea); in
none of the unbranching forms, however, is the similarity by
any means close.
The Graptolite polyparies vary considerably in size: the
majority range from 1 in. to about 6 in. in length; few examples
have been met with having a length of more than 30 in.
Very different views have been held as to the systematic
place and rank of the Graptolites, Linnaeus included them
in his group of false' fossils {Graplolithus** written stone). At
one time they were referred by some to the Polyzoa (Bryozoa),
and later, by almost general consent, to the Hydroida (Calypto-
blastea) among the Hydrozoa (Hydromedusae). Of late years
an opinion is gaining ground that they may be regarded as
constituting collectively an independent phylum of their own
(Graptolithina).
\ There are two main groups, or sub-phyla: the Graptdloidea
or Graptolites proper, and the Dendroidea or tree-like Graptolites;
the former is typified by the unbranched genus Monograptus
and the latter by the many-branched genus Dcndrograptus.
A Monograptus makes its first appearance as a minute dagger-like
body (the sicula), which represents the flattened covering of the
primary or embryonic zooid of the colony. This sicula, which had
originally the shape of a hollow cone, is formed of two portions or
regions— an upper a©d smaller (apical or embryonic) portion, marked
by delicate * longitudinal lines, and having a fine tabular thread
{the nemo) proceeding from its apex ; and a lower (thecal or apertural)
portion, marked by transverse lines of growth and widening in the
direction of the mouth, the lip or apertural margin of which forms
the broad' end^f the 9icula. This margin is normally furnished with
a perpendicular spine {virgella) and occasionally with tw6 'shorter
lateral spines or lobes.
A bud is g&rqa;o9 from the sicula at a variable .distance along its
length. From this bud is developed the first zooid and first serial
theca of the colony. This theca grows in the direction of the apex of
the sicula, to which it adheres by Its dorsal wall. Thus while the
mouth of the sicula is* directed downwards, that of the first serial
theca is pointed upwards, making a theoretical angle of about 180
Jvith the direction of that of the sicula.
; From this first theca originates a second, opening in the same
direction, and from the second a* third, and so on, in a continuous linear
series until the polypary is complete. Each zooid buds from the one
Immediately preceding tt/4n the series, and intercommunication is
effected by all thS budding orifices (including that in the wall of the
picula) remaining permanently open* Tbe sicula itself ceases to grow
icon after the earnest' theca have' been developed ; it remains
permanently attached tt> the dorsal wall of the polypary, of which it
forms the proximal end, its apex rarely reachirfg beyond the third
pr fourth thecau
i A fine cylindrical rod or fibre (the so-called . solid axis or
pirgula) becomes developed in a median groove in the dorsal wall
f»f the polypary, and is sometimes continued distally as a naked
od. It was formerly supposed that a virgula was present in
fall the Graptoloidea; hence the term Rhabdaphora sometimes
employed for the Graptoloidea in general, and rhabdosome for the
jmdividual polypary; but while the virgula. is present in many
(Axonophora) it is absent as such in others (Axonolipa).
The Graptoloidea are arranged in eight families, each named
after a characteristic genus: (1) Dichograptidae; (2) Lepto-
graptidae; (3) Dicranograptidae; (4) Diplograptidae; (5)
Glossograptidae (sub-family, Lasiograptidae) ; (6) Retiolitidae;
(7) Dimorphograptidae; (8) Monograptidae.
In all these families the polypary originates as in Monograptus
from a nema-bearing sicula, which invariably opens downwards
and gives off only a single bud, such branching as may take
place occurring at subsequent stages in the growth of the poly-
pary. In some species young examples have been met with in
which the nema ends above in a small membranous disk, which
has been interpreted as an organ of attachment to the underside
of floating bodies, probably sea weeds, from which the young
polypary hung suspended.
Broadly speaking, these families make their first appearance
in time in the order given above, and show a progressive morpho-
logical evolution along certain special lines. There is a tendency
for the branches to become reduced in number, and for the serial
thecae to become directed more and more upwards towards the
line of the nema. In the oldest family— Dichograptidae — in
which the branching polypary is bilaterally symmetrical and
: the thecae uniserial \monoprionidian) — there is a gradation
from earlier groups with many branches to later groups with
only two; and from species in which all the branches and their
thecae are directed downwards, through species in which the
branches become bent back more and more outwards and
upwards, until in some the terminal thecae open almost vertically.
In the genus Phyllograptus the branches have become reduced
366
GRAPTOLITES
40,
4*.
5.
6,
7,
8,
9,
10,
"•
12
13.
14.
15,
16,
17
18,
19.
Diptograptus, young sicula. 20,
Monograptus aubius, sicula 21,
and first serial theca (partly 22,
restored).
Young form (all above after 23,
Wiman).
Older form. 24,
Showing virgula (after Holm).
Rastrites distorts. )
Base of Diptograptus (after 25,
Wiman).
D. calcaratus. 26,
Dimorphograptus.
Base of Dtdymograptus minu- 27,
/us (after Holm). 28>
Young Dictyograptus, with
primary disk. S,
Ibid. Diptograptus (after «,
Ruedemann). /,
a-£, Base and transverse sec- m,
tion, RetioliUs Geinitmanus N,
(after Holm). nn t
Bryograptus Kjerulfi. V,
Dichograptus octobrachiatus, w t
with central disk. zz,
Dtdymograptus Murchisoni. T,
Z?. gibber ulus. C,
a-6, Phyllograptus and trans-
verse section. G,
Nemagraptus gracilis. g,
Dicranograptus ramosus. o,
Climacograptus Scharenbergi.
Glossograptus Hincksii.
Lasiograptus costatus (after
Elles and Wood).
Dictyonema (-graptus) flabelU-
forme (-w).
Dictyonema (-dendron) pel-
tatum with base of attach-
ment.
D. cervicorne, branches (after
Holm),
D. rarutn (section after
Wiman).
Dendrograptus Hallianus.
Synrhabdosome of Dipto-
graptus (after Ruedemann).
Sicula.
Upper or apical portion.
Lower or apertural.
Mouth.
Nema.
Nemacaulus or virgular tube.
Virgula.
Virgella.
Septal strands.
Theca.
Common canal (in Retio-
lites).
Gonangium.
Gonotheca.
Budding theca.
to four and these coalesce by their dorsal walls along the line of
the nema, and the sicula becomes embedded in the base of the
polypary. In the family of the Diplograptidae the branches are
reduced to two; these also coalesce similarly by their dorsal
walls, and the polypary thus becomes biserial (diprionidian) , and
the line of the nema is taken by a long axial tube-like structure,
the nemacaulus or virgular tube. Finally, in the latest family,
the Monograptidae, the branches are theoretically reduced to
one, the polypary is uniserial throughout, and all the thecae
are directed outwards and upwards.
The thecae in the earliest family — Dichograptidae — are so similar in
form to the sicula itself that the polypary has been compared to a
colony of siculae; there is the greatest variation in shape in
those of the latest family — Monograptidae — in some species of which
the terminal portion of each theca becomes isolated (Rastrites) and
in some coiled into a rounded lobe. The thecae in several of the
{families are occasionally provided with spines Or lateral processes:
the spines are especially conspicuous at the base in some biserial
forms: in the Lasiograptidae the lateral processes originate a
marginal me&hwork surrounding the polypary.
Histologically, the perisarc or test in the Graptoloidea appears
to be composed of three layers, a middle layer of variable structure,
and an overlying and an underlying layer of remarkable tenuity.
The central layer is usually thick and marked by lines of growth;
but in Glossograptus and Lasiograptus it is thinned down to a fine
membrane stretched upon a skeleton framework of lists and fibres, .
and in RetioliUs this membrane is reduced to a delicate network.
The groups typified by these three genera are sometimes referred to,
collectively, as the Retiotoidea, and the structure as retioloid.
It is the general practice of palaeontologists to regard each
graptolite polypary (rhabdosome) developed from a single sicula
as an individual of the highest order. Certain American forms,
however, which are preserved as stellate groups, have been
interpreted as complex umbrella-shaped colonial stocks, indivi-
duals of a still higher order (synrhabdosomes) , composed of a
number of biserial polyparies (each having a sicula at its outer
extremity) attached by their nemacauli to a common centre of
origin, which is provided with two disks, a swimming bladder and
a ring of capsules.
In the Dendroidea, as a rule, the polypary is non-symmetrical
in shape and tree-like or shrub-like in habit, with numerous
branches irregularly disposed, and with a distinct stem-like or
short basal portion ending below in root-like fibres or in a mem-
branous disk or sheet of attachment. An exception, however,
is constituted by the comprehensive genus Dictyonema, which
embraces species composed of a large number of divergent and
sub-parallel branches, united by transverse dissepiments into
a symmetrical cone-like or funnel-shaped polypary, and includes
some forms (Dictyograptus) which originate from a nema-bearing
sicula and have been claimed as belonging to the Graptoloidea.
Of the early development of the polypary in the Dendroidea
little is known, but the more mature stages have been fully
worked out. In Dictyonema the branches show thecae of two
kinds: (1) the ordinary tubular thecae answering to those of
the Graptoloidea and occupied by the nourishing zooids; and
(2) the so-called bithecae, birdnest-like cups (regarded by their
discoverers as gono thecae) opening alternately right and left
of the ordinary thecae. Internally, there existed a third set of
thecae, held to have been inhabited by the budding individuals.
In the genus Dendrograptus the gonothecae open within the walls
of the ordinary thecae, and the branches present an outward
resemblance to those of the uniserial Graptoloidea. But in
striking contrast to what obtains among the Graptoloidea in
general, the budding orifices in the Dendroidea become closed,
and all the various cells shut off from each other.
The classification of the Dendroidea is as yet unsatisfactory:
the families most conspicuous are those typified by the genera
Dendrograptus, Dictyonema, Inocaulis and Thamno graptus.
As regards the modes of reproduction among the Graptolites little is
known. In the Dendroidea, as already pointed out, the bithecae
were possibly gonothecae, but they have been interpreted by some
as nematophores. In the Graptoloidea certain lateral and vesicular
appendages of the polypary in the Lasiograptidae have been looked
upon as connected with the reproductive system ; and . in the
umbrella-shaped synrhabdosomes already referred to, the common
centre is surrounded by a ring of what have been regarded as ovarian
capsules. The theory of the gonangial nature of the vesicular bodies
in the Graptoloidea is, however, disputed by some authorities, and
it has been suggested that the zooid of the sicula itself is not the
GRASLITZ--GRASS AND GRASSLAND
3^7
product of the normal' er sexual mode of propagation in the group,
but owes its origin to a peculiar type of budding or non-sexual
reproduction, in which, as temporary resting or protecting structures,
the vesicular bodies may have had a share.
As respects the mode of life of the Graptolites there can be
little doubt that the Dendroidea were, with some exceptions,
sessile or benthonic animals, their polyparies, like those of the
recent Calyptoblastea, growing upwards, their bases remaining
attached to the sea floor or to foreign bodies, usually fixed. . The
Graptoloidea have also been regarded by some as benthonic
organisms. A more prevalent view, however, is that the majority
were pseudo-planktonic or drifting colonies, hanging from the
underside of floating seaweeds; their polyparies being each
suspended by the nema in the earliest stages of growth, and, in
later stages, some by the nemacaulus, while others became
adherent above by means of a central disk or by parts of their
dorsal walls. Some of these ancient seaweeds may have remained
permanently rooted in the littoral regions, while others may
have become broken off and drifted, like the recent Sargassum,
at the mercy of the winds and currents, carrying the attached
Graptolites into all latitudes. The more complex umbrella-
shaped colonies of colonies (synrhabdosomes) described as
provided with a common swimming bladder (pneumatophore?)
may have attained a holo-planktonic or free-swimming mode
of existence.
The range of the Graptolites in time extends from the Cambrian
to the Carboniferous. The Dendroidea alone, however, have
this extended range, the Graptoloidea becoming extinct at the
close of Silurian time. Both groups make their first appearance
together neat the end of the Cambrian; but while in the succeed-
ing Ordovician' and Silurian the Dendroidea are comparatively
rare, the Graptoloidea become the most characteristic and,
locally, the most abundant fossils of these systems.
The species of the Graptoloidea have individually a remarkably
short range in geological time; but the geographical distribution
of the group as a whole, and that of many of its species, is almost
world-wide. This combination of circumstances has given the
Graptoloidea a paramount stratigraphical importance aspalaeon-
tological indices of the detailed sequence and correlation of the
Lower Palaeozoic rocks in general. Many Graptolite zones,
showing a constant uniformity of succession, paralleled in this
respect only by the longer known Ammonite zones of the Jurassic,
have been distinguished in Britain and northern Europe, each
marked by a characteristic species. Many British species and
associations of genera and species, occurring on corresponding
horizons to those 6n which they are found in Britain, have been
met with in the graptolite-bearing Lower Palaeozoic formations
of other parts of Europe, in America, Australia, New Zealand
and elsewhere.
Bibliography. — Linnaeus, Systema naturae (12th ed. 1768);
Hall, Graptolites of the Quebec Group (1865); Barrande, Graptolites
de Boheme (1850); Carruthers, Revision of the British Graptolites
(1868); H. A. Nicholson, Monograph of British Graptolites, pt. 1
(1872); id. and J. E. Marr, Phyloteny of the Graptolites (1895);
Hopkinson, On British Graptolites (1869); Allman, Monograph of
Gymnoblastic Hydroids (1872) ; Lapworth, An Improved Classification
of the Rhabdophora (1873); The Geological Distribution of the Rhabdo-
phora (1879, 1880) ; ' Walther, Lebensweise fossiler Meerestiere
(1897): Tullberg, Sk&nes Graptoliter (1882, 1883); T6rnguist,
Graptolites Scanian Rastrites Beds (1899); Wiman, Die Graptofithen
(1895); Holm, GoUands Graptoliter (1890); Perner, Graptolites <le
Bohhne (1894-1899) ; R. Ruedemann, Development and Mode of Growth
of Diplograptus (ife5-i8o6); Graptolites of New York, vol. i. (1904),
vol. ii. (1908) ; Freeh, Lethaea palaeozoica f Graptolithiden (1897) ; Elles
and Wood, Monograph of British Graptolites (1901-1909). (C. L.*)
GRASLITZ (Czech* Kraslice) t a town of Bohemia, on the
Zwodau, 145 m. N.W. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1000) 11,803,
exclusively German, fcraslitz is one of the most important
industrial towns of Bohemia, its specialities being the manu-
facture of musical instruments, carried on both as a factory and
a domestic industry, arid lace-making. Next in importance are
cotton-spinning and weaving, machine embroidery, brewing,
and the mother-of-pearl industry.
GRASMERE, a village and lake of Westmorland, in the heart
of the English Lake District. The village (pop. of urban district
in 1 00 1, 781) lies near the head of the lake, on the small river
Rothay and the Keswick- Ambleside road, 12} m. from Keswick
and 4 from Ambleside. The scenery is very beautiful; the valley
about the lakes of Grasmere and Rydal Water is in great part
wooded, while on its eastern flank there rises boldly the range
of hills which includes Rydal Fell, Fairfield and Seat Sandal,
and, farther north, Helvellyn. On the west side are Loughrigg
Fell and Silver How. The village has become a favourite centre
for tourists, but preserves its picturesque and sequestered
appearance. In a house still standing William Wordsworth
lived from 1799 to 1808, and it was subsequently occupied by
Thomas de Quincey and by Hartley Coleridge. Wordsworth's
tomb, and also that of Coleridge, are in the churchyard of the
ancient church of St Oswald, which contains a memorial to
Wordsworth with an inscription by John Keble. A festival
called the Rushbearing takes place on the Saturday within the
octave of St Oswald's day (August 5th), when a holiday is
observed and the church decorated with rushes, heather and
flowers. The festival is of early origin, and has been derived by
some from the Roman Floralia, but appears also to have been
made the occasion for carpeting the floors of churches, unpaved
in early times, with rushes. Moreover, in a procession which
forms part of the festivities at Grasmere, certain Biblical stories
are symbolized, and in this a connexion with the ancient miracle
plays may be found (see H. D. Rawnsley, A Rambler f s Note-Book
at the English Lakes, Glasgow, 1902). Grasmere is also noted for
an athletic meeting in August.
The lake of Grasmere is just under 1 m. in length, and has
an extreme breadth of 766 yds. A ridge divides the basin from
north to south, and rises so high as to form an island about the
middle. The greatest depth of the lake (75 ft.) lies to the east
of this ridge.
GRASS AND GRASSLAND, in agriculture. The natural
vegetable covering of the sofl in most countries is " grass "
(for derivation see Grasses) of various kinds. Even where
dense forest or other growth exists, if a little daylight penetrates
to the ground grass of some sort or another will grow. On
ordinary farms, or wherever farming of any kind is carried out,
the proportion of the land not actually cultivated will either
be in grass or will revert naturally to grass in time if left alone,
after having been cultivated.
Pasture land has always been an important part of the farm,
but since the " era of cheap corn " set in its importance has
been increased, and much more attention has been given to the
study of the different species of grass, their characteristics, the
improvement of a pasture generally, and the " laying down "
of arable land into grass where tillage farming has not paid.
Most farmers desire a proportion of grass-land on their farms —
from a third to a half of the area — and even on wholly arable
farms there are usually certain courses in the rotation of crops
devoted to grass (or clover). Thus the Norfolk 4-course rotation
is corn, roots, corn, clover; the Berwick 5-course is corn, roots,
corn, grass, grass; the Ulster 8-course, corn, flax, roots, corn,
flax, grass, grass, grass; and so on, to the point where the grass
remains down for 5 years, or is left indefinitely.
Permanent grass may be grazed by live-stock and classed
as pasture pure and simple, or it may be cut for hay. In the
latter case it is usually classed as " meadow " land, and often
forms an alluvial tract alongside a stream, but as grass is often
grazed and hayed in alternate years, the distinction is not a hard
and fast one.
There are two classes of pasturage, temporary and permanent.
The latter again consists of two kinds, the permanent grass
natural to land that has never been cultivated, and the pasture
that has been laid down artificially on land previously arable
and allowed to remain and improve itself in the course of time.
The existence of ridge and furrow on many old pastures in
Great Britain shows that they were cultivated at one time,
though perhaps more than a century ago. Often a newly laid
down pasture will decline markedly in thickness and quality
about the fifth and sixth year, and then begin to thicken and
improve year by year afterwards. This is usually attributed
Lr ^
QKASS . AND . (GRASSLAND ...
to the {act that tie unsuitable varieties die out, and the " natur-
ally ", suitable varieties only come in gradually. This trouble
can ,be largely prevented, however, by a judicious selection
of seed, and by subsequently manuring with phosphatic manures,
with farmyard or other bulky " topdressings," or by feeding
. sheep with cake and corn over the field. ,
AIL the grasses proper belong to the natural order Gramineae
(see Grasses), to which order also belong all the " corn " plants
cultivated throughout the world, also many others, such as
bamboo, sugar-cane, millet, rice, &c. &c., which yield food for
mankind. . Of the grasses which constitute pastures, and hay-
fields over a hundred species are classified by botanists in Great
Britain, with many varieties in addition, but the majority of
these, though often forming a part of natural pastures, are
worthless or inferior for farming purposes. The grasses of good
quality which should form a " sole " in an old pasture and pro-
vide the bulk of the forage on a newly laid down piece of grass
are only about a dozen in number (see below), and of these there are
only some six species of the very first importance and indispensable
in a " prescription " of grass seeds intended for laying away land
in temporary or permanent pasture. Dr W. Fream caused a
botanical examination to be made of several of the most cele-
brated pastures of England, and, contrary to expectation, found
that their chief constituents were ordinary perennial ryegrass and
white clover. Many other grasses and legumes were present, but
these two formed an overwhelming proportion of the plants.
In ordinary usage the term grass, pasturage, hay, &c, includes
many varieties of clover and other members of the natural order
Leguminosae as well as other " herbs of the field," which, though
not strictly " grasses," are always found in a grass field, and
are included in mixtures of seeds for pasture and meadows.
The following is a list of the most desirable or valuable agri-
cultural grasses and clovers, which are either actually sown or, in
the case of old pastures, encouraged to grow by draining, liming,
manuring, and so on: —
Grasses.
Meadow foxtail.
Sweet vernal grass.
Tall oat-grass.
Golden oat-grass.
Crested dogstail.
Cocksfoot.
Hard fescue.
Tall fescue.
Sheep's fescue.
Meadow fescue.
Italian ryegrass.
Timothy or catstail.
Wood meadow-grass.
Smooth meadow-grass.
Rough meadow-grass.
Alopecurus pratensis .
Anthoxanthum odoratum
Avena elatior
A vena flavescens ■< ■
Cynosurus cristatua.
Dactylis glomerata .
Festuca duriuscula .
Festuca elatior .
Festuca ovina
Festuca pratensfc . .
Lolium italicum. «
Phleum pratense
Poa nemoralis
Poa pratensis
Poa trivialis . . .
Medicago lupulina .
Medicago sativa. .
Trifolium hybrid um
„ pratense .
„ pratense >
„ perenne y
„ lncarnatum
„ procumbens
repens
Achillea Millefolium.
Anthyllis vulneraria.
Lotus major .
Lotus corniculatus .
Carum petroselinum
Plantago lanceolata .
Cichonum intybus .
Poterium officinale .
Clovers, &c.
. Trefoil or " Nonsuch."
* Lucerne (Alfalfa).
. Alsike clover.
. Broad red clover.
. Perennial clover.
. Crimson clover or " TrifoKum." ■
. Yellow Hop-trefoil.
. White or Dutch clover.
. Yarrow or Milfoil.
. Kidney-vetch.
. Greater Birdsfoot Trefoil.
. Lesser ,» ,»
. Field parsley.
. Plantain.
. Chicory.
. Burnet.
The predominance of any particular species is largely deter-
mined by climatic circumstances, the nature of the soil and the
treatment it receives. In limestone regions sheep's fescue has
been found to predominate; on wet clay soil the dog's bent
(Agrostis canina) is common; continuous manuring with nitro-
genous manures tills out the leguminous plants and stimulates
such grasses as cocksfoot; manuring with phosphates stimulates
the clovers and other legumes; and so on. Manuring with
bask slag at the rate of from 5 to 10 cwt. per acre, has, been found
to give excellent results on poor clays and peaty soils. Basic
slag is a by-product of the Bessemer steel process, and is rich in a
soluble form of phosphate of lime (tetra-phosphate) which specially
stimulates the growth of clovers and other legumes; and has
renovated many inferior pastures.
In the Rothamsted experiments continuous manuring with
" mineral manures " (no nitrogen) on am old meadow has reduced
the grasses from 71 to 64% of the whole, while at the same time
it has^increased the Leguminosae from 7% to 24%. On the
other hand, continuous use of nitrogenous manure in addition to
" minerals " has raised the grasses to 94% of the total and
reduced the legumes to less than 1%.
As to the best kinds of grasses, &c., to sow in making a pasture
out of arable land, experiments at Cambridge, England, have
demonstrated that of the many varieties offered by seedsmen
only a very few are of any permanent value. A Complex mixture
of tested seeds was sown, and after five yeats an examination of
the pasture showed that only a few varieties survived and made
the " sole V for either grazing or forage. These varieties in the
order of their importance were:—
Cocksfoot . . ■ . . .' . ' . . . .26
Perennial rye grass . . ; ... . ■. .16
Meadow fescue , . . 13
Hard fescue Q
Crested dogstail . . 8
Timothy ........... 6
White clover 4
Meadow foxtail . . . . , . ■ , ... .2
The figures represent approximate percentages.
Before laying down grass it is well to examine the species already
growing round the hedges and adjacent field*. An inspection of
this sort will show that the Cambridge experiments are very
conclusive, and that the above species are the only ones to be
depended on. Occasionally some other variety will be pro-
minent, but if so there will be a special local reason for this.
On the other hand, many farmers when sowing down to grass
like to have a good bulk df forage for the first year or two, and
therefore include several of the doVers', lucerne, Italian ryegrass,
evergreen ryegrass, &c, knowing that these will die out in the
course of years and leave the ground to the more permanent
species.
There are also several mixtures of "seeds" (the technical
name given on the farm to grass-seeds) which have been adopted
with success in laying down permanent pasture in some localities.
. . I
c
§
>*
1 u
*
.8
•3
eg-
General
purpose
mixture.
Cocksfoot
8
*6
I
2
3
10
3
4
2
2
I
I
1
2
8
2
1
3i
3
I
I
1
ii
1
2
2*
I
I
8
8
6
5
3
3
2
I
2
4
10
2
l
2
5
2
2
2
8
2
Perennial ryegrass .
Meadow fescue.
Hard fescue ....
Crested dogstail
Timothy
3
Meadow foxtail . . .
Tall fescue
Tall oat grass ....
Italian ryegrass
Smooth meadow grass.
Rough meadow grass .
Golden oat grass .
Sheep's fescue .
Broad red clover
Perennial red clover
Alsike
1
1
1
1
1
I
i
I
Lucerne (Alfalfa) . ...
White clover ....
Kidney vetch ....
Sheep s parsley.
4
6
Yarrow
Burnet
Chicory
Plantain
Total lb per acre
1
8
4
4
1
i
30
40
*7
40
30
40
GRASSE, COMTE DE— GRASSES
369
Arthur Young mure than 100 years ago made.ottt one to suit
ch&lky hillsides; Mr Fauucede Laune {Susse*) in our days was
the first to study . glasses and advocated leaving out ryegrass of
all kinds; Lord Leiqester adopted a cheap mixture suitable for
poor, land with success; Mr Elliot (Kelso) has introduced many
deep-rooted ? '. heebs " in his mixture with good results. Typical
examples of such mixtures are given on preceding page.
Temporary pastures are commonly: resorted to for rotation
purposes, and in these the bulky fagtrgrowing and short-lived
grasses and clovers are given the preference. Three examples of
temporary mixtures axe given below*
One
year.
Two
years.
Three
or four
years.
Italian ryegrass . . .
Cocksfoot
Timothy
14
2
10
4
2
5
2
2
•.. 5;
2
2
I
I
6
, 6
3
3
2
2
10
2
2
2
2
Broad red clover .
Alsike . .
Trefoil .
Perennial ryegrass .■ t
Meadow fescue
Perennial red clover .
White clover ....
Meadow foxtail
Total lb per acre .
8
3
3
30
. .4,
40
Where only a one-year hay is required, broad red clover is
often grown, either alone or mixed with a little Italian ryegrass,
while other forage crops, like trefoil and trif olium, are of ten grown
alone.
In Great Britain a heavy clay soil is usually preferred for
pasture, both because it takes most kindly to grass and because
the expense of cultivating it makes it unprofitable as arable land
when the price of corn is low. On light soil the, plant frequently
suffers from drought in summer, the want of moisture preventing
it from obtaining proper root-hold. On such soil the use of a
heavy roller is advantageous, and indeed on any soil excepting
heavy clay frequent rolling is beneficial to the grass, as it pro-
motes the capillary action of the soil-particles and the consequent
ascension of ground-water.
In addition, the grass on the surface helps to keep the moisture
from being wasted by the sun's heat.
The graminaceous crops of western Europe generally are
similar to those enumerated. Elsewhere in Europe are found
certain grasses, such as Hungarian brome, which are suitable for
introduction into the British Isles*. The grasses of the American
prairies also include many plants not met with in Great Britain.
Some half-dozen species are common to both countries: Kentucky
" blue-grass " is the British Poa pratensis; couch, grass (TrUicum
repens) grows plentifully without its underground runners;
bent (Agrostis vulgaris) forms the famous " red-top," and so on.
But the American buffalo-grass, the Canadian buffalo-grass, the
" bunch " grasses, " squirrel-tail " and many others which have
no equivalents in the British Islands, form a large part of the
prairie pasturage. There is not a single species of true clover
found on the prairies, though cultivated varieties can be intro-
duced. (P. McC.)
GRASSE, FRANCOIS JOSEPH PAUL, Marquis de G&asse-
tilly, Comte de (1722-1788), French sailor, was born at Bar,
in the present department of the Alpes Maritimes. In 1734 he
took service on the galleys of the order of Malta, and in 1740
entered the service of France, being promoted to chief of squadron
in 1779. He took part in the naval operations of the American
War of Independence, and distinguished himself in the battles of
Dominica and Saint Lucia (1780), and of Tobago (1781). He
was less fortunate at St Kitts, where he was defeated, by Admiral
Hood. Shortly af terwards» in April 5782, he was defeated and
taken prisoner by Admiral Rodney. Some months later he re-
turned to France, published a Mttnaire justificatif, and was
acquitted by a court-martial ( 1 784) . He died.at Paris in January
1788..
His son Alexandre de Grasse* published, a Notice bibliographique
sur Vamiral comte de Grasse tfapres les documents in&dits in 1840.
See G. Lacour-Gayet, La Marine mUitaire de la France sous te rkgne
de Louis XV (Paris, 190a).
GRASSE, a town in the French department of the Alpes
Maritimes (till i860 in that of the Var), 1 2$ m. by rail N. of Cannes.
Pop., (1906) town, 13,958; commune, 20,305. It is built in a
picturesque situation, in the form of an amphitheatre and at a
height of 1066 ft. above the sea, on the southern slope of a hill,
facing the Mediterranean. In the older (eastern) part of the town
the streets are narrow, steep and winding, but the new portion
(western) is laid out in accordance with modern French ideas.
It possesses a remarkably mild and salubrious climate, and is
well supplied with water. That used for the purpose of the
factories comes from the fine spring of Fouz. But the drinking
water used in the higher portions of the town flows, by means of
a conduit, from the Foulon stream, one of the sources of the
Loup. Grasse was from 1244 (when the see was transferred
hither from Antibes) to 1700 an episcopal see, but was then
included in the diocese of Frejus till i860, when politically as
well as ecclesiastically, the region was annexed to the newly-
formed department of the Alpes Maritimes. It still possesses a
12th-century cathedral, now a simple parish church; while an
ancient tower, of uncertain date, rises close by near the town
hall, which was formerly the bishop's palace (13th century).
There is a good town library, containing the muniments Of the
abbey of Lerins, on the island of St Honorat opposite Cannes.
In the chapel of the old hospital are three pictures by Rubens.
The painter J. H. Fragonard (1732-180G) was a native of Grasse,
and some of his best works were formerly to be seen here (now
in America). Grasse is particularly celebrated for its perfumery.
Oranges and roses are cultivated abundantly in the neighbour-
hood. It is stated that the preparation of attar of roses (which
costs nearly £100 per 2 lb) requires alone nearly 7,000,000 roses
a year. The finest quality of olive oil is also manufactured at
Grasse. (W. A. B. C.)
GRASSES, 1 a group of plants possessing certain characters in
common and constituting a family (Gtamineae) of the class
Monocotyledons. It is one of the largest and most widespread
and, from an economic point of view, the most important family
of flowering plants. No plant is correctly termed a grass which
is not a member of this family, but the word is in common
language also used, generally in combination, for many plants of
widely different affinities which possess some resemblance (often
slight) in foliage to true grasses; e.g. knot-grass (Polygonum
avkulare), cotton-grass (Eriophorum), rib-grass (Plantago),
scorpion-grass (Myosotis), blue-eyed grass (Sisyrinchium), sea-
grass (Zoster a). The grass-tree of Australia (Xanthorrhoea) is a
remarkable plant, allied to the rushes in the form of its flower, but
with a tall, unbranched, soft- woody, palm-like trunk bearing a
crown of long, narrow, grass-like leaves and stalked heads of
small, densely-crowded flowers. In agriculture the word has an
extended signification to include the various fodder-plants,
chiefly leguminous, often called " artificial grasses." Indeed,
formerly grass (also spelt gwrs, gres, gyrs in the old herbals)
meant any green herbaceous plant of small size.
Yet the first attempts at a classification of plants recognized
and separated a group of Gramina, and this, though bounded by
nothing more definite than habit and general appearance,
contained the Gramineae of modern botanists. The older group,
however, even with such systematists as Ray (1703), Scheuchzer
(1719), and Micheli (1729), embraced in addition the Cyperaceae
1 The word " grass " (O* Eng. gar s, grces) is common to Teutonic
languages, cf. Dutch Ger. Goth. gras t Dan. gras; the root is the
O. Teut. gra- t gro-, to increase, whence " grow," and " green," the
typical colour of growing vegetation. The Indo-European root is
seen in Lat. gramen. The O. Eng. grasian, formed from gras, gives
41 to graze," of cattle feeding on growing herbage, also * grazier,"
one who grazes or feeds cattle tor the market; •' to graze," to
abrade, to touch lightly in passing, may be a development of this
from the idea of close cropping; if ft is to be distinguished a possible
connexion may be found with " glace " (Fr. glacer, glide, slip, Lat.
tfacies* ice), to glance off, the change in form being influenced by
J grate," to scrape, scratch (Fr. gr otter, Ger. kratzen).
370
GRASSES
(Sedge family), Juncaceae (Rush family), and some other mono-
cotyledons with inconspicuous flowers. Singularly enough, the
sexual system of Linnaeus (1735) served to mark off more dis-
tinctly the true grasses from these allies, since very nearly all
of the former then known fell under his Triandria Digynia, whilst
the latter found themselves under his other classes and orders.
I. Structure. — The general type of true grasses is familiar in
the cultivated cereals of temperate climates — wheat, barley,
rye, oats, and in the smaller plants which make up pastures and
meadows and form a principal factor of the turf of natural
downs. Less familiar are the grains of warmer climates — rice,
maize, millet and sorgho, or the sugar-cane. Still farther re-
moved are the bamboos of the tropics, the columnar stems of
which reach to the height of forest trees. All are, however,
formed on a common plan.
Root, — Most cereals and many other grasses are annual, and
possess a tuft of very numerous slender root-fibres, much branched
and of great length. The majority of the members of the family
are of longer duration, and have the roots also fibrous, but fewer,
thicker and less branched. In such cases they are very generally
given off from just above each node (often in a circle) of the lower
part of the stem or rhizome, perforating the leaf-sheaths. In
some bamboos they are very numerous from the lower nodes of
the erect culms, and pass downwards to the soil, whilst those from
the upper nodes shrivel up and form circles of spiny fibres.
Stem. — The underground stem or rootstock (rhizome) of
perennial grasses is usually well developed, and often forms very
Fig. 1. — Rhizome of Bamboo. A, B, C, D, successive series of axes,
the last bearing aerial culms. Much reduced.
long creeping or subterranean rhizomes, with elongated inter-
nodes and sheathing scales; the widely-creeping, slender
rhizomes in Marram-grass (Psamtna), Agropyrum junceum,
Elytnus arenarius, and other sand-loving plants render them
useful as sand-binders. It is also frequently short, with the
nodes crowded. The turf-formation, which is characteristic
of open situations in cool temperate climates, results from an
extensive production of short stolons, the branches and the
fibrous roots developed from their nodes forming the dense
" sod." The very large rhizome of the bamboos (fig. 1) is also
a striking example of " definite " growth; it is much branched,
the short, thick, curved branches being given off below the apex
of the older ones and at right angles to them, the whole forming
a series of connected arched axes, truncate at their ends, which
were formerly continued into leafy culms. The rhizome is always
solid, and has the usual internal structure of the monocotyle-
donous stem. In the cases of branching just cited the branches
break directly through the sheath of the leaf in connexion with
which they arise. In other cases the branches grow upwards
through the sheaths which they ultimately split from above,
and emerging as aerial shoots give a tufted habit to the plant.
Good examples are the oat, cock's-foot (Dactylis) and other
British grasses. This mode of growth is the cause of the " tiller-
ing " of cereals, or the production of a large number of erect
growing branches from the lower nodes of the young stem.
Isolated tufts or tussocks are also characteristic of steppe — and
savanna — vegetation and open places generally in the warmer
parts of the earth.
The aerial leaf-bearing branches (culms) are a characteristic
feature of grasses. They are generally numerous, erect, cylin-
drical (rarely flattened) and conspicuously jointed with evident
nodes. The nodes are solid, a strong plate of tissue passing
across the stem, but the internodes are commonly hollow, although
examples of completely solid stems are not uncommon (e.g. maize,
many Andropogons, sugar-cane). The swollen nodes are a
characteristic feature. In wheat, barley and most of the
British native grasses they are a development, not of the culm,
but of the base of the leaf-sheath. The function of the nodes
is to raise again culms which have become bent down; they are
composed of highly turgescent tissue, the cells of which elongate
on the side next the earth when the culm is placed in a horizontal
or oblique position, and thus raise the culm again to an erect
position. The internodes continue to grow in length, especially
the upper ones, for some time; the increase takes place in a zone
at the extreme base, just above the node. The exterior of the
culms is more or less concealed by the leaf -sheaths; it is usually
smooth and often highly polished, the epidermal cells containing
an amount of silica sufficient to leave after burning a distinct
skeleton of their structure. Tabasheer is a white substance
mainly composed of silica, found in the joints of several bamboos.
A few of the lower internodes may become enlarged and sub-
globular, forming nutriment-stores, and grasses so characterized
are termed " bulbous " (Arrhenatherum, Poa bulbosa, &c). In
internal structure grass-culms, save in being hollow, conform
to that usual in monocotyledons; the vascular bundles run
parallel in the internodes, but a horizontal interlacement occurs
at the nodes. In grasses of temperate climates branching is
rare at the upper nodes of the culm, but it is characteristic of
the bamboos and many tropical grasses. The branches are
strictly distichous. In many bamboos they are long and spread-
ing or drooping and copiously ramified, in others they are
reduced to hooked spines. One genus (DinoMoa, a native
of the Malay archipelago) is scandent, and climbs over trees
100 ft. or more in height, Olyra latifolia, a widely-spread
tropical species, is also a climber on a humbler scale.
Grass-culms grow with great rapidity, as is most strikingly
seen in bamboos, where a height of over 100 ft, is attained in
from two to three months, and many species grow two, three or
even more feet in twenty-four hours. Silicic hardening does not
begin till the full height is nearly attained. The largest bamboo
recorded is 170 ft., and the diameter is usually reckoned at about
4 in. to each 50 ft.
Leaves. — These present special characters usually sufficient
for ordinal determination. They are solitary at each node and
arranged in two rows, the lower often crowded, forming a basal
tuft. They consist of two distinct portions, the sheath and the
blade. The sheath is often of great length, and generally com-
pletely surrounds the culm, forming a firm protection for the
internode, the younger basal portion of which, including the
zone of growth, remains tender for some time. As a rule it is
split down its whole length, thus differing from that of Cyperaceae
which is almost invariably (Eriospora is an exception) a complete
tube; in some grasses, however (species of Poa> Brotnus and
others), the edges are united. The sheaths are much dilated
in Alopecurus vaginatus and in a species of Potatnochloa, in the
latter, an East Indian aquatic grass, serving as floats. At the
summit of |the sheath, above the origin of the blade, is the
ligule, a usually membranous process of small size (occasionaUy
reaching 1 in. in length) erect and pressed around the culm.
It is rarely quite absent, but may be represented by a tuft of
hairs (very conspicuous in Pariana). It serves to prevent
rain-water, which has run down the blade, from entering the
sheath. Melica uniflora has in addition to the ligule, a green
erect tongue-like process, from the line of junction of the edges
of the sheath.
The blade is frequently wanting or small and imperfect In
the basal leaves, but in the rest is long and set on to the sheath
at an angle. The usual form is familiar— sessile, more or less
ribbon-shaped, tapering to a point, and entire at the edge.
The chief modifications are the articulation of the deciduous
GRASSES
37*
blade on to the sheath, which occurs ux all the Bambuseae
(except Planotia) and in Spar Una stricta; and the interposition
of a petiole between the sheath and the blade, as in bamboos,
Leptaspis, Pharus, Pariana, Lophaiherum and others. In the
latter case the leaf usually becomes oval, ovate or even cordate
or sagittate, but these forms are found in sessile leaves also
(Qlyra, Panicum). The venation is strictly parallel, the midrib
usually strong, and the other ribs more slender. In Anomcchloa
there are several nearly equal ribs and in some broad-leaved
grasses (Bambuseae, Pharus, Leptaspis) the venation becomes
tesselated by transverse
connecting veins. . The
tissue is often raised
above the veins, form-
veins,
longitudinal
ing longitudinal ridges,
Fig. 2. — Magnified transverse section generally on the upper
of one-half of a leaf-blade of Festuca face; the stomata are in
rubra. The dark portions represent u' ;- f t, A ;„♦*•„«»«;««
supporting and inducting tissi£; the «*» m ™[ ^ryening
upper face bears furrows, at the bottom furrows. The thick pro-
of each of which are seen the motor minent veins in Agro-
cells *». pyrum occupy the whole
upper surface of the leaf. Epidermal appendages are rare,
the most frequent being marginal, saw-like, cartilaginous
teeth, usually minute, but occasionally (Danthonia scabra,
Panicum serratum) so large as to give the margin a serrate
appearance. The leaves are occasionally woolly, as in Alopecurus
lanatus and one or two Panicutns. The blade is often twisted,
frequently so much so that the upper and under faces become
reversed. In dry-country grasses the blades are often folded
on the midrib, or rolled up. The rolling is effected by bands of
large wedge-shaped cells — motor-cells — between the nerves,
the loss of turgescence by which, as the air dries, causes the
blade to curl towards the face on which they occur. The rolling
up acts as a protection from too great loss of water, the exposed
surface being specially protected to this end by a strong cuticle,
the majority or all of the stomata occurring on the protected
surface. The stiffness of the blade, which becomes very marked
in dry-country grasses* is due to the development of girders of
thick-walled mechanical tissue which follow the course of all
or the principal veins (fig. 2)..
Inflorescence. — This possesses an exceptional importance in
grasses, since, their floral envelopes being much reduced and the
sexual organs of very great uniformity, the characters employed
for classification are mainly derived from the arrangement of
the flowers and their investing bracts. Various interpretations
have been given to these glumaceous organs and different terms
employed for them by various writers. It may, however, be
Fig. 3. — One-flowered Fig. 4. — Two-flowered spikelet
spikelet of Agrostis. of Air a.
by Barren glumes; /, flowering glumes. (Both enlarged.)
considered as settled that the whole of the bodies known as
glumes and paleae, and distichously arranged externally to
the flower, form no part of the floral envelopes, but are of the
nature of bracts. These are arranged so as to form spikelets
(locustae), and each spikelet may contain one, as in Agrostis
(fig- 3) two, as in A ira (fig. 4) three, or a great number of
flowers, as in Briza (fig. 5) Triticutn (fig. 6) ; in some species of
Eragrostis there are nearly 60. The flowers are, as a rule, placed
laterally on the &xi&(rachilla)oi the spikelet, but in one-flowered
spikelets they appear to be terminal, and are probably really
so in Anthoxanihum (fig. 7) and in two anomalous genera,
Anomochloa and Streptochaeta.
In immediate relation with the flower itself, and often entirely
concealing it, is the palea or pale (" upper pale " of most syste-
matic agrostolpgists). This organ (fig. 13, 1) is peculiar to grasses
Fig. 7.— Spikelet of Antho-
xanihum (enlarged) without the
two lower barren glumes, show-
ing the two upper awned barren
glumes (g) and the flower.
Fig. 5.— -Spikelet of Briza. Fig. 6.— Spikelet of Triticum.
(Both enlarged.)
among Glumiflorae (the series to which belong the two families
Gramineae and Cyperaceae), and is almost always present,
certain Oryzeae and Phalarideae
being the only exceptions. It is
of thin membranous consistence,
usually obtuse, often bifid, and
possesses no central rib or nerve,
but has two lateral ones, one on
either side; the margins are fre-
quently folded in at the ribs,
which thus become placed at the
sharp angles. This structure was
formerly regarded as pointing to
the fusion of two organs, and
the pale was considered by
Robert Brown to represent two
portions soldered together of a
trimerous perianth - whorl, the
third portion being the "lower
pale." The pale is now gener-
ally considered to represent the
single bracteole, characteristic
of Monocotyledons, the binerved
structure being the result of the pressure of the axis of the
spikelet during the development of the pale, as in Iris and others.
The flower with its pale is sessile, and is placed in the axil of
another bract in such a way that the pale is exactly opposed
to it, though at a slightly higher level. It is this second bract
or flowering glume which has been generally called by systemat-
ists the " lower pale," and with the " upper pale " was formerly
considered to form an outer floral envelope (" calyx," Jussieu;
" perianthium," Brown). The two bracts are, however, on
different axes, one secondary to the other, and cannot therefore
be parts of one whorl of organs. They are usually quite unlike
one another, but in some genera (e.g. most Festuceae) are very
similar in shape and appearance.
The flowering glume has generally a more or less boat-shaped
form, is of firm consistence, and possesses a well-marked central
midrib and frequently several lateral ones. The midrib in a
large proportion of genera extends into an appendage termed
the awn (fig. 4), and the lateral veins more rarely extend beyond
the glume as sharp points (e*g. Pappophorum). The form of the
flowering glume is very various, this organ being plastic and
extensively modified in different genera. It frequently extends
downwards a little on the rachilla, forming with the latter a
swollen callus, which is separated from the free portion by a
furrow. In Leptaspis it is formed into a closed cavity by the
union of its edges, and encloses the flower, the styles projecting
through the pervious summit. Valuable characters for dis-
tinguishing genera are obtained from the awn. This presents
itself variously developed from a mere subulate point to an
organ several inches in length, and when complete (as in Andro-
pogoneae, Aveneae and Stipeae) consists of two well-marked
portions, a lower twisted part and a terminal straight portion,
372.
GRASSES
usually set in at an angle with the former, sometimes trifid and
occasionally beautifully feathery (fig. 8). The lower part is most
often suppressed, and in the large group of the Paniceae awns
of any sort are very rarely seen. The awn may be either terminal
or may come off from the back of the flowering glume, and
Duval Jouve's observations have shown that it represents the
blade of the leaf of which the portion of the
flowering glume below its origin is the sheath;
the twisted part (so often suppressed) corre-
sponds with the petiole, and the portion of
the glume extending beyond the origin of
the awn (very long in some species, e.g. of
Danthonia) with the Jigule of the developed
foliage-leaf. When terminal the awn has
three fibro-vascular bundles, when dorsal
only one; it is covered with stomate-bearing
epidermis.
The flower with its palea is thus sessile in
the axil of a floriferous glume, and in a few
grasses (Leersia (fig. 9), Coleanthus, Nardus)
the spikelet consists of nothing more, but
usually (even in uniflorous spikelets) other
glumes are present. Of these the two placed
distichously opposite each other at the base
of the spikelet never bear any flower in their
axils, and are called the empty or barren
glumes (figs. 3, 8). They are the " glumes "
of most writers, and together form what
was called the "gluma" by R. Brown.
They rarely differ much from one another,
but one may be smaller or quite
absent (Panicum, Setaria (fig. 10), Pas-
palum, Loliutn), or both be altogether
suppressed, as above noticed. They are
commonly firm and strong, often enclose
the spikelet, and are rarely provided with
long points or imperfect awns. Gener-
ally speaking they do not share in the
special modifications of the flowering
glumes, and rarely themselves undergo
modification, chiefly in hardening of
portions (Sclerachne, Manisuris, Anthe-
FiG. 8.— Spikelet of
Stipa pennata. The pair
of barren glumes (b)
are separated from the
flowering glume, which Fig. 9.-^ Fig. 10. t— Spikelet of
bears a long awn, Spikelet of Leer- Setaria, with an abortive
twisted below the knee sta. /, Flower- branch (h) beneath it. b,
and feathery above, in* glume; p, Barren glumes; /.flower-
About i nat. size. pale. ing glume; p, pale.
phora, Peltophorum), so as to afford greater protection to the
flowers or fruit. But it is usual to find, besides the basal glumes,
a few other empty ones, and these are in two- or more-flowered
spikelets (see Triticum, fig. 6) at the top of the rhachilla (numer-
ous in Lophatherum) , or in uniflorous ones (fig. 10) below and
interposed between the floral glume and the basal pair.
The axis of the spikelet is frequently jointed and breaks up
into articulations above each flower. Tufts or borders of hairs
are frequently present (Calamagrostis, Phragmites, Andropogon),
and are often so long aS to surround and conceal the flowers
(fig. 11). The axis is often continued beyond the last flower or
glume as a bristle or stalk.
Involucres or organs outside the spikelets also occur, and are
c,c,
formed in various ways. Thus in Setaria (fig. 10), Pennisetum y
&c, the one or more circles of simple or feathery hairs represent
abortive branches of the inflorescence; in Cenchrus (fig. 12)
these become consolidated, and the inner ones flattened so as
to form a very hard globular spiny case to the spikelets. The
cup-shaped involucre of Cornucopia
is a dilatation of the axis into
a hollow receptacle with a raised
border. In Cynosurus (Dog's tafl)
the pectinate involucre which con-
ceals the spikelet is a barren or
abortive spikelet. Bracts of a more
general character subtending branches
of the inflorescence are singularly
rare in Gramineae, in marked con-
trast with Cyperaceae, where they are
so conspicuous. They however occur
in a whole section of Andropogon, in
Anomochloa, and at the base of the
spike in Sesleria. The remarkable
ovoid involucre 6f Coix, which be-
comes of stony hardness, white and
polished (then known as ** : Job's
tears/' q.v.) } is also a modified bract
or leaf-sheath. It is closed except at
the apex, and cbntains the female
spikelet, the stalks of the male inflorescence and the long styles
emerging through the small apical orifice.
Any number of spikelets may compose the inflorescence, and
their arrangement is very various. In the spicate forms, with
sessile spikelets on the main axis, the latter is often dilated and
flattened (Paspalum), or is more or less
thickened and hollowed out (Stenotaphrum,
Rottboellia, Tripsacum), when the spikelets r
are sunk and buried within the cavities. |
Every variety of racemose arid paniculate
inflorescence obtains, and the number of
spikelets composing those of the large kinds
is often immense. Rarely the inflorescence
consists of very few flowers; thus Lygeum
Spartum, the most anomalous of European of Cenchrus eckinatus
grasses, has but two or three large uni- enclosed in a bristly
florous spikelets, which are fused together * nucre *
at the base, and have no basal glumes, but are enveloped in a
large, hooded, spathe-like bract.
Flower, — This is characterized by remarkable uniformity.
The perianth is represented by very rudimentary, small, fleshy
scales arising below the ovary, called lodicules; they are elongated
Fig. 11. — Spikelet of
Reed (Phragmites com"
munis) opened out.
Oy b, Barren glumes.
Fertile glumes, each
. enclosing o v ne
flower with v its,
pale d.
Note the iigfcag axis
(rhachilla) bearing
long silky hairs.
Fig. 12.— Spikelet
Fig. 13. — Flowers of Grasses (enlarged). I, Piptatherum, with the
palea p; 2, Poa; 3, Oryza; I, Lodicule.
or truncate, sometimes fringed with hairs, and are in contact
with the ovary. Their usual number is two, and they are placed
collaterally at the anterior side of the flower (fig. 13,) that is,
within the flowering glume. They are generally considered to
represent the inner whorl of the ordinary monocotyledonous
GRASSES
373
(liliaceous) perianth, the outer whorl of these being suppressed
as well as the posterior member of the inner whorl This latter
is present almost constantly in Stipeae and Bambuseae, which
have three lodicules, and in the latter group they are occasionally
more numerous. In Anomochloa they are represented by hairs.
In Streptochaeta there are six lodicules, alternately arranged
in two whotls. Sometimes, as in Anthoxanthum, they are
absent. In Mdica there is one large anterior lodicule resulting
presumably from the union of the two which are present in allied
genera. Professor £. Hackel, however, regards this as an
undivided second pale, which in the majority of the grasses is
split in halves, and the posterior lodicule, when present, as a
third pale. On this view the grass-flower has no perianth.
The function of the lodicules is the separation of the pale and
glume to allow the protrusion of stamens and stigmas; they
effect this by swelling and thus exerting pressure on the base of
these two structures. Where, as in Anthoxanthum, there are no
lodicules, pale and glume do • not become laterally separated,
and the stamens and stigmas protrude only at the apex of the
floret (fig. 7). Grass-flowers are usually hermaphrodite, but
there are very many exceptions. Thus it is common to find one
or more imperfect (usually male) flowers in the same spikelet
with bisexual ones, and their relative position is important
in classification. Hokus and Arrhenatherum are examples in
English grasses; and as a rule in species of temperate regions
separation of the sexes is not carried further. In warmer
countries monoecious and dioecious grasses are more frequent.
In such cases the male and female spikelets and inflorescence
may be very dissimilar, as in maize, Job's tears, Euchlaena,
Spinifex, &c; and in some dioecious species this dissimilarity
has led to the two sexes being referred to different genera {e.g.
Anthephora axillifiora is the female of Buchloe dactyloides,
and Neurachne paradoxa of a species of Spinifex). In other
grasses, however, with the sexes in different plants (e.g. Brko-
pyrum, DisHchlis, EragrdsHs capitata, Gynerium), no such
dimorphism obtains. Amphicarfum is remarkable in having
cleistogamic flowers borne on long radical subterranean peduncles
which are fertile, whilst the conspicuous upper paniculate ones,
though apparently perfect, never produce fruit. Something
similar occurs in Leersia oryzoides, where the fertile spikelets
are concealed within the leaf-sheaths.
Androecium. — In the vast majority there are three stamens
alternating with the lodicules, and therefore one anterior, i.e.
opposite the flowering glume, the other two being posterior and
in contact with the palea (fig. 13, 1 and 2). They are hypo-
gynous, and have long and very delicate filaments, and large,
linear or oblong two-ceiled anthers, dorsifixed and ultimately
very versatile, deeply indented at each end, and commonly
exserted and pendulous. Suppression of the anterior stamen
sometimes occurs (e.g. Anthoxanthum, fig. 7), or the two posterior
ones may be absent (Uniola, Cinna, Phippsia, Festuca bromoides).
There is in some genera (Oryza, most Bambuseae) another row of
three stamens, making six in all (fig. 13, 3); and Anomochloa and
Tetrarrhena possess four. The stamens become numerous (ten
to forty) in the male flowers of a few monoecious genera (Pariana,
Luaieta). In Ochlandra they vary from seven to thirty, and in
Gigantochloa they are monadelphous.
Gynoecium. — The pistil consists of a single carpel, opposite the
pale in the median plane of the spikelet. The ovary is small,
rounded to elliptical, and one-celled, and contains a single
slightly bent ovule sessile on the ventral suture (that is, springing
from the back of the ovary); the micropyle points downwards.
It bears usually two lateral styles which are quite distinct or
connate at the base, sometimes for a greater length (fig. 14, 1),
each ends in a densely hairy or feathery stigma (fig. 14). Occa-
sionally there is but a single style, as in Nardus (fig. 14, 7), which
corresponds to the midrib of the carpel. The very long and
apparently simple stigma of maize arises from the union of two.
Many of the bamboos have a third, anterior, style.
Comparing the flower of Gramineae with the general mono-
cotyledonous plan as represented by Liliaceae and other families
(fig. 1 5) , i t will be seen to differ in the absence of the outer row and
the posterior member of the inner row of the perianth-leaves, of
the whole inner row of stamens, and of the' two lateral carpels,
Fig. 15.
-Diagrams of the ordinary Grass-
flower.
1 , Actual condition ;
2, Theoretical, with
the suppressed
organs supplied.
a, Axis.
b, Flowering glume.
c, Palea.
d, Outer row of peri-
anth leaves.
t, Inner row.
/, Outer row of
stamens.
i:
', Inner row.
Pistil.
Fig. 14.— Pistils of Grasses (much enlarged). 1, Alopecurus; *
Bromus; 3, Arrhenatherum; 4, Glyceria; 5, Mdica; 6, Miborat
7, Nardus.
whilst the remaining members of the perianth are in a rudiment-
ary condition. But each or any of the usually missing organs
are to be found A + u
normally in differ-
ent genera, or as
occasional develop-
ments.
Pollination. —
Grasses are gener-
ally wind - pollin-
ated, though self-
fertilization some-
times occurs. A few
species, as we have
seen, are mono-
ecious or dioecious,
while many are
polygamous (having
unisexual as well
as bisexual flowers
as in many members of the tribes Andropogonsae, fig. 18,
and Paniceae), and in these the male flower of a spikelet
[always, blooms later than the hermaphrodite, so that its
pollen can only effect cross-fertilization upon other spikelets
in the same or another plant. Of those with only bisexual
flowers, many are strongly prqtogynous (the stigmas protrud-
ing before the anthers are ripe), such as Alopecurus and
Anthoxanthum (fig. 7), but generally the anthers protrude first
and discharge the greater part of their pollen before the stigmas
appear. The filaments elongate rapidly at flowering-time, and
the lightly versatile anthers empty an abundance of finely
granular smooth pollen through a longitudinal slit. Some
flowers, such as rye, have lost the power of effective self-fertiliza-
tion, but in most cases both forms, self- and cross-fertilization,
seem to be possible. Thus the species of wheat are usually self-
fertilized, but cross-fertilization is possible since the glumes are
open above, the stigmas project laterally, and the anthers empty
only about one-third of their pollen in their own flower and
the rest into the air. In some cultivated races of barley, cross-
fertilization is precluded, as the flowers never open. Reference
has already been made to cleistogamic species which occur in
several genera.
Fruit and Seed. — The ovary ripens into a usually small ovoid
or rounded fruit, which is entirely occupied by the single large
seed, from which it is not to be distinguished, the thin pericarp
being completely united to its surface. To this peculiar
fruit the term caryopsis has been applied (more familiarly
" grain ") ; it is commonly furrowed longitudinally down one
side (usually the inner, but in Coix and its allies, the outer), and
an additional covering is not unfrequently provided by the
adherence of the persistent palea, or even also of the flowering
374
GRASSES
glume {" chaff " of cereals) . From this type are a few deviations;
thus in SporoboluSy &c. (fig. 16), the pericarp is not united with
the seed but is quite distinct, dehisces, and allows the loose seed to
escape. Sometimes the pericarp is membranous, sometimes hard,
forming a nut, as in some genera of Bambuseae, while in other
Bambuseae it becomes thick and fleshy, forming a berry often as
• large as an apple. In Melocanna the berry forms
an edible fruit 3 or 4 in. long, with a pointed
beak of 2 in. more; it is indehiscent, and the
small seed germinates whilst the fruit is still
attached to the tree, putting out a tuft of roots
p IG l6 and a shoot, and not falling till the latter is 6 in.
Fruit of Sporo- l on «* The position of the embryo is plainly
bolus, showing visible on the front side at the base of the grain,
the dehiscent On the other, posterior, side of the grain is a
pencarp and more or less evident, sometimes punctiform,
sometimes elongated or linear mark, the hilum,
the place where the ovule was fastened to the wall of the ovary.
The form of the hilum is constant throughout a genus, and
sometimes also in whole tribes.
The testa is thin and membranous but occasionally coloured,
and the embryo small, the great bulk of the seed being occupied
by the hard farinaceous endosperm (albumen) on which the
nutritive value of the grain depends. The outermost layer of
endosperm, the aleuron-layer, consists of regular cells filled with
small proteid granules; the rest is made up of large polygonal
cells containing numerous starch-grains in a matrix of proteid
which may be continuous (horny endosperm) or granular (mealy
endosperm). The embryo presents many points of interest. Its
position is remarkable, closely applied to the surface of the
endosperm at the base of its outer side. This character is
absolute for the whole order, and effectually separates Gramineae
from Cyperaceae. The part in contact with the endosperm is
plate-like, and is known as the scutellum; the surface in contact
with the endosperm forms an absorptive epithelium. In some
grasses there is a small scale-like appendage opposite the scutel-
lum, the epiblast. There is some difference of opinion as to which
structure or structures represent the cotyledon. Three must be
considered: (1) the scutellum, connected by vascular tissue
with the vascular cylinder of the main axis of the embryo which
it more or less envelops; it never leaves the seed, serving
merely to prepare and absorb the food-stuff in the endosperm;
(2) the cellular outgrowth of the axis, the epiblast, small and
inconspicuous as in wheat, or larger as in Stipa; (3) the pileole
or germ-sheath, arising on the same side of the axis and above the
scutellum, enveloping the plumule in the seed and appearing
above ground as a generally colourless sheath from the apex of
which the plumule ultimately breaks (fig. 17,4,6). The develop-
ment of these structures (which was investigated by van Tieghem) ,
Fig. 17.— A Grain of Wheat. I, back, and 2, front view; 3,
vertical section, showing (b) the endosperm, and (a) embryo; 4,
beginning of germination, showing (b) the pileole and (c) the radicle
and secondary rootlets surrounded by their coleorrhizae.
especially in relation to the origin of the vascular bundles which
supply them, favours the view that the scutellum and pileole are
highly differentiated parts of a single cotyledon,and this view is in
accord with a comparative study of the seedling of grasses and
of other monocotyledons. The epiblast has been regarded as
representing a second cotyledon, but this is a very doubtful
interpretation.
Germination. — In germination the coleorhiza lengthens,
ruptures the pericarp, and fixes the grain to the ground by
developing numerous hairs. The radicle then breaks through
the coleorhiza, as do also the secondary rootlets where, as in
the case of many cereals, these have been formed in the embryo
(fig. 17, 4). The germ-sheath grows vertically upwards, its
stiff apex pushing through the soil, while the plumule is hidden
in its hollow interior. Finally the plumule escapes, its leaves
successively breaking through at the tip of the germ-sheath.
The scutellum meanwhile feeds the developing embryo from
the endosperm. The growth of the primary root is limited;
sooner or later adventitious roots develop from the axis above
the radicle which they ultimately exceed in growth.
Means of Distribution. — Various methods of scattering the
grain have been adopted, in which parts of the spikelet or in-
florescence are concerned. Short spikes may fall from the
culm as a whole; or the axis of a spike or raceme is jointed so
that one spikelet falls with each joint as in many Andropogoneae
and Hordeae. In many-flowered spikelets the rachilla is often
jointed and breaks into as many pieces as there are fruits, each
piece bearing a glume and pale. One-flowered spikelets may
fall as a whole (as in the tribes Paniceae and Andropogoneae) ,
or the axis is jointed above the barren glumes so that only the
flowering glume and pale fall with the fruit. These arrange-
ments are, with few exceptions, lacking in cultivated cereals
though present in their wild forms, so far as these are known.
Such arrangements are disadvantageous for the complete gather-
ing of the fruit, and therefore varieties in which they are not
present would be preferred for cultivation. The persistent
bracts (glume and pale) afford an additional protection to the
fruit; they protect the embryo, which is near the surface, from
too rapid wetting and, when once soaked, from drying up again.
They also decrease the specific gravity, so that the grain is more
readily carried by the wind, especially when, as in Briza, the glume
has a large surface compared with the size of the grain, or when,
as in Holcus, empty glumes also take part; in Canary grass
(Phalaris) the large empty glumes bear a membranous wing
on the keel. In the sugar-cane (Saccharum) and several allied
genera the separating joints of the axis bear long hairs below
the spikelets; in others, as in Arundo (a reed-grass), the flowering
glumes are enveloped in long hairs. The awn which is frequently
borne on the flowering glume is also a very efficient means of
distribution, catching into fur of animals or plumage of birds,
or as often in Stipa (fig. 8) forming a long feather for wind-
carriage. In Tragus the glumes bear numerous short hooked
bristles. The fleshy berries of some Bambuseae favour distribu-
tion by animals,
The awn is also of use in burying the fruit in the soil. Thus
in Stipa, species of Avena, Heteropogon and others the base of
the glume forms a sharp point which will easily penetrate the
ground; above the point are short stiff upwardly pointing hairs
which oppose its withdrawal. Thelong awn, which is bent and
closely twisted below the bend, acts as a driving organ; it is
very hygroscopic, the coils untwisting when damp and twisting
up when dry. The repeated twisting and untwisting, especi-
ally when the upper part of the awn has become fixed in the
earth or caught in surrounding vegetation, drives the point
deeper and deeper into the ground. Such grasses often cause
harm to sheep by catching in the wool and boring through
the skin.
A peculiar method of distribution occurs in some alpine and
arctic grasses, which grow under conditions where ripening of
the fruit is often uncertain. The entire spikelet, or single
flowers, are transformed into small-leaved shoots which fall
from the axes and readily root in the ground. Some species,
such as Poa strict a, are known only in this viviparous
condition; others, like our British species Festuca ovina
and Poa alpina, become viviparous under the special climatic
conditions.
II. Classification. — Gramineae are sharply defined from
all other plants, and there are no genera as to which it is possible
to feel a doubt whether they should be referred to it or not.
The only family closely allied is Cyperaceae, and the points of
difference between the two may be here brought together. The
GRASSES
375
best distinctions are found in the position of the embryo in
relation to the endosperm — lateral in grasses, basal in Cyperaceae
— and in the possession by Gramineae of the 2-nerved palea
below each flower. Less absolute characters, but generally
trustworthy and more easily observed, are the feathery stigmas,
the always distichous arrangement of the glumes, the usual
absence of more general bracts in the inflorescence, the split
leaf-sheaths, and the hollow, cylindrical, jointed culms — some
or all of which are wanting in all Cyperaceae. The same char-
acters will distinguish grasses from the other glumiferous orders,
Restiaceae, and Eriocaulonaceae, which are besides further
removed by their capsular fruit and pendulous ovules. To other
monocotyledonous families the resemblances are merely of
adaptive or vegetative characters. Some Commelinaceae and
Marantaceae approach grasses in foliage; the leaves of Allium,
&c, possess a ligule; the habit of some palms reminds one of
the bamboos; and Juncaceae and a few Liliaceae possess an
inconspicuous scarious perianth. There are about 300 genera
containing about 3500 well-defined species.
The great uniformity among the very numerous species of this
vast family renders its classification very difficult. The difficulty
has been increased by the confusion resulting from the multiplica-
tion of genera founded on slight characters, and from the descrip-
tion (in consequence of their wide distribution) of identical
plants under several different genera.
No characters for main divisions can be obtained from the
flower proper or fruit (with the exception of the character of
the hilum), and it has therefore been found necessary to trust
to characters derived from the usually less important inflor-
escence and bracts.
Robert Brown suggested two primary divisions — Paniceae
and Poaceae, according to the position of the most perfect
flower in the spikelet; this is the upper (apparently) terminal
one in the first, whilst in the second it occupies the lower position,
the more imperfect ones (if any) being above it. Munro supple-
mented this by another character easier of verification, and of
even greater constancy, in the articulation of the pedicel in the
Paniceae immediately below the glumes; whilst in Poaceae
this does not occur, but the axis of the spikelet frequently
articulates above the pair of empty basal glumes. Neither of
these great divisions will well accommodate certain genera
allied to Phalaris, for which Brown proposed tentatively a
third group (since named Phalarideae); this, or at least the
greater part of it, is placed by Bentham under the Poaceae.-
The following arrangement has been proposed by Professor
Eduard Hackel in his recent monograph on the order.
A. Spikelets one-flowered, rarely two-flowered as in Zea, falling
from the pedicel entire or with certain joints of the rachis at maturity.
Rachilla not produced beyond the flowers.
a. HOum a point ; spikelets not laterally compressed.
a Fertile glume and pale hyaline; empty glumes thick,
membranous to coriaceous or cartilaginous, the lowest
the largest. Rachis generally jointed and breaking up
when mature.
1. Spikelets unisexual, male and female in separate
inflorescences or on different parts of the same
inflorescence. i„ Maydeae.
2. Spikelets bisexual, or male and bisexual, each male
standing close to a bisexual. 2. Andropogoneae.
fi Fertile glume and pale cartilaginous, coriaceous or papery;
empty glumes more delicate, usually herbaceous, the
lowest usually smallest. Spikelets falling singly from the
unjointed rachis of the spike or the ultimate branches of
the panicle: * 3. Paniceae.
b. Hilum a line; spikelets laterally compressed.
4. Oryteae.
B. Spikelets one* to indefinite-flowered; in the one-flowered the
rachilla frequently produced beyond the flower; rachilla generally
jointed above the empty glumes, which remain after the fruiting
glumes have fallen. When more than one-flowered, distinct inter-
nodes are developed between the flowers.
a. Culm herbaceous, annual ; leaf-blade sessile, and not jointed
to the sheath,
a Spikelets upon distinct pedicels and arranged in panicles- or
racemes.
I. Spikelets one-flowered.
i. Empty glumes 4. 5. Phalarideae.
ft Empty glumes 2. 6. Agrostideae.
II. Spikelets more than one-flowered.
i. Fertile glumes generally shorter than the empty
glumes, usually with a bent awn on the back.
J. Aveneae.
H. Fertile glumes generally longer than the empty, un-
awned or with a straight, terminal awn.
9. Festuceae.
Spikelets crowded in two close rows, forming a one-sided
spike or raceme with a continuous (not jointed) rachis.
8. Chlorideae.
y Spikelets in two opposite rows forming an equal-sided spike.
10. Hordeae.
b. Culm woody, at any rate at the base, leaf-blade jointed to the
sheath, often with a short, slender petiole.
11. Bambuseae.
Tribe 1. Maydeae (7 genera in the warmer parts of the earth).
Zea Mays (maize, q.v. , or Indian corn) (q.v.). Tripsacum, 2 or 3 species
in subtropical America north of the equator; Tr. dactyloides (gama
grass) extends northwards to Illinois and Connecticut ; it is used for
fodder and as an ornamental plant. Coix Lacryma- Jobi (Job's
tears} q.v.
Tribe 2. Andropogoneae (25 genera, mainly tropical). The
spikelets are arranged in spike-like racemes, generally in pairs con-
sisting of a sessile and stalked spikelet at each joint of the rachis
(fig. 18). Many are savanna grasses, in various parts of the tropics,
tor instance the large genus Androbogon, Elionurus and others.
Saccharum officinarum (sugar-cane) (q.v.). Sorghum, an important
tropical cereal known as black millet or durra (q.v.). Miscanthus and
Er tan thus, nearly allied to Saccharum, are tall reed-like grasses,
with large silky flower-panicles, which are
grown for ornament. Imperata, another
ally^ is a widespread tropical genus; one
species I. arundtnacea is the principal grass
of the alang-alang fields in the Malay Archi-
pelago; it is used for thatch. Vossia, an
aquatic grass, often floating, is found in
western India and tropical Africa. In the
swampy* lands of the upper Nile it forms,
along with a species of Saccharum, huge
floating grass barriers. Elionurus, a wide-
spread savanna grass in tropical and sub-
tropical America, and also in the tropics of
the old world, is rejected by cattle probably
on account of its aromatic character, the
spikelets having a strong balsam-like smell.
Other aromatic members are Andropogon
Nardus, a native of India, but also cultivated,
the rhizome, leaves and especially the spike-
lets of which contain a volatile oil, which on
distillation yields the citronella oil of com-
merce. A closely allied species, A. Schoen-
anthus (lemon-grass), yields lemon-grass oil; ______ _.
a variety is used by the negroes in western spikelets of Andrih
Africa for haemorrhage. Other species of pogon.
the same genus are used as stimulants and
cosmetics in various parts of the tropics. The species of Hetero-
pogon, a cosmopolitan genus in the warmer parts of the world, have
strongly awned spikelets. Themeda Forskaki, which occurs from the
Mediterranean region to South Africa and Tasmania, is the kangaroo
grass of Australia, where, as in South Africa, it often covers wide
tracts.
Tribe 3. Paniceae (about 25 genera, tropical to subtropical;
a few temperate), a second flower, generally male, rarely herma-
phrodite, is often present below the fertile flower. Paspalum, is a
large tropical genus, most abundant in America, especially on the
pampas and campos; many species are good forage plants, and the
grain is sometimes used for food. Amphicarpum, native in the souths
eastern United States, has fertile cleistogamous spikelets on filiform
runners at the base of the culm, those on the terminal panicle are
sterile. Panicum, a very polymorphic genus, and one of the largest
in the order, is widely spread in all warm countries; together with
species of Paspalum they form good forage grasses in the South
American savannas and campos. Panicum Crus-galli is a poly-
morphic cosmopolitan grass, which is often grown for fodder; in one
form (P. frumentaceum) it is cultivated in India for its grain. P.
plicatum, with broad foldefl leaves, is an ornamental greenhouse grass.
P. miliaceum is millet (q.v.), and P. altissimum, Guinea grass. In
the closely allied genus Digitaria, which is sometimes regarded as
a section of Panicum, the lowest barren glume is reduced to a point ;
D. sanguinalis is a very widespread grass, in Bohemia it is cultivated
as a food-grain ; it is also the crab-grass of the southern United States,
where it is used for fodder.
In Setaria and allied genera the spikelet is subtended by an
involucre of bristles or spines which represent sterile branches of the
inflorescence. Setaria italica, Hungarian grass, is extensively grown
as a food-grain both in China and Japan, parts of India and western
Asia, as well as in Europe, where its culture dates from prehistoric
times; it is found in considerable quantity in the lake dwellings of
the Stone age.
In Cenchrus the bristles unite to form a tough spiriy capsule
Fig. 18. — A pair of
376
.•GRASSES
Fig. 19. — Phalarideae. Spike-
let of Hierochloe.
fig. 12) ; C. tribuloides (bur-grass) and other species are troublesome
weeds in North and South America, as the involucre clings to the
wool of sheep and is removed with great difficulty. Pennisetum
typhoideum is widely cultivated as a grain in tropical Africa. Spini-
fex, a dioecious grass, is widespread on the coasts of Australia and
eastern Asia, forming an important sand-binder. The female heads
are spinose with long pungent bracts, fall entire when ripe and are
carried away by wind or sea, becoming finally anchored in the sand
and falling to pieces.
Tribe 4. Qryzeae (16 genera, mainly tropical and subtropical).
The spikelets are sometimes unisexual, and , there are often six
stamens. Leersia is a genus of swamp grasses, one of which L.
oryzoides occurs in the north temperate zone of both old and new
worlds, and is a rare grass in Surrey, Sussex and Hampshire. Zizania
aquatica (Tuscarora or Indian rice) is a reed-like grass growing over
large areas on banks of streams and lakes in North America and north-
east Asia. The Indians collect the grain for food. Oryza saliva
(rice) (q.v.). Lygeum Spartum, with a creeping stem and stiff rush-
like leaves, is common on rocky soil on the high plains bordering the
western Mediterranean, and is one of the sources of esparto.
Tribe 5. Phalarideae (6 genera,
three of which are South African
and Australasian; the others are
more widely distributed, and re-
presented in our flora). Phalaris
Iarundinacea, is a reed-grass found
£ — "^SHfcffl BM*ir^^^ on tne ^ )an H s °* ^"tish rivers and
^ lakes ; a variety with striped leaves
known as ribbon-grass is grown for
ornament. P. canariensis (Canary
grass, a native of southern Europe
and the Mediterranean area) is
grown for bird-food and some-
times as a cereal. Anthoxanthum
odoratum, the sweet vernal grass of
our flora, owes its scent to the
presence of coumarin, which is also present in the closely allied
genus Hierochloe (fig. 19), which occurs throughout the temperate
and frigid zones.
Tribe 6. Agrostideae (about 35 genera, occurring in all parts of
the world; eleven are British). Aristida and Stipa are large and
widely distributed genera, occurring especially on open plains and
steppes; the conspicuously awned persistent flowering glume forms
an efficient means of dispersing the grain. Stipa pennata is a char-
acteristic species of the Russian steppes. St. spartea (porcupine
grass) and other species are plentiful on the North American prairies.
St. tenacissima is the Spanish esparto grass (g.x>.)» known in North
Africa as halfa or alfa. Phleum has a cylindncal spike-like inflores-
cence; P. pratense (timothy) is a valuable fodder grass, as also is
Alopecurus pratensis C foxtail). Sporobolus, a large genus in the
warmer parts of both hemispheres, but chiefly America, derives its
name from the fact that the seed is ultimately expelled from the
fruit. Agrostis is a large world-wide genus, but especially developed
in the north temperate zone, where it includes important meadow-
grasses. Calamagrostis and Deyeuxia are tall, often reed-like grasses,
occurring throughout the temperate and arctic zones and upon high
mountains in the tropics. Ammophila arundinacea (or Psamma
arenaria) (Marram grass) with its long creeping stems forms a useful
sand-binder on the coasts of Europe, North Africa and the Atlantic
states of America.
Tribe 7. Aveneae (about 24 genera, seven of which are British).
Holcus lanaius (Yorkshire fog, soft grass) is a common meadow and
wayside grass with woolly or downy leaves. Air a is a genus of
delicate annuals with slender hair-like branches of the panicle.
Deschampsia and Trisetum occur in temperate and cold regions or on
high mountains in the tropics; T. pratense (Avena flavescens) with
a loose panicle and yellow shining spikelets is a valuable fodder-
grass. Avena fatua is the wild oat and A, sativa the cultivated oat
(q.v.). Arrhenatherum avenaceum, a perennial field grass, native in
Britain and central and southern Europe, is cultivated in North
America.
Tribe 8. Chlorideae (about 30 genera, chiefly in warm countries).
The only British representative is Cynodon uactylon (dog[s tooth,
Bermuda grass) found on sandy shores in the south-west of England;
it is a cosmopolitan, covering the ground in sandy soils, and forming
an important forage grass in many dry climates (Bermuda grass of
the southern United States, and known as durba, dub and other
names in India). Species of Chloris are grown as ornamental grasses.
Bouteloua with numerous species (mesquite grass, grama grass) on
the plains of the south-western United States, afford good grazing.
EXeusine indica is a common tropical weed ; the nearly allied species
E. Coracana is a cultivated grain in the warmer parts of Asia and
throughout Africa. Buchloe dactyloides is the buffalo grass of the
North American prairies, a valuable fodder.
Tribe 9. Festuceae (about 83 genera, including tropical, temperate,
arctic and alpine forms) many are important meadow-grasses; 15
are British. Gynerium argenteum (pampas grass) is a native of
southern Brazil and Argentina. Arundo and Phragmites are tall
reed-grasses (see Reed). Several species of Triodia cover large areas
of the interior of Australia, and from their stiff, sharply pointed leaves
are very troublesome. Er agrostis,. one of the larger genera of the
order, is widely distributed in the warmer parts of the earth ; many
species are grown for ornament and E. abyssinica is an important
food-plant in Abyssinia.
Koeleria cr is tat a is a
fodder-grass. Briza
media (quaking grass)
is a useful meadow-
grass. Dactylis glo-
tnerata (cockVfoot), a
perennial grass with a
dense panicle, common
in pastures and waste
places is a useful
meadow-grass. It has
become naturalized in
North America, where
it is known as orchard
grass, as it will grow
in shade. Cynasurus
cristatus (dog's tail) is
a common pasture-
grass. Poa, a large
genus widely distri-
buted in temperate and
cold countries, includes
many meadow and
alpine grasses ; eight
species are British; P.
annua (fig. 20) is the
very common weed in
paths and waste places;
P. pratensis and P. tri-
viatis are also common
grasses of meadows,
banks and pastures, the
former is the " June
grass " or " Kentucky
lue grass" of North
America; P. alpina
is a mountain grass of
tfye northern hemi-
sphere and found also
in the Arctic region.
The largest species of
the genus is Poa fiabeU
lata which forms great
tufts 6-3 ft. high with leaves arranged like a fan; it is a native
of the Falkland and certain antarctic islands where it is known as
tussock grass. Glyceria fluitans, manna-grass, so-
called from the sweet grain, is one of the best fodder
grasses for swampy meadows; the grain is an article
of food in central Europe. Festuca (fescue) is also
a large and widely distributed genus, but found
especially in the temperate and cold zones; it
includes valuable pasture grasses, such as F. ovina
(sheep's fescue), F. rubra-, nine species are British.
The closely allied genus Bromus (brome grass) is
also widely distributed but most abundant in the
north temperate zone; B. erectus is a useful forage
grass on dry chalky soil.
Tribe 10. Hordeae (about 19 genera, widely
distributed; six are British). Nardus stricta (mat-
weed), found on heaths and dry pastures, is a small
perennial with slender rigid stem and leaves, it is
a useless grass, crowding out better sorts. Lolium
perenne f ray- (or by corruption rye-) grass, is
common in waste places ana a valuable pasture-
grass; L. italicum is the Italian ray-grass; L.
temulentum (darnel) contains a narcotic principle
in the grain. Secale ceteale, rye (q.v.), is cultivated
mainly in northern Europe. Agropyrum repens
(couch grass) has a long creeping underground stem,
and is a troublesome weed in cultivated land; the
widely creeping stem of A. junceum, found on
sandy sea-shores, renders it a useful sand-binder.
Triticum sativum is wheat (q.v.) (fig. 21), and Hor-
deum sativum, barley (q.v.). H. murinum, wild
barley, is a common grass in waste places. Elymus
arenarius (lyme grass) occurs on sandy sea-shores in
the north temperate zone and is a useful sand-binder.
Tribe 11. Bambuseae. Contains 23 genera, mainly
tropical. See Bamboo.
III. Distribution. — Grasses are the most
universally diffused of all flowering plants.
There is no district in which they do not occur, and in nearly
all they are a leading feature of the flora. In number of
species Gramineae comes considerably after Compositae and
Fig. 20. — Poa annua. Plant in Flower;
about J nat. size. I, one spikelet.
Fig. 21. —
Spike of Wheat
(Triticum sati-
vum). About I
nat. size.
GRASSHOPPER
377
Leguminosae, the two most numerous orders of phanerogams,
but in number of individual plants it probably far exceeds
either; whilst from the wide extension of many of its
species, the proportion of Gramineae to other Orders in the
various floras of the world is much higher than its number of
species would lead one to expect. In tropical regions, where
Leguminosae is the leading order, grasses closely follow as the
second, whilst in the warm and temj>erate regions of the northern
hemisphere, in which Compositae takes the lead, Gramineae
again occupies the second position.
While the greatest number of species is found in the tropical
zone, the number of individuals is greater in the temperate
zones, where they form extended areas of turf. Turf- or meadow-
formation depends upon uniform rainfall. Grasses also char-
acterize steppes and savannas, where they form scattered tufts.
The bamboos are a feature of tropical forest vegetation, especially
in the monsoon region. As the colder latitudes are entered the
grasses become relatively more numerous, and are the leading
family m Arctic and Antarctic regions. The only countries
where the order plays a distinctly subordinate part are some
extra-tropical regions of the southern hemisphere, Australia,
the Cape, Chili, &c. The proportion of graminaceous species
to the whole phanerogamic flora in different countries is found
to vary from nearly Jth in the Arctic regions to about -g^th at
the Cape; in the British Isles it is about t^th.
The principal climatic cause influencing the number of gramin-
aceous species appears to be amount of moisture. A remarkable
feature of the distribution of grasses is its uniformity; there are
no great centres for the order, as in Compositae, where a marked
preponderance of endemic species exists; and the genera,
except some of the smallest or monotypic ones, have usually
a wide distribution.
The distribution of the tropical tribe Bambuseae is interesting.
The species are about equally divided between the Indo-Malayan
region and tropical America, only one species being common
to both. The tribe is very poorly represented in tropical Africa;
one species Oxytenanthera abyssinica has a wide range, and three
monotypic genera are endemic in western tropical Africa. None
is recorded for Australia, though species may perhaps occur
on the northern coast. One species of Arundinarta reaches
northwards as far as Virginia, and the elevation attained in the
Andes by some species of Chusquea is very remarkable, — one,
C. aristata, being abundant from 15,000 ft. up to nearly the level
of perpetual snow.
Many grasses are almost cosmopolitan, such as the common
reed, Pkragmites communis; and many range throughout the
warm regions of the globe, e.g. Cynodon Dactylon, Eleusine
indica, Imperata arundinacea, Sporoboius indicus, &c, and such
weeds of cultivation as species of Setaria, Echirwchloa. Several
species of the north temperate zone, such as Pott nemoralis,
P. pratensis, PesPuca ovina, F. rubra and others, are absent in
the tropics but reappear in the antarctic regions; others (e.g.
Phltum alpinum) appear in isolated positions on high mountains
in the intervening tropics. No tribe is confined to one hemisphere
and no large genus to any one floral region; facts which indicate
that the separation of the tribes goes back to very ancient times.
The revision of the Australian species by Bentham well exhibits
the wide range of the genera of the order in a flora generally so
peculiar and restricted as that of Australia. Thus of the 90
indigenous genera (many monotypic or very small) only 14 are
endemic, 1 extends to South Africa, 3 are common to Australia
and New Zealand, 18 extend also into Asia, whilst no fewer than
54 are found in both the Old and New Worlds, 26 being chiefly
tropical and 28 chiefly extra-tropical.
Of specially remarkable species Lygeum is found on the
sea-sand of the eastern half of the Mediterranean basin, and the
minute Coleanthus occurs in three or four isolated spots in
Europe (Norway, Bohemia, Austria, Normandy), in North-east
Asia (Amur) and on the Pacific coast of North America (Oregon,
Washington). Many remarkable endemic genera occur m
tropical America, including Anotnochloa of Brazil, and most of
the large aquatic species with separated sexes are found in this
region. The only genus of flowering plarits peculiar to the arctic
regions is the beautiful and rare grass Pleuropogon Sabinii, of
Melville Island.
Fossil Grasses.— VihSLe numerous remains of grass-like leaves
are a proof that grasses were widespread and abundantly
developed in past geological ages, especially in the Tertiary
period, the fossil remains are in most cases too fragmentary and
badly preserved for the determination of genera, and conclusions
based thereon in explanation of existing geographical distribution
are most unsatisfactory. There is, however, justification for
referring some specimens- to Arundo 9 Pkragmites, and to the
Bambuseae.
Bibliography.— E. Hackel, The True 'Grasses (translated from
Engler and Prantl, Die naturlichen PflantenfamUien, by F. Lamson
Scnbner and E. A. South worth) ; and Andropogoneae in de Candolle's
Monographiae phanerogamarum (Paris, 1889); K. S. Kunth,
Revision des graminees (Paris, 1 829-1 835) and Agrostographia
(Stuttgart, 1833) ; J.C. D611 in Martius and Eichler, Flora Br astliensis,
ii. Pts. II. and III. (Munich,, 1871-1883); A. W. Eichler, Bluthcn-
diagramme i. 119 (Leipzig, 1 875); Bentham and Hooker, Genera
plantarum, iii. 1074 (London, 1883); H. Baillon, Histoire des
plantes, xii. 136 (Pans, 1893); J. S. Gamble, " Bambuseae of British
India " in Annals Royaf Botanic Gardens, Calcutta, vii. (1896) ;
John Percival, Agricultural Botany (chapter on " Grasses," 2nd ed.,
London, 1902). See also accounts of the family in the various great
floras, such as Ascherspnand Graebner, Synopsis dermitteleuropdischen
Flora; N. L. Britton and A. Brown, Illustrated Flora of the Northern
United States and Canada (New York, 1896); Hooker's Flora of
British India; Flora Cabensis (edited by W. Thiselton-Dyer) ;
Boissler, Flora orien talis, Ac. &c
GRASSHOPPER (Fr. sauterelle, Ital. griUo, Ger. GrashUpfer,
Heuschrecke, Swed. GrBshoppa), names applied to orfhopterous
insects belonging to the families Lacustidae and Acridiidae.
They are especially remarkable for their saltatory powers, due
to the great development of the hind legs, which are much longer
than the others and have stout and powerful thighs, and also for
their stridulation, which is not always an attribute of the male
only. The distinctions between the two families may be briefly
stated as follows: — The Locustitfae have very long thread-like
antennae, four-jointed tarsi, a long ovipositor, the auditory
organs on the tibiae of the first leg and the stridulatory organ
in the wings; the Acridiidae have short stout antennae, three-
jointed tarsi, a short ovipositor, the auditory organs on the first
abdominal segment, and the stridulatory organ between the
posterior leg and the wing. The term " grasshopper " is almost
synonymous with Locust (q.v*). Under both " grasshopper "
and " locust " are included members of both families above
noticed, but the majority belong to the Acridiidae in both cases.
In Britain the term is chiefly applicable to the large green
grasshopper (Locusta or Phasgonura viridissima) common in
most parts of the south of England, and to smaller and much
better-known species of the genera Stenobothrus, Gomphocerus
and Tettix, the latter remarkable for the great extension of the
pronotum, which often reaches beyond the extremity of the body.
All are vegetable feeders, and, as in all orthopterous insects,
have an incomplete metamorphosis, so that their destructive
powers are continuous from the moment of emergence from
the egg till death. The migratory locust (Packytylus cinerascens)
may be considered only an exaggerated grasshopper, and the
Rocky Mountain locust (Caloptenus spretus) is still more entitled
to the name. In Britain the species are not of sufficient size,
nor of sufficient numerical importance, to do any great damage.
The colours of many of them assimilate greatly to those of their
habitats; the green of the Locusta viridissima is wonderfully
similar to that of the herbage amongst which it lives, and those
species that frequent more arid spots are protected in the same
manner. Yet many species have brilliantly coloured under- wings
(though scarcely so in English forms), and during flight are almost
as conspicuous as butterflies. Those that belong to the Acridiidae
mostly lay their eggs in more or less cylindrical masses, sur-
rounded by a glutinous secretion, in the ground. Some of the
Locustidae also lay their eggs in the ground, but others deposit
them in fissures in trees and low plants, in which the female is
aided by a long flattened ovipositor, or process at the extremity
of the abdomen, whereas in the Acridiidae there is only an
37«
GRASS OF PARNASSUS— GRATIANUS
apparatus of valves. The stridulation or " song " in the latter
is produced by friction of the hind legs against portions of the
wings or wing-covers. To a practised ear it is perhaps possible
to distinguish the " song " of even closely allied species, and some
are said to produce a sound differing by day and night.
GRASS OF PARNASSUS, in botany, a small herbaceous plant
known as Parnassia palustris (natural order Saxifragaceae),
found on wet moors and bogs in Britain but less common in the
south. The white regular flower is rendered very attractive
Grass of Parnassus (Parnassia palustris) half nat. size. I, One of
the gland-bearing scales enlarged.
by a circlet of scales, opposite the petals, each of which bears a
fringe of delicate filaments ending in a yellow knob. These
glisten in the sunshine and look like a drop of honey. Honey is
secreted by the base of each of the scales.
GRATE (from Lat. crates, a hurdle), the iron or steel receptacle
for a domestic fire. When coal replaced logs and irons were found
to be unsuitable for burning the comparatively small lumps, and
for this reason and on account of the more concentrated heat of
coal it became necessary to confine the area of the fire. Thus a
basket or cage came into use, which, as knowledge of the scientific
principles of heating increased, was succeeded by the small
grate of iron and fire-brick set close into the wall which has since
been in ordinary use in England. In the early part of the 19th
century polished steel grates were extensively used, but the
labour and difficulty of keeping them bright were considerable,
and they were gradually replaced by grates with a polished black
surface which could be quickly renewed by an application of
black-lead. The most frequent form of the 18th-century grate
was rather high from the hearth, with a small hob on each side.
The brothers Adam designed many exceedingly elegant grates
in the shape of movable baskets ornamented with the paterae
and acanthus leaves, the swags and festoons characteristic of
their manner. The modern dog-grate is a somewhat similar
basket supported upon dogs or andirons, fixed or movable.
In the closing years of the 19th century a " well-grate " was
invented, in which the fire burns upon the hearth, combustion
being aided by an air-chamber below.
G RATI AN (Flavius Gratianus Augustus), Roman emperor
375-383» son of Valentinian I. by Severa, was born at Sirmium
in Pannonia, on the 18th of April (or 23rd of May) 359. On the
24th of August 367 he received from his father the title of
Augustus. On the death of Valentinian (17th of November 375)
the troops in Pannonia proclaimed his infant son (by a second
wife Justina) emperor under the title of Valentinian II. (q.v.).
Gratian acquiesced in their choke; reserving for himself the
administration of the Gallic provinces, he handed over Italy,
Ulyria and Africa to Valentinian and his mother, who fixed their
residence at Milan. The division, however, was merely nominal,
and the real authority remained in the hands of Gratian. The
eastern portion of the empire was under the rule of his uncle
Valens. In May 378 Gratian completely defeated the Lentienses,
the southernmost branch of the Alamanni, at Argentaria, near
the site of the modern Colmar. When Valens met his death
fighting against the Goths near Adrianople on the 9th of August
in the same year, the government of the eastern empire devolved
upon Gratian, but feeling himself unable to resist unaided the
incursions of the barbarians, he ceded it to Theodosius (January
379). With Theodosius he cleared the Balkans of barbarians.
For some years Gratian governed the empire with energy and
success, but gradually he sank into indolence, occupied himself
chiefly with the pleasures of the chase, and became a tool in the
hands of the Frankish general Merobaudes and bishop Ambrose.
By taking into his personal service a body of Alani, and appearing
in public in the dress of a Scythian warrior, he aroused the
contempt and resentment of his Roman troops. A Roman named
Maximus took advantage of this feeling to raise the standard of
revolt in Britain and invaded Gaul with a large army, upon which
Gratian, who was then in Paris, being deserted by his troops, fled
to Lyons, where, through the treachery of the governor, he was
delivered over to one of the rebel generals and assassinated on
the 25th of August 383.
The reign of Gratian forms an important epoch in ecclesiastical
history, since during that period orthodox Christianity for the
first time became dominant throughout the empire. In dealing
with pagans and heretics Gratian, who during his later years was
greatly influenced by Ambrose, bishop of Milan, exhibited
severity and injustice at variance with his usual character. He
prohibited heathen worship at Rome; refused to wear the
insignia of the pontifex maximus as unbefitting a Christian;
removed the altar of Victory from the senate-house at Rome,
in spite of the remonstrance of the pagan members of the senate,
and confiscated its revenues; forbade legacies of real property
to the Vestals; and abolished other privileges belonging to them
and to the pontiffs. For his treatment of heretics see the church
histories of the period.
Authorities. — Ammianus Marcellinus xxvii. - xxxi. ; Aurelius
Victor, Epit. aj; Zosimus iv. vi.; Ausonius (Gratian's tutor),
especially the Gratiarum actio pro consulate; Symmachus x. epp.
2 and 61; Ambrose, De fide, prolegomena to Eptstolae 11, 17, 21,
Consolatio de obitu Valentiniani; H. Richter, Das westrdmische
Reich, besonders unter den Kaisern Gratian, Valentinian II. and
Maximus (1865); A. de Broglie, L'£glise et V empire romain au IV*
sibcle (4th ed., 1882) ; H. Schiller, Geschichte der rdmischen Kaiserzeit,
iii., iv. 31-33; Gibbon, Decline and Fall, ch. 27; R. Gumpoltsberger,
Kaiser Gratian (Vienna, 1879); T. Hodgkin, Italy and her Invaders
(Oxford, 1892), vol. i.; Tillemont, Hist, des empereurs, v.; J. Words-
worth in Smith's Dictionary of Christian Biography. (J. H. F.)
GRATIANUS, FRANCISCUS, compiler of the Concordia dis-
cordantium canonutn or Decretum Gratiani, and founder of the
science of canon law, was born about the end of the nth century
at Chiusi in Tuscany or, according to another account, at Canada
near Orvieto. In early life he appears to have been received into
the Camaldulian monastery of Classe near Ravenna, whence he
afterwards removed to that of San Felice in Bologna, where he
spent many years in the preparation of the Concordia. The
GRATRY— GRATTAN
379
precise date of this work cannot be ascertained, but it contains
references to the decisions of the Lateran council of 1139. and
there is fair authority for believing that it was completed while
Pope Alexander III. was still simply professor of theology at
Bologna, — in other words, prior to 1 1 50. The labours of Gratian
are said to have been rewarded with the bishopric of Chiusi, but
if so he appears never to have been consecrated; at least his
name is not in any authentic list of those who have occupied
that see. The year of his death is unknown.
For some account of the Decretum Gratiani and its history see
Canon Law. The best edition is that of Friedberg {Corpus juris
canonici, Leipzig, 1879). Compare Schultze, Zur GeschichU der
Litter atur Uber das Decret Gratians (1870), Die Glosse sum Decret
Gratians (1872), and GeschichU der QueUen und LiUeratur des kano-
nischen Rechis (3 vols., Stuttgart, 1875).
GRATRY, AUGUSTS JOSEPH ALPHONSE (1805-1872),
French author and theologian, was born at Lille on the 10th of
March 1805. He was educated at the ficole Polytechnique,
Paris, and, after a period of mental struggle which he has
described in Souvenirs de ma jeunesse, he was ordained priest
in 1832. After a stay at Strassburg as professor of the Petit
Seminaire, he was appointed director of the College Stanislas
in Paris in 1842 and, in 1847, chaplain of the ficole Normale
Sup6rieure. He became vicar-general of Orleans in 1861,
professor of ethics at the Sorbonne in 1862, and, on the death of
Barante, a member of the French Academy in 1867, where he
occupied the seat formerly held by Voltaire. Together with M.
P6t6tot, curt of Saint Roch, he reconstituted the Oratory of the
Immaculate Conception, a society of priests mainly devoted to
education. Gratry was one of the principal opponents of the
definition of the dogma of papal infallibility, but in this respect
he submitted to the authority of the Vatican Council. He died
at Montreux in Switzerland on the 6th of February 1872.
His chief works are: De la connaissance de Dieu, opposing
Positivism (1855); La Logique (1856); Les Sources, conseUs pour
la conduite'de V esprit (1861-1862); La Philosophie du credo (1861);
Commentaire sur Vevangile de Saint Matthieu (1863); Jisus-Christ,
lettres a M. Remit (1864) ; Les Sophistes el la critique (in controversy
with £. Vacherot) (1864); £<* Morale et la lot de Vhistoire, setting
forth his social views (1868); Mgr. Vevique a" Orleans et Mer.
Varchevtque de Malines (1869), containing a clear exposition of the
historical arguments against the doctrine of papal infallibility.
There is a selection of Gratry's writings and appreciation of his style
by the Abbe" Pichot, in. Pages choisies des Grands Ecrivains series,
published by Armand-Colin (1897). See also the critical study by
the oratorian A. Chauvin, uAobb Gratry (1901); Le Pere Gratry
51900) , and Les Dernier s Jours du Pere Gratry et son testament spirituel,
1872), by Cardinal Adolphe Perraud, Gratry's friend and disciple.
GRATTAN, HENRY (1746-18 20), Irish statesman, son of
James Grattan, for many years recorder of Dublin, was born
in Dublin on the 3rd of July 1746. He early gave evidence
of exceptional gifts both of intellect and character. At
Trinity College, Dublin, where he had a distinguished career, he
began a lifelong devotion to classical literature and especially
to the great orators of antiquity. He was called to the Irish
bar in 1772, but never seriously practised the law. Like Flood,
with whom he was on terms of friendship, he cultivated his
natural genius for eloquence by study of good models, including
Bolingbroke and Junius. A visit to the English House of Lords
excited boundless admiration for Lord Chatham, of whose style
of oratory Grattan contributed an interesting description to
Bar alar iana (see Flood, Henry). The influence of Flood did
much to give direction to Grattan's political aims; and it was
through no design on Grattan's part that when Lord Charlemont
brought him into the Irish parliament in 1775, in the very session
in which Flood damaged his popularity by accepting- office,
Grattan quickly superseded his friend in the leadership of the
national party. Grattan was well qualified for it. His oratorical
powers were unsurpassed among his contemporaries. He
conspicuously lacked, indeed, the grace of gesture which he so
much admired in Chatham; he had not the sustained dignity
of Pitt; his powers of close reasoning were inferior to those of
Fox and Flood. But his speeches were packed with epigram,
and expressed with rare felicity of phrase; his terse and telling
sentences were richer in profound aphorisms and maxims of
political philosophy than, those of any other statesman save
Burke; he possessed the orator's incomparable gift of conveying
his own enthusiasm to his audience and convincing them of the
loftiness of his aims.
The principal object of the national party was to set the Irish
parliament free from constitutional bondage to the English
privy council. By virtue of Poyning's Act, a celebrated statute
of Henry VII., all proposed Irish legislation had to be submitted
to the English privy council for its approval under the great
seal of England before being passed by the Irish parliament.
A bill so approved might be accepted or rejected, but not
amended. More recent English acts had further emphasized
the complete dependence of the Irish parliament, and the
appellate jurisdiction of the Irish House of Lords had also been
annulled. Moreover, the English Houses claimed and exercised
the power to legislate directly for Ireland without even the
nominal concurrence of the parliament in Dublin. This was
the constitution which Molyneux and Swift had denounced,
which Flood had attacked, and which Grattan was to destroy.
The menacing attitude of the Volunteer Convention at Dungannon
greatly influenced the decision of the government in 1782 to
resist the agitation no longer. It was through ranks of volunteers
drawn up outside the parliament house in Dublin that Grattan
passed on the 16th of April 1782, amidst unparalleled popular
enthusiasm, to move a declaration of the independence of the
Irish parliament. "I found Ireland on her knees/ 1 Grattan
exclaimed, " I watched over her with a paternal solicitude;
I have traced her progress from injuries to arms, and from arms
to liberty. Spirit of Swift, spirit of Molyneux, your genius has
prevailed! Ireland is now a nation I" After a month of
negotiation the claims of Ireland were conceded. The gratitude
of his countrymen to Grattan found expression in a parliamentary
grant of £100,000, which had to be reduced by one half before
he would consent to accept it.
One of the first acts of " Grattan's parliament " was to prove
its loyalty to England by passing a vote for the support of
20,000 sailors for the navy. Grattan himself never failed in
loyalty to the crown and the English connexion. He was,
however, anxious for moderate parliamentary reform, and,
unlike Flood, he favoured Catholic emancipation. It was,
indeed, evident that without reform the Irish House of Commons
would not be able to make much use of its newly won independence.
Though now free from constitutional control it was no less subject
than before to the influence of corruption, which the English
government had wielded through the Irish borough owners,
known as the " undertakers," or more directly through the great
executive officers. " Grattan's parliament " had no control
over the Irish executive. The lord lieutenant and his chief
secretary continued to be appointed by the English ministers;
their tenure of office depended on the vicissitudes of English,
not Irish, party politics; the royal prerogative was exercised
in Ireland on the advice of English ministers. The House of
Commons was in no sense representative of the Irish people.
The great majority of the people were excluded as Roman
Catholics from the franchise; two-thirds of the members of
the House of Commons were returned by small boroughs at the
absolute disposal of single patrons, whose support was bought
by a lavish distribution of peerages and pensions. It was to
give stability and true independence to the new constitution
that Grattan pressed for reform. Having quarrelled with Flood
over " simple repeal " Grattan also differed from him on the
question of maintaining the Volunteer Convention. He opposed
the policy of protective duties, but supported Pitt's famous
commercial propositions in 1785 for establishing free trade
between Great Britain and Ireland, which, however, had to be
abandoned owing to the hostility of the English mercantile
classes. In general Grattan supported the government for a
time after 1782, and in particular spoke and voted for the
stringent coercive legislation rendered necessary by the Whiteboy
outrages in 1785; but as the years passed without Pitt's
personal favour towards parliamentary reform bearing fruit
in legislation, he gravitated towards the opposition, agitated
I for commutation of tithes in Ireland, and supported the Whigs
3 8o
GRATTAN
on the regency question in 1788. In 170a he succeeded in
carrying an Act conferring the franchise on the Roman Catholics;
in 1794 in conjunction with William Ponsonby he introduced
a reform bill, which was even less democratic than Flood's bill
of 1783. He was as anxious as Flood had been to retain the
legislative power in the hands of men of property, for " he had
through the whole of his life a strong conviction that while
Ireland could best be governed by Irish hands, democracy in
Ireland would inevitably turn to plunder and anarchy." 1 At
the same time he desired to admit the Roman Catholic gentry
of property to membership of the House of Commons, a proposal
that was the logical corollary of the Relief Act of 1792. The
defeat of Grattan's mild proposals helped to promote more
extreme opinions, which, under French revolutionary influence,
were now becoming heard in Ireland.
The Catholic question had rapidly become of the first im-
portance, and when a powerful section of the Whigs joined
Pitt's ministry in 1794, and it became known that the lord-
lieutenancy was to go to Lord Fitzwilliam, who shared Grattan's
views, expectations were raised that the question was about to
be settled in a manner satisfactory to the Irish Catholics. Such
seems to have been Pitt's intention, though there has been much
controversy as to how far Lord Fitzwilliam (q.v>) had been
authorized to pledge, the government. After taking Grattan
into his confidence, it was arranged that the latter should bring
in a Roman Catholic emancipation bill, and that it should then
receive government, support. But finally it appeared that the
viceroy had either misunderstood or exceeded his instructions;
and on the 19th of February 1795 Fitzwilliam was recalled.
In the outburst of indignation, followed by increasing disaffec-
tion in Ireland, which this event produced, Grattan acted with
conspicuous moderation and loyalty, which won for him warm
acknowledgments from a member of the English cabinet. 1
That cabinet, however, doubtless influenced by the wishes of
the king, was now determined firmly to resist the Catholic
demands, with the result that the country rapidly drifted to-
wards rebellion. Grattan warned the government in a series
of masterly speeches of the lawless condition to which Ireland
had been driven. But he could now count on no more than
some forty followers in the House of Commons, and his words
were unheeded. He retired from parliament in May 1797, and
departed from his customary moderation by attacking the govern-
ment in an inflammatory " Letter to the citizens of Dublin."
At this time religious animosity had almost died out in Ireland,
and men of different faiths were ready to combine for common
political objects. Thus the Presbyterians of the north, who were
mainly republican in sentiment, combined with a section of the
Roman Catholics to form the organization of the United Irishmen,
to promote revolutionary : ideas imported from France; and a
party prepared to welcome a French invasion soon came into
existence. Thus stimulated, the increasing disaffection cul-
minated in the rebellion of 1798, which was sternly and cruelly
repressed. No sooner was this effected than the project of a
legislative union between the British and Irish parliaments,
which had been from time to time discussed since the beginning
of the 18th century, was taken up in earnest by Pitt's govern-
ment. Grattan from the first denounced the scheme with
implacable hostility. There was, however, much to be said in
its favour. The constitution of Grattan's parliament offered no
security, as the differences over the regency question had made
evident that in matters of imperial interest the policy of the
Irish parliament and that of Great Britain would be in agreement;
and at a moment when England was engaged in a life and death
struggle with France it was impossible for the ministry to ignore
the danger, which had so recently been emphasized by the fact
that the independent constitution of 1782 had offered no safe-
guard against armed revolt. The rebellion put an end to the
growing reconciliation between Roman Catholics and Protestants;
religious passions were now violently inflamed, and the Orange-
men and Catholics divided the island into two hostile factions.
1 W. E. H. Lecky, Leaders of Public Opinion in Ireland, i. 127
(enlarged edition, 2 vols., 1903). * JW* i. 204.
It is a curious circumstance, in view of the subsequent history of
Irish politics, that it was from the Protestant Established
Church, and particularly from the Orangemen, that the bitterest
opposition to the union proceeded; and that the proposal
found support chiefly among the Roman Catholic clergy and
especially the bishops, while in no part of Ireland was it received
with more favour than in the city of Cork. This attitude of the
Catholics was caused by Pitt's encouragement of the expectation
that Catholic emancipation, the commutation of tithes, and the
endowment of the Catholic priesthood, would accompany or
quickly follow the passing of the measure.
When in 1799 the government brought forward their bill it
was defeated in the Irish House of Commons. Grattan was still
in retirement. His popularity had temporarily declined, and
the fact that his proposals for parliamentary reform and Catholic
emancipation had become the watchwords of the rebellious
United Irishmen had brought upon him the bitter hostility of
the governing classes. He was dismissed from the privy council;
his portrait was removed from the hall of Trinity College; the
Merchant Guild of Dublin struck his name off their rolls. But
the threatened destruction of the constitution of 1782 quickly
restored its author to his former place in the affections of the
Irish people. The parliamentary recess had been effectually
employed by the government in securing by lavish corruption a
majority in favour of their policy. On the 15th of January
1800 the Irish parliament met for its last session; on the same
day Grattan secured by purchase a seat for Wicklow; and at a
late hour, while the debate was proceeding, he appeared to take
his seat. "There was a moment's pause, an electric thrill passed
through the House, and a long wild cheer burst from the
galleries." , Enfeebled by illness, Grattan's strength gave way
when he rose to speak, and he obtained leave to address the House
sitting. Nevertheless his speech was a superb effort of oratory;
for more than two hours he kept his audience spellbound by a
flood of epigram, of sustained reasoning, of eloquent appeal.
After prolonged debates Grattan, on the 26th of May, spoke
finally against the committal of the bill, ending with an im-
passioned peroration in which he declared, " I will remain
anchored here with fidelity to the fortunes of my country,
faithful to her freedom, faithful to her fall." 4 These were the
last words spoken by Grattan in the Irish parliament.
The bill establishing the union was carried through its final
stages by substantial majorities. The people remained listless,
giving no indications of any eager dislike of the government
policy. "There were absolutely none of the signs which are
invariably found when a nation struggles passionately against
what it deems an impending tyranny, or rallies around some
institution which it really loves." 6 One of Grattan's main
grounds of opposition to the union had been his dread of seeing
the political leadership in Ireland pass out of the hands of the
landed gentry; and he prophesied that the time would come
when Ireland would send to the united parliament " a hundred
of the greatest rascals in the kingdom."* Like Flood before him,
Grattan had no leaning towards democracy; and he anticipated
that by the removal of the centre of political interest from Ireland
the evil of absenteeism would be intensified.
For the next five years Grattan took no active part in public
affairs; it was not till 1805 that he became a member of the
parliament of the United Kingdom. He modestly took his seat
on one of the back benches, till Fox brought him forward to a
seat near his own, exclaiming, " This is no place for the Irish
Demosthenes I " His first speech was on the Catholic question,
and though some doubt had been felt lest Grattan, like Flood,
should belie at Westminster the reputation made in Dublin, all
agreed with the description of his speech by the Animal Register
as "one of the most brilliant and eloquent ever pronounced
within the walls of parliament." When Fox and Grenville
came into power in 1806 Grattan was offered, but refused to
* Ibid. 1. 241. 4 Grattan's Speeches, iv. 23.
8 W. E. H. Lecky, History of England in the Eighteenth Century,
viii. 491. Cf. Cornwallis Correspondence, iii. 250. '
• W. E. H. Lecky, Leaders of Public Opinion in Ireland, i. 270.
GRATTIUS^-GRAUN
381
accept, an office in the government. In the following year he
showed the strength of his judgment and character by supporting,
in spite of consequent unpopularity in Ireland, a measure for
increasing the powers of the executive to deal with Irish disorder.
Roman Catholic emancipation, which he continued to advocate
with unflagging, energy though now advanced in age, became
complicated after 1808 by the question whether a veto on the
appointment of Roman Catholic bishops should rest with the -
crown. Grattan supported the veto, but a more extreme Catholic
party was now arising in Ireland under the leadership of Daniel
O'Connell, and Grattan's influence gradually declined. He
seldom spoke in parliament after 18 10, the most notable excep-
tion being in 181 5, when he separated himself from the Whigs
and supported the final struggle against Napoleon. His last
speech of all, in 181 9, contained a passage referring to the union
he had so passionately resisted* which exhibits the statesmanship
and at the same time the equable quality of Grattan's character.
His sentiments with regard to the policy of the union remained,
he said, unchanged; but "the marriage having taken place it is
now the duty, as it ought to be the inclination, of every individual
to render it as fruitful) as profitable and as advantageous as
possible.'' In the following summer, after crossing from Ireland
to London when out of health to bring forward the Catholic
question once more, he became seriously ill. On his death-bed
he spoke generously of Castlereagh, and with warm eulogy of
his former rival, Flood. He died on the 6th of June 1820, and
was buried in Westminster Abbey close to the tombs of Pitt and
Fox. His statue is in the outer lobby of the Houses of Parliament
at Westminster. Grattan had married in 1782 Henrietta Fitz-
gerald, a lady descended from the ancient family of Desmond,
by whom he had two sons and two daughters.
The most searching scrutiny of his private life only increases the
respect due to the memory of Grattan as a statesman and the
greatest of Irish orators. His patriotism was untainted by self-
seeking; he was courageous in risking his popularity for what his
sound judgment showed him to be the right course. As Sydney
Smith said with truth of Grattan soon after his death: " No
government ever dismayed him. The world could not bribe
him. He thought only of Ireland; lived for no other object;
dedicated to her his beautiful fancy, his elegant wit, his manly
courage, and all the splendour of his astonishing eloquence." 1
Bibliography.— Henry Grattan, Memoirs of the Life and Times of
the Right Hon. H. Grattan (5 vols., London, 1850-1846) ; Grattan's
Speeches (ed. by H. Grattan, junr., 1822); Irish Pari. Debates ;
W. E. H. Lecky, History of England in the Eighteenth Century (8 vols.,
London, 1 878-1 890) and Leaders of Public Opinion in Ireland
(enlarged edition , 2 vols. , 1 903) . For the controversy concerning the
recall of Lord Fitzwilliam see, in addition to the foregoing, Lord
Rosebery, Pitt (London, 1,891); Lord Ashbourne, Pitt: Some
Chapters of his Life (London, 1898) ; The Pelham Papers {Brit. Mus.
Ada. MSS.j 33 1 1 8); Carlisle Correspondence; Beresjord Correspond-
ence; Stanhope Miscellanies; for the Catholic question, W. T.
Amhurst, History of Catholic Emancipation (2 vols., London, 1886) ;
Sir Thomas Wyse, Historical Sketch of the late Catholic Association
of Ireland (London, 1 829) ; W. J. MacNeven, Pieces of Irish History
fNew York, 1807) containing an account of the United Irishmen;
for the volunteer movement Thomas MacNevin, History of the
Volunteers of 1782 (Dublin, 1845); Proceedings of the Volunteer
Delegates of Ireland J784 (Anon, ramph. Brit. Mus.). See also F.
Hardy, Memoirs of Lord Charlemont (London, 1812); Warden
Flood, Memoirs of Henry Flood (London, 1838); Francis Plowden,
Historical Review of the State of Ireland (London, 1803); Alfred
Webb, Compendium of Irish Biography (Dublin, 1878) ; Sir Jonah
Barrington, Rise and Fall of the Irish Nation (London, 1833) ; W. J.
O'Neill Daunt, Ireland and her Agitators; Lord Mountmorres,
History of the Irish Parliament (2 vols., London, 1792): Horace
Walpole, Memoirs of the Reign of George III. (4 vols., London, 1845
and 1894) I Lord Stanhope, Life of William Pitt (4 vols., London,,
1861); Thomas Davis, Life of J. P. Curran (Dublin, 1846) — this
contains a memoir of Grattan by D. 0. Madden, and Grattan's reply
to Lord Clare on the question of the Union ; Charles Phillips, Recollec-
tions of Curran and some of his Contemporaries (London, 1822);
J. A. Froude, The English in Ireland (London, 1881) ; J. G. McCarthy,
Henry Grattan: an Historical Study (London, 1886); Lord Mahon's
History of England, vol. vii. (1858). With special reference to the
Union see Castlereagh Correspondence; Cornwallis Correspondence;
Westmorland Papers (Irish State Paper Office). (R, J . M.)
■ '■ II | , 'l I. . I ■ ■■ » !...,> « M
1 Sydney Smith's War ks, ii. 166^67.
GRATTIUS [FAUSCUS], Roman poet, of the age of Augustus,
author of a poem on hunting (Cynegetica), of which 541 hexa-
meters remain. He was possibly a native of Falerii. The only
reference to him in any ancient writer is incidental (Ovid, Ex
PontOy iv. 16. 33). He describes various kinds of game, methods
of hunting, the best breeds of horses and dogs.
There are editions by R. Stern (1832); E. B&hrens in PoHat
Latini Minores (i., 1879) and G. G. Curcio in Poeti Latini Minori (i«
1902), with bibliography; see also H. Schenkl, Zur Kritik des G.
(1898). There is a translation by Christopher Wase (1654).
GRAUDENZ (Polish Grudziadz), a town in the kingdom of
Prussia, province of West Prussia, on the right bank of the
Vistula, 18 m. S.S.W. of Marienwerder and 37 m. by rail N.N.E.
of Thorn. Pop. (1885) 17,336, (1005) 35,988. It has two Pro-
testant and three Roman Catholic churches, and a synagogue.
It is a place of considerable manufacturing activity. The town
possesses a museum and a monument to Guillaume Rene Cour-
biere (1733-1811), the defender of the town in 1807. It has
fine promenades along the bank of the Vistula. Graudenz is
an important place in the German system of fortifications, and
has a garrison of considerable size.
Graudenz was founded about 1250, and received civic rights in
1 291. At the peace of Thorn in 1466 it came under the lordship
of Poland. From 1665 to J 759 it was held by Sweden, and in
1772 it came into the possession of Prussia. The fortress of
Graudenz, which since 1873 has been used as a barracks and
a military depot and prison, is situated on a steep eminence about
1$ m. north of the town and outside its limits. It was completed
by Frederick the Great in 1776, and was rendered famous
through its defence by Courbi&re against the French in 1807.
GRAUN, CARL HEINRICH (1701-1759), German musical
composer, the youngest of three brothers, all more or less musical,
was born on the 7th of May 1701 at Wahrenbriick in Saxony.
IJis father held a small government post and he gave his children
a careful education. Graun's beautiful soprano voice secured
him an appointment in the choir at Dresden. At an early age he
composed a number of sacred cantatas and other pieces for the
church service. He completed his studies under Johann Christoph
Schmidt (1664-1728), and profited much by the Italian operas
which were performed at Dresden under the composer Lotti.
After his voice had changed to a tenor, he made his debut at
the opera of Brunswick, in a work by Schumann, an inferior
composer of the day; but not being satisfied with the arias assigned
him he re-wrote them, so much to the satisfaction of the court
that he was commissioned to write an opera for the next season.
This work, Polydorus (1726), and five other operas written for
Brunswick, spread his fame all over Germany. Other works,
mostly of a sacred character, including two settings of the
Passion, also belong to the Brunswick period. Frederick the
Great, at that time crown prince of Prussia, heard the singer in
Brunswick in 1735, and immediately engaged him for his private
chapel at Rheinsberg. There Graun remained for five years,
and wrote a number of cantatas, mostly to words written by
Frederick himself in French, and translated into Italian by
Boltarelli. On his accession to the throne in 1740, Frederick
sent Graun to Italy to engage singers for a new opera to be
established at Berlin. Graun remained a year on his travels,
earning universal applause as a singer in the chief cities of Italy.
After his return to Berlin he was appointed conductor of the
royal orchestra (Kapellmeister) with a salary of 2000 thalers
(£300). In this capacity he wrote twenty-eight operas, all to
Italian words, of which the last, Merope (1756), is perhaps the
most perfect. , It is probable that Graun was subjected to con-
siderable humiliation from the arbitrary caprices of his royal
master, who was never tired of praising the operas of Hasse and
abusing those of his Kapellmeister. In his oratorio The Death
of Jesus Graun shows his skill as a contrapuntist, and his origin-
ality of melodious invention. In the Italian operas he imitates
the florid style of his time, but even in these the recitatives
occasionally show considerable, dramatic power. Graun died
on the 8th of August 1759, at Berlin, in the same house in which,
thirty-two years later, Meyerbeer was boron. .
3*2
GRAVAMEN— GRAVELINES
GRAVAMEN (from Lat. gravare, to weigh down; gravis,
heavy), a complaint or grievance, the ground of a legal action,
and particularly the more serious part of a charge against an
accused person. In English the term is used chiefly in ecclesi-
astical cases, being the technical designation of a memorial
presented from the Lower to the Upper House of Convocation,
setting forth grievances to be redressed, or calling attention to
breaches in church discipline.
GRAVE, (i) (F*om a common Teutonic verb, meaning " to
dig "; in 0. Eng. grafan; cf. Dutch graven, Ger. graberi), a place
dug out of the earth in which a dead body is laid for burial, and
hence any place of burial, not necessarily an excavation (see
Funeral Rites and Burial). The verb " to grave," meaning
properly to dig, is particularly used of the making of incisions
in a hard surface (see Engraving). (2) A title, now obsolete,
of a local administrative official for a township in certain parts
of Yorkshire and Lincolnshire; it also sometimes appears in the
form " grieve," which in Scotland and Northumberland is used
for sheriff (q.v.), and also for a bailiff or under-steward. The
origin of the word is obscure, but it is probably connected with
the German graf, count, and thus appears as the second part of
many Teutonic titles, such as landgrave, burgrave and margrave.
" Grieve," on the other hand, seems to be the northern repre-
sentative of O.E. gerefa, reeve; cf. "sheriff" and "count."
(3) (From the Lat. gravis, heavy), weighty, serious, particularly
with the idea of dangerous, as applied to diseases and the like,
of character or temperament as opposed to gay. It is also applied
to sound, low or deep, and is thus opposed to " acute." In
music the term is adopted from the French and Italian, and
applied to a movement which is solemn or slow. (4) To clean a
ship's bottom in a specially constructed dock, called a " graving
dock." The origin of the word is obscure; according to the
New English Dictionary there is no foundation for the connexion
with " greaves " or " graves," the refuse of tallow, in candle or
soap-making, supposed to be used in " graving " a ship. It may
be connected with an 0. Fr. grave, mod. grfae, shore.
GRAVEL, or Pebble Beds, the name given to deposits of
rounded, subangular, water-worn stones, mingled with finer
material such as sand and clay. The word " gravel " is adapted
from the O. Fr. gravele, mod. graveUe, dim. of grave, coarse sand,
sea-shore, Mod. Fr. greve. The deposits are produced by the
attrition of rock fragments by moving water, the waves and
tides of the sea and the flow of rivers. Extensive beds of gravel
are forming at the present time on many parts of the British
coasts where suitable rocks are exposed to the' attack of the
atmosphere and of the sea waves during storms. The flint
gravels of the coast of the Channel, Norfolk, &c, are excellent
examples. When the sea is rough the lesser stones are washed up
and down the beach by each wave, and in this way are rounded,
worn down and finally reduced to sand. These gravels are
constantly in movement, being urged forward by the shore
currents especially during storms. Large banks of gravel may
be swept away in a single night, and in this way the coast is laid
bare to the erosive action of the sea. Moreover, the movement
of the gravel itself wears down the subjacent rocks. Hence in
many places barriers have been erected to prevent the drift of
the pebbles and preserve the land, while often it has been found
necessary to protect the shores by masonry or cement work.
Where the pebbles are swept along to a projecting cape they may
be carried onwards and form a long spit or submarine bank,
which is constantly reduced in size by the currents and tides
which flow across it (e.g. Spurn Head at the mouth of the
Humber). The Chesil Bank is the best instance in Britain of
a great accumulation of pebbles constantly urged forward by
storms in a definite direction. In the shallower parts of the North
Sea considerable areas are covered with coarse sand and pebbles.
In deeper water, however, as in the Atlantic, beyond the 100
fathom line pebbles are very rare, and those which are found
are mostly erratics carried southward by floating icebergs, or
volcanic rocks ejected by submarine volcanoes.
In many parts of Britain, Scandinavia and North America
there are marine gravels, in every essential resembling those of
the sea-shore, at levels considerably above high tide. These
gravels often lie in flat-topped terraces which may be traced
for great distances along the coast. They are indications that
the sea at one time stood higher than it does at present, and
are known to geologists as " raised beaches." In Scotland such
beaches are known 25, 50 and 100 ft. above the present shores.
In exposed situations they have old shore cliffs behind them;
although their deposits are mainly gravelly there is much fine
sand and silt in the raised beaches of sheltered estuaries and near
river mouths.
River gravels occur most commonly in the middle and upper
parts of streams where the currents in times of flood are strong
enough to transport fairly large stones. In deltas and the lower
portions of large rivers gravel deposits are comparatively rare
and indicate periods when the volume of the stream was tem-
porarily greatly increased. In the higher torrents also, gravels
are rare because transport is so effective that no considerable
accumulations can form. In most countries where the drainage
is of a mature type, river gravels occur in the lower parts of the
courses of the rivers as banks or terraces which lie some distance
above the stream level. Individual terraces usually do' not
persist for a long space but are represented by a series of benches
at about the same altitude. These were once continuous, and
have been separated by the stream cutting away the intervening
portions as it deepened and broadened its channel. Terraces
of this kind often occur in successive series at different heights,
and the highest are the oldest because they were laid down at
a time when the stream flowed at their level and mark the
various stages by which the valley has been eroded. While
marine terraces are nearly always horizontal, stream terraces
slope downwards along the course of the river.
The extensive deposits of river gravels in many parts of
England, France, Switzerland, North America, &c, would
indicate that at some former time the rivers flowed in greater
volume than at the present day. This is believed to be connected
with the glacial epoch and the augmentation of the streams
during those periods when the ice was melting away. Many
changes in drainage have taken place since then; consequently
wide sheets of glacial and fluvio-glacial gravel lie spread out
where at present there is no stream. Often they are commingled
with sand, and where there were temporary post-glacial lakes
deposits of silt, brick clay and mud have been formed. These
may be compared to the similar deposits now forming in Green-
land, Spitzbergen and other countries which are at present in a
glacial condition.
As a rule gravels consist mainly of the harder kinds of stone
because these alone can resist attrition. Thus the gravels formed
from chalk consist almost entirely of flint, which is so hard that
the chalk is ground to powder and washed away, while the flint
remains little affected. Other hard rocks such as chert, quartzite,
felsite, granite, sandstone and volcanic rocks very frequently
are largely represented in gravels, while coal, limestone and
shale are far less common. The size of the pebbles varies from a
fraction of an inch to several feet; it depends partly on the
fissUity of the original rocks and partly on the strength of the
currents of water; coarse gravels indicate the action of powerful
eroding agents. In the Tertiary systems gravels occur on many
horizons, e.g. the Woolwich and Reading beds, Oldhaven beds
and Bagshot beds of the Eocene of the London basin. They do
not essentially differ from recent gravel deposits. But in course
of time the action of percolating water assisted by pressure tends
to convert gravels into firm masses of conglomerate by depositing
carbonate of lime, silica and other substances in their interstices.
Gravels are not usually so fossiliferous as finer deposits of the
same age, partly because their porous texture enables organic
remains to be dissolved away by water, and partly because
shells and other fossils are comparatively fragile and would be
broken up during the accumulation of the pebbles. The rock
fragments in conglomerates, however, sometimes contain fossils,
which have not been found elsewhere. (J. S. F.)
GRAVELINES (Flem. Gravelinghe), a fortified seaport town oi
northern France, in the department of Nord and arrondissement
GRAVELOTTE— GRAVINA.
383
of Dunkirk, 15, m, S,W. .of Dunkirk on the railway to
Calais. Pop. (1906) town, 1858; commune, 6284. Gravelines
is situated on the Aa, i& m. from its mouth in the North Sea.
It is surrounded by a double circuit of ramparts and by a tidal
moat. The river is canalized and opens out beneath the fortifica-
tions into a floating basin. The situation of the port is one of
the best in France on the North Sea, though its trade has suffered
owing to the nearness of Calais and Dunkirk and the silting up
of the channel to the sea. It is a centre for the cod and herring
fisheries. Imports consist chiefly of timber from Northern
Europe and coal from England, to which eggs and fruit are
exported. Gravelines has paper-manufactories, sugar-works,
fish-curing works, salt-refineries, chicory-roasting factories, a
cannery for preserved peas and other vegetables and an important
timber-yard. The harbour is accessible to vessels drawing 18 ft.
at high tides. The greater part of the population of the commune
of Gravelines dwells in the maritime quarter of Petit-Fort-
Philippe at the mouth of the Aa, and in the village of Les Huttes
(to the east of the town), which is inhabited by the fisher-folk.
The canalization of the Aa by a count of Flanders about the
middle of the 12th century led to the foundation of Gravelines
(grave-linghe, meaning "count's canal."). In 1558 it was the
scene of the signal victory of the Spaniards under the count of
Egmont over the French. It finally passed from the Spaniards
to the French by the treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659.
GRAVELOTTE, a village of Lorraine between Metz and the
French frontier, famous as the scene of the battle of the 18th
of August 1870 between the Germans under King William of
Prussia and the French under Marshal Bazaine (see Metz and
Franco-German War). The battlefield extends from the
woods which border the Moselle above Metz to Roncourt, near
the river Orne. Other villages which played an important part
in the battle of Gravelotte were Saint Privat, Amanweiler or
Amanvillers and Sainte-Marie-aux-Cbenes, all lying to the N.
of Gravelotte.
GRAVES, ALFRED PERCEVAL (1846- . ), Irish writer,
was born in Dublin, the son of the bishop of Limerick. He was
educated at Windermere College, and took high honours at
Dublin University. In 1869 he entered the Civil Service as
clerk in the Home Office, where he remained until he became in
1874 an inspector of schools. He was a constant contributor of
prose and verse to the Spectator, The Athenaeum, John Bull, and
Punch, and took a leading part in the revival of Irish letters.
He was for several years president of the Irish Literary Society,
and is the author of the famous ballad of " Father O'Flynn "
and many other songs and ballads. In collaboration with Sir
C. V. Stanford he published Songs of Old Ireland (1882), Irish
Songs and Ballads (1893), the airs of which are taken from the
Petrie MSS. ; the airs of his Irish Folk-Songs (1897) were arranged
by Charles Wood, with whom he also collaborated in Songs of
Erin (1901).
His brother, Charles L. Graves (b. 1856), educated at Marl-
borough and at Christ Church, Oxford, also became well known
as a journalist, author of two volumes of parodies, The Hawarden
Horace (1894) and More Hawarden Horace (1896), and of skits
in prose and verse. An admirable musical critic, his Life and
Letters of Sir George Grove (1903) is a model biography.
GRAVESEND, a municipal and parliamentary borough,
river-port and market town of Kent, England, on the right bank
of the Thames opposite Tilbury Fort, 22 m. E. by S. of London
by the South-Eastern & Chatham railway. Pop. (1961) 27,196.
It extends about 2 m. along the river bank, occupying a slight
acclivity which reaches its summit at Windmill Hill, whence
extensive views are obtained of the river, with its windings and
shipping. The older and lower part of the town is irregularly
built, with narrow and inconvenient streets, but the upper and
newer portion contains several handsome streets and terraces.
Among several piers are the town pier, erected in 1832, and the
terrace pier, built in 1845, at a time when local river-traffic by
steamboat was specially prosperous. Gravesend is a favourite
resort of «the inhabitants of London, both for excursions and as
a summer residence; it is also a favourite yachting centre.
The principal buildings are the town-hall, the. pariah church of
Gravesend, erected on the site of an ancient building destroyed
by fire in 1727; Milton parish church, a Decorated and Perpen-
dicular building erected in the time of Edward II.; and the
county courts. Milton Mount College is a large institution for
the daughters of Congregational ministers. East of the town
are the earthworks designed to assist Tilbury Fort in obstructing
the passage up river of an enemy's force. They were originally
constructed on Vauban's system in the reign of Charles II.
Rosherville Gardens, a popular resort, are in the western suburb
of Rosherville, a residential quarter named after James Rosher,
an owner of lime works. They were founded in 1843 by George
Jones. Gravesend, which is within the Port of London, has some
import trade in coal and timber, and fishing, especially of
shrimps, is carried on extensively. The principal other industries
are boat-building, ironfoundmg, brewing and soap-boiling.
Fruit and vegetables are largely grown in the neighbourhood
for the London market. Since 1867 Gravesend has returned a
member to parliament, the borough including Northfleet to the
west. The town is governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18
councillors. Area, 1259 acres.
In the Domesday Survey " Gravesham " is entered among the
bishop of Bayeux's lands, and a " hythe " or landing-place is
mentioned. In 1401 Henry IV. granted the men of Gravesend
the sole right of conveying in their own vessels all persons
travelling between London and Gravesend, and this right was
confirmed by Edward IV. in 1462. In 1562 the town was
granted a charter of incorporation by Elizabeth, which vested
the government in 2 portreeves and 12 jurats, but by a later
charter of 1568 one portreeve was substituted for the two.
Charles I. incorporated the town anew under the title of the
mayor, jurats and inhabitants of Gravesend, and a further
charter of liberties was granted by James II. in 1687. A
Thursday market and fair on the 13th of October were granted
to the men of Gravesend by Edward HI. in 1367; Elizabeth's
charters gave them a Wednesday market and fairs on the 24th
of June and the 13th of October, with a court of pie-powder;
by the charter of Charles I. Thursday and Saturday were made
the market days, and these were changed again to Wednesday
and Saturday by a charter of 1694, which also granted a fair
on the 23rd of April; the fairs on these dates have died out, but
the Saturday market is still held.
From the beginning of the 17th century Gravesend was the
chief station for East Indiamen; most of the ships outward
bound from London stopped here to victual. A customs house
was built in 1782. Queen Elizabeth established Gravesend as
the point where the corporation of London should welcome in
state eminent foreign visitors arriving by water. State proces-
sions by water from Gravesend to London had previously taken
place, as in 1522, when Henry VHI. escorted the emperor
Charles V. A similar practice was maintained until modern
times; as when, on the 7th of March 1863, the princess Alexandra
was received here by the prince of Wales (King Edward VII.)
three days before their marriage. Gravesend parish church
contains memorials to " Princess " Pocahontas, who died when
preparing to return home from a visit to England in 161 7, and
was buried in the old church. A memorial pulpit from the state
of Indiana, U.S.A., made of Virginian wood, was provided in
1904, and a fund was raised for a stained-glass window by ladies
of the state of Virginia.
GRAVINA, GIOVANNI VINCENZO (1664-1718), Italian
litterateur and jurisconsult, was born at Roggiano, a small town
near Cosenza, in Calabria, on the 20th of January 1664. He was
descended from a distinguished family, and under the direction
of his maternal uncle, Gregorio Caloprese, who possessed some
reputation as a poet and philosopher, received a learned educa-
tion, after which he studied at Naples civil and canon law. In
1689 he came to Rome, where in 1695 he united with several
others of literary tastes in forming the Academy of Arcadians.
A schism occurred in the academy in 1711, and Gravina and his
followers founded in opposition to it the Academy of Quirina.
From Innocent XII. Gravina received the offer of various
384
GRAVINA— GRAVITATION
ecclesiastical Honours, but declined them from a disinclination
to enter the clerical profession. In 1699 he was appointed to
the chair of civil law in the college of La Sapienza, and in 1703
he was transferred to the chair of canon law. He died at Rome
on the 6th of January 1718. He was the adoptive father of
Metastasio.
Gravina is the author of a number of works of great erudition, the
principal being his Origines juris civilis, completed in 3 vols. (17 13)
and his De Romano itnperio (1712). A French translation of the
former appeared in 1775, of which a second edition was published
in 1822. His collected works were published at Leipzig in 1737,
and at Naples, with notes by Mascovius, in 1756.
GRAVINA, a town and episcopal see of Apulia, Italy, in the
province of Bari, from which it is 63 m. S.W. by rail (29 m. direct),
1 148 ft. above sea.-level. Pop. (1901) 18,197. The town is
probably of medieval origin, though some conjecture that it
occupies th£ site of the ancient Blera, a post station on the Via
Appia. The cathedral is a basilica of the 15th century. The
town is surrounded with walls and towers, and a castle of the
emperor Frederick II. rises above the town, which later belonged
to the Orsini, dukes of Gravina; just outside it are dwellings
and a church (S. Michele) all hewn in the rock, and now
abandoned.
Prehistoric remains in the district (remains of ancient settlements,
tumuli, 8cc.) are described by V. di Cicco in Notizie dcgli scavi
(1901), p. 217.
GRAVITATION (from Lat. gravis, heavy), in physical science,
that mutual action between masses of matter by virtue of which
every such mass tends toward every other with a force varying
directly as the product of the masses and inversely as the square
of their distances apart. Although the law was first clearly and
rigorously formulated by Sir Isaac Newton, the fact of the
action indicated by it was more or less clearly seen by others.
Even Ptolemy had a vague conception of a force tending toward
the centre of the earth which not only kept bodies upon its
surface, but in some way upheld the order of the universe. John
Kepler inferred that the planets move in their orbits under some
influence or force exerted by the sun; but the laws of motion
were not then sufficiently developed, nor were "Kepler's ideas of
force sufficiently clear, to admit of a precise statement of the
nature of the force. C. Huygens and R. Hooke, contemporaries
of Newton, saw that Kepler's third law implied a force tending
toward the sun which, acting on the several planets, varied
inversely as the square of the distance. But two requirements
necessary to generalize the theory were still wanting. One was
to show that the law of the inverse square not only represented
Kepler's third law, but his first two laws also. The other was to
show that the gravitation of the earth, following one and the
same law with that of the sun, extended to the moon. Newton's
researches showed that the attraction of the earth on the moon
was the same as that for bodies at the earth's surface, only
reduced in the inverse square of the moon's distance from the
earth's centre. He also showed that the total gravitation of
the earth, assumed as spherical, on external bodies, would be
the same as if the earth's mass were concentrated in the centre.
This led at once to the statement of the law in its most general
form.
The law of gravitation is unique among the laws of nature,
not only in its wide generality, taking the whole universe in its
scope, but in the fact that, so far as yet known, it is absolutely
unmodified by any condition or cause whatever. All other forms
of action between masses of matter, vary with circumstances.
The mutual action of electrified bodies, for example, is affected
by their relative or absolute motion. But no conditions to
which matter has ever been subjected, or under which it has
ever been observed, have been found to influence its gravitation
in the slightest degree. We might conceive the rapid motions
of the heavenly bodies to result in some change either in the
direction or amount of their gravitation towards each other at
each moment; but such is not the case, even in the most rapidly
moving bodies of the solar system. The question has also been
raised whether the action of gravitation is absolutely instant-
aneous. If not, the action would not be exactly in the line
adjoining the two bodies at the instant, but would be affected
by the motion of the Hne joining them during the time required
by the force to pass from one body to the other. The result of
this would be seen in the motions of the planets around the sun;
but the most refined observations show no such effect. It is
also conceivable that bodies might gravitate differently at
different temperatures. But the most careful researches have
failed to show any apparent modification produced in this way
except what might be attributed to the surrounding conditions.
The most recent and exhaustive experiment was that of J. H.
Poynting and P. Phillips (Proc. Roy. Soc, 7<>A, p. 445). The
result was that the change, if any, was less than iV of the force
for one degree change of temperature, a result too minute to be
established by any measures.
Another cause which might be supposed to modify the action
of gravitation between two bodies would be the interposition of
masses of matter between them, a cause which materially
modifies the action of electrified bodies. The question whether
this cause modifies gravitation admits of an easy test from
observation. If it did, then a portion of the earth's mass or of
that of any other planet turned away from the sun would not be
subjected to the same action of the sun as if directly exposed to
that action. Great masses, as those of the great planets, would
not be attracted with a force proportional to the mass because
of the hindrance or other effect of the interposed portions.
But not the slightest modification due to this cause is shown.
The general conclusion from everything we see is that a mass of
matter in Australia attracts a mass in London precisely as it
would if the earth were not interposed between the two masses.
We must therefore regard the law in question as the broadest
and most fundamental one which nature makes known to us.
It is not yet experimentally proved that variation as the
inverse square is absolutely true at all distances. Astronomical
observations extend over too brief a period of time to show any
attraction between different stars except those in each other's
neighbourhood. But this proves nothing because, in the case
of distances so great, centuries or even thousands of years of
accurate observation will be required to show any action. On
the other hand the enigmatical motion of the perihelion of
Mercury has not yet found any plausible explanation except on
the hypothesis that the gravitation of the sun diminishes at
a rate slightly greater than that of the inverse square — the most
simple modification being to suppose that instead of the exponent
of the distance being exactly - 2, it is -2 -000 000 161 2.
The argument is extremely simple in form. It is certain that,
in the general average, year after year, the force with which
Mercury is drawn toward the sun does vary from the exact
inverse square of its distance from the sun. The most plausible
explanation of this is that one or more masses of matter move
around the sun, whose action, whether they are inside or outside
the orbit of Mercury, would produce the required modification in
the force. From an investigation of all the observations upon
Mercury and the other three interior planets, Simon Newcomb
found it almost out of the question that any such mass of matter
could exist without changing either the figure of the sun itself
or the motion of the planes of the orbits of either Mercury or
Venus. The qualification " almost " is necessary because so
complex a system of actions comes into play, and accurate
observations have extended through so short a period, that the
proof cannot be regarded as absolute. But the fact that careful
and repeated search for a mass of matter sufficient to produce
the desired effect has been in vain, affords additional evidence of
its non-existence. The most obvious test of the reality of the
required modifications would be afforded by two other bodies,
the motions of whose pericentres should be similarly affected.
These are Mars and the moon. Newcomb found an excess of
motions in the perihelion of Mars amounting to about 5* per
century. But the combination of observations and theory on
which this is based is not sufficient fully to establish so slight a
motion. In the case of the motion of the moon around the earth,
assuming the gravitation of the latter to be subject to the
modification in question, the annual motion of the moon's
GRAVITATION
385
perigee should be greater by 1-5" than the theoretical motion.
E. W. Brown is the first investigator to determine the theoretical
motions with this degree of precision; and he finds that there
is no such divergence between the actual and the computed
motion. There is therefore as yet no ground for regarding any
deviation from the law of inverse square as more than a possi-
bility. (S. N.)
Gravitation Constant and Mean Density of the Earth
The law of gravitation states that two masses Mi and M 2 ,
distant d from each other, are pulled together each with a force
G. Mi Mj/<P, where G is a constant for all kinds of matter — the
gravitation constant. The acceleration of Mt towards Mi or the
force exerted on it by Mi per unit of its mass is therefore GMi/<f*.
Astronomical observations of the accelerations of different
planets towards the sun, or of different satellites towards the
same primary, give us the most accurate confirmation of the
distance part of the law. By comparing accelerations towards
different bodies we obtain the ratios of the masses of those
different bodies and, in so far as the ratios are consistent, we
obtain confirmation of the mass part. But we only obtain the
ratios of the masses to the mass of some one member of the
system, say the earth. We do not find the mass in terms of
grammes or pounds. In fact, astronomy gives us the product
GM, but neither G nor M. For example, the acceleration of the
earth towards the sun is about 06 cm/sec. 2 at a distance from
it about isXio^cm. The acceleration of the moon towards
the earth is about 0-27 cm/sec. 2 at a distance from it about
4X io 10 cm. If S is the mass of the sun and E the mass of the
earth we have o-6-GS/ (15X10")* and 0-27 = GE/ (4X10 10 )*
giving us GS and GE, and the ratio S/E= 300,000 roughly;
but we do not obtain either S or E in grammes, and we do not
find G.
The aim of the experiments to be described here may be
regarded either as the determination of the mass of the earth
in grammes, most conveniently expressed by its mass 4- its
volume, that is by its " mean density " A, or the determination
of the " gravitation constant " G. Corresponding to these two
aspects of the problem there are two modes of attack. Suppose
that a body of mass m is suspended at the earth's surface where
it is pulled with a force w vertically downwards by the earth — its
weight. At the same time let it be pulled with a force p by a
measurable mass M which may be a mountain, or some measur-
able part of the earth's surface layers, or an artificially prepared
mass brought near m, and let the pull of M be the same as if
it were concentrated at a distance d. The earth pull may be
regarded as the same as if the earth were all concentrated at its
centre, distant R.
Then w = G.$TR 8 Am/R«=G.*TRAm (1)
and
p=GMml<P (2)
By division
If then we can arrange to observe wfp we obtain A, the mean
density of the earth.
But the same observations give us G also. For, putting
m=wlg'm(2) 9 we get
In the second mode of attack the pull p between two artificially
prepared measured masses Mi, M 2 is determined when they are
a distance d apart, and since #=G.MiM2/(/ 1 we get at once
G = pd*/M\Mt. But we can also deduce A. For putting w—mg
in (1) we get
Experiments of the first class in which the pull of a known mass
is compared with the pull of the earth maybe termed experiments
on the mean density of the earth, while experiments of the
second class in which the pull between two known masses is
directly measured may be termed experiments on the gravitation
constant.
We shall, however, adopt a slightly different classification
for the purpose of describing methods of experiment, viz: —
1. Comparison of the earth pull on a body with the pull of a natural
mass as in the Schiehallion experiment.
2. Determination of the attraction between two artificial masses
as in Cavendish's experiment.
3. Comparison of the earth pull on a body with the pull of an
artificial mass as in experiments with the common balance.
It is interesting to note that the possibility of gravitation
experiments of this kind was first considered by Newton, and
in both of the forms (1) and (2). In the System of the World
(3rd ed., 1737, p. 40) he calculates that the deviation by a hemi-
spherical mountain, of the earth's density and with radius 3 m.,
on a plumb-line at its side will be less than 2 minutes. He also
calculates (though with an erro&n his arithmetic) the accelera-
tion towards each other of two spheres each a foot in diameter
and of the earth's density, and comes to the conclusion that in
either case the effect is too small for measurement. In the
Principia, bk. iii., prop, x., he makes a celebrated estimate
that the earth's mean density is five or six times that of water.
Adopting this estimate, the deviation by an actual mountain
or the attraction of two terrestrial spheres would be of the orders
calculated, and regarded by Newton as immeasurably small.
Whatever method is adopted the force to be measured is very
minute. This may be realized if we here anticipate the results
of the experiments, which show that in round numbers A =5-5
and G= 1/15,000,000 when the masses are in grammes and the
distances in centimetres.
Newton's mountain, which would probably have density about
A/2 would deviate the plumb-line not much more than half a
minute. Two spheres 30 \m. in diameter (about 1 ft.) and of
density n (about that of lead) just not touching would pull
each other with a force rather less than 2 dynes, and their
acceleration would be such that they would move into contact
if starting 1 cm. apart in rather over 400 seconds.
From these examples it will be realized that in gravitation
experiments extraordinary precautions must be adopted to
eliminate disturbing forces which may easily rise to be com-
parable with the forces to be measured. We shall not attempt
to give an account of these precautions, but only seek to set
forth the general principles of the different experiments which
have been made.
I. Comparison of the Earth Pull with that of a Natural Mass.
Bouguer's Experiments. — The earliest experiments were made
by Pierre Bouguer about 1740, and they are recorded in his
Figure de la terre (1749). They were of two kinds. In the first
he determined the length of the seconds pendulum, and thence
g at different levels. Thus at Quito, which may be regarded
as on a table-land 1466 toises (a toise is about 6*4 ft.) above
sea-level, the seconds pendulum was less by 1/1331 than on the
Isle of Inca at sea-level. But if there were no matter above the
sea-level, the inverse square law would make the pendulum less
by 1/1 1 18 at the higher level. The value of g then at the higher
level was greater than could be accounted for by the attraction
of an earth ending at sea-level by the difference 2/1118-1/1331 —
1/6983, and this was put down to the attraction of the plateau
1466 toises high; or the attraction of the whole earth was
6983 times the attraction of the plateau. Using the rule, now
known as " Young's rule," for the attraction of the plateau,
Bouguer found that the density of the earth was 4*7 times that
of the plateau, a result certainly much too large.
In the second kind of experiment he attempted to measure
the horizontal pull of Chimborazo, a mountain about 20,000 ft.
high, by the deflection of a plumb-line at a station on its south
side. Fig. 1 shows the principle of the method. Suppose that
two stations are fixed, one on the side of the mountain due south
of the summit, and the other on the same latitude but some
distance westward, away from the influence of the mountain.
Suppose that at the second station a star is observed to pass the
meridian, for simplicity we will say directly overhead, then a
xn. 13
3«6
GRAVITATION
Fig. I. — Bouguer's Plumb-
line Experiment on the at-
traction of Chimborazo.
plumb-line will hang down exactly parallel to the observing
telescope. If the mountain were away it would also hang parallel
to the telescope at the first station when directed to the same
star. But the mountain pulls the plumb-line towards it and
the filar appears to the north of the zenith and evidently
mountain pull/earth pull = tan-
gent of angle of displacement
of zenith.
Bouguer observed the meridian
altitude of several stars at the
two stations. There was still
some deflection at the second
station, a deflection which he
estimated as 1/14 that at the
first station, and he found on
allowing for this that his observa-
tions gave a deflection of 8 seconds
at the first station. From the
form and size of the mountain he
found that if its density were that
of the earth the deflection should
be 103 seconds, or the earth was
nearly 13 times as dense as the
mountain, a result several times
too large. But the work was
carried on under enormous diffi-
culties owing to the severity of the weather, and no exactness
could be expected. The importance of the experiment lay in its
proof that the method was possible.
Maskelyne's Experiment. — In 1774 Nevil Maskelyne {Phil.
Trans., 1775, p. 495) made an experiment on the deflection of the
plumb-line by Schiehallion, a mountain in Perthshire, which has
a short ridge nearly east and west, and sides sloping steeply on
the north and south. He selected two stations on the same
meridian, one on the north, the other on the south slope, and by
means of a zenith sector, a telescope provided with a plumb-bob,
he determined at each station the meridian zenith distances of
a number of stars. From a survey of the district made in the
years 1 774-1 776 the geographical difference of latitude between
the two stations was found to be 42-94 seconds, and this would
have been the difference in the meridian zenith difference of the
same star at the two stations had the mountain been away.
But at the north station the plumb-bob was pulled south and the
zenith was deflected northwards, while at the south station the
effect was reversed. Hence the angle between the zeniths, or the
angle between the zenith distances of the same star at the two
stations was greater than the geographical 42-94 seconds. The
mean of the observations gave a difference of 54-2 seconds, or
the double deflection of^the plumb-line was 54- 2-42 -94, say
11-26 seconds.
,. The computation of the attraction of the mountain on the
supposition that its density was that of the earth was made by
Charles Hutton from the results of the survey {Phil. Trans.,
1778, p. 689), a computation carried out by ingenious and
importantjfmethods. He found that the deflection should have
been greater in the ratio 17804 : 9933 say 9 : 5, whence the
density of the earth comes out at 9/5 that of the mountain.
Hutton took the density of the mountain at 2-5, giving the mean
density of the earth 4-5. A revision of the density of the moun-
tain from a careful survey of the rocks composing it was made
by John Playfair many years later {Phil. Trans., 1811, p. 347),
and the density of the earth was given as lying between 4*5588
and 4-867. "* *D ..nz'«*-nzii
Other experiments have been made on the attraction of
mountains by Francesco Carlini {Milano Effem. Ash, 1824,
p. 28) on Mt. Blanc in 1821, using the pendulum method after
the manner of Bouguer, by Colonel Sir Henry James and Captain
A. R. Clarke {Phil. Trans., 1856, p. 591), using the plumb-line
deflection at Arthur's Seat, by T. C. Mendenhall {Amer . Jour, of
Set. xxi. p. 99), using the pendulum method on Fujiyama in
Japan, and by E. D. Preston {U.S. Coast and Geod. Survey Rep.,
1893, p. 513) in Hawaii, using both methods.
Airy's Experiment.— In 1854 Sir G. B. Airy {Phil. Trans. f
1856, p. 297) carried out at Harton pit near South Shields an
experiment which he had attempted many years before in con-
junction with W. Whewell and R. Sheepshanks at Dolcoath.
This consisted in comparing gravity at the top and at the bottom
of a mine by the swings of the same pendulum, and thence finding
the ratio of the pull of the intervening strata to the pull of the
whole earth. The principle of the method may be understood
by assuming that the earth consists of concentric spherical shells
each homogeneous, the last of thickness h equal to the depth
of the mine. Let the radius of the earth to the bottom of the
mine be R, and the mean density up to that point be A. This
will not differ appreciably from the mean density of the whole.
Let the density of the strata of depth h be 8. Denoting the
values of gravity above and below by g a and g» we have
and
ga =G *(ibp5)"»+ G -4*to
(since the attraction of a shell h thick on a point just outside it is
G. 4 t(R+A)W/(R+A)»= G. 4 xA5).
Therefore
whence
and
ga=G.|*RA(i -^+^f) nearly,
<-#/(-'
Stations were chosen in the same vertical, one near the pit
bank, another 1250 ft. below in a disused working, and a " com-
parison " clock was fixed at each station. A third clock was
placed at the upper station connected by an electric circuit to
the lower station. It gave an electric signal every 15 seconds
by which the rates of the two comparison clocks could be accur-
ately compared. Two " invariable " seconds pendulums were
swung, one in front of the upper and the other in front of the
lower comparison clock after the manner of Eater, and these
invariables were interchanged at intervals. From continuous
observations extending over three weeks and after applying
various corrections Airy obtained ghlga— 1-00005185. Making
corrections for the irregularity of the neighbouring strata he
found A/5 = 2-6266. W. H. Miller made a careful determination
of 8 from specimens of the strata, finding it 2-5. The final
result taking into account the ellipticity and rotation of the earth
is A =6- 565.
Von Sterneck' s Experiments.— {Mitth. des K.U.K. Mil. Geog.
Inst, zu Wien, ii., 1882, p. 77; 1883, p. 59; vi,, 1886, p. 97).
R. von Sterneck repeated the mine experiment in 1 882-1 883
at the Adalbert shaft at Pribram in Bohemia and in 1885 at the
Abraham shaft near Freiberg. He used two invariable half-
seconds pendulums, one swung at the surface, the other below
at the same time. The two were at intervals interchanged.
Von Sterneck introduced a most important improvement by
comparing the swings of the two invariables with the same clock
which by an electric circuit gave a signal at each station each
second. This eliminated clock rates. His method, of which it
is not necessary to give the details here, began a new era in the
determinations of local variations of gravity. The values which
von Sterneck obtained for A were not consistent, but increased
with the depth of the second station. This was probably due
to local irregularities in the strata which could not be directly
detected.
All the experiments to determine A by the attraction of
natural masses are open to the serious objection that we cannot
determine the distribution of density in the neighbourhood
with any approach to accuracy. The experiments with artificial
masses next to be described give much more consistent results,
and the experiments with natural masses are now only of use
GRAVITATION
in showing the existence of irregularities in thcearth's superficial
strata when they give results deviating largely from the accepted
value. .
II. Determination of the Attraction between two Artificial Masses.
Cavendish's Experiment (Phil. Trans., 1798, p. 469). — This
celebrated experiment was planned by the Rev. John Mitchell.
He completed an apparatus for it but did not live to begin work
with it. After Mitchell's death the apparatus came into the
possession of Henry Cavendish, who largely reconstructed it,
but still adhered to Mitchell's plan, and in 1797-1798 he carried
out the experiment. The essential feature of it consisted in the
determination of the attraction of a lead sphere 12 in. in diameter
on another lead sphere 2 in. in diameter, the distance between
the centres being about 9 in., by means of a torsion balance.
Fig. 2 shows how the experiment was carried out. A torsion
rod hh 6 ft. long, tied from its ends to a vertical piece mg, was
387
Fig. 2. — Cavendish's Apparatus.
h k, torsion rod hung by wire / g, ; x,x, attracted balls hung from
its ends; WW, attracting masses.
hung by a wire Ig. From its ends depended two lead balls xx each
2 in. in diameter. The position of the rod was determined by a
scale fixed near the end of the arm, the arm itself carrying a
vernier moving along the scale. This was lighted by a lamp and
viewed by a telescope T from the outside of the room containing
the apparatus. The torsion balance was enclosed in a case
and outside this two lead spheres WW each 12 in. in diameter
hung from an arm which could turn round an axis Vp in the line
of gl. Suppose that first the spheres are placed so that one is
just in front of the right-hand ball x and the other is just behind
the left-hand ball x. The two will conspire to pull the balls so
that the right end of the rod moves forward. Now let the big
spheres be moved round so that one is in front of the left ball
and the other behind the right ball. The pulls are reversed
and the right end moves backward. The angle between its two
positions is (if we neglect cross attractions of right sphere on
left ball and left sphere on right ball) four times as great as the
deflection of the rod due to approach of one sphere to one ball.
The principle of the experiment may be set forth thus. Let 2a
be the length of the torsion rod, m the mass of a ball, M the mass of
a large sphere, d the distance between the centres, supposed the same
on each side. Let be the angle through which the rod moves round
when the spheres WW are moved from the first to the second of the
positions described above. Let m be the couple required to twist
the rod through 1 radian. Then /i0=4GMfFw/<P. But m can be
found from the time of vibration of the torsion system when we
know its moment of inertia I, and this can be determined. If T
is the period M a= 4* , I/T t , whence G = * 4 cPl0/T , Mma, or putting the
result in terms of the mean density of the earth A it is easy to show
that, if L, the length of the seconds pendulum, is put for g/* 4 , and C
for 2xR, the earth's circumference, then
A a LMmaT*
A= *c-3*rT
The original account by Cavendish is still well worth studying
on account of the excellence of his methods. His work /was
undoubtedly very accurate for a pioneer experiment and has
only really been improved upon within the last generation.
Making various corrections of which it is not necessary to give
a description, the result obtained (after correcting a mistake
first pointed out by F. Baily) is A = 5-448. In seeking the origin
of the disturbed motion of the torsion rod Cavendish made a very
important observation. He found that when the masses were
left in one position for a time the attracted balls crept now in
one direction, now in another, as if the attraction were varying.
Ultimately he found that this was due to convection currents
in the case containing the torsion rod, currents produced by
temperature inequalities. When a large sphere was heated the
ball near it tended to approach and when it was cooled the ball
tended to recede. Convection currents constitute the chief
disturbance and the chief source of error in all attempts to
measure small forces in air at ordinary pressure.
Reich 1 s Experiments (Versuche ilber die mittlere Dichtigkeit
der Erde mittelst der Drehwage, Freiberg, 1838; u Neue
Versuche mit der Drehwage/' Leipzig Abh. Math. Phys. i,,
X 8S2, p. 383). — In 1838 F. Reich published an account of a
repetition of the Cavendish experiment carried out on the
same general lines, though with somewhat smaller apparatus.
The chief differences consisted in the methods of measuring
the times of vibration and the deflection, and the changes
were hardly improvements. His result after revision was
A = 5-49. In 1852 he published an account of further work
giving as result A = 5-58. It is noteworthy that in his
second paper he gives an account of experiments suggested
by J. D. Forbes in which the deflection was not observed
directly, but was deduced from observations of the time
of vibration when the attracting masses were in different
positions.
Let Ti be the time of vibration when the masses are in one
of the usual attracting positions. Let d be the distance between
the centres of attracting mass and attracted ball, and 6 the
distance through which the ball is pulled. If a is the half length
of the torsion rod and $ the deflection, h=a$. Now let the
attracting masses be put one at each end of the torsion rod
with then- centres in the line through the centres of the balls
and d from them, and let T* be the time of vibration. Then
it is easy to show that
a/J-a^/J«(Ti-T,)/(Ti+T 2 ).
This gives a value of $ which may be used in the formula. The
expenments by this method were not consistent, and the mean
result was A =6-25.
Baily 9 s Experiment (Memoirs of the Royal Astron. Soc. xiv.). —
In 1841-1842 Francis Baily made a long series of determinations
by Cavendish's method and with apparatus nearly of the same
dimensions. The attracting masses were 12-in. lead spheres
and as attracted balls he used various masses, lead, zinc, glass,
ivory, platinum, hollow brass, and finally the torsion rod alone
without balls. The suspension was also varied, sometimes
consisting of a single wire, sometimes being bifilar. There were
systematic errors running through Baily's work, which it is
impossible now wholly to explain. These made the resulting
value of A show a variation with the nature of the attracted
masses and a variation with the temperature. His final result
A =5-6747 is not of value compared with later results.
Cornu and Bailie's Experiment (Comptes rendus, lxxvi.,
1873, P- 9S4J lxxxvi., 1878, pp. 571, 699, 1001; xcvi., 1883,
P- i493)« — In 1870 MM. A. Cornu and J. Bailie commenced
an experiment by the Cavendish method which was never
definitely completed, though valuable studies of the behaviour
of the torsion apparatus were made. They purposely departed
from the dimensions previously used. The torsion balls were of
copper about 100 gm. each, the rod was 50 cm. long, and the
suspending wire was 4 metres long. On each side of each ball
was a hollow iron sphere. Two of these were filled with mercury
weighing 12 kgm., the two spheres of mercury constituting the
attracting masses. When the position of a mass was to be
changed the mercury was pumped from the sphere on one side
to that on the other side of a ball. To avoid counting time" a
3»8
GRAVITATION
method of electric registration on a chronograph was adopted.
A provisional result was A = 5- 56.
Boys' s Experiment {Phil. Trans., A., 1895, pt. i., p. 1). —
Professor C. V. Boys having found that it is possible to draw
quartz fibres of practically any degree of fineness, of great
strength and true in their elasticity, determined to repeat the
Cavendish experiment, using his newly invented fibres for
the suspension of the torsion rod. He began by an inquiry
as to the best dimensions for the apparatus. He saw that if
the period of vibration is kept constant, that is, if the moment
of inertia I is kept proportional to the torsion couple per radian
p, then the deflection remains the same however the linear
dimensions are altered so long as they are all altered in the same
proportion. Hence we are driven to conclude that the dimen-
sions should be reduced until further reduction would make the
linear quantities too small to be measured with exactness, for
reduction in the apparatus enables variations in temperature
and the consequent air disturbances to be reduced, and the
experiment in other ways becomes more manageable. Professor
Boys took as the exactness to be sought for 1 in 10,000. He
further saw that reduction in length of the torsion rod with
given balls is an advantage. For if the rod be halved the moment
of inertia is one-fourth, and if the suspending fibre is made
finer so that the torsion couple per radian is also one-fourth
the time remains the same. But the moment of the attracting
force is halved only, so that the deflection against one-fourth
torsion is doubled. In Cavendish's arrangement there would
be an early limit
to the advantage
in reduction of
rod in that the
mass opposite
one ball would
begin seriously to
attract the other
ball. But Boys
avoided this
difficulty by sus-
pending the balls
from the ends of
the torsion rod at
different levels
and by placing
the attracting
masses at these
different levels.
Fig. 3 represents
diagrammatic-
ally a vertical
section of the
arrangement
used on a scale
of about 1/10.
The torsion rod
was a small rect-
angular mirror
about 2-4 cm.
wide hung by a
quartz fibre
about 43 cm.
long. From the sides of this mirror the balls were hung by quartz
fibres at levels differing by 15 cm. The balls were of gold either
about 5 mm. in diameter and weighing about 1*3 gm. or about
6-5 mm. in diameter and weighing 2-65 gm. The attracting
masses were lead spheres, about 10 cm. in diameter and weighing
about 7*4 kgm. each. These were suspended from the top of
the case which could be rotated round the central tube, and they
were arranged so that the radius to the centre from the axis of
the torsion system made 65 with the torsion rod, the position in
which the moment of the attraction was a maximum. The
torsion rod mirror reflected a distant scale by which the deflection
could be read. The time of vibration was recorded on a chrono-
Fig. 3. — Diagram of a Section of Professor
Boys's Apparatus.
graph. The result of the experiment, probably the best yet made,
was A = 5-527; G = 6-6s8Xio-«.
Braun's Experiment (Denkschr. Akad. Wiss. Wien, math.-
naturw. CI. 64, p. 187, 1896).— In 1896 Dr K. Braun, S.J., gave
an account of a very careful and excellent repetition of the
Cavendish experiment with apparatus much smaller than was
used in the older experiments, yet much larger than that used
by Boys. A notable feature of the work consisted in the suspen-
sion of the torsion apparatus in a receiver exhausted to about
4 mm. of mercury, a pressure at which convection currents
almost disappear while " radiometer " forces have hardly
begun. For other ingenious arrangements the original paper
or a short abstract in Nature, lvi., 1897, p. 127, may be con-
sulted. The attracted balls weighed 54 gm. each and were
25 cm. apart. The attracting masses were spheres of mercury
each weighing 9 kgm. and brought into position outside the
receiver. Braun used both the deflection method and the time
of vibration method suggested to Reich by Forbes. The methods
gave almost identical results and his final values are to three
decimal places the same as those obtained by Boys.
G. K. Burgess's Experiment (Theses prisenUes d la faculte
des sciences de Paris pour obtenir le iitre de docteur de I'universiti
de Paris, 1901). — This was a Cavendish experiment in which
the torsion system was buoyed up by a float in a mercury bath.
The attracted masses could thus be made large, and yet the
suspending wire could be kept fine. The torsion beam was 1 2 cm.
long, and the attracted balls were lead spheres each 2 kgm. From
the centre of the beam depended a vertical steel rod with a
varnished copper hollow float at its end, entirely immersed in
mercury. The surface of the mercury was covered with dilute
sulphuric acid to remove irregularities due to varying surface
tension acting on the steel rod. The size of the float was adjusted
so that the torsion fibre of quartz 35 cm. long had only to cany
a weight of 5 to 10 gm. The time of vibration was over one
hour. The torsion couple per radian was determined by pre-
liminary experiments. The attracting masses were each 10 kgm.
turning in a circle 1 8 cm. in diameter. The results gave A = 5 • 5 5
and G= 6-64 Xio -8 .
Edtvos's Experiment (Ann. der Physik und Chemie, 1896, 59,
P- 354)- — I n the course of investigations on local variations
of gravity by means of the torsion balance, R. Ebtvos devised
a method for determining G somewhat like the vibration method
used by Reich and Braun. Two pillars were built up of lead
blocks 30 cm. square in cross section, 60 cm. high and 30 cm.
apart. A torsion rod somewhat less than 30 cm. long with
small weights at the ends was enclosed in a double-walled brass
case of as little depth as possible, a device which secured great
steadiness through freedom from convection currents. The
suspension was a platinum wire about 150 cm. long. The
torsion rod was first set in the line joining the centres of the
pillars and its time of vibration was taken. Then it was set
with its length perpendicular to the line joining the centres and
the time again taken. From these times Eotvos was able to
deduce G = 6-65Xio" 8 whence A =5- 53. This is only a pro-
visional value. The experiment was only as it were a by-product
in the course of exceedingly ingenious work on the local variation
in gravity for which the original paper should be consulted.
WUsing's Experiment (Publ. des astrophysikalischen Observ. zu
Potsdam, 1887, No. 22, vol. vi. pt. ii.; pt. iii. p. 133). — We may
perhaps class with the Cavendish type an experiment made by
J. Wilsing, in which a vertical " double pendulum " was used
in place of a horizontal torsion system. Two weights each 540
gm. were fixed at the ends of a rod 1 metre long. A knife edge
was fixed on the rod just above its centre of gravity, and this
was supported so that the rod could vibrate about a vertical
position. Two attracting masses, cast-iron cylinders each 325
kgm., were placed, say, one in front of the top weight on the
pendulum and the other behind the bottom weight, and the
position of the rod was observed in the usual mirror and scale
way. Then the front attracting mass was dropped to the level
of the lower weight and the back mass was raised to that of the
upper weight, and the consequent deflection of the rod was
GRAVY
3»9
observed. By taking the time of vibration of the pendulum
first as used in the deflection experiment and then when a small
weight was removed from the upper end a known distance from
the knife edge, the restoring couple per radian deflection could
be found. The final result gave A = 5-579.
/. Joly's suggested Experiment (Nature xli., 1890, p. 256). —
Joly has suggested that G might be determined by hanging a
simple pendulum in a vacuum, and vibrating outside the case
two massive pendulums each with the same time of swing as the
simple pendulum. The simple pendulum would be set swinging
by the varying attraction and from its amplitude after a known
number of swings of the outside pendulums G could be found.
III. Comparison of the Earth Pull on a body with the Pull of an
Artificial Mass by Means of the Common Balance.
The principle of the method is as follows: — Suppose a sphere
of mass m and weight w to be hung by a wire from one arm of
a balance. Let the mass of the earth be £ and its radius be R.
Then w = GEw/R 2 . Now introduce beneath m a sphere of
mass M and let d be the distance of its centre from that of m.
Its pull increases the apparent weight of m say by dw. Then
Sw=GMm/<P. Dividing we obtain 5w/w=MR 2 /Ed? } whence
£ = MRhv/dftw; and since g = GE/R 2 , G can be found when E is
known.
Von Jolly's Experiment (Abhand. der k. bayer. A had. der Wiss.
2 CL xiii. Bd. 1 Abt. p. 157, and xiv. Bd. 2 Abt. p. 3). — In the
first of these papers Ph. von Jolly described an experiment in
which he sought to determine the decrease in weight with increase
of height from the earth's surface, an experiment suggested by
Bacon (Nov. Org. Bk. 2, §36), in the form of comparison of rates
of two clocks at different levels, one driven by a spring, the other
by weights. The experiment in the form carried out by von
Jolly was attempted by H. Power, R. Hooke, and others in the
early days of the Royal Society (Mackenzie, The Laws of Gravita-
tion). Von Jolly fixed a balance at the top of his laboratory and
from each pan depended a wire supporting another pan 5 metres
below. Two 1 -kgm . weights were first balanced in the upper pans
and then one was moved from an upper to the lower pan on the
same side. A gain of 1-5 mgm. was observed after correction
for greater weight of air displaced at the lower level. The inverse
square law would give a slightly greater gain and the deficiency
was ascribed to the configuration of the land near the laboratory.
In the second paper a second experiment was described in which
a balance was fixed at the top of a tower and provided as before
with one pair of pans just below the arms and a second pair
hung from these by wires 21 metres below. Four glass globes
were prepared equal in weight and volume. Two of these were
filled each with 5 kgm. of mercury and then all were sealed up.
The two heavy globes were then placed in the upper pans and
the two light ones in the lower. The two on one side were now
interchanged and a gain in weight of about 31-7 mgm. was
observed. Air corrections were eliminated by the use of the
globes of equal volume. Then a lead sphere about 1 metre radius
was built up of blocks under one of the lower pans and the
experiment was repeated. Through the attraction of the lead
sphere on the mass of mercury when below the gain was greater
by 0-589 mgm. This result gave A = 5692.
Experiment of Richarz and Krigar-Menzel (Anhang zu den
Abhand. der k. preuss. Akad. der Wiss. zu Berlin, 1898). — In
1884 A Konig and F. Richarz proposed a similar experiment
which was ultimately carried out by Richarz and O. Krigar-
Menzel. In this experiment a balance was supported somewhat
more than 2 metres above the floor and with scale pans above
and below as in von Jolly's experiment. Weights each 1 kgm.
were placed, say, in the top right pan and the bottom left pan.
Then they were shifted to the bottom right and the top left, the
result being, after corrections for change in density of air dis-
placed through pressure and temperature changes, a gain in
weight of 1-2453 mgm. on the right due to change in level of
2.2628 metres. Then a rectangular column of lead 210 cm.
square cross section and 200 cm. high was built up under the
balance between the pairs of pans. The column was perforated
with two vertical tunnels for the passage of the wires supporting
the lower pans. On repeating the weighings there was now a
decrease on the right when a kgm. was moved on that side from
top to bottom while another was moved on the left from bottom
to top. This decrease was 0*1211 mgm. showing a total change
due to the lead mass of 1 • 2453 + 0-1211 = 1 -3664 mgm. and this
is obviously four times the attraction of the lead mass on one
kgm. The changes in the positions of the weights were made
automatically. The results gave A = 5-05 and G = 6-685Xio~*.
Poynting's Experiment (PhU. Trans., vol. 182, A, 1891,
P- 565). — In 1878 J. H. Poynting published an account of a
preliminary experiment which he had made to show that the
common balance was available for gravitational work. The
experiment was on the same lines as that of von Jolly but on a
much smaller scale. In 1891 he gave an account of the full
experiment carried out with a larger balance and with much
greater care. The balance had a 4-ft. beam. The scale pans
were removed, and from the two arms were hung lead spheres
each weighing about 20 kgm. at a level about 120 cm. below the
beam. The balance was supported in a case above a horizontal
turn-table with axis vertically below the central knife edge, and
on this turn-table was a lead sphere weighing 150 kgm. — the
attracting mass. The centre of this sphere was 30 cm. below the
level of the centres of the hanging weights. The turn-table
could be rotated between stops so that the attracting mass was
first immediately below the hanging weight on one side, and then
immediately under that on the other side. On the same turn-
table but at double the distance from the centre was a second
sphere of half the weight introduced merely to balance the
larger sphere and keep the centre of gravity at the centre of the
turn-table. Before the introduction of this sphere errors were
introduced through the tilting of the floor of the balance room
when the turn-table was rotated. Corrections of course had
to be made for the attraction of this second sphere. The removal
of the large mass from left to right made an increase in weight
on that side of about 1 mgm. determined by riders in a special
way described in the paper. To eliminate the attraction on the
beam and the rods supporting the hanging weights another
experiment was made in which these weights were moved up
the rods through 30 cm. and on now moving the attracting
sphere from left to right the gain on the right was only about
\ mgm. The difference, $ mgm., was due entirely to change in
distance of the at tract ed masses. After all corrections the results
gave A = 5-493 and G = 6-698 X 10"*.
Final Remarks. — The earlier methods in which natural masses
were used have disadvantages, as already pointed out, which
render them now quite valueless. Of later methods the
Cavendish appears to possess advantages over the common
balance method in that it is more easy to ward off temperature
variations, and so avoid convection currents, and probably more
easy to determine the actual value of the attracting force. For
the present the values determined by Boys and Braun may be
accepted as having the greatest weight and we therefore take
Mean density of the earth A= 5-527
Constant of gravitation G = 6-658 X io~ 8 .
Probably A = 5-53 and G = 6-66 X io" 8 are correct to 1 in 500.
Authorities. — J. H. Poynting, The Mean Density of the Earth
(1804), gives an account of all work up to the date of publication
witn a bibliography ; A. Stanley Mackenzie, The Laws of Gravita-
tion (1899), gives annotated extracts from various papers, some
historical notes and a bibliography. A Bibliography of Geodesy,
Appendix 8> Report for ipo2 of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey in-
cludes a very complete bibliography of gravitational work. (J.H.P.)
GRAVY, a word usually confined to the natural juices which
come from meat during cooking. In early uses (in the New
English Dictionary the quotations date from the end of the 14th
to the beginning of the 16th centuries) it meant a sauce of broth
flavoured with spices and almonds. The more modern usage
seems to date from the end of the 16th century. The word is
obscure in origin. It has been connected with "graves" or
" greaves," the refuse of tallow in the manufacture of soap or
candles. The more probable derivation is from the French.
In Old French the word is almost certainly grant, and is derived
390
GRAY, A.— GRAY, E.
from grain, " something used in cooking." The word was early
read and spelled with a u or v instead of n, and the corruption
was adopted in English.
GRAY, ASA (1810-1888), American botanist, was born at
Paris, Oneida county, N.Y., on the 18th of November 1810.
He was the son of a farmer, and received no formal education
except at the Fairfield (N.Y.) academy and the Fairfield medical
school. From Dr James Hadley, the professor of chemistry and
materia tnedica he obtained his first instruction in science (1825-
1826). In the spring of 1827 he first began to collect and identify
plants. His formal education, such as it was, ended in February
183 1, when he took the degree of M.D. His first contribution to
descriptive botany appeared in 1835, and thereafter an un-
interrupted series of contributions to systematic botany flowed
from his pen for fifty-three years. In 1836 his first botanical
text-book appeared under the title Elements of Botany, followed
in 1839 by his Botanical Text- Book for Colleges, Schools, and
Private Students which developed into his Structural Botany.
He published later First Lessons in Botany and Vegetable Physi-
ology (1857); How Plants Grow (1858); Field, Forest, and Garden
Botany (1869); How Plants Behave (1872). These books served
the purpose of developing popular interest in botanical studies.
His most important work, however, was his Manual of the Botany
of the Northern United States, the first edition of which appeared
in 1847. This manual has passed through a large number of
editions, is clear, accurate and compact to an extraordinary
degree, and within its geographical limits is an indispensable
book for the student of American botany.
Throughout his life Gray was a diligent writer of reviews of
books on natural history subjects. Often these reviews were
elaborate essays, for which the books served merely as texts;
often they were clear and just summaries of extensive works;
sometimes they were sharply critical, though never ill-natured
or unfair; always they were interesting, lively and of literary as
well as scientific excellence. The greater part of Gray's strictly
scientific labour was devoted to a Flora of North America, the
plan of which originated with his early teacher and associate,
John Torrey of New York. The second volume of Torrey and
Gray's Flora was completed in 1843; but for forty years there-
after Gray gave up a large part of his time to the preparation of
his Synoptical Flora (1878). He lived at the period when the flora
of North America was being discovered, described and systemat-
ized; and his enthusiastic labours in this fresh field placed
him at the head of American botanists and on a level with the
most famous botanists of the world. In 1856 he published a
paper on the distribution of plants under the title Statistics of
the Flora of the Northern United States; and this paper was
followed in 1859 by a memoir on the botany of Japan and its
relations to that of North America, a paper of which Sir J. D.
Hooker said that " in point of originality and far-reaching results
[it] was its author's opus magnum'' It was Gray's study of
plant distribution which led to his intimate correspondence with
Charles Darwin during the years in which Darwin was elaborating
the doctrines that later became known as Darwinism. From
1855 to 1875 Gray was both a keen critic and a sympathetic
exponent of the Darwinian principles. His religious views were
those of the Evangelical bodies in the Protestant Church; so
that, when Darwinism was attacked as equivalent to atheism,
he was in position to answer effectively the unfounded allegation
that it was fatal to the doctrine of design. He taught that " the
most puzzling things of all to the old-school teleologists are the
principia of the Darwinian." He openly avowed his conviction
that the present species are not special creations, but rather
derived from previously existing species; and he made his
avowal with frank courage, when this truth was scarcely recog-
nized by any naturalists, and when to the clerical mind evolution
meant atheism.
In 1842 Gray accepted the Fisher professorship of natural
history in Harvard University. On his accession to this chair
the university had no herbarium, no botanical library, few plants
of any value, and but a small garden, which for lack of money
had never been well stocked or well arranged. He soon brought
together, chiefly by widespread exchanges, a valuable herbarium
and library, and arranged the garden; and thereafter the
development of these botanical resources was part of his regular
labours. The herbarium soon became the largest and most
valuable in America, and on account of the numerous type
specimens it contains it is likely to remain a collection of national
importance. Nothing of what Gray did for the botanical
department of the university has been lost; on the contrary,
his labours were so well directed that everything he originated
and developed has been enlarged, improved and placed on stable
foundations. He himself made large contributions to the
establishment by giving it all his own specimens, many books
and no little money, and by his will he gave it the royalties on
his books. During his long connexion with the university he
brought up two generations of botanists and he always took a
strong personal interest in the researches and the personal
prospects of the young men who had studied under him. His
scientific life was mainly spent in the herbarium and garden in
Cambridge; but his labours there were relieved by numerous
journeys to different parts of the United States and to Europe,
all of which contributed to his work on the Synoptical Flora.
He lived to a good age — long enough, indeed, to receive from
learned societies at home and abroad abundant evidence of their
profound respect for his attainments and services. He died
at Cambridge, Mass., on the 30th of January 1888.
His Letters (1893) were edited by his wife; and his Scientific
Papers (1888) by C. S. Sargent. (C. W. E.)
GRAY, DAVID (1838-1861), Scottish poet, the son of a hand-
loom weaver, was born at Merkland, near Glasgow, on the 29th
of January 1838. His parents resolved to educate him for the
church, and through their self-denial and his own exertions as a
pupil teacher and private tutor he was able to complete a course
of four sessions at the university of Glasgow. He began to write
poetry for The Glasgow Citizen and began his idyll on the Luggie,
the little stream that ran through Merkland. His most intimate
companion at this time was Robert Buchanan, the poet; and in
May i860 the two agreed to proceed to London, with the idea
of finding literary employment. Shortly after his arrival in
London Gray introduced himself to Monckton Milnes, after-
wards Lord Houghton, with whom he had previously corre-
sponded. Lord Houghton tried to persuade him to return to
Scotland, but Gray insisted on staying in London. He was
unsuccessful in his efforts to place Gray's poem, " The Luggie,"
in The Cornhill Magazine, but gave him some light literary work.
He also showed him great kindness when a cold which had seized
him assumed the serious form of consumption, and sent him to
Torquay; but as the disease made rapid progress, an irresistible
longing seized Gray to return to Merkland, where he arrived in
January 1861, and died on the 3rd of December following, having
the day before had the gratification of seeing a printed specimen
copy of his poem " The Luggie," published eventually by the
exertions of Sydney Dobell. He was buried in the Auld Aisle
Churchyard, Kirkintilloch, where in 1865 a monument was
erected by " friends far and near " to his memory.
" The Luggie," the principal poem of Gray, is a kind of reverie
in which the scenes and events of his childhood and his early
aspirations are mingled with the music of the stream which
he celebrates. The series of sonnets, " In the Shadows," was
composed during the latter part of his illness. Most of his poems
necessarily bear traces of immaturity, and lines may frequently
be found in them which are mere echoes from Thomson, Words-
worth or Tennyson, but they possess, nevertheless, distinct
individuality, and show a real appreciation of natural beauty.
The Luggie and other Poems, with an introduction by R. Monckton
Milnes, and a brief memoir by Tames Hedderwick, was published
in 1862; and a new and enlarged edition of Gray's Poetical Works,
edited by Henry Glassford Bell, appeared in 1874. See also David
Gray and other Essays, by Robert Buchanan (1868), and the same
writer's poem on David Gray, in Idyls and Legends of Inverburn.
GRAY, ELISHA (1835-1901), American electrician, was born
in Barnesville, Belmont county, Ohio, on the 2nd of August
1835. He worked as a carpenter and in a machine shop, reading
GRAY, H. P.— GRAY, LORD
39>
in physical science at the same time, and for five years studied
at Oberlin College, where he taught for a time. He then in-
vestigated the subject of telegraphy, and in 1867 patented a
telegraphic switch and annunciator. Experimenting in the
transmittal of electro-tones and of musical tones by wire, he
utilized in 1874 animal tissues in his receivers, and filed, on
the 14th of February 1876, a caveat for the invention of a
telephone, only a few hours after the filing of an application for a
patent by Alexander Graham Bell. (See Telephone.) The caveat
was disregarded; letters patent No. 174,465 were granted to Bell,
whose priority of invention was upheld in 1888 by the United
States Supreme Court (see Molecular Telephone Co. v. American
Bell Telephone Co., 126 U.S. 1). Gray's experiments won for him
high praise and the decoration of the Legion of Honour at the
Paris Exposition of 1878. He was for a time a manufacturer of
electrical apparatus, particularly of his own inventions; and
was chief electrical expert of the Western Electric Company of
Chicago. At the Columbian Exposition of 1893 Gray was chair-
man of the International Congress of Electricians. He died at
Newtonville, Massachusetts, on the 21st of January 1901.
Among his later inventions were appliances for multiplex
telegraphy and the telautograph, a machine for the electric
transmission of handwriting. He experimented in the submarine
use of electric bells for signalling.
Gray wrote, besides scientific addresses and many monographs,
Telegraphy and Telephony (1878) and Electricity and Magnetism
(1900).
GRAY, HENRY PETERS (1819-1877), American portrait
and genre painter, was born in New York on the 23rd of June
1 81 9. He was a pupil of Daniel Huntington there, and sub-
sequently studied in Rome and Florence. Elected a member of
the National Academy of Design in 1842, he succeeded
Huntington as president in 1870, holding the position until 187 1.
The later years of his life were devoted to portrait work. He
was strongly influenced by the old Italian masters, painting in
mellow colour with a classical tendency. One of his notable
canvases was an allegorical composition called " The Birth of
our Flag " (1875). He died in New York City on the 12th of
November 1877.
GRAY, HORACE (1828-190 2), American jurist, was born in
Boston, Massachusetts, on the 24th of March 1 828. He graduated
at Harvard in 1845; was admitted to the bar in 1851, and in
1 854-1 86 1 was reporter to the Supreme Court of Massachusetts.
He practised law, first in partnership with Ebenezer Rockwood
Hoar, and later with Wilder Dwight (1823-1862) and Charles F.
Blake; was appointed associate justice of the state Supreme
Court on the 23rd of August 1864, becoming chief- justice on the
5th of September 1873; and was associate justice of the Supreme
Court of the United States from December 1881 to August 1902,
resigning only a few weeks before his death at Nahant, Mass .,
on the 15th of September 1902. Gray had a fine sense of the
dignity of the bench, and a taste for historical study. His
judgments were unmistakably clear and contained the essence
of earlier opinions. A great case lawyer, he was a much greater
judge, the variety of his knowledge and his contributions to
admiralty and prize law and to testamentary law being particu-
larly striking; in constitutional law he was a " loose " rather
than a " strict " constructionist.
See Francis C. Lowell, " Horace Gray," in Proceedings of the
American Academy, vol. 39, pp. 627-637 (Boston, 1904).
GRAY, JOHN DE (d. 1214), bishop of Norwich, entered
Prince John's service, and at his accession (1199) was rapidly
promoted in the church till he became bishop of Norwich in
September 1200. King John's attempt to force him into the
primacy in 1205 started the king's long and fatal quarrel with
Pope Innocent III. De Gray was a hard-working royal official,
in finance, in justice, in action, using his position to enrich himself
and his family. In 1209 he went to Ireland to govern it as
justiciar. He adopted a forward policy, attempting to extend
the English frontier northward and westward, and fought a
number of campaigns on the Shannon and in Fermanagh. But
in 1 212 he suffered a great defeat. He assimilated the coinage of
Ireland to that of England, and tried to effect a similar reform
in Irish law. De Gray was a good financier, and could always
raise money: this probably explains the favour he enjoyed from
King John. In 12 13 he is found with 500 knights at the great
muster at Barham Downs, when Philip Augustus was threatening
to invade England. After John's reconciliation with Innocent
he was one of those exempted from the general pardon, and was
forced to go in person to Rome to obtain it. At Rome he so
completely gained over Innocent that the pope sent him back
with papal letters recommending his election to the bishopric of
Durham (12 13); but he died at St Jean d'Audely in Poitou
on his homeward journey (October 12 14).
GRAY, JOHN EDWARD (1800-1875), English naturalist,
born at Walsall, Staffordshire, in 1800, was the eldest of the
three sons of S. F. Gray, of that town, druggist and writer on
botany, and author of the Supplement to the Pharmacopoeia, &c,
his grandfather being S. F. Gray, who translated the Philosophia
Botanica of Linnaeus for the Introduction to Botany of James
Lee (17 1 5-1 795). Gray studied at St Bartholomew's and other
hospitals for the medical profession, but at an early age was
attracted to the pursuit of botany. He assisted his father by
collecting notes on botany and comparative anatomy and
zoology in Sir Joseph Banks's library at the British Museum,
aided by Dr W. E. Leach, assistant keeper, and the systematic
synopsis of the Natural Arrangement of British Plants, 2 vols.,
1 82 1, was prepared by him, his father writing the preface and
introduction only. In consequence of his application for member-
ship of the Linnaean Society being rejected in 1822, he turned
to the study of zoology, writing on zoophytes, shells, Mollusca
and PapUionidae, still aided by Dr Leach at the British Museum.
In December 1824 he obtained the post of assistant in that
institution; and from that date to December 1839, when J. G.
Children retired from the keepership, he had so zealously applied
himself to the study, classification and improvement of the
national collection of zoology that he was selected as the fittest
person to be entrusted with its charge. Immediately on his
appointment as keeper, he took in hand the revision of the
systematic arrangement of the collections; scientific catalogues
followed in rapid succession; the department was raised in
importance; its poverty as well as its wealth became known,
and whilst increased grants, donations and exchanges made
good many deficiencies, great numbers of students, foreign as
well as English, availed themselves of its resources to enlarge the
knowledge of zoology in all its 'branches. In spite of numerous
obstacles, he worked up the department, within a few years of
his appointment as keeper, to such a state of excellence as to
make it the rival of the cabinets of Leiden, Paris and Berlin;
and later on it was raised under his management to the dignity
of the largest and most complete zoological collection in the
world. Although seized with paralysis in 1870, he continued to
discharge the functions of keeper of zoology, and to contribute
papers to the Annals of Natural History, his favourite journal, and
to the transactions of a few of the learned societies; but at
Christmas 1874, having completed half a century of official
work, he resigned office, and died in London on the 7th of March
1875.
Gray was an exceedingly voluminous writer, and his
interests were not confined to natural history only, for he took
an active part in questions of public importance of his day, such
as slave emancipation, prison discipline, abolition of imprison-
ment for debt, sanitary and municipal organizations, the decimal
system, public education, extension of the opening of museums,
&c. He began to publish in 1820, and continued till the year
of his death.
The titles of the books, memoirs and miscellaneous papers written
by him, accompanied by a few notes, fill a privately pnnted list of 56
octavo pages with 11 62 entries.
GRAY, PATRICK GRAY, 6th Baron (d. 1612), was descended
from Sir Andrew Gray (c. 1390-1469) of Broxmouth and Foulis,
who was created a Scottish peer as Lord Gray, probably in 1445.
Andrew was a leading figure in Scottish politics during the reigns
of James I. and his two successors, and visited England as a
392
GRAY, R.— GRAY, THOMAS
hostage, a diplomatist and a pilgrim. The 2nd Lord Gray was
his grandson Andrew (d. 15 14), and the 4th lord was the latter's
grandson Patrick (d. 1582), a participant in Scottish politics
during the stormy time of Mary, queen of Scots. Patrick's son,
Patrick, the 5th lord (d. 1609), married Barbara, daughter of
William, 2nd Lord Ruthven, and their son Patrick, known as
the " Master of Gray," is the subject of this article. Educated
at Glasgow University and brought up as a Protestant, young
Patrick was married early in life to Elizabeth Lyon, daughter
of Lord Glamis, whom he repudiated almost directly; and
afterwards went to France, where he joined the friends of Mary,
queen of Scots, became a Roman Catholic, and assisted the
French policy of the Guises in Scotland. He returned and took
up his residence again in Scotland in 1583, and immediately
began a career of treachery and intrigue, gaining James's favour
by disclosing to him his mother's secrets, and acting in agreement
with James Stewart, earl of Arran, in order to keep Mary a
prisoner in England. In 1584 he was sent as ambassador to
England, to effect a treaty between James and Elizabeth
and to exclude Mary. His ambition incited him at the same
time to promote a plot to secure the downfall of Arran.
This was supported by Elizabeth, and was finally accomplished
by letting loose the lords banished from Scotland for their
participation in the rebellion called the Raid of Ruthven, who,
joining Gray, took possession of the king's person at Stirling in
1585, the league with England being ratified by the parliament
in December. Gray now became the intermediary between the
English government and James on the great question of Mary's
execution, and in 1587 he was despatched on an embassy to
Elizabeth, ostensibly to save Mary's life. Gray had, however,
previously advised her secret assassination and had endeavoured
to overcome all James's scruples; and though he does not appear
to have carried treachery so far as to advise her death on this
occasion, no representations made by him could have had any
force or weight. The execution of Mary caused his own downfall
and loss of political power in Scotland; and after his return he
was imprisoned on charges of plots against Protestantism, of
endeavouring to prevent the king's marriage, and of having been
bribed to consent to Mary's death. He pleaded guilty of sedition
and of having obstructed the king's marriage, and was declared
a traitor; but his life was spared by James and he was banished
from the country, but permitted to return in 1589, when he was
restored to his office of master of the wardrobe to which he had
been appointed in 1585. His further career was marked by
lawlessness and misconduct. In 1592, together with the 5th
Lord Bothwell, he made an unsuccessful attempt to seize the
king at Falkland, and the same year earned considerable dis-
credit by bringing groundless accusations against the Presby-
terian minister, Robert Bruce; while after the king's accession
to the English throne he was frequently summoned before
the authorities on account of his conduct. Notwithstanding,
he never lost James's favour. In 1609 he succeeded his father as
6th Baron Gray, and died in 161 2.
Gray was an intimate friend of Sir Philip Sidney, but, if one
of the ablest, handsomest and most fascinating, he was beyond
doubt one of the most unscrupulous men of his day. He married
as his second wife in 1585 Mary Stewart, daughter of Robert,
earl of Orkney, and had by her, besides six daughters, a son,
Andrew (d. 1663), who succeeded him as 7th Baron Gray.
Andrew, who served for a long time in the French army, was a
supporter, although not a very prominent one, of Charles I. and
afterwards of Charles II. He was succeeded as 8th Lord Gray
by Patrick (d. 1711), a son of his daughter Anne, and Patrick's
successor was his kinsman and son-in-law John (d. 1724). On
the extinction of John's direct line in 1878 the title of Lord Gray
passed to George Stuart, earl of Moray. In 1606 Gray had been
ranked sixth among the Scottish baronies.
Bibliography. — Article in Diet, of Nat. Biog., and authorities
there quoted; Gray's relation concerning the surprise at Stirling
(Bannatvne Club Publns. i. 131, 1827); Andrew Lang, History of
Scotland', vol. ii. (1902); Peter Gray, The Descent and Kinship of
Patrick, Master of Gray (1903); Gray Papers (Bannatyne Club,
1835); Hist, MS$. Comm., Marq. of Salisbury's MSS.
GRAY, ROBERT (1800-1872), first bishop of Cape Town and
metropolitan of South Africa, was born at Bishop Wearmouth,
Durham, and was the son of Robert Gray, bishop of Bristol
He was educated at Eton and Oxford, and took orders in 1833.
After holding the livings of Whitworth, Durham, 1834-1845, and
Stockton-on-Tees 1845- 1847, he was consecrated bishop of Cape
Town in 1847; the bishopric having been endowed through the
liberality of Miss (afterwards Baroness) Burdett-Coutts. Until
1853 he was a suffragan of Canterbury, but in that year he
formally resigned his see and was reappointed by letters patent
metropolitan of South Africa in view of the contemplated
establishment of the suffragan dioceses of Graham's Town and
Natal. In that capacity his coercive jurisdiction was twice
called in question, and in each case the judicial committee of the
privy council decided against him. The best-known case is that
of Bishop Colenso, whom Gray deposed and excommunicated in
1863. The spiritual validity of the sentence was upheld by the
convocation of Canterbury and the Pan-Anglican synod of 1867,
but legally Colenso remained bishop of Natal. The privy council
decisions declared, in effect, that the Anglican body in South
Africa was on the footing of a voluntary religious society. Gray,
accepting this position, obtained its recognition by the mother
church as the Church of the Province of South Africa, in full
communion with the Church of England. The first provincial
synod was held in 1870. During his episcopate Bishop Gray
effected a much-needed organization of the South African church,
to which he added five new bishoprics, all carved out of the
original diocese of Cape Town. It was also chiefly owing to his
suggestions that the universities' mission to Central Africa was
founded.
GRAY, SIR THOMAS (d. c. 1369), English chronicler, was a
son of Sir Thomas Gray, who was taken prisoner by the Scots
at Bannockburn and who died about 1344. The younger Thomas
was present at the battle of Neville's Cross in 1346; in 1355,
whilst acting as warden of Norham Castle, he was made a prisoner,
and during his captivity in Edinburgh Castle he devoted his
time to studying the English chroniclers, Gildas, Bede, Ranulf
Higdon and others. Released in 1357 he was appointed warden
of the east marches towards Scotland in 1367, and he died about
1369. Gray's work, the Scalacronica (so called, perhaps, from
the scaling-ladder in the crest of the Grays), is a chronicle of
English history from the earliest times to about the year 1362.
It is, however, only valuable for the reigns of Edward I. and
Edward II. and part of that of Edward III., being especially
so for the account of the wars between England and Scotland, in
which the author's father and the author himself took part.
Writing in Norman-French, Gray tells of Wallace and Bruce,
of the fights at Bannockburn, Byland and Dupplin, and makes
some mention of the troubles in England during the reign of
Edward II. He also narrates the course of the war in France
between 1355 and 1361; possibly he was present during some
of these campaigns.
The Scalacronica was summarized by John Leland in the 16th
century; the part dealing with the period from 1066 to the end,
together with the prologue, was edited for the Maitland Club by
J. Stevenson (1836) ; and the part from 127 4 to 1362 was translated
into English by Sir Herbert Maxwell (Glasgow, 1007). In the
extant manuscript, which is in Corpus Christi College, Cambridge,
there is a gap extending from about 1340 to 1355, and Gray's
account of this period is only known from Leland 's summary.
GRAY, THOMAS (1716-1771), English poet, the fifth and sole
surviving child of Philip and Dorothy Gray, was bom in London
on the 26th of December 17 16. His mother's maiden name was
Antrobus, and in partnership with her sister Mary she kept a
millinery shop in Cornhill. This and the house connected with
it were the property of Philip Gray, a money-scrivener, who
married Dorothy in 1706 and lived with her in the house, the
sisters renting the shop from him and supporting themselves
by its profits. Philip Gray had impaired the fortune which he
inherited from his father, a wealthy London merchant; yet he
was sufficiently well-to-do, and at the close of his life was building
a house upon some property of his own at Wanstead. But he
was selfish and brutal, and in 1735 his wife took some abortive
GRAY, THOMAS
393
steps to obtain a separation from him. At this date she had
given birth to twelve children, of whom Thomas was the only
survivor. He owed his life as well as his education to this
" careful, tender mother," as he calls her. The child was
suffocating when she opened one of his veins with her own hand.
He went at her expense to Eton in 1727, and was confided
to the care of her brother, William Antrobus, one of the assistant-
masters, during some part at least of his school-life.
At Eton Gray's closest friends were Horace Walpole, Richard
West (son of the lord chancellor of Ireland and grandson of the
famous Bishop Burnet), and Thomas Ashton, afterwards fellow
of Eton. This little coterie was dubbed "the Quadruple
Alliance "; its members were studious and literary, and took
little part in the amusements of their fellows. In 1734 Gray
matriculated at Peterhouse, Cambridge, of which his uncle,
Robert Antrobus, had been a fellow. At Cambridge he had once
more the companionship of Walpole and Ashton who were at
King's, but West went to Christchurch, Oxford. Gray made at
this time the firmest and most constant friendship of his life
with Thomas Wharton (not the poet Warton) of Pembroke
College. He was maintained by his mother, and his straitened
means were eked out by certain small exhibitions from his
college. His conspicuous abilities and known devotion to study
perhaps atoned in the eyes of the authorities for his indifference
to the regular routine of study; for mathematics in particular
he had an aversion which was the one exception to his almost
limitless curiosity in other directions. During his first Cambridge
period he learnt Italian " like any dragon," and made translations
from Guarini, Dante and Tasso, some of which have been pre-
served. In September 1738 he is in the agony of leaving college,
nor can we trace his movements with any certainty for a while,
though it may be conjectured that he spent much time with
Horace Walpole, and made in his company some fashionable
acquaintances in London. On the 29th of March 1739, he
started with Walpole for a long continental tour, for the expenses
of which it is probable that his father, for once, came in some
measure to his assistance. In Paris, Gray visited the great with
his friend, studied the picture-galleries, went to tragedies,
comedies, operas and cultivated there that taste for the French
classical dramatists, especially Racine, whom he afterwards tried
to imitate in the fragmentary " Agrippina." It is characteristic
of him that he travels through France with Caesar constantly
in his hands, ever noting and transcribing. In the same way, in
crossing the Alps and in Piedmont, he has " Livy in the chaise
with him and Silius Italicus too." In Italy he made a long
sojourn, principally at Florence, where Walpole's life-long
correspondent, Horace Mann, was British envoy, and received
and treated the travellers most hospitably. But Rome and
Naples are also described in Gray's letters, sometimes vividly,
always amusingly, and in his notes are almost catalogued.
Herculaneum, an object of intense interest to the young poet
and antiquary, had been discovered the year before. At
length in April 1741 Gray and Walpole set out northwards for
Reggio. Here they quarrelled. Gray, " never a boy," was a
student, and at times retiring; Walpole, in his way a student
too, was at this time a very social being, somewhat too frivolous,
and, what was worse, too patronizing. He good-humouredly
said at a later (late, " Gray loves to find fault," and this fault-
finding was expressed, no doubt with exaggeration, in a letter
to Ashton, who violated Gray's confidence. The rupture
followed, and with two friends, John Chute of the Vyne, Hamp-
shire, and the young Francis Whithed, Gray went to Venice to
see the doge wed the Adriatic on Ascension Day. Thence he
returned home attended only by a laquais de voyage, visiting
once more the Grande Chartreuse where he left in the album of
the brotherhood those beautiful alcaics, O Tu severa Religio
loci, which reveal his characteristic melancholy (enhanced by
solitude and estrangement) and that sense of the glory as distinct
from the horror of mountain scenery to which perhaps he was
the first of Englishmen to give adequate expression. On the
1 8th of September 1741 we find him in London, astonishing the
street boys with his deep ruffles, large bag-wig and long sword,
12
and " mortified " under the hands of the English barber. On
the 6th of November his father died; Philip Gray had, it is
evident, been less savage and niggardly at last to those who
were dependent upon him, and his death left his wife and son
some measure of assured peace and comfort.
London was Gray's headquarters for more than a year, with
occasional visits to Stoke Poges, to which his mother and Mary
Antrobus had retired from business to live with their sister,
Mrs Rogers. At Stoke he heard of the death of West, to whom
he had sent the " Ode on Spring," which was returned to him
unopened. It was an unexpected blow, shocking in all its
circumstances, especially if we believe the story that his friend's
frail life was brought to a close by the discovery that the mother
whom he tenderly loved had been an unfaithful wife, and, as
some say, poisoned her husband. About this tragedy Gray
preserved a mournful silence, broken only by the pathetic sonnet,
and some Latin lines, in which he laments his loss. The year
1742, was, for him, fruitful in poetic effort, of which, however,
much was incomplete. The "Agrippina," the De principals
CogUandi, the splenetic " Hymn to Ignorance " in which he
contemplates his return to the university, remain fragments;
but besides the two poems already mentioned, the " Ode on a
Distant Prospect of Eton College " and the " Hymn to Adver-
sity," perhaps the most faultless of his poems, were written
before the close of the summer. After hesitating between
Trinity Hall and Peterhouse, he returned to the latter, probably
as a fellow-commoner. He had hitherto neglected to read for a
degree; he proceeded to that of LL.B. in 1744. In 1745 a
reconciliation with Walpole, long desired probably on both sides,,
was effected through the kind offices of Chute's sister. In 1746
he spent his time between Cambridge, Stoke and London; was
much with Walpole; graphically describes the trial of the
Scottish rebel lords, and studied Greek with avidity; but " the
muse," which by this time perhaps had stimulated him to begin
the " Elegy," " has gone, and left him in much worse company."
In town he finds his friends Chute and Whithed returned to
England, and " flaunts about " in public places with them.
The year 1747 produced only the ode on Walpole's cat, and we
gather that he is mainly engaged in reading with a very critical
eye, and interesting himself more in the troubles of Pembroke
College, in which he almost seems to live, than in the affairs of
Peterhouse. In this year also he made the acquaintance of
Mason, his future biographer. In 1748 he first came before the
public, but anonymously, in Dodsley's Miscellany, in which
appeared the Eton ode, the ode on spring, and that on the cat.
In the same year he sent to Wharton the beginning of the didactic
poem, " The Alliance of Education and Government," which
remains a fragment. His aunt, Mary Antrobus, died in 1749.
There is little to break the monotony of his days till 1750,
when from Stoke he sent Walpole " a thing to which he had at
last put an end." The " thing " was the " Elegy." It was
shown about in manuscript by his admiring friend; it was
impudently pirated, and Gray had it printed by Dodsley in
self-defence. Even thus it had "a pinch or two in its cradle,"
of which it long bore the marks. The publication led to the one
incident in Gray's life which has a touch of romance. At Stoke-
house had come to live the widowed Lady Cobham, who learnt
that the author of the " Elegy " was her neighbour. At her
instance, Lady Schaub, her visitor, and Miss Speed, her protegee,
paid him a call; the poet was out, and his quiet mother and
aunts were somewhat flustered at the apparition of these women
of fashion, whose acquaintance Gray had already made in town.
Hence the humorous "Long Story." A platonic affection
sprang up between Gray and Miss Speed; rumour, upon the
death of Lady Cobham, said that they were to be married, but
the lady escaped this mild destiny to become the Baroness de la
Peyriere, afterwards Countess Viry, and a dangerous political
intriguante.
In 1753 all Gray's completed poems, except the sonnet on the
death of West, were published by Dodsley in a handsome volume
illustrated by Richard Bentley, the son of the celebrated master
of Trinity. To these designs we owe the verses to the artist
xn. 13 a
394
GRAY, THOMAS
which were posthumously published from a MS. torn at the end.
In the same year Gray's mother died and was buried in the
churchyard at Stoke Poges, the scene of the " Elegy," in the
same grave with Mary Antrobus. A visit to his friend Dr
Wharton at Durham later in the year revives his earlier impres-
sions of that bolder scenery which is henceforth to be in the
main the framework of his muse. Already in 1752 he had
almost completed " The Progress of Poesy," in which, and in
" The Bard," the imagery is largely furnished forth by mountain
and torrent. The latter poem long held fire; Gray was stimu-
lated to finish it by hearing the blind Welsh harper Parry at
Cambridge. Both odes were the first-fruits of the press which
Walpole had set up at Strawberry Hill, and were printed together
there in 1757. They are genuinely Pindaric, that is, with corre-
sponding strophes, antistrophes and epodes. As the Greek
motto prefixed to them implies, they were vocal to the intelligent
only; and these at first were few. But the odes, if they did not
attain the popularity of the " Elegy," marked an epoch in
the history of English poetry, and the influence of " The Bard "
may be traced even in that great but very fruitful imposture,
the pseudo-Ossian of Macpherson. Gray yields to the impulse
of the Romantic movement; he has long been an admirer of
ballad poetry; before he wrote " The Bard " he had begun to
study Scandinavian literature, and the two " Norse Odes,"
written in 1761, were in style and metrical form strangely
anticipative of Coleridge and Scott. Meanwhile his Cambridge
life had been vexed by the freaks of the fellow-commoners of
Peterhouse, a peculiarly riotous set. He had suffered great
inconvenience for a time by the burning of his property in
Cornhill, and so nervous was he on the subject of fire that he
had provided himself with a rope-ladder by which he might
descend from his college window. Under this window a hunting-
party of these rude lads raised in the early morning the cry
of fire; the poet's night-capped head appeared and was at
once withdrawn. This, or little more than this, was the simple
fact out of which arose the legend still current at Cambridge,
The servile authorities of Peterhouse treated Gray's complaints
with scant respect, and he migrated to Pembroke College. " I
left my lodgings," he said, "because the rooms were noisy, and
the people of the house dirty."
In 1758 died Mrs Rogers, and Gray describes himself as
employed at Stoke in " dividing nothing " between himself and
the surviving aunt, Mrs Oliffe, whom he calls " the spawn of
Cerberus and the Dragon of Wantley." In 1759 he availed
himself of the MS. treasures of the British Museum, then for the
first time open to the public, made a very long sojourn in town,
and in 1761 witnessed the coronation of George III., of which
to his friend Brown of Pembroke he wrote a very vivacious
account. In his last years he revealed a craving for a life less
sedentary than heretofore. He visited various picturesque
districts of Great Britain, exploring great houses and ruined
abbeys; he was the pioneer of the modern tourist, noting and
describing in the spirit how of the poet, now of the art-critic,
now of the antiquary. In 1762 he travelled in Yorkshire and
Derbyshire; in 1764 in the Lowlands of Scotland, and thence
went to Southampton and its neighbourhood. In 1765 he
revisits Scotland; he is the guest of Lord Strathmore at Glamis;
and revels in " those monstrous creatures of God," the Highland
mountains. His most notable achievement in this direction
was his journey among the English lakes, of which he wrote an
interesting account to Wharton; and even in 1770, the year
before his death, he visited with his young friend Norton Nicholls
"five of the most beautiful counties of the kingdom," and
descended the Wye for 40 m. In all these quests he displays a
physical energy which surprises and even perplexes us. His
true academic status was worthily secured in 1768, when the
duke of Grafton offered him the professorship of modern history
which in 1762 he had vainly endeavoured to obtain from Bute.
He wrote in 1769 the " Installation Ode " upon the appointment
of Grafton as chancellor of the university. It was almost the
only instance in which he successfully executed a task, not, in
the strictest sense, self-imposed; the great founders of the
university are tactfully memorized and pass before us in a kind
of heraldic splendour. He bore with indifference the taunts
to which, from Junius and others, he was exposed for this
tribute to his patron. He was contemplating a journey to
Switzerland to visit his youthful friend de Bonstetten when, in
the summer of 177 1, he was conscious of a great decline in his
physical powers. He was seized with a sudden illness when
dining in his college hall, and died of gout in the stomach on the
30th of July 177 1. His last moments were attended by his
cousin Mary Antrobus, postmistress through his influence at
Cambridge and daughter of his Eton tutor; and he was laid
beside his beloved mother in the churchyard of Stoke Poges.
Owing to his shyness and reserve he had few intimate friends,
but to these his loss was irreparable; for to them he revealed
himself either in boyish levity and banter, or wise and sympa-
thetic counsel and tender and yet manly consolation; to them
he imparted his quiet but keen observation of passing events
or the stores of his extensive reading in literature ancient,
medieval or modern; and with Proteus-like variety he writes
at one time as a speculative philosopher, at another as a critic
in art or music, at another as a meteorologist and nature-lover.
His friendship with the young, after his migration to Pembroke
College, is a noteworthy trait in his character. With Lord
Strathmore and the Lyons and with William Palgrave he con-
versed as an elder brother, and Norton Nicholls of Trinity Hall
lost in him a second father, who had taught him to think and feel.
The brilliant young foreigner, de Bonstetten, looked back after
a long and chequered career with remembrance still vivid to the
days in which the poet so soon to die taught him to read Shake-
speare and Milton in the monastic gloom of Cambridge. With
the elderly " Levites " of the place he was less in sympathy;
they dreaded his sarcastic vein; they were conscious that he
laughed at them, and in the polemics of the university he was
somewhat of a free lance, fighting for his own hand. Lampoons
of his were privately circulated with effect, and that he could be
the fiercest of satirists the " Cambridge Courtship " on the
candidature of Lord Sandwich for the office of high steward, and
the verses on Lord Holland's mimic ruins at Westgate, sufficiently
prove. The faculty which he displayed in humour and satire
was denied to his more serious muse; there all was the fruit of
long delay; of that higher inspiration he had a thin but very
precious vein, and the sublimity which he undoubtedly attained
was reached by an effort of which captious and even sympathetic
criticism can discover the traces. In his own time he was
regarded as an innovator, for like Collins he revived the poetic
diction of the past, and the adverse judgments of Johnson and
others upon his work are in fact a defence of the current literary
traditions. Few men have published so little to so much effect;
few have attained to fame with so little ambition. His favourite
maxim was " to be employed is to be happy," but he was always
employed in the first instance for the satisfaction of his own soul,
and to this end and no other he made himself one of the best
Greek scholars at Cambridge in the interval between Bentley
and Porson. His genius was receptive rather than creative,
and it is to be regretted that he lacked energy to achieve that
history of English poetry which he once projected, and for which
he possessed far more knowledge and insight than the poet
Thomas Wart on, to whom he resigned the task. He had a fine
taste in music, painting and architecture; and his correspondence
includes a wide survey of such European literature as was
accessible to him, with criticisms, sometimes indeed a little
limited and insular, yet of a singularly fresh and modern cast.
In person he was below the middle height, but well-made, and
his face, in which the primness of his features was redeemed
by his flashing eyes, was the index of his character. There was
a touch of affectation in his demeanour, and he was sometimes
reticent and secretive even to his best friends. He was a refined
Epicurean in his habits, and a deist rather than a Christian in
his religious beliefs; but his friend, Mrs Bonfoy, had " taught
him to pray " and he was keenly alive to the dangers of a flippant
scepticism. In a beautiful alcaic stanza he pronounces the man
supremely happy who in the depths of the heart is conscious
GRAY, W. DE— GRAZ
395
of the "fount of tears," and his characteristic melancholy,
except in the few hours when it was indeed black,* was not a
pitiable state; rather, it was one secret of the charm both of
the man and of the poet. .
A very complete bibliography of Gray will be found in Dr. Brad-
shaw's edition of the poems in the Aldine series. Dodsley published
ten of the poems, exclusive of the " Long Story," in 1768. Mason s
Life of Gray (1778) included the poems and some hitherto unpub-
lished fragments, with a selection from his letters, much garbled.
Mathias in 1814 reprinted Mason's edition and added much from
Gray's MS. commentaries together with some more of his transla-
tions. The most exhaustive edition of Gray's writings was achieved
by the Rev. John Mitford, who first did justice to the correspondence
with Wharton and Norton Nicholls (5 vols., Pickering, 1 836-1 843;
correspondence of Gray and Mason, Bentley, 1853); see also the
edition of the works by Edmund Gosse (4 vols. 1884); the Life
by the same in Eng. Men of Letters (2nd ed., 1889) ; some further
relics are given in Gray and His Friends by D. C. Tovey (Cambridge,
1890); and a new edition of the letters copiously annotated by D.
C. Tovey is in the Standard Library (1900-1907). Nicholl's
Illustrations, vol. vi. p. 805, quoted by Professor Kittredge in the
Nation, Sept. 12th, 1900, gives the true story of Gray's migration
to Pembroke College. Matthew Arnold's essay on Gray in Ward's
Enelish Poets is one of the minor classics of literary criticism.
(D. C. To.)
GRAY (or Grey), WALTER DE (d. 1255), English prelate and
statesman, was a nephew of John de Gray, bishop of Norwich,
and was educated at Oxford. He owed his early and rapid
preferment in church and state to the favour of King John,
becoming the king's chancellor in 1205, and being chosen bishop
of Lichfield in 12 10. He was, however, not allowed to keep this
bishopric, but he became bishop of Worcester in 1214, resigning
his office as chancellor in the same year. Gray was with John
when the king signed Magna Carta in June 1215; soon after
this event he left England on the king's business, and it was
during his absence that he was forced into the archbishopric
of York, owing his election to the good offices of John and of
Pope Innocent HI. He took a leading part in public affairs
during the minority of Henry III., and was regarded with much
favour by this king, who employed him on important errands
to foreign potentates, and left him as guardian of England when
he went to France in 1242. Afterwards the archbishop seems
to have been less favourably disposed towards Henry, and for a
time he absented himself from public business; however, in
1255, he visited London to attend a meeting of parliament, and
died at Fulham on the 1st of May 1255. Gray was always
anxious to assert his archiepiscopal authority over Scotland,
and to maintain it against the archbishop of Canterbury, but
in neither case was he very successful. * He built the south
transept of the minster at York and bought for his see the
village, afterwards called Bishopthorpe, which is still the residence
of the archbishop of York. He was also generous to the church
at Ripon. €rray was regarded by his contemporaries as an
avaricious, but patriotic man.
GRAY, a town of eastern France, capital of an arrondissement
in the department of Haute-Sa6ne, situated on the declivity of
a hill on the left bank of the Sa6ne, 36 m. S.W. of Vesoul by the
Eastern railway. Pop. (1006) 5742. The streets of the town are
narrow and steep, but it possesses broad and beautiful quays
and has a busy port. Three bridges, one dating from the 18th
century, unite it to suburbs on the right bank of the river, on
which is the railway-station from which lines branch off to
Auxonne, Dijon, Besancon and Culmont-Chalindrey. The
principal buildings are the Gothic church, restored in the style
of the Renaissance but with a modern portal, and the h6tel de
ville, built by the Spaniards in 1 568. The latter building has a
handsome facade decorated with columns of red granite. Gray
is the seat of a subprefect and has tribunals of first instance
and of commerce, a chamber of commerce, a communal college
and a small museum. It has large flour-mills; among the other
industries is the manufacture of machinery and iron goods.
There is also a considerable transit traffic in goods from the
south of France and the colonies, and trade in iron, corn, pro-
visions, vegetables, wine, wood, &c, much of which is carried
by river. Gray was founded in the 7th century. Its fortifications
were destroyed by Louis XIV. During the Franco-German War
General von Werder concentrated his army corps in the town
and held it for a month, making it the point oVappui of move-
ments towards Dijon and Langres, as well as towards Besancon.
Gray gave its name to the distinguished English family of
de Gray, Gray or Grey, Anschitel de Gray being mentioned as
an Oxfordshire tenant in Domesday.
GRAYLING (Thymallus), fishes belonging to the family
Salmonidae. The best known are the " poisson bleu " of the
Canadian voyageurs, and the European species, Thymattus
vulgaris (the Asch or Asche of Germany, ombre of France, and
temola of Upper Italy). This latter species is esteemed on
account of its agreeable colours (especially of the dorsal fin), its
well-flavoured flesh, and the sport it affords to anglers. The
grayling differ from the genus Salmo in the smaller mouth with
comparatively feeble dentition, in the larger scales, and especially
in the much greater development of the dorsal fin, which contains
20 to 24 rays. These beautiful fishes, of which five or six species
are known, inhabit the fresh waters of Europe, Siberia and the
northern parts of North America. The European species,
T. vulgaris or vexillifer t attains, though rarely, a length of 2 ft.
The colours during life are remarkably changeable and iridescent ;
small dark spots are sometimes present on the body; the very
high dorsal fin is beautifully marked with purplish bands and
ocelli. In England and Scotland the grayling appears to have
had originally a rather irregular distribution, but it has now
been introduced into a great number of rivers; it is not found in
Ireland. It is more generally distributed in Scandinavia and
Russia, and the mountain streams of central Europe southwards
to the Alpine water of Upper Italy. Specimens attaining to a
weight of 4 lb are very scarce.
GRAYS THURROCK, or Grays, an urban district in the south-
eastern parliamentary division of Essex, England, on the Thames,
20 m. E. by S. from London by the London, Tilbury & Southend
railway. Pop. (1001) 13,834. The church of St Peter and St
Paul, wholly rebuilt, retains some Norman work. The town
takes its name from a family of Gray who held the manor for
three centuries from 1149. There are an endowed and two
training ship schools. Roman remains have been found in the
vicinity; and the geological formations exhibiting the process
of silting up of a former river channel are exposed in the quarries,
and contain large mammalian remains. The town has trade in
bricks, lime and cement.
GRAZ [Gratz], the capital of the Austrian duchy and crown-
land of Styria, 140 m. S.W. of Vienna by rail. Pop. (1900)
138,370. It is picturesquely situated on both banks of the Mur,
just where this river enters a broad and fertile valley, and the
beauty of its position has given rise to the punning French
description, La VUle des grdces sur la riviere de V amour. The main
town lies on the left bank of the river at the foot of the Schloss-
berg (1545 ft.) which dominates the town. The beautiful valley
traversed by the Mur, known as the Grazer Feld and bounded
by the Wildonerberge, extends to the south; to the S.W. rise
the Bacher Gebirge and the Koralpen; to the N. the Schdckel
(4745 ft.), and to the N.W. the Alps of Upper Styria. On the
Schlossberg, which can be ascended by a cable tramway, beautiful
parks have been laid out, and on its top is the bell-tower, 60 ft.
high, and the quaint clock-tower, 52 ft. high, which bears a
gigantic clock-dial. At the foot of the Schlossberg is the Stadt-
Park.
Among the numerous churches of tne city the most important
is the cathedral of St Aegidius, a Gothic building erected by the
emperor Frederick III. in 1450-1462 on the site of a previous
church mentioned as early as n 57. It has been several times
modified and redecorated, more particularly in 17 18. The
present copper spire dates from 1663. The interior is richly
adorned with stained-glass windows of modern date, costly
shrines, paintings and tombs. In the immediate neighbourhood
of the cathedral is the mausoleum church erected by the emperor
Ferdinand II. Worthy of mention also are the parish church, a
Late Gothic building, finished in 1520, and restored in 1875,
which possesses an altar piece by Tintoretto; the Augustinian
church, appropriated to the service of the university since 1827;
39 6
GRAZZINI— GREAT AWAKENING
the small Leech Kirche, an interesting building in Early Gothic
style, dating from the 13th century, and the Herz Jesu-Kirche,
a building in Early Gothic style, finished in 1891, with a tower
360 ft. high. Of the secular buildings the most important is the
Landhaus, where the local diet holds its sittings, erected in the
1 6th century in the Renaissance style. It possesses an interesting
portal and a beautiful arcaded court, and amongst the curiosities
preserved here is the Styrian hat. In its neighbourhood is the
Zeughaus or arsenal, built in 1644, which contains a very rich
collection of weapons of the i5th-i7th centuries, and which is
maintained exactly in the same condition as it was 250 years ago.
The town hall, built in 1807, and rebuilt in 1892 in the German
Renaissance style, and the imperial castle, dating from the nth
century, now used as government offices, are also worth notice.
At the head of the educational institutions is the university
founded in 1586 by the Austrian archduke Charles Francis, and
restored in 181 7 after an interruption of 45 years. It is now
housed in a magnificent building, finished in 1895, and is endowed
with numerous scientific laboratories and a rich library. It
had in 1901 a teaching staff of 161 professors and lecturers,
and 1652 students, including many Italians from the Kiistenland
and Dalmatia. The Joanneum Museum, founded in 181 1 by the
archduke John Baptist, has become very rich in many depart-
ments, and an additional huge building in the rococo style was
erected in 1895 for its accommodation. The technical college,
founded in 1814 by the archduke John Baptist, had in 1901
about 400 pupils.
An active trade, fostered by abundant railway communications,
is combined with manufactures of iron and steel wares, paper,
chemicals, vinegar, physical and optical instruments, besides
artistic printing and lithography. The extensive workshops
of the Southern railway are at Graz, and since the opening of the
railway to the rich coal-fields of KMach the number of industrial
establishments has greatly increased.
Amongst the numerous interesting places in the neighbourhood
are: the Hilmteich, with the Hilmwarte, about 100 ft. high;
and the Rosenberg (1570 ft.), whence the ascent of the Platte
(2136 ft.) with extensive view is made. At the foot of the
Rosenberg is Maria Griin, with a large sanatorium. All these
places are situated to the N. of Graz. On the left bank of the
Mur is the pilgrimage church of Maria Trost, built in 17 14;
on the right bank is the castle of Eggenberg, built in the 17th
century. To the S. W. is the Buchkogel ( 2 1 50 f t .) , with a magnifi-
cent view, and a little farther south is the watering-place of
Tobelbad. •
History. — Graz may possibly have been a Roman site, but
the first mention of it under its present name is in a document
of a.d. 881, after which it became the residence of the rulers
of the surrounding district, known later as Styria. Its privileges
were confirmed by King Rudolph I. in 1281. Surrounded with
walls and fosses in 1435, it was able in 1481 to defend itself
against the Hungarians under Matthias Corvinus, and in 1529
and 1532 the Turks attacked it with as little success. As early
as 1 530 the Lutheran doctrine was preached in Graz by Seif ried
and Jacob von Eggenberg, and in 1540 Eggenberg founded the
Paradies or Lutheran school, in which Kepler afterwards taught.
But the archduke Charles burned 20,000 Protestant books in
the square of the present lunatic asylum, and succeeded by his
oppressive measures in bringing the city again under the authority
of Rome. From the earlier part of the 15th century Graz was
the residence of one branch of the family of Habsburg, a branch
which succeeded to the imperial throne in 16 19 in the person
of Ferdinand II. New fortifications were constructed in the end
of the 16th century by Franz von Poppendorf, and in 1644 the
town afforded an asylum to the family of Ferdinand III. The
French were in possession of the place in 1797 and again in 1805;
and in 1809 Marshal Macdonald having, in accordance with the
terms of the peace of Vienna, entered the citadel which he had
vainly besieged, blew it all up with the exception of the bell-
tower and the citizens' or clock tower. It benefited greatly
during the 19th century from the care of the archduke John and
received extended civic privileges in i860.
See Ilwof and Peters, Graz, Geschichte und Topographic der Stadt
(Graz, 1875); G. Fels, Graz und seine Umgebunk (Graz,; 1898); L.
Mayer, Die Stadt der Grazien (Graz, 1897), and Hoirichter, \Riickblicke
in die Vergangenheit von Graz (Graz, 1885).
GRAZZINI, ANTONIO FRANCESCO (1 503-1 583), Italian
author, was born at Florence on the 22nd of March 1503, of good
family both by his father's and mother's side. Of his youth
and education all record appears to be lost, but he probably
began early to practise as an apothecary. In 1540 he was one
of the founders of the Academy of the Humid (degli Umidi)
afterwards called " della Fiorentina," and later took a prominent
part in the establishment of the more famous Accademia della
Crusca. In both societies he was known as II Lasca or Leuciscus,
and this pseudonym is still frequently substituted for his proper
name. His temper was what the French happily call a difficult
one, and his life was consequently enlivened or disturbed by
various literary quarrels. His Humid brethren went so far as
to expel him for a time from the society — the chief ground
of offence being apparently his ruthless criticism of the
" Arameans," a party of the academicians who maintained
that the Florentine or Tuscan tongue was derived from the
Hebrew, the Chaldee, or some other branch of the Semitic.
He was readmitted in 1 566, when his friend Salviati was " consul "
of the academy. His death took place on the 18th of February
1583. II Lasca ranks as one of the great masters of Tuscan
prose. His style is copious and flexible; abundantly idiomatic,
but without any affectation of being so, it carries with it the
force and freshness of popular speech, while it lacks not at the
same time a flavour of academic culture. His principal works
are Le Cene (1756), a collection of stories in the manner of
Boccaccio, and a number of prose comedies, La Gelosia (1 568), La
Spiritata ( 1 561 ) , / Parentadi, La Arenga 7 La Sibilla, LaPinzochera,
U Arzigogolo. The stories, though of no special merit as far
as the plots are concerned, are told with verve and interest.
A number of miscellaneous poems, a few letters and Four
Orations to the Cross complete the list of Grazzini's extant works.
He also edited the works of Berni, and collected Tutti i trionfi,
larri t mascherate, e canti carnascialaschi, andati per Firenze dal
tempo del magnifico Lorenzo de y Medici fino alV anno 1559. In 1868
Adamo Rossi published in his Ricerche per le biblioteche di Perugia
three " novelle" by Grazzini, from a MS. of the 16th century in the
"Comunale" of Perugia: and in 1870 a small collection of those
poems which have been left unpublished by previous editors appeared
at Poggibonsi, Alcune Poesie inedite. Siee Pietro Fanfani's "Vita
del Lasca," prefixed to his edition of the Opere di A. Grazzini
(Florence, 1857).
GREAT AWAKENING, the name given to a remarkable
religious revival centring in New England in 1 740-1 743, but
covering all the American colonies in 1 740-1 750. The word
" awakening " in this sense was frequently (and possibly first)
used by Jonathan Edwards at the time of the Northampton
revival of 1734-173 5, which spread through the Connecticut
Valley and prepared the way for the work in Rhode Island,
Massachusetts and Connecticut ( 1 740-1 741) of George Whitefield,
who had previously been preaching in the South, especially
at Savannah, Georgia. He, his immediate follower, Gilbert
Tennent (1 703-1 764), other clergymen, such as James Davenport,
and many untrained laymen who took up the work, agreed
in the emotional and dramatic character of their preaching,
in rousing their hearers to a high pitch of excitement, often
amounting to frenzy, in the undue stress they put upon " bodily
effects " (the physical manifestations of an abnormal psychic
state) as proofs of conversion, and in their unrestrained attacks
upon the many clergymen who did not join them and whom
they called " dead men," unconverted, unregenerate and
careless of the spiritual condition of their parishes. Jonathan
Edwards, Benjamin Colman (1673-1747), and Joseph Bellamy,
recognized the viciousness of so extreme a position. Edwards
personally reprimanded Whitefield for presuming to say of any
one that he was unconverted, and in his Thoughts Concerning
the Present Revival of Religion devoted much space to " showing
what things are to be corrected, or avoided, in promoting this
work." Edwards' famous sermon at Enfield in 1741 so affected
his audience that they cried and groaned aloud, and he found
GREAT BARRIER REEF— GREAT BASIN
397
it necessary to bid them be still that he might go on; but
Davenport and many itinerants provoked and invited shouting
and even writhing, and other physical manifestations. At its
May session in 1742 the General Court of Massachusetts forbade
itinerant preaching save with full consent from the resident
pastor; in May 1743 the annual ministerial convention, by a
small plurality, declared against " several errors in doctrine
and disorders in practice which have of late obtained in various
parts of the land," against lay preachers and disorderly revival
meetings; in the same year Charles Chauncy, who disapproved
of the revival, published Seasonable Thoughts on the State of
Religion in New England; and in 1744-1745 Whitefield, upon
his second tour in New England, found that the faculties of
Harvard and Yale had officially " testified " and " declared "
against him and that most pulpits were closed to him. Some
separatist churches were formed as a result of the Awakening;
these either died out or became Baptist congregations. To
the reaction against the gross methods of the revival has been
ascribed the religious apathy of New England during the last
years of the 18th century; but the martial and political excite-
ment, beginning with King George's War (i.e. the American
part of the War of the Austrian Succession) and running through
the American War of Independence and the founding of the
American government, must be reckoned at the least as contri-
buting causes.
See Joseph Tracy, The Great AwakeningiBoston, 1 842); Samuel
P. Hayes, " An Historical Study of the Edwardean Revivals," in
The American Journal of Psychology, vol. 13 (Worcester, Mass.,
1902); and Frederick M. Davenoort, Primitive Traits in Religious
Revivals (New York, 1905), especially chapter viii. pp. 94-13 1 -
GREAT BARRIER REEF, a vast coral reef extending for
1200 m. along the north-east coast of Australia (q.v.). The
channel within it is protected from heavy seas by the reef, and
is a valuable route of communication for coasting steamers.
The reef itself is also traversed by a number of navigable passages.
GREAT BARRINGTON, a township of Berkshire county,
Massachusetts, U.S.A., on the Housatonic river, in the Berkshire
hills, about 25 m. S.W. of Pittsfield. Pop. (1800) 4612; (1000)
5854. of whom 1187 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 5926.
Its area is about 45 sq. m. The township is traversed by
a branch of the New York, New Haven & Hartford railroad, and
the Berkshire Street railway (controlled by the N.Y., N.H. & H.)
has its southern terminus here. Within the township are
three villages — Great Barrington (the most important), Housa-
tonic and Van Deusenville; the first two are about 5 m. apart.
The village of Great Barrington, among the hills, is well known
as a summer resort. The Congregational church with its magnifi-
cent organ (3954 pipes) is worthy of mention. There is a public
library in the village of Great Barrington and another in the
village of Housatonic. Monument Mt. (1710 ft.), partly in
Stockbridge, commands a fine view of the Berkshires and the
Housatonic Valley. The Sedgwick School (for boys) was removed
from Hartford, Connecticut, to Great Barrington in 1869.
There are various manufactures, including cotton-goods (in the
village of Housatonic), and electric meters, paper, knit goods
and counterpanes (in the village of Great Barrington); and
marble and blue stone are quarried here; but the township is
primarily given over to farming. The fair of the Housatonic
Agricultural Society is held here annually during September;
and the district court of South Berkshire sits here. The township
was incorporated in 1761, having been, since i743> the " North
Parish of Sheffield"; the township of Sheffield, earlier known
as the " Lower Housatonic Plantation " was incorporated in
I 733- Great Barrington was named in honour of John Shute
(1678-1734), Viscount Barrington of Ardglass (the adjective
" Great " being added to distinguish it from another township
of the same name). In 1 761-1787 it was the shire-town. Great
Barrington was a centre of the disaffection during Shays's
rebellion, and on the 12th of September 1786 a riot here pre-
vented the sitting of court. Samuel Hopkins, one of the most
eminent of American theologians, was pastor here in 1 743-1 769;
General Joseph D wight (1 703-1 765), a merchant, lawyer and
brigadier-general of Massachusetts militia, who took part in
the Louisburg expedition in 1745 and later in the French and
Indian War, lived here from 1758 until his death; and William
Cullen Bryant lived here as a lawyer and town clerk in 1816-1825.
See C. J. Taylor, History of Great Barrington (Great Barrington,
1882).
GREAT BASIN, an area in the western Cordilleran region of
the United States of America, about 200,000 sq. m. in extent,
characterized by wholly interior drainage, a peculiar mountain
system and extreme aridity. Its form is approximately that
of an isosceles triangle, with the sharp angle extending into
Lower California, W. of the Colorado river; the northern edge
being formed by the divide of the drainage basin of the Columbia
river, the eastern by that of the Colorado, the western by the
central part of the Sierra Nevada crest, and by other high
mountains. The N. boundary and much of the E. is not con-
spicuously uplifted, being plateau, rather than mountain. The
W. half of Utah, the S.W. corner of Wyoming, the S.E. corner
of Idaho, a large area in S.E. Oregon, much of S. California,
a strip along the E. border of the last-named state, and almost
the whole of Nevada are embraced within the limits of the
Great Basin.
The Great Basin is not, as its name implies, a topographic cup.
Its surface is of varied character, with many independent closed
basins draining into lakes or " playas," none of which, however,
has outlet to the sea. The mountain chains, which from their
peculiar geologic character are known as of the " Basin Range
type " (not exactly conterminous in distribution with the Basin),
are echeloned in short ranges running from N. to S. Many of
them are fault block mountains, the crust having been broken
and the blocks tilted so that there is a steep face on one side
and a gentle slope on the other. This is the Basin Range type of
mountain. These mountains are among the most recent in the
continent, and some of them, at least, are still growing. In
numerous instances clear evidence of recent movements along
the fault planes has been discovered; and frequent earthquakes
testify with equal force to the present uplift of the mountain
blocks. The valleys between the tilted mountain blocks are
smooth and often trough-like, and are often the sites of shallow
salt lakes or playas. By the rain wash and wind action detritus
from the mountains is carried to these valley floors, raising their
level, and often burying low mountain spurs, so as to cause
neighbouring valleys to coalesce. The plateau " lowlands " in
the centre of the Basin are approximately 5000 ft. in altitude.
Southward the altitude falls, Death valley and Coahuila valley
being in part below the level of the sea. The whole Basin is
marked by three features of elevation — the Utah basin, the
Nevada basin and, between them, the Nevada plateau.
Over the lowlands of the Basin, taken generally, there is an
average precipitation of perhaps 6-7 in., while in the Oregon
region it is twice as great, and in the southern parts even less.
The mountains receive somewhat more. The annual evaporation
from water surfaces is from 60 to 150 in. (60 to 80 on the Great
Salt Lake). The reason for the arid climate differs in different
sections. In the north it is due to the fact that the winds from
the Pacific lose most of their moisture, especially in winter, on
the western slopes of the Sierra Nevada; in the south it is due
to the fact that the region lies in a zone of calms, and light,
variable winds. Precipitation is largely confined to local showers,
often of such violence as to warrant the name " cloud bursts,"
commonly applied to the heavy down-pours of this desert
region. It is these heavy rains, of brief duration, when great
volumes of water rapidly run off from the barren slopes, that
cause the deep channels, or arroyas, which cross the desert.
Permanent streams are rare. Many mountains are quite without
perennial streams, and some lack even springs. Few of the
mountain creeks succeed in reaching the arid plains, and those
that do quickly disappear by evaporation or by seepage into
the gravels. In the N.W. there are many permanent lakes
without outlet fed by the mountain streams; others, snow fed,
occur among the Sierra Nevada; and some in the larger mountain
masses of the middle region. Almost all are saline. The largest
398
GREAT BEAR LAKE— GREATHEAD
of all, Great Salt Lake, is maintained by the waters of the
Wasatch and associated plateaus. No lakes occur south of
Owens in the W. and Sevier in the E. (39 ); evaporation below
these limits is supreme. Most of the small closed basins, how-
ever, contain " play as," or alkali mud flats, that are overflowed
when the tributary streams are supplied with storm water.
Save where irrigation has reclaimed small areas, the whole
region is a vast desert, though locally only some of the interior
plains are known as " deserts." Such are the Great Salt Lake
and Carson deserts in the north, the Mohave and Colorado and
Amargosa (Death Valley) deserts of the south-west, Straggling
forests, mainly of conifers, characterize the high plateaus of
central Utah. The lowlands and the lower mountains, especially
southward, are generally treeless. Cottonwoods line the streams,
salt-loving vegetation margins the bare playas, low bushes and
scattered bunch-grass grow over the lowlands, especially in the
north. Gray desert plants, notably cactuses and other thorny
plants, partly replace in the south the bushes of the north.
Except on the scattered oases, where irrigation from springs and
mountain streams has reclaimed small patches, the desert is
barren and forbidding in the extreme. There are broad plains
covered with salt and alkali, and others supporting only scattered
bunch grass, sage bush, cactus and other arid land plants.
There are stony wastes, or alluvial fans, where mountain streams
emerge upon the plains, in time of flood, bringing detritus in
their torrential courses from the mountain canyons and depositing
it along the mountain base. The barrenness extends into the
mountains themselves, where there are bare rock cliffs, stony
slopes and a general absence of vegetation. With increasing
altitude vegetation becomes more varied and abundant, until the
tree limit is reached; then follows a forest belt, which in the
highest mountains is limited above by cold as it is below by
aridity.
The successive explorations of B. L. E. Bonneville, J. C.
Frlmont and Howard Stansbury (1806-1863) furnished a
general knowledge of the hydrographic features and geological
lacustrine history of the Great Basin, and this knowledge was
rounded out by the field work of the U.S. Geological Survey from
1879 to 1883, under the direction of Grove Karl Gilbert. The
mountains are composed in great part of Paleozoic strata,
often modified by vulcanism and greatly denuded and sculptured
by wind and water erosion. The climate in late geologic time
was very different from that which prevails to-day. In the
Pleistocene period many large lakes were formed within the Great
Basin; especially, by the fusion of small catchment basins,
two great confluent bodies of water — Lake Lahontan (in the
Nevada basin) and Lake Bonneville (in the Utah basin). The
latter, the remnants of which are represented to-day by Great
Salt, Sevier and Utah Lakes, had a drainage basin of some
54,000 sq. m.
See G. K. Gilbert in Wheeler Survey, U.S. Geographical Survey
West of the Hundredth Meridian, vol. iii. ; Clarence King and others
in the Report of the Fortieth Parallel Survey (U.S. Geol. Exploration
of the Fortieth Parallel); G. K. Gilbert's Lake Bonneville (U.S.
Geological Survey, Monographs, No. 1, 1800), also I. C. Russell's
Lake Lahontan (Same, No. 11, 1885), with references to other publica-
tions of the Survey. For reference to later geological literature, and
discussion of the Basin Ranges, see J. E. Spurr, Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer.
vol. 12, 1001, p. 217; and G. D. Louderback, same, vol. 15, 1904,
p. 280 ; also general bibliographies issued by the U.S. Geol. Survey
(e.g. Bull. 301, 372 and 409).
GREAT BSAR LAKE, an extensive sheet of fresh water in
the north-west of Canada, between 65 and 67 N., and 117 and
123 W. It is of very irregular shape, has an estimated area
of 1 1,200 sq. m., a depth of 270 ft., and is upwards of 200 ft.
above the sea. It is 175 m. in length, and from 25 to 45 in
breadth, though the greatest distance between its northern and
southern arms is about 180 m. The Great Bear river discharges
its waters into the Mackenzie river. It is full of fish, and the
neighbouring country, though barren and uncultivated, contains
quantities of game.
GREAT CIRCLE. The circle in which a sphere is cut by a
plane is called a " great circle," when the cutting plane passes
through the centre of sphere. Treating the earth as a sphere,
the meridians of longitude are all great circles. Of the parallels
of latitude, the equator only is a great circle. The shortest line
joining any two points is an arc of a great circle.. For " great
circle sailing " see Navigation.
GREAT FALLS, a city and the county-seat of Cascade county,
Montana, U.S.A., 99 m. (by rail) N.E. of Helena, on the S. bank
of the Missouri river, opposite the mouth of the Sun river, at an
altitude of about 3300 ft. It is 10 m. above the Great Falls
of the Missouri, from which it derives its name. Pop. (1890)
3979; (1900) 14,930, of whom 4692 were foreign-born; (1910
census) 13,948. It has an area of about 8 sq. m. It is served
by the Great Northern and the Billings & Northern (Chicago,
Burlington & Quincy system) railways. The city has a splendid
park system of seven parks (about $30 acres) with 15 m. of
boulevards. 1 Among the principal buildings are a city hall,
court house, high school, commercial college, Carnegie library,
the Columbus Hospital and Training School for Nurses (under
the supervision of the Sisters of Charity), and the Montana
Deaconess hospital. There is a Federal land office in the city.
Great Falls lies in the midst of a region exceptionally rich in
minerals — copper, gold, silver, lead, iron, gypsum, limestone,
sapphires and bituminous coal being mined in the neighbourhood.
Much grain is grown in the vicinity, and the city is an important
shipping point for wool, live-stock and cereals. Near Great
Falls the Missouri river, within 7J m., contracts from a width of
about 000 to 300 yds. and falls more than 500 ft., the principal
falls being the Black Eagle Falls (50 ft.), from which power is
derived for the city's street railway and lighting plant, the
beautiful Rainbow Falls (48 ft.) and Great Falls (92 ft.). Giant
Spring Fall, about 20 ft. high, is a cascade formed by a spring
on the bank of the river near Rainbow Falls. The river furnishes
very valuable water-power, partly utilized by large manufactur-
ing establishments, including flour mills, plaster mills, breweries,
iron works, mining machinery shops, and smelting and reduction
works. The Boston & Montana copper smelter is one of the
largest in the world; it has a chimney stack 506 ft. high, and in
1908 employed 1200 men in the smelter and 2500 in its mining
department. Great Falls ranked second (to Anaconda) among
the cities of the state in the value of the factory product of 1905,
which was $13,291,979, showing an increase of 42-4% since 1000.
The city owns and operates its water-supply system. Great Falls
was settled in 1884, and was chartered as a city in 1888.
GREAT HARWOOD, an urban district in the Darwen parlia-
mentary division of Lancashire, England, 4$ m. N.E. of Black-
burn, on the Lancashire and Yorkshire railway. Pop. (1901)
1 2,01 5. It is of modern growth, a township of cotton operatives,
with large collieries in the vicinity. An agricultural society
is also maintained.
GREATHEAD, JAMES HENRY (1844-1896), British engineer,
was born at Grahamstown, Cape Colony, on the 6th of August
1844. He migrated to England in 1859, and in 1864 was a pupil
of P. W. Barlow, from whom he became acquainted with the
shield system of tunnelling with which his name is especially
associated. Barlow, indeed, had a strong belief in the shield,
and was the author of a scheme for facilitating the traffic of
London by the construction of underground railways running
in cast-iron tubes constructed by its aid. To show what the
method could do, it was resolved to make a subway under
the Thames near the Tower, but the troubles encountered
by Sir M. I. Brunei in the Thames Tunnel, where also a shield was
employed, made engineers hesitate to undertake the subway,
even though it was of very much smaller dimensions (6 ft. 7 in.
1 Great Falls was a pioneer among the cities of the state in the
development of a park system. When the city was first settled its
site was a " barren tract of sand, thinly covered with buffalo-grass
and patches of sage brush." The first settler, Paris Gibson, of
Minneapolis, began the planting of trees, which, though not indi-
genous, grew well. The city's sidewalks are bordered T>y strips of
lawn, in which there is a row of trees, and the city maintains a large
nursery where trees are jjp-own for this purpose. A general state law
(1901) placing the parking of cities on a sound financial basis is due
very largely to the impulse furnished by Great Falls. See an article,
41 Great Falls, the Pioneer Park City of Montana," by C. H. Forbes-
Lindsay, in the Craftsman for November 1908.
GREAT LAKES
399
internal diameter) than the tunnel. At this juncture Greathead
came forward and offered to take up the contract; and he
successfully carried it through in 1869 without finding any
necessity to resort to the use of compressed air, which Barlow
in 1867 had suggested might be employed in water-bearing strata.
After this he began to practise on his own account, and mainly
divided his time between railway construction and taking out
patents for improvements in his shield, and for other inventions
such as the " Ejector " fire-hydrant. Early in the 'eighties he
began to work in conjunction with a company whose aim was
to introduce into London from America the Hallidie system of
cable traction, and in 1884 an act of Parliament was obtained
authorizing what is now the City & South London Railway —
a tube-railway to be worked by cables. This was begun in 1886,
and the tunnels were driven by means of the Greathead shield,
compressed air being used at those points where water-bearing
gravel was encountered. During the progress of the works
electrical traction became so far developed as to be superior
to cables; the idea of using the latter was therefore abandoned,
and when the railway was opened in 1890 it was as an electrical
one. Greathead was engaged in two other important under-
ground lines in London — the Waterloo & City and the Central
London. He lived to see the tunnels of the former completed
under the Thames, but the latter was scarcely begun at the time
of his death, which happened at Streatham, in the south of
London, on the 21st of October 1896.
GREAT LAKES OP NORTH AMERICA, THE. The connected
string of five fresh-water inland seas, Lakes Superior, Michigan,
Huron, Erie and Ontario, lying in the interior of North America,
between the Dominion of Canada on the north and the United
States of America on the south, and forming the head-waters of
the St Lawrence river system, are collectively and generally
known as " The Great Lakes." From the head of lake Superior
these lakes are navigable to Buffalo, at the foot of lake Erie,
a distance of 1023 m., for vessels having a draught of 20 ft.;
from Buffalo to Kingston, 191 m. farther, the draught is limited,
by the depth in the Welland canal, to 14 ft. ; lake Superior, the
largest and most westerly of the lakes, empties, through the river
St Mary, 55 m. long, into lake Huron. From Point Iroquois,
which may be considered the foot of the lake, to Sault Ste
Marie, St Mary's Falls, St Mary's Rapids or the Soo, as it is
variously called, a distance of 14 m., there is a single channel,
which has been dredged by the United States government, at
points which required deepening, to give a minimum width
of 800 ft. and a depth of 23 ft. at mean stage water. Below the
Sault, the river, on its course to lake Huron, expands into several
lakes, and is divided by islands into numerous contracted
passages. There are two navigated channels; the older one,
following the international boundary-line by way of lake George,
19} ft., the height varying as the lakes change in level. The
enormous growth of inter-lake freight traffic has justified the
construction of three separate locks, each overcoming the rapids
by a single lift — two side by side on the United States and one
on the Canadian side of the river. These locks, the largest in
the world, are all open to Canadian and United States vessels
alike, and are operated free from all taxes or tolls on shipping.
The Canadian ship canal, opened to traffic on the 9th of
September 1895, was constructed through St Mary Island, on
the north side of the rapids, by the Canadian government, at a
cost of $3,684,227, to facilitate traffic and to secure to Canadian
vessels an entrance to lake Superior without entering United
States territory. The canal is 5967 ft. long between the ex-
tremities of the entrance piers, has one lock 900 ft., long and
60 ft. wide, with a depth on the sills at the lowest known water-
level of 2o£ ft. The approaches to the canal are dredged to
18 ft. deep, and are well buoyed and lighted. On the United
States side of the river the length of the canal is 1$ m., the
channel outside the locks having a width varying from 108 to
600 ft. and depth of 25 ft. The locks of 1855 were closed in 1886,
to give place to the Poe lock. The Weitzel lock, opened to
navigation on the 1st of September 1881, was built south of the
old locks, the approach being through the old canal. Its chamber
is 515 ft. long between lock gates, and 80 ft. wide, narrowing
to 60 ft. at the gates. The length of the masonry walls is 7 1 7 ft.,
height 39 J ft., with 17 ft. over mitre sills at mean stage of water.
The Poe lock, built because the Weitzel lock, large and fully
equipped as it is, was insufficient for the rapidly growing traffic,
was opened on the 3rd of August 1896. Its length between gates
is 800 ft.; width 100 ft.; length of masonry walls 1100 ft.;
height 43$ to 45 ft., with 22 ft. on the mitre sill at mean stage.
The expenditure by the United States government on the
canal, with its several locks, and on improving the channel
through the river, aggregated fourteen million dollars up to the
end of 1906. 1 Plans were prepared in 1007 for a third United
States lock with a separate canal approach.
The canals are closed every winter, the average date of opening
up to 1893 being the 1st of May, and of closing the 1st of
December. The pressure of business since that time, aided
possibly by some slight climatic modification, has extended
the season, so that the average date of opening is now ten days
earlier and of closing twelve days later. The earliest opening
was in 1902 on the 1st of April, and the latest closing in 1904 on
the 20th of December.
The table below gives the average yearly commerce for periods
of five years, and serves to show the rapid increase in freight growth.
Around the canals have grown up two thriving towns, one
on the Michigan, the other on the Ontario side of the river, with
manufactories driven by water-power derived from the Sault.
Statement of the commerce through the several Sault Ste Marie canals, averaged for every five years.*
Years.
Pass-
ages.
Registered
Tonnage.
Passen-
gers.
Coal.
Net Tons.
Flour.
Barrels.
Wheat.
Bushels.
Other
Grains.
Bushels.
General
Merchan-
dise.
Net Tons.
Salt.
Barrels.
Iron Ore.
Net Tons.
Lumber.
M.ft.
B.M.
Total
Freight.
Net Tons.
I855-I859 1
1 880-1 884
1885-1889
1 890- 1 894
1895-1899
1 900- 1 904
1906 alone
387
4,457
7.9o8
",965
18,352
19,374
22,155
192,207
2,267,166
4,901,105
9.912,589
18,451,447
26,199,795
41,098,324
6,206
34,607
29,434
24,609
40,289
54.093
63,033
4,672
463431
1,398,441
2,678,805
3,270,842
5,457,019
8,739,630
19,555
681,726
1,838,325
5,764,766
8,319,699
7,021,839
6,495,350
None.
5,435,601
18,438,085
34,875,971
57,227,269
56,269,265
84,271,358
34,612
936,346
1,213,815
1,738,706
23,349,134
26,760,533
54,343,155
2,249
81,966
74,447
87,540
164,426
646,277
1,134,851
1,248
107,225
175,725
231,178
282,156
407,263
468,162
27,206
867,999
2,497,403
4,939,909
10,728,075
20,020,487
35,357,042
320
79,144
197,605
510,482
832,968
999,944
900,631
55,797
2,184,731
5441,297
10,627,349
19,354,974
31,245,565
51,751,080
has a width of 150 to 300 ft., and a depth of 17 ft.; it is buoyed
but not lighted, and is not capable of navigation by modern
large freighters; the other, some 12 m. shorter, an artificial
channel dredged by the United States government in their own
territory, has a minimum width of 300 ft. and depth of 20 ft.
It is elaborately lighted throughout its length. A third channel,
west of all the islands, was designed for steamers bound down,
the older channel being reserved for upbound boats.
Between lake Superior and lake Huron there is a fall of 20 ft.
of which the Sault, in a distance of £ m., absorbs from 18 to
The outlet of lake Michigan, the only lake of the series lying
wholly in United States territory, is at the Strait of Mackinac,
near the point where the river St Mary reaches lake Huron.
With lake Michigan are connected the Chicago Sanitary and
Ship canal, the Illinois and Michigan, and the Illinois and Missis-
sippi canals, for which see Illinois. With lake Huron is always
1 Statistical report of Jake commerce passing through canals. Col.
canals,
• The first five years of operation.
400
GREAT LAKES
included Georgian Bay as well as the channel north of Manitoulin
Island. As it is principally navigated as a connecting waterway
between lakes Superior and Michigan and lake Erie it has no
notable harbours on it. It empties into lake Erie through the
river St Clair, lake St Clair and the river Detroit. On these con-
necting waters are several important manufacturing and shipping
towns, and through this chain passes nearly all the traffic of the
lakes, both that to and from lake Michigan ports, and also that of
lake Superior. The tonnage of a single short season of navigation
exceeds in the aggregate 60,000,000 tons. Extensive dredging
and embankment works have been carried on by the United
States government in lake St Clair and the river Detroit, and a
20-ft. channel now exists, which is being constantly improved.
Lake St Clair is nearly circular, 25 m. in diameter, with the north-
east quadrant filled by the delta of the river St Clair. It has a
very flat bottom with a general depth of only 21 ft., shoaling very
gradually, usually to reed beds that line the low swampy shores.
To enter the lake from river St Clair two channels have been
provided, with retaining walls of cribwork, one for upward, the
other for downward bound vessels. Much dredging has also been
necessary at the outlet of the lake into river Detroit. A critical
point in that river is at Limekiln crossing, a cut dredged through
limestone rock above the Canadian town of Amherstburg. The
normal depth here before improvement was 12J-15 ft.; by a
project of 1002 a channel 600 ft. wide and 21 ft. deep was planned;
there are separate channels for up- and down-bound vessels. To
prevent vessels from crowding together in the cut, the Canadian
government maintains a patrol service here, while the United
States government maintains a similar patrol in the St Mary
channel.
The Grand Trunk railway opened in 1891 a single track
tunnel under the river St Clair, from Sarnia to Port Huron.
It is 6026 ft. long, a cylinder 20 ft. in diameter, lined with
cast iron in flanged sections. A second tunnel was undertaken
between Detroit and Windsor, under the river Detroit.
From Buffalo, at the foot of lake Erie, the river Niagara runs
northwards 36 m. into lake Ontario. To overcome the difference
of 327 ft. in level between lakes Erie and Ontario, the Welland
canal, accommodating vessels of 255 ft. in length, with a draught
of 14 ft., was built, and is maintained by Canada. The Murray
canal extends from Presqu'ile Bay, on the north shore of lake
Ontario, a distance of 6} m., to the headquarters of the Bay of
Quinte. Trent canal is a term applied to a series of water
stretches in the interior of Ontario which are ultimately designed
to connect lake Huron and lake Ontario. At Peterboro a
hydraulic balance-lock with a lift of 65 ft., 140 ft. in length and
33 ft, clear in width, allowing a draught of 8 ft., has been con-
structed. The ordinary locks are 134 by 33 ft. with a draught
of 6 ft. When the whole route of 200 m. is completed, there will
not be more than 15 m. of actual canal, the remaining portion
of the waterway being through lakes and rivers. For the Erie
canal, between that lake and the Hudson river, see Erie and
New York.
The population of the states and provinces bordering on the
Great Lakes is estimated to be over 35,000,000. In Pennsylvania
and Ohio, south of lake Erie, there are large coal-fields. Sur-
rounding lake Michigan and west of lake Superior are vast
grain-growing plains, and the prairies of the Canadian north-
west are rapidly increasing the area and quantity of wheat
grown; while both north and south of lake Superior are the
most extensive iron mines in the world, from which 35 million
tons of ore were shipped in 1906. The natural highway for the
shipment of all these products is the Great Lakes, and over
them coal is distributed westwards and grain and iron ore are
concentrated eastwards. The great quantity of coarse freights,
that could only be profitably carried long distances by water,
has revolutionized the type of vessel used for its transportation,
making large steamers imperative, consolidating interests and
cheapening methods. It is usual for the vessels in the grain
trade and in the iron-ore trade to make their up trips empty;
but in consequence of the admirable facilities provided at
terminal points, they make very fast time, and carry freight very
cheaply. The cost of freight per ton-mile fell from 23/100 cent
in 1887 to 8/100 cent in 1898; since then the rate has slightly
risen, but keeps well below 1/10 cent per ton-mile.
The traffic on the lakes may be divided into three classes,
passenger, package freight and bulk freight. Of passenger
boats the largest are 380 ft. long by 44 ft. beam, having a
speed of over 20 m. an hour, making the round trip between
Buffalo and Chicago 1800 m., or Buffalo and Duluth 2000 m.,
every week. They carry no freight. The Canadian Pacific
railway runs a line of fine Tyne-built passenger and freight
steamers between Owen Sound and Fort William, and these
two lines equal in accommodation transatlantic passenger
steamers. On lake Michigan many fine passenger boats run out
of Chicago, and on lake Ontario there are several large and fast
Canadian steamers on routes radiating from Toronto. The
package freight business, that is, the transportation of goods
in enclosed parcels, is principally local; all the through business
of this description is controlled by lines run by the great trunk
railways, and is done in boats limited in beam to 50 ft. to admit
them through bridges over the rivers at Chicago and Buffalo.
By far the greatest number of vessels on the lakes are bulk
freighters, and the conditions of the service have developed a
special type of vessel. Originally sailing vessels were largely
used, but these have practically disappeared, giving place to
steamers, which have grown steadily in size with every increase
in available draught. In 1894 there was no vessel on the lakes
with a capacity of over 5000 tons; in 1906 there were 254 vessels
of a greater capacity, 12 of them carrying over 12,000 tons each.
For a few years following 1890 many large barges were built,
carrying up to 8000 tons each, intended to be towed by a
steamer. It was found, however, that the time lost by one boat
of the pair having to wait for the other made the plan unprofit-
able and no more were built. Following 1888 some 40 whale-
back steamers and barges, having oval cross-sections without
frames or decks, were built, but experience failed to demonstrate
any advantage in the type, and their construction has ceased.
The modern bulk freighter is a vessel 600 ft. long, 58 ft. beam,
capable of carrying 14,000 tons on 20 ft. draught, built with a
midship section practically rectangular, the coefficient frequently
as high as -98, with about two-thirds of the entire length
absolutely straight, giving a block coefficient up to -87. The
triple-expansion machinery and boilers, designed to drive the
boat at a speed of 12 m. an hour, are in the extreme stern, and
the pilot house and quarters in the extreme bow, leaving all
the cargo space together. Hatches are spaced at multiples
of 12 ft. throughout the length and are made as wide as possible
athwartships to facilitate loading and unloading. The vessels
are built on girder frames and fitted with double bottoms for
strength and water ballast. This type of vessel can be loaded
in a few minutes, and unloaded by self -filling grab buckets up to
ten tons capacity, worked hydraulically, in six or eight hours.
The bulk freight generally follows certain well-defined routes;
iron ore is shipped east from ports on both sides of lake Superior
and on the west side of lake Michigan to rail shipping points
on the south shore of lake Erie. Wheat and other grains from
Duluth find their way to Buffalo, as do wheat, corn (maize)
and other grains from Chicago. Wheat from the Canadian
north-west is distributed from Fort William and Port Arthur
to railway terminals on Georgian Bay, to Buffalo, and to Port
Colborne for trans-shipment to canal barges for Montreal,
and coal is distributed from lake Erie to all western points. The
large shipping trade is assisted by both governments by a system
of aids to navigation that mark every channel and danger.
There are also life-saving stations at all dangerous points.
The Great Lakes never freeze over completely, but the harbours
and often the connecting rivers are closed by ice. The navigable
season at the Sault is about 7} months; in lake Erie it is
somewhat longer. The season of navigation has been slightly
lengthened since 1005, by using powerful tugs as ice-breakers
in the spring and autumn, the Canadian government undertaking
the service at Canadian terminal ports, chiefly at Fort William
and Port Arthur, the most northerly ports, where the season
GREAT MOTHER OF THE GODS
401
is naturally shortest, and the Lake Carriers' Association, a
federation of the freighting steamship owners, acting in the river
St Mary. Car ferries run through the winter across lake Michigan
and the Strait of Mackinac, across the rivers St Clair and Detroit,
and across the middle of lakes Erie and Ontario. The largest
of these steamers is 350 ft. long by 56 ft. wide, draught 14 ft.,
horse power 3500, speed 13 knots. She carries on four tracks 30
freight cars, with 1350 tons of freight. Certain passenger steamers
run on lake Michigan, from Chicago north, all the winter.
The level of the lakes varies gradually, and is affected by the
general character of the season, and not by individual rainfalls.
The variations of level of the several lakes do not necessarily
synchronize. There is an annual fluctuation of about 1 ft. in
the upper lakes, and in some seasons over 2 ft. in the lower
lakes; the lowest point being at the end of winter and the highest
in midsummer. In lake Michigan the level has ranged from a
maximum in the years 1.859, 1876 and 1886, to a minimum
nearly 5 ft. lower in 1896. In lake Ontario there is a range of
5} ft. between the maximum of May 1870 and the minimum of
November 1895. In consequence of the shallowness of lake Erie,
its level is seriously disturbed by a persistent storm; a westerly
gale lowers the water at its upper end exceptionally as much
as 7 ft., seriously interfering with the navigation of the river
Detroit, while an easterly gale produces a similar]effect at Buffalo.
(For physiographical details see articles on the several lakes,
and United States.)
There is geological evidence to show that the whole basin of
the lakes has in recent geological times gradually changed in
level, rising to the north and subsiding southwards; and it is
claimed that the movement is still in gradual progress, the rate
assigned being -42 ft. per 100 m. per century. The maintenance
of the level of the Great Lakes is a matter of great importance
to the large freight boats, which always load to the limit of depth
at critical points in the dredged channels or in the harbours.
Fears have been entertained that the water power canals at
Sault Ste Marie, the drainage canal at Chicago and the dredged
channel in the river Detroit will permanently lower the levels
respectively of lake Superior and of the Michigan-Huron-Erie
group. An international deep-waterway commission exists
for the consideration of this question, and army engineers
appointed by the United States government have worked on the
problem. 1 Wing dams in the rivers St Mary and Niagara, to
retard the discharges, have been proposed as remedial measures.
The Great Lakes are practically tideless, though some observers
claim to find true tidal pulsations, said to amount to 3} in. at
spring tide at Chicago. Secondary undulations of a few minutes
in period, ranging from 1 to 4 in., are well marked.
The Great Lakes are well stocked with fish of commercial
value. These are largely gathered from the fishermen by
steam tenders, and taken fresh or in frozen condition to railway
distributing points. In lakes Superior and Huron salmon-trout
(Salvelinus namaycush, Walb) are commercially most important.
They ordinarily range from 10 to 50 lb in weight, and are often
larger. In Georgian Bay the catches of whitefish (Coregonus
clupeiformis, Mitchill) are enormous. In lake Erie whitefish,
lesser whitefish, erroneously called lake-herring (C. artedi, Le
Sueur), and sturgeon (Acipenser rubicundus, Le Sueur) are the
most common. There is good angling at numerous points on the
lakes and their feeders. The river Nipigon, on the north shore
of lake Superior, is famous as a stream abounding in speckled
trout (Salvelinus fontinalis, Mitchill) of unusual size. Black
bass (Micropterus) are found from Georgian Bay to Montreal, and
the maskinonge (Esox nobilior, Le Sueur), plentiful in the same
waters, is a very game fish that often attains a weight of 70 lb.
Bibliography. — E. Channing and M. F. Lansing, Story of the
Great Lakes (New York, 1909), for an account of the lakes in history ;
and for shipping, &c, J. O. Curwood, The Great Lakes (New York,
1909); U.S. Hydrographic office publication, No 108, "Sailing
directions for the Great Lakes/ 1 Navy Department (Washington,
1901, seqq.); Bulletin No. 17, "Survey of Northern and North-
western Lakes, 1 ' Corps of Engineers, U.S. War Department, U.S.
1 Report of the Chief of Engineers, U.S. Army, in Report of War
Department, U.S. 1898, p. 3776.
Lake Survey Office (Detroit, Mich, 1907)- Annual reports of
Canadian Department of Marine and Fisheries (Ottawa, 1868 seqq.).
(W. P. AO
GREAT MOTHER OF THE GODS, the ancient Oriental-Greek-
Roman deity commonly known as Cybele (q.v.) in Greek and
Latin literature from the time of Pindar. She was also known
under many other names, some of which were derived from
famous places of worship: as Dindymene from Mt. Dindymon,
Mater Idaea from Mt. Ida, Sipylene from Mt. Sipylus, Agdistis
from Mt. Agdistis or Agdus, Mater Phrygia from the greatest
stronghold of her cult; while others were reflections of her
character as a great nature goddess: e.g. Mountain Mother,
Great Mother of the Gods, Mother of all Gods and all Men.
As the great Mother deity whose worship extended throughout
Asia Minor she was known as Ma or Ammas. Cybele is her
favourite name in ancient and modern literature, while Great
Mother of the Gods, or Great Idaean Mother of the Gods (Mater
Deum Magna, Mater Deum Magna Idaea), the most frequently
recurring epigraphical title, was her ordinary official designation.
The legends agree in locating the rise of the worship of the
Great Mother in Asia Minor, in the region of loosely defined
geographical limits which comprised the Phrygian empire of
prehistoric times, and was more extensive than the Roman
province of Phrygia (Diod. Sic. iii. 58; Pans. vii. 17; Arnob.
v. 5; Firm. Mat. De error., 3; Ovid, Fasti, iv. 223 iff.; Sallust.
Phil. De diis el mundo, 4; Jul. Or. v. 165 ff.). Her best-known
early seats of worship were Mt. Ida, Mt. Sipylus, Cyzicus, Sardis
and Pessinus, the last-named city, in Galatia near the borders
of Roman Phrygia, finally becoming the strongest centre of
the cult. She was known to the Romans and Greeks as essenti-
ally Phrygian, and all Phrygia was spoken of as sacred to her
(Schol. Apollon. Rhod. Argonautica, i. 11 26). It is probable,
however, that the Phrygian race, which invaded Asia Minor
from the north in the 9th century B.C., found a great nature
goddess already universally worshipped there, and blended her
with a deity of their own. The Asiatic-Phrygian worship thus
evolved was further modified by contact with the Syrians and
Phoenicians, so that it acquired strong Semitic characteristics.
The Great Mother known to the Greeks and Romans was thus
merely the Phrygian form of the nature deity of all Asia Minor.
From Asia Minor the cult of the Great Mother spread first
to Greek territory. It found its way into Thrace at an early
date, was known in Boeotia by Pindar in the 6th century, and
entered Attica near the beginning of the 4th century (Grant
Showerman, The Great Mother of the Gods, Bulletin of the Univer-
sity of Wisconsin, No. 43, Madison, 1001). At Peiraeus, where
it probably arrived by way of the Aegean islands, it existed
privately in a fully developed state, that is, accompanied by the
worship of Attis, at the beginning of the 4th century, and publicly
two centuries later (D. Comparetti, Annates, 1862, pp. 23 ff.).
The Greeks from the first saw in the Great Mother a resemblance
to their own Rhea, and finally identified the two completely,
though the Asiatic peculiarities of the cult were never universally
popular with them (Showerman, p. 294). In her less Asiatic
aspect, i.e. without Attis, she was sometimes identified with
Gaia and Demeter. It was in this phase that she was worshipped
in the Metrodn at Athens. In reality, the Mother Goddess
appears under three aspects: Rhea, the Homeric and Hesiodic
goddess of Cretan origin; the Phrygian Mother, with Attis;
and the Greek Great Mother, a modified form of the Phrygian
Mother, to be explained as the original goddess of the Phrygians
of Europe, communicated to the Greek stock before the Phrygian
invasion of Asia Minor and consequent mingling with Asiatic
stocks (cf. Showerman, p. 252).
In 204 B.C., in obedience to the Sibylline prophecy which said
that whenever an enemy from abroad should make war on Italy
he could be expelled and conquered if the Idaean Mother were
brought to Rome from Pessinus, the cult of the Great Mother,
together with her sacred symbol, a small meteoric stone reputed
to have fallen from the heavens, was transferred to Rome and
established in a temple on the Palatine (Livy xxix. 10-14).
Her identification by the Romans with Maia, Ops, Rhea, Tellus
402
GREAT MOTHER OF THE GODS
and Ceres contributed to the establishment of her worship on a
firm footing. By the end of the Republic it had attained promin-
ence, and under the Empire it became one of the three most
important cults in the Roman world, the other two being those
of Mithras and Isis. Epigraphic and numismatic evidence
prove it to have penetrated from Rome as a centre to the
remotest provinces (Showerman, pp. 291-293). During the brief
revival of paganism under Eugenius in a.d. 394, occurred the
last appearance of the cult in history. Besides the temple on
the Palatine, there existed minor shrines of the Great Mother near
the present church of St Peter, on the Sacra Via on the north
slope of the Palatine, near the junction of the Almo and the
Tiber, south of the city (ibid. 311-314).
In all her aspects, Roman, Greek and Oriental, the Great
Mother was characterized by essentially the same qualities.
Most prominent among them was her universal motherhood.
She was the great parent of gods and men, as well as of the lower
orders of creation. " The winds, the sea, the earth and the
snowy seat of Olympus are hers, and when from her mountains
she ascends into the great heavens, the son of Cronus himself
gives way before her " (Apollon. Rhod. Argonautica, i. 1098).
She was known as the All-begetter, the All-nourisher, the Mother
of all the Blest. She was the great, fruitful, kindly earth itself.
Especial emphasis was placed upon her maternity over wild
nature. She was called the Mountain Mother; her sanctuaries
were almost invariably upon mountains, and frequently in caves,
the name Cybele itself being by some derived from the latter;
lions were her faithful companions. Her universal power over
the natural world finds beautiful expression in Apollonius
Rhodius, Argonautica, i. 1140 ff. She was also a chaste and
beautiful deity. Her especial affinity with wild nature was
manifested by the orgiastic character of her worship. Her
attendants, the Corybantes, were wild, half demonic beings.
Her priests, the Galli, were eunuchs attired in female garb, with
long hair fragrant with ointment. Together with priestesses,
they celebrated her rites with flutes, horns, castanets, cymbals
and tambourines, madly yelling and dancing until their frenzied
excitement found its culmination in self-scourging, self-laceration
or exhaustion. Self-emasculation sometimes accompanied this
delirium of worship on the part of candidates for the priesthood
(Showerman, pp. 234-239). The Attis of Catullus (lxiii.) is a
brilliant treatment of such an episode.
Though her cult sometimes existed by itself, in its fully
developed state the worship of the Great Mother was accom-
panied by that of Attis (q.v.). The cult of Attis never existed
independently. Like Adonis and Aphrodite, Baal and Astarte,
&c.,the two formed a duality representing the relations of Mother
Nature to the fruits of the earth. There is no positive evidence
to prove the existence of the cult publicly in this phase in Greece
before the 2nd century B.C., nor in Rome before the Empire,
though it may have existed in private (Showerman, " Was Attis
at Rome under the Republic?" in Transactions of the American
Philological Association, vol. 31, 1900, pp. 46-59; Cumont,
s.v. "Attis," De Ruggiero's Dizionario epigrafico and Pauly-
Wissowa's Realencyclop&die, Supplement; Hepding, Attis, seine
My then und seine Kult, Giessen, 1903, p. 142).
The philosophers of the late Roman Empire interpreted the
Attis legend as symbolizing the relations of Mother Earth to her
children the fruits. Porphyrius says that Attis signified the
flowers of spring time, and was cut off in youth because the flower
falls before the fruit (Augustine, De civ. Dei, vii. 25). Maternus
(De error. 3) interprets the love of the Great Mother for Attis
as the love of the earth for her fruits; his emasculation as the
cutting of the fruits; his death as their preservation; and his
resurrection as the sowing of the seed again.
At Rome the immediate direction of the cult of the Great
Mother devolved upon the high priest, Archigallus, called Attis,
a high priestess, Sacerdos Maxima, and its support was derived,
at least in part, from a popular contribution, the slips. Besides
other priests, priestesses and minor officials, such as musicians,
curator, &c, there were certain colleges connected with the
administration of the cult, called cannophori (reed-bearers) and
dendrophori (branch-bearers). The Quindecimvirs exercised a
general supervision over this cult, as over all other authorized
cults, and it was, at least originally, under the special patronage
of a club or sodality (Showerman, pp. 269-276). Roman citizens
were at first forbidden to take part in its ceremonies, and the ban
was not removed until the time of the Empire. P
The main public event in the worship of the Great Mother was
the annual festival, which took place originally on the 4th of
April, and was followed on the 5th by the Megalesia, games
instituted in her honour on the introduction of the cult. Under
the Empire, from Claudius on, the Megalesia lasted six days,
April 4-10, and the original one day of the religious festival
became an annual cycle of festivals extending from the 15th
to the 27th of March, in the following order. (1) The 15th of
March, Canna intrat — the sacrifice of a six-year-old bull in
behalf of the mountain fields, the high priest, a priestess and
the cannophori officiating, the last named carrying reeds in
procession in commemoration of the exposure of the infant
Attis on the reedy banks of the stream Gallus in Phrygia. (This
may have been originally a phallic procession. Cf . Showerman,
American Journal of Philol. xxvii. 1; Classical Journal i. 4.)
(2) The 22nd of March, Arbor intrat — the bearing in procession
of the sacred pine, emblem of Attis' self-mutilation, death and
immortality, to the temple on the Palatine, the symbol of the
Mother's cave, by the dendrophori, a gild of workmen who made
the Mother, among other deities, a patron. (3) The 24th of
March, Dies sanguinis — a day of mourning, fasting and abstin-
ence, especially sexual, commemorating the sorrow of the
Mother for Attis, her abstinence from food and her chastity.
The frenzied dance and self-laceration of the priests in com-
memoration of Attis' deed, and the submission to the act of
consecration by candidates for the priesthood, was a special
feature of the day. The taurobolium (q.v.) was often performed
on this day, on which probably took place the initiation of
mystics. (4) The 25th of March, Hilaria — one of the great
festal days of Rome, celebrated by all the people. All mourning
was put off, and good cheer reigned in token of the return of the
sun and spring, which was symbolized by the renewal of Attis'
life. (5) The 26th of March, Requietio — a day of rest and quiet.
(6) The 27th of March, Lavatio — the crowning ceremony of the
cycle. The silver statue of the goddess, with the sacred meteoric
stone, the Acus, set in its head, was borne in gorgeous procession
and bathed in the Almo, the remainder of the day being given
up to rejoicing and entertainment, especially dramatic repre-
sentation of the legend of the deities of the day. Other cere-
monies, not necessarily connected with the annual festival,
were the taurobolium (q.v.), the sacrifice of a bull, and the crio-
bolium (q.v.), the sacrifice of a ram, the latter being the analogue
of the former, instituted for the purpose of giving Attis special
recognition. The baptism of blood, which was the feature of
these ceremonies, was regarded as purifying and regenerating
(Showerman, Great Mother, pp. 277-284).
The Great Mother figures in the art of all periods both in
Asia and Europe, but is especially prominent in the art of the
Empire. No work of the first class, however, was inspired by
her. She appears on coins, in painting and in all forms of
sculpture, usually with mural crown and veil, well draped, seated
on a throne, and accompanied by two lions. Other attributes
which often appear are the patera, tympanum, cymbals, sceptre,
garlands and fruits. Attis and his attributes, the pine, Phrygian
cap, pedum, syrinx and torch, also appear. The Cybele of
Formia, now at Copenhagen, is one of the most famous repre-
sentations of the goddess. The Niobe of Mt. Sipylus is really the
Mother. In literature she is the subject of frequent mention,
but no work of importance, with the exception of Catullus lxiii.,
is due to her inspiration. Her importance in the history of
religion is very great. Together with Isis and Mithras, she was a
great enemy, and yet a great aid to Christianity. The gorgeous
rites of her worship, its mystic doctrine of communion with
the divine through enthusiasm, its promise of regeneration
through baptism of blood in the taurobolium, were features
which attracted the masses of the people and made it a strong
GREAT REBELUQN
rival of Christianity; and its Resemblance to the new religion,,
however superficial, made it, in spite of the scandalous practices
which grew up around it, a stepping-stone to Christianity when
the tide set in against paganism. .
Authorities. — Grant Showerman, " The Great Mother of the
Gods," Bulletin of the University of Wisconsin, No. 43; Philology
and Literature Series, vol. 1. No. 3 (Madison, 1901) ; Hugo Hepding,
AUis, seine Mylken und seine 1 Knit (Gieseen, 1903); Rapp, Resellers
AusfUkrliches Lexicon dot griechischen und rdmischen Mytkohgie
s.v. Kybele " ; Drexler, ibid. s.v. " Meter." See Roman Religion,
Greek Religion, Attis, Corybantes; for the great " Hittite "
portrayal of the Nature Goddess at Pteria, see Pteria. (G. Sn.)
GREAT REBELLION (1642-52), a generic name for the civil
wars in England and Scotland, which began with the raising of
King Charles I.'s standard at Nottingham on the 22nd of August
1642, and ended with the surrender of Dunottar Castle to the
Parliament's troops in May 1652, It is usual to classify these
wars into the First Civil War of 1642-46, and the Second Civil
War of 1648-52. During most of this time another civil war
was raging in Ireland Its incidents had little or no connexion
with those 01 the Great Rebellion, but its results influenced the
struggle in England to a considerable extent ,
1. First Civil War (1642-46). — It is impossible rightly to under-
stand the events of this most national of all English wars without
some knowledge of the motive forces on both sides. On the side
of the king were enlisted the deep-seated loyalty which was the
result of two centuries of effective royal protection, the pure
cavalier spirit foreshadowing the courtier era of Charles II., but
still strongly tinged with the old feudal indiscipline, the militarism
of an expert soldier nobility, well represented by Prince Rupert,
and lastly a widespread distrust of extreme Puritanism, which
appeared unreasonable to Lord Falkland and other philosophic
statesmen and intolerable to every other class of Royalists.
The foot of the Royal armies was animated in the main by the
first and last of these motives; in the eyes of the sturdy rustics
who followed their squires to the war the enemy were rebels and
fanatics. To the cavalry, which was composed largely of the
higher social orders, the rebels were, in addition, bourgeois, while
the soldiers of fortune from the German wars felt all the regular's
contempt for citizen militia. Thus in the first episodes of the
First Civil War moral superiority tended to be on the side of the
king. On the other side, the causes of the quarrel were primarily
and apparently political, ultimately and really religious, and thus
the elements of resistance in the Parliament and the nation were
at first confused, and, later, strong and direct. Democracy,
moderate republicanism and the simple desire for constitutional
guarantees could hardly make head of themselves against the
various forces of royalism, for the most moderate men of either
party were sufficiently in sympathy to admit compromise. But
the backbone of resistance was the Puritan element, and this
waging war at first with the rest on the political issue soon (as
the Royalists anticipated) brought the religious issue to the front.
The Presbyterian system, even more rigid than that of Laud and
the bishops — whom no man on either side supported save Charles
himself — was destined to be supplanted by the Independents
and their ideal of free conscience, but for a generation before the
war broke out it had disciplined and trained the middle classes of
the nation (who furnished the bulk of the rebel infantry, and later
of the cavalry also) to centre their whole will-power on the attain-
ment of their ideals. The ideals changed during the struggle, but
not the capacity for striving for them, and the men capable of the
effort finally came to the front and imposed their ideals on the
rest by the force of their trained wills.
Material force was throughout on the side of the Parliamentary
party. They controlled the navy, the nucleus of an army which
was in process of being organized for the Irish war, and nearly all
the financial resources of the country. They had the sympathies
of most of the large towns, where the trained bands, drilled once a
month, provided cadres for new regiments. Further, by recogniz-
ing the inevitable, they gained a start in war preparations which
they never lost. The earls of Warwick, Essex and Manchester
and other nobles and gentry of their party possessed great wealth
and territorial influence. Charles, on the other hand, although he
401
could, by means of the *' press " and the lords-lieutenant, raise,
men without authority from Parliament, could not raise taxes to,
support them, and was dependent on the financial support of his;
chief adherents, such as the earls of Newcastle and Derby. Both
parties raised men when and where they could, each claiming that
the law was on its side — for England was already a law-abiding
nation — and acting in virtue of legal instruments. These
were, on the side of the Parliament, its own recent " Militia
Ordinance " ; on that of the king, the old-fashioned " Commissions
of Array." in Cornwall the Royalist leader, Sir Ralph Hop ton,
indicted the enemy before the grand jury of the county as
disturbers of the peace, and had the posse comitates called out to
expel them. The local forces in fact were everywhere employed
by whichever side could, by producing valid written authority,
induce them to assemble.
2 . The Royalist and Parliamentarian Armies.— -This thread
of local feeling and respect for the laws runs through the
earlier operations of both sides almost irrespective of the main
principles at stake. Many a promising scheme failed because
of the reluctance of the militiamen to serve beyond the limits
of their own county, and, as the offensive lay with the
king, his cause naturally suffered far more therefrom than
that of the enemy. But the real spirit of the struggle was
very different. Anything which tended to prolong the struggle,
or seemed like want of energy and avoidance of a decision, was
bitterly resented by the men of both sides, who had their hearts
in the quarrel and had not as yet learned by the severe lesson
of Edgehill that raw armies cannot bring wars to a speedy
issue. In France and Germany the prolongation of a war meant
continued employment for the soldiers, but in England " we
never encamped or entrenched ... or lay fenced with rivers
or defiles. Here were no leaguers in the field, as at the story of
Nuremberg, 1 neither had our soldiers any tents or what they call
heavy baggage. Twas the general maxim of the war — Where is
the enemy? Let us go and fight them. Or ... if the enemy
was coming . . . Why, what should be done 1 Draw out into
the fields and fight them." This passage from the Memoirs of a
Cavalier, ascribed to Defoe, though not contemporary evidence,
is an admirable summary of the character of the Civil War. Even
when in the end a regular professional army is evolved — exactly
as in the case of Napoleon's army — the original decision-compel-
ling spirit permeated the whole organization. From the first the
professional soldiers of fortune, be their advice good or bad, are
looked upon with suspicion, and nearly all those Englishmen who
loved war for its own sake were too closely concerned for the wel-
fare of their country to attempt the methods of the Thirty Years'
War in England. The formal organization of both armies was
based on the Swedish model, which had become the pattern of
Europe after the victories of Gustavus Adolphus, and gave better
scope for the moral of the individual than the old-fashioned
Spanish and Dutch formations in which the man in the ranks was
a highly finished automaton.
3. Campaign of 1642. — When the king raised his standard at
Nottingham on the 22nd of August 1642, tyar was already in pro-
gress on a small scale in many districts, each side endeavouring to
secure, or to deny to the enemy, fortified country-houses, territory,
and above all arms and money. Peace negotiations went on in the
midst of these minor events until there came from the Parliament
an ultimatum so aggressive as to fix the warlike purpose of the
still vacillating court at Nottingham, and, in the country at large,
to convert many thousands of waverers to active Royalism.
Ere long Charles — who had hitherto had less than 1500 men — was
at the head of an army which, though very deficient in arms and
equipment, was not greatly inferior in numbers or enthusiasm to
that of the Parliament. The latter (20,000 strong exclusive of
detachments) was organized during July, August and September
about London, and moved thence to Northampton under the
command of Robert, earl of Essex.
At this moment the military situation was as follows. Lord
Hertford in south Wales, Sir Ralph Hopton in Cornwall, and the
1 Gustavus Adolphus before the battle of the Alte Veste (see
Thirty Years' war).
404
GREAT REBELLION
young earl of Derby in Lancashire, and small parties in almost
every county of the west and the midlands, were in arms for the
king. North of the Tees, the earl of Newcastle, a great territorial
magnate, was raising troops and supplies for the king, while
Queen Henrietta Maria was busy in Holland arranging for the
importation of war material and money. In Yorkshire opinion
was divided, the royal cause being strongest in York and the North
Riding, that of the Parliamentary party in the clothing towns
of the West Riding and also in the important seaport of Hull.
The Yorkshire gentry made an attempt to neutralize the county,
but a local struggle soon began, and Newcastle thereupon
prepared to invade Yorkshire. The whole of the south and east
as well as parts of the midlands and the west and the important
towns of Bristol and Gloucester were on the side of the Parliament.
A small Royalist force was compelled to evacuate Oxford on the
10th of September.
On the 13th of September the main campaign opened. The
king — in order to find recruits amongst his sympathizers and
arms in the armouries of the Derbyshire and Staffordshire
trained bands, and also to be in touch with his disciplined
regiments in Ireland by way of Chester — moved westward to
Shrewsbury, Essex following suit by marching from Northampton
to Worcester. Near the last-named town a sharp cavalry
engagement (Powick Bridge) took place on the 23rd between the
advanced cavalry of Essex's army and a force under Prince
Rupert which was engaged in protecting the retirement of the
Oxford detachment. The result of the fight was the in-
stantaneous overthrow of the rebel cavalry, and this gave the
Royalist troopers a confidence in themselves and in their brilliant
leader which was not destined to be shaken until they met
CromwelFs Ironsides. Rupert soon withdrew to Shrewsbury,
where he found many Royalist officers eager to attack Essex's
new position at Worcester. But the road to London now lay
open and it was decided to take it. The intention was not to
avoid a battle, for the Royalist generals desired to fight Essex
before he grew too strong, and the temper of both sides made it
impossible to postpone the decision; in Clarendon's words,
" it was considered more counsellable to march towards London,
it being morally sure that the earl of Essex would put himself in
their way," and accordingly the army left Shrewsbury on the
1 2th of October, gaining two days' start of the enemy, and
moved south-east via Bridgnorth, Birmingham and Kenilworth.
This had the desired effect. Parliament, alarmed for its own
safety, sent repeated orders to Essex to find the king and bring
him to battle. Alarm gave place to determination when it was
discovered that Charles was enlisting papists and seeking foreign
aid. The militia of the home counties was called out, a second
army under the earl of Warwick was formed round the nucleus
of the London trained bands, and Essex, straining every nerve
to regain touch with the enemy, reached Kineton, where he was
only 7 m. from the king's headquarters at Edgecote, on the 22nd.
4. Battle of EdgehilL — Rupert promptly reported the enemy's
presence, and his confidence dominated the irresolution of the
king and the caution of Lord Lindsey, the nominal commander-
in-chief. Both sides had marched widely dispersed in order to
live, and the rapidity with which, having the clearer purpose,
the Royalists drew together helped considerably to neutralize
Essex's superior numbers. During the morning of the 23rd the
Royalists formed in battle order on the brow of Edgehill facing
towards Kineton. Essex, experienced soldier as he was, had
distrusted his own raw army too much to force a decision
earlier in the month, when the king was weak; he now found
Charles in a strong position with an equal force to his own
14,000, and some of his regiments were still some miles distant.
But he advanced beyond Kineton, and the enemy promptly
left their strong position and came down to the foot of the
hill, for, situated as they were, they had either to fight wherever
they could induce the enemy to engage, or to starve in the
midst of hostile garrisons. Rupert was on the right of the
king's army with the greater part of the horse, Lord Lindsey
and Sir Jacob Astley in the centre with the foot, Lord Wilmot
(with whom rode the earl of Forth, the principal military adviser
of the king) with a smaller body of cavalry on the left. In rear
of the centre were the king and a small reserve. Essex's order
was similar. Rupert charged as soon as his wing was deployed,
and before the infantry of either side was ready. Taking ground
to his right front and then wheeling inwards at full speed he
instantly rode down the Parliamentary horse opposed to him.
Some infantry regiments of Essex's left centre shared the same
fate as their cavalry. On the other wing Forth and Wilmot
likewise swept away all that they could see of the enemy's
cavalry, and the undisciplined Royalists of both wings pursued
the fugitives in wild disorder up to Kineton, where they were
severely handled by John Hampden's infantry brigade (which was
escorting the artillery and baggage of Essex's army). Rupert
brought back only a few rallied squadrons to the battlefield,
and in the meantime affairs there had gone badly for the king.
The right and centre of the Parliamentary foot (the left having
been brought to a halt by Rupert's charge) advanced with great
resolution, and being at least as ardent as, and much better armed
than, Lindsey's men, engaged them fiercely and slowly gained
ground. Only the best regiments on either side, however,
maintained their order, and the decision of the infantry battle
was achieved mainly by a few Parliamentary squadrons. One
regiment of Essex's rightwing onlyhad been the target of Wilmot's
charge, the other two had been at the moment invisible, and, as
every Royalist troop on the ground, even the king's guards,
had joined in the mad ride to Kineton, these, Essex's life-guard,
and some troops that had rallied from the effect of Rupert's
charge — amongst them Captain Oliver Cromwell's — were the
only cavalry still present. All these joined with decisive effect
in the attack on the left of the royal infantry. The king's line
was steadily rolled up from left to right, the Parliamentary
troopers captured his guns and regiment after regiment broke up.
Charles himself stood calmly in the thick of the fight, but he had
not the skill to direct it. The royal standard was taken and
retaken, Lindsey and Sir Edmund Verney, the standard-bearer,
being killed. By the time that Rupert returned both sides were
incapable of further effort and disillusioned as to the prospect
of ending the war at a blow.
On the 24th Essex retired, leaving Charles to claim the victory
and to reap its results. Banbury and Oxford were reoccupied
by the Royalists, and by the 28th Charles was marching down
the Thames valley on London. Negotiations were reopened,
and a peace party rapidly formed itself in London and West-
minster . Yet field fortifications sprang up around London,
and when Rupert stormed and sacked Brentford on the 12th
of November the trained bands moved out at once and took up
a position at Turnham Green, barring the king's advance.
Hampden, with something of the fire and energy of his cousin
Cromwell, urged Essex to turn both flanks of the Royal army
via Acton and Kingston, but experienced professional soldiers
urged him not to trust the London men to hold their ground
while the rest manoeuvred. Hampden's advice was undoubtedly
premature. A Sedan or Worcester was not within the power
of the Parliamentarians of 1642, for, in Napoleon's words, " one
only manoeuvres around a fixed point," and the city levies at
that time were certainly not, vis-d-vis Rupert's cavalry, a fixed
point As a matter of fact, after a slight cannonade at Turnham
Green on the 13th, Essex's two-to-one numerical superiority of
itself compelled the king to retire to Reading. Turnham Green
has justly been called the Valmy of the English Civil War. Like
Valmy, without being a battle, it was a victory, and the tide of
invasion came thus far, ebbed, and never returned
5. The Winter of 1642-43, — In the winter, while Essex lay
inactive at Windsor, Charles by degrees consolidated his position
in the region of Oxford. The city was fortified as a reduit for
the whole area, and Reading, Wallingford, Abingdon, Brill,
Banbury and Marlborough constituted a complete defensive
ring which was developed by the creation of smaller posts from
time to time. In the north and west, winter campaigns were
actively carried on. " It is summer in Yorkshire, summer in
Devon, and cold winter at Windsor," said one of Essex's critics.
At the beginning of December Newcastle crossed the Tees,
GREAT REBELLION
405
defeated Hotham, the Parliamentary commander in the North
Riding, then joining hands with the hard-pressed Royalists at
York, established himself between that city and Pontefract.
Lord Fairfax and his son Sir Thomas, who commanded for the
Parliament in Yorkshire, had to retire to the district between
Hull and Selby, and Newcastle was free to turn his attention
to the Puritan " clothing towns " of the West Riding — Leeds,
Halifax and Bradford. The townsmen, however, showed a
determined front, the younger Fairfax with a picked body of
cavalry rode through Newcastle's lines into the West Riding
to help them, and about the end of January 1643 the earl gave
up the attempt to reduce the towns. He continued his march
southward, however, and gained ground for the king as far as
Newark, so as to be in touch with the Royalists of Nottingham-
shire, Derbyshire and Leicestershire (who, especially about
Newark and Ashby-de-la-Zouch, were strong enough to neutralize
the local forces of the Parliament), and to prepare the way for
the further advance of the army of the north when the queen's
convoy should arrive from over-seas.
In the west Sir Ralph Hopton and his friends, having obtained
a true bill from the grand jury against the Parliamentary dis-
turbers of the peace, placed themselves at the head of the county
militia and drove the rebels from Cornwall, after which they
raised a small force for general service and invaded Devonshire
(November 1642). Subsequently a Parliamentary army under
the earl of Stamford was withdrawn from south Wales to engage
Hopton, who had to retire into Cornwall. There, however,
the Royalist general was free to employ the militia again, and
thus reinforced he won a victory over a part of Stamford's forces
at Bradock Down near Liskeard (January 19, 1643) and resumed
the offensive. About the same time Hertford, no longer opposed
by Stamford, brought over the South Wales Royalists to Oxford,
and the fortified area around that place was widened by the
capture of Cirencester on the 2nd of February. Gloucester and
Bristol were now the only important garrisons of the Roundheads
in the west. In the midlands, in spite of a Parliamentary
victory won by Sir William Brereton at Nantwich on the 28th of
January, the Royalists of Shropshire, Staffordshire and Leicester-
shire soon extended their influence through Ashby-de-la-Zouch
into Nottinghamshire and joined hands with their friends at
Newark. Further, around Chester a new Royalist army was
being formed under Lord Byron, and all the efforts of Brereton
and of Sir John Gell, the leading supporter of the Parliament in
Derbyshire, were required to hold their own, even before New-
castle's army was added to the list of their enemies. Lord
Brooke, who commanded for the Parliament in Warwickshire
and Staffordshire and was looked on by many as Essex's eventual
successor, was killed in besieging Lichfield cathedral on the
2nd of March, and, though the cathedral soon capitulated, Gell
and Brereton were severely handled in the indecisive battle of
Hopton Heath near Stafford on the 19th of March, and Prince
Rupert, after an abortive raid on Bristol (March 7), marched
rapidly northward, storming Birmingham en route, and recap-
tured Lichfield cathedral. He was, however, soon recalled
to Oxford to take part in the main campaign. The position of
affairs for the Parliament was perhaps at its worst in January.
The Royalist successes of November and December, the ever-
present dread of foreign intervention, and the burden of new
taxation which the Parliament now found itself compelled to
impose, disheartened its supporters. Disorders broke out in
London, and, while the more determined of the rebels began
thus early to think of calling in the military assistance of the
Scots, the majority were for peace on any conditions. But soon
the position improved somewhat; Stamford in the west and
Brereton and Gell in the midlands, though hard pressed, were
at any rate in arms and undefeated, Newcastle had failed to
conquer the West Riding, and Sir William Waller, who had
cleared Hampshire and Wiltshire of " malignants," entered
Gloucestershire early in March, destroyed a small Royalist
force at Highnam (March 24), and secured Bristol and Gloucester
for the Parliament . Finally, some of Charles's own intrigues
opportunely coming to light, the waverers, seeing the impossi-
bility of plain dealing with the court, rallied again to the party
of resistance, and the series of negotiations called by the name
of the Treaty of Oxford closed in April with no more result than
those which had preceded Edgehill and Turnham Green. About
this time too, following and improving upon the example of
Newcastle in the north, Parliament ordered the formation of
the celebrated " associations " or groups of counties banded
together by mutual consent for defence. The most powerful
and best organized of these was that of the eastern counties
(headquarters Cambridge), where the danger of attack from the
north was near enough to induce great energy in the preparations
for meeting it, and at the same time too distant effectively to
interfere with these preparations. Above all, the Eastern
Association was from the first guided and inspired by Colonel
Cromwell.
6. The Plan of Campaign, 1643. — The king's plan of operations
for the next campaign, which was perhaps inspired from abroad,
was more elaborate than the simple "point" of 1642. The
king's army, based on the fortified area around Oxford, was
counted sufficient to use up Essex's forces. On either hand,
therefore, in Yorkshire and in the west, the Royalist armies
were to fight their way inwards towards London, after which
all three armies, converging on that place in due season, were
to cut off its supplies and its sea-borne revenue and to starve
the rebellion into surrender. The condition of this threefold
advance was of course that the enemy should not be able to
defeat the armies in detail, i.e. that he should be fixed and held
in the Thames valley; this secured, there was no purely military
objection against operating in separate armies from the cir-
cumference towards the centre. It was on the rock of local
feeling that the king's plan came to grief. Even after the arrival
of the queen and her convoy , Newcastle had to allow her to
proceed with a small force, and to remain behind with the main
body, because of Lancashire and the West Riding, and above
all because the port of Hull, in the hands of the Fairfaxes,
constituted a menace that the Royalists of the East Riding
refused to ignore. Hopton's advance too, undertaken without
the Cornish levies, was checked in the action of Sourton Down
(Dartmoor) on the 25th of April, and on the same day Waller
captured Hereford. Essex had already left Windsor to under-
take the siege of Reading, the most important point in the circle
of fortresses round Oxford, which after a vain attempt at relief
surrendered to him on the 26th of April, Thus the opening
operations were unfavourable, not indeed so far as to require
the scheme to be abandoned, but at least delaying the develop-
ment until the campaigning season was far advanced.
7. Victories of Hopton. — But affairs improved in May. The
queen's long-expected convoy arrived at Woodstock on the 13th.
The earl of Stamford's army, which had again entered Cornwall,
was attacked in its selected position at Stratton and practically
annihilated by Hopton (May 16). This brilliant victory was
due above all to Sir Bevil Grenville and the lithe Cornishmen,
who, though but 2400 against 5400 and destitute of artillery,
stormed " Stamford Hill, " killed 300 of the enemy, and captured
1700 more with all their guns, colours and baggage. Devon
was at once overrun by the victors. Essex's army, for want of
material resources, had had to be content with the capture of
Reading, and a Royalist force under Hertford and Prince
Maurice (Rupert's brother) moved out as far as Salisbury to
hold out a hand to their friends in Devonshire, while Waller,
the only Parliamentary commander left in the field in the west,
had to abandon his conquests in the Severn valley to oppose
the further progress of his intimate friend and present enemy,
Hopton. Early in June Hertford and Hopton united at Chard
and rapidly moved, with some cavalry skirmishing, towards Bath,
where Waller's army lay. Avoiding the barrier of the Mendips,
they moved round via Frome to the Avon. But Waller, thus
cut off from London and threatened with investment, acted
with great skill, and some days of manoeuvres and skirmishing
followed, after which Hertford and Hopton found themselves
on the north side of Bath facing Waller's entrenched position
on the top of Lansdown Hill. This position the Royalists
40.6
GREAT REBELLION
stormed on the 5th of July. The battle of Lansdown was a
second Stratton for the Cornishmen, but this time the enemy
was of different quality and far differently led, and they had to
mourn the loss of Sir Bevil Grenville and the greater part of
their whole force. At dusk both sides stood on the flat summit
of the hill) still firing into one another with such energy as was
not yet expended, and in the night Waller drew off his men into
Bath. " We were glad they were gone," wrote a Royalist
officer, " for if they had not, I know who had within the hour."
Next day Hopton was severely injured by the explosion of a wagon
containing the reserve ammunition, and the Royalists, finding
their victory profitless, moved eastward to Devizes, closely
followed by the enemy. On the 10th of July Sir William Waller
took post on Roundway Down, overlooking Devizes, and cap-
tured a Royalist ammunition column from Oxford. On the nth
he came down and invested Hopton's foot in Devizes itself,
while the Royalist cavalry, Hertford and Maurice with them,
rode away towards Salisbury. But although the siege was pressed
with such vigour that an assault was fixed for the evening of the
13th, the Cornishmen, Hopton directing the defence from his
bed, held out stubbornly, and on the afternoon of July 13th
Prince Maurice's horsemen appeared on Roundway Down,
having ridden to Oxford, picked up reinforcements there, and
returned at full speed to save their comrades. Waller's army
tried its best, but some of its elements were of doubtful quality
and the ground was all in Maurice's favour. The battle did not
last long. The combined attack of the Oxford force from
Roundway and of Hopton's men from the town practically
annihilated Waller's army. Very soon afterwards Rupert came
up with fresh Royalist forces, and the combined armies moved
westward. Bristol, the second port of the kingdom, was their
objective, and in four days from the opening of the siege it was
in their hands (July 26), Waller with the beaten remnant of his
army at Bath being powerless to intervene. The effect of this
blow was felt even in Dorsetshire. Within three weeks of the
surrender Prince Maurice with a body of fast-moving cavalry
overran that county almost unopposed.
8. Adwalton Moor. — Newcastle meanwhile had resumed opera-
tions against the clothing towns, this time with success. The
Fairfaxes had been fighting in the West Riding since January
with such troops from the Hull region as they had been able to
bring across Newcastle's lines. They and the townsmen together
were too weak for Newcastle's increasing forces, and an attempt
was made to relieve them by bringing up the Parliament's
forces in Nottinghamshire, Derbyshire, Lincolnshire and the
Eastern Association. But local interests prevailed again, in
spite of Cromwell's presence, and after assembling at Notting-
ham, the midland rebels quietly dispersed to their several
counties (June 2). The Fairfaxes were left to their fate, and
about the same time Hull itself narrowly escaped capture by the
queen's forces through the treachery of Sir John Hot ham, the
governor, and his son, the commander of the Lincolnshire Parlia-
mentarians. The latter had been placed under arrest at the
instance of Cromwell and of Colonel Hutchinson, the governor
of Nottingham Castle; he escaped to Hull, but both father and
son were seized by the citizens and afterwards executed. More
serious than an isolated act of treachery was the far-reaching
Royalist plot that had been detected in Parliament itself, for
complicity in which Lord Conway, Edmund Waller the poet,
and several members of both Houses were arrested. The safety
of Hull was of no avail for the West Riding towns, and the
Fairfaxes underwent a decisive defeat at Adwalton (Atherton)
Moor near Bradford on the 30th of June. After this, by way
of Lincolnshire, they escaped to Hull and reorganized the
defence of that place. The West Riding perforce submitted.
The queen herself with a second convoy and a small army
under Henry (Lord) Jermyn soon moved via Newark, Ashby-
de-la-Zouch, Lichfield and other Royalist • garrisons to Oxford,
where she joined her husband on the 14th of July. But New-
castle (now a marquis) was not yet ready for his part in the
programme. The Yorkshire troops would not march on London
while the enemy was master of Hull, and by this time there was
a solid barrier between the royal army of the north and th^
capital. Roundway Down and Adwalton Moor were not after
all destined to be fatal, though peace riots in London, dissension*
in the Houses, and quarrels amongst the generals were their
immediate consequences. A new factor had arisen in the war —
the Eastern Association.
9. Cromwell and the Eastern Association. — This had already
intervened to help in the siege of Reading and had sent troops
to the abortive gathering at Nottingham, besides clearing its
own ground of " malignants." From the first Cromwell was the
dominant influence. Fresh from[Edgehill, he had told Hampden,
"You must get men of a spirit that is likely to go as far as
gentlemen will go," not "old decayed serving-men, tapsters
and such kind of fellows to encounter gentlemen that have
honour and courage and resolution in them," and in January
1643 he had gone to his own county to " raise such men as had
the fear of God before them and made some conscience of what
they did." These men, once found, were willing, for the cause,
to submit to a rigorous training and an iron discipline such as
other troops, fighting for honour only or for profit only, could
not be brought to endure. 1 The result was soon apparent.
As early as the 13th of May, Cromwell's regiment of horse —
recruited from the horse-loving yeomen of the eastern counties —
demonstrated its superiority in the field in a skirmish near
Grantham, and in the irregular fighting in Lincolnshire during
June and July (which was on the whole unfavourable to the
Parliament), as previously in pacifying the Eastern Association
itself, these Puritan troopers distinguished themselves by long
and rapid marches that may bear comparison with almost any
in the history of the mounted arm. When Cromwell's second
opportunity came at Gainsborough on the 28th of July, the
" Lincolneer " horse who were under his orders were fired by
the example of Cromwell's own regiment, and Cromwell, directing
the whole with skill, and above all with energy, utterly routed
the Royalist horse and killed their general, Charles Cavendish.
In the meantime the army of Essex had been inactive. After
the fall of Reading a serious epidemic of sickness had reduced
it to impotence. On the 18th of June the Parliamentary
cavalry was routed and John Hampden mortally wounded at
Chalgrove Field near Chiselhampton , and when at last Essex,
having obtained the desired reinforcements, moved against
Oxford from the Aylesbury side, he found his men demoralized
by inaction, and before the menace of Rupert's cavalry, to which
he had nothing to oppose, he withdrew to Bedfordshire (July).
He made no attempt to intercept the march of the queen's
convoys, he had permitted the Oxford army, which he should
have held fast, to intervene effectually in the midlands, the west,
and the south-west, and Waller might well complain that Essex,
who still held Reading and the Chilterns, had given him neither
active nor passive support in the critical days preceding Round-
way Down. Still only a few voices were raised to demand his
removal, and he was shortly to have an opportunity of proving
his skill and devotion in a great campaign and a great battle.
The centre and the right of the three. Royalist armies had for a
moment (Roundway to Bristol) united to crush Waller, but
their concentration was short-lived. Plymouth was to Hopton's
men what Hull was to Newcastle's — they would hot march on
London until the menace to their homes was removed. Further,
there were dissensions among the generals which Charles was too
weak to crush, and consequently the original plan reappears —
the main Royalist army to operate in the centre, Hopton's (now
Maurice's ) on the right, Newcastle on the left towards London.
While waiting for the fall of Hull and Plymouth, Charles naturally
decided to make the best use of his time by reducing Gloucester,
the one great fortress of the Parliament in the west.
10. Siege and Relief of Gloucester. — This decision quickly
brought on a crisis. While the earl of Manchester (with Cromwell
as his lieutenant-general) was appointed to head the forces of
the Eastern Association against Newcastle, and Waller was
1 " Making"not money but that which they took to be the public
felicity to be their end they were the more engaged to be valiant "
(Baxter).
GREAT REBELLION
407
given a new army wherewith again to engage Hopton and
Maurice, the task of saving Gloucester from the king's army fell
to Essex, who was heavily reinforced and drew his army together
for action in the last days of August. Resort was had to the
press-gang to fill the ranks, recruiting for Waller's new army
was stopped, and London sent six regiments of trained bands
to the front, closing the shops so that every man should be free
to take his part in what was thought to be the supreme trial
of strength.
On the 26th, all being ready, Essex started. Through Ayles-
bury and round the north side of Oxford to Stow-on-the-Wold
the army moved resolutely, not deterred by want of food and
rest, or by the attacks of Rupert's and Wilmot's horse on its
flank. On the 5th of September, just as Gloucester was at
the end of its resources, the siege was suddenly raised and the
Royalists drew off to Painswick, for Essex had reached Chelten-
ham and the danger was over. Then, the field armies being
again face to face and free to move, there followed a series of
skilful manoeuvres in the Severn and Avon valleys, at the end
of which the Parliamentary army gained a long start on its
homeward road via Cricklade, Hungerford and Reading. But
the Royalist cavalry under Rupert, followed rapidly by Charles
and the main body from Evesham, strained every nerve to
head off Essex at Newbury, and after a sharp skirmish on
Aldbourne Chase on the 18th of September succeeded in doing
so. On the 19th the whole Royal army was drawn up, facing
west, with its right on Newbury and its left on Enborne Heath.
Essex's men knew that evening that they would have to break
through by force — there was no suggestion of surrender.
11. First Battle of Newbury, September 20 , 1643. — The ground
was densely intersected by hedges except in front of the Royalists'
left centre (Newbury Wash) and left (Enborne Heath), and,
practically, Essex's army was never formed in line of battle,
for each unit was thrown into the fight as it came up its own
road or lane. On the left wing, in spite of the Royalist counter-
strokes, the attack had the best of it, capturing field after field,
and thus gradually gaining ground to the front. Here Lord
Falkland was killed. On the Reading road itself Essex did not
succeed in deploying on to the open ground on Newbury Wash,
but victoriously repelled the royal horse when it charged up to
the lanes and hedges held by his foot. On the extreme right
of the Parliamentary army, which stood in the open ground of
Enborne Heath, took place a famous incident. Here two of the
London regiments, fresh to war as they were, were exposed to a
trial as severe as that which broke down the veteran Spanish
infantry at Rocroi in this same year. Rupert and the Royalist
horse again and again charged up to the squares of pikes, and
between each charge his guns tried to disorder the Londoners, but
it was not until the advance of the royal infantry that the trained
bands retired, slowly and in magnificent order, to the edge of the
heath . The result of it all was that Essex's army had fought
its hardest and failed to break the opposing line. But the
Royalists had suffered so heavily, and above all the valour
displayed by the rebels had so profoundly impressed them, that
they were glad to give up the disputed road and withdraw into
Newbury. Essex thereupon pursued his march, Reading was
reached on the 22nd after a small rearguard skirmish at Alder-
maston, and so ended one of the most dramatic episodes of
English history.
12. Hull and Winceby. — Meanwhile the siege of Hull had
commenced. The Eastern Association forces under Manchester
promptly moved up into Lincolnshire, the foot besieging Lynn
(which surrendered on the 16th of September) while the horse
rode into the northern part of the county to give a hand to the
Fairfaxes. Fortunately the sea communications of Hull were
open. On the 18th of September part of the cavalry in Hull
was ferried over to Barton, and the rest under Sir Thomas
Fairfax went by sea to Saltfleet a few days later, the whole
joining Cromwell near Spilsby. In return the old Lord Fairfax,
who remained in Hull, received infantry reinforcements and
a quantity of ammunition and stores from the Eastern Associa-
tion. On the nth of October Cromwell and Fairfax together
won a brilliant cavalry action at Winceby, driving the Royalist
horse in confusion before them to Newark, and on the same day
Newcastle's army around Hull, which had suffered terribly
from the hardships of continuous siege work, was attacked
by the garrison and so severely handed that next day the
siege was given up. Later, Manchester retook Lincoln and
Gainsborough, and thus Lincolnshire, which had been almost
entirely in Newcastle's hands before he was compelled to under-
take the siege of Hull, was added in fact as well as in name to the
Eastern Association.
Elsewhere, in the reaction after the crisis of Newbury, the
war languished. The city regiments went home, leaving Essex
too weak to hold Reading, which the Royalists reoccupied on the
3rd of October. At this the Londoners offered to serve again,
and actually took part in a minor campaign around Newport
Pagnell, which town Rupert attempted to fortify as a menace
to the Eastern Association and its communications with London.
Essex was successful in preventing this, but his London regiments
again went home, and Sir William Waller's new army in
Hampshire failed lamentably in an attempt on Basing House
(November 7), the London trained bands deserting en bloc.
Shortly afterwards Arundel surrendered to a force under Sir
Ralph, now Lord Hopton (December 9).
13. The " Irish Cessation " and the Solemn League and
Covenant. — Politically, these months were the turning-point of
the war. In Ireland, the king's lieutenant, by order of his
master, made a truce with the Irish rebels (Sept. 15). Charles's
chief object was to set free his army to fight in England, but it
was believed universally that Irish regiments — in plain words,
papists in arms — would shortly follow. Under these cir-
cumstances his act united against him nearly every class in
Protestant England, above all brought into the English quarrel
the armed strength of Presbyterian Scotland. Yet Charles,
still trusting to intrigue and diplomacy to keep Scotland in
check, deliberately rejected the advice of Montrose, his greatest
and most faithful lieutenant, who wished to give the Scots
employment for their army at home. Only ten days after the
" Irish cessation," the Parliament at Westminster swore to the
Solemn League and Covenant, and the die was cast. It is true
that even a semblance of Presbyterian theocracy put the
" Independents " on their guard and definitely raised the question
of freedom of conscience, and that secret negotiations were
opened between the Independents and Charles on that basis,
but they soon discovered that the king was merely using them
as instruments to bring about the betrayal of Aylesbury and
other small rebel posts. All parties found it convenient to inter-
pret the Covenant liberally for the present, and at the beginning
of 1644 the Parliamentary party showed so united a front that
even Pym's death (December 8, 1643) hardly affected its resolu-
tion to continue the struggle.
The troops from Ireland, thus obtained at the cost of an
enormous political blunder, proved to be untrustworthy after all.
Those serving in Hopton's army were " mutinous and shrewdly
infected with the rebellious humour of England. " When Waller's
Londoners surprised 1 and routed a Royalist detachment at
Alton (December 13, 1643), half the prisoners took the Covenant.
Hopton had to retire, and on the 6th of January 1644 Waller
recaptured Arundel. Byron's Cheshire army was in no better
case. Newcastle's retreat from Hull and the loss of Gainsborough
had completely changed the situation in the midlands, Brereton
was joined by the younger Fairfax from Lincolnshire, and the
Royalists were severely defeated for a second time at Nantwich
(January 25). As at Alton, the majority of the prisoners
(amongst them Colonel George Monk) took the Covenant and
entered the Parliamentary army. In Lancashire, as in Cheshire,
Staffordshire, Nottinghamshire and Lincolnshire, the cause ot
the Parliament was in the ascendant. Resistance revived in the
West Riding towns, Lord Fairfax was again in the field in the
1 For the third time within the year the London trained bands
turned out in force. It was characteristic of the early years of the
war that imminent danger alone called forth the devotion of the
citizen soldier. If he was employed in ordinary times {e.g. at Basing
House) he would neither fight nor march with spirit.
408
GREAT REBELLION
East Riding, and even Newark was closely besieged by Sir
John Meldrum. More important news came in from the north.
The advanced guard of the Scottish army had passed the Tweed
on the 19th of January, and the marquis of Newcastle with the
remnant of his army would soon be attacked in front and rear
at once.
14. Newark and Cheriton {March 1644), — As in 1643, Rupert
was soon on his way to the north to retrieve the fortunes of his
side. Moving by the Welsh border, and gathering up garrisons
and recruits snowball-wise as he marched, he went first to
Cheshire to give a hand to Byron, and then, with the utmost
speed, he made for Newark. On the 20th of March 1644 he
bivouacked at Bingham, and on the 21st he not only relieved
Newark but routed the besiegers' cavalry. On the 22nd
Meldrum 's position was so hopeless that he capitulated on terms.
But, brilliant soldier as he was, the prince was unable to do more
than raid a few Parliamentary posts around Lincoln, after
which he had to return his borrowed forces to their various
garrisons and go back to Wales — laden indeed with captured
pikes and muskets — to raise a permanent field army. But
Rupert could not be in all places at once. Newcastle was
clamorous for aid. In Lancashire, only the countess of Derby,
in Lathom House, held out for the king, and her husband
pressed Rupert to go to her relief. Once, too, the prince was
ordered back to Oxford to furnish a travelling escort for the
queen, who shortly after this gave birth to her youngest child
and returned to France. The order was countermanded within
a few hours, it is true, but Charles had good reason for avoiding
detachments from his own army. On the 29th of March, Hopton
had undergone a severe defeat at Cheriton near New Alresford.
In the preliminary manoeuvres and in the opening stages of the
battle the advantage lay with the Royalists, and the earl of
Forth, who waspresent,was satisfied with what had been achieved
and tried to break off the action. But Royalist indiscipline
ruined everything. A young cavalry colonel charged in defiance
of orders, a fresh engagement opened, and at the last moment
Waller snatched a victory out of defeat. Worse than this was
the news from Yorkshire and Scotland. Charles had at last
assented to Montrose's plan and promised him the title of
marquis, but the first attempt to raise the Royalist standard in
Scotland gave no omen of its later triumphs. In Yorkshire
Sir Thomas Fairfax, advancing from Lancashire through the
West Riding, joined his father. Selby was stormed on the nth
of April, and thereupon Newcastle, who had been manoeuvring
against the Scots in Durham, hastily drew back, sent his cavalry
away, and shut himself up with his foot in York. Two days
later the Scottish general, Alexander Leslie, Lord Leven, joined
the Fairfaxes and prepared to invest that city.
15. Plans of Campaign for 1644. — The original plan of the
Parliamentary "Committee of Both Kingdoms," which directed
the military and civil policy of the allies after the fashion of a
modern cabinet, was to combine Essex's and Manchester's
armies in an attack upon the king's army, Aylesbury being
appointed as the place of concentration. Waller's troops were
to continue to drive back Hopton and to reconquer the west,
Fairfax and the Scots to invest Newcastle's army, while in the
midlands Brereton and the Lincolnshire rebels could be counted
upon to neutralize, the one Byron, the others the Newark
Royalists. But Waller, once more deserted by his trained bands,
was unable to profit by his victory of Cheriton, and retired to
Farnham. Manchester, too, was delayed because the Eastern
Association was still suffering from the effects of Rupert's
Newark exploit — Lincoln, abandoned by the rebels on that
occasion, was not reoccupied till the 6th of May. Moreover,
Essex found himself compelled to defend his conduct and
motives to the Committee of Both Kingdoms, and as usual was
straitened for men and money. But though there were grave
elements of weakness on the other side, the Royalists considered
their own position to be hopeless. Prince Maurice was engaged
in the fruitless siege of Lyme Regis, Gloucester was again a
centre of activity and counterbalanced Newark, and the situation
in the north was practically desperate. Rupert himself came
to Oxford (April 25) to urge that his new army should be kept
free to march to aid Newcastle, who was now threatened — owing
to the abandonment of the enemy's original plan — by Manchester
as well as Fairfax and Leven. There was no further talk of the
concentric advance of three armies on London. The fiery
prince and the methodical earl of Brentford (Forth) were at
one at least in recommending that the Oxford area with its
own garrison and a mobile force in addition should be the pivot
of the field armies' operations. Rupert, needing above all ade-
quate time for the development of the northern offensive, was not
in favour of abandoning any of the barriers to Essex's advance.
Brentford, on the other hand, thought it advisable to contract
the lines of defence, and Charles, as usual undecided, agreed
to Rupert's scheme and executed Brentford's. Reading, there-
fore, was dismantled early in May, and Abingdon given up shortly
afterwards.
16. Cropredy Bridge. — It was now possible for the enemy to
approach Oxford, and Abingdon was no sooner evacuated than
(May 26) Waller's and Essex's armies united there — still, un-
fortunately for their cause, under separate commanders. From
Abingdon Essex moved direct on Oxford, Waller towards
Wantage, where he could give a hand to Massey, the energetic
governor of Gloucester. Affairs seemed so bad in the west
(Maurice with a whole army was still vainly besieging the single
line of low breastworks that constituted the fortress of Lyme)
that the king despatched Hopton to take charge of Bristol.
Nor were things much better at Oxford; the barriers of time
and space and the supply area had been deliberately given up
to the enemy, and Charles was practically forced to undertake
extensive field operations with no hope of success save in con-
sequence of the enemy's mistakes. The enemy, as it happened,
did not disappoint him. The king, probably advised by Brent-
ford, conducted a skilful war of manoeuvre in the area defined
by Stourbridge, Gloucester, Abingdon and Northampton, at the
end of which Essex, leaving Waller to the secondary work, as he
conceived it, of keeping the king away from Oxford and reducing
that fortress, marched off into the west with most of the general
service troops to repeat at Lyme Regis his Gloucester exploit
of 1643. At one moment, indeed, Charles (then in Bewdley)
rose to the idea of marching north to join Rupert and Newcastle,
but he soon made up his mind to return to Oxford. From
Bewdley, therefore, he moved to Buckingham — the distant
threat on London producing another evanescent citizen army
drawn from six counties under Major-General Browne — and
Waller followed him closely. When the king turned upon
Browne's motley host, Waller appeared in time to avert disaster,
and the two armies worked away to the upper Cherwell. Brent-
ford and Waller were excellent strategists of the 17 th century
type, and neither would fight a pitched battle without every
chance in his favour. Eventually on the 29th of June the
Royalists were successful in a series of minor fights about
Cropredy Bridge, and the result was, in accordance with con-
tinental custom, admitted to be an important victory, though
Waller's main army drew off unharmed. In the meantime,
Essex had relieved Lyme (June 15) and occupied Weymouth,
and was preparing to go farther. The two rebel armies were
now indeed separate. Waller had been left to do as best he could,
and a worse fate was soon to overtake the cautious earl.
17. Campaign of Mars ton Moor. — During these manoeuvres
the northern campaign had been fought to an issue. Rupert's
courage and energy were more likely to command success in the
English Civil War than all the conscientious caution of an Essex
or a Brentford. On the 16th of May he left Shrewsbury to fight
his way through hostile country to Lancashire, where he hoped
to re-establish the Derby influence and raise new forces. Stock-
port was plundered on the 25th, the besiegers of Lathom House
utterly defeated at Bolton on the 28th. Soon afterwards he
received a large reinforcement under General Goring, which
included 5000 of Newcastle's cavalry. The capture of the
almost defenceless town of Liverpool — undertaken as usual to
allay local fears — did not delay Rupert more than three or four
days , and he then turned towards the Yorkshire border with
GREAT REBELLION
409
greatly augmented forces. On the 14th of June he received a
despatch from the king, the gist of which was that there was a
time-limit imposed on the northern enterprise. If York were lost
or did not need his help, Rupert was to make all haste southward
via Worcester. " If York be relieved and you beat the rebels ,
armies of both kingdoms, then, but otherways not, I may possibly
make a shift upon the defensive to spin out time until you come
to assist me/'
Charles did manage to " spin out time." But it was of capital
importance that Rupert had to do his work upon York and
the allied army in the shortest possible time, and that, according
to the despatch, there were only two ways of saving the royal
cause, " having relieved York by beating the Scots," or marching
with all speed to Worcester. Rupert's duty, interpreted through
the medium of his temperament, was clear enough. Newcastle
still held out, his men having been encouraged by a small success
on the 17th of June, and Rupert reached Knaresborough on
the 30th. At once Leven, Fairfax and Manchester broke up
the siege of York and moved out to meet him. But the prince,
moving still at high speed, rode round their right flank via
Boroughbridge and Thornton Bridge and entered York on the
north side. Newcastle tried to dissuade Rupert from fighting,
but his record as a general was scarcely convincing as to the
value of his advice. Rupert curtly replied that he had orders to
fight, and the Royalists moved out towards Marston Moor
(q.v.) on the morning of July 2, 1644. The Parliamentary
commanders, fearing a fresh manoeuvre, had already begun to
retire towards Tadcaster, but as soon as it became evident that
a battle was impending they turned back. The battle of Marston
Moor began about four in the afternoon. It was the first real
trial of strength between the best elements on either side, and it
ended before night with the complete victory of the Parliamentary
armies. The Royalist cause in the north collapsed once for all,
Newcastle fled to the continent, and only Rupert, resolute as
ever, extricated 6000 cavalry from the dibdcle and rode away
whence he had come, still the dominant figure of the war.
18. Independency. — The victory gave the Parliament entire
control of the north, but it did not lead to the definitive solution
of the political problem, and in fact, on the question of Charles's
place in a new Constitution, the victorious generals quarrelled even
before York had surrendered. Within three weeks of the battle
the great army was broken up. The Yorkshire troops proceeded
to conquer the isolated Royalist posts in their county, the Scots
marched off to besiege Newcastle-on-Tyne and to hold in check
a nascent Royalist army in Westmorland. Rupert in Lancashire
they neglected entirely. Manchester and Cromwell, already
estranged, marched away into the Eastern Association. There,
for want of an enemy to fight, their army was forced to be idle,
and Cromwell and the ever-growing Independent element
quickly came to suspect their commander of lukewarmness in the
cause. Waller's army, too, was spiritless and immobile. On
the 2nd of July, despairing of the existing military system, he
made to the Committee of Both Kingdoms the first suggestion
of the New Model, — " My lords," he wrote, " till you have an
army merely your own, that you may command, it is. . .
impossible to do anything of importance." Browne's trained
band army was perhaps the most ill-behaved of all — once the
soldiers attempted to murder their own general. Parliament in
alarm set about the formation of a new general service force
(July 12), but meantime both Waller's and Browne's armies
(at Abingdon and Reading respectively) ignominiously collapsed
by mutiny and desertion. It was evident that the people at
large, with their respect for the law and their anxiety for their
own homes, were tired of the war. Only those men — such as
Cromwell — who has set their hearts on fighting out the quarrel
of conscience, kept steadfastly to their purpose. Cromwell
himself had already decided that the king himself must be
deprived of his authority, and his supporters were equally con*-
vinced. But they were relatively few. Even the Eastern
Association trained bands had joined in the disaffection in
Waller's army, and that unfortunate general's suggestion of a
professional army, with all its dangers, indicated the only means
of enforcing a peace such as Cromwell and his friends desired.
There was this important difference, however, between Waller's
idea and Cromwell's achievement — that the professional soldiers
of the New Model were disciplined, led, and in all things inspired
by " godly" officers. Godliness, devotion to the cause, and
efficiency were indeed the only criteria Cromwell applied in
choosing officers. Long before this he had warned the Scottish
major-general Lawrence Crawford that the precise colour of a
man's religious opinions mattered nothing compared with his
devotion to them, and had told the committee of Suffolk, " I
had rather have a plain russet-coated captain that knows what
he fights for and loves what he knows than that which you call
a ' gentleman ' and is nothing else. I honour a gentleman that
is so indeed . . . but seeing it was necessary the work must
go on, better plain men than none." If " men of honour and
birth " possessed the essentials of godliness, devotion, and
capacity, Cromwell preferred them, and as a fact onfy seven
out of thirty-seven of the superior officers of the original New
Model were not of gentle birth.
19. Lostwithiel. — But all this was as yet in the future. Essex's
military promenade in the west of England was the subject of
immediate interest. At first successful, this general penetrated
to Plymouth, whence, securely based as he thought, he could
overrun Devon. Unfortunately for him he was persuaded to
overrun Cornwall as well. At once the Cornishmen rose, as they
had risen under Hopton, and the king was soon on the march
from the Oxford region, disregarding the armed mobs under
Waller and Browne. Their state reflected the general languishing
of the war spirit on both sides, not on one only, as Charles dis-
covered when he learned that Lord Wilmot, the lieutenant-
general of his horse, was in correspondence with Essex. Wilmot
was of course placed under arrest, and was replaced by the
dissolute General Goring. But it was unpleasantly evident
that even gay cavaliers of the type of Wilmot had lost the ideals
for which they fought, and had come to believe that the realm
would never be at peace while Charles was king. Henceforward
it will be found that the Royalist foot, now a thoroughly pro-
fessional force, is superior in quality to the once superb cavalry,
and that not merely because its opportunities for plunder, &c,
are more limited. Materially, however, the immediate victory
was undeniably with the Royalists. After a brief period of
manoeuvre, the Parliamentary army, now far from Plymouth,
found itself surrounded and starving at Lostwithiel, on the
Fowey river, without hope of assistance. The horse cut its way
out through the investing circle of posts, Essex himself escaped
by sea, but Major-General Skippon, his second in command, had
to surrender with the whole of the foot on the 2nd of September.
The officers and men were allowed to go free to Portsmouth,
but their arms, guns and munitions were the spoil of the victors.
There was now no trustworthy field force in arms for the Parlia-
ment south of the Humber, for even the Eastern Association
army was distracted by its religious differences, which had now
at last come definitely to the front and absorbed the political
dispute in a wider issue. Cromwell already proposed to abolish
the peerage, the members of which were inclined to make a
hollow peace, and had ceased to pay the least respect to his
general, Manchester, whose scheme for the solution of the quarrel
was an impossible combination of Charles and Presbyterianism.
Manchester for his part sank into a state of mere obstinacy,
refusing to move against Rupert, even to besiege Newark, and
actually threatened to hang Colonel Lilburne for capturing a
Royalist castle without orders.
20. Operations of Essex's, Waller's and Manchester's Armies. —
After the success of Lostwithiel there was little to detain Charles's
main army in the extreme west, and meanwhile Banbury, a
most important point in the Oxford circle, and Basing House
(near Basingstoke) were in danger of capture. Waller, who had
organized a small force of reliable troops, had already sent
cavalry into Dorsetshire with the idea of assisting Essex, and
he now came himself with reinforcements to prevent, so far as
lay in his power, the king's return to the Thames valley. Charles
was accompanied of course only by his permanent forces and
4-io
GREAT REBELLION
by parts of Prince Maurice's and Hopton's armies — the Cornish
levies had as usual scattered as soon as the war receded from
their borders. Manchester slowly advanced to Reading, Essex
gradually reorganized his broken army at Portsmouth, while
Waller, far out to the west at Shaftesbury, endeavored to gain
the necessary time and space for a general concentration in
Wiltshire, where Charles would be far from Oxford and Basing
and, in addition, outnumbered by two to one. But the work of
rearming Essex's troops proceeded slowly for want of money,
and Manchester peevishly refused to be hurried either by his
more vigorous subordinates or by the Committee of Both
Kingdoms, saying that the army of the Eastern Association
was for the guard of its own employers and not for general
service. He pleaded the renewed activity of the Newark
Royalists as his excuse, forgetting that Newark would have been
in his hands ere this had he chosen to move thither instead of
lying idle for two months. As to the higher command, things
had come to such a pass that, when the three armies at last
united, a council of war, consisting of three army commanders,
several senior officers, and two civilian delegates from the
Committee, was constituted. When the vote of the majority
had determined what was to be done, Essex, as lord general
of the Parliament's first army, was to issue the necessary orders
for the whole. Under such conditions it was not likely that
Waller's hopes of a great battle at Shaftesbury would be realized.
On the 8th of October he fell back, the royal army following
him step by step and finally reaching Whitchurch on the 20th
of October. Manchester arrived at Basingstoke on the 17th,
Waller on the 19th, and Essex on the 21st. Charles had found
that he could not relieve Basing (a mile or two from Basingstoke)
without risking a battle with the enemy between himself and
Oxford; 1 he therefore took the Newbury road and relieved
Donnington Castle near Newbury on the 22nd. Three days
later Banbury too was relieved by a force which could now be
spared from the Oxford garrison. But for once the council of
war on the other side was for fighting a battle, and the Parlia-
mentary armies, their spirits revived by the prospect of action
and by the news of the fall of Newcastle and the defeat of a
sally from Newark, marched briskly. On the 26th they appeared
north of Newbury on the Oxford road. Like Essex in 1643,
Charles found himself headed off from the shelter of friendly
fortresses, but beyond this fact there is little similarity between
the two battles of Newbury, for the Royalists in the first case
merely drew a barrier across Essex's path. On the present
occasion the eager Parliamentarians made no attempt to force
the king to attack them; they were well content to attack
him in his chosen position themselves, especially as he was better
off for supplies and quarters than they.
21. Second Newbury. — The second battle of Newbury is
remarkable as being the first great manoeuvre-battle (as distinct
from " pitched " battle) of the Civil War. A preliminary
reconnaissance by the Parliamentary leaders (Essex was not
present, owing to illness) established the fact that the king's
infantry held a strong line of defence behind the Lambourn
brook from Shaw (inclusive) to Donnington (exclusive), Shaw
House and adjacent buildings being held as an advanced
post. In rear of the centre, in open ground just north of
Newbury, lay the bulk of the royal cavalry. In the left rear
of the main line, and separated from it by more than a
thousand yards, lay Prince Maurice's corps at Speen, advanced
troops on the high ground west of that village, but Donnington
Castle, under its energetic governor Sir John Boys, formed a
strong post covering this gap with artillery fire. The Parlia-
mentary leaders had no intention of flinging their men away
in a frontal attack on the line of the Lambourn, and a flank
attack from the east side could hardly succeed owing to the
obstacle presented by the confluence of the Lambourn and the
Kennet, hence they decided on a wide turning movement via
Chieveley, Winterbourne and Wickham Heath, against Prince
Maurice's position — a decision which, daring and energetic
1 Charles's policy was still, as before Marston Moor, to " spin out
time " until Kupert came back from the north.
as it was, led only to a modified success, for reasons which will
appear. The flank march, out of range of the castle, was con-
ducted with punctuality and precision. The troops, composing
it were drawn from all three armies and led by the best fighting
generals, Waller, Cromwell, and Essex's subordinates Balfour
and Skippon. Manchester at Clay Hill was to stand fast until
the turning movement had developed, and to make a vigorous
holding attack on Shaw House as soon as Waller's guns were
heard at Speen. But there was no commander-in-chief to co-
ordinate the movements of the two widely separated corps, and
consequently no co-operation. Waller's attack was not unex-
pected, and Prince Maurice had made ready to meet him. Yet
the first rush of the rebels carried the entrenchments of Speen
Hill, and Speen itself, though stoutly defended, fell into their
hands within an hour, Essex's infantry recapturing here some
of the guns they had had to surrender at Lostwithiel. But mean-
time Manchester, in spite of the entreaties of his staff, had not
stirred from Clay Hill. He had made one false attack already
early in the morning, and been severely handled, and he was
aware of his own deficiencies as a general. A year before this
he would have asked for and acted upon the advice of a capable
soldier, such as Cromwell or Crawford, but now his mind was
warped by a desire for peace on any terms, and he sought only
to avoid defeat pending a happy solution of the quarrel. Those
who sought to gain peace through victory were meanwhile
driving Maurice back from hedge to hedge towards the open
ground at Newbury, but every attempt to emerge from the lanes
and fields was repulsed by the royal cavalry, and indeed by
every available man and horse, for Charles's officers had gauged
Manchester's intentions, and almost stripped the front of its
defenders to stop Waller's advance. Nightfall put an end to
the struggle around Newbury, and then — too late — Manchester
ordered the attack on Shaw House. It failed completely in spite
of the gallantry of his men, and darkness being then complete
it was not renewed. In its general course the battle closely
resembled that of Freiburg (q.v.) f fought the same year on the
Rhine. But, if Waller's part in the battle corresponded in a
measure to Turenne's, Manchester was unequal to playing the
part of Cond6, and consequently the results, in the case of the
French won by three days' hard fighting, and even then com-
paratively small, were in the case of the English practically nil.
During the night the royal army quietly marched away through
the gap between Waller's and Manchester's troops. The heavy
artillery and stores wereleft [in Donnington Castle, Charles himself
with a small escort rode off to the north-west to meet Rupert,
and the main body gained Wallingford unmolested. An attempt
at pursuit was made by Waller and Cromwell with all the cavalry
they could lay hands on, but it was unsupported, for the council
of war had decided to content itself with besieging Donnington
Castle. A little later, after a brief and half-hearted attempt to
move towards Oxford, it referred to the Committee for further
instructions. Within the month Charles, having joined Rupert
at Oxford and made him general of the Royalist forces vice
Brentford, reappeared in the neighbourhood of Newbury.
Donnington Castle was again relieved (November 9) under the
eyes of the Parliamentary army, which was in such a miserable
condition that even Cromwell was against fighting, and some
manoeuvres followed, in the course of which Charles relieved
Basing House and the Parliamentary armies fell back, not in
the best order, to Reading. The season for field warfare was
now far spent, and the royal army retired to enjoy good quarters
and plentiful supplies around Oxford.
22. The Self-denying Ordinance. — On the other side, the
dissensions between the generals had become flagrant and public,
and it was no longer possible for the Houses of Parliament to
ignore the fact that the army must be radically reformed.
Cromwell and Waller from their places in parliament attacked
Manchester's conduct, and their attack ultimately became, so
far as Cromwell was concerned, an attack on the Lords, most
of whom held the same views as Manchester, and on the Scots,
who attempted to bring Cromwell to trial as an " incendiary."
At the crisis of their bitter controversy Cromwell suddenly
GREAT REBELLION
411
proposed to stifle all animosities by the resignation of all officers
who were members of either House, a proposal which affected
himself not less than Essex and Manchester. The first " self-
denying ordinance " was moved on the 9th of December, and
provided that " no member of either house shall have or execute
any office or command . . .," &c. This was not accepted by
the Lords, and in the end a second " self-denying ordinance "
was agreed to (April 3, 1645), whereby all the persons concerned
were to resign, but without prejudice to their reappointment.
Simultaneously with this, the formation of the New Model was
at last definitely taken into consideration. The last exploit of
Sir William Waller, who was not re-employed after the passing of
the ordinance, was the relief of Taunton, then besieged by General
Goring's army. Cromwell served as his lieutenant-general on
this occasion, and we have Waller's own testimony that he was
in all things a wise, capable and respectful subordinate. Under
a leader of the stamp of Waller, Cromwell was well satisfied to
obey, knowing the cause to be in good hands.
23. Decline of the Royalist Cause. — A raid of Goring's horse
from the west into Surrey and an unsuccessful attack on General
Browne at Abingdon were the chief enterprises undertaken on
the side of the Royalists during the early winter. It was no
longer " summer in Devon, summer in Yorkshire " as in January
1643. An ever-growing section of Royalists, amongst whom
Rupert himself was soon to be numbered, were for peace; many
scores of loyalist gentlemen, impoverished by the loss of three
years' rents of their estates and hopeless of ultimate victory,
were making their way to Westminster to give in their sub-
mission to the Parliament and to pay their fines. In such
circumstances the old decision-seeking strategy was impossible.
The new plan, suggested probably by Rupert, had already been
tried with strategical success in the summer campaign of 1644.
As we have seen, it consisted essentially in using Oxford as the
centre of a circle and striking out radially at any favourable
target — " manoeuvring about a fixed point," as Napoleon called
it. It was significant of the decline of the Royalist cause that
the " fixed point " had been in 1643 the king's field army, based
indeed on its great entrenched camp, Banbury-Cirencester-
Reading-Oxford, but free to move and to hold the enemy wherever
met, while now it was the entrenched camp itself, weakened
by the loss or abandonment of its outer posts, and without the
power of binding the enemy if they chose to ignore its existence,
that conditioned the scope and duration of the single remaining
field army's enterprises.
24. The New Model Ordinance. — For the present, however,
Charles's cause was crumbling more from internal weakness
than from the blows of the enemy. Fresh negotiations for peace
which opened on the 29th of January at Uxbridge (by the name
of which place they are known to history) occupied the attention
of the Scots and their Presbyterian friends, the rise of Inde-
pendency and of Cromwell was a further distraction, and over
the new army and the Self-denying Ordinance the Lords and
Commons were seriously at variance. But in February a fresh
mutiny in Waller's command struck alarm into the hearts of
the disputants. The "treaty" of Uxbridge came to the same
end as the treaty of Oxford in 1643, and a settlement as to army
reform was achieved on the 15th of February. Though it was
only on the 25 th of March that the second and modified form of
the ordinance was agreed to by both Houses, Sir Thomas Fairfax
and Philip Skippon (who were not members of parliament)
had been approved as lord general and major-general (of the
infantry) respectively of the new army as early as the 21st of
January. The post of lieutenant-general and cavalry commander
was for the moment left vacant, but there was little doubt as to
who would eventually occupy it.
25. Victories of Montrose. — In Scotland, meanwhile, Montrose
was winning victories which amazed the people of the two
kingdoms. Montrose's royalism differed from that of English-
men of the 17th century less than from that of their forefathers
under Henry VIII. and Elizabeth. To him the king was the
protector of his people against Presbyterian theocracy, scarcely
less offensive to him than the Inquisition itself, and the feudal
oppression of the great nobles. Little as this ideal corresponded
to the Charles of reality, it inspired in Montrose not merely
romantic heroism but a force of leadership which was sufficient
to carry to victory the nobles and gentry, the wild Highlanders
and the experienced professional soldiers who at various times
and places constituted his little armies. His first unsuccessful
enterprise has been mentioned above. It seemed, in the early
stages of his second attempt (August 1644) , as if failure were again
inevitable, for the gentry of the northern Lowlands were over-
awed by the prevailing party and resented the leadership of a
lesser noble, even though he were the king's lieutenant over all
Scotland. Disappointed of support where he most expected it,
Montrose then turned to the Highlands. At Blair Athol he
gathered his first army of Royalist clansmen, and good fortune
gave him also a nucleus of trained troops. A force of disciplined
experienced soldiers (chiefly Irish Macdonalds and commanded
by Alastair of that name) had been sent over from Ireland
earlier in the year, and, after ravaging the glens of their hereditary
enemies the Campbells, had attempted without success, now
here, now there, to gather the other clans in the king's name.
Their hand was against every man's, and when he finally arrived
in Badenoch, Alastair Macdonald was glad to protect himself
by submitting to the authority of the king's lieutenant.
There were three hostile armies to be dealt -with, besides —
ultimately — the main covenanting army far away in England.
The duke of Argyll, the head of the Campbells, had an army
of his own clan and of Lowland Covenanter levies, Lord Elcho
with another Lowland army lay near Perth, and Lord Balfour
of Burleigh was collecting a third (also composed of Lowlanders)
at Aberdeen. Montrose turned upon Elcho first, and found him
at Tippermuir near Perth on the 1st of September 1644. The
Royalists were about 3000 strong and entirely foot, only Montrose
himself and two others being mounted, while Elcho had about
7000 of all arms. But Elcho's townsmen found that pike and
musket were clumsy weapons in inexperienced hands, and,
like Mackay's regulars at Killiecrankie fifty years later, they
wholly failed to stop the rush of the Highland swordsmen.
Many hundreds were killed in the pursuit, and Montrose slept in
Perth that night, having thus accounted for one of his enemies.
Balfour of Burleigh was to be his next victim, and he started for
Aberdeen on the 4th. As he marched, his Highlanders slipped
away to place their booty in security. But the Macdonald
regulars remained with him, and as he passed along the coast
some of the gentry came in, though the great western clan of
the Gordons was at present too far divided in sentiment to take
his part. Lord Lewis Gordon and some Gordon horse were even
in Balfour's army. On the other hand, the earl of Airlie brought
in forty-four horsemen, and Montrose was thus able to constitute
two wings of cavalry on the day of battle. The Covenanters
were about 2500 strong and drawn up on a slope above the How
Burn 1 just outside Aberdeen (September 13, 1644). Montrose,
after clearing away the enemy's skirmishers, drew up his army
in front of the opposing line, the foot in the centre, the forty-four
mounted men, with musketeers to support them, on either flank.
The hostile left-wing cavalry charged piecemeal, and some bodies
of troops did not engage at all. On the other wing, however,
Montrose was for a moment hard pressed by a force of the enemy
that attempted to work round to his rear. But he brought over
the small band of mounted men that constituted his right wing
cavalry, and also some musketeers from the centre, and
destroyed the assailants, and when the ill-led left wing of the
Covenanters charged again, during the absence of the cavalry,
they were mown down by the close-range volleys of Macdoiiald's
musketeers. Shortly afterwards the centre of Balfour's army
yielded to pressure and fled in disorder. Aberdeen was sacked
by order of Montrose, whose drummer had been murdered while
delivering a message under a flag of truce to the magistrates.
26. Inverlochy. — Only Argyll now remained to be dealt with.
The Campbells were fighting men from birth, like Montrose's
own men, and had few townsmen serving with them. Stall there
were enough of the latter and of the impedimenta of regular
1 The ground has been entirely built over for many years.
412
GREAT REBELLION
warfare with him to prevent Argyll from overtaking his agile
enemy, and ultimately after a " hide-and-seek " in the districts
of Rothiemurchus, Blair Athol, Banchory and Strathbogie,
Montrose stood to fight at Fyvie Castle, repulsed Argyll's attack
on that place and slipped away again to Rothiemurchus. There
he was joined by Camerons and Macdonalds from all quarters
for a grand raid on the Campbell country; he himself wished to
march into the Lowlands, well knowing that he could not achieve
the decision in the Grampians, but he had to bow, not for the
first time nor the last, to local importunity. The raid was duly
executed, and the Campbells' boast, " It's a far cry to Loch Awe,"
availed them little. In December and January the Campbell
lands were thoroughly and mercilessly devastated, and Montrose
then retired slowly to Loch Ness, where the bulk of his army as
usual dispersed to store away its plunder. Argyll, with such
Highland and Lowland forces as he could collect after the disaster,
followed Montrose towards Lochaber, while the Seaforths and
other northern clans marched to Loch Ness. Caught between
them, Montrose attacked the nearest. The Royalists crossed
the hills into Glen Roy, worked thence along the northern face
of Ben Nevis, and descended like an avalanche upon Argyll's
forces at Inverlochy (February 2, 1645). As usual, the Lowland
regiments gave way at once — Montrose had managed in all this
to keep with him a few cavalry — and it was then the turn of the
Campbells. Argyll escaped in a boat, but his clan, as a fighting
force, was practically annihilated, and Montrose, having won four
victories in these six winter months, rested his men and exultingly
promised Charles that he would come to his assistance with a
brave army before the end of the summer.
27. Organization of the New Model Army. — To return to the
New Model. Its first necessity was regular pay; its first duty to
serve wherever it might be sent. Of the three armies that had
fought at Newbury only one, Essex's, was in a true sense a general
service force, and only one, Manchester's, was paid with any
regularity. Waller's army was no better paid than Essex's and
no more free from local ties than Manchester's. It was therefore
broken up early in April, and only 600 of its infantry passed
into the New Model. Essex's men, on the other hand, wanted but
regular pay and strict officers to make them excellent soldiers,
and their own major-general, Skippon, managed by tact and his
personal popularity to persuade the bulk of the men to rejoin.
Manchester's army, in which Cromwell had been the guiding
influence from first to last, was naturally the backbone of the
New Model. Early in April Essex, Manchester, and Waller re-
signed their commissions, and such of their forces as were not
embodied in the new army were sent to do local duties, for
minor armies were still maintained, General Poyntz's in the north
midlands, General Massey's in the Severn valley, a large force in
the Eastern Association, General Browne's in Buckinghamshire,
&c, besides the Scots in the north.
The New Model originally consisted of 14,400 foot and 7700
horse and dragoons. Of the infantry only 6000 came from the
combined armies, the rest being new recruits furnished by the
press. 1 Thus there was considerable trouble during the first
months of Fairfax's command, and discipline had to be enforced
with unusual sternness. As for the enemy, Oxford was openly
contemptuous of " the rebels' new brutish general " and his
men, who seemed hardly likely to succeed where Essex and Waller
had failed. But the effect of the Parliament's having " an army
all its own " was soon to be apparent.
28. First Operations of 1645. — On the Royalist side the cam-
paign of 1645 opened in the west, whither the young prince of
Wales (Charles II.) was sent with Hyde (later earl of Clarendon),
Hopton and others as his advisers. General (Lord) Goring,
however, now in command of the Royalist field forces in this
quarter, was truculent, insubordinate and dissolute, though on
the rare occasions when he did his duty he displayed a certain
degree of skill and leadership, and the influence of the prince's
1 The Puritans had by now disappeared almost entirely from the
ranks of the infantry. Per contra the officers and sergeants and the
troopers of the horse were the sternest Puritans of all, the survivors
of three years of a disheartening war.
counsellors was but small. As usual, operations began with
the sieges necessary to conciliate local feeling. Plymouth and
Lyme were blocked up, and Taunton again invested. The
reinforcement thrown into the last place by Waller and Cromwell
was dismissed by Blake (then a colonel in command of the
fortress and afterwards the great admiral of the Commonwealth),
and after many adventures rejoined Waller and Cromwell.
The latter generals, who had not yet laid down their commissions,
then engaged Goring for some weeks, but neither side having
infantry or artillery, and both finding subsistence difficult in
February and March and in country that had been fought over
for two years past, no results were to be expected. Taunton
still remained unrelieved, and Goring's horse still rode all over
Dorsetshire when the New Model at last took the field.
29. Rupert's Northern March. — In the midlands and Lanca-
shire the Royalist horse, as ill-behaved even as Goring's men,
were directly responsible for the ignominious failure with which
the king's main army began its year's work. Prince Maurice
was joined at Ludlow by Rupert and part of his Oxford army
early in March, and the brothers drove off Brereton from the
siege of Beeston Castle and relieved the pressure on Lord Byron
in Cheshire. So great was the danger of Rupert's again invading
Lancashire and Yorkshire that all available forces in the north,
English and Scots, were ordered to march against him. But
at this moment the prince was called back to clear his line
of retreat on Oxford. The Herefordshire and Worcestershire
peasantry, weary of military exactions, were in arms, and though
they would not join the Parliament, and for the most part
dispersed after stating their grievances, the main enterprise was
wrecked. This was but one of many ill-armed crowds — " Club-
men " as they were called — that assembled to enforce peace
on both parties. A few regular soldiers were sufficient to disperse
them in all cases, but their attempt to establish a third party
in England was morally as significant as it was materially futile.
The Royalists were now fighting with the courage of despair,
those who still fought against Charles did so with the full deter-
mination to ensure the triumph of their cause, and with the
conviction that the only possible way was the annihilation of the
enemy's armed forces, but the majority were so weary of the war
that the earl of Manchester's Presbyterian royalism — which had
contributed so materially to the prolongation of the struggle —
would probably have been accepted by four-fifths of all England
as the basis of a peace. It was, in fact, in the face of almost
universal opposition that Fairfax and Cromwell and their friends
at Westminster guided the cause of their weaker comrades to
complete victory.
30. Cromwell's Raid. — Having without difficulty rid himself
of the Clubmen, Rupert was eager to resume his march into the
north. It is unlikely that he wished to join Montrose, though
Charles himself favoured that plan, but he certainly intended
to fight the Scottish army, more especially as after Inverlochy
it had been called upon to detach a large force to deal with
Montrose. But this time there was no Royalist army in the
north to provide infantry and guns for a pitched battle, and
Rupert had perforce to wait near Hereford till the main body,
and in particular the artillery train, could come from Oxford and
join him. It was on the march of the artillery train to Hereford
that the first operations of the New Model centred. The infantry
was not yet ready to move, in spite of all Fairfax's and Skippon 's
efforts, and it became necessary to send the cavalry by itself
to prevent Rupert from gaining a start. Cromwell, then under
Waller's command, had come to Windsor to resign his commission
as required by the Self-denying Ordinance. Instead, he was
placed at the head of a brigade of his own old soldiers, with orders
to stop the march of the artillery train. On the 23rd of April
he started from Watlington north-westward. At dawn on the
24th he routed a detachment of Royalist horse at Islip. On
the same day, though he had no guns and only a few firearms
in the whole force, he terrified the governor of Bletchingdon
House into surrender. Riding thence to Witney, Cromwell
won another cavalry fight at Bampton-in-the-Bush on the 27th,
and attacked Faringdon House, though without success, on the
GREAT REBELLION
4i3
29th. Thence he marched at leisure to Newbury. He had done
his work thoroughly. He had demoralized the Royalist cavalry,
and, above all, had carried off every horse on the country-side.
To all Rupert's entreaties Charles could only reply that the guns
could not be moved till the 7th of May, and he even summoned
Goring's cavalry from the west to make good his losses.
31. Civilian Strategy. — Cromwell's success thus forced the
king to concentrate his various armies in the neighbourhood
of Oxford, and the New Model had, so Fairfax and Cromwell
hoped, found its target. But the Committee of Both Kingdoms
on the one side, and Charles, Rupert and Goring on the other,
held different views. On the 1st of May Fairfax, having been
ordered to relieve Taunton, set out from Windsor for the long
march to that place; meeting Cromwell at Newbury on the 2nd,
he directed the lieutenant-general to watch the movements of
the king's army, and himself marched on to Blandford, which
he reached on the 7th of May. Thus Fairfax and the main army
of the Parliament were marching away in the west while Crom-
well's detachment was left, as Waller had been left the previous
year, to hold the king as best he could. On the very evening
that Cromwell's raid ended, the leading troops of Goring's
command destroyed part of Cromwell's own regiment near
Faringdon, and on the 3rd Rupert and Maurice appeared with
a force of all arms at Burford. Yet the Co) imittee of Both
Kingdoms, though aware on the 29th of Goring's move, only
made up its mind to stop Fairfax on the 3rd, and did not send
off orders till the 5th. These orders were to the effect that a
detachment was to be sent to the relief of Taunton, and that
the main army was to return. Fairfax gladly obeyed, even
though a siege of Oxford and not the enemy's field army was
the objective assigned him. But long before he came up to the
Thames valley the situation was again changed. Rupert, now
in possession of the guns and their teams, urged upon his uncle
the resumption of the northern enterprise, calculating that with
Fairfax in Somersetshire, Oxford was safe. Charles accordingly
marched out of Oxford on the 7th towards Stow-on-the-Wold,
on the very day, as it chanced, that Fairfax began his return
march from Blandford. But Goring and most of the other
generals were for a march into the west, in the hope of dealing
with Fairfax as they had dealt with Essex in 1644. The armies
therefore parted as Essex and Waller had parted at the same
place in 1644, Rupert and the king to march northward, Goring
to return to his independent command in the west. Rupert,
not unnaturally wishing to keep his influence with the king and
his authority as general of the king's army unimpaired by
Goring's notorious indiscipline, made no attempt to prevent the
separation, which in the event proved wholly unprofitable. The
flying column from Blandford relieved Taunton long before
Goring's return to the west, and Colonel Weldon and Colonel
Graves, its commanders, set him at defiance even in the open
country. As for Fairfax, he was out of Goring's reach preparing
for the siege of Oxford.
32. Charles in the Midlands. — On the other side also the
generals were working by data that had ceased to have any value.
Fairfax's siege of Oxford, ordered by the Committee on the 10th
of May, and persisted in after it was known that the king was on
the move, was the second great blunder of the year and was
hardly redeemed, as a military measure, by the visionary scheme
of assembling the Scots, the Yorkshiremen, and the midland
forces to oppose the king. It is hard to understand how, having
created a new model army " all its own " for general service, the
Parliament at once tied it down to a local enterprise, and trusted
an improvised army of local troops to fight the enemy's main
army. In reality the Committee seems to have been misled by
false information to the effect that Goring and the governor of
Oxford were about to declare for the Parliament, but had they not
despatched Fairfax to the relief of Taunton in the first instance
the necessity for such intrigues would not have arisen. However,
Fairfax obeyed orders, invested Oxford, and, so far as he was able
without a proper siege train, besieged it for two weeks, while
Charles and Rupert ranged the midlands unopposed. At the end
of that time came news so alarming that the Committee hastily
abdicated their control over military operations and gave
Fairfax a free hand. " Black Tom " gladly and instantly
abandoned the siege and marched northward to give battle to the
king.
Meanwhile Charles and Rupert were moving northward. On
the nth of May they reached Droit wich, whence after two days'
rest they marched against Brereton. The latter hurriedly raised
the sieges he had on hand, and called upon Yorkshire and the
Scottish army there for aid. But only the old Lord Fairfax
and the Yorkshiremen responded. Leven had just heard of new
victories won by Montrose, and could do no more than draw his
army and his guns over the Pennine chain into Westmorland in
the hope of being in time to bar the king's march on Scotland
via Carlisle.
33. Dundee. — After the destruction of the Campbells at
Inverlochy, Montrose had cleared away the rest of his enemies
without difficulty. He now gained a respectable force of cavalry
by the adhesion of Lord Gordon and many of his clan, and this
reinforcement was the more necessary as detachments from
Leven's army under Baillie and Hurry — disciplined infantry and
cavalry — were on the march to meet him. The Royalists marched
by Elgin and through the Gordon country to Aberdeen, and
thence across the Esk to Coupar-Angus, where Baillie and Hurry
were encountered. A war of manoeuvre followed, in which they
thwarted every effort of the Royalists to break through into the
Lowlands, but in the end retired into Fife. Montrose thereupon
marched into the hills with the intention of reaching the upper
Forth and thence the Lowlands, for he did not disguise from
himself the fact that there, and not in the Highlands, would the
quarrel be decided, and was sanguine — over-sanguine, as the
event proved — as to the support he would obtain from those who
hated the kirk and its system. But he had called to his aid the
semi-barbarous Highlanders, and however much the Lowlands
resented a Presbyterian inquisition, they hated and feared the
Highland clans beyond all else. He was equally disappointed in
his own army. For a war of positions the Highlanders had neither
aptitude nor inclination, and at Dunkeld the greater part of them
went home. If the small remnant was to be kept to its duty,
plunder must be found, and the best objective was the town of
Dundee. With a small force of 750 foot and horse Montrose
brilliantly surprised that place on the 4th of April, but Baillie and
Hurry were not far distant, and before Montrose's men had time
to plunder the prize they were collected to face the enemy.
His retreat from Dundee was considered a model operation by
foreign students of the art of war (then almost as numerous as
now), and what surprised them most was that Montrose could
rally his men after a sack had begun. The retreat itself was
remarkable enough. Baillie moved parallel to Montrose on his
left flank towards Arbroath, constantly heading him off from the
hills and attempting to pin him against the sea. Montrose,
however, halted in the dark so as to let Baillie get ahead of him
and then turned sharply back, crossed Baillie's track, and made
for the hills. Baillie soon realized what had happened and
turned back also, but an hour too late. By the 6th the Royalists
were again safe in the broken country of the Esk valley. But
Montrose cherished no illusions as to joining the king at once;
all he could do, he now wrote, was to neutralize as many of the
enemy's forces as possible.
34. Auldearn. — For a time he wandered in the Highlands
seeking recruits. But soon he learned that Baillie and Hurry had
divided their forces, the former remaining about Perth and
Stirling to observe him, the latter going north to suppress the
Gordons. Strategy and policy combined to make Hurry the
objective of the next expedition. But the soldier of fortune who
commanded the Covenanters at Aberdeen was no mean
antagonist. Marching at once with a large army (formed on the
nucleus of his own trained troops and for the rest composed of
clansmen and volunteers) Hurry advanced to Elgin, took contact
with Montrose there, and, gradually and skilfully retiring, drew
him into the hostile country round Inverness. Montrose fell into
the trap, and Hurry took his measures to surprise him at Auld-
I earn so successfully that (May 9) Montrose, even though the
414
GREAT REBELLION
indiscipline of some of Hurry's young soldiers during the night
march gave him the alarm, had barely time to form up before the
enemy was upon him. But the best strategy is of no avail when
the battle it produces goes against the strategist, and Montrose's
tactical skill was never more conspicuous than at Auldearn.
Alastair Macdonald with most of the Royalist infantry and the
Royal standard was posted to the right (north) of the village to
draw upon himself the weight of Hurry's attack; only enough
men were posted in the village itself to show that it was occupied,
and on the south side, out of sight, was Montrose himself with a
body of foot and all the Gordon horse. It was the prototype, on a
small scale, of Austerlitz. Macdonald resisted sturdily while
Montrose edged away from the scene of action, and at the right
moment and not before, though Macdonald had been driven
back on the village and was fighting for life amongst the gardens
and enclosures, Montrose let loose Lord Gordon's cavalry. These,
abandoning for once the pistol tactics of their time, charged
home with the sword. The enemy's right wing cavalry was
scattered in an instant, the nearest infantry was promptly ridden
down, and soon Hurry's army had ceased to exist.
35. Campaign of Naseby. — If the news of Auldearn brought
Leven to the region of Carlisle, it had little effect on his English
allies. Fairfax was not yet released from the siege of Oxford, in
.spite of the protests of the Scottish representatives in London.
Massey, the active and successful governor of Gloucester, was
placed in command of a field force on the 25th of May, but he was
to lead it against, not the king, but Goring. At that moment the
military situation once more changed abruptly. Charles, instead
of continuing his march on to Lancashire, turned due eastward
towards Derbyshire. The alarm at Westminster when this new
development was reported was such that Cromwell, in spite of the
Self-Denying Ordinance, was sent to raise an army for the
defence of the Eastern Association. Yet the Royalists had no
intentions in that direction. Conflicting reports as to the
condition of Oxford* reached the royal headquarters in the last
week of May, and the eastward march was made chiefly to
" spin out time " until it could be known whether it would be
necessary to return to Oxford, or whether it was still possible to
fight Leven in Yorkshire — his move into Westmorland was not
yet known — and invade Scotland by the easy east coast route.
Goring's return to the west had already been countermanded
and he had been directed to march to Harborough, while the
South Wales Royalists were also called in towards Leicester.
Later orders (May 26) directed him to Newbury, whence he was
to feel the strength of the enemy's positions around Oxford.
It is hardly necessary to say that Goring found good military
reasons for continuing his independent operations, and marched
off towards Taunton regardless of the order. He redressed the
balance there for the moment by overawing Massey's weak force,
and his purse profited considerably by fresh opportunities for
extortion, but he and his men were not at Naseby. Meanwhile
the king, at the geographical centre of England, found an im-
portant and wealthy town at his mercy. Rupert, always for
action, took the opportunity, and Leicester was stormed and
thoroughly pillaged on the night of the 3oth-3 1 st of May . There
was the usual panic at Westminster, but, unfortunately for
Charles, it resulted in Fairfax being directed to abandon the
siege of Oxford and given carte blanche to bring the Royal army
to battle wherever it was met. On his side the king had, after
the capture of Leicester, accepted the advice of those who feared
for the safety of Oxford — Rupert, though commander-in-chief,
was unable to insist on the northern enterprise — and had marched
to Daventry, where he halted to throw supplies into Oxford.
Thus Fairfax in his turn was free to move, thanks to the in-
subordination of Goring, who would neither relieve Oxford nor
join the king for an attack on the New Model. The Parliamentary
general moved from Oxford towards Northampton so as to
cover the Eastern Association. On the 12th of June the two
armies were only a few miles apart, Fairfax at Kislingbury,
Charles at Daventry, and, though the Royalists turned northward
again on the 13th to resume the Yorkshire project under the very
eyes of the enemy, Fairfax followed close. On the night of
'the 13th Charles slept at Lubenham, Fairfax at Guilsboroagh.
Cromwell, just appointed lieutenant-general of the New Model,
had ridden into camp on the morning of the 13th with fresh
cavalry from the eastern counties, Colonel Rossiter came up
with more from Lincolnshire on the morning of the battle,
' and it was with an incontestable superiority of numbers and an
overwhelming moral advantage that Fairfax fought at Naseby
; (q.v.) on the 14th of June. The result of the battle, this time a
decisive battle, was the annihilation of the Royal army. Part
of the cavalry escaped, a small fraction of it in tolerable order,
but the guns and the baggage train were taken, and, above all,
the splendid Royal infantry were killed or taken prisoners to a
man.
36. Effects of Naseby. — After Naseby, though the war dragged
on for another year, the king never succeeded in raising an army
as good as, or even more numerous than, that which Fairfax's
army had so heavily outnumbered on the 14th of June. That
the fruits of the victory could not be gathered in a few weeks
was due to a variety of hindrances rather than to direct opposi-
tion — to the absence of rapid means of communication, the
paucity of the forces engaged on both sides relatively to the total
numbers under arms, and from time to time to the political
exigencies of the growing quarrel between Presbyterians and
Independents. As to the latter, within a few days of Naseby,
the Scots rejoiced that the " back of the malignants was broken,"
and demanded reinforcements as a precaution against " the
insolence of others," i.e. Cromwell and the Independents — " to
whom alone the Lord has given the victory of that day." Leven
had by now returned to Yorkshire, and a fortnight after Naseby,
after a long and honourable defence by Sir Thomas Glemham,
Carlisle fell to David Leslie's besieging corps. Leicester was
reoccupied by Fairfax on the 18th, and on the 20th Leven's
army, moving slowly southward, reached Mansfield. This move
was undertaken largely for political reasons, i.e. to restore the
Presbyterian balance as against the victorious New Model.
Fairfax's army was intended by its founders to be a specifically
English army, and Cromwell for one would have employed it
against the Scots almost as readily as against malignants.
But for the moment the advance of the northern army was of
the highest military importance, for Fairfax was thereby set
free from the necessity of undertaking sieges. Moreover, the
publication of the king's papers taken at Naseby gave Fairfax's
troops a measure of official and popular support which a month
before they could not have been said to possess, for it was now
obvious that they represented the armed force of England against
the Irish, Danes, French, Lorrainers, &c, whom Charles had for
three years been endeavouring to let loose on English soil.
Even the Presbyterians abandoned for the time any attempt
to negotiate with the king, and advocated a vigorous prosecution
of the war.
37. Fairfax's Western Campaign. — This, in the hands of Fairfax
and Cromwell, was likely to be effective. While the king and
Rupert, with the remnant of their cavalry, hurried into South
Wales to join Sir Charles Gerard's troops and to raise fresh in-
fantry, Fairfax decided that Goring's was the most important
Royalist army in the field, and turned to the west, reaching
Lechlade on the 26th, less than a fortnight after the battle of
Naseby. One last attempt was made to dictate the plan of
campaign from Westminster, but the Committee refused to pass
on the directions of the Houses, and he remained free to deal
with Goring as he desired. Time pressed ; Charles in Monmouth-
shire and Rupert at Bristol were well placed for a junction with
Goring, which would have given them a united army 15,000
strong. Taunton, in spite of Massey's efforts to keep the field,
was again besieged, and in Wilts and Dorset numerous bands
of Clubmen were on foot which the king's officers were doing
their best to turn into troops for their master. But the process
of collecting a fresh royal army was slow, and Goring and his
subordinate, Sir Richard Grenville, were alienating the king's
most devoted adherents by their rapacity, cruelty and de-
bauchery. Moreover, Goring had no desire to lose the inde-
pendent command he had extorted at Stow-on-the-Wold^n May.
GREAT REBELLION
4i5
Still, it w&s clear that he must be disposed of as quickly as
possible, and Fairfax requested the Houses to take other
measures against the king (June 26) . This they did by paying up
the arrears due to Leven's army and bringing it to the Severn
valley. On the 8th of July Leven reached Alcester, bringing
with him a Parliamentarian force from Derbyshire under Sir
John Gell. The design was to besiege Hereford.
38. Langport. — By that time Fairfax and Goring were at
close quarters. The Royalist general's line of defence faced west
along the Yeo and the Parrett between Yeovil and Bridgwater,
and thus barred the direct route to Taunton. Fairfax, however,
marched from Lechlade via Marlborough and Blandford —
hindered only by Clubmen — to the friendly posts of Dorchester
and Lyme, and with these as his centre of operations he was
able to turn the headwaters of Goring's river-line via Beaminster
and Crewkerne. The Royalists at once abandoned the south and
west side of the rivers — the siege of Taunton had already been
given up — and passed over to the north and east bank. Bridg-
water was the right of this second line as it had been the left of
the first; the new left was at Ilchester. Goring could thus
remain in touch with Charles in south Wales through Bristol,
and the siege of Taunton having been given up there was no
longer any incentive for remaining on the wrong side of the
water-line. But his army was thoroughly demoralized by its
own licence and indiscipline, and the swift, handy and resolute
regiments of the New Model made short work of its strong
positions. On the 7th of July, demonstrating against the points
of passage between Ilchester and Langport, Fairfax secretly
occupied Yeovil. The post at that place, which had been the
right of Goring's first position, had, perhaps rightly, been with-
drawn to Ilchester when the second position was taken up, and
Fairfax repaired the bridge without interruption. Goring
showed himself unequal to the new situation. He might, if
sober, make a good plan when the enemy was not present to
disturb him, and he certainly led cavalry charges with boldness
and skill. But of strategy in front of the enemy he was in-
capable. On the news from Yeovil he abandoned the line of the
Yeo as far as Langport without striking a blow, and Fairfax,
having nothing to gain by continuing his detour through Yeovil,
came back and quietly crossed at Long Sutton, west of Ilchester
(July 9) . Goring had by now formed a new plan. A strong rear-
guard was posted at Langport and on high ground east and north-
east of it to hold Fairfax, and he himself with the cavalry rode
off early on the 8th to try and surprise Taunton. This place
was no longer protected by Massey's little army, which Fairfax
had called up to assist his own. But Fairfax, who was not yet
across Long Sutton bridge, heard of Goring's raid in good time,
and sent Massey after him with a body of horse. Massey sur-
prised a large party of the Royalists at Ilminster qn the 9th,
wounded Goring himself, and pursued the fugitives up to the
south-eastern edge of Langport. On the 10th Fairfax's ad-
vanced guard, led by Major Bethel of Cromwell's own regiment,
brilliantly stormed the position of Goring's rearguard east of
Langport, and the cavalry of the New Model, led by Cromwell
himself, swept in pursuit right up to the gates of Bridgwater,
where Goring's army, dismayed and on the point of collapse,
was more or less rallied. Thence Goring himself retired to
Barnstaple. His army, under the regimental officers, defended
itself in Bridgwater resolutely till the 23rd of July, when it
capitulated. The fall of Bridgwater gave Fairfax complete con-
trol of Somerset and Dorset from Lyme to the Bristol channel.
Even in the unlikely event of Goring's raising a fresh army,
he would now have to break through towards Bristol by open
force, and a battle between Goring and Fairfax could only have
one result. Thus Charles had perforce to give up his intention
of joining Goring — his recruiting operations in south Wales had
not been so successful as he hoped, owing to the apathy of the
people and the vigour of the local Parliamentary leaders —
and to resume the northern enterprise begun in the spring.
39. Schemes of Lord Digby. — This time Rupert would not be
with him. The prince, now despairing of success and hoping
only for a peace on the best terms procurable, listlessly returned
to his governorship of Bristol and prepared to meet Fairfax 7 ?
impending attack. The influence of Rupert was supplanted by
that of Lord Digby. As sanguine as Charles and far more
energetic, he was for the rest of the campaign the guiding spirit
of the Royalists, but being a civilian he proved incapable of
judging the military factors in the situation from a military
standpoint, and not only did he offend the officers by constituting,
himself a sort of confidential military secretary to the king, but
he was distrusted by all sections of Royalists for his reckless
optimism. The resumption of the northern enterprise, opposed
by Rupert and directly inspired by Digby, led to nothing..
Charles marched by Bridgnorth, Lichfield and Ashbourne to<
Doncaster, where on the 18th of August he was met by great
numbers of Yorkshire gentlemen with promises of fresh recruits*
For a moment the outlook was bright, for the Derbyshire men
with Gell were far away at Worcester with Leven, the Yorkshire
Parliamentarians engaged in besieging Scarborough Castle,
Pontefract and other posts. But two days later he heard that
David Leslie with the cavalry of Leven's army was coming
up behind him, and that, the Yorkshire sieges being now ended,
Major-General Poyntz's force lay in his front. It was now im-
possible to wait for the new levies, and reluctantly the king turned
back to Oxford, raiding Huntingdonshire and other parts of the
hated Eastern Association en route.
40. Montrose's Last Victories. — David Leslie did not pursue him.
Montrose, though the king did not yet know it, had won two
more battles, and was practically master of all Scotland. After
Auldearn he had turned to meet Baillie's army in Strathspey, and
by superior mobility and skill forced that commander to keep at
a respectful distance. He then turned upon a new army which
Lindsay, titular earl of Crawford, was forming in Forfarshire,
but that commander betook himself to a safe distance, and
Montrose withdrew into the Highlands to find recruits (June).
The victors of Auldearn had mostly dispersed on the usual errand,
and he was now deserted by most of the Gordons, who were re-
called by the chief of their clan, the marquess of Huntly, in spite
of the indignant remonstrances of Huntly's heir, Lord Gordon,
who was Montrose's warmest admirer. Baillie now approached
again, but he was weakened by having to find trained troops
to stiffen Lindsay's levies, and a strong force of the Gordons had
now been persuaded to rejoin Montrose. The two armies met in
battle near Alford on the Don; little can be said of the engage-
ment save that Montrose had to fight cautiously and tentatively
as at Aberdeen, not in the decision-forcing spirit of Auldearn,,
and that in the end Baillie's cavalry gave way and his infantry
was cut down as it stood. Lord Gordon was amongst the Royalist
dead (July 2) . The plunder was put away in the glens before any
attempt was made to go forward, and thus the Covenanters had
leisure to form a numerous, if not very coherent, army on the
nucleus of Lindsay's troops. Baillie, much against his will, was
continued in the command, with a council of war (chiefly of nobles
whom Montrose had already defeated, such as Argyll, Elcho and
Balfour) to direct his every movement. Montrose, when rejoined
by the Highlanders, moved to meet him, and in the last week of
July and the early part of August there were manoeuvres and
minor engagements round Perth. About the 7th of August
Montrose suddenly slipped away into the Lowlands, heading
for Glasgow. Thereupon another Covenanting army began to
assemble in Clydesdale. But it was clear that Montrose could
beat mere levies, and Baillie, though without authority and
despairing of success, hurried after him. Montrose then, having
drawn Baillie's Fifeshire militia far enough from home to ensure
their being discontented, turned upon them on the 14th of August
near Kilsyth. Baillie protested against fighting, but his aristo-
cratic masters of the council of war decided to cut off Montrose
from the hills by turning his left wing. The Royalist general
seized the opportunity, and his advance caught them in the very
act of making a flank march (August 15). The head of the
Covenanters' column was met and stopped by the furious attack
of the Gordon infantry, and Alastair Macdonald led the men of
his own name and the Macleans against its flank. A breach was
made in the centre of Baillie's army at the first rush, and then
GREAT REBELLION
sent in the Gordon and Ogilvy horse. The leading half of
.<nn was surrounded, broken up and annihilated. The rear
, seeing the fate of its comrades, took to flight, but in vain,
* A the Highlanders pursued & outrance. Only about one hundred
Covenanting infantry out of six thousand escaped. Montrose
was now indeed the king's lieutenant in all Scotland.
41. Fall of Bristol. — But Charles was in no case to resume his
northern march. Fairfax and the New Model, after reducing
Bridgwater, had turned back to clear away the Dorsetshire
Clubmen and to besiege Sherborne Castle. On the completion
of this task, it had been decided to besiege Bristol, and on the
23rd of August — while the king's army was still in Huntingdon,
and Goring was trying to raise a new army to replace the one he
had lost at Langport and Bridgwater — the city was invested.
In these urgent circumstances Charles left Oxford for the west
only a day or two after he had come in from the Eastern Associa-
tion raid. Calculating that Rupert could hold out longest, he
first moved to the relief of Worcester, around which place Leven's
Scots, no longer having Leslie's cavalry with them to find supplies,
were more occupied with plundering their immediate neighbour-
hood for food than with the siege works. Worcester was relieved
on the 1st of September by the king. David Leslie with all his
cavalry was already on the march to meet Montrose, and Leven
had no alternative but to draw off his infantry without fighting.
Charles entered Worcester on the 8th, but he found that he
could no longer expect recruits from South Wales. Worse
was to come. A few hours later, on the night of the oth-ioth,
Fairfax's army stormed Bristol. Rupert had long realized the
hopelessness of further fighting — the very summons to surrender
sent in by Fairfax placed the fate of Bristol on the political issue,
— the lines of defence around the place were too extensive for
his small force, and on the nth he surrendered on terms. He
was escorted to Oxford with his men, conversing as he rode with
the officers of the escort about peace and the future of his adopted
country. Charles, almost stunned by the suddenness of the
catastrophe, dismissed his nephew from all his offices and ordered
him to leave England, and for almost the last tim? called upon
Goring to rejoin the main army — if a tiny force of raw infantry
and disheartened cavalry can be so called — injhe neighbourhood
of Raglan. But before Goring could be bought to withdraw
his objections Charles had again turned northward towards
Montrose. A weary march through the Welsh hills brought the
Royal army on the 22nd of September to the neighbourhood of
Chester. Charles himself with one body entered the city, which
was partially invested by the Parliamentarian colonel Michael
Jones, and the rest under Sir Marmaduke Langdale was sent to
take Jones's lines in reverse. But at the opportune moment
Poyntz's forces, which had followed the king's movements since
he left Doncaster in the middle of August, appeared in rear of
Langdale, and defeated him in the battle of Rowton Heath
(September 24), while at the same time a sortie of the king's
troops from Chester was repulsed by Jones. Thereupon the Royal
army withdrew to Denbigh, and Chester, the only important
seaport remaining to connect Charles with Ireland, was again
besieged.
42, Philiphaugh. — Nor was Montrose's position, even after
Kilsyth, encouraging, in spite of the persistent rumours of
fighting in Westmorland that reached Charles and Digby.
Glasgow and Edinburgh were indeed occupied, and a parliament
summoned in the king's name. But Montrose had now to choose
between Highlanders and Lowlanders. The former, strictly
kept away from all that was worth plundering, rapidly vanished,
even Alastair Macdonald going with the rest. Without the
Macdonalds and the Gordons, Montrose's military and political
resettlement of Scotland could only be shadowy, and when he
demanded support from the sturdy middle classes of the Low-
lands, it was not forgotten that he had led Highlanders to the
sack of Lowland towns. Thus his new supporters could only
come from amongst the discontented and undisciplined Border
lords and gentry, and long before these moved to join him the
romantic conquest of Scotland was over. On the 6th of September
David Leslie had recrossed the frontier with his cavalry and some
infantry he had picked up on the way through northern England.
Early on the morning of the 13th he surprised Montrose at
Philiphaugh near Selkirk. The king's lieutenant had only 650
men against 4000, and the battle did not last long. Montrose
escaped with a few of his principal adherents, but his little army
was annihilated. Of the veteran Macdonald infantry, 500 strong
that morning, 250 were killed in the battle and the remainder
put to death after accepting quarter. The Irish, even when they
bore a Scottish name, were, by Scotsmen even more than English-
men, regarded as beasts to be knocked on the head. After Naseby
the Irishwomen found in the king's camp were branded by order
of Fairfax; after Philiphaugh* more than 300 women, wives or
followers of Macdonald's men, were butchered. Montrose's
Highlanders at their worst were no more cruel than the sober
soldiers of the kirk.
43. Digby's Northern Expedition. — Charles received the news
of Philiphaugh on the 28th of September, and gave orders that
the west should be abandoned, the prince of Wales should be
sent to France, and Goring should bring up what forces he could
to the Oxford region. On the 4th of October Charles himself
reached Newark (whither he had marched from Denbigh after
revictualling Chester and suffering the defeat of Rowton Heath).
The intention to go to Montrose was of course given up, at any
rate for the present, and he was merely waiting for Goring and
the Royalist militia of the west — each in its own way a broken
reed to lean upon. A hollow reconciliation was patched up
between Charles and Rupert, and the court remained at Newark
for over a month. Before it set out to return to Oxford another
Royalist force had been destroyed. On the 14th of October,
receiving information that Montrose had raised a new army,
the king permitted Langdale's northern troops to make a fresh
attempt to reach Scotland. At Langdale's request Digby was
appointed to command in this enterprise, and, civilian though he
was, and disastrous though his influence had been to the discipline
of the army, he led it boldly and skilfully. His immediate
opponent was Poyntz, who had followed the king step by step
from Doncaster to Chester and back to Welbeck ,and he succeeded
on the 1 5th in surprising Poyntz's entire force of foot at Sherburn.
Poyntz's cavalry were soon after this reported approaching
from the south, and Digby hoped to trap them also. At first
all went well and body after body of the rebels was routed.
But by a singular mischance the Royalist main body mistook the
Parliamentary squadrons in flight through Sherburn for friends,
and believing all was lost took to flight also. Thus Digby's
cavalry fled as fast as Poyntz's and in the same direction, and
the latter, coming to their senses first, drove the Royalist horse in
wild confusion as far as Skipton. Lord Digby was stilJ sanguine,
and from Skipton he actually penetrated as far as Dumfries.
But whether Montrose's new army was or was not in the Low-
lands, it was certain that Leven and Leslie were on the Border,
and the mad adventure soon came to an end. Digby, with the
mere handful of men remaining to him, was driven back into
Cumberland, and on the 24th of October, his army having
entirely disappeared, he took ship with his officers for the Isle of
Man. Poyntz had not followed him beyond Skipton, and was
now watching the king from Nottingham, while Rossiter with the
Lincoln troops was posted at Grantham. The king's chances of
escaping from Newark were becoming smaller day by day,
and they were not improved by a violent dispute between him
and Rupert, Maurice, Lord tJerard and Sir Richard Willis, at
the end of which these officers and many others rode away to
ask the Parliament for leave to go over-seas. The pretext of the
quarrel mattered little, the distinction between the views of
Charles and Digby on the one hand and Rupert and his friends
on the other was fundamental — to the latter peace had become
a political as well as a military necessity. Meanwhile south
Wales, with the single exception of Raglan Castle, had been
overrun by the Parliamentarians. Everywhere the Royalist
posts were falling. The New Model, no longer fearing Goring,
had divided, Fairfax reducing the garrisons of Dorset and
Devon, Cromwell those of Hampshire. Amongst the latter was
the famous Basing House, which was stormed at dawn on the
GREAT REBELLION
14th of October and burnt to the ground. Cromwell, his work
finished, returned to headquarters, and the army wintered in the
neighbourhood of Crediton.
44. End of the First War. — The military events of 1646 call
for no comment. The only field army remaining to the king
was Goring's, and though Hopton, who sorrowfully accepted the
command after Goring's departure, tried at the last moment
to revive the memories and the local patriotism of 1643, it was
of no use to fight against the New Model with the armed rabble
that Goring turned over to him. Dartmouth surrendered on
January 18, Hopton was defeated at Torrington on February
16, and surrendered the remnant of his worthless army on
March 14. Exeter fell on April 13. Elsewhere, Hereford was
taken on December 17, 1645, an< ^ tne ^ ast battle of the war
was fought and lost at Stow-on-the-Wold by Lord Astley on
March 21, 1646. Newark and Oxford fell respectively on May 6
and June 24. On August 3 1 Montrose escaped from the Highlands.
On the 19th of the same month Raglan Castle surrendered,
and the last Royalist post of all, Harlech Castle, maintained
the uselessstruggle until March 13, 1647. Charles himself, after
leaving Newark in November 1645, had spent the winter in and
around Oxford, whence, after an adventurous journey, he came
to the camp of the Scottish army at Southwell on May 5, 1646.
45. Second Civil War {1648-52). — The close of the First
Civil War left England and Scotland in the hands potentially of
any one of the four parties or any combination of two or more
that should prove strong enough to dominate the rest. Armed
political Royalism was indeed at an end, but Charles, though
practically a prisoner, considered himself and was, almost to
the last, considered by the rest as necessary to ensure the success
of whichever amongst the other three parties could come to terms
with him. Thus he passed successively into the hands of the
Scots, the Parliament and the New Model, trying to reverse the
verdict of arms by coquetting with each in turn. The Presby-
terians and the Scots, after Cornet Joyce of Fairfax's horse
seized upon the person of the king for the army (June 3, 1647),
began at once to prepare for a fresh civil war, this time against
Independency, as embodied in the New Model — henceforward
called the Army — and after making use of its sword, its opponents
attempted to disband it, to send it on foreign service, to cut
off its arrears of pay, with the result that it was exasperated
beyond control, and, remembering not merely its grievances
but also the principle for which it had fought, soon became the
most powerful political party in the realm. From 1646 to 1648
the breach between army and parliament widened day by day
until finally the Presbyterian party, combined with the Scots and
the remaining Royalists, felt itself strong enough to begin a
second civil war.
46. The English War. — In February 1648 Colonel Poyer, the
Parliamentary governor of Pembroke Castle, refused to hand
over his command to one of Fairfax's officers, and he was soon
joined by some hundreds of officers and men, who mutinied,
ostensibly for arrears of pay, but really with political objects.
At the end of March, encouraged by minor successes, Poyer
openly declared for the king. Disbanded soldiers continued
to join him in April, all South Wales revolted, and eventually
he was joined by Major- General Laugharne, his district com-
mander, and Colonel Powel. In April also news came that the
Scots were arming and that Berwick and Carlisle had been
seized by the English Royalists. Cromwell was at once sent off
at the head of a strong detachment to deal with Laugharne and
Poyer. But before he arrived Laugharne had been severely
defeated by Colonel Horton at St Fagans (May 8). The English
Presbyterians found it difficult to reconcile their principles
with their allies when it appeared that the prisoners taken
at St Fagans bore " We long to see our King " on their hats;
very soon in fact the English war became almost purely a Royalist
revolt, and the war in the north an attempt to enforce a mixture
of Royalism and Presbyterianism on Englishmen by means of a
Scottish army. The former were disturbers of the peace and no
more. Nearly, all the Royalists who had fought in the First
Civil War had given their parole not to bear arms against the
Parliament, and many honourable Royalists, foremost among,
them the old Lord Astley, who had fought the last battle for the
king in 1646, refused to break their word by taking any part in
the second war. Those who did so, and by implication those
who abetted them in doing so, were likely to be treated with
the utmost rigour if captured, for the army was in a less placable
mood in 1648 than in 1645, and had already determined to
" call Charles Stuart, that man of blood, to an account for the
blood he had shed." On the 21st of May Kent rose in revolt in
the king's name. A few days later a most serious blow to the
Independents was struck by the defection of the navy, from com-
mand of which they had removed Vice- Admiral Batten, as being
a Presbyterian. Though a former lord high admiral, the earl of
Warwick, also a Presbyterian, was brought back to the service,
it was not long before the navy made a purely Royalist declara-
tion and placed itself under the command of the prince of Wales.
But Fairfax had a clearer view and a clearer purpose than the
distracted Parliament. He moved quickly into Kent, and on the
evening of June 1 stormed Maidstone by open force, after which
the local levies dispersed to their homes, and the more determined
Royalists, after a futile attempt to induce the City of London to
declare for them, fled into Essex. In Cornwall, Northampton-
shire, North Wales and Lincolnshire the revolt collapsed as
easily. Only in South Wales, Essex and the north of England
was there serious fighting. In the first of these districts Cromwell
rapidly reduced all the fortresses except Pembroke, where
Laugharne, Poyer and Powel held out with the desperate courage
of deserters. In the north, Pontefract was surprised by the
Royalists, and shortly afterwards Scarborough Castle declared
for the king. Fairfax, after his success at Maidstone and the
pacification of Kent, turned northward to reduce Essex, where,
under their ardent, experienced and popular leader Sir Charles
Lucas, the Royalists were in arms in great numbers. He soon
drove the enemy into Colchester, but the first attack on the town
was repulsed and he had to settle down to a long and wearisome
siege en rhgle. A Surrey rising, remembered only for the death
of the young and gallant Lord Francis Villiers in a skirmish at
Kingston (July 7), collapsed almost as soon as it had gathered
force, and its leaders, the duke of Buckingham and the earl of
Holland, escaped, after another attempt to induce London to
declare for them, to St Albans and St Neots, where Holland was
taken prisoner. Buckingham escaped over-seas.
47. Lambert in the North. — By the 10th of July therefore the
military situation was well defined. Cromwell held Pembroke,
Fairfax Colchester, Lambert Pontefract under siege; elsewhere
all serious local risings had collapsed, and the Scottish army had
crossed the Border. It is on the adventures of the latter that
the interest of the war centres. It was by no means the veteran
army of Leven, which had long been disbanded. For the most
part it consisted of raw levies, and as the kirk had refused to
sanction the enterprise of the Scottish parliament, David Leslie
and thousands of experienced officers and men declined to serve.
The duke of Hamilton proved to be a poor substitute for Leslie;
his army, too, was so ill provided that as soon as England was
invaded it began to plunder the countryside for the bare
means of sustenance. Major- General Lambert, a brilliant young
general of twenty-nine, was more than equal to the situation.
He had already left the sieges of Pontefract and Scarborough
to Colonel Rossiter, and hurried into Cumberland to deal with the
English Royalists under Sir Marmaduke Langdale. With his
cavalry he got into touch with the enemy about Carlisle and
slowly fell back, fighting small rearguard actions to annoy the
enemy and gain time, to Bowes and Barnard Castle. Langdale
did not follow him into the mountains, but occupied himself
in gathering recruits and supplies of material and food for the
Scots. Lambert, reinforced from the midlands, reappeared
early in June and drove him back to Carlisle with his work half
finished. About the same time the local horse of Durham and
Northumberland were put into the field by Sir A. Hesilrige,
governor of Newcastle, and under the command of Colonel
Robert Lilburne won a considerable success (June 30) at the river
Coquet. This reverse, coupled with the existence of Langdale's
xn. 14
8
GREAT REBELLION
force on the Cumberland side, practically compelled Hamilton
to choose the west coast route for his advance, and his army
began slowly to move down the long couloir between the
mountains and the sea. The campaign which followed is one
of the most brilliant in English history.
48. Campaign of Preston. — On the 8th of July the Scots, with
Langdale as advanced guard, were about Carlisle, and reinforce-
ments from Ulster were expected daily. Lambert's horse were
at Penrith, Hexham and Newcastle, too weak to fight and having
only skilful leading and rapidity of movement to enable them
to gain time. Far away to the south Cromwell was still tied
down before Pembroke, Fairfax before Colchester. Elsewhere
the rebellion, which had been put down by rapidity of action
rather than sheer weight of numbers, smouldered, and Prince
Charles and the fleet cruised along the Essex coast. Cromwell
and Lambert, however, understood each other perfectly, while
the Scottish commanders quarrelled with Langdale and each
other. Appleby Castle surrendered to the Scots on the 31st
of July, whereat Lambert, who was still hanging on to the flank
of the Scottish advance, fell back from Barnard Castle to Rich-
mond so as to close Wensleydale against any attempt of the
invaders to march on Pontefract. All the restless energy of
Langdale's horse was unable to dislodge him from the passes
or to find out what was behind that impenetrable cavalry
screen. The crisis was now at hand. Cromwell had received
the surrender of Pembroke on the nth, and had marched off,
with his men unpaid, ragged and shoeless, at full speed through
the midlands. Rains and storms delayed his march, but he
knew that Hamilton in the broken ground of Westmorland was
still worse off. Shoes from Northampton and stockings from
Coventry met him at Nottingham, and, gathering up the local
levies as he went, he made for Doncaster, where he arrived on
the 8th of August, having gained six days in advance of the time
he had allowed himself for the march. He then called up
artillery from Hull, exchanged his local levies for the regulars
who were besieging Pontefract, and set off to meet Lambert.
On the 1 2th he was at Wetherby, Lambert with horse and foot
at Otley, Langdale at Skipton and Gargrave, Hamilton at
Lancaster, and Sir George Monro with the Scots from Ulster and
the Carlisle Royalists (organized as a separate command owing
to friction between Monro and the generals of the main army)
at Hornby. On the 13th, while Cromwell was marching to join
Lambert at Otley, the Scottish leaders were still disputing as to
whether they should make for Pontefract or continue through
Lancashire so as to join Lord Byron and the Cheshire Royalists.
49. Preston Fight. — On the 14th Cromwell and Lambert
were at Skipton, on the 15th at Gisburn, and on the 16th
they marched down the valley of the Ribble towards Preston
with full knowledge of the enemy's dispositions and full deter-
mination to attack him. They had with them horse and foot
not only of the army, but also of the militia of Yorkshire,
Durham, Northumberland and Lancashire, and withal were
heavily outnumbered, having only 8600 men against perhaps
20,000 of Hamilton's command. But the latter were scattered
for convenience of supply along the road from Lancaster,
through Preston, towards Wigan, Langdale's corps having thus
become the left flank guard instead of the advanced guard.
Langdale called in his advanced parties, perhaps with a view
to resuming the duties of advanced guard, on the night of
the 13th, and collected them near Longridge. It is not clear
whether he reported Cromwell's advance, but, if he did, Hamilton
ignored the report, for on the 17th Monro was half a day's march
to the north, Langdale east of Preston, and the main army
strung out on the Wigan road, Major-General Baillie with a body
of foot, the rear of the column, being still in Preston. Hamilton,
yielding to the importunity of his lieutenant-general, the earl of
Callendar, sent Baillie across the Ribble to follow the main body
just as Langdale, with 3000 foot and 500 horse only, met the
first shock of Cromwell's attack on Preston Moor. Hamilton,
like Charles at Edgehill, passively shared in, without directing,
the battle, and, though Langdale's men fought magnificently,
they were after four hours' struggle driven to the Ribble. Baillie
attempted to cover the Ribble and Darwen bridges on the Wigan
road, but Cromwell had forced his way across both before night-
fall. Pursuit was at once undertaken, and not relaxed until
Hamilton had been driven through Wigan and Winwick to
Uttoxeter and Ashbourne. There, pressed furiously in rear by
Cromwell's horse and held up in front by the militia of the mid-
lands, the remnant of the Scottish army laid down its arms on
the 25th of August. Various attempts were made to raise the
Royalist standard in Wales and elsewhere, but Preston was the
death-blow. On the 28th of August, starving and hopeless of
relief, the Colchester Royalists surrendered to Lord Fairfax.
The victors in the Second Civil War were not merciful to those
who had brought war into the land again. On the evening of
the surrender of Colchester, Sir Charles Lucas and Sir George
Lisle were shot. Laugharne, Poyer and Powel were sentenced to
death, but Poyer alone was executed on the 25th of April 1649,
being the victim selected by lot. Of five prominent Royalist
peers who had fallen into the hands of the Parliament, three,
the duke of Hamilton, the earl of Holland, and Lord Capel,
one of the Colchester prisoners and a man of high character,
were beheaded at Westminster on the 9th of February. Above
all, after long hesitations, even after renewal of negotiations,
the army and the Independents " purged " the Houses of their
ill-wishers, and created a court for the trial and sentence of the
king. The more resolute of the judges nerved the rest to sign
the death-warrant, and Charles was beheaded at Whitehall on
the 30th of January.
50. Cromwell in Ireland. — The campaign of Preston was
undertaken under the direction of the Scottish parliament, not
the kirk, and it needed the execution of the king to bring about
a union of all Scottish parties against the English Independents.
Even so, Charles II. in exile had to submit to long negotiations
and hard conditions before he was allowed to put himself at
the head of the Scottish armies. The marquis of Huntly was
executed for taking up arms for the king on the 22nd of March
1649. Montrose, under Charles's directions, made a last attempt
to rally the Scottish Royalists early in 1650. But Charles merely
used Montrose as a threat to obtain better conditions for himself
from the Covenanters, and when the noblest of all the Royalists
was defeated (Carbisdale, April 27), delivered up to his pursuers
(May 4), and executed (May 21, 1650), he was not ashamed to
give way to the demands of the Covenanters, and to place himself
at the head of Montrose's executioners. His father, whatever
his faults, had at least chosen to die for an ideal, the Church of
England. Charles II. now proposed to regain the throne by
allowing Scotland to impose Presbyterianism on England, and
dismissed all the faithful Cavaliers who had followed him to
exile. Meanwhile, Ireland, in which a fresh war, with openly
anti-English and anti-Protestant objects, had broken out in
1648, was thoroughly reduced to order by Cromwell, who beat
down all resistance by his skill, and even more by his ruthless
severity, in a brief campaign of nine months (battle of Rathmines
near Dublin, won by Colonel Michael Jones, August 2, 1649;
storming of Drogheda, September 11, and of Wexford, October
11, by Cromwell; capture of Kilkenny, March 28, 1650, and of
Clonmel, May 10). Cromwell returned to England at the end
of May 1650, and on June 26 Fairfax, who had been anxious
and uneasy since the execution of the king, resigned the com-
mand-in-chief of the army to his lieutenant-general. The
pretext, rather than the reason, of Fairfax's resignation was his
unwillingness to lead an English army to reduce Scotland.
51. The Invasion of Scotland. — This important step had been
resolved upon as soon as it was clear that Charles II. would
come to terms with the Covenanters. From this point the
Second Civil War becomes a war of England against Scotland.
Here at least the Independents carried the whole of England
with them. No Englishman cared to accept a settlement at the
hands of a victorious foreign army, and on the 28th of June,
five days after Charles II. had sworn to the Covenant, the new
lord-general was on his way to the Border to take command of
the English army. About the same time a new militia act was
passed that was destined to give full and decisive effect to the
GREAT REBELLION
419
national spirit of England in the great final campaign of the war.
Meanwhile the motto frappez forty frappez vite was carried out
at once by the regular forces. On the 19th of July 1650 Cromwell
made the final arrangements at Berwick-on-Tweed. Major-
General Harrison, a gallant soldier and an extreme Independent,
was to command the regular and auxiliary forces left in England,
and to secure the Commonwealth against Royalists and Presby-
terians. Cromwell took with him Fleetwood as lieutenant-general
and Lambert as major-general, and his forces numbered about
10,000 foot and 5000 horse. His opponent David Leslie (his
comrade of Marston Moor) had a much larger force, but its degree
of training was inferior, it was more than tainted by the political
dissensions of the people at large, and it was, in great part at
any rate, raised by forced enlistment. On the 22nd of July
Cromwell crossed the Tweed. He marched on Edinburgh by
the sea coast, through Dunbar, Haddington and Musselburgh,
living almost entirely on supplies landed by the fleet which
accompanied him — for the country itself was incapable of
supporting even a small army — and on the 29th he found
Leslie's army drawn up and entrenched in a position extending
from Leith to Edinburgh.
52. Operations around Edinburgh. — The same day a sharp but
indecisive fight took place on the lower slopes of Arthur's Seat,
after which Cromwell, having felt the strength of Leslie's line,
drew back to Musselburgh. Leslie's horse followed him up
sharply, and another action was fought, after which the Scots
assaulted Musselburgh without success. Militarily Leslie had
the best of it in these affairs, but it was precisely this moment
that the kirk party chose to institute a searching three days'
examination of the political and religious sentiments of his army.
The result was that the army was " purged " of 80 officers and
3000 soldiers as it lay within musket shot of the enemy. Crom-
well was more concerned, however, with the supply question
than with the distracted army of the Scots. On the 6th of
August he had to fall back as far as Dunbar to enable the fleet
to land supplies in safety, the port of Musselburgh being unsafe
in the violent and stormy weather which prevailed. He soon
returned to Musselburgh and prepared to force Leslie to battle.
In preparation for an extended manoeuvre three days' rations
were served out. Tents were also issued, perhaps for the first
time in the civil wars, for it was a regular professional army,
which had to be cared for, made comfortable and economized,
that was now carrying on the work of the volunteers of the first
war. Even after Cromwell started on his manoeuvre, the Scottish
army was still in the midst of its political troubles, and, certain
though he was that nothing but victory in the field would give
an assured peace, he was obliged to intervene in the confused
negotiations of the various Scottish parties. At last, however,
Charles II. made a show of agreeing to the demands of his
strange supporters, and Leslie was free to move. Cromwell
had now entered the hill country, with a view to occupying
Queensferry and thus blocking up Edinburgh. Leslie had the
shorter road and barred the way at Corstorphine Hill (August
21). Cromwell, though now far from his base, manoeuvred
again to his right, Leslie meeting him once more at Gogar
(August 27). The Scottish lines at that point were strong enough
to dismay even Cromwell, and the manoeuvre on Queensferry
was at last given up. It had cost the English army severe losses
in sick, and much suffering in the autumn nights on the bleak
hillsides.
53. Dunbar. — On the 28th Cromwell fell back on Musselburgh,
and on the 31st, after embarking his non-effective men, to Dun-
bar. Leslie followed him up, and wished to fight a battle at
Dunbar on Sunday, the 1st of September. But again the kirk
intervened, this time to forbid Leslie to break the Sabbath, and
the unfortunate Scottish commander could only establish himself
on Doon Hill (see Dunbar) and send a force to Cockburnspath
to bar the Berwick road. He had now 23,000 men to Cromwell's
11,000, and proposed, faute de mieux, to starve Cromwell into
surrender. But the English army was composed of " ragged
soldiers with bright muskets," and had a great captain of un-
disputed authority at their head. Leslie's, on the other hand,
had lost such discipline as it had ever possessed, and was now,
under outside influences, thoroughly disintegrated. Cromwell
wrote home, indeed, that he was " upon an engagement very
difficult," but, desperate as his position seemed, he felt the
pulse of his opponent and steadily refused to take his army away
by sea. He had not to wait long. It was now the turn of Leslie's
men on the hillside to endure patiently privation and exposure,
and after one night's bivouac, Leslie, too readily inferring that
the enemy was about to escape by sea, came down to fight. The
battle of Dunbar (q.v.) opened in the early morning of the 3rd of
September. It was the most brilliant of all Oliver's victories.
Before the sun was high in the heavens the Scottish army had
ceased to exist.
54. Royalism in Scotland. — After Dunbar it was easy for the
victorious army to overrun southern Scotland, more especially
as the dissensions of the enemy were embittered by the defeat
of which they had been the prime cause. The kirk indeed put
Dunbar to the account of its own remissness in not purging their
army more thoroughly, but, as Cromwell wrote on the 4th of
September, the kirk had " done its do." " I believe their king
will set up on his own score," he continued, and indeed, now that
the army of the kirk was destroyed and they themselves were
secure behind the Forth and based on the friendly Highlands,
Charles and the Cavaliers were in a position not only to defy
Cromwell, but also to force the Scottish national spirit of resist-
ance to the invader into a purely Royalist channel. Cromwell
had only received a few drafts and reinforcements from England,
and for the present he could but block up Edinburgh Castle
(which surrendered on Christmas eve), and try to bring up
adequate forces and material for the siege of Stirling — an attempt
which was frustrated by the badness of the roads and the violence
of the weather. The rest of the early winter of 1650 was thus
occupied in semi-military, semi-political operations between
detachments of the English army and certain armed forces of the
kirk party which still maintained a precarious existence in the
western Lowlands, and in police work against the moss-troopers
of the Border counties. Early in February 1651, still in the
midst of terrible weather, Cromwell made another resolute but
futile attempt to reach Stirling. This time he himself fell sick,
and his losses had to be made good by drafts of recruits from
England, many of whom came most unwillingly to serve in the
cold wet bivouacs that the newspapers had graphically reported. 1
55. The English Militia. — About this time there occurred
in England two events which had a most important bearing on
the campaign. The first was the detection of a widespread
Royalist-Presbyterian conspiracy — how widespread no one knew,
for those of its promoters who were captured and executed cer-
tainly formed but a small fraction of the whole number. Harrison
was ordered to Lancashire in April to watch the north Welsh,
Isle of Man and Border Royalists, and military precautions were
taken in various parts of England. The second was the revival
of the militia. Since 1644 there had been no general employment
of local forces, the quarrel having fallen into the hands of the
regular armies by force of circumstances. The New Model,
though a national army, resembled Wellington's Peninsular
army more than the soldiers of the French Revolution and the
American Civil War. It was now engaged in prosecuting a
war of aggression against the hereditary foe over the Border —
strictly the task of a professional army with a national basis.
The militia was indeed raw and untrained. Some of the Essex
men " fell flat on their faces on the sound of a cannon." In the
north of England Harrison complained to Cromwell of the
" badness " of his men, and the lord general sympathized,
having " had much such stuff " sent him to make good the
losses in trained men. Even he for a moment lost touch with the
spirit of the people. His recruits were unwilling drafts for foreign
service, but in England the new levies were trusted to defend
1 The tents were evidently issued for regular marches, not for
cross-country manoeuvres against the enemy. These manoeuvres,
as we have seen, often took several days. Trie bon general ordinaire
of the 17th and 18th centuries framed his manoeuvres on a smaller
scale so as not to expose his expensive and highly trained soldiers
to discomfort and the consequent temptation to desert.
420
GREAT REBELLION
their homes, and the militia was soon triumphantly to justify its
existence on the day of Worcester.
56. Inverkeithing. — While David Leslie organized and drilled
the king's new army beyond the Forth, Cromwell was, slowly
and with frequent relapses, recovering from his illness. The
English army marched to Glasgow in April, then returned to
Edinburgh. The motives of the march and that of the return
are alike obscure, but it may be conjectured that, the forces in
England under Harrison having now assembled in Lancashire,
the Edinburgh-Newcastle- York road had to be covered by the
main army. Be this as it may, Cromwell's health again broke
down and his life was despaired of. Only late in June were
operations actively resumed between Stirling and Linlithgow.
At first Cromwell sought without success to bring Leslie to
battle, but he stormed Callendar House near Falkirk on July 13,
and on the 16th of July he began the execution of a brilliant
and successful manoeuvre. A force from Queensferry, covered by
the English fleet, was thrown across the Firth of Forth to North-
ferry. Lambert followed with reinforcements, and defeated a
detachment of Leslie's army at Inverkeithing on the 20th.
Leslie drew back at once, but managed to find a fresh strong
position in front of Stirling, whence he defied Cromwell again.
At this juncture Cromwell prepared to pass his whole army across
the firth. His contemplated manoeuvre of course gave up to the
enemy all the roads into England, and before undertaking it the
lord general held a consultation with Harrison, as the result of
which that officer took over the direct defence of the whole
Border. But his mind was made up even before this, for on the
day he met Harrison at Linlithgow three-quarters of his whole
army had already crossed into Fife. Burntisland, surrendered
to Lambert on the 29th, gave Cromwell a good harbour upon
which to base his subsequent movements. On the 30th of July
the English marched upon Perth, and the investment of this
place, the key to Leslie's supply area, forced the crisis at once.
Whether Leslie would have preferred to manoeuvre Cromwell
from his vantage-ground or not is immaterial; the young king
and the now predominant Royalist element at headquarters
seized the long-awaited opportunity at once, and on the 31st,
leaving Cromwell to his own devices, the Royal army marched
southward to raise the Royal standard in England.
57. The Third Scottish Invasion of England. — Then began the
last and most thrilling campaign of the Great Rebellion. Charles
II. expected complete success. In Scotland, vis-d-vis the extreme
Covenanters, he was a king on conditions, and he was glad enough
to find himself in England with some thirty solidly organized regi-
ments under Royalist officers and with no regular army in front
of him. He hoped, too, to rally not merely the old faithful
Royalists, but also the overwhelming numerical strength of the
English Presbyterians to his standard. His army was kept well
in hand, no excesses were allowed, and in a week the Royalists
covered 150 m. — in marked contrast to the duke of Hamilton's
ill-fated expedition of 1648. On the 8th of August the troops
were given a well-earned rest between Penrith and Kendal.
But the Royalists were mistaken in supposing that the enemy
was taken aback by their new move. Everything had been
foreseen both by Cromwell and by the Council of State in West-
minster. The latter had called out the greater part of the
militia on the 7th. Lieutenant- General Fleetwood began to
draw together the midland contingents at Banbury, the London
trained bands turned out for field service no fewer than 14,000
strong. Every suspected Royalist was closely watched, and the
magazines of arms in the country-houses of the gentry were for
the most part removed into the strong places. On his part
Cromwell had quietly made his preparations. Perth passed into
his hands on the 2nd of August, and he brought back his army to
Leith by the 5th. Thence he despatched Lambert with a cavalry
corps to harass the invaders. Harrison was already at Newcastle
picking the best of the county mounted troops to add to his own
regulars. On the 9th Charles was at Kendal, Lambert hovering in
his rear, and Harrison marching swiftly to bar his way at the
Mersey. Fairfax emerged for a moment from his retirement to
organize the Yorkshire levies, and the best of these as well* as of
the Lancashire, Cheshire and Staffordshire militias were directed
upon Warrington, which point Harrison reached on the 15th, a
few hours in front of Charles's advanced guard. Lambert too,
slipping round the left flank of the enemy, joined Harrison, and
the English fell back (16th), slowly and without letting themselves
be drawn into a fight, along the London road. .;
58. Campaign of Worcester. — Cromwell meanwhile, leaving
Monk with the least efficient regiments to carry on the war in
Scotland, had reached the Tyne in seven days, and thence,
marching 20 m. a day in extreme heat — with the country people
carrying their arms and equipment — the regulars entered
Ferrybridge on the 19th, at which date Lambert, Harrison and
the north-western militia were about Congleton. 1 It seemed
probable that a great battle would take place between Lichfield
and Coventry about the 25th or 26th of August, and that Crom-
well, Harrison, Lambert and Fleetwood would all take part in it.
But the scene and the date of the denouement were changed by
the enemy's movements. Shortly after leaving Warrington the
young king had resolved to abandon the direct march on London
and to make for the Severn valley, where his father had found the
most constant and the most numerous adherents in the first war,
and which had been the centre of gravity of the English Royalist
movement of 1648. Sir Edward Massey, formerly the Parlia-
mentary governor of Gloucester, was now with Charles, and it was
hoped that he would induce his fellow-Presbyterians to take arms.
The military quality of the Welsh border Royalists was well
proved, that of the Gloucestershire Presbyterians not less so, and,
based on Gloucester and Worcester as his father had been based
on Oxford, Charles II. hoped, not unnaturally, to deal with an
Independent minority more effectually than Charles I. had done
with a Parliamentary majority of the people of England. But
even the pure Royalism which now ruled in the invading army
could not alter the fact that it was a Scottish army, and it was
not an Independent faction but all England that took arms
against it. Charles arrived at Worcester on the 22nd of August,
and spent five days in resting the troops, preparing for further
operations, and gathering and arming the few recruits who came
in. It is unnecessary to argue that the delay was fatal; it was a
necessity of the case foreseen and accepted when the march to
Worcester had been decided upon, and had the other course,
that of marching on London via Lichfield, been taken the battle
would have been fought three days earlier with the same result.
As affairs turned out Cromwell merely shifted the area of his
concentration two marches to the south-west, to Evesham.
Early on the 28th Lambert surprised the passage of the Severn
at Upton, 6 m. below Worcester, and in the action which followed
Massey was severely wounded. Fleetwood followed Lambert.
The enemy was now only 16,000 strong and disheartened by the
apathy with which they had been received in districts formerly all
their own. Cromwell, for the first and last time in his military
career, had a two-to-one numerical superiority.
59. The " Crowning Mercy." — He took his measures deliber-
ately. Lilburne from Lancashire and Major Mercer with the
Worcestershire horse were to secure Bewdley Bridge on the
enemy's line of retreat. Lambert and Fleetwood were to force
their way across the Teme (a little river on which Rupert had won
his first victory in 1642) and attack St John's, the western suburb
of Worcester. Cromwell himself and the main army were to
attack the town itself. On the 3rd of September, the anniversary
of Dunbar, the programme was carried out exactly. Fleetwood
forced the passage of the Teme, and the bridging train (which had
been carefully organized for the purpose) bridged both the Teme
and the Severn. Then Cromwell on the left bank and Fleetwood
on the right swept in a semicircle 4 m. long up to Worcester.
Every hedgerow was contested by the stubborn Royalists, but
Fleetwood's men would not be denied, and Cromwell's extreme
right on the eastern side of the town repelled, after three hours*
hard fighting, the last desperate attempt of the Royalists to break
1 The lord general had during his march thrown out successively
two flying columns under Colonel Lilburne to deal with the Lanca-
shire Royalists under the earl of Derby. Lilburne entirely routed
the enemy at Wigan on the 25th of August.
GREAT SALT LAKE
421
out. It was indeed, as a German critic 1 has pointed out, the
prototype of Sedan. Everywhere the defences were stormed as
darkness came on, regulars and militia fighting with equal
gallantry, and the few thousands of the Royalists who escaped
during the night were easily captured by Lilburne and Mercer, or
by the militia which watched every road in Yorkshire and Lanca-
shire. Even the country people brought in scores of prisoners,
for officers and men alike, stunned by the suddenness of the
disaster, offered no resistance. Charles escaped after many
adventures, but he was one of the few men in his army who
regained a place of safety. The Parliamentary militia were sent
home within a week. Cromwell, who had ridiculed " such stuff "
six months ago, knew them better now. " Your new raised
forces," he wrote to the House, " did perform singular good
service, for which they deserve a very high estimation and
acknowledgment." Worcester resembled Sedan in much more
than outward form. Both were fought by " nations in arms," by
citizen soldiers who had their hearts in the struggle, and could be
trusted not only to fight their hardest but to march their best.
Only with such troops would a general dare to place a deep river
between the two halves of his army or to send away detachments
beforehand to reap the fruits of victory, in certain anticipation
of winning the victory with the remainder. The sense of duty,
which the raw militia possessed in so high a degree, ensured the
arrival and the action of every column at the appointed time and
place. The result was, in brief, one of those rare victories in
which a pursuit is superfluous — a " crowning mercy," as Cromwell
called it. There is little of note in the closing operations. Monk
had completed his task by May 1652; and Scotland, which had
twice attempted to impose its will on England, found itself
reduced to the position of an English province under martial
law. The details of its subjection are uninteresting after the
tremendous climax of Worcester.
Bibliography. — Earl of Clarendon, The History of the Rebellion
(Oxford, 1702-1704, ed. W. D. Macray, Oxford, 1888); R. Baillie,
Letters and Journals (Bannatyne Society, 1841); T. Carlyle, Crom-
well's Letters and Speeches (new edition, S. C. Lomas, London, 1904) ;
Fairfax Correspondence (ed. R. Bell, London, 1849); E. Borlace,
History of the Irish Rebellion (London, 1675) J R - Sellings, Frag-
mentum historicum, or the . . . War in Ireland (London, 1772); J.
Heath, Chronicle of the late Intestine War (London, 1676) ; Military
Memoir of Colonel Birch (Camden Society, new series, vol. vii., 1873) ;
Autobiography of Captain John Hodgson (edition of 1882); Papers
on the earl of Nlanchester, Camden Society, vol. viii., and English
Historical Review, vol. iii. ; J. Ricraft, Survey of England's Champions
(1647, reprinted, London, 1818); ed. E. Warburton, Memoirs of
Prince Rupert and the Cavaliers (London, 1849); J. Vicars, Jehovah-
Jireh (1644), and England's Worthies (1647), the latter reprinted in
1845; Anthony a Wood, History and Antiquities of the university
of Oxford (ed. J. Gutch, Oxford, 1 792-1 795); Margaret, duchess of
Newcastle, Life of William Cavendish, duke of Newcastle (ed. C. H.
Firth, London, 1886); Lucy Hutchinson, Memoir of the Life of
Colonel Hutchinson (ed. C. H. Firth, Oxford, 1896); Memoirs of
Edward Ludlow (ed. C. H. Firth, Oxford, 1892); S. Ashe and W.
Goode, The Services of the Earl of Manchester's Army (London, 1644) ;
H. Cary, Memorials of the Great Civil War (London, 1842); Patrick
Gordon, Passages from the Diary of Patrick Gordon (Spalding Club,
Aberdeen, 1859) ; J. Gwynne, Military Memoirs of the Civil War
(ed. Sir W. Scott, Edinburgh, 1822); Narratives of Hamilton's
Expedition, 1648 (C. H. Firth, Scottish Historical Society, Edinburgh,
1904); Lord Hopton, Bellum Civile (Somerset Record Society,
London, 1902) ; Irish War of 1641 (Camden Society, old series, vol.
xiv., 1 841) ; Iter Carolinum, Marches of Charles 1. 1641-164Q (London,
1660) ; Hugh Peters, Reports from the Armies of Fairfax and Cromwell
(London, 1645-1646) ; tl Journal of the Marches of Prince Rupert "
(ed. C. H. Firth, Engl Historical Review, 1898); J. Sprigge, Anglia
Rediviva (London, 1847, reprinted Oxford, 1854); R. Symonds,
Diary of the Marches of the Royal Army, 1644-164$ (ed. C. E. Long,
Camden Society, old series, 1859); J. Corbet, The Military Govern-
ment of Gloucester (London, 1645); M. Carter, Expeditions of Kent,
Essex and Colchester (London, 1650); Tracts relating to the Civil
War in Lancashire (ed. G. Ormerod, Chetham Society, London,
1844) ; Discourse of the War in Lancashire (ed. W. Beament, Chetham
Society, London, 1864); Sir M. Langdale, The late Fight at Preston
(London, 1648) ; Journal of the Siege of Lathom House (London, 1823) ;
J. Rushworth, The Storming of Bristol (London, 1645) ; S. R. Gardiner
History of the Great Civil War (London, 1886); and History of the
Commonwealth and Protectorate (London, 1903) ; C. H. Firth, Oliver
Cromwell (New York and London, 1900) ; Cromwell's Army (London,
1902) ; " The Raising of the Iron sides," Transactions R. Hist.
1 Fritz Hoenig, Cromwell.
Society, 1809 and 1901; papers in English Historical Review, and
memoirs of the leading personages of the period in Dictionary of
National Biography; T. S. Baldock, Cromwell as a Soldier (London,
1899); F. Hoenig, Oliver Cromwell (Berlin, 1887-1889); Sir j.
Maclean, Memoirs of the Family of Poyntz (Exeter, 1886); Sir C.
Markham, Life of Fairfax (London, 1870); M. Napier, Life and
Times of Montrose (Edinburgh, 1840); W. B. Devereux, Lives of
the Earls of Essex (London, 1853); W. G. Ross, Mil. Engineering
in the Civil War (R.E. Professional Papers, 1887); " The Battle of
Naseby," English Historical Review, 1888; Oliver Cromwell and
his Ironsides (Chatham, i860); F. N. Maude, Cavalry, its Past and
Future (London, 1903) ; E. Scott, Rupert, Prince Palatine (London,
1899); M. Stace, CromwelHana (London, 1870); C. S. Terry, Life
and Campaigns of Alexander Leslie, Earl of Leven (London, 1899);
Madame H. de Witt, The Lady of Lathom (London, 1869); F.
Maseres, Tracts relating to the Civil War (London, 18 15); P. A.
Charrier, Cromwell (London, 1905), also paper in Royal United Service
Institution Journal, 1906 ; T. Arnold and W. G. Ross, " Edgehill,"
English Historical Review, 1887; The History of Basing House
(Basingstoke, 1869); E. Broxap, "The Sieges of Hull," English
Historical Review, 1905; J. Willis Bund, The Civil War in Worcester-
shire (Birmingham, 1905) ; C. Coates, History of Reading (London,
1802) ; F. Drake, Eboracum: History of the City of York (London,
1736) ; N. Drake, Siege of Pontefract Castle (Surtees Society Miscel-
lanea, London, 1861); G. N. Godwin, The Civil War in Hampshire
(2nd ed., London, 1904); J. F. Hollings, Leicester during the Civil
War (Leicester, 1840); R. Holmes, Sieges of Pontefract Castle
(Pontefract, 1887); A. Kingston, East Anglia and the Civil War
(London, 1897); H. E. Maiden, "Maidstone, 1648," English Hist.
Review, 1802; W. Money, Battles of Newbury (Newbury, 1884);
J. R. Phillips, The Civil War in Wales and the Marches (London,
1874); G.Jtigaud, Lines round Oxford (1880); G. Roberts, History
" ~ '~. Robinson] Sieges of Bristol (Bristol,
' of Colchester Castle (Colchester, 1882)
of Lyme (London, 1834) ; [R. Robinson] Sieges of Bristol (Bristol,
1868); [J. H. Round] History of Colchester Castle (Colchester, 1882)
and " The Case of Lucas and Lisle," Transactions of R. Historical
Society T»n,«. R R mia *
a?
Society, 1894; R. R. Sharpe, London and the Kingdom (London,
1894); I. Tullie, Siege of Carlisle (1840); E. A. Walford, " Edge-
hill, English Hist. Review, 1905; J. Washbourne, Bibliotheca
Gloucestrensis (Gloucester, 1825); J. Webb, Civil War in Hereford-
shire (London, 1879).
(C.F.A.)
GREAT SALT LAKE, a shallow body of highly concentrated
brine in the N.W. part of Utah, U.S.A., lying between 118-8°
and 113*2° W. long, and between 40-7° and 41-8° lat. Great
Salt Lake is 4218 ft. above sea-level. It has no outlet, and is
fed chiefly by the Jordan, the Weber and the Bear rivers, all
draining the mountainous country to the E. and S.E. The
irregular outline of the lake has been compared to the roughly
drawn hand, palm at the S., thumb (exaggerated in breadth)
pointing N.E., and the fingers (crowded together and drawn
too small) reaching N.
No bathymetric survey of the lake has been made, but the
maximum depth is 60 ft. and the mean depth less than 20 ft.,
possibly as little as 13 ft. The lake in 1906 was approximately
75 m. long., from N.W. to S.E., and had a maximum width of
50 m. and an area of 1 7 50 sq. m. This area is not constant , as the
water is very shallow at the margins, and the relation between
supply from precipitation, &c, and loss by evaporation is
variable, there being an annual difference in the height of the
water of 1 5-18 in. between June (highest) and November (lowest),
and besides a difference running through longer cycles: in 1850
the water was lower and the lake smaller than by any previous
observations (the area and general outline were nearly the same
again in 1906); then the water rose until 1873; and between
1886 and 1902 the fall in level was 1 1«6 ft. The range of rise and
fall from 1845 to 1886 was 13 ft., this being the rise in 1865-1886.
With the fall of water there is an increase in the specific gravity,
which in 1850 was 1-17, and in September 1901 was 1-179;
in 1850 the proportion of solids by weight was 22*282%, in
September 1901 it was 25-221; at the earlier of these dates
the solids in a litre of water weighed 260*69 grams, at the latter
date 302*122 grams. The exact cause of this cyclic variation
is unknown: the low level of 1906 is usually regarded as the
result of extensive irrigation and ploughing in the surrounding
country, which have robbed the lake, in part, of its normal
supply of water. It is also to be noted that the rise and fall
of the lake level have been coincident, respectively, with con-
tinued wet and dry cycles. That the lake will soon dry up
entirely seems unlikely, as there is a central trough, 25 to 30 m.
wide, about 40 ft. deep, running N.W. and S.E. The area and
422
GREAT SLAVE LAKE— GREAVES
shore-line of the lake are evidently affected by a slight surface
tilt, for during the same generation that has seen the recent
fall of the lake level the shore-line is in many cases 2 m. from the
old, and fences may be seen a mile or more out in the lake. The
lake bed is for the most part clear sand along the margin, and in
deeper water is largely coated with crusts of salt, soda and
gypsum.
The lake is a novel and popular bathing resort, the specific
gravity of the water being so great that one cannot sink or
entirely submerge oneself. There are well-equipped bathing
pavilions at Garfield and Saltair on the S. shore of the lake about
20 m. from Salt Lake City. The bathing is invigorating; it
must be followed by a freshwater bath because of the incrusta-
tion of the body from the briny water. The large amount of
salt in the water makes both fauna and flora of the lake scanty;
there are a few algae, the larvae of an Ephydra and of a Tiptda
fly, specimens of what seems to be Corixa decolor, and in great
quantities, so as to tint the surface of the water, the brine
shrimp, Artemia salina (or gracilis or fertilis), notable biologically
for the rarity of males, for the high degree of parthenogenesis and
for apparent interchangeableness with the Branchipus.
The lake is of interest for its generally mountainous surround-
ings, save to theN.W., where it skirts the Great Salt Lake Desert,
for the mountainous peninsula, the Promontory, lying between
thumb and fingers of the hand, shaped like and resembling in
geological structure the two islands S. of it , Fremont and Antelope, 1
and the Oquirrh range S. of the lake. The physiography of the
surrounding country shows clearly that the basin occupied by
Great Salt Lake is one of many left by the drying up of a large
Pleistocene lake, which has been called lake Bonneville. Well-
defined wave-cut cliffs and terraces show two distinct shore-lines
of this early lake, one the " Bonneville Shore-line," about 1000
ft. above Great Salt Lake, and the other, the " Provo Shore-
line," about 625 ft. higher than the present lake. These shore-
lines and the presence of two alluvial deposits, the lower and the
larger of yellow clay 90 ft. deep, and, separated from it by a plane
of erosion, the other, a deposit of white marl, 10-20 ft. deep,
clearly prove the main facts as to lake Bonneville: a dry basin
was first occupied by the shallow waters of a small lake; then,
during a long period of excessive moisture (or cold), the waters
rose and spread over an area nearly as large as lake Huron with
a maximum depth of 1000 ft.; a period of great dryness followed,
in which the lake disappeared; then came a second, shorter,
but more intense period of moisture, and in this time the lake
rose, covered a larger area than before, including W. Utah and
a little of S. Idaho and of E. Nevada, about 19,750 sq. m., had
a very much broken shore-line of 2550 m. and a maximum
depth of 1050 ft. and a mean depth of 800 ft., overflowed the
basin at the N., and by a tributary stream through Red Rock
Pass at the N. end of the Cache valley poured its waters into
the Columbia river system. The great lake was then gradually
reduced by evaporation, leaving only shallow bodies of salt water,
of which Great Salt Lake is the largest. The cause of the
climatic variations which brought about this complex history
of the Salt Lake region is not known; but it is worthy of
note that the periods of highest water levels were coincident
with a great expansion of local valley glaciers, some of which
terminated in the waters of lake Bonneville.
Industrially Great Salt Lake is of a certain importance. In
early days it was the source of the salt supply of the surrounding
country; and the manufacture of salt is now an important
industry. The brine is pumped into conduits, carried to large
ponds and there evaporated by the sun; during late years the
salt has been refined here, being purified of the sulphates and
magnesium compounds which formerly rendered it efflorescent
and of a low commercial grade. Mirabilite, or Glauber's salt,
is commercially valuable, occurring in such quantities in parts
of the lake that one may wade knee-deep in it; it separates
1 Besides these islands there are a few 6mall islands farther N.,
and W.- of Antelope, Stansbury Island, which, like Antelope and
Fremont Islands, is connected with the mainland by a bar sometimes
uncovered and rarely in more than a foot of water.
from the brine at a temperature between 30 and 20 F. The
lake is crossed E. and W. by the Southern Pacific railway's
so-called " Lucin Cut-off," which runs from Ogden to Lucin
on a trestle with more than 20 m. of " fill "; the former route
around the N. end of the lake was 43 m. long.
Great Salt Lake was first described in 1689 by Baron La
Hontan, who had merely heard of it from the Indians. " Jim "
Bridger, a famous mountaineer and scout, saw the lake in 1824,
apparently before any other white man. Captain Bonneville
described the lake and named it after himself, but the name
was transferred to the great Pleistocene lake. John C. Fremont
gave the first description of any accuracy in his Report of 1845.
But comparatively little was known of it before the Mormon
settlement in 1847. In 1850 Captain Howard Stansbury com-
pleted a survey, whose results were published in 1852. The
most extensive and important studies of the region, however,
are those by Grove Karl Gilbert of the United States Geological
Survey, who in 1 879-1 890 studied especially the earlier and
greater lake.
See J. E. Talmage, The Great Salt Lake, Present and Past (Salt
Lake City, 1900) ; and Grove Karl Gilbert, Lake Bonneville, mono-
graph 1 of United States Geological Survey (Washington, 1890),
containing (pp. 12-19) references to the earlier literature.
GREAT SLAVE LAKE (Athapuscow), a lake of Mackenzie
district, Canada. It is situated between 6o° 50' and 62 55'
N. and 108 40' and 117° W., at an altitude of 391 ft. above
the sea. It is 325 m. long, from 15 to 50 m. wide, and includes
an area of 9770 sq. m. The water is very clear and deep. Its
coast line is irregular and deeply indented by large bays, and its
north-eastern shores are rugged and mountainous. The western
shores are well wooded, chiefly with spruce, but the northern
and eastern are dreary and barren. It is navigable from about
the 1st of July to the end of October. The Yellow-knife, Hoar-
frost, Lockhart (discharging the waters of Aylmer, Clint on-
Colden and Artillery Lakes), Tchzudezeth, Du Rocher, Hay
(400 m. in length), and Slave rivers empty into Great Slave
Lake. The bulk of its water empties by the Mackenzie river
into the Arctic Ocean, but a small portion finds its way by the
Ark-i-linik river into Hudson's Bay. It was discovered in 1771
by Samuel Hearne.
GREAT SOUTHERN OCEAN, the name given to the belt of
water which extends almost continuously round the globe
between the parallel of 40 S. and the Antarctic Circle (66£° S.).
The fact that the southern extremity of South America is the
only land extending into this belt gives it special physical
importance in relation to tides and currents, and its position
with reference to the Antarctic Ocean and continent makes it
convenient to regard it as a separate ocean from which the
Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans may be said to radiate.
(See Ocean.)
GREAVES, JOHN (1602-1652), English mathematician and
antiquary, was the eldest son of John Greaves, rector of Cole-
more, near Alresford in Hampshire. He was educated at Balliol
College, Oxford, and in 1630 was chosen professor of geometry
in Gresham College, London. After travelling in Europe,
he visited the East in 1637, where he collected a considerable
number of Arabic, Persian and Greek manuscripts, and made a
more accurate survey of the pyramids of Egypt than any traveller
who had preceded him. On his return to Europe he visited a
second time several parts of Italy, and during his stay at Rome
instituted inquiries into the ancient weights and measures. In
1643 he was appointed to the Savilian professorship of astronomy
at Oxford, but he was deprived of his Gresham professorship
for having neglected its duties. In 1645 ne essayed a reforma-
tion of the calendar, but his plan was not adopted. In 1648 he
lost both his fellowship and his Savilian chair on account of his
adherence to the royalist party. But his private fortune more
than sufficed for all his wants till his death on the 8th of October
1652.
Besides his papers in the Philosophical Transactions, the principal
works of Greaves are Pyramidographia, or a Description of the
Pyramids in Egypt (1646); A Discourse on the Roman Foot and
GREBE— GRECO, EL
423
Denarius (1649); and Elementa linguae Persicae (1649). His
miscellaneous works were published in 1737 by Dr Thomas Birch,
with a biographical notice of the author. See also Smith's Vita
quorundam erudit. virorum and Ward's Gresham Professors.
GREBE (Fr. grebe), the generally accepted name for all the
birds of the family Podicipedidae, 1 belonging to the group
Pygopodes of Illiger, members of which inhabit almost all parts
ot the world. Some systematic writers have distributed them
into several so-called genera, but, with one exception, these
seem to be insufficiently defined, and here it will be enough to
allow but two — Latham's Podiceps and the Centropelma of
Sclater and Salvin. Grebes are at once distinguishable from
x^
Great Crested Grebe.
all other water-birds by their rudimentary tail and the peculiar
structure of their feet, which are not only placed far behind, but
have the tarsi flattened and elongated toes furnished with broad
lobes of skin and flat blunt nails.
In Europe are five well-marked species of Podiceps, the
commonest and smallest of which is the very well-known dab-
chick of English ponds, P. fluviatilis or minor, the little grebe
of ornithologists, found throughout the British Islands, and
with a wide range in the old world. Next in size are two species
known as the eared and horned grebes, the former of which,
P. nigricollis, is a visitor from the south, only occasionally
showing itself in Britain and very rarely breeding, while the
latter, P. aurUus, has a more northern range, breeding plentifully
in Iceland, and is a not uncommon winter-visitant. Then there
is the larger red-necked grebe, P. griseigena, also a northern bird,
and a native of the subarctic parts of both Europe and America,
while lastly the great crested grebe, P. cristatus or gaunt — known
as the loon on the meres and broads of East Anglia and some
other parts of England, is also widely spread over the old world.
North America is credited with seven species of grebes, of which
two (P. griseigena and P. auritus) are admitted to be specifically
inseparable from those already named, and two (P. occidenlalis
and P. californicus) appear to be but local forms; the remaining
two (P. dominicus and P. ludovicianus) may, however, be
accounted good species, and the last differs so much from other
grebes that many systematists make it the type of a distinct
genus, PodUymbus. South America seems to possess four or
five more species, one of which, the P. micropterus of Gould
(Proc. Zool. Society, 1858, p. 220), has been deservedly separated
1 Often, but erroneously, written Podicipidae. The word Podiceps
being a contracted form of Podicipes (cf . Gloger, Journal fur Orni-
thologie, 1854, p. 430, note), a combination of podex, podicis and pes,
pedis, its further compounds must be in accordance witn its derivation.
from the genus Podiceps under the name Centropelma by Sclater
and Salvin (Exot. Ornithology, p. 189, pi. xcv.), owing to the form
of its bill, and the small size of its wings, which renders it
absolutely flightless. Lake Titicaca in Bolivia is, so far as is
known at present, its only habitat. Grebes in general, though
averse from taking wing, have much greater power of flight
than would seem possible on examination of their alar organs,
and are capable of prolonged aerial journeys. Their plumage is
short and close. Above it is commonly of some shade of brown,
but beneath it is usually white, and so glossy as to be in much
request for muffs and the trimming of ladies' dresses. Some
species are remarkable for the crests or tippets, generally of a
golden-chestnut colour, they assume in the breeding season.
P. auritus is particularly remarkable in this respect, and when
in its full nuptial attire presents an extraordinary aspect, the
head (being surrounded, as it were, by a nimbus or aureole, such
as that with which painters adorn saintly characters), reflecting
the rays of light, glitters with a glory that passes description.
All the species seem to have similar habits of nidification.
Water-weeds are pulled from the bottom of the pool, and piled
on a convenient foundation, often a seminatant growth of bog-
bean (Menyanthes), till they form a large mass, in the centre of
which a shallow cup is formed, and the eggs, with a chalky
white shell almost equally pointed at each end, are laid — the
parent covering them, whenever she has time to do so, before
leaving the nest. Young grebes are beautiful objects, clothed
with black, white and brown down, disposed in streaks and
their bill often brilliantly tinted. When taken from the nest
and placed on dry ground, it is curious to observe the way in
which they progress — using the wings almost as fore-feet, and
suggesting the notion that they must be quadrupeds instead of
birds. (A. N.)
GRECO, EL, the name commonly given to Dominico Theoto-
copuli (d. 1 6 14), Cretan painter, architect and sculptor. He
was born in Crete, between 1545 and 1550, and announces his
Cretan origin by his signature in Greek letters on his most im-
portant pictures, especially on the " St Maurice " in the Escorial.
He appears to have studied art first of all in Venice, and on
arriving in Rome in 1570 is described as having been a pupil
of Titian, in a letter written by the miniaturist, Giulio Clovio,
addressed to Cardinal Alessandro Farnesi, dated the 15th of
November 1570.
Although a student under Titian, he was at no time an ex-
ponent of his master's spirit, and his early historical pictures
were attributed to many other artists, but never to Titian.
Of his early works, two pictures of " The Healing of the Blind
Man " at Dresden and Palma, and the four of " Christ driving
the money-changers out of the Temple " in the Yarborough
collection, the Cork collection, the National Gallery, and the
Beruete collection at Madrid, are the chief. His first authentic
portrait is that of his fellow-countryman, Giulio Clovio. It was
painted between 1570 and 1578, is signed in Greek characters,
and preserved at Naples, and the last portrait he painted under
the influence of the Italian school appears to be that of a cardinal
now in the National Gallery, of which four replicas painted in
Spain are known. He appears to have come to Spain in 1577,
but, on being questioned two years later in connexion with a
judicial suit, as to when he arrived in the country, and for what
purpose he came, declined to give any information. He was
probably attracted by the prospect of participating in the
decoration of the Escorial, and he appears to have settled down
in Toledo, where his first works were the paintings for the high
altar of Santo Domingo, and his famous picture of " The Dis-
robing of Christ " in the sacristy of the cathedral. It was in
connexion with this last-named work that he proved refractory,
and the records of a law-suit respecting the price to be paid to
him give us the earliest information of the artist's sojourn in
Spain. In 1500, he painted the " History of St Maurice " for
Philip II., and in 1578, his masterpiece, entitled " The Burial
of the Count Orgaz." This magnificent picture, one of the finest
in Spain, is at last being appreciated, and can only be put a
little below the masterpieces of Velazquez. It is a strangely
424
GRECO-TURKISH WAR
individual work, representing Spanish character even more
truthfully than did any Spanish artist, and it gathers up all
the fugitive moods, the grace and charm, the devices and defects
of a single race, and gives them complete stability in their
wavering expressions.
Between 1595 and 1600, El Greco executed two groups of
paintings in the church of San Jos6 at Toledo, and in the hospital
of La Caridad, at Illescas. Besides these, he is known to have
painted thirty-two portraits, several manuscripts, and many
paintings for altar-pieces in Toledo and the neighbourhood.
As an architect he was responsible for more than one of the
churches of Toledo, and as a sculptor for carvings both in wood
and in marble, and he can only be properly understood in all
his varied excellences after a visit to the city where most of
his work was executed.
He died on the 7th of April 16 14, and the date of his death
is one of the very few certain facts which we have respecting him.
The record informs us that he made no will, that he received the
sacraments, and was buried in the church of Santo Domingo.
The popular legend of his having gone mad towards the latter
part of his career has no foundation in fact, but his painting
became more and more eccentric as his life went on, and his
natural perversity and love of strange, cold colouring, increased
towards the end of his life. As has been well said, " Light with
him was only used for emotional appeal, and was focussed or
scattered at will." He was haughtily certain of the value of his
own art, and was determined to paint in cold, ashen colouring,
with livid, startling effect, the gaunt and extraordinary figures
that he beheld with his eccentric genius. His pictures have
wonderful visionary quality, admirable invention, and are full
of passionate fervency. They may be considered extravagant,
but are never commonplace, and are exceedingly attractive in
their intense emotion, marvellous sincerity, and strange, chilly
colour.
El Greco's work is typically modern, and from it the portrait-
painter, J. S. Sargent, claims to have learnt more than from that
of any other artist. It immortalizes the character of the people
amongst whom he dwelt, and he may be considered as the initiator
of truth and realism in art, a precursor and inspirer of Velazquez.
In his own time he was exceedingly popular, and held in
great repute. Sonnets were written in his honour, and he is
himself said to have written several treatises, but these have not
come down to our time. For more than a generation his work
was hardly known, but it is now gaining rapidly in importance,
and its true position is more and more recognized. Some
examples of the artist's own handwriting have been discovered
in Toledo, and Sefior Don Manuel Cossia of Madrid has spent
many years collecting information for a work dealing with the
artist. (G. C. W.)
GRECO-TURKISH WAR, 1897. This war between Greece
and Turkey (see Greece: Modern History) involved two prac-
tically distinct campaigns, in Thessaly and in Epirus. Upon the
Thessalian frontier the Turks, early in March, had concentrated
six divisions (about 58,000 men), 1500 sabres and 156 guns,
under Edhem Pasha. A seventh division was rendered available
a little later. The Greeks numbered about 45,000 infantry,
800 cavalry and 96 guns, under the crown prince. On both
sides there was a considerable dispersion of forces along the
frontier. The Turkish navy, an important factor in the war of
1877-78, had become paralytic ten years later, and the Greek
squadron held complete command of the sea. Expeditionary
forces directed against the Turkish line of communications
might have influenced the course of the campaign; but for
such work the Greeks were quite unprepared, and beyond
bombarding one or two insignificant ports on the coast-line, and
aiding the transport of troops from Athens to Volo, the navy
practically accomplished nothing. On the 9th and 10th April
Greek irregulars crossed the frontier, either with a view to
provoke hostilities or in the hope of fomenting a rising in Mace-
donia. On the 1 6th and 17 th some fighting occurred, in which
Greek regulars took part; and on the 18th Edhem Pasha,
whose headquarters had for some time been established at
Elassona, ordered a general advance. The Turkish plan was to
turn the Greek left and to bring on a decisive action, but this
was not carried out. In the centre the Turks occupied the Meluna
Pass on the 19th, and the way was practically open to Larissa.
The Turkish right wing, however, moving on Damani and the
Reveni Pass, encountered resistance, and the left wing was
temporarily checked by the Greeks among the mountains near
Nezeros. At Mati, covering the road to Tyrnavo, the Greeks
entrenched themselves. Here sharp fighting occurred on the
2 1 st and 22nd, during which the Greeks sought to turn the right
flank of the superior Turkish central column* On the 23rd
fighting was renewed, and the advance guard of the Turkish left
column, which had been reinforced, and had pressed back the
Greeks, reached Deliler. The Turkish forces had now drawn
together, and the Greeks were threatened on both flanks. In
the evening a general retreat was ordered, and the loose discipline
of the Greek army was at once manifested. Rumours of disaster
spread among the ranks, and wild panic supervened. There
was nothing to prevent an orderly retirement upon Larissa,
which had been fortified and provisioned, and which offered a
good defensive position. The general dibdcle could not, however,
be arrested, and in great disorder the mass of the Greek army
fled southwards to Pharsala. There was no pursuit, and the
Turkish commander-in-chief did not reach Larissa till the 27th.
Thus ended the first phase of the war, in which the Greeks
showed tenacity in defence, which proved fruitless by reason of
initially bad strategic dispositions entailing far too great disper-
sion, and also because there was no plan of action beyond a
general desire to avoid risking a defeat which might prevent the
expected risings in Macedonia and elsewhere. The handling of
the Turkish army showed little skill or enterprise; but on both
sides political considerations tended to prevent the application
of sound military principles.
Larissa being abandoned by the Greeks, Velestino, the junction
of the Thessalian railways, where there was a strong position
covering Volo, seemed to be the natural rallying point for the
Greek army. Here the support of the fleet would have been
secured, and a Turkish advance across the Othrys range upon
Athens could not have taken place until the flanking position
had been captured. Whether by direction or by natural impulse,
however, the mass of the Greek troops made for Pharsala, where
some order was re-established, and preparations were made to
resist attack. The importance of Velestino was recognized by
sending a brigade thither by railway from Pharsala, and the
inferior Greek army was thus split into two portions, separated
by nearly 40 m. On 27th April a Turkish reconnaissance on
Velestino was repulsed, and further fighting occurred on the
29th and 30th, in which the Greeks under Colonel Smolenski held
their own. Meanwhile the Turks made preparations to attack
Pharsala, and on 5th May the Greeks were driven from their
positions in front of the town by three divisions. Further
fighting followed on the 6th, and in the evening the Greek army
retired in fair order upon Domokos. It was intended to turn
the Greek left with the first division under Hairi Pasha, but the
flanking force did not arrive in time to bring about a decisive
result. The abandonment of Pharsala involved that of Velestino,
where the Turks had obtained no advantage, and on the evening
of the 5th Colonel Smolenski began a retirement upon Halmyros.
Again delaying, Edhem Pasha did not attack Domokos till the
17th, giving the Greeks time to entrench their positions. The
attack was delivered in three columns, of which the right was
checked and the centre failed to take the Greek trenches and
suffered much loss. The left column, however, menaced the
line of retreat, and the Greek army abandoned the whole position
during the night. No effective stand was made at the Furka
Pass, which was evacuated on the following night. Colonel
Smolenski, who arrived on the 18th from Halmyros, was directed
to hold the pass of Thermopylae. The Greek forces being much
demoralized, the intervention of the tsar was invoked by
telegraph; and the latter sent a personal appeal to the Sultan,
who directed a suspension of hostilities. On the 20th an armistice
was arranged.
GEOGRAPHY]
GREECE
425
In Epirus at the outbreak of war about 1 5,000 Greeks, including
a cavalry regiment and five batteries, the whole under Colonel
Manos, occupied a line of defence from Arta to Peta. The
Turks, about 28,000 strong, with forty-eight guns, under Achmet
Hifsi Pasha, were distributed mainly at Iannina, Pentepagadia,
and in front of Arta. On 18th April the Turks commenced a
three days' bombardment of Arta; but successive attempts
to take the bridge were repulsed, and during the night of the
21st they retired on Philippiada, 26 m. distant, which was
attacked and occupied by Colonel Manos on the 23rd. The
Greeks then advanced to Pentepagadia, meeting with little
resistance. Their difficulties now began. After some skirmishing
on the 27th, the position held by their advanced force near
Homopulos was attacked on the 28th. The attack was renewed
on the 29th, and no Greek reinforcements were forthcoming
when needed. The Euzones made a good defence, but were
driven back by superior force, and a retreat was ordered, which
quickly degenerated into panic-stricken flight to and across
the Arta. Reinforcements, including 2500 Epirote volunteers,
were sent to Arta from Athens, and on 1 2th May another incursion
into Turkish territory began, the apparent object being to
occupy a portion of the country in view of the breakdown in
Thessaly and the probability that hostilities would shortly end.
The advance was made in three columns, while the Epirote
volunteers were landed near the mouth of the Luro river with
the idea of cutting off the Turkish garrison of Prevesa. The
centre column, consisting of a brigade, three squadrons and
two batteries, which were intended to take up and hold a defensive
position, attacked the Turks near Strevina on the 13th. The
Greeks fought well, and being reinforced by a battalion from
the left column, resumed the offensive on the following day, and
fairly held their own. On the night of the 15th a retreat was
ordered and well carried out. The volunteers landed at the
mouth of the Luro, were attacked and routed with heavy loss.
The campaign in Epirus thus failed as completely as that in
Thessaly. Under the terms of the treaty of peace, signed on
20th September, and arranged by the European powers, Turkey
obtained an indemnity of £T4,ooo,ooo, and a rectification of
theThessalian frontier, carrying with it some strategic advantage.
History records few more unjustifiable wars than that which
Greece gratuitously provoked. The Greek troops on several
occasions showed tenacity and endurance, but discipline and
cohesion were manifestly wanting. Many of the officers were
incapable; the campaign was gravely mismanaged ; and
politics, which led to the war, impeded its operations. On the
other hand, the fruits of the German tuition, which began in
1880, and received a powerful stimulus by the appointment
of General von der Goltz in 1883, were shown in the Turkish
army. The mobilization was on the whole smoothly carried out,
and the newly completed railways greatly facilitated the con-
centration on the frontier. The young school of officers trained
by General von der Goltz displayed ability, and the artillery at
Pharsala and Domokos was well handled. The superior leading
was, however, not conspicuously successful; and while the rank
and file again showed excellent military qualities, political
conditions and the Oriental predilection for half-measures and
for denying full responsibility and full powers to commanders
in the field enfeebled the conduct of the campaign. On account
of the total want of careful and systematic peace training on both
sides, a war which presented several interesting strategic problems
provided warnings in place of military lessons. (G. S. C.)
GREECE, 1 an ancient geographical area, and a modern
kingdom more or less corresponding thereto, situated at the
south-eastern extremity of Europe and forming the most
southerly portion of the Balkan Peninsula. The modern kingdom
is bounded on the N. by European Turkey and on the E., S. and
W. by the Aegean, Mediterranean and Ionian seas. The name
Graeeia, which was more or less vaguely given to the ancient
country by the Romans, seems not to have been employed by
any native writer before Aristotle; it was apparently derived
1 See also Greek Art, Greek Language, Greek' Law, Greek
Literature, Greek Religion.
by the Romans from the Illyrians, who applied the name of an
Epirote tribe (Tpou,Kol, Graeci) to all their southern neighbours.
The names Hellas, Hellenes ("EXXas, "EXXt^es), by which the
ancient Greeks called their country and their race, and which are
still employed by the modern Greeks, originally designated a small
district in Phthiotis in Thessaly and its inhabitants, who gradu-
ally spread over the lands south of the Cambunian mountains.
The name Hellenes was not universally applied to the Greek
race until the post-Homeric epoch (Thucyd. i. 3).
1. Geography and Statistics
The. ancient Greeks had a somewhat vague conception of the
northern limits of Hellas. Thessaly was generally included and
Epirus excluded; some writers included some of the
southern cantons of Epirus, while others excluded not Bx ^ i J if
only all that country but Aetolia and Acarnania. Qrtcce.
Generally speaking, the confines of Hellas in the age
of its greatest distinction were represented by a line drawn from
the northern shore of the Ambracian Gulf on the W. to the
mouth of the Peneus on the E. Macedonia and Thrace were
regarded as outside the pale of Hellenic civilization till 386 B.C.,
when after his conquest of Thessaly and Phocis, Philip of Macedon
obtained a seat in the Amphictyonic Council. In another sense,
however, the name Hellas expressed an ethnological rather than
a geographical unity; it denoted every country inhabited by
Hellenes. It thus embraced all the Greek settlements on the
coasts and islands of the Mediterranean, on the shores of the
Hellespont, the Bosporus and the Black Sea. Nevertheless,
the Greek peninsula within the limits described above, together
with the adjacent islands, was always regarded as Hellas par
excellence. The continental area of Hellas proper was no greater
than that of the modern Greek kingdom, which comprises but
a small portion of the territories actually occupied by the Greek
race. The Greeks have always been a maritime people, and the
real centre of the national life is now, as in antiquity, the Aegean
Sea or Archipelago. Thickly studded with islands and bordered
by deeply indented coasts with sheltered creeks and harbours,
the Aegean in the earliest days of navigation invited the enter-
prise of the mariner; its shores, both European and Asiatic,
became covered with Greek settlements and its islands, together
with Crete and Cyprus, became Greek. True to their maritime
instincts, the Greeks rarely advanced inland to any distance
from the sea; the coasts of Macedonia, Thrace and Asia Minor
are still mainly Greek, but, except for some isolated colonies, the
hinterland in each case lies outside the limits of the race. Con-
tinental Greece is divided by its mountain ranges into a number
of natural cantons; the existence of physical barriers tended
in the earliest times to the growth of isolated political com-
munities, and in the epoch of its ancient independence the
country was occupied by seventeen separate states, none of
them larger than an ordinary English county. These states, which
are noticed separately, were: Thessaly, in northern Greece;
Acarnania, Aetolia, Locris, Doris, Phocis, Megaris, Boeotia and
Attica in central Greece; and Corinthia, Sicyonia, Achaea, Elis,
Messenia, Laconia, Argolis and Arcadia in the Peloponnesus.
Modern Greece, which (including the adjacent islands) extends
from 35 50' to 30 54' N. and from 19° 20' to 26 15' E., com-
prises all the area formerly occupied by these states.
Under the arrangement concluded at Constantinople j^J^ '
on the 2 1 st of July 1832 between Great Britain, onecc,
France, Russia and Turkey, the northern boundary
of Greece was drawn from the Gulf of Arta (Sinus Ambracius)
to the Gulf of Volo (S. Pagasaeus), the line keeping to the crest
of the Othrys range. Thessaly and part of Acarnania were thus
left to Turkey. The island of Euboea, the Cyclades and the
northern Sporades were added to the new kingdom. In 1864
the Ionian Islands (q.v.) were ceded by Great Britain to Greece.
In 1880 the Conference of Berlin proposed a new frontier, which
transferred to Greece not only Thessaly but a considerable
portion of southern Epirus, extending to the river Kalamas.
This, however, was rejected by Turkey, and the existing boundary
was traced in 1881. Starting from the Aegean coast at a point
xn. 14 a
426
GREECE
[GEOGRAPHY
near Platamona, between Mount Olympus and the mouth of the
Salambria (Peneus), the line passes over the heights of Kritiri
and Zygos (Pindus) and descends the course of the river Arta
to its mouth. After the war of 1897 Greece restored to Turkey
some strategical points on the frontier possessing no geographical
importance. The greatest length of Greece is about 250 m.,
the greatest breadth 180 m. The country is generally divided
into five parts, which are indicated by its natural features: —
(i.) Northern Greece, which extends northwards from Mount
Othrys and the gulfs of 2eitun (Lamia) and Arta to the Cambunian
Mountains, and comprises Thessaly and a small portion of
Epirus; (ii.) Central Greece, extending from the southern* limits
of Northern Greece to the gulfs of Corinth and Aegina; (iii.)
the peninsula of the Peloponnesus or Morea, attached to the
mainland by the Isthmus of Corinth; (iv.) the Ionian Islands
on the west coasts of Epirus and Greece; (v.) The islands of the
Aegean Sea, including Euboea, the Cyclades and the northern
Sporades.
In the complexity of its contour and the variety of its natural
features Greece surpasses every country in Europe, as Europe sur-
Pb slatl passes every continent in the world. The broken character
features. °* * ts coast-une ls unique; except a few districts in Thes-
saly no part of the country is more than 50 m. from the
sea. Although the area of Greece is considerably smaller than that
of Portugal, its coast-line is greater than that of Spain and Portugal
together. The mainland is penetrated by numerous gulfs and inlets,
and the adjoining seas are studded with islands. Another character-
istic is the number and complexity of the mountain chains, which
traverse every part of the country and which, together with their
ramifications, cover four-fifths of its surface. The mountain-chains
interlace, the interstices forming small enclosed basins, such as the
plain of Boeotia and the plateau of Arcadia; the only plain of any
extent is that of Thessaly. The mountains project into the sea,
forming peninsulas, and sometimes reappearing in rows or groups
of islands; they descend abruptly to the coast or are separated
from it by small alluvial plains. The portions of the country suitable
for human colonization were thus isolated one from the other, but
as a rule possessed easy access to the sea. The earliest settlements
were generally situated on or around some rocky elevation, which
dominated the surrounding plain and was suitable for fortification
as a citadel or acropolis; owing to the danger of piratical attacks
they were usually at some little distance from the sea, but in the
vicinity of a natural harbour. The physical features of the country
played an important part in moulding the character of its inhabitants.
Protected against foreign invasion by the mountain barriers and to
a great extent cut off from mutual intercourse except by sea, the
ancient Greek communities developed a marked individuality and a
strong sentiment of local patriotism; their inhabitants were both
mountaineers and mariners; they possessed the love of country,
the vigour and the courage which are always found in highlanders,
together with the spirit of adventure, the versatility and the passion
for freedom characteristic of a seafaring people. The great variety
of natural products as well as the facility of maritime communication
tended to the early growth of commercial enterprise, while the
peculiar beauty of the scenery, though little dwelt upon in ancient
literature, undoubtedly quickened the poetic and artistic instincts
of the race. The effects of physical environment are no less notice-
able among the modern Greeks. The rural populations of Attica
and Boeotia, though descended from Albanian colonists in the
middle ages, display the same contrast in character which marked
the inhabitants of those regions in ancient times.
In its general aspect the country presents a series of striking and
interesting contrasts. Fertile tracts covered with vineyards, olive
groves, corn-fields or forests display themselves in close proximity
with rugged heights and rocky precipices; the landscape is never
monotonous; its outlines are graceful, and its colouring, owing to
the clearness of the air, is at once brilliant and delicate, while the
sea, in most instances, adds a picturesque feature, enhancing the
charm and variety of the scenery.
The ruling feature in the mountain system of northern Greece is
the great chain of Pindus, which, extending southwards from the
Moun- loity Shar Dagh (Skardos) near Uskub, forms the back-
i-lm" bone of the Balkan peninsula. Reaching the frontier
of Greece a little S. of lat. 40 °, the Pindus range is inter-
sected by the Cambunian Mountains running E. and W.; the
eastern branch, which forms the northern boundary of Thessaly,
extends to the Gulf of Salonica and culminates in Mount Olympus
(0754 ft.) a little to the N. of the Greek frontier; then bending to
tne S.E. it follows the coast-line, forming a rampart between the
Thessalian plain and the sea; the barrier is severed at one point
only where the river Salambria (anc. Peneus) finds an exit through
the narrow defile of Tempe. South of Tempe the mountain ridge,
known as the Mavro Vouno, connects the pyramidal Kissovo (anc.
Ossa, 6400 ft.) with Plessidi (anc. Pelion, 5310 ft.); it is prolonged
in the Magnesian peninsula, which separates the Gulf of Volo from
the Aegean, and is continued by the mountains of Euboea (highest
summits, Dirphys, 5725 ft., and Ocha, 4830 ft.) and by the islands
of Andros and Tenos. West of Pindus, the Cambunian Mountains
are continued by several ridges which traverse Epirus from north
to south, enclosing the plain and lake of Iannina ; the most westerly
of these, projecting into the Adriatic, forms the Acroceraunian
promontory terminating in Cape Glossa. The principal pass through
the Cambunian Mountains is that of Mel una, through which runs
the carriage-road connecting the town of Elassona in Macedonia
with Larissa, the capital of Thessaly; there are horse-paths at
Reveni and elsewhere. The central chain of Pindus at tne point
where it is intersected by the Cambunian Mountains forms the mass
of Zygos (anc. Lacmon, 71 13 ft.) through which a horse-path con-
nects the town of Metzovo with Kalabaka in Thessaly; on
the declivity immediately N. of Kalabaka are a series of rocky
pinnacles on which a number of monasteries are perched. Trending
to the S., the Pindus chain terminates in the conical Mount Velouchi
(anc. Tymphrestus, 7609 ft.) in the heart of the mountainous region of
northern Greece. From this centre-point a number of mountains
radiate in all directions. To the E. runs the chain of Helloro (anc.
Othrys; highest summit, Hagios Elias, 5558 ft.) separating the plain
of Thessaly from the valley of the Spercheios and traversed by the
Phourka pass (2789 ft.); to the S.E. is Mount Katavothra (anc.
Oeta, 7080 ft.) extending to the southern shore of the Gulf of Lamia
at Thermopylae; to the S.E., S. and S.W. are the mountains of
Aetolia and Acarnania. The Aetolian £roup, which may be regarded
as the direct continuation of the Pindus ranee, includes Kiona
(8240 ft.), the highest mountain in Greece, and Vardusi (anc. Korax,
8190 ft.). The mountains of Acarnania with 'T^Xi) ko/w&i (5215 ft.)
rise to the W. of the valley of the Aspropotamo (anc. A chelous) . The
Aetolian Mountains are prolonged to the S.E. by the double-crested
Liakoura (anc. Parnassus; 8064 ft.) in Phocis; by Palaeo Vouno
(anc. Helicon, 5738 ft.) and Elateas (anc. Cithaeron, 4626 ft.) respect-
ively W. and S. of the Boeotian plain; and by the mountains of
Attica, — Ozea (anc. Parties, 4626 ft.), Mendeli (anc. Pentelicus or
Brilessos, 3639 ft.), Trellovouno (anc. HymeUus, 3369 ft.), and
Keratia (2136 ft.) — terminating in the promontory of Sunium, but
reappearing in the islandsjrf Ceos, Cytnnos, Seriphos and Siphnos.
and Makri
Corinth.
elevated central
plateau of Arcadia, form an independent system with ramifications
extending through the Argolid peninsula on the E. and the three
southern promontories of Malea, Taenaron and Acritas. At the
eastern end of the northern chain, separating Arcadia from the Gulf
of Corinth, is Ziria (anc. Cyllene, 7789 ft.) ; it forms a counterpart to
Parnassus on the opposite side of the gulf. A little to the W.
is Chelmos (anc. Aroania, 7725 ft.); farther W., Olonos (anc.
Erymanthus, 7297 ft.) and Voidia (anc. Panachaicon, 6322 ft.)
overlooking the Gulf of Patras. The highest summit in the
Argolid peninsula is Hagios Elias (anc. Arachnaeon, 3930 ft.). The
senes of heights forming the eastern rampart of Arcadia, including
Artemision (5814 ft.) and Ktenia (5246 ft.) is continued to the S. by
the Malevo range (anc. Parnon, highest summit 6365 ft.) which ex-
tends into the peninsula of Malea and reappears in the island of
Cerigo. Separated from Parnon by the Eurotas valley to the W. t
the chain of Taygetus (mod. Penteaaktylon; highest summit Hagios
Elias, 7874 ft., the culminating point of the Morea) forms a barrier
between the plains of Laconia and Messenia ; it is traversed by the
Langada pass leading from Sparta to Kalamata. The range is
prolonged to the S. through the arid district of Maina and terminates
in Cape Matapan (anc. Taenarum). The mountains of western
Arcadia are less lofty and of a less marked type; they include
Hagios Petros (4777 ft.) and Palaefoastro (anc. Pholoe, 2257 ft.)
N. of the Alpheus valley, Diaphorti (anc. Lycaeus, 4660 ft.), the
haunt of Pan, and Nomia (4554 ft.) W. of the plain of Megalopolis.
Farther south, the mountains of western Messenia form a detached
group (Varvara, 4003 ft. ; Mathia, 3140 ft.) extending to Cape Gallo
7anc. Acritas) and the Oenussae Islands. In •central Arcadia are
Apanokrapa (anc. Maenalus, also sacred to Pan) and Roudia (3072
ft.) ; the Taygetus chain forms the southern continuation of these
mountains.
The more noteworthy fortified heights of ancient Greece were the
Acrocorinthus, the citadel of Corinth (1885 ft.) ; Ithome (2631 ft.) at
Messene; Larissa (950 ft.) at Argos; the Acropolis of Mycenae
(010 ft.); Tiryns (60 ft.) near Nauplia, which also possessed its own
citadel, the Palamidhi or Acro-nauplia (705 ft.) ; the Acropolis of
Athens (300 ft. above the mean level of the city and 512 ft. above
the sea), and the Cadmea of Thebes (715 ft.).
Greece has few rivers; most of these are small, rapid and turbid, as
might be expected from the mountainous configuration of the country.
They are either perennial rivers or torrents, the white beds _.
of the latter being dry in summer, and only filled with water wws.
after the autumn rains. The chief rivers (none ofiwhich is navigable)
are the Salambria (Peneus) in Thessaly, the Mavropotamo (Cephisus)
in Phocis, the Hellada (Spercheios) in Phthiotis, the Aspropotamo
(A chelous) in Aetolia, and the Ruphia (Alpheus) and Vasiliko
(Eurotas) in the Morea. Of the famous rivers of Athens, the one,
the Ilissus, is onh- a chain of pools all summer, and the other, the
Cephisus, though never absolutely dry, does not reach the sea,
FAUNA, FLORA]
GREECE
being drawn off in numerous artificial channels to irrigate the neigh-
bouring olive groves. A frequent peculiarity of the Greek rivers is
their sudden disappearance in subterranean chasms and reappear-
ance on the surface again, such as gave rise to the fabled course of
the Alpheus under the sea, and its emergence in the fountain of
Arethusa in Syracuse. Some of these chasms — " Katavothras " —
are merely sieves with herbage and gravel in the bottom, but others
are large caverns through which the course of the river may some-
times be followed. Floods are frequent, especially in autumn, and
natural fountains abound and gush out even from the tops of the
hills. Aganippe rises high up among the peaks of Helicon, and
Peirene flows from the summit of Acrocorinthus. The only note-
worthy cascade, however, is that of the Styx in Arcadia, which has a
fall of 500 ft. During part of the year it is lost in snow, and it
is at all times almost inaccessible. Lakes are numerous, but few are
of considerable size, and many merely marshes in summer. The
largest are Karla (Boebeis) in Thessaly, Trichonis in Aetolia, Copai's
in Boeotia, Pheneus and Stymphalus in Arcadia.
The valleys are generally narrow, and the plains small in extent,
deep basins walled in among the hills or more free at the mouths
of the rivers. The principal plains are those of Thessaly,
PMn8m Boeotia, Messenia, Argos, Elis and Marathon. The bottom
of these plains consists of an alluvial soil, the most fertile in Greece.
In some of the mountainous regions, especially in the Morea, are
extensive table-lands. The plain of Mantinea is 2000 ft. high, and
the upland district of Sciritis, between Sparta and Tegea, is in some
parts 3000 ft.
Strabo said that the guiding thing in the geography of Greece
was the sea, which presses in upon it at all parts with a thousand
c^. arms. From the Gulf of Arta on the one side to the Gulf
CoagL of Volo on the other the coast is indented with a succession
of natural bays and gulfs. The most important are the Gulfs of
Aegina (Saronicus) and Lepanto (Corinthiacus), which separate
the Morea from the northern mainland of Greece, — the first an inlet
of the Aegean, the second of the Ionian Sea, — and are now connected
by a canalcdt through the high land of the narrow Isthmus of Corinth
(ji m. wide). The outer portion of the Gulf of Lepanto is called the
Gulf of Patras, and the inner part the Bay of Corinth; a narrow
inlet on the north side of the same gulf, called the Bay of Salona or
Itea, penetrates northwards into rhocis so far that it is within
24 geographical miles of the Gulf of Zeitun on the north-east coast.
The width of the entrance to the gulf of Lepanto is subject to singular
changes, which are ascribed to the formation of alluvial deposits by
certain marine currents, and their removal again by others. At
the time of the Peloponnesian war this channel was 1200 yds. broad ;
in the time of Strabo it was only 850; and in our own day it has
again increased to 2200. On the coast of the Morea there are several
large gulfs, that of Arcadia (Cyparissius) on the west, Kalamata
(Mcsseniacus) and Kolokythia (Laconicus) on the south and Nauplia
(Argolicus) on the east. Between Euboea and the mainland lie the
channels of Trikeri, Talanti (Euboicum Mare) and Egripo; the latter
two are connected by the strait of Egripo (Euripus). This strait,
which is spanned by a swing-bridge, is about 180 ft. wideband is
remarkable for the unexplained eccentricity of its tide, which has
puzzled ancients and moderns alike. The current runs at the
average speed of 5 m. an hour, but continues only for a short time in
one direction, changing its course, it is said, ten or twelve times in a
day; it is sometimes very violent.
There are no volcanoes on the mainland of Greece, but every-
where traces of volcanic action and frequently visitations of earth-
quakes, for it lies near a centre of volcanic agency, the
rjjr"™* island of Santorin, which has been within recent years in
• a state of eruption. There is an extinct crater at Mount
Laphystium (Granitsa) in Boeotia. The mountain of Methane, on
the coast of Argolis, was produced by a volcanic eruption in 282 B.C.
Earthquakes laid Thebes in ruins in 1853, destroyed every house in
Corinth in 1858, filled up the Castalian spring in 1870, devastated
Zante in 1893 and the district of Atalanta in 1894. There are hot
springs at Thermopylae and other places, which are used for sanitary
lurposes. Various parts of the coast exhibit indications of up-
heaval within historical times. On the coast of Elis four rocky
islets are now joined to the land, which were separate from it in the
days of ancient Greece. There are traces of earlier sea-beaches
at Corinth, and on the coast of the Morea, and at the mouth of
the Hellada. The land has gained so much that the pass of Ther-
mopylae which was extremely narrow in the time of Leonidas and
his three hundred, is now wide enough for the motions of a whole
army. (J. D. B.)
Structurally, Greece may be divided into two regions, an eastern
and a western. The former includes Thessaly, Boeotia, the island
fj^j^ of Euboea, the isthmus of Corinth, and the peninsula of
Qma °ty» Argolis, and, throughout, the strike of the beds is nearly
from west to east. The western region includes the Pindus and all
the parallel ranges, and the whole of the Peloponnesus excepting
Argolis. Here the folds which affect the Mesozoic and early Tertiary
strata run approximately from N.N.W. to S.S.E.
Up to the close of the 19th century the greater part of Greece was
believed to be formed of Cretaceous rocks, but later researches have
shown that the supposed Cretaceous beds include a variety of geo-
logical horizons. The geological sequence begins with crystalline
1
43'
schists and limestones, folio wed bv P*i*~ -iditure an,* </?*
rocks The oldest beds wH/cA h^!noh^%S *** r <*eipts t"
to the Carboniferous System (Fusulina /imestoSV
Following upon these older t>edsare the great limestone mV'tr^i
cover most of the eastern region, and which are now known*S>l-
Jurassic, Tithonian, Lower and Upper Cretaceous and EooL^^hs-
In the Pindus and the Peloponnesus these beds are overf^ b£?. e .
series of shales and platy limestones (Olonos Limesto n * ld ^ a
Peloponnesus), which were formerly supposed to be of V of . the
age. It has now been shown, however, that the upper dt rt,ar ?
limestones has been brought upon the top of the lowerhJT ,es °/
overthrusK I™ 8 , 810 fo8S1, s have been found in the Olon« fi i 8r - reat
%£Lm " Cmain '^ ° ther MeSOZ ° iC ho ^nVTrt
The earth movements which produced the mountain chains of
western Greece have folded the Eocene beds and must therefore
be of post-Eocene date. The Neogene beds, on the other hand, are
not affected by the folds, although by faulting without folding they
have in some places been raised to a height of nearly 6000 ft. They
lie, however, chiefly along the coast and in the valleys, and consist
of marls, conglomerates and sands, sometimes with seams of lignite.
The Pikermi deposits, of late Miocene age, are famous for their rich
mammalian fauna.
Although the folding which formed the mountain chains appears
to have ceased, Greece is still continually shaken by earthquakes,
and these earthquakes are closely connected with the great lines
of fracture to which the country owes its outline. Around the
narrow gulf which separates the Peloponnesus from the mainland,
earthquakes are particularly frequent, and another region which is
often shaken is the south-western corner of Greece, the peninsula of
Messene. 1 (P. La.)
The vegetation of Greece in general resembles that of southern
Italy while presenting many types common to that of Asia Minor.
Owing to the geographical configuration of the peninsula and
its mountainous surface the characteristic flora of the
Mediterranean regions is often found in j uxtaposition with rion,
that of central Europe. In respect to its vegetation the country
may be regarded as divided into four zones. In the first, extending
from the sea-level to the height of 1500 ft., oranges, olives, dates,
almonds, pomegranates, figs and vines flourish, and cotton and
tobacco are grown. In the neighbourhood of streams are found
the laurel, myrtle, oleander and lentisk, together with the plane and
white poplar; the cypress is often a picturesque feature in the"
landscape, and there is a variety of aromatic plants. The second
zone, from 1500 to 3500 ft., is the region of the oak, chestnut and
other British trees. In the third, from 3500 to 5500 ft., the beech
is the characteristic forest tree; the Abies cephalonica and Pinus
pinea now take the place of the Pinus halepensis, which grows
everywhere in the lower regions. Above 5500 ft. is the Alpine
region, marked by small plants, lichens and mosses. During the
short period of spring anemones and other wild flowers enrich
the hillsides with magnificent colouring; in June all verdure dis-
appears except in the watered districts and elevated plateaus.
The asphodel grows abundantly in the dry rocky soil ; aloes, planted
in rows, form impenetrable hedges. Medicinal plants are numerous,
such as the Inula Helenium, the Mandragora Officinarum, the
Colchicum napolitanum and the Helleborus orientalis, which still
grows abundantly near Aspraspitia, the ancient Anticyra, at the
Foot of Parnassus.
The fauna is similar to that of the other Mediterranean peninsulas,
and includes some species found in Asia Minor but not elsewhere in
Europe. The lion existed in northern Greece in the time of
Aristotle and at an earlier period in the Morea. The bear ftM1,
is still found in the Pindus range. Wolves are common in all the
mountainous regions and jackals are numerous in the Morea. Foxes
are abundant in all parts of the country; the polecat is found in the
woods of Attica and the Morea; the lynx is now rare. The wild
boar is common in the mountains of northern Greece, but is almost
extinct in the Peloponnesus. The badger, the marten and the
weasel are found on the mainland and in the islands. The red
deer, the fallow deer and the roe exist in northern Greece, but are
becoming scarce. The otter is rare. Hares and rabbits are abund-
ant in many parts of the country, especially in the Cyclades; the
two species never occupy the same district, and in the Cyclades
some islands (Naxos, Melos, Tenos, &c.) form the exclusive domain
of the hares, others (Seriphos, Kimolos, Mykonos, &c.) of the rabbits.
In Andros alone a demarcation has been arrived at, the hares retain-
ing the northern and the rabbits the southern portion of the island.
1 For the Geology of Greece see: M. Neumayr, &c, Denks. k.
Akad.Wiss. Wien, math.-nat. CI. vol. xl. (1880); A. Philippson, Der
Pelofxmnes (Berlin, 1892) and"Beitragezur Kenntnisdergriechischen
Inselwelt," Peterm. Mitt., Ergfinz.-heft No. 134 (1901); R. Lepsius,
Geoloqie von Attika (Berlin, 1893); L. Cayeux, " Phenomenes de
charnage dans la Mecliterranee orientale," C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris,
vol. exxxvi. (1903) pp. 474-476; T. Deprat, " Note pr&iminaire sur la
geologie de 1'ile d'Eubee," Bull. Soc. Giol. France, ser. 4, vol. iii.
(1903) PP» 229-24.3, p. vii. and " Note sur la geologie du massif
du Pelion et sur 1 influence exercee par les massifs archeens sur la
tectonique de l'Ege'ide," ib. vol. iv. 6904), pp. 299-338.
428
GREECE
/POPULATION
The chamois is found in the higher mountains, such as Pindus,
Parnassus and Tymphrestus. The Cretan agrimi, or wild goat
(Capra nubiana, C. aegagrus), found in Antimelos and said to exist
in Taygetus, the jackal, the stellion, and the chameleon are among
the Asiatic species not found westward of Greece. There is a great
variety of birds ; of 358 species catalogued two-thirds are migratory.
Among the birds of prey, which are very numerous, are the golden
and imperial eagle, the yellow vulture, the Gyhdetus barbatus, and
several species of falcons. The celebrated owl of Athena (Athene
noctua) is becoming rare at Athens, but still haunts the Acropolis
and the royal garden ; it is a small species, found everywhere in Greece.
The wild goose and duck, the bustard, partridge, woodcock, snipe,
wood-pigeon and turtle-dove are numerous. Immense flocks of
quails visit the southern coast of the Morea, where they are cap-
tured in great numbers and exported alive. The stork, which was
common in the Turkish epoch, has now become scarce. There is a
great variety of reptiles, of which sixty-one species have been
catalogued. The saurians are all harmless; among them the
stellion (Stellio vulgaris), commonly called Kpo*c66€iXos in Mykonos
and Crete, is believed by Heldreich to have furnished a name to the
crocodile of the Nile (Herod, ii. 69). There are five species of
tortoise and nine of Amphibia. Of the serpents, which are numerous,
there are only two dangerous species, the Vipera ammodytes and the
Vipera aspis; the first-named is common. Among the marine
fauna are the dolphins, familiar in the legends and sculpture of
antiquity; in the clear water of the Aegean they often afford a
beautiful spectacle as they play round ships; porpoises and whales
are sometimes seen. Sea-fish, of which 246 species have been
ascertained, are very abundant.
The climate of Greece, like that of the other countries of the Balkan
peninsula, is liable to greater extremes of heat and cold than prevail
Climate m Spam and Italy; the difference is due to the general
contour of the peninsula, which assimilates its climatic
conditions to those of the European mainland. Another [distinctive
feature is the great variety of local contrasts; the rapid transitions
are the natural effect of diversity in the geographical configuration of
the country. Within a few hours it is possible to pass from winter to
spring and from spring to summer. The spring is short; the sun
is already powerful in March, but the increasing warmth is often
checked by cold northerly winds; in many places the corn harvest
is cut in May, when southerly winds prevail and the temperature
rises rapidly. The great heat of summer is tempered throughout the
whole region of the archipelago by the Etesian winds, which blow
regularly from the N.E. for forty to fifty days in July and August.
This current of cool dry air from the north is due to the vacuum
resulting from intense heat in the region of the Sahara. The healthy
Etesian winds are generally replaced towards the end of summer by
the southerly Libas or sirocco, which, when blowing strongly,
resembles the blast from a furnace and is most injurious to health.
The sirocco affects, though in a less degree, the other countries of
the Balkan peninsula and even Rumania. The mean summer
temperature is about 79 ° Fahr. The autumn is the least healthy
season of the year owing to the great increase of humidity, especially
in October and November. At the end of October snow reappears on
the higher mountains, remaining on the summits till June. The
winter is mild, and even in January there are, as a rule, many warm
clear days; but the recurrence of biting northerly winds and cold
blasts from the mountains, as well as the rapid transitions from heat
to cold and the difference in the temperature of sunshine and shade,
render the climate somewhat treacherous and unsuitable for invalids.
Snow seldom falls in the maritime and lowland districts and frost is
rare. The mean winter temperature is from 48 ° to 55 ° Fahr. The rain-
fall varies greatly according to localities; it is greatest in the Ionian
Islands (53-34 ins. at Corfu), in Arcadia and in the other mountainous
districts, and least on the Aegean littoral and in the Cyclades; in
Attica, the driest region in Greece, it is 16*1 ins. The wettest
months are November, December and January; the driest July
and August, when, except for a few thunder-storms, there is practi-
cally no rainfall. The rain generally accompanies southerly ©^south-
westerly winds. In all the maritime districts the sea breeze greatly
modifies the temperature; it beginsabout9 a.m., attains its maximum
force soon after noon, and ceases about an hour after sunset. Greece
is renowned for the clearness of its climate; fogs and mists are
almost unknown. In most years, however, only Tour or five days
are recorded in which the sky is perfectly cloudless. The natural
healthiness of the climate is counteracted in the towns, especially
in Athens, by deficient sanitation and by stifling clouds of dust,
which propagate infection and are peculiarly hurtful in cases of
ophthalmia and pulmonary disease. Malarial fever is endemic in
the marshy districts, especially in the autumn.
The area of the country was 18,341 sq. m. before the acquisition
of the Ionian Islands in 1864, 19,381 sq. m. prior to the annexa-
tion of Thessaly and part of Epirus in 1881, and
Area and 24,552 sq. m. at the census in 1896. If we deduct 152
SS^ 1 "" sq. m., the extent of territory ceded to Turkey after
the war of 1897, the area of Greece in 1908 would be
24,400 sq. m. Other authorities give 25,164 and 25,136 sq. m.
as the area prior to the rectification of the frontier in 1898. 1
The population in 1896 was 2,433,806, or 99-1 to the sq. m.,
the population of the territories annexed in 188 1 being approxi-
mately 350,000; and 2,631,952 in 1907, or 107-8 to the sq. m.
(according to the official estimate of the area), showing an
increase of 198,146 or o-8i% per annum, as compared with
i-6i % during the period between 1896 and 1889; the diminished
increase is mainly due to emigration. The population by sex
in 1907 is given as 1,324,942 males and 1,307,010 females (or
50-3% males to 49-6 females). The preponderance of males,
which was 52% to 48% females in 1896, has also been reduced
by emigration; it is most marked in the northern departments,
especially in Larissa. Only in the departments of Arcadia,
Eurytania, Corinth, Cephalonia, Lacedaemon, Laconia, Phocis,
Argolis and in the Cyclades, is the female population in excess
of the male.
Neither the census of 1896 nor that of 1880 gave any classification
by professions, religion or language. The following figures, which
are only approximate, were derived from unofficial sources in 1901 : —
agricultural and pastoral employments 444,000 ; industries 64,200;
traders and their employes 118,000; labourers and servants 31,300;
various professions 15,700; officials 12,000; clergy about 6000;
lawyers 4000; physicians 2500. In 1879, 1,635,698 of the popula-
tion were returned as Orthodox Christians, 14,677 as Catholics and
Protestants, 2652 as Jews, and 740 as of otner religions. The
annexation of Thessaly and part of Epirus is stated to have added
24, 165 Mahommedan subjects to the Hellenic kingdom. A consider-
able portion of these, however, emigrated immediately after the
annexation, and, although a certain number subsequently returned,
the total Mahommedan population in Greece was estimated to be
under 5000 in 1908. A number of the Christian inhabitants of these
regions, estimated at about 50,000, retained Turkish nationality with
the object of escaping military service. The Albanian population,
estimated at 200,000 by Finlay in 1851, still probably exceeds
120,000. It is gradually being absorbed in the Hellenic population.
In 1870, 37,598 persons (an obviously untrustworthy figure) were
returned as speaking Albanian only. In 1879 the number is given as
58,858. The Vlach population, which has been increased by the
annexation of Thessaly, numbers about 60,000. The number of
foreign residents is unknown. The Italians are the most numerous,
numbering about 11,000. Some 1500 persons, mostly Maltese,
possess British nationality.
By a law of 27 November 1899, Greece, which had hitherto been
divided into sixteen departments (v6/toi) was redivided into twenty-
six departments, as follows : —
Pop!
71,229
162,324
150,918
103,810
90»523
127,991
61,522
87,106
99.571
71,235
41,186
42,502
130,378
The population is densest in the Ionian Islands, exceeding 307 per
sq. m. The departments of Acarnania, Phocis and Euboea are the
most thinly inhabited (about 58, 61 and 66 per sq. m. respectively).
Very little information is obtainable with regard to the movement
of the population; no register of births, deaths and marriages is
kept in Greece. The only official statistics are found in the periodical
returns of the mortality in the twelve principal towns, according to
which the yearly average of deaths in these towns for the five years
1 903-1907 was approximately 10,253, or 23-8 per 1000; of these
more than a quarter are ascribed to pulmonary consumption, due in
the main to defective sanitation. Both the birth-rate and death-rate
are low, being 27-6 and 20*7 per 1000 respectively. Infant mortality
is slight, and in point of longevity Greece compares favourably with
most other European countries. The number of illegitimate births
is 12-25 per 1000; these are almost exclusively in the towns.
Of the total population 28-5% are stated to live in towns. The
population of the principal towns is : —
1896. 1907.
Athens 111,486 167,479
Peiraeus .... 43,848 73,579
Patras 37,985 37,724
Departments.
Pop.
Departments.
\i Attica. . . .
341,247
14 Corinth . r
2 Boeotia .
65,816
15 Arcadia .
3 Phthiotis. . .
"2,328
16 Achaea .
4 Phocis
62,246
17 Elis
5 Aetolia and Acar-
18 Triphylia
nania .
141,405
19 Messenia .
6 Eurytania
47,192
20 Laconia .
7 Arta ....
41,280
21 Lacedaemon
8 Trikkala . . .
90,548
22 Corfu
9 Karditsa .
92,941
23 Cephalonia
10 Larissa .
95,066
24 Leucas (with Ithaca)
11 Magnesia.
102,742
25 Zante
12 Euboea .
116,903
26 Cyclades .
13 Argolis .
8i,943
1 No state survey of Greece was available in 1908, though a
survey had been undertaken by the ministry of war.
ETHNOLOGY]
GREECE
429
Trikkala . .
Hermopolis (Syra)
Corfu . . .
Volo . . .
1896. 1907.
21,149 17,809
18,760 18,132
18,581 28,254 l
16,788 23,563
15.373 18,001
Zante 14,906 13,580
Kalamata .... 14,298 15,397
Pyrgos 12,708 13,690
Tripolis 10,465 10,789
Cbalcis 8,661 10,958
Laurium .... 7,926 10,007
No trustworthy information is obtainable with regard to immigra-
tion and emigration, of which no statistics have ever been kept.
Emigration, which was formerly in the main to Egypt and Rumania,
is now almost exclusively to the United States of America. The
principal exodus is from Arcadia, Laconia and Maina; the emigrants
from these districts, estimated at about 14,000 annually, are for the
most part young men approaching the age of military service. Accord-
ing to American statistics 12,431 Greeks arrived in the United
States from Greece during the period 1 869-1 898 and 130,154 in
1 899-1907; a considerable number, however, have returned to
Greece, and those remaining in the United States at the end of 1907
were estimated at between 136,000 and 138,000; this number was
considerably reduced in 1908 by remigration. Since 1896 the
tendency to emigration has received a notable and somewhat
alarming impulse. There is an increasing immigration into the
towns from the rural districts, which are gradually becoming depopu-
lated. Both movements are due in part to the preference of the
Greeks for a town life and in part to distaste for military service,
but in the main to the poverty of the peasant population, whose
condition and interests have been neglected by the government.
Greece is inhabited by three races — the Greeks, the Albanians
and the Vlachs. The Greeks who are by far the most numerous,
have to a large extent absorbed the other races; the
iqgf * process of assimilation has been especially rapid since
the foundation of the Greek kingdom. Like most
European nations, the modern Greeks are a mixed race. The
question of their origin has been the subject of much learned
controversy; their presumed descent from the Greeks of the
classical epoch has proved a national asset of great value;
during the period of their struggle for independence it won
them the devoted zeal of the Philhellenes, it inspired the
enthusiasm of Byron, Victor Hugo, and a host of minor poets,
and it has furnished a pleasing illusion to generations of scholarly
tourists who delight to discover in the present inhabitants of the
country the mental and physical characteristics with which they
have been familiarized by the literature and art of antiquity.
This amiable tendency is encouraged by the modern Greeks,
who possess an implicit faith in their illustrious ancestry. The
discussion of the question entered a very acrimonious stage with
the appearance in 1830 of Fallmerayer's History of the Morea
during the Middle Ages, Fallmerayer maintained that after
the great Slavonic immigration at the close of the 8th century the
original population of northern Greece and the Morea, which
had already been much reduced during the Roman period, was
practically supplanted by the Slavonic element and that the
Greeks of modern times are in fact Byzantinized Slavs. This
theory was subjected to exhaustive criticism by Ross, Hopf,
Finlay and other scholars, and although many of Fallmerayer's
conclusions remain unshaken, the view is now generally held that
the base of the population both in the mainland and the Morea
is Hellenic, not Slavonic. During the 5th and 6th centuries
Greece had been subjected to Slavonic incursions which resulted
in no permanent settlements. After the great plague of 746-747,
however, large tracts of depopulated country were colonized
by Slavonic immigrants; the towns remained in the hands of
the Greeks, many of whom emigrated to Constantinople. In
the Morea the Slavs established themselves principally in
Arcadia and the region of Taygetus, extending their settlements
into Achaia, Elis, Laconia and the promontory of Taenaron;
on the mainland they occupied portions of Acarnania, Aetolia,
Doris and Phocis. Slavonic place-names occurring in all these
districts confirm the evidence of history with regard to this
immigration. The Slavs, who were not a maritime race, did
not colonize the Aegean Islands, but a few Slavonic place-names
1 Including suburbs.
in Crete seem to indicate that some of the invaders reached that
island. The Slavonic settlements in the Morea proved more
permanent than those in northern Greece, which were attacked
by the armies of the Byzantine emperors. But even in the
Morea the Greeks, or " Romans " as they called themselves
(Tw/iatdt), who had been left undisturbed on the eastern side of
the peninsula, eventually absorbed the alien element, which
disappeared after the 15th century. In addition to the place-
names the only remaining traces of the Slav immigration are the
Slavonic type of features, which occasionally recurs, especially
among the Arcadian peasants, and a few customs and traditions.
Even when allowance is made for the remarkable power of
assimilation which the Greeks possessed in virtue of their
superior civilization, it is difficult to resist the conclusion that the
Hellenic element must always have been the most numerous in
order to effect so complete an absorption. This element has
apparently undergone no essential change since the epoch of
Roman domination. The destructive invasions of the Goths in
a.d. 267 and 395 introduced no new ethnic feature; the various
races which during the middle ages obtained partial or complete
mastery in Greece — the Franks, the Venetians, the Turks —
contributed no appreciable ingredient to the mass of the popula-
tion. The modern Greeks may therefore be regarded as in the
main the descendants of the population which inhabited Greece
in the earlier centuries of Byzantine rule. Owing to the opera-
tion of various causes, historical, social and economic, that
population was composed of many heterogeneous elements and
represented in a very limited degree the race which repulsed
the Persians and built the Parthenon. The internecine conflicts
of the Greek communities, wars with foreign powers and the
deadly struggles of factions in the various cities, had to a large
extent obliterated the old race of free citizens by the beginning
of the Roman period. The extermination of the Plataeans by
the Spartans and of the Melians by the Athenians during the
Peloponnesian war, the proscription of Athenian citizens after
the war, the massacre of the Corcyraean oligarchs by the
democratic party, the slaughter of the Thebans by Alexander
and of the Corinthians by Mummius, are among the more
familiar instances of the catastrophes which overtook the civic
element in the Greek cities; the void can only have been filled
from the ranks of the metics or resident aliens and of the descend-
ants of the far more numerous slave population. Of the latter
a portion was of Hellenic origin; when a city was taken the
males of military age were frequently put to the sword, but the
women and children were sold as slaves; in Laconia and Thessaly
there was a serf population of indigenous descent. In the classical
period four-fifths of the population of Attica were slaves and of
the remainder half were metics. In the Roman period the number
of slaves enormously increased, the supply being maintained from
the regions on the borders of the empire; the same influences
which in Italy extinguished the small landed proprietors and
created the laiifundia prevailed also in Greece. The purely
Hellenic population, now greatly diminished, congregated in the
towns; the large estates which replaced the small freeholds
were cultivated by slaves and managed or farmed by slaves or
freedmen, and wide tracts of country were wholly depopulated.
How greatly the free citizen element had diminished by the close
of the 1 st century a.d. may be judged from the estimate of
Plutarch that all Greece could not furnish more than 3000
hoplites. The composite population which replaced the ancient
Hellenic stock became completely Hellenized. According to
craniologists the modern Greeks are brachycephalous while
the ancient race is stated to have been dolichocephalous, but it
seems doubtful whether any such generalization with regard
to the ancients can be conclusively established. The Aegean
islanders are more brachycephalous than the inhabitants of the
mainland, though apparently of purer Greek descent. No
general conception of the facial type of the ancient race can be
derived from the highly-idealized statues of deities, heroes and
athletes; so far as can be judged from portrait statues it was
very varied. Among the modern Greeks the same variety of
features prevails; the face is usually oval, the nose generally
43°
GREECE
[ETHNOLOGY
long and somewhat aquiline, the teeth regular, and the eyes
remarkably bright and full of animation. The country-folk are,
as a rule, tall and well-made, though slightly built and rather
meagre; their form is graceful and supple in movement. The
urban population, as elsewhere, is physically very inferior.
The women often display a refined and delicate beauty which
disappears at an early age. The best physical types of the race
are found in Arcadia, in the Aegean Islands and in Crete.
The Albanian population extends over all Attica and Megaris
(except the towns of Athens, Peiraeus and Megara), the greater
part of Boeotia, the eastern districts of Locris, the southern half
of Euboea and the northern side of Andros, the whole of the
islands of Salamis, Hydra, Spetsae and Poros, and part of Aegina,
the whole of Corinthia and Argolis, the northern districts of
Arcadia and the eastern portion of Achaea. There are also small
Albanian groups in Laconia and Messenia (see Albania). The
Albanians, who call themselves Shkyipetar, and are called by
the Greeks Arvanitae ('ApjSanrcu), belong to the Tosk or
southern branch of the race; their immigration took place in
the latter half of the 14th century. Their first settlements in the
Morea were made in 1347-1355. The Albanian colonization was
first checked by the Turks; in 1454 an Albanian insurrection in
the Morea against Byzantine rule was crushed by the Turkish
general Tura Khan, whose aid had been invoked by the Palaeo-
logi. With a few exceptions, the Albanians in Greece retained
their Christian faith after the Turkish conquest. The failure
of the insurrection of 1770 was followed by a settlement of
Moslem Albanians, who had been employed by the Turks to
suppress the revolt. The Christian Albanians have long lived
on good terms with the Greeks while retaining their own customs
and language and rarely intermarrying with their neighbours.
They played a brilliant part during the War of Independence,
and furnished the Greeks with many of their most distinguished
leaders. The process of their Hellenization, which scarcely
began till after the establishment of the kingdom, has been
somewhat slow; most of the men can now speak Greek, but
Albanian is still the language of the household. The Albanians,
who are mainly occupied with agriculture, are less quick-witted,
less versatile, and less addicted to politics than the Greeks, who
regard them as intellectually their inferiors. A vigorous and
manly race, they furnish the best soldiers in the Greek army,
and also make excellent sailors.
The Vlachs, who call themselves Arom&ni, i. e. Romans, form
another important foreign element in the population of Greece.
They are found principally in Pindus (the Agrapha district), the
mountainous parts of Thessaly, Othrys, Oeta, the mountains
of Boeotia, Aetolia and Acarnaniajthey have a few settlements
in Euboea. They are for the most part either nomad shepherds
and herdsmen or carriers (kiradjis). They apparently descend
from the Latinized provincials of the Roman epoch who took
refuge in the higher mountains from the incursions of the bar-
barians and Slavs (see Vlachs and Macedonia). In the 13th
century the Vlach principality of " Great Walachia " (Mey&kri
BXaxta) included Thessaly and southern Macedonia as far as
Castoria; its capital was at Hypati near Lamia. Acarnania
and Aetolia were known as " Lesser Walachia." The urban
element among the Vlachs has been almost completely Hcllenized;
it has always displayed great aptitude for commerce, and Athens
owes many of its handsomest buildings to the benefactions
of wealthy Vlach merchants. The nomad population in the
mountains has retained its distinctive nationality and customs
together with its Latin language, though most of the men can
speak Greek. Like the Albanians, the pastoral Vlachs seldom
intermarry with the Greeks; they occasionally take Greek wives,
but never give their daughters to Greeks; many of them are
illiterate, and their children rarely attend the schools. Owing
to their deficient intellectual culture they are regarded with
disdain by the Greeks, who employ the term jSXdxos to denote
not only a shepherd but an ignorant rustic.
A considerable Italian element was introduced into the Ionian
Islands during the middle ages owing to their prolonged sub-
jection to Latin princes and subsequently (till 1797) to the
Venetian republic. The Italians intermarried with the Greeks;
Italian became the language of the upper classes, and Roman
Catholicism was declared the state religion. The peasantry,
however, retained the Greek language and remained faithful to
the Eastern Church; during the past century the Italian element
was completely absorbed by the Greek population.
The Turkish population in Greece, which numbered about
70,000 before the war of liberation, disappeared in the course
of the struggle or emigrated at its conclusion. The Turks in
Thessaly are mainly descended either from colonists established
in the country by the Byzantine emperors or from immigrants
from Asia Minor, who arrived at the end of the 14th century;
they derive their name Konariots from Iconium (Konia) . Many
of the beys or land-owning class are the lineal representatives
of the Seljuk nobles who obtained fiefs under the feudal system
introduced here and in Macedonia by the Sultan Bayezid I.
Notwithstanding their composite origin, their wide geo-
graphical distribution and their cosmopolitan instincts, the
modern Greeks are a remarkably homogeneous people, N ^.
differing markedly in character from neighbouring cbmrmcLr.
races, united by a common enthusiasm in the pursuit
of their national aims, and profoundly convinced of their
superiority to other nations. Their distinctive character,
combined with their traditional tendency to regard non-Hellenic
peoples as barbarous, has, indeed, to some extent counteracted
the results of their great energy and zeal in the assimilation of
other races; the advantageous position which they attained at
an early period under Turkish rule owing to their superior
civilization, their versatility, their wealth, and their monopoly
of the ecclesiastical power would probably have enabled them to
Hellenize permanently the greater part of the Balkan peninsula
had their attitude towards other Christian races been more
sympathetic. Always the most civilized race in the East, they
have successively influenced their Macedonian, Roman and
Turkish conquerors, and their remarkable intellectual endow-
ments bid fair to secure them a brilliant position in the future.
The intense patriotic zeal of the Greeks may be compared with
that of the Hungarians; it is liable to degenerate into arrogance
and intolerance; it sometimes blinds their judgment and involves
them in ill-considered enterprises, but it nevertheless offers the
best guarantee for the ultimate attainment of their national
aims. All Greeks, in whatever country they may reside, work
together for the realization of the Great Idea (if Mey&Xiy 'IBka) —
the supremacy of Hellenism in the East — and to this object they
freely devote their time, their wealth and their talents; the
large fortunes which they amass abroad are often bequeathed
for the foundation of various institutions in Greece or Turkey,
for the increase of the national fleet and army, or for the spread
of Hellenic influence in the Levant. This patriotic sentiment is
unfortunately much exploited by self-seeking demagogues and
publicists, who rival each other in exaggerating the national
pretensions and in pandering to the national vanity. In no other
country is the passion for politics so intense; " keen political
discussions are constantly going on at the caf6s; the newspapers,
which are extraordinarily numerous and generally of little value,
are literally devoured, and every measure of the government is
violently criticized and ascribed to interested motives." The
influence of the journals is enormous; even the waiters in the
cafes and domestic servants have their favourite newspaper,
and discourse fluently on the political problems of the day.
Much of the national energy is wasted by this continued political
fever; it is diverted from practical aims, and may be said to
evaporate in words. The practice of independent criticism
tends to indiscipline in the organized public services; it has
been remarked that every Greek soldier is a general and every
sailor an admiral. During the war of 1897 a young naval
lieutenant telegraphed to the minister of war condemning the
measures taken by his admiral, and his action was applauded
by several journals. There is also little discipline in the ranks
of political parties, which are held together, not by any definite
principle, but by the personal influence of the leaders; defections
are frequent, and as a rule each deputy in the Chamber makes
CUSTOMS]
GREECE
431
his terms with his chief. On the other hand, the independent
character of the Greeks is favourably illustrated by the circum-
stance that Greece is the only country in the Balkan peninsula
in which the government cannot count on securing a majority
by official pressure at the elections. Few scruples are observed
in political warfare, but attacks on private life are rare. The
love of free discussion is inherent in the strongly-rooted demo-
cratic instinct of the Greeks. They are in spirit the most demo-
cratic of European peoples; no trace of Latin feudalism survives,
and aristocratic pretensions are ridiculed. In social life there
is no artificial distinction of classes; all titles of nobility are
forbidden; a few families descended from the chiefs in the
War of Independence enjoy a certain pre-eminence, but wealth
and, still more, political or literary notoriety constitute the
principal claim to social consideration. The Greeks display great
intellectual vivacity; they are clever, inquisitive, quick-witted
and ingenious, but not profound; sustained mental industry
and careful accuracy are distasteful to them, and their aversion
to manual labour is still more marked. Even the agricultural
class is but moderately industrious; abundant opportunities
for relaxation are provided by the numerous church festivals.
The desire for instruction is intense even in the lowest ranks
of the community; rhetorical and literary accomplishments
possess a greater attraction for the majority than the fields of
modern science. The number of persons who seek to qualify
for the learned professions is excessive; they form a superfluous
element in the community, an educated proletariat, attaching
themselves to the various political parties in the hope of obtaining
state employment and spending an idle existence in the cafes
and the streets when their party is out of power. In disposition
the Greeks are lively, cheerful, plausible, tactful, sympathetic;
very affable with strangers, hospitable, kind to their servants
and dependants, remarkably temperate and frugal in their
habits, amiable and united in family life. Drunkenness is
almost unknown, thrift is universally practised; the standard
of sexual morality is high, especially in the rural districts, where
illegitimacy is extremely rare. The faults of the Greeks must
in a large degree be attributed to their prolonged subjection to
alien races; their cleverness often degenerates into cunning,
their ready invention into mendacity, their thrift into avarice,
their fertility of resource into trickery and fraud. Dishonesty
is not a national vice, but many who would scorn to steal will
not hesitate to compass illicit gains by duplicity and misrepre-
sentation; deceit, indeed, is often practised gratuitously for
the mere intellectual satisfaction which it affords. In the
astuteness of their monetary dealings the Greeks proverbially
surpass the Jews, but fall short of the Armenians; their remark-
able aptitude for business is sometimes marred by a certain
short-sightedness which pursues immediate profits at the cost
of ulterior advantages. Their vanity and egoism, which are
admitted by even the most favourable observers, render them
jealous, exacting, and peculiarly susceptible to flattery. In
common with other southern European peoples the Greeks are
extremely excitable; their passionate disposition is prone to take
offence at slight provocation, and trivial quarrels not infre-
quently result in homicide. They are religious, but by no means
fanatical, except in regard to politico-religious questions affecting
their national aims. In general the Greeks may be described
as a clever, ambitious and versatile people, capable of great
effort and sacrifice, but deficient in some of the more solid
qualities which make for national greatness.
The customs and habits of the Greek peasantry, in which
the observances of the classical age may often be traced, together
Custom* ^ tn their legends and traditions, have furnished an
interesting subject of investigation to many writers
(see Bibliography below). In the towns the more cosmopolitan
population has largely adopted the " European " mode of life,
and the upper classes show a marked preference for French
manners and usages. In both town and country, however, the
influence of oriental ideas is still apparent, due in part to the
long period of Turkish domination, in part to the contact of
the Greeks with Asiatic races at all epochs of their history. In
the rural districts, especially, the women lead a somewhat
secluded life and occupy a subject position; they wait at table,
and only partake of the meal when the men of the family have
been served. In most parts of continental Greece the women
work in the fields, but in the Aegean Islands and Crete they rarely
leave the house. Like the Turks, the Greeks have a great
partiality for coffee, which can always be procured even in the
remotest hamlets; the Turkish practice of carrying a string of
beads or rosary (comboloio), which provides an occupation for
the hands, is very common. Many of the observances in con-
nexion with births, christenings, weddings and funerals are very
interesting and in some cases are evidently derived from remote
antiquity. Nuptial ceremonies are elaborate and protracted;
in some of the islands of the archipelago they continue for three
weeks. In the preliminary negotiations for a marriage the
question of the bride's dowry plays a very important part; a
girl without a dowry often remains unmarried, notwithstanding
the considerable excess of the male over the female population.
Immediately after the christening of a female child herparents begin
to lay up her portion, and young men often refrain from marrying
until their sisters have been settled in life. The dead are carried
to the tomb in an open coffin; in the country districts profes-
sional mourners are engaged to chant dirges; the body is washed
with wine and crowned with a wreath of flowers. A valedictory
oration is pronounced at the grave. Many superstitions still
prevail among the peasantry; the belief in the vampire and the
evil eye is almost universal. At Athens and in the larger towns
many handsome dwelling-houses may be seen, but the upper
classes have no predilection for rural life, and their country
houses are usually mere farmsteads, which they rarely visit.
In the more fertile districts two-storeyed houses of the modern
type are common, but in the mountainous regions the habita-
tions of the country-folk are extremely primitive; the small
stone-built hut, almost destitute of furniture, shelters not only
the family but its cattle and domestic animals. In Attica the
peasants' houses are usually built of cob. In Maina the villagers
live in fortified towers of three or more storeys; the animals
occupy the ground floor, the family the topmost storey; the
intermediate space serves as a granary or hay-loft. The walls
are loop-holed for purposes of defence in view of the traditional
vendetta and feuds, which in some instances have been handed
down from remote generations and are maintained by occasional
sharp-shooting from these primitive fortresses. In general
cleanliness and sanitation are much neglected; the traveller in
the country districts is doomed to sleepless nights unless he has
provided himself with bedding and a hammock. Even Athens,
though enriched by many munificent benefactions, is still without
a drainage system or an adequate water supply; the sewers of
many houses open into the streets, in which rubbish is allowed
to accumulate. The effects of insanitary conditions are, how-
ever, counteracted in some degree by the excellent climate.
The Aegean islanders contrast favourably with the continentals
in point of personal cleanliness and the neatness of their dwellings;
their houses are generally covered with the flat roof, familiar
in Asia, on which the family sleep in summer. The habits and
customs of the islanders afford an interesting study. Propitiatory
rites are still practised by the mariners and fishermen, and thank-
offerings for preservation at sea are hung up in the churches.
Among the popular amusements of the Greeks dancing holds a
prominent place; the dance is of various kinds; the most usual
is the somewhat inanimate round dance (<rvpr6 or rpAra), in
which a number of persons, usually of the same sex, take part
holding hands; it seems indentical with the Slavonic kolo
(" circle "). The more lively Albanian fling is generally danced
by three or four persons, one of whom executes a series of leaps
and pirouettes. The national music is primitive and monotonous.
All classes are passionately addicted to card-playing, which is
forbidden by law in places of public resort. The picturesque
national costume, which is derived from the Albanian Tosks,
has unfortunately been abandoned by the upper classes and the
urban population since the abdication of King Otho, who always
wore it; it is maintained as the uniform of the evzones (highland
432
GREECE
[GOVERNMENT
regiments). It consists of a red cap with dark blue tassel, a
white shirt with wide sleeves, a vest and jacket, sometimes of
velvet, handsomely adorned with gold or black braid, a belt in
which various weapons are carried, a white kilt or fustanella of
many folds, white hose tied with garters, and red leather shoes
with pointed ends, from which a tassel depends. Over all is worn
the shaggy white capote. The islanders wear a dark blue costume
with a crimson waistband, loose trousers descending to the knee,
stockings and pumps or long boots. The women's costume is
very varied; the loose red fez is sometimes worn and a short
velvet jacket with rich gold embroidery. The more elderly
women are generally attired in black. In the Megara district
and elsewhere peasant girls wear on festive occasions a head-
dress composed of strings of coins which formerly represented
the dowry.
Greece is a constitutional monarchy; hereditary in the male
line, or, in case of its extinction, in the female. The sovereign,
by decision of the conference of London (August 1863),
ml* is st y led "^ of the Hellenes"; the title "king
of Greece " was borne by King Otho. The heir
apparent is styled 6 fodfloxos, " the successor "; the title
" duke of Sparta," which has been accorded to the crown prince,
is not generally employed in Greece. The king and the heir
apparent must belong to the Orthodox Greek Church; a special
exception has been made for King George, who is a Lutheran.
The king attains his majority on completing his eighteenth year;
before ascending the throne he must take the oath to the con-
stitution in presence of the principal ecclesiastical and lay
dignitaries of the kingdom, and must convoke the Chamber
within two months after his accession. The civil list amounts
to 1,125,000 dr., in addition to which it was provided that King
George should receive £4000 annually as a personal allowance
from each of the three protecting powers, Great Britain, France
and Russia. The heir apparent receives from the state an
annuity of 200,000 dr. The king has a palace at Athens and
other residences at Corfu, Tatoi (on the slopes of Mt Parnes)
and Larissa. The present constitution dates from the 29th of
October 1864. The legislative power is shared by the king with
a single chamber (PovXfj) elected by manhood suffrage for a
period of four years. The election is by ballot; candidates
must have completed their thirtieth year and electors their
twenty-first. The deputies (fiovkevrai), according to the
constitution, receive only their travelling expenses, but they
vote themselves a payment of 1800 dr. each for the session and
a further allowance in case of an extraordinary session. The
Chamber sits for a term of not less than three or more than six
months. No law can be passed except by an absolute majority
of the house, and one-half of the members must be present to
form a quorum; these arrangements have greatly facilitated the
practice of obstruction, and often enable individual deputies
to impose terms on the government for their attendance. In
1898 the number of deputies was 234. Some years previously
a law diminishing the national representation and enlarging
the constituencies was passed by Trikoupis with the object
of checking the local influence of electors upon deputies, but
the measure was subsequently repealed. The number of deputies,
however, who had hitherto been elected in the proportion of one
to twelve thousand of the population, was reduced in 1905,
when the proportion of one to sixteen thousand was substituted;
the Chamber of 1906, elected under the new system, consisted
of 177 deputies. In 1906 the electoral districts were diminished
in number and enlarged so as to coincide with the twenty-six
administrative departments (v6/xo0; the reduction of these
departments to their former number of sixteen, which is in
contemplation, will bring about some further diminution in
parliamentary representation. It is hoped that recent legislation
will tend to check the pernicious practice of bartering personal
favours, known as avvaKkayrj, which still prevails to the great
detriment of public morality, paralysing all branches of the
administration and wasting the resources of the state. Political
parties are formed not for the furtherance of any principle or
cause, but with the object of obtaining the spoils of office, and
the various groups, possessing no party watchword or programme,
frankly designate themselves by the names of their leaders.
Even the strongest government is compelled to bargain with its
supporters in regard to the distribution of patronage and other
favours. The consequent instability of successive ministries
has retarded useful legislation and seriously checked the national
progress. In 1906 a law was passed disqualifying junior officers
of the army and navy for membership of the Chamber; great
numbers of these had hitherto been candidates at every election.
This much-needed measure had previously been passed by
Trikoupis, but had been repealed by his rival Delyannes. The
executive is vested in the king, who is personally irresponsible,
and governs through ministers chosen by himself and responsible
to the Chamber, of which they are ex-qfficio members. He
appoints all public officials, sanctions and proclaims laws,
convokes, prorogues and dissolves the Chamber, grants pardon
or amnesty, coins money and confers decorations. There are
seven ministries which respectively control the departments
of foreign affairs, the interior, justice, finance, education and
worship, the army and the navy.
The 26 departments or vopol, into which the country is divided
for administrative purposes, are each under a prefect or nomarch
(vdfJLdpxos) ; they are subdivided into 69 districts or
eparchies, and into 445 communes or demes (drjuoi) L ? sa f ' m
under mayors or demarchs (8rjfj.apxoi). The prefects Nation*'
and sub-prefects are nominated by the government;
the mayors are elected by the communes for a period of four
years. The prefects are assisted by a departmental council,
elected by the population, which manages local business and
assesses rates; there are also communal councils under the
presidency of the mayors. There are altogether some 12,000
state-paid officials in the country, most of them inadequately
remunerated and liable to removal or transferral upon a change
of government. A host of office-seekers has thus been created,
and large numbers of educated persons spend many years in
idleness or in political agitation. A law passed in 1905 secures
tenure of office to civil servants of fifteen years' standing, and
some restrictions have been placed on the dismissal and trans-
ferral of schoolmasters.
Under the Turks the Greeks retained, together with their
ecclesiastical institutions, a certain measure of local self-govern-
ment and judicial independence. The Byzantine code,
based on the Roman, as embodied in the 'Ef&^Xos "* *
of Armenopoulos (1345), was sanctioned by royal decree in 183 5
with some modifications as the civil law of Greece. Further
modifications and new enactments were subsequently introduced,
derived from the old French and Bavarian systems. The penal
code is Bavarian, the commercial French. Liberty of person
and domicile is inviolate; no arrest can be made, no house
entered, and no letter opened without a judicial warrant. Trial
by jury is established for criminal, political and press offences.
A new civil code, based on Saxon and Italian law, has been
drawn up by a commission of jurists, but it has not yet been
considered by the Chamber. A separate civil code, partly French,
partly Italian, is in force in the Ionian Islands. The law is
administered by 1 court of cassation (styled the " Areopagus "),
5 courts of appeal, 26 courts of first instance, 233 justices of the
peace and 19 correctional tribunals.
The judges, who are appointed by the Crown, are liable to
removal by the minister of justice, whose exercise of this right
is often invoked by political partisans. The administration of
justice suffers in consequence, more especially in the country
districts, where the judges must reckon with the influential
politicians and their adherents. The pardon or release of a
convicted criminal is not infrequently due to pressure on the part
of some powerful patron. The lamentable effects of this system
have long been recognized, and in 1906 a law was introduced
securing tenure of office for two or four years to judges of the
courts of first instance and of the inferior tribunals. In the
circumstances crime is less rife than might be expected; the
temperate habits of the Greeks have conduced to this result.
A serious feature is the great prevalence of homicide, due in
EDUCATION]
GREECE
433
part to the passionate character of the people, but still more to
the almost universal practice of carrying weapons. The tradi-
tions of the vendetta are almost extinct in the Ionian Islands,
but still linger in Maina, where family feuds are transmitted
from generation to generation. The brigand of the old-fashioned
type (kwrrrp, icKk<f>rrjsi) has almost disappeared, except in the
remoter country districts, and piracy, once so prevalent in the
Aegean, has been practically suppressed, but numbers of outlaws
or absconding criminals (4>vy65u<oi) still haunt the mountains,
and the efforts of the police to bring them to justice are far from
successful. Their ranks were considerably increased after the
war of 1897, when many deserters from the army and adventurers
who came to Greece as volunteers betook themselves to a pre-
datory life. On the other hand, there is no habitually criminal
class in Greece, such as exists in the large centres of civilization,
and professional mendicancy is still rare.
Police duties, for which officers and, in some cases, soldiers
of the regular army were formerly employed, are since 1906
carried out by a reorganized gendarmerie force of 194 officers
and 6344 non-commissioned officers and men, distributed in
the twenty-six departments and commanded by an inspector-
general resident at Athens, who is aided by a consultative com-
mission. There are male and female prisons at all the depart-
mental centres; the number of prisoners in 1906 was 5705.
Except in the Ionian Islands, the general condition of the prisons
is deplorable; discipline and sanitation are very deficient, and
conflicts among the prisoners are sometimes reported in which
knives and even revolvers are employed. A good prison has
been built near Athens by Andreas Syngros, and a reformatory
for juvenile offenders (^^/Setov) has been founded by George
Averoff, another national benefactor. Capital sentences are
usually commuted to penal servitude for life; executions, for
which the guillotine is employed, are for the most part carried
out on the island of Bourzi near Nauplia; they are often post-
poned for months or even for years. There is no enactment
resembling the Habeas Corpus Act, and accused persons may
be detained indefinitely before trial. The Greeks, like the other
nations liberated from Turkish rule, are somewhat litigious, and
numbers of lawyers find occupation even in the smaller country
towns.
The Greeks, an intelligent people, have always shown a remark-
able zeal for learning, and popular education has made great
strides. So eager is the desire for instruction that
tj ^" schools are often founded in the rural districts on the
initiative of the villagers, and the sons of peasants,
artisans and small shopkeepers come in numbers to Athens,
where they support themselves by domestic service or other
humble occupations in order to study at the university during
their spare hours. Almost immediately after the accession of
King Otho steps were taken to establish elementary schools in
all the communes, and education was made obligatory. The
law is not very rigorously applied in the remoter districts, but
its enforcement is scarcely necessary. In 1898 there were 2914
" demotic " or primary schools, with 3465 teachers, attended by
129,210 boys (5-38% of the population) and 29,119 girls (1-19 %
of the population) . By a law passed in 1 905 the primary schools,
which had reached the number of 3359 in that year, were reduced
to 2604. The expenditure on primary schools is nominally
sustained by the communes, but in reality by the government
in the form of advances to the communes, which are not repaid;
it was reduced in 1905 from upwards of 7,000,000 dr. to under
6,000,000 dr. In 1905 there were 306 " Hellenic " or secondary
schools, with 819 teachers and 21,575 pupils (boys only) main-
tained by the state at a cost of 1,720,096 dr.; and 39 higher
schools, or gymnasia, with 261 masters and 6485 pupils, partly
maintained by the state (expenditure 615,600 dr.) and partly
by benefactions and other means. Besides these public schools
there are several private educational institutions, of which there
are eight at Athens with 6 50 pupils. The Polytechnic Institute
of Athens affords technical instruction in the departments of art
and science to 221 students. Scientific agricultural instruction
has been much neglected; there is an agricultural school at
Aldinion in Thessaly with 40 pupils; there are eight agricultural
stations (araBfMoi) in various parts of the country. There are
two theological seminaries — the Rizari School at Athens (120
pupils) and a preparatory school at Art a; three other seminaries
have been suppressed. The Commercialand Industrial Academy
at Athens (about 225 pupils), a private institution, has proved
highly useful to the country; there are four commercial schools,
each in one of the country towns. A large school for females
at Athens, the Arsakfon, is attended by 1500 girls. There are
several military and naval schools, including the military college
of the Euelpides at Athens and the school of naval cadets (twv
doiclpuv). The university of Athens in 1905 numbered 57
professors and 2598 students, of whom 557 were from abroad.
Of the six faculties, theology numbered 79 students, law 1467,
medicine 567, arts 206, physics and mathematics 192, and
pharmacy 87. The university receives a subvention from the
state, which in 1905 amounted to 563,960 dr.; it possesses
a library of over 1 50,000 volumes and geological, zoological and
botanical museums. A small tax on university education was
imposed in 1903; the total cost to the student for the four years'
course at the university is about £25. Higher education is
practically gratuitous in Greece, and there is a somewhat ominous
increase in the number of educated persons who disdain agri-
cultural pursuits and manual labour. The intellectual culture
acquired is too often of a superficial character owing to the
tendency to sacrifice scientific thoroughness and accuracy, to
neglect the more useful branches of knowledge, and to aim at a
showy dialectic and literary proficiency. (For the native and
foreign archaeological institutions see Athens.)
The Greek branch of the Orthodox Eastern Church is practi-
cally independent, like those of Servia, Montenegro and Rumania,
though nominally subject to the patriarchate of R ~.
Constantinople. The jurisdiction of the patriarch
was in fact repudiated in 1833, when the king was declared the
supreme head of the church, and the severance was completed
in 1850. Ecclesiastical affairs are under the control of the
Ministry of Education. Church government is vested in the
Holy Synod, a council of five ecclesiastics under the presidency
of the metropolitan of Athens; its sittings are attended by a
royal commissioner. The church can invoke the aid of the civil
authorities for the punishment of heresy and the suppression of
unorthodox literature, pictures, &c. There were formerly 21
archbishoprics and 29 bishoprics in Greece, but a law passed in
1899 suppressed the archbishoprics (except the metropolitan
see of Athens) on the death of the existing prelates, and fixed
the total number of sees at 3 2. The prelates derive their incomes
partly from the state and partly from the church lands. There
are about 5500 priests, who belong for the most part to the
poorest classes. The parochial clergy have no fixed stipends,
and often resort to agriculture or small trading in order to
supplement the scanty fees earned by their ministrations. Owing
to their lack of education their personal influence over their
parishioners is seldom considerable. In addition to the parochial
clergy there are 19 preachers (UpoKrjpvm) salaried by the state.
There are 170 monasteries and 4 nunneries in Greece, with about
1600 monks and 250 nuns. In regard to their constitution the
monasteries are either " idiorrhythmic " or " coenobian " (see
Athos); the monks (icaXoyepoi) are in some cases assisted
by lay brothers (wxr/u/cot). More than 300 of the smaller
monasteries were suppressed in 1829 and their revenues secular-
ized. Among the more important and interesting monasteries
are those of Megaspelaeon and Lavra (where the standard of
insurrection, unfurled in 1821, is preserved) near Kalavryta,
St Luke of Stiris near Arachova, Daphne and Penteli near Athens,
and the Meteora group in northern Thessaly. The bishops, who
must be unmarried, are as a rule selected from the monastic
order and are nominated by the king; the parish priests are
allowed to marry, but the remarriage of widowers is forbidden.
The bulk of the population, about 2,000,000, belongs to the
Orthodox Church; other Christian confessions number about
1 5,000, the great majority being Roman Catholics. The Roman
Catholics (principally in Naxos and the Cyclades) have three
434
GREECE
[AGRICULTURE
Agri-
culture.
archbishoprics(Athens,Naxos andCorf u) ,five bishoprics and about
60 churches. The Jews, who are regarded with much hostility,
have almost disappeared from the Greek mainland; they now
number about 5000, and are found principally at Corfu. The
Mahommedans are confined to Thessaly except a few at Chalcis.
National sentiment is a more powerful factor than personal
religious conviction in the attachment of the Greeks to the
Orthodox Church; a Greek without the pale of the church is
more or less an alien. The Catholic Greeks of Syros sided with
the Turks at the time of the revolution; the Mahommedans of
Crete, though of pure Greek descent, have always been hostile
to their Christian fellow-countrymen and are commonly called
Turks. On the other hand, that portion of the Macedonian
population which acknowledges the patriarch of Constantinople
is regarded as Greek, while that which adheres to the Bulgarian
exarchate, though differing in no point of doctrine, has been
declared schismatic. The constitution of 1864 guarantees
toleration to all creeds in Greece and imposes no civil disabilities
on account of religion.
Greece is essentially an agricultural country; its prosperity
depends on its agricultural products, and more than half the
population is occupied in the cultivation of the soil
and kindred pursuits. The land in the plains and
valleys is exceedingly rich, and, wherever there is
a sufficiency of water, produces magnificent crops. Cereals
nevertheless furnish the principal figure in the list of imports,
the annual value being about 30,000,000 fr. The country,
especially since the acquisition of the fertile province of Thessaly,
might under a well-developed agricultural system provide a
food-supply for all its inhabitants and an abundant surplus
for exportation. Thessaly alone, indeed, could furnish cereals
for the whole of Greece. Unfortunately, however, agriculture
is still in a primitive state, and the condition of the rural popula-
tion has received very inadequate attention from successive
governments. The wooden plough of the Hesiodic type is still
in use, especially in Thessaly; modern implements, however,
are being gradually introduced. The employment of manure
and the rotation of crops are almost unknown; the fields are
generally allowed to lie fallow in alternate years. As a rule,
countries dependent on agriculture are liable to sudden fluctua-
tions in prosperity, but in Greece the diversity of products is so
great that a failure in one class of crops is usually compensated
by exceptional abundance in another. Among the causes which
have hitherto retarded agricultural progress are the ignorance
and conservatism of the peasantry, antiquated methods of
cultivation, want of capital, absentee proprietorship, sparsity
of population, bad roads, the prevalence of usury, the uncertainty
of boundaries and the land tax, which, in the absence of a survey,
is levied on ploughing oxen; to these may be added the in-
security hitherto prevailing in many of the country districts
and the growing distaste for rural life which has accompanied
the spread of education. Large estates are managed under the
metayer system; the cultivator paying the proprietor from
one-third to half of the gross produce; the landlords, who
prefer to live in the larger towns, see little of their tenants, and
rarely interest themselves in their welfare. A great proportion
of the best arable land in Thessaly is owned by persons who
reside permanently out of the country. The great estates in
this province extend over some 1,500,000 acres, of which about
500,000 are cultivated. In the Peloponnesus peasant proprietor-
ship is almost universal; elsewhere it is gradually supplanting
the metayer system ; the small properties vary from 2 or 3 to
50 acres. The extensive state lands, about one-third of the
area of Greece, were formerly the property of Mahommedan
religious communities (vakoufs); they are for the most part
farmed out annually by auction. They have been much en-
croached upon by neighbouring owners; a considerable portion
has also been sold to the peasants. The rich plain of Thessaly
suffers from alternate droughts and inundations, and from the
ravages of field mice; with improved cultivation, drainage
and irrigation it might be rendered enormously productive.
A commission has been occupied for some years in preparing
a scheme of hydraulic works. Usury is, perhaps, a greater
scourge to the rural population than any visitation of nature;
the institution of agricultural banks, lending money at a fair
rate of interest on the security of their land, would do much
to rescue the peasants from the clutches of local Shylocks.
There is a difficulty, however, in establishing any system of
land credit owing to the lack of a survey. Since 1897 a law
passed in 1882 limiting the rate of interest to 8% (to 9 % in the
case of commercial debts) has to some extent been enforced by
the tribunals. In the Ionian Islands the rate of 10% still
prevails.
The following figures give approximately the acreage in 1906
and the average annual yield of agricultural produce, no official
statistics being available : —
Acres.
Fields sown or lying fallow 3,000,000
Vineyards 337. 500
Currant plantations 175,000
Olives (10,000,000 trees) 250,000
Fruit trees (fig, mulberry, &c.) .... 125,000
Meadows and pastures 7,500,000
Forests 2,000,000
Waste lands 2,875,000
16,262,500
The average annual yield is as follows : —
Wheat 350,000,000 kilograms
Maize 100,000,000 „
Rye 20,000,000 „
Barley 70,000,000 „
Oats 75,000,000 „
Beans, lentils, &c 25,000,000 „
Currants 350,000,000 Venetian lb
Sultanina 4,000,000 „
Wine 3,000,000 hectolitres
Olive oil 300,000
Olives (preserved) .... 100,000,000 kilograms
Figs (exported only) .... 12,000,000 „
Seed cotton 6,500,000 „
Tobacco 8,000,000 „
Vegetables and fresh fruits . . 20,000,000 „
Cocoons 1,000,000 „
Hesperidiums (exported only) . 4,000,000 „
Carobs (exported only) . 10,000,000 „
Resin 5,000,000 „
Beet 12,000,000 „
Rice is grown in the marshy plains of Elis, Boeotia, Marathon
and Missolonghi; beet in Thessaly. The cultivation of vegetables
is increasing ; beans, peas and lentils are the most common. Potatoes
are grown in the upland districts, but are not a general article of diet.
Of late years market-gardening has been taken up as a new industry
in the neighbourhood of Athens. There is a great variety of fruits.
Olive plantations are found everywhere; in i860 they occupied
about 90,000 acres; in 1887, 433,701 acres. The trees are sometimes
of immense age and form a picturesque feature in the landscape.
In latter years the groves in many parts of the western Morea and
Zante have been cut down to make room for currant plantations;
the destruction has been deplorable in its consequences, for, as the
tree requires twenty years to come into full bearing, replanting
is seldom resorted to. Preserved olives, eaten with bread, are a
common article of food. Excellent olive oil is produced in Attica
and elsewhere. The value of the oil and fruit exported varies from
five to ten million francs. Figs are also abundant, especially in
Messenia and in the Cyclades. Mulberry trees are planted for the
purposes of sericulture ; they have been cut down in great numbers
in the currant-growing districts. Other fruit trees are the orange,
citron, lemon, pomegranate and almond. Peaches, apricots, pears,
cherries, &c, abound, but are seldom scientifically cultivated; the
fruit is generally gathered while unripe. Cotton in 1906 occupied
about 1 2 ,500 acres, chiefly in the neighbourhood of Livadia. Tobacco
plantations in 1893 covered 16,320 acres, yielding about 3,500,000
kilograms; the yield in iqo6 was 9,000,000 kilograms. About 40%
of the produce is exported, principally to Egypt and Turkey. More
important are the vineyards, which occupied in 1 887 an area of 306,42 1
acres. The best wine is made at Patras, on the royal estate at
Decelea, and on other estates in Attica; a peculiar flavour is im-
parted to the wine of the country by the addition of resin. The
wine of Santorin, the modern representative of the famous " malm-
sey," is mainly exported to Russia. The foreign demand for Greek
wines is rapidly increasing; 3.770,257 gallons were exported in 1890,
4,974,196 gallons in 1894. There is also a growing demand for
Greek cognac. The export of wine in 1905 was 20,850,941 okes,
value 5,848,544 fr. ; of cognac, 363.720 okes, value 1,091,160 fr.
The currant, by far the most important of Greek exports, is culti-
vated in a limited area extending along the southern shore of the
Gulf of Corinth and the seaboard of the Western Peloponnesus.
AGRICULTURE]
GREECE
435
in Zante, Cephalonia and Leucas, and in certain districts of
Acarnania and Aetolia; attempts to cultivate it elsewhere have
Cutnnta. £ enera N v P rov ed unsuccessful. The history of the currant
%Mrn ^ industry has been a record of extraordinary vicissitudes.
Previously to 1877 the currant was exported solely for eating purposes,
the amounts for the years 1872 to 1877 being 70,766 tons, 71,222
tons, 76,210 tons, 72,916 tons, 86,947 tons, and 82,181 tons respect-
ively. In 1877, however, the French vineyards began to suffer
seriously from the phylloxera, and French wine producers were
obliged to have recourse to dried currants, which make an excellent
wine for blending purposes. The importation of currants into
France at once rose from 881 tons in 1877 to 20,999 tons in 1880,
and to 70,401 tons in 1889, or about 20,000 tons more than were
imported into England in that year. Meanwhile the total amount
of currants produced in Greece had nearly doubled in these thirteen
years. The country was seized with a mania for currant planting;
every other industry was neglected, and olive, orange and lemon
groves were cut down to make room for the more lucrative growth.
The currant growers, in order to increase their production as rapidly
as possible, had recourse to loans at a high rate of interest, and the
great profits which they made were devoted to further planting,
while the loans remained unpaid. A crisis followed rapidly. By
1 89 1 the French vineyards had to a great extent recovered from the
disease, and wine producers in France began to clamour against the
competition of foreign wines and wine-producing raisins and currants.
The import duty on these was thereupon raised from 6 francs to 15
francs per 100 kilos, and was further increased in 1894 to 25
francs. The currant trade with France was thus extinguished; of a
crop averaging 160,000 tons, only some no,ooo now found a market.
Although a fresh opening for exportation was found in Russia, the
value of the fruit dropped from £15 to £5 per ton, a price scarcely
covering the cost of cultivation. In July 1895 the government
introduced a measure, since known as the Retention (TapeucpAnyoxs)
Law, by which it was enacted that every shipper should deliver
into depots provided by the government a weight of currants equiva-
lent to 15 % of the amount which he intended to export. A later law
fixed the quantity to be retained by the state at 10 %, which might
be increased to 20%, should a representative committee, meeting
every summer at Athens, so advise the gbvernment. The currants
thus taken over by the government cannot be exported unless they
are reduced to pulp, syrup or otherwise rendered unsuitable for
eating purposes; they may be sold locally for wine-making or distil-
ling, due precautions being taken that they are not used in any other
way. The price of exported currants is thus maintained at an artificial
figure. Tne Retention Law, which after 1895 was voted annually,
was passed for a period of ten years in 1890. This pernicious
measure, which is in defiance of all economic laws, perpetuates a
superfluous production, retards the development of other branches
of agriculture and burdens the government with vast accumulations
of an unmarketable commodity. It might excusably be adopted as
a temporary expedient to meet a pressing crisis, but as a permanent
system it can only prove detrimental to the country and the currant
growers themselves.
In 1899 a " Bank of Viticulture " was established at Patras for the
purpose of assisting the growers, to whom it was bound to make
advances at a low rate of interest ; it undertook the storage and the
sale of the retained fruit, from which its capital was derived. The
bank soon found itself burdened with an enormous unsaleable
stock, while its loans for the most part remained unpaid ; meantime
over-production, the cause of the trouble, continued to increase,
and prices further diminished. In 1903 a syndicate of English and
other foreign capitalists made proposals for a monopoly of the export,
guaranteeing fixed prices to the growers. The scheme, which con-
flicted with Anglo-Greek commercial conventions, was rejected by the
Theotokis ministry ; serious disturbances followed in the currant-
growing districts, and M. Theotokis resigned. His successor, M.
Kallis, in order to appease the cultivators, arranged that the Currant
Bank should offer them fixed minimum prices for the various growths,
and guaranteed it a loan of 6,000,000 dr. The resources of the bank,
however, gave out before the end of the season, and prices pursued
their downward course. Another experiment was then tried; the
export duty (15%) was made payable in kind, the retention quota
being thus practically raised from 20 to 35 %. The only result of this
measure was a diminution of the export ; in the spring of 1905 prices
fell very low and the growers began to despair. A syndicate of banks
and capitalists then came forward, which introduced the system now
in operation. A privileged company was formed whicn obtained
a charter from the government for twenty years, during which period
the retention and export duties are maintained at the fixed rates
of 20 and 15 % respectively. The company aims at keeping up the
prices of the marketable qualities by employing profitably for
industrial purposes the unexported surplus and retained inferior
qualities; it pays to the state 4,000,000 dr. annually under the head
of export duty; offers all growers at the beginning of each agri-
cultural year a fixed price of 1 15 dr. per 1000 Venetian ft> irrespective
of quality, and pays a price varying from 1 15 dr. to 145 dr. according
to quality at tne end of the year for the unexported surplus. In
return for these advantages to the growers the company is entitled
to receive 7 dr. on every 1000 lb of currants produced and to dispose
of the whole retained amount. A special company has been formed
for the conversion of the superfluous product into spirit, wine, &c.
The system may perhaps prove commercially remunerative, but it
penalizes the producers of the better growths in order to provide a
livelihood for the growers of inferior and unmarketable kinds and
protracts an abnormal situation. The following table gives the
annual currant crop from 1877 to 1905 : —
Year.
Total crop
(tons).
Exported to
Gt. Britain.
Exported to
France.
1877
82,181
881
1878
100,004
9,086
1879
92.3"
19,087
1880
92,337
20,999
1881
121,994
30,315
1882
109,403
51,933
26,282
1883
1 14,980
52,099
24,815
1884
129,268
59.629
39,198
1885
113.287
55,765
37,730
1886
127,570
48,892
45,ooo
1887
127,160
55,549
37,438
1888
158,728
63,7H
40,735
1889
142,308
52,251
69,555
37,8i6
1890
146,749
67,502
1 891
i6i,545
70,762
39,712
1892
116,944
60,418
21,721
1893
119,886
73.ooo
6,800
1894
i35,5oo
64,500
15,000
1895
167,695
60,500
26,500
1896
153,514
65,000
6,500
1897
H5,730
63,000
2,000
1898
153,514
69,500
6,000
1899
144,071
65,600
3,8oo
1900
47,236
36,000
300
1 901
139,820
58,000
1,216
1902
152,580
58,400
54.8oo
4,782
1903
179,499
4,470
1904
146,500
58,850
820
1905
162,957
61,700
1,042
The " peronospora," a species of white blight, first caused con-
siderable damage in the Greek vineyards in 1892, recurring in 1897
and 1900.
More than half the cultivable area of Greece is devoted to pastur-
age. Cattle-rearing, as a rule, is a distinct occupation from agri-
cultural farming; the herds are sent to pasture on the stocks
mountains in the summer, and return to the plains at the t*rZiin*
beginning of winter. The larger cattle are comparatively ™*
rare, being kept almost exclusively for agricultural labour; the
smaller are very abundant. Beef is scarcely eaten in Greece, the
milk of cows is rarely drunk and butter is almost unknown. Cheese,
a staple article of diet, is made from the milk of sheep and goats.
The number of larger cattle has declined in recent years; that of
the smaller has increased. The native breed of oxen is small;
buffaloes are seldom seen except in north-western Thessaly ; a few
camels are used in the neighbourhood of Parnassus. The Thessalian
breed of horses, small but sturdy and enduring, can hardly be taken
to represent the celebrated chargers of antiquity. Mules are much
employed in the mountainous districts; the best type of these
animals is found in the islands. The flocks of long-horned sheep and
goats add a picturesque feature to Greek rural scenery. The goats
are more numerous in proportion to the population than in any other
European country (137 per 100 inhabitants). The shepherds' dogs
rival those of Bulgaria in ferocity. According to an unofficial estimate
published in 1905 the numbers of the vanous domestic animals in
1899 were as follows: Oxen and buffaloes, 408,744; horses, 157,068;
mules, 88,869; donkeys, 141,174; camels, 51; sheep, 4,568,151;
goats, 3,339,439,' pigs, 79,7 16. During the four years 1899-1902
the annual average value of imported cattle was 4,218,015 dr., of
exported cattle 209,321 dr.
The forest area (about 2,500,000 acres or one-fifth of the surface
of the mainland) is for the most part state property. The value of
the forests has been estimated at 200,000,000 fr. ; the Fonmtm
most productive are in the district extending from the m*****
Pindus range to the Gulf of Corinth. The principal trees are the
oak (about 30 varieties), the various coniferae, the chestnut, maple,
elm, beech, alder, cornel and arbutus. In Greece, as in other lands
formerly subject to Turkish rule, the forests are not only neglected,
but often deliberately destroyed; this great source of national
wealth is thus continually diminishing. Every year immense forest
fires may be seen raging in the mountains, and many of the most
picturesque districts in the country are converted into desolate
wildernesses. These conflagrations are mainly the work of shep-
herds eager to provide increased pasturage for their flocks; they are
sometimes, however, due to the carelessness of smokers, and occa-
sionally, it is said, to spontaneous ignition in hot weather. Great
damage is also done by the goats, which browse on the young saplings;
the pine trees are much injured by the practice of scoring their bark
for resin. With the disappearance of the trees the soil of the moun-
tain slopes, deprived of its natural protection, is soon washed away
436
GREECE
[COMMERCE
by the rain ; the rapid descent of the water causes inundations in
the plains, while the uplands become sterile and lose their vegetation.
The climate has been affected by the change; rain falls less fre-
quently but with greater violence, and the process of denudation is
accelerated. The government has from time to time made efforts
for the protection of the forests, but with little success till recently.
A staff of inspectors and forest guards was first organized in 1877.
The administration of the forests has since 1893 been entrusted to a
department of the Ministry of Finance, which controls a staff of ±
inspectors (kriBetoprrrat) , 3 1 superintendents (Savapxol), 52 head
foresters (Ap^ftXcuces^ and 298 foresters (5a<ru0&XaK«). The
foresters are aided during the summer months, when fires are most
frequent, by about 500 soldiers and gendarmes. ^ About a third
of these functionaries have received instruction in the school of
forestry at Vythine in the Morea, open since 1898. Owing to the
measures now taken, which include excommunication by the parish
priests of incendiaries and their accomplices, the conflagrations have
considerably diminished. The total annual value of the products of
the Greek forests averages 15,000,000 drachmae. The revenue
accuring to the government in 1905 was 1,418,158 dr., as compared
with 583,991 dr. in 1883. The increase is mainly due to improved
administration. The supply of timber for house-construction, ship-
building, furniture-making, railway sleepers, &c, is insufficient, and
is supplemented by importation (annual value about 12,000,000
francs); transport is rendered difficult by the lack of roads and
navigable streams. The principal secondary products are valonea
(annual exportation about 1,250,000 fr.) and resin, which is locally
employed as a preservative ingredient in the fabrication of wine.
The administration of the forests is still defective, and measures
for the augmentation and better instruction of the staff of foresters
have been designed by the government. In 1900 a society for the re-
afforesting of the country districts and environs of the large towns
was founded at Athens under the patronage of the crown princess.
The chief minerals are silver, lead, zinc, copper manganese,
magnesia, iron, sulphur and coal. Emery, salt, millstone and
Mines* gypsum, which are found in considerable quantities,
are worked by the government. The important mines
at Laurium, a source of great wealth to ancient Athens, were reopened
in 1864 by a Franco-Italian company, but were declared to be state
property in 1871 ; they are now worked by a Greek and a French
company. The output of marketable ore in 1890 amounted to
486,760 tons, besides 289,292 tons of dressed lead ore. In 1905
the output was as follows: Raw and roasted manganese iron ore,
113,636 tons; hematite iron ore, 94,734 tons; calamine or zinc
ore, 22,612 tons; arsenic and argentiferous lead, 1875 tons; zinc
blende and galena, 44.3 tons; total, 233,300 tons, together with
164,857 tons of dressed lead, producing 13,822 tons of silver pig lead
containing 1657 to 19 10 grams of silver per ton. It has been found
profitable to resmelt the scoriae of the ancient workings. The total
value of the exports from the Laurium mines, which in 1875 amounted
to only £150,513, had in 1899 increased to £827,209, but fell in 1905
to £499,882. The revenue accruing to the government from all mines
Chrome
Emery
Gypsum
Iron ore
Ferromanganese ...
Lead (argentiferous pig) ore
Lignite
Magnesite ....
Manganese ore
Mill stones ....
Salt
Sulphur
Zinc ore
Tons.
8,900
6,972
185
465,622
89,687
13.729
ii,757
43.498
8,171
12,628
25,201
1,126
22,562
Francs.
337.952
742,486
7.995
3,387,467
1,182,652
6,811,792
143,814
864,982
122,565
34.660
1,638,065
121,000
2,852,355
and quarries, including those worked by the state, was estimated
in the budget for 1906 at 1,332,000 dr. The emery of Naxos, which
is a state monopoly, is excellent in quality and very abundant.
Mines of iron ore have latterly been opened at Larimna in Locris.
Magnesite mines are worked by an Anglo-Greek company in Euboea.
There are sulphur and manganese mines in the island of Melos, and
the volcanic island of Santorin produces pozzolana, a kind of cement,
which is exported in considerable quantities. The great abundance
of marble in Greece has latterly attracted the attention of foreign
capitalists. New quarries have been opened since 1897 by an
English company on the north slope of Mount Pentelicus, and are
now connected by rail with Athens and the Peiraeus. The marble
on this side of the mountain is harder than that on the south, which
alone was worked by the ancients. The output in 1905 was 1573
tons. Mount Pentelicus furnished material for most of the celebrated
buildings of ancient Athens; the marble, which is white, blue-
veined, and somewhat transparent, assumes a rich yellow hue after
long exposure to the air. The famous Parian quarries are still
worked; white marble is also found at Scyros, Tenos and Naxos;
grey at Stoura and Karystos; variegated at Valaxa and Karystos;
green on Taygetus and in Thessaly; black at Tenos; and red
(porphyry) in Maina.
The official statistics of the output and value of minerals produced
in 1005 were as in the preceding table.
The number of persons employed in mining operations in 1905
was 9934. ^
Owing to the natural aptitude of the Greeks for commerce
and their predilection for a seafaring life a great portion of the
trade of the Levant has fallen into their hands. Im-
portant Greek mercantile colonies exist in all the Comamm
larger ports of the Mediterranean and the Black Sea, S^Lay.
and many of them possess great wealth. In some of
the islands of the archipelago almost every householder is the
owner or joint owner of a ship. The Greek mercantile marine,
which in 1888 consisted of 1352 vessels (70 steamers) with a total
tonnage of 219,415 tons, numbered in 1906, according to official
returns, 1364 vessels (275 steamers) with a total tonnage of
427,291 tons. This figure is apparently too low, as the ship-
owners are prone to understate the tonnage in order to diminish
the payment of dues. Almost the whole corn trade of Turkey
is in Greek hands. A large number of the sailing ships, especially
the smaller vessels engaged in the coasting trade, belong to the
islanders. A considerable portion of the shipping on the Danube
and Pruth is owned by the inhabitants of Ithaca and Cephalonia;
a certain number of their steps (<r\kma) have latterly been
acquired by Rumanian Jews, but the Greek flag is still pre-
dominant. There are seven principal Greek steamship companies
owning 40 liners with a total tonnage of 21,972 tons. In 1847
there was but one lighthouse in Greek waters; in 1906 there
were 70 lighthouses and 68 port lanterns. Hermoupolis (Syra)
is the chief seat of the carrying trade, but as a commercial port
it yields to Peiraeus, which is the principal centre of distribution
for imports. Other important ports are Patras, Volo, Corfu,
Kalamata and Laurium.
The following table gives the total value (in francs) of special
Greek commerce for the given years : —
1887.
1892.
1897.
1902.
Imports
Exports
131,849,325
102,652,487
119,306,007
82,261,464
"6,363,348
81,708,626
137,229,364
79i663,473
The marked fluctuations in the returns are mainly attributable
to variations in the price and quantity of imported cereals and in
the sale of currants. The great excess of imports, caused by the
large importation of food-stuffs and manufactured articles, is due
to the neglect of agriculture and the undeveloped condition of local
industries.
The imports and exports for 1905 were distributed as follows: —
Imports from.
Exports to.
Russia ....
Great Britain
Austria-Hungary
Turkey ....
Germany
France ....
Italy
Bulgaria ....
Rumania
America ....
Belgium ....
Netherlands .
Egypt ....
Switzerland ;
Other countries
Total . . .
* Frs.
27,725,218
27,516,928
19,444,415
15,538,370
13,896,687
10,101,070
6,190,253
5,135,718
3,814,641
2,656,501
2,276,393
1,921,762
634,035
348,281
4,555,781
141,756,053
Frs.
810,925
24,436,707
7,876,806
4.516,403
7,514,474
7,078,321
4,266,210
133,106
1,152,207
6,440,648
2,068,138
7,180,301
5,928,555
4,288,365
83,691,166
( An enumeration of the chief articles of importation and exporta-
tion, together with their value, will be found in tabular form overleaf.
Greece does not possess any manufacturing industries on a large
scale; the absence of a native coal supply is an obstacle to their
development. In 1889 there were 145 establishments employing
steam of 5568 indicated horse-power; in 1892 the total horse-power
employed was estimated at 10,000. In addition to the smelting- works
at Laurium, at which some 5000 hands are employed by Greek and
French companies and local proprietors, there are flour mills, cloth,
cotton and silk spinning mills, ship-building and engineering works,
oil-presses, tanneries, powder and dynamite mills, soap mills (about
ARMY]
GREECE
437
Principal Articles of Importation.
Articles,
Cereals.
Textiles
Raw minerals ,
Forest products
Wrought metals
Coals and pit-coal
Yarn and tissues
Fish , ; .
Raw hides^ ,
Various animals
Horses .
Paper, books, &c.
Coffee .
Sugar
Rice * . .
Colours
1904.
Total value
in francs.
27,735,808
1 7.999.344
I3.34L 191
10,146,500
7-757,444
6,522,086
4,739,8i?
4.992.615
4 f 55S.iot
4*271,151
3,011,450
3,327,144
2,957,60*
2,606,696
1,977^94
1,750,858
Imported from
the United
Kingdom.
none
10,765,464
7p&30i°33
9J69
2,162,250
6,087,068
2,504,667
2,394,224
47^.965
none
none
157.017
293,610
none
63,882
341.839
I905-
Total value
in francs.
32,511,784
13,460,620
12,254,190
5-°73<S4l
8,021,523
1,014,164
3i909.G57
3.373,533
2,070,250
3,319,700
3,060,904
2,887,854
1,901,486
5,146,509
Imported from
the United
Kingdom,
Chief Articles of Exportation.
Articles.
Currants
Minerals and raw metals
Wines
Tobacco
Olive oil
Figs
Minerals and metals (worked)
Olives
Valonea
Cognac
1904.
Total value
in francs.
28,841,678
19,134,185
10,084,960
7,285,385
4,163,262
3,583428
2,754,245
1,793,362
1,558,678
1,027,224
Exported to
the United
Kingdom.
14,569,137
5,161,898
429,143
39,512
212,081
62,304
7,750
9,833
200,849
12,099
1905.
Total value
in francs*
34,299,780
15,125,072
5,832,139
6,157,092
2,150,285
3,309,432
2,607,580
1,138,116
1,917,014
1,091,160
40), and some manufactures of paper, glass, matches, turpentine, white
lead, hats, gloves, candles, &c. About 100 factories are established
in the neighbourhood of Athens and Peiraeus. The wine industry
(10 factories) is of considerable importance, and the manufacture
of cognac has latterly made great progress; there are 10 large and
numerous small cognac distilleries. Ship-building is earned on
actively at all the ports on the mainland and islands; about 200
ships, mostly of low tonnage, are launched annually.
Public Works. — The important drainage-works at Lake Copais
were taken over by an English company in 1890. The lake covered
an area of 58,080 acres, the greater part of which is now rendered
fit for cultivation. The drainage works consist of a canal, 28 kilo-
metres in length, and a tunnel of 600 metres descending through
the mountain to a lower lake, which is connected by a second tunnel
with the sea. The reclaimed land is highly fertile. The area under
crops amounted in 1906 to 27,414 acres, of which 20,744 were let
to tenants and the remainder farmed by the company. The un-
cultivated portion affords excellent grazing. The canal through the
Isthmus of Corinth was opened to navigation in November 1893.
The total cost of the works, which were begun by a company in 1882,
was 70,000,000 francs. The narrowness of the canal, which is only
24-60 metres broad at the surface, and the strength of the current
wnich passes through it, seriously detract from its utility. The high
charges imposed on foreign vessels have proved almost prohibitive.
There are reduced rates for ships sailing in Greek waters. Up to the
31st of * July 1906, 37,214 vessels, with a tonnage of 4,971,922, had
passed through the canal. The receipts up to that date were 3,207,835
drachmae (mainly from Greek ships) and 415,976 francs (mainly
from foreign ships). In 1905, 2930 vessels (2735 Greek) passed
through, the receipts being 281,935 drachmae and 34,142 francs.
The total liabilities of the company in 1906 were about 40,000,000 fr.
The canal would be more frequented by foreign shipping if the
harbours at its entrances were improved, and its sides, which are of
masonry, lined with beams; efforts are being made to raise funds for
these purposes. The widening of the Eunpus Channel at Chalcis
to the extent of 21 -56 metres was accomplished in 1894. The opera-
tions involved the destruction of the picturesque Venetian tower
which guarded the strait. A canal was completed in 1903 rendering
navigable the shallow channel between Leucas (Santa Maura) and
the mainland (breadth 15 metres, depth 5 metres). Large careening
docks were undertaken in 1909 at Peiraeus at an estimated cost of
4,750,000 drachmae.
Communications. -— Internal communication by roads is improving,
though much remains to be done, especially as regards the quality
of the roads. A considerable impetus was given to road-making
under the Trikoupis administration.
In 1878 there were only 555 m. of
roads; in 1898 there were 2398 m. ;
in 1906, 3275 m. Electric trams have
been introduced at Patras. Railways
were open to traffic in 1900 for a length
of 598 m.; in 1906 for a length of
867 m. The circuit of the Morea rail-
ways (462 m.) was completed in 1902 ;
from Diakophto, on the north coast, a
cogwheel railway, finished in 1894,
ascends to Kalavryta. A very im-
portant undertaking is the completion
of a line from Peiraeus to the frontier,
the contract for which was signed in
1900 between the Greek government
and the Eastern Railway Extension
Syndicate (subsequently converted into
the SocHtS des Chemins de Fer helli-
niques). A line connecting Peiraeus
with Larissa was begun in 1890, but
in 1894 tne English company which
had undertaken the contract went into
liquidation. Under the contract of
1900 the line was drawn through
Demerli, in the south of Thessaly, to
Larissa, a distance of 217 m., and con-
tinued through the vale of Tempe to
the Turkish frontier (about 246 m. in
all). Branch lines have been con-
structed to Lamia and Chalcis. The
establishment of a connexion with the
continental railway system, by a
junction with the line from Belgrade
to Salonica, would be of immense ad-
vantage to Greece, and the Peiraeus
would become an important place of
embarkation for Egypt, India and the
Far East.
In 1905 the number of post offices
was 640. Of these 320 were also tele-
graph and 89 telephone -
stations, with 664 clerks; y? &.
the remaining post offices mm&mmm
possess no special staff, but
persons who also pursue other occupations. The
During the
none
5,497*172
61,309
4,3*>8«357
6,838,079
186,072
215,745
t,268
none
76,454
107.296
70
236,027
281.433
Exported to
the United
Kingdom,
17,008,929
5,438,698
881,696
147,565
64,310
338,196
900
18,800
146,927
2,283
graphs.
are served by
number of postmen and other employees was 889 o
year there passed through the post 6,897,899 ordinary letters
for the interior, 2,980,958 for foreign destinations, 2,788,477 from
abroad; 540,411 registered letters or parcels for the interior, 309,907
for foreign countries, and 300,150 from abroad; 880,673 post-cards
for the interior, 504,785 from abroad, and 187,975 sent abroad;
100,680 samples; 7,068,125 printed papers for the interior, 5,278,405
to or from foreign countries. Telegraph lines in 1905 extended
over 4222 m. with 6836 m. of wires; 841,913 inland telegrams,
221,188 service telegrams and 129,036 telegrams to foreign destina-
tions were despatched, and 169,510 received from abroad. Receipts
amounted to 4,589,601 drachmae (postal service 2,744,212, telegraph
and telephone services 1,845,389 drachmae) and expenditure to
3,954,742 drachmae.
The Greek army has recently been in a state of transition.
Its condition has never been satisfactory, partly owing to the
absence of systematic effort in the work of organization,
partly owing to the pernicious influence of political rmy *
parties, and in times of national emergency it has never been
in a condition of readiness. The experience of the war of 1897
proved the need of far-reaching administrative changes and
disciplinary reforms. A scheme of complete reorganization was
subsequently elaborated under the auspices of the crown prince
Constantine, the commander-in-chief, and received the assent
of the Chamber in June 1904. During the war of 1897 about
65,000 infantry, 1000 cavalry, and 24 batteries were put into the
field, and after great efforts another 15,000 men were mobilized.
Under the new scheme it is proposed to maintain on a peace
footing 1887 officers, 25,140 non-commissioned officers and men,
and 4059 horses and mules; in time of war the active army
will consist of at least 120,000 men and the territorial army of
at least 60,000 men. The heavy expenditure entailed by the
project has been an obstacle to its immediate realization. In
order to meet this expenditure a special fund has been instituted
in addition to the ordinary military budget, and certain revenues
have been assigned to it amounting to about 5,500,000 drachmae
annually. In 1906, however, it was decided to suspend partially
for five years the operation of the law of 1904 and to devote
43»
GREECE
[NAVY
the resources thus economized together with other funds to
the immediate purchase of new armaments and equipment.
Under this temporary arrangement the peace strength of the
army in 1908 consisted of 1939 officers and civilians, 19,416
non-commissioned officers and men and 2661 horses and
mules; it is calculated that the reserves will furnish about
77,000 men and the territorial army about 37,000 men in time
of war.
Military service is obligatory, and liability to serve begins
from the twenty-first year. The term of service comprises
two years in the active army, ten years in the active army
reserve (for cavalry eight years), eight years in the territorial
army (for cavalry ten years) and ten years for all branches in
the territorial army reserve. As a rule, however, the period
of service in the active army has hitherto been considerably
shortened; with a view to economy, the men, under the law
of 1904, receive furlough after eighteen months with the colours.
Exemptions from military service, which were previously very
numerous, are also restricted considerably by the law of 1904,
which will secure a yearly contingent of about 13,000 men in
time of peace. The conscripts in excess of the yearly contingent
are withdrawn by lot; they are required to receive six months'
training in the ranks as supernumeraries before passing into the
reserve, in which they form a special category of " liability " men.
Under the temporary system of 1906 the contingent is reduced
to about 10,000 men by postponing the abrogation of several
exemptions, and the period of service is fixed at fourteen months
for all the conscripts alike. The field army as constituted by
the law of 1004 consists of 3 divisions, each division comprising
2 brigades of infantry, each of 2 regiments of 3 battalions and
other units. There are thus 36 battalions of infantry (of which
12 are cadres); also 6 battalions of evzones (Highlanders),
18 squadrons of cavalry (6 cadres), 33 batteries of artillery (6
cadres), 3 battalions of engineers and telegraphists, 3 companies
of ambulance, 3 of train, &c. The artillery is composed of 24
field batteries, 3 heavy and 6 mountain batteries; it is mainly
provided with Krupp 7-5 cm. guns dating from 1870 or earlier.
After a series of trials in 1007 it was decided to order 36 field
batteries of 7-5 cm. quick-firing guns and 6 mountain batteries,
in all 168 guns, with 1500 projectiles for each battery from the
Creuzot factory. The infantry, which was hitherto armed
with the obsolete Gras rifle (-433 in.), was furnished in 1907 with
the Mannlicher-Schonauer (model 1903) of which 100,000 had
been delivered in May 1908. Hitherto the gendarmerie, which
replaced the police, have formed a corps drawn from the army,
which in 1908 consisted of 194 officers and 6344 non-commissioned
officers and men, but a law passed in 1007 provided for these
forces being thenceforth recruited separately by voluntary
enlistment in annual contingents of 700 men. The participation
of the officers in politics, which has proved very injurious to
discipline, has been checked by a law forbidding officers below
the rank of colonel to stand for the Chamber. In the elections
of 1905 115 officers were candidates. The three divisional
headquarters are at Larissa, Athens and Missolonghi; the six
headquarters of brigades are at Trikkala, Larissa, Athens,
Chalcis, Missolonghi and Nauplia. In 1907 annual manoeuvres
were instituted.
The Greek fleet consisted in 1907 of 3 armoured barbette ships
of 4885 tons (built in France in 1890, reconstructed 1899),
carrying each three io-8-in. guns, five 6-in., thirteen
quick-firing and smaller guns, and three torpedo tubes;
1 cruiser of 1770 tons (built in 1879), with two 6-7-in. and six
light quick-firing guns; 1 armoured central battery ship of
1774 tons (built 1867, reconstructed 1897) ^th two 8-4 in.
and nine small quick-firing guns; 2 coast-defence gunboats
with one io-6-in. gun each; 4 corvettes; 1 torpedo dep6t ship;
8 destroyers, each with six guns (ordered in 1905); 3 transport
steamers; 7 small gunboats; 3 mining boats; 5 torpedo boats;
1 royal yacht; 2 school ships and various minor vessels. The
personnel of the navy was composed in 1007 of 437 officers, 26
cadets, n 18 petty officers, 2372 seamen and stokers, 60 boys
and 99 civilians, together with 386 artisans employed at the
Navy*
arsenal. The navy is manned chiefly by conscription; the period
of service is two years, with four years in the reserve. The
headquarters of the fleet and arsenal are in the island of Salamis,
where there is a dockyard with naval stores, a floating dock and
a torpedo school. Most of the vessels of the Greek fleet were in
1907 obsolete; in 1004 a commission under the presidency
of Prince George proposed the rearmament of the existing iron-
clads and the purchase of three new ironclads and other
vessels. A different scheme of reorganization, providing almost
exclusively for submarines and scout vessels, was suggested
to the government by the French admiral Fournier in 1908, but
was opposed by the Greek naval officers. With a view to the
augmentation and better equipment of the fleet a special fund
was instituted in 1900 to which certain revenues have been
assigned; it has been increased by various donations and
bequests and by the proceeds of a state lottery. The fleet is not
exercised methodically either in navigation or gunnery practice;
a long voyage, however, was undertaken by the ironclad vessels
in 1904. The Greeks, especially the islanders of the Aegean,
make better sailors than soldiers; the personnel of the navy,
if trained by foreign officers, might be brought to a high state
of efficiency.
The financial history of Greece has been unsatisfactory from the
outset. Excessive military and naval expenditure (mainly due to
repeated and hasty mobilizations), a lax and improvident
system of administration, the corruption of political parties **"**<*•
and the instability of the government, which has rendered impossible
the continuous application of any scheme of fiscal reform — all alike
have contributeel to the economic ruin of the country. For a long
series of years preceding the declaration of national insolvency in
1893 successive budgets presented a deficit, which in years of political
excitement and military activity assumed enormous proportions:
the shortcomings of the budget were supplied by the proceeds of
foreign loans, or by means of advances obtained in the country at
a high rate of interest. The two loans which had been contracted
during the war of independence were extinguished by means of a
conversion in 1889. Of the existing foreign loans the earliest is
that of 60,000,000 frs., guaranteed by the three protecting powers
in 1832; owing to the payment of interest and amortization by the
powers, the capital amounted in 1871 to 100,392,833 fr. ; on this
Greece pays an annual sum of 900,000 fr., of which 300,000 have been
granted by the powers as a yearly subvention to King George.
The only other existing foreign obligation of early date is the debt to
the heirs of King Otho (4,500,000 dr.) contracted in 1868. A large
amount of internal debt was incurred between 1848 and 1880, but
a considerable proportion of this was redeemed with the proceeds
of the foreign loans negotiated after this period. At the end of 1880
the entire national debt, external and internal, stood at 252,652,481
dr. In 1 88 1 the era of great foreign loans began. In that year a 5 %
loan of 120,000,000 fr. was raised to defray the expenses of the
mobilization of 1880. This was followed in 1884 by a 5 % loan of
170,000,000 fr., of which 100,000,000 was actually issued. The
service of these loans was guaranteed by various State revenues. A
" patriotic loan " of 30,000,000 dr. without interest, issued during the
war excitement of 1885, proved a failure, only 2,723,860 dr. being
subscribed. In 1888 a 4 % loan of 135,000,000 fr. was contracted,
secured on the receipts of the five State monopolies, the management
of which was entrusted to a privileged company. In the following
year (1880) two 4.% loans of 30,000,000 fr. and 125,000,000 fr.
respectively were issued without guarantee or sinking fund; Greek
credit had now apparently attained an established position in the
foreign money market, but a decline of public confidence soon
became evident. In 1890, of a 5 % loan of 80,000,000 fr. effective,
authorized for the construction of the Peiraeus- Larissa railway,
only 40,050,000 fr. was taken up abroad and 12,900,000 fr. at home;
large portions of the proceeds were devoted to other purposes.
In 1892 the government was compelled to make large additions
to the internal floating debt, and to borrow 16,500,000 fr. from the
National Bank on onerous terms. In 1893 an effort to obtain a
foreign loan for the reduction of the forced currency proved unsuccess-
ful. (For the events leading up to the declaration of national
bankruptcy in that year see under Recent History.) A funding
convention was concluded in the summer, under which the creditors
accepted scrip instead of cash payments of interest. A few months
later this arrangement was reversed by the Chamber, and on the
13th December a law was passed assigning provisionally to all the
foreign loans alike 30% of the stipulated interest; the reduced
coupons were made payable in paper instead of gold, the sinking
funds were suspended, and the sums encashed by the monopoly
company were confiscated. The causes of the financial catastrophe
may be briefly summarized as follows: (1) The military prepara-
tions of 1 885-1 886, with the attendant disorganization of the
country ; the extraordinary expenditure of these years amounted to
130,987,772 dr. (2) Excessive borrowing abroad, involving a charge
FINANCE]
GREECE
439
for the service of foreign loans altogether disproportionate to the
revenue. (3) Remissness in the collection of taxation: the total
loss through arrears in a period of ten years (1882-1891) was
36,549,202 dr., being in the main attributable to non-payment of
direct taxes. (4) The adverse balance of trade, largely due to the
neglected condition of agriculture; in the five years preceding the
crisis (1888-1892) the exports were stated to amount to £19,578,973,
while the imports reached £24,890,146 ; foreign live stock and cereals
being imported to the amount of £6,103,579. The proximate cause
of the crisis was the rise in the exchange owing to the excessive
amount of paper money in circulation. Forced currency was first
introduced in 1868, when 15,000,000 dr. in paper money was issued;
it was abolished in the following year, but reintroduced in 1877 with
a paper issue of 44,000,000 dr. It was abolished a second time in
1884, but again put into circulation in 1885, when paper loans to
the amount of 45,000,000 dr. were authorized. In 1803 the total
authorized forced currency was 146,000,000 dr., of which 88,000,000
(including 14,000,000 dr. in small notes) was on account of the govern-
ment. The gold and silver coinage had practically disappeared from
circulation. The rate of exchange, as a rule, varies directly with the
amount of paper money in circulation, but, owing to speculation, it
is liable to violent fluctuations whenever there is an exceptional
demand for gold in the market. In 1893 the gold franc stood at
the ratio of i«6o to the paper drachma; the service of the foreign
loans required upwards of 31,000,000 dr. in gold, and any attempt
to realize this sum in the market would have involved an outlay
equivalent to at least half the budget. With the failure of the
projected loan for the withdrawal of the forced currency repudiation
became inevitable. The law of the 13th of December was not recog-
nized by the national creditors: prolonged negotiations followed,
but no arrangement was arrived at till 1897, when the intervention
of the powers after the war with Turkey furnished the opportunity
for a definite settlement. It was stipulated that Turkey should
receive an indemnity of £T4,ooo,ooo contingent on the evacuation
of Thessaly ; in order to secure the payment of this sum by Greece
without prejudice to the interests of her creditors, and to enable
the country to recover from the economic consequences of the war,
Great Britain, France and Russia undertook to guarantee a 2} %
loan of 170,000,000 fr., of which 150,000,000 fr. has been issued.
By the preliminary treaty of peace (18th of September 1897) an
International Financial Commission, composed of six representatives
of the powers, was charged with the payment of the indemnity to
Turkey, and with " absolute control " over the collection and
employment of revenues sufficient for the service of the foreign debt.
A law defining the powers of the Commission was passed by the
Chamber, 26th of February 1898 (o.s.). The revenues assigned
to its supervision were the five government monopolies, the tobacco
and stamp duties, and the import duties of Peiraeus (total annual
value estimated at 39,600,000 dr.) : the collection was entrusted to a
Greek society, which is under the absolute control of the Commission.
The returns of Peiraeus customs (estimated at 10,700,000 dr.) are
regarded as an extra guarantee, and are handed over to the Greek
government; when the produce of the other revenues exceeds
28,900,000 dr. the " plus value " or surplus is divided in the propor-
tion of 50*8 % to the Greek government and 49*2 % to the creditors.
The plus values amounted to 3,301,481 dr. in 1898, 3,533,755 dr.
in 1899. and 3,442,713 dr. in 1900. Simultaneously with the estab-
lishment of the control the interest for the Monopoly Loan was
fixed at 43%, for the Funding Loan at 40 %, and for the other
loans at 32% of the original interest. With the revenues at its
disposal the International Commission has already been enabled
to make certain augmentations in the service of the foreign debt;
since 1900 it has begun to take measures for the reduction of the
forced currency, of which 2,000,000 dr. will be annually bought up
and destroyed till the amount in circulation is reduced to 40,000,000
dr. On the 1st of January 1901 the authorized paper issue was
164,000,000 dr., of which 92,000,000 (including 18,000,000 in
fractional currency) was on account of the government; the amount
in actual circulation was 148,610,618 dr. On the 31st of July 1906
the paper issue had been reaucea to 152,775,975 dr., and the amount
in circulation was 124,668,057 dr. The financial commission retains
its powers until the extinction of all the foreign loans contracted
since 1881. Though its activity is mainly limited to the administra-
tion of the assigned revenues, it has exercised a beneficial influence
over the whole domain of Greek finance ; the effect may be observed
in the greatly enhanced value of Greek securities since its institution,
averaging 25*76 % in 1906. No change can be made in its composi-
tion or working without the consent of the six powers, and none of
the officials employed in the collection of the revenues subject to its
control ^an be dismissed or transferred without its consent. It
thus constitutes an element of stability and order which cannot
fail to react on the general administration. It is unable, however,
to control the expenditure or to assert any direct influence oyer
the government, with which the responsibility still rests for an im-
proved system of collection, a more efficient staff of functionaries
and the repression of smuggling. The country has shown a re-
markable vitality in recovering from the disasters of 1897, and
should it in future obtain a respite from paroxysms ot mili-
tary and political excitement, its financial regeneration will be
assured.
The following table gives the actual expenditure and receipts for
the period 1 889-1906 inclusive:
Year.
Actual
Actual
Surplus or
Receipts.
Expenditure.
Deficit.
Drachmae.
Drachmae.
Drachmae.
1889
83,731,591
110,772,327
-27,040,736
—46,000,784
1890
79.93^795
125.932,579
1891
90,321,872
122,836,385
-32,514.513
1892
95.465.569
107,283,498
-11,817,929
I893 1
96,723,418
92,133.565
+ 4.589.853
1894
102,885,643
85.i35i752
+ 17.749.891
1895
94.657.o65
91,641,967
+ 3.015.098
1896
96,931.726
90,890,607
+ 6,041,119
1897 8
92,485,825
104,949,718
137,043,929
-44,558,104
1898 3
110,341,431
~ 5.39I.7I3
1899
111,318,273
104,586,504
+ 6,731,769
1900
112,206,849
112,049,279
4- i57.57o
1901
1 15.734.159
113.646,301
+ 2,087,858
1902
123,949,931
121,885,707
4- 2,064,224
1903
120,194,362
117.436,549
+ 2,757,813
+ 985.999
1904
121,186,246
120,200,247
1905
126,472,580
118,699,761
+ 7.772,819
1906
125,753.358
124,461,577
-h 1,291,781
The steady increase of receipts since 1898 attests the growing
prosperity of the country, but expenditure has been allowed to out-
strip revenue, and, notwithstanding the official figures which
represent a series of surpluses, the accumulated deficit in 1905
amounted to about 14,000,000 dr. in addition to treasury bonds for
8,000,000 dr. A remarkable feature has been the rapid fall in the
exchange since 1903; the gold franc, which stood at 1*63 dr. in 1902,
had fallen to 1*08 in October 1906. The decline, a favourable
symptom if resulting from normal economic factors, is apparently
due to a combination of exceptional circumstances, and consequently
may not be maintained ; it has imposed a considerable strain on the
financial and commercial situation. The purchasing power of the
drachma remains almost stationary and the price of imported
commodities continues high; import dues, which since 1904 are
payable in drachmae at the fixed rate of 1 -45 to the franc, have been
practically increased by more than 30%. In April 1900 a 4 % loan
of 43,750,000 francs for the completion of the railway from Peiraeus
to the Turkish frontier, and another loan of 11,750,000 drachmae
for the construction of a line from Pyrgos to Mehgala, linking up
the Morea railway system, were sanctioned by the Chamber; the
first-named, the " Greek Railways Loan," was taken up at 80 by the
syndicate contracting for the works and was placed on the market
in 1902. The service of both loans is provided by the International
Commission from the surplus funds of the assigned revenues. On
the 1st of January 1906 the external debt amounted to 725,939,500
francs and the internal (including the paper circulation) to 1 7 1 ,629,436
drachmae.
The budget estimates for 1906 were as follows : Civil list, 1 ,325,000
dr.; pensions, payment of deputies, &c, 7,706,676 dr.; public debt,
34,253,471 dr.; foreign affairs, 3,563,994 dr.; justice, 6,240,271
dr.; interior, 13,890,927 dr.; religion and education, 7,143,924 dr.;
army, 20,618,563 dr.; navy, 7,583.369 d r -J finance, 2,362,143
dr.; collection of revenue, 10,650,487 dr.; various expenditure,
9,122,752 dr.; total, 124,461,577 dr.
The two privileged banks in Greece are the National Bank,
founded in 1841; capital 20,000,000 drachmae in 20,000 shares of
1000 dr. each, fully paid up; reserve fund 13,500,000 dr.; notes
in circulation (September 1906) 126,721,887 dr., of which 76,360,905
dr, on account of the government ; and the Ionian Bank, incorporated
in 1839; capita* paid up £315,500 in 63,102 shares of £5 each;
notes tn circulation, 10,200,000 drachmae, of which 3,500,000 (in
fractional notes of 1 and 2 dr.) on account of the government. The
notes issued by these two banks constitute the forced paper currency
circulating throughout the kingdom. In the case of the Ionian Bank
the privilege of issuing notes, originally limited to the Ionian Islands,
will expire in 1920. The National Bank is a private institution under
supervision of the government, which is represented by a royal
commissioner on the board of administration ; the central establish-
ment is at Athens with forty-two branches throughout the country.
The headquarters of the Ionian Bank, which is a British institution,
are in London; the bank has a central office at Athens and five
branches in Greece. The privileged Epiro-Thessalian Bank ceased to
exist from the 4th of January 1900, when it was amalgamated with
the National Bank. There are several other banking companies, as
well as private banks, at Athens. The most important is the Bank
of Athens (capital 40,000,000 dr.), founded in 1893; it possesses
five branches in Greece and six abroad.
Greece entered the Latin Monetary Union in 1868. The monetary
unit is the new drachma, equivalent to the franc, and divided into
1 Reduction of interest on foreign debt by 70 %.
* War with Turkey.
3 International Financial Commission instituted.
44©
GREECE
[HISTORY
ioo lepta or centimes. There are nickel coins of 20, 10 and 5 lepta,
copper coins of 10 and 5 lepta. Gold and silver coins were minted
in Paris between 1868 and 1884, but have since practic-
Currtncy, a jj y disappeared from the country. The paper currency
weights insists f no tes for 1000 dr., 500 dr., 100 dr., 25 dr., 10
an dr. and 5 dr., and of fractional notes for 2 dr. and 1 dr.
measures, ^j^ decimal system of weights and measures was adopted
in 1876, but some of the old Turkish standards are still in general
use. The dram — A oz. avoirdupois approximately; the oke =400
drams or 2*8 lb; the kilo =22 okes or 0*114 of an imperial quarter;
the cantar or quintal =44 okes or 123*2 lb. Liquids are measured
by weight. The punta - 1 f in. ; the ruppa, 3i in. ; the pik, 26 in. ;
the stadion =1 kilometre or 1093I yds. The stremma (square
measure) is nearly one-third of an acre.
Authorities. — W. Leake, Researches in Greece ^1814), Travels in
the Morea (3 vols., 1830), Travels in Northern Greece (4 vols., 1834),
Peloponnesiaca (1846) ; Bursian, Geoerabhie von Griechenland (2 vols.,
Leipzig, 1862-1873) ; Lolling, " Hellenische Landeskunde und
Topographie " in lvan M tiller s Handbuch der klassischen Altertums-
wissenscnaft; C. Wordsworth, Greece; Pictorial, Descriptive and
Historical (new ed., revised by H. F. Tozer, London, 1882); K.
Stephanos, La Grece (Paris, 1884); C. Neumann and J. Partsch,
Physikalische Geographic von Griechenland (Breslau, 1885); K.
Krumbacher, Griechtsche Reise (Berlin, 1886); J. P. Mahaffy,
Rambles and Studies in Greece (London, 1887); R. A. H. Bickford-
Smith, Greece under King George (London, 1893); Ch. Diehl, Ex-
cursions archtologiques en Grece (Paris, 1893); Perrot and Chipiez,
Histoire de Vart, tome vi., "La Grece primitive" (Paris, 1894);
tome vii., "La Grece archaique " (Paris, i8q8); A. Philippson,
Griechenland und seine Stellung im Orient (Leipzig, 1897); L.
Sergeant, Greece in the Nineteenth Century (London, 1897); J. G.
Frazer, Pausanias's Description of Greece (6 vols., London, 1898);
Pausanias and other Greek Sketches (London, 1900); Greco-Turkish
War of i8q7, from official sources, by a German staff officer (Eng.
trans., London, 1898); J. A. Symonds, Studies, and Sketches tn
Italy and Greece (3 vols., 2nd ed., London, 1898); V. Be*rard, La
Turquie et VhelUnisme contemporaine (Paris, 1900).
For the climate: D. Aeginetes, TA icXT/ia rrjs 'EXX&fos (Athens,
1908).
For the fauna : Th. de Heldreich, La Fauna de la Grece (Athens,
1878).
For special topography : A. Meliarakes, KwcXa5i*A fjroi yeo>ypa<t>La
KalhTTo/>iar€jvK^K\a&tK<t}v yT}<r<vv( Athens, 1 8 74) '^TTrofivripMra T€piypa<pucii
rCw KvKXdStav p-fjawv "Aubpov koX K«*> (Athens, 1 880); Tecoypa^ia
iroXtruci) vka ko.1 dpxala rod voyuov 'Apyo\L&os kclI KoptvOias (Athens,
1 886) ; TeuypcupLa iroXtrui) vka, koX Apxala rod vopov Kc^aXXiyWas.
(Athens, 1800); Th. Bent, The Cyclades (London, 1885); A.
Botticher, Olympia (2nd ed., Berlin, 1886); I. Partsch, Die Inset
Corfu: eine geographische Monographic (Got ha, 1887); Die Insel
Leukas (Gotha, 1889); Kephalfenta und Ithaka (Gotha, 1890);
Die Insel Zante (Gotha, i89i);A. Philippson, Der Peloponnes.
(Versuch einer Landeskunde auf geologischer Grundlage.) (Berlin,
1892); " Thessalien und Epirus ' (Reisen und Forschungen im
nordlichen Griechenland) (Berlin, 1897); Die zriechischen Inseln
des agaischen Meeres (Berlin, 1897); W. T. Woodhouse, Aetolia
(Oxford, 1807) ; Schultz and Barnsley, The Monastery of St Luke of
Stiris (London, 1901); M. Lamprinides, *H NawrXkt (Athens, 1898);
Monuments de Vart byzantin, publics par le Ministere de l'lnstruction,
tome i. ; G. Millet, " Le Monastere de Daphni " (Paris, 1000). For
the life, customs and habits of the modern Greeks: C. Wachsmuth,
Das alte Griechenland im neuen (Bonn, 1864); C. K. Tuckerman,
The Greeks of to-day (London, 1873); B. Schmidt, Volksleben der
Neugriechen und das hellenische Alter turn (Leipzig, 1871); Estour-
nelle de Constant, La Vie de province en Grece (Paris, 1878) ; E.
About, La Grece contemporaine (Paris, 1855; 8th ed., 1883); J. T.
Bent, Modern Life and Thought among the Greeks (London, 1891);
J. Rennell Rodd, The Customs and Lore of Modern Greece (London,
1892). Guide-books, Baedeker's Greece (3rd ed., Leipzig, 1905);
Murray's Handbook for Greece (7th ed., London, 1905); Macmillan's
Guide to the Eastern Mediterranean (London, 1901). (J. D. B.)
2. History
o. Ancient; to 146 B.C.
1. Introductory, — It is necessary to indicate at the outset the
scope and object of the present article. The reader must not
expect to find in it a compendious summary of the chief events
in the history of ancient Greece. It is not intended to supply
an " Outlines of Greek History." It may be questioned whether
such a sketch of the history, within the limits of space which are
necessarily imposed in a work of reference, would be of utility
to any class of readers. At any rate, the plan of the present
work, in which the subject of Greek history is treated of in a
large number of separate articles, allows of the narrative of
events being given in a more satisfactory form under the more
general of the headings {e.g. Athens, Sparta, Peloponnesian
War). The character of the history itself suggests a further
reason why a general article upon Greek history should not
be confined to, or even attempt, a narrative of events. A sketch
of Greek history is not possible in the sense in which a sketch of
Roman history, or even of English history, is possible. Greek
history is not the history of a single state. When Aristotle
composed his work upon the constitutions of the Greek states,
he found it necessary to extend his survey to no less that 158
states. Greek history is thus concerned with more than 150
separate and independent political communities. Nor is it even
the history of a single country. The area occupied by the Greek
race extended from the Pyrenees to the Caucasus, and from
southern Russia to northern Africa. It is inevitable, therefore,
that the impression conveyed by a sketch of Greek history
should be a misleading one. A mere narrative can hardly fail
to give a false perspective. Experience shows that such a
sketch is apt to resolve itself into the history of a few great
movements and of a few leading states. What is still worse,,
it is apt to confine itself, at any rate for the greater part of the
period dealt with, to the history of Greece in the narrower sense,
i.e. of the Greek peninsula. For the identification of Greece
with Greece proper there may be some degree of excuse when we
come to the 5th and 4th centuries. In the period that lies behind
the year 500 B.C. Greece proper forms but a small part of the
Greek world. In the 7th and 6th centuries it is outside Greece
itself that we must look for the most active life of the Greek
people and the most brilliant manifestations of the Greek spirit.
The present article, therefore, will be concerned with the causes
and conditions of events, rather than with the events themselves;
it will attempt analysis rather than narrative. Its object will
be to indicate problems and to criticize views; to suggest
lessons and parallels, and to estimate the importance of the
Hellenic factor in the development of civilization.
2. The Minoan and Mycenaean Ages. — When does Greek
history begin? Whatever may be the answer that is given to
this question, it will be widely different from any that could
have been proposed a generation ago. Then the question was,
How late does Greek history begin? To-day the question is,
How early does it begin? The suggestion made by Grote that
the first Olympiad (776 B.C.) should be taken as the starting-
point of the history of Greece, in the proper sense of the term
" history," seemed likely, not so many years ago, to win general
acceptance. At the present moment the tendency would seem
to be to go back as far as the 3rd or 4th millennium B.C. in order
to reach a starting-point. It is to the results of archaeological
research during the last thirty years that we must attribute so
startling a change in the attitude of historical science towards
this problem. In the days when Grote published the first volumes
of his History of Greece archaeology was in its infancy. Its
results, so far as they affected the earlier periods of Greek history,
were scanty; its methods were unscientific. The methods have
been gradually perfected by numerous workers in the field; but-
the results, which have so profoundly modified our conceptions
of the early history of the Aegean area, are principally due to the
discoveries of two men, Heinrich Schliemann and A. J. Evans.
A full account of these discoveries will be found elsewhere (see
Aegean Civilization and Crete). It will be sufficient to
mention here that Schliemann's labours began with the excava-
tions on the site of Troy in the years 1870-1873; that he passed
on to the excavations at Mycenae in 1876 and to those at Tiryns
in 1884. It was the discoveries of these years that revealed
to us the Mycenaean age, and carried back the history to the/
middle of the 2nd millennium. The discoveries of Dr A. J. Evans
in the island of Crete belong to a later period. The work of
excavation was begun in 1000, and was carried on in subsequent
years. It has revealed to us the Minoan age, and enabled us
to trace back the development and origins of the civilization
for a further period of 1000 or 1500 years. The dates assigned
by archaeologists to the different periods of Mycenaean and
Minoan art must be regarded as merely approximate. Even
the relation of the two civilizations is still, to some extent, a
matter of conjecture. The general chronological scheme,
HISTORY]
GREECE
441
however, in the sense of the relative order of the various periods
and the approximate intervals between them, is too firmly
established, both by internal evidence, such as the development
of the styles of pottery, and of the art in general, and by external
evidence, such as the points of contact with Egyptian art and
history, .to admit of its being any longer seriously called in
question.
If, then, by " Greek history " is to be understood the history
of the lands occupied in later times by the Greek race (i.e. the
Greek peninsula and the Aegean basin), the beginnings of the
history must be carried back some 2000 years before Grote's
proposed starting-point. If, however, " Greek history " is taken
to mean the history of the Greek people, the determination of
the starting-point is far from easy. For the question to which
archaeology does not as yet supply any certain answer is the
question of race. Were the creators of the Minoan and
Mycenaean civilization Greeks or were they not? In some
degree the Minoan evidence has modified the answer suggested
by the Mycenaean. Although wide differences of opinion as to
the origin of the Mycenaean civilization existed among scholars
when the results of Schliemann's labours were first given to the
world, a general agreement had gradually been arrived at in
favour of the view which would identify Mycenaean with Achaean
or Homeric. In presence of the Cretan evidence it is no longer
possible to maintain this view with the same confidence. The
two chief difficulties in the way of attributing either the Minoan
or the Mycenaean civilization to an Hellenic people are connected
respectively with the script and the religion. The excavations
at Cnossus have yielded thousands of tablets written in the linear
script. There is evidence that this script was in use among the
Mycenaeans as well. If Greek was the language spoken at
Cnossus and Mycenae, how is it that all attempts to decipher
the script have hitherto failed ? The Cretan excavations, again,
have taught us a great deal as to the religion of the Minoan age;
they have, at the same time, thrown a new light upon the evidence
supplied by Mycenaean sites. It is no longer possible to ignore
the contrast between the cults of the Minoan and Mycenaean
ages, and the religious conceptions which they imply, and the
cults and religious conceptions prevalent in the historical period.
On the other hand, it may safely be asserted that the argument
derived from the Mycenaean art, in which we seem to trace a
freedom of treatment which is akin to the spirit of the later
Greek art, and is in complete contrast to the spirit of Oriental
art, has received striking confirmation from the remains of
Minoan art. The decipherment of the script would at once
solve the problem. We should at least know whether the
dominant race in Crete in the Minoan age spoke an Hellenic or
a non-Hellenic dialect. And what could be inferred with regard
to Crete in the Minoan age could almost certainly be inferred
with regard to the mainland in the Mycenaean age. In the
meanwhile, possibly until the tablets are read, at any rate until
further evidence is forthcoming, any answer that can be given
to the question must necessarily be tentative and provisional.
(See Aegean Civilization.)
It has already been implied that this period of the history
of Greece may be subdivided into a Minoan and a Mycenaean
age. Whether these terms are appropriate is a question of
comparatively little importance. They at least serve to remind
us of the part played by the discoveries at Mycenae and Cnossus
in the reconstruction of the history. The term " Mycenaean,"
it is true, has other associations than those of locality. It may
seem to imply that the civilization disclosed in the excavations
at Mycenae is Achaean in character, and that it is to be connected
with the Pelopid dynasty to which Agamemnon belonged. In
its scientific use, the term must be cleared of all such associations.
Further, as opposed to " Minoan " it must be understood in a
more definite sense than that in which it has often been employed.
It has come to be generally recognized that two different periods
are to be distinguished in Schliemann's discoveries at Mycenae
itself. There is an earlier period, to which belong the objects
found in the shaft-graves, and there is a later period, to which
belong the beehive tombs and the remains of the palaces. It
is the latter period which is " Mycenaean " in the strict sense;
i.e. it is " Mycenaean " as opposed to " Minoan." To this
period belong also the palace at Tiryns, the beehive-tombs
discovered elsewhere on the mainland of Greece and one of the
cities on the site of Troy (Schliemann's sixth). The pottery
of this period is as characteristic of it, both in its forms (e.g. the
" stirrup " or " false-necked " form of vase) and in its peculiar
glaze, as is the architecture of the palaces and the beehive-tombs.
Although the chief remains have been found on the mainland
of Greece itself, the art of this period is found to have extended
as far north as Troy and as far east as Cyprus. On the other
hand, hardly any traces of it have been discovered on the west
coast of Asia Minor, south of the Troad. The Mycenaean age,
in this sense, may be regarded as extending from 1600 to 1 200 B.C.
The Minoan age is of far wider extent. Its latest period includes
both the earlier and the later periods of the remains found at
Mycenae. This is the period called by Dr Evans " Late Minoan."
To this period belong the Great Palace at Cnossus and the
linear system of writing. The " Middle Minoan " period, to
which the earlier palace belongs, is characterized by the picto-
graphic system of writing and by polychrome pottery of a
peculiarly beautiful kind. Dr Evans proposes to carry back
this period as far as 2500 B.C. Even behind it there are traces
of a still earlier civilization. Thus the Minoan age, even if
limited to the middle and later periods, will cover at least a
thousand years. Perhaps the most surprising result of the
excavations in Crete is the discovery that Minoan art is on a
higher level than Mycenaean art. To the scholars of a generation
ago it seemed a thing incredible that the art of the sjiaft-graves,
and the architecture of the beehive-tombs and the palaces, could
belong to the age before the Dorian invasion. The most recent
discoveries seem to indicate that the art of Mycenae is a decadent
art; they certainly prove that an art, hardly inferior in its way
to the art of the classical period, and a civilization which implies
the command of great material resources, were flourishing in the
Aegean perhaps a thousand years before the siege of Troy.
To the question, " What is the origin of this civilization?
Is it of foreign derivation or of native growth?" it is not
possible to give a direct answer. It is clear, on the one
hand that it was developed, by a gradual process of ? r % B ? U
differentiation, from a culture which was common to eMtce '
the whole Aegean basin and extended as far to the
west as Sicily. It is equally clear, on the other hand, that
foreign influences contributed largely to the process of develop-
ment. Egyptian influences, in particular, can be traced through-
out the " Minoan " and " Mycenaean " periods. The developed
art, however, both in Crete and on the mainland, displays
characteristics which are the very opposite of those which are
commonly associated with the term " oriental." Egyptian
work, even of the best period, is stiff and conventional; in the
best Cretan work, and, in a less degree, in Mycenaean work,
we find an originality and a freedom of treatment which remind
one of the spirit of the Greek artists. The civilization is, in
many respects, of an advanced type. The Cretan architects
could design on a grand scale, and could carry out their designs
with no small degree of mechanical skill. At Cnossus we find a
system of drainage in use, which is far in advance of anything
known in the modern world before the 19th century. If the art
of the Minoan age falls short of the art of the Periclean age, it is
hardly inferior to that of the age of Peisistratus. It is a civiliza-
tion, too, which has long been familiar with the art of writing.
But it is one that belongs entirely to the Bronze Age. Iron is not
found until the very end of the Mycenaean period, and then
only in small quantities. Nor is this the only point of contrast
between the culture of the earliest age and that of the historical
period in Greece. The chief seats of the early culture are to be
found either in the island of Crete, or, on the mainland, at Tiryns
and Mycenae. In the later history Crete plays no part, and
Tiryns and Mycenae are obscure. With the great names of a
later age, Argos, Sparta and Athens, no great discoveries are
connected. In northern Greece, Orchomenos rather than Thebes
is the centre of influence. Further points of contrast readily
442
GREECE
[HISTORY
suggest themselves. The so-called Phoenician alphabet, in
use amongst the later Greeks, is unknown in the earliest age.
Its systems of writing, both the earlier and the later one, are
syllabic in character, and analogous to those in vogue in Asia
Minor and Cyprus. In the art of war, the chariot is of more
importance than the foot-soldier, and the latter, unlike the
Greek hoplite, is lightly clad, and trusts to a shield large enough
to cover the whole body, rather than to the metal helmet, breast-
plate and greaves of later times (see Arms and Armour: Greek).
The political system appears to have been a despotic monarchy,
and the realm of the monarch to have extended to far wider
limits than those of the " city-states " of historical Greece.
It is, perhaps, in the religious practices of the age, and in the
ideas implied in them, that the contrast is most apparent.
Neither in Crete nor on the mainland is there any trace of the
worship of the " Olympian " deities. The cults in vogue remind
us rather of Asia than of Greece. The worship of pillars and of
trees carries us back to Canaan, while the double-headed axe,
so prominent in the ritual of Cnossus, survives in later times
as the symbol of the national deity of the Carians. The beehive-
tombs, found on many sites on the mainland besides Mycenae,
are evidence both of a method of sepulture and of ideas of the
future state, which are alien to the practice and the thought
of the Greeks of history. It is only in one region — in the island
of Cyprus — that the culture of the Mycenaean age is found
surviving into the historical period. As late as the beginning
of the 5th century B.C. Cyprus is still ruled by kings, the alphabet
has not yet displaced a syllabary, the characteristic forms of
Mycenaean vases still linger on, and the chief deity of the island
is the goddess with attendant doves whose images are among
the common objects of Mycenaean finds.
3. The Homeric Age. — Alike in Crete and on the mainland
the civilization disclosed by excavation comes abruptly to an
end. In Crete we can trace it back from c. 1200 B.C. to the
Neolithic period. From the Stone Age to the end of the Minoan
Age the development is continuous and uninterrupted. 1 But
between the culture of the Early Age and the culture of the
Dorians, who occupied the island in historical times, no connexion
whatever can be established. Between the two there is a great
gulf fixed. It would be difficult to imagine a greater contrast
than that presented by the rude life of the Dorian communities
in Crete when it is compared with the political power, the material
resources and the extensive commerce of the earlier period.
The same gap between the archaeological age and the historical
exists on the mainland also. It is true that the solution of
continuity is here less complete. Mycenaean art continues, here
and there, in a debased form down to the 9th century, a date to
which we can trace back the beginnings of the later Greek art.
On one or two lines (e.g. architecture) it is even possible to
establish some sort of connexion between them. But Greek
art as a whole cannot be evolved from Mycenaean art. We
cannot bridge oyer the interval that separates the latter art, even
in its decline, from the former. It is sufficient to compare the
" dipylon " ware (with which the process of development begins,
which culminates in the pottery of the Great Age) with the
Mycenaean vases, to satisfy oneself that the gulf exists. What
then is the relation of the Heroic or Homeric Age (i.e. the age
whose life is portrayed for us in the poems of Homer) to the
Earliest Age? It too presents many contrasts to the later
periods. On the other hand, it presents contrasts to the Minoan
Age, which, in their way, are not less striking. Is it then to be
identified with the Mycenaean Age? Schliemann, the dis-
coverer of the Mycenaean culture, unhesitatingly identified
Mycenaean with Homeric. He even identified the shaft-graves
of Mycenae with the tombs of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra.
Later inquirers, while refusing to discover so literal a corre-
spondence between things Homeric and things Mycenaean,
have not hesitated to accept a general correspondence between
the Homeric Age and the Mycenaean. Where it is a case of
1 It would be more accurate to say to the year 1500 B.C. At
Cnossus the palace is sacked soon after this date, and the art, both
in Crete and in the whole Aegean area, becomes lifeless and decadent.
comparing literary evidence with archaeological, an exact
coincidence is not of course to be demanded. The most that
can be asked is that a general correspondence should be estab-
lished. It may be conceded that the case for such a correspond-
ence appears prima facie a strong one. There is much in Homer
that seems to find confirmation or explanation in Schliemann 's
finds. Mycenae is Agamemnon's city; the plan of the Homeric
house agrees fairly well with the palaces at Tiryns and Mycenae;
the forms and the technique of Mycenaean art serve to illustrate
passages in the poems; such are only a few of the arguments
that have been urged. It is the great merit of Professor Ridge-
way's work (The Early Age of Greece) that it has demonstrated,
once and for all, that Mycenaean is not Homeric pure and simple.
He insists upon differences as great as the resemblances. Iron is
in common use in Homer; it is practically unknown to the
Mycenaeans. In place of the round shield and the metal armour
of the Homeric soldier, we find at Mycenae that the warrior is
lightly clad in linen, and that he fights behind an oblong shield,
which covers the whole body; nor are the chariots the same in
form. The Homeric dead are cremated; the Mycenaean are
buried. The gods of Homer are the deities of Olympus, of whose
cult no traces are to be found in the Mycenaean Age. The
novelty of Professor Ridgeway's theory is that for the accepted
equation, Homeric = Achaean = Mycenaean, he proposes to
substitute the equations, Homeric = Achaean = post-Mycenaean,
and Mycenaean = pre- Achaean = Pelasgian. The Mycenaean
civilization he attributes to the Pelasgians, whom he regards
as the indigenous population of Greece, the ancestors of the later
Greeks, and themselves Greek both in speech and blood. The
Homeric heroes are Achaeans, a fair-haired Celtic race, whose
home was in the Danube valley, where they had learned the use
of iron. In Greece they are newcomers, a conquering class
comparable to the Norman invaders of England or Ireland,
and like them they have acquired the language of their subjects
in the course of a few generations. The Homeric civilization
is thus Achaean, i.e. it is Pelasgian (Mycenaean) civilization,
appropriated by a ruder race; but the Homeric culture is far
inferior to the Mycenaean. Here, at any rate, the Norman
analogy breaks down. Norman art in England is far in advance
of Saxon. Even in Normandy (as in Sicily), where the Norman
appropriated rather than introduced, he not only assimilated
but developed. In Greece the process must have been reversed.
The theory thus outlined is probably stronger on its destructive
side than on its constructive. To treat the Achaeans as an
immigrant race is to run counter to the tradition of the Greeks
themselves, by whom the Achaeans were regarded as indigenous
(cf. Herod, viii. 73). Nor is the Pelasgian part of the theory
easy to reconcile with the Homeric evidence. If the Achaeans
were a conquering class ruling over a Pelasgian population,
we should expect to find this difference of race a prominent
feature in Homeric society. We should, at least, expect to find
a Pelasgian background to the Homeric picture. As a matter
of fact, we find nothing of the sort. There is no consciousness
in the Homeric poems of a distinction of race between the
governing and the subject classes. There are, indeed, Pelasgians
in Homer, but the references either to the people or the name
are extraordinarily few. They appear as a people, presumably
in Asia Minor, in alliance with the Trojans; they appear also,
in a single passage, as one of the tribes inhabiting Crete. The
name survives in " Pelasgicon Argos," which is probably to be
identified with the valley of the Spercheius, 2 and as an epithet
of Zeus of Dodona. The population, however, of Pelasgicon
Argos and of Dodona is no longer Pelasgian. Thus, in the age
of Homer, the Pelasgians belong, so far as Greece proper is
concerned, to a past that is already remote. It is inadmissible
to appeal to Herodotus against Homer. For the conditions
of the Homeric age Homer is the sole authoritative witness.
If, however, Professor Ridgeway has failed to prove that
" Mycenaean " equals " Pelasgian," he has certainly proved
that much that is Homeric is post-Mycenaean. It is possible
1 See T. W. Allen in the Classical Review, vol. xx. (1006), No. 4
(May).
HISTORY]
GREECE
443
that different strata are to be distinguished in the Homeric
poems. There are passages which seem to assume the conditions
of the Mycenaean age; there are others which presuppose the
conditions of a later age. It may be that the latter passages
reflect the circumstances of the poet's own times, while the
former ones reproduce those of an earlier period. If so, the
substitution of iron for bronze must have been effected in the
interval between the earlier and the later periods.
It has already been pointed out that the question whether
the makers of the Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations were
Greeks must stiD be regarded as an open one. No
J** such question can be raised as to the Homeric Age.
^2* The Achaeans may or may not have been Greek in
blood. What is certain is that the Achaean Age
forms an integral part of Greek history. Alike on the linguistic,
the religious and the political sides, Homer is the starting-point
of subsequent developments. In the Greek dialects the great
distinction is that between the Doric and the rest. Of the non-
Doric dialects the two main groups are the Aeolic and Ionic,
both of which have been developed, by a gradual process of
differentiation, from the language of the Homeric poems. With
regard to religion it is sufficient to refer to the judgment of
Herodotus, that it was Homer and Hesiod who were the authors
of the Greek theogony (ii. 53 ovrol tUn ol -KoiT\<nx.\n& deoyovirjv
"EXXijoa). It is a commonplace that Homer was the Bible of the
Greeks. On the political side, Greek constitutional development
would be unintelligible without Homer. When Greek history,
in the proper sense, begins, oligarchy is almost universal. Every-
where, however, an antecedent stage of monarchy has to be
presupposed. In the Homeric system monarchy is the sole
form of government; but it is monarchy already well on the
way to being transformed into oligarchy. In the person of the
king are united the functions of priest, of judge and of leader
in war. He belongs to a family which claims divine descent
and his office is hereditary. He is, however, no despotic monarch.
He is compelled by custom to consult the council (boule) of the
elders, or chiefs. He must ask their opinion, and, if he fails
to obtain their consent, he has no power to enforce his will.
Even when he has obtained the consent of the council, the
proposal still awaits the approval of the assembly {agora) , of the
people.
Thus in the Homeric state we find the germs not only of the
oligarchy and democracy of later Greece, but also of all the
various forms of constitution known to the Western
aochty. world. And a monarchy such as is depicted in the
Homeric poems is clearly ripe for transmutation
into oligarchy. The chiefs are addressed as kings (/JcunXJjes) , and
claim, equally with the monarch, descent from the gods.
In Homer, again, we can trace the later organization into tribe
(0uX^), clan (yevos), and phratry, which is characteristic of
Greek society in the historical period, and meets us in analogous
forms in other Aryan societies. The ykvos corresponds to the
Roman gens, the <t>vkij to the Roman tribe, and the phratry to
the curia. The importance of the phratry in Homeric society is
illustrated by the well-known passage (Iliad ix. 63) in which
the outcast is described as " one who belongs to no phratry "
(d^p^rwp). It is a society that is, of course, based upon slavery,
but it is slavery in its least repulsive aspect. The treatment
which Eumaeus and Eurycleia receive at the hands of the poet
of the Odyssey is highly creditable to the humanity of the age.
A society which regarded the slave as a mere chattel would have
been impatient of the interest shown in a swineherd and a nurse.
It is a society, too, that exhibits many of the distinguishing
traits of later Greek life. Feasting and quarrels, it is true, are
of more moment to the heroes than to the contemporaries of
Pericles or Plato; but " music " and " gymnastic " (though
the terms must be understood in a more restricted sense) are as
distinctive of the age of Homer as of that of Pindar. In one
respect there is retrogression in the historical period. Woman
in Homeric society enjoys a greater freedom, and receives greater
respect, than in the Athens of Sophocles and Pericles.
4. The Growth of the Greek States.— The Greek world at the
beginning of the 6th century B.C. presents a picture in many
respects different from that of the Homeric Age. The Greek
race is no longer confined to the Greek peninsula. It occupies
the islands of the Aegean, the western seaboard of Asia Minor,
the coasts of Macedonia and Thrace, of southern Italy and
Sicily. Scattered settlements are found as far apart as the mouth
of the Rhone, the north of Africa, the Crimea and the eastern
end of the Black Sea. The Greeks are called by a national name,
Hellenes, the symbol of a fully-developed national self-conscious-
ness. They are divided into three great branches, the Dorian,
the Ionian and the Aeolian, names almost, or entirely, unknown
to Homer. The heroic monarchy has nearly everywhere dis-
appeared. In Greece proper, south of Thermopylae, it survives,
but in a peculiar form, in the Spartan state alone. What is the
significance and the explanation of contrasts so profound?
It is probable that the explanation is to be found, directly
or indirectly, in a single cause, the Dorian invasion. In Homer
the Dorians are mentioned in one passage only (Odyssey
xix. 177). They there appear as one of the races which § ny ^ an%
inhabit Crete. In the historical period the whole
Peloponnese, with the exception of Arcadia, Elis and Achaea,
is Dorian. In northern Greece the Dorians occupy the little
state of Doris, and in the Aegean they form the population
of Crete, Rhodes and some smaller islands. Thus the chief
centres of Minoan and Mycenaean culture have passed into
Dorian hands, and the chief seats of Achaean power are included
in Dorian states. Greek tradition explained the overthrow of
the Achaean system by an invasion of the Peloponnese by the
Dorians, a northern tribe, which had found a temporary home in
Doris. The story ran that, after an unsuccessful attempt to
force an entrance by the Isthmus of Corinth, they had crossed
from Naupactus, at the mouth of the Corinthian Gulf, landed
on the opposite shore, and made their way into the heart of the
Peloponnese, where a single victory gave them possession of the
Achaean states. Their conquests were divided among the
invaders into three shares, for which lots were cast, and thus
the three states of Argos, Sparta and Messenia were created.
There is much in this tradition that is impossible or improbable.
It is impossible, e.g. for the tiny state of Doris, with its three
or four " small, sad villages " (7r6X«s fuicpal Kal \vrrp6xwpoL,
Strabo, p. 427), to have furnished a force of invaders sufficient
to conquer and re-people the greater part of the Peloponnese.
It is improbable that the conquest should have been either as
sudden, or as complete, as the legend represents. On the
contrary, there are indications that the conquest was gradual,
and that the displacement of the older population was incomplete.
The improbability of the details affords, however, no ground
for questioning the reality of the invasion. 1 The tradition
can be traced back at Sparta to the 7th century B.C. (Tyrtaeus,
quoted by Strabo, p. 362), and there is abundant evidence, other
than that of legend, to corroborate it. There is the Dorian name,
to begin with. If, as Beloch supposes, it originated on the coast
of Asia Minor, where it served to distinguish the settlers in
Rhodes and the neighbouring islands from the Ionians and
Aeolians to the north of them, how came the great and famous
states of the Peloponnese to adopt a name in use among the
petty colonies planted by their kinsmen across the sea? Or, if
Dorian is simply Old Peloponnesian, how are we to account for
the Doric dialect or the Dorian pride of race?
It is true that there are great differences between the literary
Doric, the dialect of Corinth and Argos, and the dialects of
Laconia and Crete, and that there are affinities between the
dialect of Laconia and the non-Dorian dialects of Arcadia and
Elis. It is equally true, however, and of far more consequence,
that all the Doric dialects are distinguished from all other Greek
dialects by certain common characteristics. Perhaps the
strongest sentiment in the Dorian nature is the pride of race.
Indeed, it looks as if the Dorians claimed to be the sole genuine
Hellenes. How can we account for an indigenous population,
first imagining itself to be immigrant, and then developing a
1 It has been impugned by J. Beloch, Griechische Gesckichte, i.
149 ff.
444
GREECE
[HISTORY
contempt for the rest of the race, equally indigenous with itself,
on account of a fictitious difference in origin? Finally, there
is the archaeological evidence. The older civilization comes to
an abrupt end, and it docs so, on the mainland at least, at the
very period to which tradition assigns the Dorian migration.
Its development is greatest, and its overthrow most complete,
precisely in the regions occupied by the Dorians and the other
tribes, whose migrations were traditionally connected with
theirs. It is hardly too much to say that the archaeologist would
have been compelled to postulate an inroad into central and
southern Greece of tribes from the north, at a lower level of
culture, in the course of the 12th and nth centuries B.C., if the
historian had not been able to direct him to the traditions of the
great migrations (/ieraycwrAcreij), of which the Dorian invasion
was the chief. With the Dorian migration Greek tradition
connected the expansion of the Greek race eastwards across the
Aegean. In the historical period the Greek settlements on the
western coast of Asia Minor fall into three clearly defined groups.
To the north is the Acolic group, consisting of the island of
Lesbos and twelve towns, mostly insignificant, on the opposite
mainland. To the south is the Dorian hexapolis, consisting of
Cnidus and Halicarnassus on the mainland, and the islands of
Rhodes and Cos. In the centre comes the Ionian dodecapolis,
a group consisting of ten towns on the mainland, together with
the islands of Samos and Chios. Of these three groups, the
Ionian is incomparably the most important. The Ionians also
occupy Euboea and the Cyclades. Although it would appear
that Cyprus (and possibly Pamphylia) had been occupied by
settlers from Greece in the Mycenaean age, Greek tradition is
probably correct in putting the colonization of Asia Minor and
the islands of the Aegean after the Dorian migration. Both the
Homeric and the archaeological evidence seem to point to the
same conclusion. Between Rhodes on the south and the Troad
on the north scarcely any Mycenaean remains have been found.
Homer is ignorant of any Greeks east of Euboea. If the poems
arc earlier than the Dorian Invasion, his silence is conclusive.
If the poems are some centuries later than the Invasion, they at
least prove that, within a few generations of that event, it was
the belief of the Greeks of Asia Minor that their ancestors had
crossed the seas after the close of the Heroic Age. It is probable,
too, that the names Ionian and Aeolian, the former of which is
found once in Homer, and the latter not at all, originated among
the colonists in Asia Minor, and served to designate, in the first
instance, the members of the Ionic and Aeolic Jlodecapoleis.
As Curtius 1 pointed out, the only Ionia known tonistory is in
Asia Minor. It does not follow that Ionia is the original home
of the Ionian race, as Curtius argued. It almost certainly
follows, however, that it is the original home of the Ionian
name.
It is less easy to account for the name Hellenes. The Greeks
were profoundly conscious of their common nationality, and of
the gulf that separated them from the rest of mankind. They
themselves recognized a common race and language, and a
common type of religion and culture, as the chief factors in this
sentiment of nationality (see Herod, viii. 144 t6 % E\Xr)vucdv kdv
fl/icu/ito' T€ *cai dii6yhMT<rov kcu 6&v iSpvuark tc Kotvd. Kal
Qvalm iJ0e& rt o/iOTpoira). "Hellenes" was the name of their
common race, and " Hellas " of their common country. In
Homer there is no distinct consciousness of a common nation-
ality, and consequently no antithesis of Greek and Barbarian
(see Thuc. i. 3). Nor is there a true collective name. There are
indeed Hellenes (though the name occurs in one passage only,
Iliad ii. 684), and there is a Hellas; but his Hellas, whatever its
precise signification may be, is, at any rate, not equivalent either
to Greece proper or to the land of the Greeks, and his Hellenes are
the inhabitants of a small district to the south of Thessaly. It
is possible that the diffusion of the Hellenic name was due to the
Dorian invaders. Its use can be traced back to the first half of
the 7th century. Not less obscure are the causes of the fall of
monarchy. It cannot have been the immediate effect of the
1 History of G'ffce lEiv». trans., i. 32 ff.V, cf. the same writer's
Io ncr vor dtr ionischen 1 1 \i n dt*r u rig .
Govern-
Dorian conquest, for the states founded by the Dorians were at
first monarchically governed. It may, however, have been an in-
direct effect of it. We have already seen that the power of the
Homeric king is more limited than that of the rulers of
Cnossus, Tiryns or Mycenae. In other words, monarchy
is already in decay at the epoch of the Invasion. The
Invasion, in its effects on wealth, commerce and civilization, is
almost comparable to the irruption of the barbarians into the
Roman empire. The monarch of the Minoan and Mycenaean age
has extensive revenues at his command; the monarch of the early
Dorian states is little better than a petty chief. Thus the interval,
once a wide one, that separates him from the nobles tends to dis-
appear. The decay of monarchy was gradual; much more gradual
than is generally recognized. There were parts of the Greek world
in which it still survived in the 6th century, e.g. Sparta, Cyrene,
Cyprus, and possibly Argos and Tarentum. Both Herodotus
and Thucydides apply the title "king" (paxnXtvs) to the rulers
of Thessaly in the 5th century. The date at which monarchy
gave place to a republican form of government must have
differed, and differed widely, in different cases. The traditions
relating to the foundation of Cyrene assume the existence of
monarchy in Thera and in Crete in the middle of the 7th century
(Herodotus iv. 150 and 154), and the reign of Ainphicrates
at Samos (Herod, iii. 59) can hardly be placed more than a
generation earlier. In view of our general ignorance of the history
of the 7th and 8th centuries, it is hazardous to pronounce these
instances exceptional. On the other hand, the change from
monarchy to oligarchy was completed at Athens before the end
of the 8th century, and at a still earlier date in some of the other
states. The process, again, by which the change was effected
was, in all probability, less uniform than is generally assumed.
There are extremely few cases in which we have any trustworthy
evidence, and the instances about which we are informed refuse
to be reduced to any common type. In Greece proper our
information is fullest in the case of Athens and Argos. In the
former case, the king is gradually stripped of his powers by a
process of devolution. An hereditary king, ruling for life, is
replaced by three annual and elective magistrates, between
whom are divided the executive, military and religious functions
of the monarch (see Archon) . At Argos the fall of the monarchy
is preceded by an aggrandisement of the royal prerogatives.
There is nothing in common between these two cases, and there
is no reason to suppose that the process elsewhere was analogous
to that at Athens. Everywhere, however, oligarchy is the
form of government which succeeds to monarchy. Political
power is monopolized by a class of nobles, whose claim to govern
is based upon birth and the possession of land, the most valuable
form of property in an early society. Sometimes power is
confined to a single clan (e.g. the Bacchiadae at Corinth) ; more
commonly, as at Athens, all houses that are noble are equally
privileged. In every case there is found, as the adviser of the
executive, a Boule, or council, representative of the privileged
class. Without such a council a Greek oligarchy is inconceivable.
The relations of the executive to the council doubtless varied.
At Athens it is clear that the real authority was exercised by the
archons;* in many states the magistrates were probably sub-
ordinate to the council (cf . the relation of the consuls to the senate
at Rome). And it is clear that the way in which the oligarchies
used their power varied also. The cases in which the power was
abused are naturally the ones of which we hear; for an abuse
of power gave rise to discontent and was the ultimate cause of
revolution. We hear little or nothing of the cases in which
power was exercised wisely. Happy is the constitution which
has no annals! We know, however, that oligarchy held its
ground for generations, or even for centuries, in a large propor-
tion of the Greek states; and a government which, like the
oligarchies of Elis, Thebes or Aegina, could maintain itself for
three or four centuries cannot have been merely oppressive.
1 If the account of early Athenian constitutional history given in
the Athenaion Politeia were accepted, it would follow that the
archons were inferior in authority to the Eupatrid Boule, the
Areopagus.
HIStORY]
GREECE
445
The period of the transition from monarchy to oligarchy
is the period in which commerce begins to develop, and trade-
routes to be organized. Greece had been the centre of
an active trade in the Minoan and Mycenaean epochs.
The products of Crete and of the Peloponnese had found their
way to Egypt and Asia Minor. The overthrow of the older
civilization put an end to commerce. The seas became insecure
and intercourse with the East was interrupted. Our earliest
glimpses of the Aegean after the period of the migrations disclose
the raids of the pirate and the activity of the Phoenician trader.
It is not till the 8th century has dawned that trade begins to
revive, and the Phoenician has to retire before his Greek com-
petitor. For some time to come, however, no clear distinction is
drawn between the trader and the pirate. The pioneers of Greek
trade in the West are the pirates of Cumae (Thucyd. vi. 4).
The expansion of Greek commerce, unlike that of the commerce
of the modern world, was not connected with any great scientific
discoveries. There is nothing in the history of ancient navigation
that is analogous to the invention of the mariner's compass or
of the steam-engine. In spite of this, the development of Greek
commerce in the 7th and 6th centuries was rapid. It must have
been assisted by the great discovery of the early part of the
former century, the invention of coined money. To the Lydians,
rather than the Greeks, belongs the credit of the discovery;
but it was the genius of the latter race that divined the import-
ance of the invention and spread its use. The coinage of the
Ionian towns goes back to the reign of Gyges (c. 675 B.C.). And
it is in Ionia that commercial development is earliest and greatest.
In the most distant regions the Ionian is first in the field. Egypt
and the Black Sea are both opened up to Greek trade by Miletus,
the Adriatic and the Western Mediterranean by Phocaea and
Samos. It is significant that of the twelve states engaged in the
Egyptian trade in the 6th century all, with the exception of
Aegina, are from the eastern side of the Aegean (Herod, ii. 178).
On the western side the chief centres of trade during these
centuries were the islands of Euboea and Aegina and the town
of Corinth. The Aeginetan are the earliest coins of Greece
proper (c. 650 B.C.); and the two rival scales of weights and
measures, in use amongst the Greeks of every age, are the
Aeginetan and the Euboic. Commerce naturally gave rise to
commercial leagues, and commercial relations tended to bring
about political alliances. Foreign policy even at this early
epoch seems to have been largely determined by considerations
of commerce. Two leagues, the members of which were connected
by political as well as commercial ties, can be recognized. At
the head of each stood one of the two rival powers in the island
of Euboea, Chalcis and Eretria. Their primary object was
doubtless protection from the pirate and the foreigner. Compet-
ing routes were organized at an early date under their influence,
and their trading connexions can be traced from the heart of
Asia Minor to the north of Italy. Miletus, Sybaris and Etruria
were members of the Eretrian league; Samos, Corinth, Rhegium
and Zancle (commanding the Straits of Messina), and Cumae,
on the Bay of Naples, of the Chalcidian. The wool of the
Phrygian uplands, woven in the looms of Miletus, reached the
Etruscan markets by way of Sybaris; through Cumae, Rome
and the rest of Latium obtained the elements of Greek culture.
Greek trade, however, was confined to the Mediterranean area.
The Phoenician and the Carthaginian navigators penetrated
to Britain; they discovered the passage round the Cape two
thousand years before Vasco da Gama's time. The Greek sailor
dared not adventure himself outside the Black Sea, the Adriatic
and the Mediterranean. Greek trade, too, was essentially mari-
time. Ports visited by Greek vessels were often the starting
points of trade-routes into the interior; the traffic along those
routes was left in the hands of the natives (see e.g. Herod, iv. 24).
One service, the importance of which can hardly be overestimated,
was rendered to civilization by the Greek traders — the invention
of geography. The science of geography is the invention of the
Greeks. The first maps were made by them (in the 6th century) ;
and it was the discoveries and surveys of their sailors that made
map-making possible.
Closely connected with the history of Greek trade is the
history of Greek colonization. The period of colonization, in
its narrower sense, extends from the middle of the
8th to the middle of the 6th century. Greek coloniza- %£"***'
tion is, however, merely a continuation of the process
which at an earlier epoch had led to the settlement, first of
Cyprus, and then of the islands and coasts of the Aegean. From
the earlier settlements the colonization of the historical period
is distinguished by three characteristics. The later colony
acknowledges a definite metropolis ( " mother-city ") ; it is
planted by a definite oecist (olKtaTrjs) ; it has a definite date
assigned to its foundation. 1 It would be a mistake to regard
Greek colonization as commercial in origin, in the sense that the
colonies were in all cases established as trading-posts. This
was the case with the Phoenician and Carthaginian settlements,
most of which remained mere factories; and some of the Greek
colonies (e.g. many of those planted by Miletus on the shores
of the Black Sea) bore this character. The typical Greek colony,
however, was neither in origin nor in development a mere
trading-post. It was, or it became, a polls, a city-state, in which
was reproduced the life of the parent state. Nor was Greek
colonization, like the emigration from Europe to America and
Australia in the 19th century, simply the result of over-popula-
tion. The causes were as various as those which can be traced
in the history of modern colonization. Those which were
established for the purposes of trade may be compared to the
factories of the Portuguese and Dutch in Africa and the Far East.
Others were the result of political discontent, in some form or
shape; these may be compared to the Puritan settlements
in New England. Others again were due to ambition or the
mere love of adventure (see Herod, v. 42 ff., the career of
Dorieus). But however various the causes, two conditions
must always be presupposed — an expansion of commerce and
a growth of population. Within the narrow limits of the city-
state there was a constant tendency for population to become
redundant, until, as in the later centuries of Greek life, its
growth was artificially restricted. Alike from the Roman
colonies, and from those founded by the European nations
in the course of the last few centuries, the Greek colonies are
distinguished by a fundamental contrast. It is significant that
the contrast is a political one. The Roman colony was in a
position of entire subordination to the Roman state, of which it
formed a part. The modern colony was, in varying degrees,
in political subjection to the home government. The Greek
colony was completely independent; and it was independent
from the first. The ties that united a colony to its metropolis
were those of sentiment and interest; the political tie did not
exist. There were, it is true, exceptions. The colonies estab-
lished by imperial Athens closely resembled the colonies of
imperial Rome. The cleruchy (q.v.) formed part of the Athenian
state; the cleruchs kept their status as citizens of Athens and
acted as a military garrison. And if the political tie, in the
proper sense, was wanting, it was inevitable that political
relations should spring out of commercial or sentimental ones.
Thus we find Corinth interfering twice to save her colony Syracuse
from destruction, and Megara bringing about the revolt of
Byzantium, her colony, from Athens. Sometimes it is not easy
to distinguish political relations from a political tie (e.g. the
relations of Corinth, both in the Persian and Peloponnesian
Wars, to Ambracia and the neighbouring group of colonies).
When we compare the development of the Greek and the modern
colonies we shall find that the development of the former was
even more rapid than that of the latter. In at least three
respects the Greek settler was at an advantage as compared
with the colonist of modern times. The differences of race, of
colour and of climate, with which the chief problems of modern
colonization are connected, played no part in the history of the
Greek settlements. The races amongst whom the Greeks planted
1 The dates before the middle of the 7th century are in most cases
artificial, e.g. those given by Thucydides (book vi.) for the earlier
Sicilian settlements. See J. P. Mahaffy, Journal of Hellenic Studies,
ii. 164 ff.
446
GREECE
[HISTORY
themselves were in some cases on a similar level of culture.
Where the natives were still backward or barbarous, they came
of a stock either closely related to the Greek, or at least separated
from it by no great physical differences. We need only contrast
the Carian, the Sicel, the Thracian or even the Scythian, with
the native Australian, the Hottentot, the Red Indian or the
Maori, to apprehend the advantage of the Greek. Amalgama-
tion with the native races was easy, and it involved neither
physical nor intellectual degeneracy as its consequence. Of the
races with which the Greeks came in contact the Thracian was
far from the highest in the scale of culture; yet three of the
greatest names in the Great Age of Athens are those of men who
had Thracian blood in their veins, viz. Themistocles, Cimon
and the historian Thucydides. In the absence of any distinction
of colour, no insuperable barrier existed between the Greek and
the hellenized native. The demos of the colonial cities was
largely recruited from the native population, 1 nor was there
anything in the Greek world analogous to the " mean whites "
or the " black belt." Of hardly less importance were the
climatic conditions. In this respect the Mediterranean area is
unique. There is no other region of the world of equal extent
in which these conditions are at once so uniform and so favourable.
Nowhere had the Greek settler to encounter a climate which
was either unsuited to his labour or subversive of his vigour.
That in spite of these advantages so little, comparatively
speaking, was effected in the work of Hellenization before
the epoch of Alexander and the Diadochi, was the effect of a
single counteracting cause. The Greek colonist, like the Greek
trader, clung to the shore. He penetrated no farther inland
than the sea-breeze. Hence it was only in islands, such as
Sicily or Cyprus, that the process of Hellenization was complete.
Elsewhere the Greek settlements formed a mere fringe along the
coast.
To the 7th century there belongs another movement of high
importance in its bearing upon the economic, religious and
literary development of Greece, as well as upon its
tyrants* constitutional history. This movement is the rise of
the tyrannis. In the political writers of a later age the
word possesses a clear-cut connotation. From other forms
of monarchy it is distinguished by a twofold differentiation.
The tyrannus is an unconstitutional ruler, and his authority
is exercised over unwilling subjects. In the 7th and 6th centuries
the line was not drawn so distinctly between the tyrant and the
legitimate monarch. Even Herodotus uses the words " tyrant "
and " king " interchangeably (e.g. the princes of Cyprus are
called " kings " in v. no and " tyrants " in v. 109), so that it
is sometimes difficult to decide whether a legitimate monarch
or a tyrant is meant (e.g. Aristophilides of Tarentum, ill. 136,
or Telys of Sybaris, v. 44). But the distinction between the
tyrant and the king of the Heroic Age is a valid one. It is not
true that his rule was always exercised over unwilling subjects;
it is true that his position was always unconstitutional. The
Homeric king is a legitimate monarch ; his authority is invested
with the sanctions of religion and immemorial custom. The
tyrant is an illegitimate ruler; his authority is not recognized,
either by customary usage or by express enactment. But the
word " tyrant " was originally a neutral term; it did not
necessarily imply a misuse of power. The origin of the tyrannis
is obscure. The word tyrannus has been thought, with some
reason, to be a Lydian one. Probably both the name and the
thing originated in the Greek colonies of Asia Minor, though the
earliest tyrants of whom we hear in Asia Minor (at Ephesus and
Miletus) are a generation later than the earliest in Greece itself,
where, both at Sicyon and at Corinth, tyranny appears to date
back to the second quarter of the 7th century. It is not unusual
to regard tyranny as a universal stage in the constitutional
development of the Greek states, and as a stage that occurs
everywhere at one and the same period. In reality, tyranny
is confined to certain regions, and it is a phenomenon that is
peculiar to no one age or century. In Greece proper, before the
1 At Syracuse the demos makes common cause with the Sicel
serf -population against the nobles (Herod, vii. 155).
4th century B.C., it is confined to a small group of states round the
Corinthian and Saronic Gulfs. The greater part of the Pelo-
ponnese was exempt from it, and there is no good evidence for its
existence north of the Isthmus, except at Megara and Athens.
It plays no part in the history of the Greek cities in Chalcidice
and Thrace. It appears to have been rare in the Cyclades.
The regions in which it finds a congenial soil are two, Asia Minor
and Sicily. Thus it is incorrect to say that most Greek states
passed through this stage. It is still wider of the mark to
assume that they passed through it at the same time. There is
no " Age of the Tyrants." Tyranny began in the Peloponnese
a hundred years before it appears in Sicily, and it has disappeared
in the Peloponnese almost before it begins in Sicily. In the
latter the great age of tyranny comes at the beginning of the
5th century; in the former it is at the end of the 7th and the
beginning of the 6th. At Athens the history of tyranny begins
after it has ended both at Sicyon and Corinth. There is, indeed,
a period in which tyranny is non-existent in the Greek states;
roughly speaking, the last sixty years of the 5th century. But
with this exception, there is no period in which the tyrant is
not to be found. The greatest of all the tyrannies, that of
Dionysius at Syracuse, belongs to the 4th century. Nor must
it be assumed that tyranny always comes at the same stage in
the history of a constitution; that it is always a stage between
oligarchy and democracy. At Corinth it is followed, not by
democracy but by oligarchy, and it is an oligarchy that lasts,
with a brief interruption, for two hundred and fifty years. At
Athens it is not immediately preceded by oligarchy. Between
the Eupatrid oligarchy and the rule of Peisistratus there comes
the timocracy of Solon. These exceptions do not stand alone.
The cause of tyranny is, in one sense, uniform. In the earlier
centuries, at any rate, tyranny is always the expression of
discontent; the tyrant is always the champion of a cause.
But it would be a mistake to suppose that the discontent is
necessarily political, or that the cause which he champions is
always a constitutional one. At Sicyon it is a racial one;
Cleisthenes is the champion of the older population against their
Dorian oppressors (see Herod, v. 67, 68). At Athens the
discontent is economic rather than political; Peisistratus is the
champion of the Diacrii, the inhabitants of the poorest region of
Attica. The party-strifes of which we hear in the early history
of Miletus, which doubtless gave the tyrant his opportunity,
are concerned with the claims of rival industrial classes. In
Sicily the tyrant is the ally of the rich and the foe of the demos,
and the cause which he champions, both in the 5th century and
the 4th, is a national one, that of the Greek against the Cartha-
ginian. We may suspect that in Greece itself the tyrannies of
the 7th century are the expression of an anti-Dorian reaction.
It can hardly be an accident that the states in which the tyrannis
is found at this epoch, Corinth, Megara, Sicyon, Epidaurus,
are all of them states in which a Dorian upper class ruled over
a subject population. In Asia Minor the tyrannis assumes a
peculiar character after the Persian conquest. The tyrant
rules as the deputy of the Persian satrap. Thus in the East the
tyrant is the enemy of the national cause; in the West, in Sicily,
he is its champion.
Tyranny is not a phenomenon peculiar to Greek history.
It is possible to find analogies to it in Roman history, in the
power of Caesar, or of the Caesars; in the despotisms of medieval
Italy; or even in the Napoleonic empire. Between the tyrant
and the Italian despot there is indeed a real analogy; but
between the Roman principate and the Greek tyrannis there are
two essential differences. In the first place, the principate was
expressed in constitutional forms, or veiled under constitutional
fictions; the tyrant stood altogether outside the constitution.
And, secondly, at Rome both Julius and Augustus owed their
position to the power of the sword. The power of the sword,
it is true, plays a large part in the history of the later tyrants
(e.g. Dionysius of Syracuse); the earlier ones, however, had no
mercenary armies at their command. We can hardly compare
the bodyguard of Peisistratus to the legions of the first or the
second Caesar.
HISTORY]
GREECE
447
The view taken of the tyrannis in Greek literature is almost
uniformly unfavourable. In this respect there is no difference
between Plato and Aristotle, or between Herodotus and the
later historians. 1 His policy is represented as purely selfish,
and his rule as oppressive. Herodotus is influenced partly by
the traditions current among the oligarchs, who had been the
chief sufferers, and partly by the odious associations which had
gathered round tyranny in Asia Minor. The philosophers write
under their impressions of the later tyrannis, and their account
is largely an a priori one. It is seldom that we find any attempt,
either in the philosophers or the historians, to do justice to the
real services rendered by the tyrants. 2 Their first service was
a constitutional one. They helped to break down the power
of the old aristocratic houses, and thus to create the social and
political conditions indispensable to democracy. The tyrannis
involved the sacrifice of liberty in the cause of equality. When
tyranny falls, it is never succeeded by the aristocracies which
it had overthrown. It is frequently succeeded by an oligarchy,
but it is an oligarchy in which the claim to exclusive power is
based, not upon mere birth, but upon wealth, or the possession
of land. It would be unfair to treat this service as one that
was rendered unconsciously and unwillingly. Where the tyrant
asserted the claims of an oppressed class, he consciously aimed at
the destruction of privilege and the effacement of class distinc-
tions. Hence it is unjust to treat his power as resting upon
mere force. A government which can last eighty or a hundred
years, as was the case with the tyrannies at Corinth and Sicyon,
must have a moral force behind it. It must rest upon the
consent of its subjects. The second service which the tyrants
rendered to Greece was a political one. Their policy tended to
break down the barriers which isolated each petty state from
its neighbours. In their history we can trace a system of wide-
spread alliances, which are often cemented by matrimonial
connexions. The Cypselid tyrants of Corinth appear to have been
allied with the royal families of Egypt, Lydia and Phrygia, as
well as with the tyrants of Miletus and Epidaurus, and with
some of the great Athenian families. In Sicily we find a league
of the northern tyrants opposed to a league of the southern;
and in each case there is a corresponding matrimonial alliance.
Anaxilaus of Rhegium is the son-in-law and ally of Terillus of
Himera; Gelo of Syracuse stands in the same relation to Theron
of Agrigentum. Royal marriages have played a great part in
the politics of Europe. In the comparison of Greek and modern
history it has been too often forgotten how great a difference
it makes, and how great a disadvantage it involves, to a republic
that it has neither sons nor daughters to give in marriage. In
commerce and colonization the tyrants were only continuing
the work of the oligarchies to which they succeeded. Greek
trade owed its expansion to the intelligent efforts of the oligarchs
who ruled at Miletus and Corinth, in Samos, Aegina and Euboea;
but in particular cases, such as Miletus, Corinth, Sicyon and
Athens, there was a further development, and a still more rapid
growth, under the tyrants. In the same way, the foundation
of the colonies was in most cases due to the policy of the oli-
garchical governments. They can claim credit for the colonies
of Chalcis and Eretria, of Megara, Phocaea and Samos, as well
as for the great Achaean settlements in southern Italy. The
Cypselids at Corinth, and Thrasybulus at Miletus, are instances
of tyrants who colonized on a great scale.
In their religious policy the tyrants went far to democratize
Greek religion. The functions of monarchy had been largely
religious; but, while the king was necessarily a
*mfer*"« priest, he was not the only priest in the community.
"tyrants." There were special priesthoods, hereditary in par-
ticular families, even in the monarchical period; and
upon the fall of the monarchy, while the priestly functions of
the kings passed to republican magistrates, the priesthoods
which were in the exclusive possession of the great families
tended to become the important ones. Thus, before the rise of
tyranny, Greek religion is aristocratic. The cults recognized
1 An exception should perhaps be made in the case of Thucydides.
8 The Peisistratidae come off better, however.
by the state are the sacra of noble clans. The religious pre-
rogatives of the nobles helped to confirm their political ones,
and, as long as religion retained its aristocratic character, it was
impossible for democracy to take root. The policy of the tyrants
aimed at fostering popular cults which had no associations with
the old families, and at establishing new festivals. The cult
of the wine-god, Dionysus, was thus fostered at Sicyon by
Cleisthenes, and at Corinth by the Cypselids; while at Athens
a new festival of this deity, which so completely overshadowed
the older festival that it became known as the Great Dionysia,
probably owed its institution to Peisistratus. Another festival,
the Panathenaea, which had been instituted only a few years
before his rise to power, became under his rule, and thanks to his
policy, the chief national festival of the Athenian state. Every-
where, again, we find the tyrants the patrons of literature.
Pindar and Bacchylides, Aeschylus and Simonides found a
welcome at the court of Hiero. Polycrates was the patron of
Anacreon, Periander of Arion. To Peisistratus has been attri-
buted, possibly not without reason, the first critical edition of
the text of Homer, a work as important in the literary history
of Greece as was the issue of the Authorized Version of the Bible
in English history. It we would judge fairly of tyranny, and of
what it contributed to the development of Greece, we must
remember how many states there were in whose history the
period of greatest power coincides with the rule of a tyrant.
This is unquestionably true of Corinth and Sicyon, as well as of
Syracuse in the 5th, and again in the 4th century; it is probably
true of Samos and Miletus. In the case of Athens it is only the
splendour of the Great Age that blinds us to the greatness of
the results achieved by the policy of the Peisistratids.
With the overthrow of this dynasty tyranny disappears from
Greece proper for more than a century. During the century and
a half which had elapsed since its first appearance the whole
aspect of Greek life, and of the Greek world, had changed.
The development was as yet incomplete, but the lines on which
it was to proceed had been clearly marked out. Political power
was no longer the monopoly of a class. The struggle between
the " few " and the " many " had begun; in one state at least
(Athens) the victory of the " many " was assured. The first
chapter in the history of democracy was already written. In
the art of war the two innovations which were ultimately to
establish the military supremacy of Greece, hoplite tactics and
the trireme, had already been introduced. Greek literature was
no longer synonymous with epic poetry. Some of ~^
its most distinctive forms had not yet been evolved;
indeed, it is only quite at the end of the period that
prose- writing begins; but both lyric and elegiac poetry had been
brought to perfection. In art, statuary was still comparatively
stiff and crude; but in other branches, in architecture, in vase-
painting and in coin-types, the aesthetic genius of the race had
asserted its pre-eminence. Philosophy, the supreme gift of Greece
to the modern world, had become a living power. Some of her
most original thinkers belong to the 6th century. Criticism had
been applied to everything in turn: to the gods, to conduct,
and to the conception of the universe. Before the Great Age
begins, the claims of intellectual as well as of political freedom
had been vindicated. It was not, however, in Greece proper
that progress had been greatest. In the next century the centre
of gravity of Greek civilization shifts to the western side of the
Aegean; in the 6th century it must be looked for at Miletus,
rather than at Athens. In order to estimate how far the develop-
ment of Greece had advanced, or to appreciate the distinctive
features of Greek life at this period, we must study Ionia, rather
than Attica or the Peloponnese. Almost all that is greatest and
most characteristic is to be found on the eastern side of the
Aegean. The great names in the history of science and philosophy
before the beginning of the 5th century — Thales, Pythagoras,
Xenophanes, Heraclitus, Parmenides, Anaximander, Hecataeus;
names which are representative of mathematics, astronomy,
geography and metaphysics, are all, without exception, Ionian.
In poetry, too, the most famous names, if not so exclusively
Ionian, are connected either with the Asiatic coast or with
44»
GREECE
[HISTORY
the Cyclades. Against Archilochus and Anacreon, Sappho and
Alcaeus, Greece has nothing better to set, after the age of Hesiod,
than Tyrtaeus and Theognis. Reference has already been made
to the greatness of the Ionians as navigators, as colonizers and
as traders. In wealth and in population, Miletus, at the epoch
of the Persian conquest, must have been far ahead of any city
of European Greece. Sybaris, in Magna Graecia, can have been
its only rival outside Ionia. There were two respects, however,
in which the comparison was in favour of the mother-country.
In warfare, the superiority of the Spartan infantry was un-
questioned; in politics, the Greek states showed a greater power
of combination than the Ionian.
Finally, Ionia was the scene of the first conflicts with the
Persian. Here were decided the first stages of a struggle which
was to determine the place of Greece in the history
relation*. °* ^e wor ^- The rise of Persia under Cyrus was, as
Herodotus saw, the turning-point of Greek history.
Hitherto the Greek had proved himself indispensable to
the oriental monarchies with which he had been brought into
contact. In Egypt the power of the Saite kings rested upon the
support of their Greek mercenaries. Amasis (560-525 B.C.), who
is raised to the throne as the leader of a reaction against the
influence of the foreign garrison, ends by showing greater favour
to the Greek soldiery and the Greek traders than all that were
before him. With Lydia the relations were originally hostile;
the conquest of the Greek fringe is the constant aim of Lydian
policy. Greek influences, however, seem to have quickly per-
meated Lydia, and to have penetrated to the court. Alyattes
(610-560 B.C.) marries an Ionian wife, and the succession is
disputed between the son of this marriage and Croesus, whose
mother was a Carian. Croesus (560-546 B.C.) secures the throne,
only to become the lavish patron of Greek sanctuaries and the
ally of a Greek state. The history of Hellenism had begun.
It was the rise of Cyrus that closed the East to Greek enterprise
and Greek influences. In Persia we find the antithesis of all
that is characteristic of Greece — autocracy as opposed to liberty;
a military society organized on an aristocratic basis, to an
industrial society, animated by a democratic spirit; an army,
whose strength lay in its cavalry, to an army, in which the foot-
soldier alone counted; a morality, which assigned the chief
place to veracity, to a morality which subordinated it to other
virtues; a religion, which ranks among the great religions of
the world, to a religion, which appeared to the most spiritual
minds among the Greeks themselves both immoral and absurd.
Between two such races there could be neither sympathy nor
mutual understanding. In the Great Age the Greek had learned
to despise the Persian, and the Persian to fear the Greek.
In the 6th century it was the Persian who despised,
and the Greek who feared. The history of the conflicts
between the Ionian Greeks and the Persian empire affords a
striking example of the combination of intellectual strength and
political weakness in the character of a people. The causes of
the failure of the Ionians to offer a successful resistance to Persia,
both at the time of the conquest by Harpagus (546-545 B.C.) and
in the Ionic revolt (490-494 B.C.), are not far to seek. The
centrifugal forces always tended to prove the stronger in the
Greek system, and nowhere were they stronger than in Ionia.
The tie of their tribal union proved weaker, every time it was
put to the test, than the political and commercial interests of
the individual states. A league of jealous commercial rivals is
certain not to stand the strain of a protracted struggle against
great odds. Against the advancing power of Lydia a common
resistance had not so much as been attempted. Miletus, the
greatest of the Ionian towns, had received aid from Chios alone.
Against Persia a common resistance was attempted. The Pani-
onium, the centre of a religious amphictyony, became for the
moment the centre of a political league. At the time of the
Persian conquest Miletus held aloof. She secured favourable
terms for herself, and left the rest of Ionia to its fate. In the
later conflict, on the contrary, Miletus is the leader in the revolt.
The issue was determined, not as Herodotus represents it, by
the inherent indolence of the Ionian nature, but by the selfish
Persian
wars.
policy of the leading states. In the sea-fight at Lade (494 B.C.)
the decisive battle of the war, the Milesians and Chians fought
with desperate courage. The day was lost thanks to the treachery
of the Samian and Lesbian contingents.
The causes of the successful resistance of the Greeks to the
invasions of their country, first by Datis and Artaphernes
(490 B.C.), in the reign of Darius, and then by Xerxes in person
(480-479 B.C.), are more complex. Their success was partly
due to a moral cause. And this was realized by the Greeks
themselves. They felt (see Herod, vii. 104) that the subjects
of a despot are no match for the citizens of a free state, who
yield obedience to a law which is self-imposed. But the cause
was not solely a moral one. Nor was the result due to the
numbers and efficiency of the Athenian fleet, in the degree that
the Athenians claimed (see Herod, vii. 139). The truth is that
the conditions, both political and military, were far more favour-
able to the Greek defence in Europe than they had been in Asia.
At this crisis the centripetal forces proved stronger than the
centrifugal. The moral ascendancy of Sparta was the deter-
mining factor. In Sparta the Greeks had a leader whom all
were ready to obey (Herod, viii. 2). But for her influence the
forces of disintegration would have made themselves felt as
quickly as in Ionia. Sparta was confronted with immense
difficulties in conducting the defence against Xerxes. The two
chief naval powers, Athens and Aegina, had to be reconciled
after a long and exasperating warfare (see Aegina). After
Thermopylae, the whole of northern Greece, with the exception
of Athens and a few minor states, was lost to the Greek cause.
The supposed interests of the Peloponnesians, who formed the
greater part of the national forces, conflicted with the supposed
interests of the Athenians. A more impartial view than was
possible to the generation for which Herodotus wrote suggests
that Sparta performed her task with intelligence and patriotism.
The claims of Athens and Sparta were about equally balanced.
And in spite of her great superiority in numbers, 1 the military
conditions were far from favourable to Persia. A land so moun-
tainous as Greece is was unsuited to the operations of cavalry,
the most efficient arm of the service in the Persian Army, as
in most oriental ones. Ignorance of local conditions, combined
with the dangerous nature of the Greek coast, exposed their ships
to the risk of destruction; while the composite character of the
fleet, and the jealousies of its various contingents, tended to
neutralize the advantage of numbers. In courage and discipline,
the flower of the Persian infantry was probably little inferior
to the Greek; in equipment, they were no match for the Greek
panoply. Lastly, Xerxes laboured under a disadvantage, which
may be illustrated by the experience of the British army in the
South African War— -distance from his base.
5. The Great Age {480-338 B.c.)— The effects of the repulse
of Persia were momentous in their influence upon Greece. The
effects upon Elizabethan England of the defeat of the Spanish
armada would afford quite an inadequate parallel. It gave
the Greeks a heightened sense, both of their own national unity
and of their superiority to the barbarian, while at the same time
it helped to create the material conditions requisite alike for
the artistic and political development of the 5th century. Other
cities besides Athens were adorned with the proceeds of the
spoils won from Persia, and Greek trade benefited both from the
reunion of Ionia with Greece, and from the suppression of piracy
in the Aegean and the Hellespont. Do these developments
justify us in giving to the period, which begins with the repulse
of Xerxes, and ends with the victory of Philip, the title of
" the Great Age "? If the title is justified in the case of the 5th
century, should the 4th century be excluded from the period?
At first sight, the difference between the 4th century and the
5th may seem greater than that which exists between the 5th
and the 6th. On the political side, the 5th century is an age
of growth, the 4th an age of decay; on the literary side, the
1 The numbers given by Herodotus (upwards of 5,660,000) are
enormously exaggerated. We must divide by ten or fifteen to
arrive at a probable estimate of the forces that actually crossed
the Hellespont.
HISTORY]
GREECE
449
former is an age of poetry, the latter an age of prose. In spite
of these contrasts, there is a real unity in the period which begins
with the repulse of Xerxes and ends with the death of Alexander,
as compared with any preceding one. It is an age of maturity
in politics, in literature, and in art; and this is true of no earlier
age. Nor can we say that the 5th century is, in all these aspects
of Greek life, immature as compared with the 4th, or, on the
other hand, that the 4th is decadent as compared with the
5th. On the political side, maturity is, in one sense, reached
in the earlier century. There is nothing in the later century so
great as the Athenian empire. In another sense, maturity is
not reached till the 4th century. It is only in the later century
that the tendency of the Greek constitutions to conform to a
common type, democracy, is (at least approximately) realized,
and it is only in this century that the principles upon which
democracy is based are carried to their logical conclusion. In
literature, if we confine our attention to poetry, we must pro-
nounce the 5th century the age of completed development;
but in prose the case is different. The style even of Thucydides
is immature, as compared with that of Isocrates and Plato. In
philosophy, however high may be the estimate that is formed
of the genius of the earlier thinkers, it cannot be disputed that in
Plato and Aristotle we find a more mature stage of thought.
In art, architecture may perhaps be said to reach its zenith in
the 5th, sculpture in the 4th century. In its political aspect,
the history of the Great Age resolves itself into the history of
two movements, the imperial and the democratic. Hitherto
Greece had meant, politically, an aggregate of independent
states, very numerous, and, as a rule, very small. The principle
of autonomy was to the Greek the most sacred of all
govern? political principles; the passion for autonomy the
ment. most potent of political factors. In the latter half of
the 6th century Sparta had succeeded in combining
the majority of the Peloponnesian states into a loose federal
union; so loose, however, that it appears to have been dormant
in the intervals of peace. In the crisis of the Persian invasion
the Peloponnesian League was extended so as to include all the
states which had espoused the national cause. It looked on the
morrow of Plataea and Mycale (the two victories, won simul-
taneously, in 479 B.C., by Spartan commanders, by which the
danger from Persia was finally averted) as if a permanent basis
for union might be found in the hegemony of Sparta. The sense
of a common peril and a common triumph brought with it the
need of a common union; it was Athens, however, instead of
Sparta, by whom the first conscious effort was made to transcend
the isolation of the Greek political system and to bring the units
into combination. The league thus founded (the Delian League,
established in 477 B.C.) was under the presidency of Athens,
but it included hardly any other state besides those that had
conducted the defence of Greece. It was formed, almost entirely,
of the states which had been liberated from Persian rule by
the great victories of the war. The Delian League, even in the
form in which it was first established, as a confederation of
autonomous allies, marks an advance in political conceptions
upon the Peloponnesian League. Provision is made for an
annual revenue, for periodical meetings of the council, and for
a permanent executive. It is a real federation, though an
imperfect one. There were defects in its constitution which
rendered it inevitable that it should be transformed into an
empire. Athens was from the first " the predominant partner."
The fleet was mainly Athenian, the commanders entirely so;
the assessment of the tribute was in Athenian hands; there
was no federal court appointed to determine questions at issue
between Athens and the other members; and, worst omission
of all, the right of secession was left undecided. By the middle
of the century the Delian League has become the Athenian
empire. Henceforward the imperial idea, in one form or another,
dominates Greek politics. Athens failed to extend her authority
over the whole of Greece. Her empire was overthrown; but the
triumph of autonomy proved the triumph of imperialism.
The Spartan empire succeeds to the Athenian, and, when it is
finally shattered at Leuctra (371 B.C.), the hegemony of Thebes,
which is established on its ruins, is an empire in all but name.
The decay of Theban power paves the way for the rise of Macedon.
Thus throughout this period we can trace two forces contending
for mastery in the Greek political system. Two causes divide
the allegiance of the Greek world, the cause of empire and the
cause of autonomy. The formation of the confederacy of Delos
did not involve the dissolution of the alliance between Athens
and Sparta. For seventeen years more Athens retained her
place in the league, " which had been established against the
Mede" under the presidency of Sparta in 480 B.C. (Thuc. i. 102).
The ascendancy of Cimon and the Philolaconian party at Athens
was favourable to a good understanding between the two states,
and at Sparta in normal times the balance inclined in favour
of the party whose policy is best described by the motto " quieta
non movere."
In the end, however, the opposition of the two contending
forces proved too strong for Spartan neutrality. The fall of
Cimon (461 B.C.) was followed by the so-called " First
Peloponnesian War," a conflict between Athens and ^^am
her maritime rivals, Corinth and Aegina, into which wan.
Sparta was ultimately drawn. Thucydides regards
the hostilities of these years (460-454 B.C.), which were resumed
for a few months in 446 B.C., on the expiration of the Five Years'
Truce, as preliminary to those of the great Peloponnesian War
(431-404 B.C.). The real question at issue was in both cases the
same. The tie that united the opponents of Athens was found
in a common hostility to the imperial idea. It is a complete
misapprehension to regard the Peloponnesian War as a mere
duel between two rival claimants for empire. The ultimatum
presented by Sparta on the eve of the war demanded the restora-
tion of autonomy to the subjects of Athens. There is no reason
for doubting her sincerity in presenting it in this form. It would,
however, be an equal misapprehension to regard the war as
merely a struggle between the cause of empire and the cause of
autonomy. Corresponding to this fundamental contrast there
are other contrasts, constitutional, racial and military. The
military interest of the war is largely due to the fact that Athens
was a sea power and Sparta a land one. As the war went on,
the constitutional aspect tended to become more marked. At
first there were democracies on the side of Sparta, and oligarchies
on the side of Athens. In the last stage of the war, when
Lysander's influence was supreme, we see the forces of oligarchy
everywhere united and organized for the destruction of demo-
cracy. In its origin the war was certainly not due to the rivalry
of Dorian and Ionian. This racial, or tribal, contrast counted
for more in the politics of Sicily than of Greece; and, though
the two great branches of the Greek race were represented
respectively by the leaders of the two sides, the allies on neither
side belonged exclusively to the one branch or the other. Still,
it remains true that the Dorian states were, as a rule, on the
Spartan side, and the Ionian states, as a rule, on the Athenian
— a division of sentiment which must have helped to widen the
breach, and to intensify the animosities.
As a political experiment the Athenian empire possesses a
unique interest. It represents the first attempt to fuse the
principles of imperialism and democracy. It is at
once the first empire in history possessed and admini- **?
stered by a sovereign people, and the first which empire.
sought to establish a common system of democratic
institutions amongst its subjects. 1 It was an experiment that
failed, partly owing to the inherent strength of the oligarchic
cause, partly owing to the exclusive character of ancient citizen-
ship. The Athenians themselves recognized that their empire
depended for its existence upon the solidarity of democratic
interests (see Thuc. iii. 47; Pseudo-Xenophon, de Rep. Ath. i. 14,
iii. 10). An understanding existed between the democratic
leaders in the subject-states and the democratic party at Athens.
1 It has been denied by 9ome writers (e.g. by A. H. J. Greenidge )
that Athens interfered with the constitutions of the subject-states.
For the view put forward in the text, the following passages may
be quoted: Aristotle, Politics 1307 b 20; Isocrates, Paneeyricus,
105, 106, Panathenaicus, 54 and 68; Xenophon, Hellenica, hi. 4. 7;
Ps.-Xen. Aiken. Constit. i. 14, iii. 10.
xn. is
45°
GREECE
[HISTORY
Charges were easily trumped up against obnoxious oligarchs,
and conviction as easily obtained in the Athenian courts of
law. Such a system forced the oligarchs into an attitude of
opposition. How much this opposition counted for was realized
when the Sicilian disaster (413 B.C.) gave the subjects their chance
to revolt. The organization of the oligarchical party throughout
the empire, which was effected by Lysander in the last stage
of the war, contributed to the overthrow of Athenian ascendancy
hardly less than the subsidies of Persia. Had Athens aimed at
establishing a community of interest between herself and her
subjects, based upon a common citizenship, her empire might
have endured. It would have been a policy akin to that which
secured the permanence of the Roman empire. And it was a
policy which found advocates when the day for it was past (see
Aristophanes, Lysistrata, 574 ff.; cf. the grant of citizenship
to the Samians after Aegospotami, C.I. A. iv. 2, ib). But the
policy pursued by Athens in the plenitude of her power was the
reverse of the policy pursued by Rome in her treatment of the
franchise. It is hardly an exaggeration to say that the fate of the
empire was sealed by the law of Pericles (451 B.C.), by which the
franchise was restricted to those who could establish Athenian
descent on both sides. It was not merely that the process of
amalgamation through intermarriage was abruptly checked;
what was more serious was that a hard and fast line was drawn,
once and for all, between the small body of privileged rulers and
the great mass of unprivileged subjects. Maine (Early Institu-
tions, lecture 13) has classed the Athenian empire with those
of the familiar Oriental type, which attempt nothing beyond the
raising of taxes and the levying of troops. The Athenian empire
cannot, indeed, be classed with the Roman, or with the British
rule in India; it does not, therefore, deserve to be classed with
the empires of Cyrus or of Jenghiz Khan. Though the basis of
its organization, like that of the Persian empire under Darius,
was financial, it attempted, and secured, objects beyond the
mere payment of tribute and the supply of ships. If Athens did
not introduce a common religion, or a common system of educa-
tion, or a common citizenship, she did introduce a common type
of political institutions, and a common jurisdiction. 1 She went
some way, too, in the direction of establishing a common system
of coins, and of weights and measures. A common language
was there already. In a word, the Athenian empire marks a
definite stage of political evolution.
The other great political movement of the age was the progress
of democracy. Before the Persian invasion democracy was a
rare phenomenon in Greek politics. Where it was
found it existed in an undeveloped form, and its tenure
of power was precarious. By the beginning of the
cr«<y. Peloponnesian War it had become the prevalent form
of government. The great majority of Greek states had adopted
democratic constitutions. Both in the Athenian sphere of
influence and in the colonial world outside that sphere, demo-
cracy was all but the only form of constitution known. It was
only in Greece proper that oligarchy held its own. In the
Peloponnese it could count a majority of the states; in northern
Greece at least a half of them. The spread of democratic insti-
tutions was arrested by the victory of Sparta in the East, and
the rise of Dionysius in the West. There was a moment at the
end of the 5th century when it looked as if democracy was a lost
cause. Even Athens was for a brief period under the rule of
the Thirty (404-403 B.C.). In the regions which had formed
the empire of Athens the decarchies set up by Lysander were
soon overthrown, and democracies restored in most cases, but
oligarchy continued to be the prevalent form in Greece proper
until Leuctra (371 B.C.), and in Sicily tyranny had a still longer
tenure of power. By the end of the Great Age oligarchy has
almost disappeared from the Greek world, except in the sphere
of Persian influence. The Spartan monarchy still survives; a
few Peloponnesian states still maintain the rule of the few; here
1 The evidence seems to indicate that all the more important
criminal cases throughout the empire were tried in the Athenian
courts. In civil cases Athens secured to the citizens of the subject-
states the right of suing Athenian citizens, as well as citizens of other
subject-states.
The
and there in Greece itself we meet with a revival of the tyrannis;
but, with these exceptions, democracy is everywhere the only
type of constitution. And democracy has developed as well
as spread. At the end of the 5th century the constitution of
Cleisthenes, which was a democracy in the view of his contem-
poraries, had come to be regarded as an aristocracy (Aristot.
Ath. Pol. 29. 3). We can trace a similar change of sentiment
in Sicily. As compared with the extreme form of constitution
adopted at Syracuse after the defeat of the Athenian expedition,
the democracies established two generations earlier, on the fall
of the tyrannis, appeared oligarchical. The changes by which
the character of the Greek democracies was revolutionized were
four in number: the substitution of sortition for election, the
abolition of a property qualification, the payment of officials
and the rise of a class of professional politicians. In the demo-
cracy of Cleisthenes no payment was given for service, whether
as a magistrate, a juror or a member of the Boule. The higher
magistracies were filled by election, and they were held almost
exclusively by the members of the great Athenian families.
For the highest office of all, the archonship, none but Penta-
cosiomedimni (the first of the four Solonian classes) were eligible.
The introduction of pay and the removal of the property quali-
fication formed part of the reforms of Pericles. Sortition had been
instituted for election a generation earlier (487 B.C.). 1 What is
perhaps the most important of all these changes, the rise of the
demagogues, belongs to the era of the Peloponnesian War.
From the time of Cleisthenes to the outbreak of the war every
statesman of note at Athens, with the exception of Themistocles
(and, perhaps, of Ephialtes), is of aristocratic birth. Down to
the fall of Cimon the course of Athenian politics is to a great
extent determined by the alliances and antipathies of the great
clans. With the Peloponnesian War a new epoch begins. The
chief office, the strategia, is still, as a rule, held by men of rank.
But leadership in the Ecclesia has passed to men of a different
class. The demagogues were not necessarily poor men. Cleon
was a wealthy man; Eucrates, Lysicles and Hyperbolus were,
at any rate, tradesmen rather than artisans. The first " labour
member " proper is Cleophon (411-404 B.C.), a lyre-maker.
They belonged, however, not to the land-owning, but to the in-
dustrial classes; they were distinguished from the older race of
party-leaders by a vulgar accent, and by a violence of gesture
in public speaking, and they found their supporters among the
population of the city and its port, the Peiraeus, rather than
among the farmers of the country districts. In the 4th century
the demagogues, though under another name, that of orators,
have acquired entire control of the Ecclesia. It is an age of
professionalism, and the professional soldier has his counterpart
in the professional politician. Down to the death of Pericles
the party-leader had always held office as Strategus. His rival,
Thucydides, son of Melesias, forms a solitary exception to this
statement. In the 4th century the divorce between the general
and the statesman is complete. The generals are professional
soldiers, who aspire to no political influence in the state, and the
statesmen devote themselves exclusively to politics, a career
for which they have prepared themselves by a professional
training in oratory or administrative work. The ruin of agri-
culture during the war had reduced the old families to insigni-
ficance. Birth counts for less than nothing as a political asset
in the age of Demosthenes.
But great as are the contrasts which have been pointed
out between the earlier and the later democracy, those that
distinguish the ancient conception of democracy from
the modern are of a still more essential nature. The
differences that distinguish the democracies of ancient
Greece from those of the modern world have their origin,
to a great extent, in the difference between a city-state
and a nation-state. Many of the most famous Greek states
1 After this date, and partly in consequence of the change, the
archonship, to which sortition was applied, loses its importance.
The strategi (generals) become the chief executive officials. As elec-
tion was never replaced by the lot in their case, the change had less
Eractical meaning than might appear at first sight. (See Arc HON ,
TRATEGUS.) _.
Thedty-
HISTORY]
GREECE
45i
had an area of a few square miles; the largest of them was no
larger than an English county. Political theory put the limit
of the citizen-body at 10,000. Though this number was exceeded
in a few cases, it is doubtful if any state, except Athens, ever
counted more than 20,000 citizens. In the nation-states of
modern times, democratic government is possible only under the
form of a representative system; in the city-state representative
government was unnecessary, and therefore unknown. In the
ancient type of democracy a popular chamber has no existence.
The Ecclesia is not a chamber in any sense of the term; it is an
assembly of the whole people, which every citizen is entitled
to attend, and in which every one is equally entitled to vote and
speak. The question raised in modern political science, as to
whether sovereignty resides in the electors or their representatives,
has thus neither place nor meaning in ancient theory. In the
same way, one of the most familiar results of modern analysis,
the distinction between the executive and the legislative, finds
no recognition in the Greek writers. In a direct system of
government there can be no executive in the proper sense.
Executive functions are discharged by the ecclesia, to whose
decision the details of administration may be referred. The
position of the strategi, the chief officials in the Athenian
democracy of the 5th century, was in no sense comparable to
that of a modern cabinet. Hence the individual citizen in an
ancient democracy was concerned in, and responsible for, the
actual work of government to a degree that is inconceivable in
a modern state. Thus participation in the administrative and
judicial business of the state is made by Aristotle the differentia
of the citizen GroAirrp kxniv 6 ixerkx<av KpLrecas ical &/>x*?$,
Aristot. Politics , p. 1275 a 20). A large proportion of the citizens
of Athens, in addition to frequent service in the courts of law,
must in the course of their lives have held a magistracy, great
or small, or have acted for a year or two as members of the
Boule. 1 It must be remembered that there was nothing corre-
sponding to a permanent civil service in the ancient state.
Much of the work of a government office would have been
transacted by the Athenian Boule. It must be remembered,
too, that political and administrative questions of great import-
ance came before the popular courts of law. Hence it follows
that the ordinary citizen of an ancient democracy, in the course
of his service in the Boule" or the law-courts, acquired an interest
in political questions, and a grasp of administrative work, which
none but a select few can hope to acquire under the conditions
of the modern system. Where there existed neither a popular
chamber nor a distinct executive, there was no opportunity for
the growth of a party-system. There were, of course, political
parties at Athens and elsewhere — oligarchs and democrats,
conservatives and radicals, a peace-party and a war-party,
according to the burning question of the day. There was,
however, nothing equivalent to a general election, to a cabinet
(or to that collective responsibility which is of the essence of a
cabinet), or to the government and the opposition. Party
organization, therefore, and a party system, in the proper sense,
were never developed. Whatever may have been the evils
incident to the ancient form of democracy, the " boss," the
caucus and the spoils-system were not among them.
Besides these differences, which, directly or indirectly, result
from the difference of scale, there are others, hardly less profound,
which are not connected with the size of the city-state. Perhaps
the most striking contrast between the democracies of ancient
and of modern times is to be found in their attitude towards
privilege. Ancient democracy implies privilege; modern
democracy implies its destruction. In the more fully developed
democracies of the modern world (e.g. in the United States, or in
Australia), the privilege of class is unknown; in some of them
(e.g. New Zealand, Australia, Norway) even the privilege of
sex has been abolished. Ancient democracy was bound up with
privilege as much as oligarchy was. The transition from the
latter to the former was effected by enlarging the area of privilege
and by altering its basis. In an oligarchical state citizenship
1 For an estimate of the numbers annually engaged in the service
of Athens, see Aristot. Ath. Pol. 24. 3.
might be confined to 10 % of the free population; under a
democracy 50 % might enjoy it. In the former case the qualifica-
tion might be wealth or land; in the latter case it might be,
as it was at Athens, birth, i.e. descent, on both sides, from a
citizen family. But, in both cases alike, the distinction between
a privileged and an unprivileged body of free-born residents
is fundamental. To the unprivileged class belonged, not only
foreigners temporarily resident (l&voi) and aliens permanently
domiciled (tikroucoi), but also those native-born inhabitants of
the state who were of foreign extraction, on one side or the
other. 2 The privileges attaching to citizenship included, in
addition to eligibility for office and a vote in the assembly, such
private rights as that of owning land or a house, or of contracting
a marriage with one of citizen status. The citizen, too, was
alone the recipient of all the various forms of pay (e.g. for attend-
ance in the assembly, for service in the Boule or the law-courts,
or for the celebration of the great festivals) which are so con-
spicuous a feature in the developed democracy of the 4th century.
The metoeci could not even plead in a court of law in person,
but only through a patron (wpwrr Atijs). It is intelligible that
privileges so great should be jealously guarded. In the demo-
cracies of the modern world naturalization is easy; in those
of ancient Greece admission to the franchise was rarely accorded.
In modern times, again,we are accustomed to connect democracy
with the emancipation of women. It is true that only
a few democratic constitutions grant them the suffrage; of *
but though, as a rule, they are denied public rights, women.
the growth of popular government has been almost
everywhere accompanied by an extension of their private rights,
and by the removal of the restrictions imposed by law, custom
or public opinion upon their freedom of action. In ancient
Greece the democracies were as illiberal in their policy as the
oligarchies. Women of the respectable class were condemned
to comparative seclusion. They enjoyed far less freedom in
4th-century Athens than in the Homeric Age. It is not in any
of the democracies, but in conservative Sparta, that they
possess privilege and exercise influence.
The most fundamental of all the contrasts between democracy
in its ancient and in its modern form remains to be stated.
The ancient state was inseparable from slavery. In
this respect there was no difference between democracy
and the other forms of government. No inconsistency was felt,
therefore, between this institution and the democratic principle.
Modern political theory has been profoundly affected by the
conception of the dignity of labour; ancient political theory
tended to regard labour as a disqualification for the exercise
of political rights. Where slavery exists, the taint of it will
inevitably cling to all labour that can be performed by the
slave. In ancient Athens (which may be taken as typical of
the Greek democracies) unskilled labour was almost entirely
slave-labour, and skilled labour was largely so. The arts and
crafts were, to some extent, exercised by citizens, but to a less
extent in the 4th than in the 6th century. They were, however,
chiefly left to aliens or slaves. The citizen-body of Athens in
the age of Demosthenes has been stigmatized as consisting in
great measure of salaried paupers. There is, doubtless, an
exaggeration in this. It is, however, true, both that the system
of state-pay went a long way towards supplying the simple wants
of a southern population, and that a large proportion of the
citizens had time to spare for the service of the state. Had the
life of the lower class of citizens been absorbed in a round of
mechanical labours, as fully as is the life of our industrial classes,
the working of an ancient democracy would have been impossible.
In justice to the ancient democracies it must be conceded that,
while popular government carried with it neither the enfranchise-
ment of the alien nor the emancipation of the slave, the rights
secured to both classes were more considerable in the democratic
states than elsewhere. The lot of the slave, as well as that of the
alien, was a peculiarly favourable one at Athens. The pseudo-
Xenophon in the 5th century (De rep. Ath. 1. 10-12) and Plato
' Foreign is not used here as equivalent to non- Hellenic. It means
" belonging to another state, whether Greek or barbarian."
Slavery*
452
GREECE
[HISTORY
in the 4th (Republic, p. 563 b), prove that the spirit of liberty,
with which Athenian life was permeated, was not without its
influence upon the position of these classes. When we read that
critics complained of the opulence of slaves, and of the liberties
they took, and when we are told that the slave could not be
distinguished from the poorer class of citizens either by his dress
or his look, we begin to realize the difference between the slavery
of ancient Athens and the system as it was worked on the Roman
latifundia or the plantations of the New World.
It had been anticipated that the fall of Athens would mean
the triumph of the principle of autonomy. If Athens had
surrendered within a year or so of the Sicilian catas-
SolrtMa * ro P ne > thfe anticipation would probably have been
emptn. fulfilled. It was the last phase of the struggle (412-
404 B.C.) that rendered a Spartan empire inevitable.
The oligarchical governments established by Lysander recognized
that their tenure of power was dependent upon Spartan support,
while Lysander himself, to whose genius, as a political organizer
not less than as a commander, the triumph of Sparta was due,
was unwilling to see his work undone. The Athenian empire
had never included the greater part of Greece proper; since
the Thirty Years' Peace its possessions on the mainland, outside
the boundaries of Attica, were limited to Naupactus and Plataea.
Sparta, on the other hand, attempted the control of the entire
Greek world east of the Adriatic. Athens had been compelled
to acknowledge a dual system; Sparta sought to establish
uniformity. The attempt failed from the first. Within a year
of the surrender of Athens, Thebes and Corinth had drifted into
an attitude of opposition, while Argos remained hostile. It was
not long before the policy of Lysander succeeded in uniting
against Sparta the very forces upon which she had relied when
she entered on the Peloponnesian War. The Corinthian War
(304-387 B.C.) was brought about by the alliance of all the second-
class powers — Thebes, Athens, Corinth, Argos — against the one
first-class power, Sparta. Though Sparta emerged successful
from the war, it was with the loss of her maritime empire, and
at the cost of recognizing the principle of autonomy as the basis
of the Greek political system. It was already evident, thus
early in the century, that the centrifugal forces were to prove
stronger than the centripetal. Two further causes may be
indicated which help to explain the failure of the Spartan
empire. In the first place Spartan sea-power was an artificial
creation. History seems to show that it is idle for a state to
aspire to naval supremacy unless it possesses a great commercial
marine. Athens had possessed such a marine; her naval
supremacy was due not to the mere size of her fleet, but to the
numbers and skill of her seafaring population. Sparta had no
commerce. She could build fleets more easily than she could
man them. A single defeat (at Cnidus, 391 B.C.) sufficed for
the ruin of her sea-power. The second cause is to be found in the
financial weakness of the Spartan state. The Spartan treasury
had been temporarily enriched by the spoils of the Peloponnesian
War, but neither during that war, nor afterwards, did Sparta
succeed in developing any scientific financial system. Athens
was the only state which either possessed a large annual revenue
or accumulated a considerable reserve. Under the conditions
of Greek warfare, fleets were more expensive than armies. Not
only was money needed for the building and maintenance of the
ships, but the sailor must be paid, while the soldier served for
nothing. Hence the power with the longest purse could both
build the largest fleet and attract the most skilful seamen.
The battle of Leuctra transferred the hegemony from Sparta
to Thebes, but the attempt to unite Greece under the leadership
of Thebes was from the first doomed to failure. The
conditions were less favourable to Thebes than they
had been to Athens or Sparta. Thebes was even more
exclusively a land-power than Sparta. She had no
revenue comparable to that of Athens in the preceding century.
Unlike Athens and Sparta, she had not the advantage of being
identified with a political cause. As the enemy of Athens in the
5th century, she was on the side of oligarchy; as the rival of
Sparta in the 4th, she was on the side of democracy; but in her
momjr.
bid for primacy she could not appeal, as Athens and Sparta
could, to a great political tradition, nor had she behind her,
as they had, the moral force of a great political principle. Her
position, too, in Boeotia itself was insecure. The rise of Athens
was in great measure the result of the synoecism (avpoucurfM)
of Attica. All inhabitants of Attica were Athenians. But
" Boeotian " and " Theban " were not synonymous terms. The
Boeotian league was an imperfect form of union, as compared
with the Athenian state, and the claim of Thebes to the presi-
dency of the league was, at best, sullenly acquiesced in by the
other towns. The destruction of some of the most famous of
the Boeotian cities, however necessary it may have been in order
to unite the country, was a measure which at once impaired the
resources of Thebes and outraged Greek sentiment. It has been
often held that the failure of Theban policy was due to the death
of Epaminondas (at the battle of Mantinea, 362 B.C.). For this
view there is no justification. His policy had proved a failure
before his death. Where it harmonized with the spirit of the
age, the spirit of dissidence, it succeeded; where it attempted
to run counter to it, it failed. It succeeded in destroying the
supremacy of Sparta in the Peloponnese; it failed to unite the
Peloponnese on a new basis. It failed still more signally to unite
Greece north of the Isthmus. It left Greece weaker and more
divided than it found it (see the concluding words of Xenophon's
Hellenics). It would be difficult to overestimate the importance
of his policy as a destructive force; as a constructive force it
effected nothing. 1 The Peloponnesian system which Epami-
nondas overthrew had lasted two hundred years. Under
Spartan leadership the Peloponnese had enjoyed almost complete
immunity from invasion and comparative immunity from
stasis (faction). The claim that Isocrates makes for Sparta is
probably well-founded (Arckidamus, 64-69; during the period
of Spartan ascendency the Peloponnesians were ctfcu/ioi&rarot
to>v % EXkT}vuv). Peloponnesian sentiment had been one of the
chief factors in Greek politics; to it, indeed, in no small degree
was due the victory over Persia. The Theban victory at Leuctra
destroyed the unity, and with it the peace and the prosperity,
of the Peloponnese. It inaugurated a period of misery, the
natural result of stasis and invasion, to which no parallel can
be found in the earlier history (See Isocrates, Arckidamus, 65,
66; the Peloponnesians were cb/iaXur/utWH rats avfifopais). It
destroyed, too, the Peloponnesian sentiment of hostility to the
invader. The bulk of the army that defeated Mardonius at
Plataea came from the Peloponnese; at Chaeronea no Pelopon-
nesian state was represented.
The question remains, Why did the city-state fail to save
Greece from conquest by Macedon? Was this result due to the
inherent weakness either of the city-state itself, or of
one particular form of it, democracy?. It is clear, in The rise
any case, that the triumph of Macedon was the effect Macedoa.
of causes which had long been at work. If neither
Philip nor Alexander had appeared on the scene, Greece might
have maintained her independence for another generation or
two; but, when invasion came, it would have found her weaker
and more distracted, and the conquerors might easily have been
less imbued with the Greek spirit, and less sympathetic towards
Greek ideals, than the great Macedonian and his son. These
causes are to be found in the tendencies of the age, political,
economic and moral. Of the two movements which characterized
the Great Age in its political aspect, the imperial and the
democratic, the one failed and the other succeeded. The failure
and the success were equally fatal to the chances of Greece in
the conflict with Macedon. By the middle of the 4th century
Greek politics had come to be dominated by the theory of the
balance of power. This theory, enunciated in its coarsest form
by Demosthenes (Pro Mcgalopolit. 4 avfj^kpH r£ iroXet teal
AaKeSatfiovlovs toBevels dvai kqJL 6i}/3aious; cf. in Aristocrat.
102, 103), had shaped the foreign policy of Athens since the end
of the Peloponnesian War. As long as Sparta was the stronger,
Athens inclined to a Theban alliance; after Leuctra she tended
in the direction of a Spartan one. At the epoch of Philip's
1 It failed even to create a united Arcadia or a strong Messenia.
HISTORY]
GREECE
453
accession the forces were everywhere nicely balanced. The
Peloponnese was fairly equally divided between the Theban and
the Spartan interests, and central Greece was similarly divided
between the Theban and the Athenian. Farther north we get
an Athenian party opposed to an Olynthian in Chalcidice, and
a republican party, dependent upon the support of Thebes,,
opposed to that of the tyrants in Thessaly. It is easy to see that
the political conditions of Greece, both in the north and in the
south, invited interference from without. And the triumph of
democracy in its extreme form was ruinous to the military
efficiency of Greece. On the one side there was a monarchical
state, in which all powers, civil as well as military, were concen-
trated in the hands of a single ruler; on the other, a constitutional
system, in which a complete separation had been effected between
the responsibility of the statesman and that of the commander. 1
It could not be doubtful with which side victory would rest.
Meanwhile, the economic conditions were steadily growing worse.
The cause which Aristotle assigns for the decay of the Spartan
state — a declining population (see Politics , p. 1270 a foruXero
1) iroAts t&v Aaioed at fjLovlojv 5tA rifv b\vyaydpomlfaf) — might be
extended to the Greek world generally. The loss of population
was partly the result of war and stasis — Isocrates speaks of the
number of political exiles from the various states as enormous 2 —
but it was also due to a declining birth-rate, and to the exposure
of infants. Aristotle, while condemning exposure, sanctions the
procuring of abortion {Politics, 1335 b). It is probable that
both ante-natal and post-natal infanticide were rife everywhere,
except among the more backward communities. A people
which has condemned itself to racial suicide can have little
chance when pitted against a nation in which healthier instincts
prevail. The materials for forming a trustworthy estimate of
the population of Greece at any given epoch are not available;
there is enough evidence, however, to prove that the military
population of the leading Greek states at the era of the battle
of Chaeronea (338 B.C.) fell far short of what it had been at the
beginning of the Peloponnesian War. The decline in population
had been accompanied by a decline in wealth, both public and
private; and while revenues had shrunk, expenditure had
grown. It was a century of warfare; and warfare had become
enormously more expensive, partly through the increased em-
ployment of mercenaries, partly through the enhanced cost of
material. The power of the purse had made itself felt even in
the 5th century; Persian gold had helped to decide the issue
of the great war. In the politics of the 4th century the power
of the purse becomes the determining factor. The public
finance of the ancient world was singularly simple in character,
and the expedients for raising a revenue were comparatively few.
The distinction between direct and indirect taxation was recog-
nized in practice, but states as a rule were reluctant to submit
to the former system. The revenue of Athens in the 5th century
was mainly derived from the tribute paid by her subjects; it
was only in time of war that a direct tax was levied upon the
citizen-body. 3 In the age of Demosthenes the revenue derived
from the Athenian Confederacy was insignificant. The whole
burden of the expenses of a war fell upon the 1200 richest
citizens, who were subject to direct taxation in the dual form of
the Trier arcky and the Eisphora (property-tax). The revenue
thus raised was wholly insufficient for an effort on a great scale;
yet the revenues of Athens at this period must have exceeded
those of any other state.
It is to moral causes, however, rather than to political or
economic ones, that the failure of Greece in the conflict with
Macedon is attributed by the most famous Greek statesmen
of that age. Demosthenes is never weary of insisting upon the
decay of patriotism among the citizens and upon the decay
of probity among their leaders. Venality had always been
the besetting sin of Greek statesmen. Pericles' boast as to his
1 See Demosthenes, On the Crown, 235. Philip was afoofcpdrap,
fanr^rip, fjycfi&v, xipios irbyrw.
2 See Archidamus, 68; Philippus, 96, &<rrt fifov eJpat, av<rrrj<rai
(rrpaT&reSov pti{ov nai Kpeirrov Ik rtav v\avwp>kvo}v fj fcc r&v ToXtTtvo/jLkvtav.
» The Liturgies (e.g. the trierarchy) had much the same effect as
a direct tax levied upon the wealthiest citizens.
own incorruptibility (Thuc. ii. 60) is significant as to the reputa-
tion of his contemporaries. In the age of Demosthenes the level of
public life in this respect had sunk at least as low as that which
prevails in many states of the modern world (see Demosth. On the
Crown, 61 icapa rots "EXkrpw, ob tutIp d\X' fa-curt? 6/iotas <popdi
wpoboT&v Kal b\apod6Ktav awkfri; cf. §§ 295, 296). Corruption was
certainly not confined to the Macedonian party. The best that
can be said in defence of the patriots, as well as of their opponents,
is that they honestly believed that the policy which they were
bribed to advocate was the best for their country's interests.
The evidence for the general decay of patriotism among the mass
of the citizens is less conclusive. The battle of Megalopolis
(331 B.C.), in which the Spartan soldiery " went down in a blaze
of glory," proves that the spirit of the Lacedemonian state
remained unchanged. But at Athens it seemed to contemporary
observers — to Isocrates equally with Demosthenes — that the
spirit of the great days was extinct (see Isocr. On the Peace,
47, 48). It cannot, of course, be denied that public opinion was
obstinately opposed to the diversion of the Theoric Fund to the
purposes of the war with Philip. It was not till the year before
Chaeronea that Demosthenes succeeded in persuading the
assembly to devote the entire surplus to the expenses of the war. 4
Nor can it be denied that mercenaries were far more largely
employed in the 4th century than in the 5th. In justice, however,
to the Athenians of the Demosthenic era, it should be remembered
that the burden of direct taxation was rarely imposed, and was
reluctantly endured, in the previous century. It must also be
remembered that, even in the 4th century, the Athenian citizen
was ready to take the field, provided that it was not a question
of a distant expedition or of prolonged service. 6 For distant
expeditions, or for prolonged service, a citizen-militia is unsuited.
The substitution of a professional force for an unprofessional
one is to be explained, partly by the change in the character of
Greek warfare, and partly by the operation of the laws of supply
and demand. There had been a time when warfare meant a
brief campaign in the summer months against a neighbouring
state. It had come to mean prolonged operations against a
distant enemy. 6 Athens was at war, e.g. with Philip, for eleven
years continuously (357-346 B.C.). If winter campaigns in
Thrace were unpopular at this epoch, they had been hardly
less unpopular in the epoch of the Peloponnesian War. In the
days of her greatness, too, Athens had freely employed mer-
cenaries, but it was in the navy rather than the army. In the
age of Pericles the supply of mercenary rowers was abundant,
the supply of mercenary troops inconsiderable. In the age of
Demosthenes incessant warfare and ceaseless revolution had
filled Greece with crowds of homeless adventurers. The supply
helped to create the demand. The mercenary was as cheap as
the citizen-soldier, and much more effective. On the whole,
then, it may be inferred that it is a mistake to regard the preval-
ence of the mercenary system as the expression of a declining
patriotism. It would be nearer the mark to treat the transition
from the voluntary to the professional system as cause rather
than effect: as one among the causes which contributed to the
decay of public spirit in the Greek world.
6. From Alexander to the Roman Conquest {336-146 B.C.). — In
the history of Greece proper during this period the interest is
mainly constitutional. It may be called the age of
federation. Federation, indeed, was no novelty in 2var»!
Greece. Federal unions had existed in Thessaly, in mea u
Boeotia and elsewhere, and the Boeotian league can be
traced back at least to the 6th century. Two newly-founded
federations, the Chalcidian and the Arcadian, play no inconsider-
able part in the politics of the 4th century. But it is not till the
3rd century that federation attains to its full development in
Greece, and becomes the normal type of polity. The two great
4 His extreme caution in approaching the question at an earlier
date is to be noticed. See, e.g., Olynthiacs, i. 19, 20.
* e.g. the two expeditions sent to Euboea, the cavalry force that
took part in the battle of Mantinea, and the army that fought at
Chaeronea. The troops in all these cases were citizens.
• For the altered character of warfare see Demosthenes, Philippics,
iii. 48, 49.
454
GREECE
leagues of this period are the Aetolian and the Achaean. Both
had existed in the 4th century, but the latter, which had been
dissolved shortly before the beginning of the 3rd century,
becomes important only after its restoration in 280 B.C., about
which date the former, too, first begins to attract notice. The
interest of federalism lies in the fact that it marks an advance
beyond the conception of the city-state. It is an attempt to
solve the problem which the Athenian empire failed to solve, the
reconciliation of the claims of local autonomy with those of
national union. The federal leagues of the 3rd century possess
a further interest for the modern world, in that there can be
traced in their constitutions a nearer approach to a representative
system than is found elsewhere in Greek experience. A genuine
representative system, it is true, was never developed in any
Greek polity. What we find in the leagues is a sort of compromise
between the principle of a primary assembly and the principle
of a representative chamber. In both leagues the nominal
sovereign was a primary assembly, in which every individual
citizen had the right to vote. In both of them, however, the
real power lay with a council (/SouX^) composed of members
representative of each of the component states. 1
The real interest of this period, however, is to be looked for
elsewhere than in Greece itself. Alexander's career is one of the
turning-points in history. He is one of the few to
Ah d'r' wnom it has been given to modify the whole future
empire. of the human race. He originated two forces which
have profoundly affected the development of civiliza-
tion. He created Hellenism, and he created for the western
world the monarchical ideal. Greece had produced personal
rulers of ability, or even of genius; but to the greatest of these,
to Peisistratus, to Dionysius, even to Jason of Pherae, there
clung the fatal taint of illegitimacy. As yet no ruler had suc-
ceeded in making the person of the monarch respectable.
Alexander made it sacred. From him is derived, for the West,
that " divinity that doth hedge a king." And in creating
Hellenism he created, for the first time, a common type of
civilization, with a common language, literature and art, as
well as a common form of political organization. In Asia Minor
he was content to reinforce the existing Hellenic elements
(cf. the case of Side, Arrian, Anabasis , i. 26. 4). In the rest of
the East his instrument of hellenization was the polls. He is
said to have founded no less than seventy cities, destined to
become centres of Greek influence; and the great majority
of these were in lands in which city-life was almost unknown.
In this respect his example was emulated by his successors. The
eastern provinces were soon lost, though Greek influences
lingered on even in Bactria and across the Indus. It was only
the regions lying to the west of the Euphrates that were
effectively hellenized, and the permanence of this result was
largely due to the policy of Rome. But after all deductions have
been made, the great fact remains that for many centuries after
Alexander's death Greek was the language of literature and
religion, of commerce and of administration throughout the
Nearer East. Alexander had created a universal empire as well
as a universal culture. His empire perished at his death, but
its central idea survived — that of the municipal freedom of the
Greek polls within the framework of an imperial system. Hellen-
istic civilization may appear degenerate when compared with
Hellenic; when compared with the civilizations which it super-
seded in non-Hellenic lands, it marks an unquestionable advance.
(For the history of Greek civilization in the East, see Hellenism.)
Greece left her mark upon the civilization of the West as well
as upon that of the East, but the process by which her influence
was diffused was essentially different. In the East Hellenism
came in the train of the conqueror, and Rome was content to
build upon the foundations laid by Alexander. In the West
Greek influences were diffused by the Roman conquest of Greece.
It was through the ascendancy which Greek literature, philosophy
and art acquired over the Roman mind that Greek culture
penetrated to the nations of western Europe. The civilization
1 It is known that the councillors were appointed by the states
in the Aetolian league ; it is only surmised in the case of the Achaean.
[HISTORY
of the East remained Greek. The civilization of the West
became and remained Latin, but it was a Latin civilization that
was saturated with Greek influences. The ultimate division,
both of the empire and the church, into two halves, finds its
explanation in this original difference of culture.
* Ancient Authorities. — (I.) For the earliest periods of Greek
history, the so-called Minoan and Mycenaean, the evidence is
purely archaeological. It is sufficient here to refer to the article
Aegean Civilization. For the next period, the Heroic or
Homeric Age, the evidence is derived from the poems of Homer.
In any estimate of the value of these poems as historical evidence,
much will depend upon the view taken of the authorship, age
and unity of the poems. For a full discussion of these questions
see Homer. It cannot be questioned that the poems are evidence
for the existence of a period in the history of the Greek race,
which differed from later periods in political and social, military
and economic conditions. But here agreement ends. If, as is
generally held by German critics, the poems are not earlier than
the 9th century, if they contain large interpolations of con-
siderably later date and if they are Ionian in origin, the authority
of the poems becomes comparatively slight. The existence of
different strata in the poems will imply the existence of incon-
sistencies and contradictions in the evidence; nor will the
evidence be that of a contemporary. It will also follow that the
picture of the heroic age contained in the poems is an idealized
one. The more extreme critics, e.g. Beloch, deny that the poems
are evidence even for the existence of a pre-Dorian epoch. If,
on the other hand, the poems are assigned to the nth or 12th
century, to a Peloponnesian writer, and to a period anterior to
the Dorian Invasion and the colonization of Asia Minor (this
is the view of the late Dr D. B. Munro), the evidence becomes
that of a contemporary, and the authority of the poems for the
distribution of races and tribes in the Heroic Age, as well as for
the social and political conditions of the poet's time, would be
conclusive. Homer recognizes no Dorians in Greece, except in
Crete (see Odyssey, xix. 177), and no Greek colonies in Asia
Minor. Only two explanations are possible. Either there is
deliberate archaism in the poems, or else they are earlier in date
than the Dorian Invasion and the colonization of Asia Minor.
II. For the period that extends from the end of the Heroic
Age to the end of the Peloponnesian War 2 the two principal
authorities are Herodotus and Thucydides. Not only gf eroaota8
have the other historical works which treated of this
period perished (those at least whose date is earlier than
the Christian era), but their authority was secondary and
their material chiefly derived from these two writers. In one
respect then this period of Greek history stands alone. Indeed,
it might be said, with hardly an exaggeration, that there is
nothing like it elsewhere in history. Almost our sole authorities
are two writers of unique genius, and they are writers whose
works have come down to us intact. For the period which ends
with the repulse of the Persian invasion our authority is Hero-
dotus. For the period which extends from 478 to 411 we are
dependent upon Thucydides'. In each case, however, a distinc-
tion must be drawn. The Persian Wars form the proper subject
of Herodotus's work; the Peloponnesian War is the subject of
Thucydides. The 1 interval between the two wars is merely
sketched by Thucydides; while of the period anterior to the
conflicts of the Greek with the Persian, Herodotus does not
attempt either a complete or a continuous narrative. His
references to it are episodical and accidental. Hence our know-
ledge of the Persian Wars and of the Peloponnesian War is
widely different in character from our knowledge of the rest of
this period. In the history of these wars the lacunae are few;
in the rest of the history they are alike frequent and serious. In
the history, therefore, of the Persian and Peloponnesian Wars
little is to be learnt from the secondary sources. Elsewhere,
especially in the interval between the two wars, they become
relatively important.
In estimating the authority of Herodotus (q.v.) we must be
'Strictly speaking, to 411 B.C. For the last seven years of the
war our principal authority is Xenophon, Hellenica, i., li.
HISTORYJ
GREECE
455
careful to distinguish between the invasion of Xerxes and all
that is earlier. Herodotus's work was published soon after
430 B.C., i.e. about half a century after the invasion. Much of his
information was gathered in the course of the preceding twenty
years. Although his evidence is not that of an eye-witness, he
had had opportunities of meeting those who had themselves
played a part in the war, on one side or the other (e.g. Thersander
of Orchomenos, ix. 16). In any case, we are dealing with a
tradition which is little more than a generation old, and the
events to which the tradition relates, the incidents of the struggle
against Xerxes, were of a nature to impress themselves indelibly
upon the minds of contemporaries. Where, on the other hand,
he is treating of the period anterior to the invasion of Xerxes,
he is dependent upon a tradition which is never less than two
generations old, and is sometimes centuries old. His informants
were, at best, the sons or grandsons of the actors in the wars
(e.g. Archias the Spartan, ill. 55). Moreover, the invasion of
Xerxes, entailing, as it did, the destruction of cities and sanctu-
aries, especially of Athens and its temples, marks a dividing
line in Greek history. It was not merely that evidence perished
and records were destroyed. What in reference to tradition is
even more important, a new consciousness of power was awakened,
new interests were aroused, and new questions and problems
came to the front. The former things had passed away; all
things were become new. A generation that is occupied with
making history on a great scale is not likely to busy itself with
the history of the past. Consequently, the earlier traditions
became faint and obscured, and the history difficult to recon-
struct. As we trace back the conflict between Greece and
Persia to its beginnings and antecedents, we are conscious that
the tradition becomes less trustworthy as we pass back from
one stage to another. The tradition of the expedition of Datis
and Artaphernes is less credible in its details than that of the
expedition of Xerxes, but it is at once fuller and more credible
than the tradition of the Ionian revolt. When we get back to
the Scythian expedition, we can discover but few grains of
historical truth.
Much recent criticism of Herodotus has been directed against
his veracity as a traveller. With this we are not here concerned.
The criticism of him as an historian begins with Thucydides.
Among the references of the latter writer to his predecessor are
the following passages: i. 21; i. 22 ad fin.; i. 20 ad fin.
(cf. Herod, ix. 53, and vi. 57 ad fin.); iii. 62 § 4 (cf. Herod,
ix. 87); ii. 2 §§ 1 and 3 (cf. Herod, vii. 233); ii. 8 § 3 (cf. Herod,
vi. 98). Perhaps the two clearest examples of this criticism are
to be found in Thucydides* correction of Herodotus's account
of the Cylonian conspiracy (Thuc. i. 126, cf. Herod, v. 71) and
in his appreciation of the character of Themistocies — a veiled
protest against the slanderous tales accepted by Herodotus
(i. 138). In Plutarch's tract " On the Malignity of Herodotus "
there is much that is suggestive, although his general standpoint,
viz. that Herodotus was in duty bound to suppress all that was
discreditable to the valour or patriotism of the Greeks, is not
that of the modern critic. It must be conceded to Plutarch
that he makes good his charge of bias in Herodotus's attitude
towards certain of the Greek states. The question, however,
may fairly be asked, how far this bias is personal to the author,
or how far it is due to the character of the sources from which
his information was derived. He cannot, indeed, altogether be
acquitted of personal bias. His work is, to some extent, intended
as an apologia for the Athenian empire. In answer to the charge
that Athens was guilty of robbing other Greek states of their
freedom, Herodotus seeks to show, firstly, that it was to Athens
that the Greek world, as a whole, owed its freedom from Persia,
and secondly, that the subjects of Athens, the Ionian Greeks,
were unworthy to be free. This leads him to be unjust both
to the services of Sparta and to the qualities of the Ionian race.
For his estimate of the debt due to Athens see vii. 139. For
bias against the Ionians see especially iv. 142 (cf. Thuc. vi. 77);
cf. also i. 143 and 146, vi. 12-14 (Lade), vi. 112 ad fin. A
striking example of his prejudice in favour of Athens is furnished
by vi. 91. At a moment when Greece rang with the crime of
Athens in expelling the Aeginetans from their island, he ventures
to trace in their expulsion the vengeance of heaven for an act
of sacrilege nearly sixty years earlier (see Aegina). As a rule,
however, the bias apparent in his narrative is due to the sources
from which it is derived. Writing at Athens, in the first years
of the Peloponnesian War, he can hardly help seeing the past
through an Athenian medium. It was inevitable that much
of what he heard should come to him from Athenian informants,
and should be coloured by Athenian prejudices. We may thus
explain the leniency which he shows towards Argos and Thessaly,
the old allies of Athens, in marked contrast to his treatment of
Thebes, Corinth and Aegina, her deadliest foes. For Argos
cf. vii. 152; Thessaly, vii. 172-174; Thebes, vii. 132, vii. 233,
ix. 87; Corinth (especially the Corinthian general Adeimantus,
whose son Aristeus was the most active enemy of Athens at the
outbreak of the Peloponnesian War), vii. 5, vii. 21, viii. 29 and
61, vii. 94; Aegina, ix. 78-80 and 85. In his intimacy with
members of the great Alcmaeonid house we probably have the
explanation of his depreciation of the services of Themistocies, as
well as of his defence of the family from the charges brought
against it in connexion with Cylon and with the incident of the
shield shown on Pentelicus at the time of Marathon (v. 71, vi.
1 2 1- 1 24). His failure to do justice to the Cypselid tyrants of
Corinth (v. 92), and to the Spartan king Cleomenes, is to be
accounted for by the nature of his sources — in the former case,
the tradition of the Corinthian oligarchy; in the latter, accounts,
partly derived from the family of the exiled king Demaratus and
partly representative of the view of the ephorate. Much of the
earlier history is cast in a religious mould, e.g. the story of the
Mermnad kings of Lydia in book L, or of the fortunes of the
colony of Cyrene (iv. 145-167). In such cases we cannot fail
to recognize the influence of the Delphic priesthood. Grote
has pointed out that the moralizing tendency observable in
Herodotus is partly to be explained by the fact that much of his
information was gathered from priests and at temples, and that
it was given in explanation of votive offerings, or of the fulfilment
of oracles. Hence the determination of the sources of his narrative
has become one of the principal tasks of Herodo tean criticism . I n
addition to the current tradition of Athens, the family tradition
of the Alcmaeonidae, and the stories to be heard at Delphi and
other sanctuaries, there may be indicated the Spartan tradition,
in the form in which it existed in the middle of the 5th century;
that of his native Halicarnassus, to which is due the prominence
of its queen Artemisia; the traditions of the Ionian cities,
especially of Samos and Miletus (important both for the history
of the Mermnadae and for the Ionian Revolt) ; and those current
in Sicily and Magna Graecia, which were learned during his
residence at Thurii (Sybaris and Croton, v. 44, 45; Syracuse and
Gela, vii. 153-167). Among his more special sources we can
point to the descendants of Demaratus, who still held, at the
beginning of the 4th century, the principality in the Troad
which had been granted to their ancestor by Darius (Xen. Hell.
iii. 1. 6), and to the family of the Persian general Artabazus,
in which the satrapy of Dascylium (Phrygia) was hereditary in
the 5th century. 1 His use of written material is more difficult
to determine. It is generally agreed that the list of Persian
satrapies, with their respective assessments of tribute (iii. 89-97),
the description of the royal road from Sardis to Susa (v. 52-54),
and of the march of Xerxes, together with the list of the con-
tingents that took part in the expedition (vii. 26-131), are all
derived from documentary and authoritative sources. From
previous writers (e.g. Dionysius of Miletus, Hecataeus, Charon
of Lampsacus and Xanthus the Lydian) it is probable that he
has borrowed little, though the fragments are too scanty to
permit of adequate comparison. His references to monuments,
dedicatory offerings, inscriptions and oracles are frequent.
The chief defects of Herodotus are his failure too grasp the
principles of historical criticism, to understand the nature of
military operations, and to appreciate the importance of
1 Possibly some of his information about Persian affairs may have
been derived, at first or second hand .from Zopyrus,sonof Megabyzusi
whose flight to Athens is mentioned in iii. 160.
456
GREECE
[HISTORY
chronology. In place of historical criticism we find a crude
rationalism (e.g. ii. 45, vii. 129, viii. 8). Having no conception of
the distinction between occasion and cause, he is content to find
the explanation of great historical movements in trivial incidents
or personal motives. An example of this is furnished by his
account of the Ionian revolt, in which he fails to discover the
real causes either of the movement or of its result. Indeed, it
is clear that he regarded criticism as no part of his task as an
historian. In vii. 152 he states the principles which have guided
him — ky& 81 difreCku Xfcycw t& \ey6fxepa, ireiSeadal yt fxh ob
icambcKoai dfaiXu, Kai fioi tovto t6 hros kxjzrv hs iravra )<oyov.
In obedience to this principle he again and again gives two or
more versions of a story. We are thus frequently enabled to
arrive at the truth by a comparison of the discrepant traditions.
It would have been fortunate if all ancient writers who lacked
the critical genius of Thucydides had been content to adopt the
practice of Herodotus. His accounts of battles are always
unsatisfactory. The great battles, Marathon, Thermopylae,
Sal amis and Plataea, present a series of problems. This result
is partly due to the character of the traditions which he follows —
traditions which were to some extent inconsistent or contra-
dictory, and were derived from different sources; it is, however,
in great measure due to his inability to think out a strategical
combination or a tactical movement. It is not too much to say
that the battle of Plataea, as described by Herodotus, is wholly
unintelligible. Most serious of all his deficiencies is his careless
chronology. Even in the case of the 5th century, the data
which he affords are inadequate or ambiguous. The interval
between the Scythian expedition and the Ionian revolt is
described by so vague an expression as perk bk ob iroKKdv xpbvov
&v&ns kolk&v Ijv (v. 28). In the history of the revolt itself,
though he gives us the interval between its outbreak and the
fall of Miletus (Ikt<# h-ii, vi. 18), he does not give us the interval
between this and the battle of Lad€, nor does he indicate with
sufficient precision the years to which the successive phases of
the movement belong. Throughout the work professed syn-
chronisms too often prove to be mere literary devices for facilitat-
ing a transition from one subject to another (cf. e.g. v. 81 with
89, 90; or vi. 51 with 87 and 94). In the 6th century, as Grote
pointed out, a whole generation, or more, disappears in his
historical perspective (cf. i. 30, vi. 125, v. 94, iii. 47, 48,
v. 113 contrasted with v. 104 and iv. 162). The attempts to
reconstruct the chronology of this century upon the basis of the
data afforded by Herodotus (e.g. by Beloch, Rheinisches Museum,
xlv., 1890, pp. 465-473) have completely failed.
In spite of all such defects Herodotus is an author, not only
of unrivalled literary charm, but of the utmost value to the
historian. If much remains uncertain or obscure, even in the
history of the Persian Wars, it is chiefly to motives or policy,
to topography or strategy, to dates or numbers, that uncertainty
attaches. It is to these that a sober criticism will confine itself.
Thucydides is at once the father of contemporary history and
the father of historical criticism. From a comparison of i. 1,
i. 22 and v. 26, we may gather both the principles to
Me*? which he adhered in the composition of his work and
the conditions under which it was composed. It is
seldom that the circumstances of an historical writer have been
so favourable for the accomplishment of his task. Thucydides
was a contemporary of the Twenty-Seven Years' War in the
fullest sense of the term. He had reached manhood at its out-
break, and he survived its close by at least half-a-dozen years.
And he was more than a mere contemporary. As a man of high
birth, a member of the Periclean circle, and the holder of the
chief political office in the Athenian state, the strategic, he was
not only familiar with the business of administration and the
conduct of military operations, but he possessed in addition
a personal knowledge of those who played the principal part in
the political life of the age. His exile in the year 424 afforded
him opportunities of visiting the scenes of distant operations
(e.g. Sicily) and of coming in contact with the actors on the other
side. He himself tells us that he spared no pains to obtain the
best information available in each case. He also tells us that
he began collecting materials for his work from the very beginning
of the war. Indeed, it is probable that much of books i.-v. 24
was written soon after the Peace of Nicias (421), just as it is
possible that the history of the Sicilian Expedition (books vi.
and vii.) was originally intended to form a separate work. To
the view, however, which has obtained wide support in recent
years, that books i.-v. 22 and books vi. and vii. were separately
published, the rest of book v. and book viii. being little more than
a rough draught, composed after the author had adopted the
theory of a single war of twenty-seven years' duration, of which
the Sicilian Expedition and the operations of the years 431-421
formed integral parts, there seem to the present writer to be
insuperable objections. The work, as a whole, appears to have
been composed in the first years of the 4th century, after his
return from exile in 404, when the material already in existence
must have been revised and largely recast. There are exceed-
ingly few passages, such as iv. 48. 5, which appear to have been
overlooked in the process of revision. It can hardly be
questioned that the impression left upon the reader's mind is
that the point of view of the author, in all the books alike, is
that of one writing after the fall of Athens.
The task of historical criticism in the case of the Peloponnesian
War is widely different from its task in the case of the Persian
Wars. It has to deal, not with facts as they appear in the
traditions of an imaginative race, but with facts as they appeared
to a scientific observer. Facts, indeed, are seldom in dispute.
The question is rather whether facts of importance are omitted,
whether the explanation of causes is correct, or whether the
judgment of men and measures is just. Such inaccuracies as
have been brought home to Thucydides on the strength, e.g. of
epigraphic evidence, are, as a rule, trivial. His most serious
errors relate to topographical details, in cases where he was
dependent on the information of others. Sphacteria (see Pylos)
(see G. B. Grundy, Journal of Hellenic Studies, xvi., 1896, p. 1)
is a case in point. Nor have the difficulties connected with the
siege of Plataea been cleared up either by Grundy or by others
(see Grundy, Topography of the Battle of Plataea, &c, 1894).
Where, on the contrary, he is writing at first hand his descrip-
tions of sites are surprisingly correct. The most serious charge
as yet brought against his authority as to matters of fact relates
to his account of the Revolution of the Four Hundred, which
appears, at first sight, to be inconsistent with the documentary
evidence supplied by Aristotle's Constitution of Athens (q.v.). It
may be questioned, however, whether the documents have
been correctly interpreted by Aristotle. On the whole, it is
probable that the general course of events was such as Thucydides
describes (see E. Meyer, Forschungen, ii. 406-436), though he
failed to appreciate the position of Theramenes and the Moderate
party, and was clearly misinformed on some important points of
detail. With regard to the omission of facts, it is unquestionable
that much is omitted that would not be omitted by a modern
writer. Such omissions are generally due to the author's [con-
ception of his task. Thus the internal history of Athens is
passed over as forming no part of the history of the war. It
is only where the course of the war is directly affected by the
course of political events (e.g. by the Revolution of the Four
Hundred) that the internal history is referred to. However
much it may be regretted that the relations of political parties
are not more fully described, especially in book v., it cannot be
denied that from his standpoint there is logical justification
even for the omission of the ostracism of Hyperbolus. There
are omissions, however, which are not so easily explained.
Perhaps the most notable instance is that of the raising of the
tribute in 425 B.C. (see Delian League).
Nowhere is the contrast between the historical methods of
Herodotus and Thucydides more apparent than in the treatment
of the causes of events. The distinction between the occasion
and the cause is constantly present to the mind of Thucydides,
and it is his tendency to make too little rather than too much
of the personal factor. Sometimes, however, it may be doubted
whether his explanation of the causes of an event is adequate or
correct. In tracing the causes of the Peloponnesian War itself,
HISTORY]
GREECE
457
modern writers are disposed to allow more weight to the com-
mercial rivalry of Corinth; while in the case of the Sicilian
expedition, they would actually reverse his judgment (ii. 65 6 ks
Zuc&lav ffXofe & oto rocovrov yvo>^ijs kyAprqixa ty irp&s ©fls
kwiww). To us it seems that the very idea of the expedition
implied a gigantic miscalculation of the resources of Athens and of
the difficulty of the task. His judgments of men and of measures
have been criticized by writers of different schools and from
different points of view. Grote criticized his verdict upon Cleon,
while he accepted his estimate of the policy of Pericles. More
recent writers, on the other hand, have accepted his view of
Cleon, while they have selected for attack his appreciation alike
of the policy and the strategy of Pericles. He has been charged,
too, with failure to do justice to the statesmanship of Alcibiades. 1
There are cases, undoubtedly, in which the balance of recent
opinion will be adverse to the view of Thucydides. There are
many more in which the result of criticism has been to establish
his view. That he should occasionally have been mistaken in
his judgment and his views is certainly no detraction from his
claim to greatness.
On the whole, it may be said that while the criticism of
Herodotus, since Grote wrote, has tended seriously to modify
our view of the Persian Wars, as well as of the earlier history,
the criticism of Thucydides, in spite of its imposing bulk, has
affected but slightly our view of the course of the Peloponnesian
War. The labours of recent workers in this field have borne
most fruit where they have been directed to subjects neglected
by Thucydides, such as the history of political parties, or the
organization of the empire (G. Gilbert's Innere Geschichte Athens
im Zeitalter des pel. Krieges is a good example of such work).
In regard to Thucydides , treatment of the period between the
Persian and Peloponnesian Wars (the so-called Penteconta&eris)
it should be remembered that he does not profess to give, even
in outline, the history of this period as a whole. The period is
regarded simply as a prelude to the Peloponnesian War. There
is no attempt to sketch the history of the Greek world or of
Greece proper during this period. There is, indeed, no attempt
to give a complete sketch of Athenian history. His object is to
trace the growth of the Athenian Empire, and the causes that
made the war inevitable. Much is therefore omitted not only
in the history of the other Greek states, especially the Pelo-
ponnesian, but even in the history of Athens. Nor does Thucyd-
ides attempt an exact chronology. He gives us a few dates
(e.g. surrender of Ithome, in the tenth year, i. 103; of Thasos,
in the third year, i. 101; duration of the Egyptian expedition
six years, i. no; interval between Tanagra and Oenophyta
61 days, i. 108; revolt of Samos, in the sixth year after the
Thirty Years' Truce, i. 115), but from these data alone it would
be impossible to reconstruct the chronology of the period. In
spite of all that can be gleaned from our other authorities, our
knowledge of this, the true period of Athenian greatness, must
remain slight and imperfect as compared with our knowledge
of the next thirty years.
Of the secondary authorities for this period the two principal
ones are Diodorus (xi. 38 to xii. 37) and Plutarch. Diodorus
DhdontM * s °* va * ue chaffy in relation to Sicilian affairs, to which
he devotes about a third of this section of his work
and for which he is almost our sole authority. His source for
Sicilian history is the Sicilian writer Timaeus (q.v.), an author
of the 3rd century B.C. For the history of Greece Proper during
the Pentecontaetia Diodorus contributes comparatively little
of importance. Isolated notices of particular events (e.g. the
Synoecism of Elis, 471 B.C., or the foundation of Amphipolis,
437 B.C.), which appear to be derived from a chronological writer,
may generally be trusted. The greater part of his narrative
is, however, derived from Ephorus, who appears to have had
before him little authentic information for this period of Greek
history other than that afforded by Thucydides' work. Four of
Plutatch's Lives are concerned with this period, viz. Themistocles,
Aristides, Citnon and Pericles. From the Aristides little can
1 For a defence of Thucydides* judgment on all three statesmen,
see E. Meyer, Forschungen, ii. 296-379.
be gained. Plutarch, in this biography, appears to be mainly
dependent upon Idomeneus of Lampsacus, an excessively untrust-
worthy writer of the 3rd century B.C., who is probably plBtan:t
to be credited with the invention of the oligarchical
conspiracy at the time of the battle of Plataea (ch. 13), and of
the decree of Aristides, rendering all four classes of citizens
eligible for the archonship (ch. 22). The Cimon, on the other
hand, contains much that is valuable; such as, e.g. the account
of the battle of the Eurymedon (chs. 1 2 and 13). To the Pericles
we owe several quotations from the Old Comedy. Two other
of the Lives, Lycurgus and Solon, are amongst our most important
sources for the early history of Sparta and Athens respectively.
Of the two (besides Pericles) which relate to the Peloponnesian
War, Alcibiades adds little to what can be gained from Thucydides
and Xenophon; the Nkias, on the other hand, supplements
Thucydides* narrative of the Sicilian expedition with many
valuable details, which, it may safely be assumed, are derived
from the contemporary historian, Philistus of Syracuse.
Amongst the most valuable material afforded by Plutarch are
the quotations, which occur in almost all the Lives, from the
collection of Athenian decrees (\fa<l>uTn6.T<av away<ayri) formed
by the Macedonian writer Craterus, in the 3rd century B.C.
Two other works may be mentioned in connexion with the
history of Athens. For the history of the Athenian Constitution
down to the end of the 5th century B.C. Aristotle's
Constitution of Athens (q.v.) is our chief authority. gJ^Sou^
The other Constitution of Athens, erroneously attributed
to Xenophon, a tract of singular interest both on literary and
historical grounds, throws a good deal of light on the internal
condition of Athens, and on the system of government, both of
the state and of the empire, in the age of the Peloponnesian War,
during the earlier years of which it was composed.
To the literary sources for the history of Greece, especially of
Athens, in the 5th century B.C. must be added the epigraphic.
Few inscriptions have been discovered which date
back beyond the Persian Wars. For the latter half 'SoST
of the 5th century they are both numerous and im-
portant. Of especial value are the series of Quota-lists, from
which can be calculated the amount of tribute paid by the
subject-allies of Athens from the year 454 B.C. onwards. The
great majority of the inscriptions of this period are of Athenian
origin. Their value is enhanced by the fact that they relate, as
a rule, to questions of organization, finance and administration,
as to which little information is to be gained from the literary
sources.
For the period between the Persian and Peloponnesian Wars
Busolt, Griechische Geschichte, iii. 1, is indispensable. Hill's
Sources of Greek History, b.c. 478-431 (Oxford, 1897) is excellent.
It gives the most important inscriptions in a convenient form.
III. The/fihCentury tothe Death of Alexander.— Of the historians
who flourished in the 4th century the sole writer whose works
have come down to us is Xenophon. It is a singular X eaoaboa.
accident of fortune that neither of the two authors,
who at once were most representative of their age and did most
to determine the views of Greek history current in subsequent
generations, Ephorus (q.v.) and Theopompus (q.v.), should be
extant. It was from them, rather than from Herodotus, Thucyd-
ides or Xenophon that the Roman world obtained its knowledge
of the history of Greece in the past, and its conception of its
significance. Both were pupils of Isocrates, and both, therefore,
bred up in an atmosphere of rhetoric. Hence their popularity
and their influence. The scientific spirit of Thucydides was alien
to the temper of the 4th century, and hardly more congenial to
the age of Cicero or Tacitus. To the rhetorical spirit, which is
common to both, each added defects peculiar to himself. Theo-
pompus is a strong partisan, a sworn foe to Athens and to
Democracy. Ephorus, though a military historian, is ignorant
of the art of war. He is also incredibly careless and uncritical.
It is enough to point to his description of the battle of the
Eurymedon (Diodorus xi. 60-62), in which, misled by an epigram,
which he supposed to relate to this engagement (it really refers
to the Athenian victory off Salamis in Cyprus, 449 B.C.), he
xn. 15 a
45 8
GREECE
[HISTORY
makes the coast of Cyprus the scene of Cimon's naval victory,
and finds no difficulty in putting it on the same day as the
victory on shore on the banks of the Eurymedon, in Pamphylia.
Only a few fragments remain of either writer, but Theopompus
(q.v.) was largely used by Plutarch in several of the Lives,
while Ephorus continues to be the main source of Diodorus'
history, as far as the outbreak of the Sacred War (Fragments of
Ephorus in Miiller's Fragmenta historicorum Graecorum, vol. i.;
of Theopompus in HeUenica Oxyrhynckia, cum Theopompi
et Cratippi fmgmentis, ed. B. P. Grenfell and A. S. Hunt,
1909).
It may be at least claimed for Xenophon (q.v,) that he is free
from all taint of the rhetorical spirit. It may also be claimed
for him that, as a witness, he is both honest and well-informed.
But, if there is no justification for the charge of deliberate
falsification, it cannot be denied that he had strong political
prejudices, and that his narrative has suffered from them. His
historical writings are the Anabasis, an account of the expedition
of the Ten Thousand, the HeUenica and the Agesilaus, a eulogy
of the Spartan king. Of these the HeUenica is far the most
important for the student of history. It consists of two distinct
parts (though there is no ground for the theory that the two
parts were separately written and published), books i. and ii.,
and books iii. to vii. The first two books are intended as a
continuation of Thucydides* work. They begin, quite abruptly,
in the middle of the Attic year 411/10, and they carry the
history down to the fall of the Thirty, in 403. Books iii. to vii.,
the HeUenica proper, cover the period from 401 to 362, and give
the histories of the Spartan and Theban hegemonies down to
the death of Epaminondas. There is thus a gap of two years
between the point at which the first part ends and that at which
the second part begins. The two parts differ widely, both in
their aim and in the arrangement of the material. In the first
part Xenophon attempts, though not with complete success,
to follow the chronological method of Thucydides, and to make
each successive spring, when military and naval operations were
resumed after the winter's interruption, the starting-point of a
fresh section. The resemblance between the two writers ends,
however, with the outward form of the narrative. All that is
characteristic of Thucydides is absent in Xenophon. The
latter writer shows neither skill in portraiture, nor insight into
motives. He is deficient in the sense of proportion and of the
distinction between occasion and cause. Perhaps his worst
fault is a lack of imagination. To make a story intelligible
it is necessary sometimes to put oneself in the reader's place,
and to appreciate his ignorance of circumstances and events
which would be perfectly familiar to the actors in the scene
or to contemporaries. It was not given to Xenophon, as it was
to Thucydides, to discriminate between the circumstances that
are essential and those that are not essential to the comprehen-
sion of the story. In spite, therefore, of its wealth of detail,
his narrative is frequently obscure. It is quite clear that in the
trial of the generals, e.g., something is omitted. It may be
supplied as Diodorus has supplied it (xiii. 101), or it may be
supplied otherwise. It is probable that, when under cross-
examination before the council, the generals, or some of them,
disclosed the commission given to Theramenes and Thrasybulus.
The important point is that Xenophon himself has omitted to
supply it. As it stands his narrative is unintelligible. In the
first two books, though there are omissions (e.g. the loss of
Nisaea, 409 B.C.), they are not so serious as in the last five, nor
is the bias so evident. It is true that if the account of the rule
of the Thirty given in Aristotle's Constitution of Athens be
accepted, Xenophon must have deliberately misrepresented
the course of events to the prejudice of Theramenes. But it is
at least doubtful whether Aristotle's version can be sustained
against Xenophon's, though it may be admitted, not only that
there are mistakes as to details in the latter writer's narrative,
but that less than justice is done to the policy and motives
of the "Buskin." The HeUenica was written, it should be
remembered, at Corinth, after 362. More than forty years had
thus elapsed since the events recorded in the first two books,
and after so long an interval accuracy of detail, even where the
detail is of importance, is not always to be expected. 1 In the
second part the chronological method is abandoned. A subject
once begun is followed out to its natural ending, so that sections
of the narrative which are consecutive in order are frequently
parallel in point of date. A good example of this will be found
in book iv. In chapters 2 to 7 the history of the Corinthian
war is carried down to the end of 300, so far as the operations
on land are concerned, while chapter 8 contains an account of
the naval operations from 394 to 388. In this second part of the
HeUenica the author's disqualifications for his task are more
apparent than in the first two books. The more he is acquitted
of bias in his selection of events and in his omissions, the more
clearly does he stand convicted of lacking all sense of the propor-
tion of things. Down to Leuctra (371 B.C.) Sparta is the centre
of interest, and it is of the Spartan state alone that a complete
or continuous history is given. After Leuctra, if the point of
view is no longer exclusively Spartan, the narrative of events
is hardly less incomplete. Throughout the second part of the
HeUenica omissions abound which it is difficult either to explain
or justify. The formation of the Second Athenian Confederacy
of 377 B.C., the foundation of Megalopolis and the restoration
of the Messenian state are all left unrecorded. Yet the writer
who passes them over without mention thinks it worth while
to devote more than one-sixth of an entire book to a chronicle
of the unimportant feats of the citizens of the petty state of
Phlius. Nor is any attempt made to appraise the policy of
the great Theban leaders, Pelopidas and Epaminondas. The
former, indeed, is mentioned only in a single passage, relating
to the embassy to Susa in 368; the latter does not appear on
the scene till a year later, and receives mention but twice before
the battle of Mantinea. An author who omits from his narrative
some of the most important events of his period, and elaborates
the portraiture of an Agesilaus while not attempting the bare
outline of an Epaminondas, may be honest; he may even
write without a consciousness of bias; he certainly cannot rank
among the great writers of history. 2
For the history of the 4th century Diodorus assumes a higher
degree of importance than belongs to him in the earlier periods.
This is partly to be explained by the deficiencies of
Xenophon's HeUenica, partly by the fact that for the
interval between the death of Epaminondas and the accession of
Alexander we have in Diodorus alone a continuous narrative
of events. Books xiv. and xv. of his history include the period
covered by the HeUenica. More than half of book xiv. is devoted
to the history of Sicily and the reign of Dionysius, the tyrant of
Syracuse. For this period of Sicilian history he is, practically,
o ur sole authority. In the rest of the book, as well as in book xv. ,
there is much of value, especially in the notices of Macedonian
history. Thanks to Diodorus we are enabled to supply many
of the omissions of the HeUenica. Diodorus is, e.g., our sole
literary authority for the Athenian naval confederation of 377.
Book xvi. must rank, with the HeUenica and Arrian's Anabasis,
as one of the three principal authorities for this century, so far,
at least, as works of an historical character are concerned. It is
our authority for the Social and the Sacred Wars, as well as
for the reign of Philip. It is a curious irony of fate that, for
what is perhaps the most momentous epoch in the history
of Greece, we should have to turn to a writer of such inferior
capacity. For this period his material is better and his import-
ance greater: his intelligence is as limited as ever. Who but
Diodorus would be capable of narrating the siege and capture
of Methone twice over, once under the year 354, and again under
the year 352 (xvi. 31 and 34; cf. xii. 35 and 42; Archidamus (q.v.)
dies in 434, commands Peloponnesian army in 431); or of giving
three different numbers of years (eleven, ten and nine) in three
different passages (chs. 14, 23 and 59) for the length of the
1 On the discrepancies between Xenophon's account of the Thirty,
and Aristotle's, see G. Busolt, Hermes (1898), pp. 71-86.
* The fragment of the New Historian (Oxyrhynchus Papyri, vol. v.)
affords exceedingly important material for the criticism of Xenophon's
I narrative. (See theopompus.)
Diodorus.
HISTORY]
GREECE
459
Sacred War; or of asserting the conclusion of peace between
Athens and Philip in 340, after the failure of his attack on
Perinthus and Byzantium? Amongst the subjects which are
omitted is the Peace of Philocrates. For the earlier chapters,
which bring the narrative down to the outbreak of the Sacred War,
Ephorus, as in the previous book, is Diodorus' main source.
His source for the rest of the book, i.e. for the greater part of
Philip's reign, cannot be determined. It is generally agreed that
it is not the Philippica of Theopompus.
For the reign of Alexander our earliest extant authority is
Diodorus, who belongs to the age of Augustus. Of the others,
HJstoHaaM Q- Curtius Rufus, who wrote in Latin, lived in the
oiAhx~ reign of the emperor Claudius, Arrian and Plutarch
Mn ^ 3 in the 2nd century a.d. Yet Alexander's reign is
, ** I,, one of the best known periods of ancient history.
The Peloponnesian War and the twenty years of Roman
history which begin with 63 B.C. are the only two periods
which we can be said to know more fully or for which we
have more trustworthy evidence. For there is no period of
ancient history which was recorded by a larger number of
contemporary writers, or for which better or more abundant
materials were available. Of the writers actually contemporary
with Alexander there were five of importance — Ptolemy, Aristo-
bulus, Callisthenes, Onesicritus and Nearchus; and all of them
occupied positions which afforded exceptional opportunities
of ascertaining the facts. Four of them were officers in
Alexander's service. Ptolemy, the future king of Egypt, was
one of the somotophyloces (we may, perhaps, regard them as
corresponding to Napoleon's marshals); Aristobulus was also
an officer of high rank (see Arrian, Anab. vi. 29. 10); Nearchus
was admiral of the fleet which surveyed the Indus and the
Persian Gulf, and Onesicritus was one of his subordinates. The
fifth, Callisthenes, a pupil of Aristotle, accompanied Alexander
on his march down to his death in 327 and was admitted to the
circle of his intimate friends. A sixth historian, Cleitarchus,
was possibly also a contemporary; at any rate he is not more
than a generation later. These writers had at their command a
mass of official documents, such as the /WlXetot kfapcpUks — the
Gazette and Court Circular combined — edited and published
after Alexander's death by his secretary, Eumenes of Cardia;
the aratinol, or records of the marches of the armies, which were
carefully measured at the time; and the official reports on the
conquered provinces. That these documents were made use of
by the historians is proved by the references to them which are
to be found in Arrian, Plutarch and Strabo; e.g. Arrian, Anab.
vii. 25 and 26, and Plutarch, Alexander 76 (quotation from the
ffoujiXeioL kfanepi&G); Strabo xv. 723 (reference to the aratifiol),
ii. 69 (reports drawn up on the various provinces). We have,
in addition, in Plutarch numerous quotations from Alexander's
correspondence with his mother, Olympias, and with his officers.
The contemporary historians may be roughly divided into two
groups. On the one hand there are Ptolemy and Aristobulus,
who, except in a single instance, are free from all suspicion of
deliberate invention. On the other hand, there are Callisthenes,
Onesicritus and Cleitarchus, whose tendency is rhetorical.
Nearchus appears to have allowed full scope to his imagination
in dealing with the wonders of India, but to have been otherwise
veracious. Of the extant writers Arrian (q.v.) is incomparably
the most valuable. His merits are twofold. As the commander
of Roman legions and the author of a work on tactics, he com-
bined a practical with a theoretical knowledge of the military art,
while the writers whom he follows in the Anabasis are the two
most worthy of credit, Ptolemy and Aristobulus. We may well
hesitate to call in question the authority of writers who exhibit
an agreement which it would be difficult to parallel elsewhere
in the case of two independent historians. It may be inferred
from Arrian's references to them that there were only eleven
cases in all in which he found discrepancies between them.
The most serious drawback which can be alleged against them
is an inevitable bias in Alexander's favour. It would be only
natural that they should pass over in silence the worst blots on
their great commander's fame. Next in value to the Anabasis
The
comes Plutarch's Life of Alexander, the merits of which, however,
are not to be gauged by the influence which it has exercised upon
literature. The Life is a valuable supplement to the Anabasis,
partly because Plutarch, as he is writing biography rather than
history (for his conception of the difference between the two
see the famous preface, Life of Alexander, ch. i.), is concerned
to record all that will throw light upon Alexander's character
(e.g. his epigrammatic sayings and quotations from his letters);
partly because he tells us much about his early life, before he
became king, while Arrian tells us nothing. It is unfortunate
that Plutarch writes in an uncritical spirit; it is hardly less
unfortunate that he should have formed no clear conception
and drawn no consistent picture of Alexander's character.
Book xvii. of Diodorus and the Historiae Alexandri of Curtius
Rufus are thoroughly rhetorical in spirit. It is probable that
in both cases the ultimate source is the work of Clitarchus.
It is towards the end of the 5th century that a fresh source
of information becomes available in the speeches of the orators,
the earliest of whom is Antiphon (d. 411 B.C.). Lysias
is of great importance for the history of the Thirty
(see the speeches against Eratosthenes and Agoratus),
and a good deal may be gathered from Andocides with regard
to the last years of the 5th and the opening years of the next
century. At the other end of this period Lycurgus, Hyperides
and Dinarchus throw light upon the time of Philip and Alexander.
The three, however, who are of most importance to the historian
are Isocrates, Aeschines and Demosthenes. Isocrates (q.v.),
whose long life (436-338) more than spans the interval
between the outbreak of the Peloponnesian War and uocnt9%.
the triumph of Macedon at Chaeronea, is one of the
most characteristic figures in the Greek world of his day. To
comprehend that world the study of Isocrates is indispensable;
for in an age dominated by rhetoric he is the prince of rhetoricians.
It is difficult for a modern reader to do him justice, so alien is
his spirit and the spirit of his age from ours. It must be allowed
that he is frequently monotonous and prolix; at the same time
it must not be forgotten that, as the most famous representative
of rhetoric, he was read from one end of the Greek world to the
other. He was the friend of Evagoras and Archidamus, of
Dionysius and Philip; he was the master of Aeschines and
Lycurgus amongst orators and of Ephorus and Theopompus
amongst historians. No other contemporary writer has left
so indelible a stamp upon the style and the sentiment of his
generation. It is a commonplace that Isocrates is the apostle
of Panhellenism. It is not so generally recognized that he is the
prophet of Hellenism. A passage in the Panegyricus (§50
oxrre rd r&v 'EXX^ww 6vofia poteen rod ykvovs dXXd rrjs biavolas
boKtiv etvai teal /iaXXov "EXKrjvas KaXelaSai tovs rrjs ircufkixreus
rrjs i)nerepas % revs rrjs Kourijs <t>vaeta5 /jLerexovras) is the key
to the history of the next three centuries. Doubtless he had no
conception of the extent to which the East was to be hellenized.
He was, however, the first to recognize that it would be hellenized
by the diffusion of Greek culture rather than of Greek blood. His
Panhellenism was the outcome of his recognition of the new
forces and tendencies which were at work in the midst of a new
generation. When Greek culture was becoming more and more
international, the exaggeration of the principle of autonomy
in the Greek political system was becoming more and more
absurd. He had sufficient insight to be aware that the price
paid for this autonomy was the domination of Persia; a domina-
tion which meant the servitude of the Greek states across the
Aegean and the demoralization of Greek political life at home.
His Panhellenism led him to a more liberal view of the distinction
between what was Greek and what was not than was possible
to the intenser patriotism of a Demosthenes. In his later orations
he has the courage not only to pronounce that the day of Athens
as a first-rate power is past, but to see in Philip the needful
leader in the crusade against Persia. The earliest and greatest of
his political orations is the Panegyricus, published in 380 B.C.,
midway between the peace of Antalcidas and Leuctra. It is
his apologia for Panhellenism. To the period of the Social War
belong the De pace (355 B.C.) and the Areopagiticus (354 B.C.),
460
GREECE
[HISTORY
Demos*
theaes.
both of great value as evidence for the internal conditions of
Athens at the beginning of the struggle with Macedon. The
Plataicus (373 B.C.) and the Archidamus (366 B.C.) throw light
upon the politics of Boeotia and the Peloponnese respectively.
The Panathenaicus (339 B.C.), the child of his old age, contains
little that may not be found in the earlier orations. The
Philippus (346 B.C.) is of peculiar interest, as giving the views
of the Macedonian party.
Not the least remarkable feature in recent historical criticism
is the reaction against the view which was at one time almost
universally accepted of the character, statesmanship
and authority of the orator Demosthenes (q.v.).
During the last quarter of a century his character and
statesmanship have been attacked, and his authority impugned,
by a series of writers of whom Holm and Beloch are the best
known. With the estimate of his character and statesmanship
we are not here concerned. With regard to his value as an
authority for the history of the period, it is to his speeches, and
to those of his contemporaries, Aeschines, Hypereides, Dinarchus
and Lycurgus, that we owe our intimate knowledge, both of
the working of the constitutional and legal systems, and of the
life of the people, at this period of Athenian history. From this
point of view his value can hardly be overestimated. As a
witness, however, to matters of fact, his authority can no longer
be rated as highly as it once was, e.g. by Schaefer and by Grote.
The orator's attitude towards events, both in the past and in the
present, is inevitably a different one from the historian's. The
object of a Thucydides is to ascertain a fact, or to exhibit it in
its true relations. The object of a Demosthenes is to make
a point, or to win his case. In their dealings with the past the
orators exhibit a levity which is almost inconceivable to a modern
reader. Andocides, in a passage of his speech On the Mysteries
(§ 107), speaks of Marathon as the crowning victory of Xerxes'
campaign; in his speech On the Peace (§ 3) he confuses Miltiades
with Cimon, and the Five Years' Peace with the Thirty Years'
Truce. Though the latter passage is a mass of absurdities and
confusions, it was so generally admired that it was incorporated
by Aeschines in his speech Onthe Embassy (§§ 172-176). If such
was their attitude towards the past; if, in order to make a point,
they do not hesitate to pervert history, is it likely that they
would conform to a higher standard of veracity in their state-
ments as to the present — as to their contemporaries, their rivals
or their own actions ? When we compare different speeches of
Demosthenes, separated by an interval of years, we cannot fail
to observe a marked difference in his statements. The farther
he is from the events, the bolder are his mis-statements. It is
only necessary to compare the speech On the Crown with that On
the Embassy, and this latter speech with the Philippics and
Olynthiacs, to find illustrations. It has cortfe to be recognized
that no statement as to a matter of fact is to be accepted, unless
it receives independent corroboration, or unless it is admitted
by both sides. The speeches of Demosthenes may be conveniently
divided into four classes according to their dates. To the pre-
Philippic period belong the speeches On the Symmories (354 b. a),
On Megalopolis (352 B.C.), Against Aristocrates (351 B.C.), and,
perhaps, the speech On Rhodes (? 351 B.C.). These speeches
betray no consciousness of the danger threatened by Philip's
ambition. The policy recommended is one based upon the
principle of the balance of power. To the succeeding period,
which ends with the peace of Philocrates (346 B.C.), belong the
First Philippic and the three Olynthiacs. To the period between
the peace of Philocrates and Chaeronea belong the speech On
the Peace (346 B.C.), the Second Philippic (344 B.C.), the speeches
On the Embassy (344 B.C.) and On the Chersonese (341 B.C.), and
the Third Philippic. The masterpiece of his genius, the speech
On the Crown, was delivered in 330» c -> in tne rei & n of Alexander.
Of the three extant speeches of Aeschines (q.v.) that On the
Embassy is of great value, as enabling us to correct the mis-
statements of Demosthenes. For the period from the death of
Alexander to the fall of Corinth (323-146 B.C.) our literary
authorities are singularly defective. For the Diadochi Diodorus
(books xviii.-xx.) is our chief source. These books form the
most valuable part of Diodorus' work. They are mainly based
upon the work of Hieronymus of Cardia, a writer who combined
exceptional opportunities for ascertaining the truth (he was in
the service first of Eumenes, and then of Antigonus) with an
exceptional sense of its importance. Hieronymus ended his
history at the death of Pyrrhus (272 B.C.), but, unfortunately,
book xx. of Diodorus* work carries us no farther than 303 B.C.,
and of the later books we have but scanty fragments. The
narrative of Diodorus may be supplemented by the fragments
of Arrian's History of the events after Alexander's death (which
reach, however, only to 321 B.C.), and by Plutarch's Lives of
Eumenes and of Demetrius. For the rest of the 3rd century and
the first half of the 2nd we have his Lives of Pyrrhus, of Aratus,
of Philopoemen, and of Agis and Cleomenes. For the period
from 220 B.C. onwards Polybius (q.v.) is our chief authority (see
Rome: Ancient History, section " Authorities "). In a period
in which the literary sources are so scanty great weight attaches
to the epigraphic and numismatic evidence.
Bibliography. — The literature which deals with the history of
Greece, in its various periods, departments and aspects, is of so vast
a bulk that all that can be attempted here is to indicate the most im-
portant and most accessible works.
General Histories of Greece. — Down to the middle of the 19th
century the only histories of Greece deserving of mention were the
products of English scholarship. The two earliest of these were
published about the same date, towards the end of the 18th century,
nearly three-quarters of a century before any history of Greece,
other than a mere compendium, appeared on the Continent. John
Gillies' History of Greece was publisned in 1786, Mitford's in 1784.
Both works were composed with a political bias and a political object.
Gillies was a Whig. In the dedication (to George III.) he expresses
the view that " the History of Greece exposes tne dangerous turbu-
lence of Democracy, and arraigns the despotism of Tyrants, while
it evinces the inestimable benefits, resulting to Liberty itself, from
the steady operation of well-regulated monarchy." Mitford was
a Tory, who thought to demonstrate the evils of democracy from
the example of the Athenian state. His History, in spite of its bias,
was a work of real value. More than fifty years elapsed between
Mitford's work and Thirlwall's. Connop Thirlwall, fellow of Trinity
College, Cambridge, afterwards bishop of St David's, brought a
sound judgment to the aid of ripe scholarship. His History of Greece,
published in 1 835-1 838 (8 vols.) , is entirely free from the controversial
tone of Mitford's volumes. Ten years later (1846) George Grote
published the first volumes of his history, which was not completed
(in 12 vols.) till 1856. Grote, like Mitford, was a politician — an
ardent Radical, with republican sympathies. It was in order to
refute the slanders of the Tory partisan that he was impelled to
write a history of Greece, which should do justice to the greatest
democracy of the ancient world, the Athenian state. Thus, in the
case of three of these four writers, the interest in their subject was
mainly political. Incomparably the greatest of these works is
Grote's. Grote had his faults and his limitations. His prejudices
are strong, and his scholarship is weak ; he had never visited Greece,
and he knew little or nothing of Greek art ; and, at the time he wrote,
the importance of coins and inscriptions was imperfectly appre-
hended. In spite of every defect, however, his work is the greatest
history of Greece that has yet been written. It is not too much to
say that nobody knows Greek history till he has mastered Grote.
No history of Greece has since appeared in England on a scale at all
comparable to that of Grote's work. The most important of the
more recent ones is that by J. B. Bury (1 vol., 1900), formerly fellow
of Trinity College, Dublin, afterwards Regius Professor of Modern
History at Cambridge. Mitford and Bury end with the death of
Alexander; Gillies and Grote carry on the narrative a generation
farther; while Thirlwall's work extends to the absorption of Greece
in the Roman Empire (146 B.C.). ^
While in France the Histoire des Grecs (ending at ia6 B.C.) of
Victor Duruy (new edition, 2 vols., 1883), Minister of Public Instruc-
tion under Napoleon III., is the only one that need be mentioned,
in Germany there has been a succession of histories of Greece since
the middle of the 19th century. Kortum's Geschickte Griechenlands
(3 vols., 1854), a work of little merit, was followed by Max Duncker's
Geschichte der Griechen (vols. 1 and 2 published in 1856; vols. 1 and
2, Neue Folge, which bring the narrative down to the death of
Pericles, in 1884; the two former volumes form vols. 5, 6 and 7
of his Geschichte des Alter turns), and by the Griechische Geschichte
of Ernst Curtius (3 vols., 1857-1867). An English translation of
Duncker, by S. F. Alleyne, appeared in 1883 (2 vols., Bentley),
and of Curtius, by A. W. Ward (5 vols., Bentley ,1868-1873). Among
more recent works may be mentioned the Griechische Geschichte of
Adolf Holm (4 vols., Berlin, 1 886-1 894; English translation by F.
Clarke, 4 vols., Macmillan, 1894-1898), and histories with the same
title by Julius Beloch (3 vols., Strassburg, 1 895-1904) and Georg
Busolt (2nd ed., 3 vols., Gotha, 1893-1904)- Holm carries on the
narrative to 30 B.C., Beloch to 217 B.C., Busolt to Chaeronea
HISTORY]
GREECE
461
(338 B.C.)- 1 Busolt's work is entirely different in character from any
other history of Greece. The writer's object is to refer in the notes
(which constitute five-sixths of the book) to the views of every writer
in any language upon every controverted question. It is absolutely
indispensable, as a work of reference, for any serious study of Greek
history. The ablest work since Grote's is Eduard Meyer's Geschichte
des Alter turns, of which 5 vols. (Stuttgart and Berlin, 188^-1902)
have appeared, carrying the narrative down to the death of Epami-
nondas (362 B.C.). Vols. 2-5 are principally concerned with Greek
history. It must be remembered that, partly owing to the literary
finds and the archaeological discoveries of the last thirty years,
and partly owing to the advance made in the study of epigraphy
and numismatics, all the histories published before those of Busolt,
Beloch, Meyer and Bury are out of date.
Works bearing on the History of Greece. — Earlier works and editions
are omitted, except in the case of a work which has not been super-
seded.
Introductions. — C. Wachsmuth, Einleitung in das Studium der
alien Geschichte (1 vol., Leipzig, 1895); E. Meyer, Forschungen zur
alien Geschichte (2 parts, Halle, 1 892-1 800; quite indispensable);
J. B. Bury, The Ancient Greek Historians (London, 1909).
Constitutional History and Institutions. — G. F. Schomann, Grie-
chische Altertumer (2 vols., Berlin, 1855-1859; vol. i., tr. by E. G.
Hardy and J. S. Mann, Rivingtons, 1880); G. Gilbert, Grtechische
Staatsaltertumer (2nd ed., 2 vols., Leipzig, 1893; vol. i. tr. by E. J.
Brooks and T. Nicklin, Swan Sonnenschein, 1805) ; K. F. Hermann,
Lehrbuch der griechischen Antiquiidten (6th ed., 4 vols., Freiburg,
1 882-1 805); Iwan Muller, Handbuch der klassischen Altertums-
wissenschaft (9 vols., Nordlingen, 1886, in progress; several of the
volumes are concerned with Greek history); J. H. Lipsius, Das
attische Recht und Rechtsverfahren (Leipzig, 1905, in progress) ;
A. H. J. Greenidge, Handbook of Greek ConsHtutionaX History (1 vol.,
Macniillan, 1896) ; Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyklopddie der klassischen
Altertumswissenschaft (Stuttgart, 1894 foil.).
Geography. — E. H. Bunbury, History of Ancient Geography
amongst the Greeks and Romans (2nd ed., 2 vols., Murray, 1883),
W. M. Leake, Travels in the Morea (3 vols., 1830), and Travels in
Northern Greece (4 vols., 1834) ; H. F. Tozer, Lectures on the Geography
of Greece (1 vol., Murray, 1873), and History of Ancient Geography
(1 vol., Cambridge, 1897) ; J. P. Mahaffy, Rambles and Studies in
Greece (3rd ed., 1 vol., Macmillan, 1887, an admirable book); C.
Bursian, Geogratohie von Griechenland (2 vols., Leipzig, 1872); H.
Berger, Geschichte der wissenschaftlichen Erdkunae der Griechen
(4 parts, Leipzig, 1887-1893) ; Ernst Curtius, Peloponnesos (2 vols.,
Gotha, 1850-1851). .
Epigraphy and Numismatics. — Corpus inscriptionum AtUcarum
(Berlin, 1875, in progress), Corpus inscriptionum Graecarum (Berlin,
1892, in progress). The following selections of Greek inscriptions may
be mentioned: E. F. Hicks and G. F. Hill, Manual of Greet Historical
Inscriptions (newed., 1 vol., Oxford, 1901); W. Dittenberger, SyUoge
inscriptionum Graecarum (and ed., 2 vols., Berlin, 1898) ; C. Michel,
RecueU oV inscriptions grecques (Paris, 1900). Among works on
numismatics the English reader may refer to B. V. Head, Historia
numorum (1 vol., Oxford, 1887); G. F. Hill, Handbook of Greek and
Roman Coins (1 vol., Macmillan, 1899), as well as to the British
Museum Catalogue of Greek Coins. In French the most important
general work is the Monnaies grecques of F. Imhoof-Blumer (Paris,
1883).
Chronology, Trade, War, Social Life, fife— H. F. Clinton, Fasti
Hellenici (3rd ed., 3 vols., Oxford, 1841, a work of which English
scholarship may well be proud; it is still invaluable for the study
of Greek chronology); B. Buchsenschutz, Besitz und Erwerb im
griechischen Altertume (1 vol., Halle, 1869; this is still the best
book on Greek commerce) ; J. Beloch, Die Bevdlkerung der griechisch-
rdmischen Welt (1 vol., Leipzig, 1886); W. Rtistow and H. Kochly,
Geschichte des griechischen Krtegswesens (1 vol., Aarau, 1852); T. P.
Mahaffy, Social Life in Greece (2nd ed., 1 vol., 1875). (E. M. W.)
b. Post-Classical: 146 B.C.-A.D. 1800
I. The Period of Roman Rule. — (i.) Greece under Ike
Republic (146-27 B.C.). After the collapse of the Achaean
League (q.v.) the Senate appointed a commission to reorganize
Greece as a Roman dependency. Corinth, the chief centre of
resistance, was destroyed and its inhabitants sold into slavery.
In addition to this act of exemplary punishment, which may
perhaps have been inspired in part by the desire to crush a
commercial competitor, steps were taken to obviate future
insurrections. The national and cantonal federations were
dissolved, commercial intercourse between cities was restricted,
and the government transferred from the democracies to the
propertied classes, whose interests were bound up with Roman
supremacy. In other respects few changes were made in existing
institutions. Some favoured states like Athens and Sparta
retained their full sovereign rights as civitotes liberae, the other
1 Vol. iii. goes down to the end of the Peloponnesian War.
cities continued to enjoy local self-government. The ownership
of the land was not greatly disturbed by confiscations, and
though a tribute upon it was levied, this impost may not have
been universal. General powers of supervision were entrusted
to the governor of Macedonia, who could reserve cases of high
treason for his decision, and in case of need send troops into the
country. But although Greece was in the provincia of the
Macedonian proconsul, in the sense of belonging to his sphere of
command, its status was in fact more favourable than that of
other provincial dependencies.
This settlement was acquiesced in by the Greek people, who
had come to realize the hopelessness of further resistance. The
internal disorder which was arising from the numerous disputes
about property rights consequent upon the political revolutions
was checked by the good offices of the historian Polybius, whom
the Senate deputed to mediate between the litigants. The
pacification of the country eventually became so complete that
the Romans withdrew the former restrictions upon intercourse
and allowed some of the leagues to revive. But its quiet was
seriously disturbed during the first Mithradatic War (88-84 B.C.),
when numerous Greek states sided with Mithradates (q.v.).
The success which the invader experienced in detaching the
Greeks from Rome is partly to be explained by the skilful way
in which his agents incited the imperialistic ambitions of
prominent cities like Athens, partly perhaps by his promises
of support to the democratic parties. The result of the war was
disastrous to Greece. Apart from the confiscations and exactions
by which the Roman general L. Cornelius Sulla punished the
disloyal communities, the extensive and protracted campaigns
left Central Greece in a ruinous condition. During the last
decades of the Roman republic European Greece was scarcely
affected by contemporary wars nor yet exploited by Roman
magistrates in the same systematic manner as most other
provinces. Yet oppression by officials who traversed Greece
from time to time and demanded lavish entertainments and
presentations in the guise of viaticum or aurum coronarium was
not unknown. Still greater was the suffering produced by the
rapacity of Roman traders and capitalists: it is recorded that
Sicyon was reduced to sell its most cherished art treasures in
order to satisfy its creditors. A more indirect but none the less
far-reaching drawback to Greek prosperity was the diversion
of trade which followed upon the establishment of direct com-
munication between Italy and the Levant. The most lucrative
source of wealth which remained to the European Greeks was
pasturage in large domains, an industry which almost exclusively
profited the richer citizens and so tended to widen the breach
between capitalists and the poorer classes, and still further to
pauperize the latter. The coast districts and islands also
suffered considerably from swarms of pirates who, in the absence
of any strong fleet in Greek waters, were able to obtain a firm
footing in Crete and freely plundered the chief trading places
and sanctuaries; the most notable of such visitations was
experienced in 69 B.C. by the island of Delos. This evil came to
an end with the general suppression of piracy in the Mediter-
ranean by Pompey (67 B.C.), but the depopulation which it had
caused in some regions is attested by the fact that the victorious
admiral settled some of his captives on the desolated coast
strip of Achaea.
In the conflict between Julius Caesar and Pompey the Greeks
provided the latter with a large part of his excellent fleet. In
48 B.C. the decisive campaign of the war was fought on Greek
soil, and the resources of the land were severely taxed by the
requisitions of both armies. As a result of Caesar's victory at
Pharsalus, the whole country fell into his power; the treatment
which it received was on the whole lenient, though individual
cities were punished severely. After the murder of Caesar the
Greeks supported the cause of Brutus (42 B.C.), but were too
weak to render any considerable service. In 39 B.C. the Pelo-
ponnese for a short time was made over to Sextus Pompeius.
During the subsequent period Greece remained in the hands of
M. Antonius (Mark Antony), who imposed further exactions in
order to defray the cost of his wars. The extensive levies which
462
GREECE
[HISTORY
ooadh
he made in 31 B.C. for his campaign against Octavian, and the
contributions which his gigantic army required, exhausted the
country's resources so completely that a general famine was
prevented only by Octavian's prompt action after the battle of
Actium in distributing supplies of grain and evacuating the land
with all haste. The depopulation which resulted from the civil
wars was partly remedied by the settlement of Italian colonists at
Corinth and Patrae by Julius Caesar and Octavian; on the other
hand, the foundation of Nicopolis (q.v.) by the latter merely had
the effect of transferring the people from the country to the city,
(ii.) The Early Roman Empire (27 b.c -a.d. 323). — Under the
emperor Augustus Thessaly was incorporated with Macedonia;
the rest of Greece was converted into the province of Achaea,
under the control of a senatorial proconsul resident at Corinth.
Many states, including Athens and Sparta, retained their rights
as free and nominally independent cities. The provincials were
encouraged to send delegates to a communal synod (kow6v t&v
'Axolcav) which met at Argos to consider the general interests
of the country and to uphold national Hellenic sentiment; the
Delphic amphictyony was revived and extended so as to represent
in a similar fashion northern and central Greece.
Economic conditions did not greatly improve under the
empire. Although new industries sprang up to meet the needs
of Roman luxury, and Greek marble, textiles and
Sodmi table delicacies were in great demand, the only cities
which regained a really flourishing trade were the
Italian communities of Corinth and Patrae. Commerce
languished in general, and the soil was mainly abandoned to
pasturage. Though certain districts retained a measure of
prosperity, e.g. Thessaly, Phocis, Elis, Argos and Laconia, huge
tracts stood depopulated and many notable cities had sunk
into ruins; Aetolia, Acarnania and Epirus never recovered
from the effects of former wars and from the withdrawal of
their surviving inhabitants into Nicopolis. Such wealth as
remained was amassed in the hands of a few great landowners
and capitalists; the middle class continued to dwindle, and
large numbers of the people were reduced to earning a precarious
subsistence, supplemented by frequent doles and largesses.
The social aspect of Greek life henceforward becomes its most
attractive feature. After a long period of storm and stress, the
European Hellenes had relapsed into a quiet and resigned
frame of mind which stands in sharp contrast on the one hand
with the energy and ability, and on the other with the vulgar
intriguing of their Asiatic kinsmen. Seeing no future before
them, the inhabitants were content to dwell in contemplation
amid the glories of the past. National pride was fostered by the
undisguised respect with which the leading Romans of the age
treated Hellenic culture. And although this sentiment could
degenerate into antiquarian pedantry and vanity, such as finds
its climax in the diatribes of Apollonius of Tyana against the
" barbarians," it prevented the nation from sinking into some
of the worst vices of the age. A healthy social tone repressed
extravagant luxury and the ostentatious display of wealth, and
good taste long checked the spread of gladiatorial contests
beyond the Italian community of Corinth. The most widespread
abuse of that period, the adulation and adoration of emperors,
was indeed introduced into European Greece and formed an
essential feature of the proceedings at the Delphic amphictyony,
but it never absorbed the energies of the people in the same
way as it did in Asia. In order to perpetuate their old culture,
the Greeks continued to set great store by classical education,
and in Athens they possessed an academic centre which gradually
became the chief university of the Roman empire. The highest
representatives of this type of old-world refinement are to be
found in Dio Chrysostom and especially in Plutarch of Chaeroneia
(q.v.).
The relations between European Greece and Rome were
practically confined to the sphere of scholarship. The Hellenes
had so far lost their warlike qualities that they supplied scarcely
any recruits to the army. They retained too much local patriot-
ism to crowd into the official careers of senators or imperial
servants. Although in the 1st century a.d. the astute Greek
man of affairs and the Graectdus esuriens of Juvenal abounded
in Rome, both these classes were mainly derived from the
less pure-blooded population beyond the Aegean.
The influx of Greek rhetoricians and professors into Italy
during the 2nd and 3rd centuries was balanced by the large
number of travellers who came to Greece to frequent its sanatoria,
and especially to admire its works of art; the abundance in
which these latter were preserved is strikingly attested in the
extant record of Pausanias (about a.d. 170).
The experience of the Greeks under their earliest governors
seems to have been unfortunate, for in a.d. 15 they petitioned
Tiberius to transfer the administration to an imperial
legate. This new arrangement was sanctioned, but 232*
only lasted till a.d. 44, when Claudius restored the tntlon. '
province to the senate. The proconsuls of the later
i st and 2nd centuries were sometimes ill qualified for their posts,
but cases of oppression are seldom recorded against them.
The years 66 and 67 were marked by a visit of the emperor Nero,
who made a prolonged tour through Greece in order to display
his artistic accomplishments at the various national festivals. In
return for the flattering reception accorded to him he bestowed
freedom and exemption from tribute upon the country. But
this favour was almost neutralized by the wholesale depredations
which he committed among the chief collections of art. A
scheme for cutting through the Corinthian isthmus and so
reviving the Greek carrying trade was inaugurated in his presence,
but soon abandoned.
As Nero's grant of self-government brought about a recrudes-
cence of misplaced ambition and party strife, Vespasian revoked
the gift and turned Achaea again into a province, at the same
time burdening it with increased taxes. In the 2nd century a
succession of genuinely phil-Hellenic emperors made serious
attempts to revive the nation's prosperity. Important material
benefits were conferred by Hadrian, who made a lengthy visit to
Greece. Besides erecting useful public works in many cities,
he relieved Achaea of its arrears of tribute and exempted it from
various imposts. In order to check extravagance on the part
of the free cities, he greatly extended the practice of placing
them under the supervision of imperial functionaries known as
correctores. Hadrian fostered national sentiment by establishing
a new pan-Hellenic congress at Athens, while he gave recognition
to the increasing ascendancy of Hellenic culture at Rome by
his institution of the Athenaeum.
In the 3rd century the only political event of importance was
the edict of Caracalla which threw open the Roman citizenship
to large numbers of provincials. Its chief effect in Greece was
to diminish the preponderance of the wealthy classes, who
formerly had used their riches to purchase the franchise and so
to secure exemption from taxation. The chief feature of this
period is the renewal of the danger from foreign invasions.
Already in 175 a tribe named Costoboci had penetrated into
central Greece, but was there broken up by the local militia.
In 253 a threatened attack was averted by the stubborn resistance
of Thessalonica. In 267-268 the province was overrun by
Gothic bands, which captured Athens and some other towns,
but were finally repulsed by the Attic levies and exterminated
with the help of a Roman fleet.
(iii.) The Late Roman Empire. — After the reorganization of the
empire by Diocletian, Achaea occupied a prominent position
in the " diocese " of Macedonia. Under Constantine I. it was
included in the " prefecture " of Illyricum. It was subdivided
into the " eparchies " of Hellas, Peloponnesus, Nicopolis and
the islands, with headquarters at Thebes, Corinth, Nicopolis
and Samos. Thessaly was incorporated with Macedonia. A
complex hierarchy of imperial officials was now introduced and
the system of taxation elaborated so as to yield a steady revenue
to the central power. The levying of the land-tax was imposed
upon the deK&tcpuyroi or " ten leading men," who, like the Latin
decuriones, were entrusted henceforth with the administration
in most cities. The tendency to reduce all constitutions to the
Roman municipal pattern became prevalent under the rulers
of this period, and the greater number of them was stereotyped
HISTORYJ
GREECE
+63
by the general regulations of the Codex Theodosianus (438).
Although the elevation of Constantinople to the rank of capital
was prejudicial to Greece, which felt the competition of the
new centre of culture and learning and had to part with numerous
works of art destined to embellish its privileged neighbour, the
general level of prosperity in the 4th century was rising. Com-
mercial stagnation was checked by a renewed expansion of
trade consequent upon the diversion of the trade routes to
the east from Egypt to the Euxine and Aegean Seas. Agri-
culture remained in a depressed condition, and many small
proprietors were reduced to serfdom; but the fiscal interests
of the government called for the good treatment of this class,
whose growth at the expense of the slaves was an important
step in the gradual equalization of the entire population under the
central despotism which restored solidarity to the Greek nation.
This prosperity received a sharp set-back by a series of un-
usually severe earthquakes in 375 and by the irruption of a host
of Visigoths under Alaric (395-396), whom the imperial officers
allowed to overrun the whole land unmolested and the local
levies were unable to check. Though ultimately hunted down
in Arcadia and induced to leave the province, Alaric had time
to execute systematic devastations which crippled Greece for
several decades. The arrears of taxation which accumulated
in consequence were remitted by Theodosius II. in 428.
The emperors of the 4th century made several attempts to
stamp out by edict the old pagan religion, which, with its
accompaniment of festivals, oracles and mysteries, still main-
tained an outward appearance of vigour, and, along with the
philosophy in which the intellectual classes found comfort,
retained the affection of the Greeks. Except for the decree of
Theodosius I. by which the Olympian games were interdicted
(394), these measures had no great effect, and indeed were not
rigorously enforced. Paganism survived in Greece till about
600, but the interchange of ideas and practices which the long-
continued contact with Christianity had effected considerably
modified its character. Hence the Christian religion, though
slow in making its way, eventually gained a sure footing among
a nation which accepted it spontaneously. The hold of the
Church upon the Greeks was strengthened by the judicious
manner in which the clergy, unsupported by official patronage
and often out of sympathy with the Arian emperors, identified
itself with the interests of the people. Though in the days when
the orthodox Church found favour at court corruption spread
among its higher branches, the clergy as a whole rendered
conspicuous service in opposing the arbitrary interferences of
the central government and in upholding the use of the Hellenic
tongue, together with some rudiments of Hellenic culture.
The separation of the eastern and western provinces of the
empire ultimately had an important effect in restoring the
language and customs of Greece to their predominant position
in the Levant. This result, however, was long retarded by the
romanizing policy of Constantine and his successors. The
emperors of the 5th and 6th centuries had no regard for Greek
culture, and Justinian I. actively counteracted Hellenism by
propagating Roman law in Greece, by impairing the powers of
the self-governing cities, and by closing the philosophical schools
at Athens (529). In course of time the inhabitants had so far
forgotten their ancient culture that they abandoned the name
of Hellenes for that of Romans (Rhomaioi). For a long time
Greece continued to be an obscure and neglected province, with
no interests beyond its church and its commercial operations,
and its culture declined rapidly. Its history for some centuries
dwindles into a record of barbarian invasions which, in addition
to occasional plagues and earthquakes, seem to have been the
only events found worthy of record by the contemporary
chroniclers.
In the 5th century Greece was only subjected to brief raids
by Vandal pirates (466-474) and Ostrogoths (482). In Justinian's
reign irruptions by Huns and Avars took place, but led to no
far-reaching results. The emperor had endeavoured to strengthen
the country's defences by repairing the fortifications of cities
and frontier posts (530), but his policy of supplanting the local
guards by imperial troops/fend so rendering the natives incapable
of self-defence was ill-advised; fortunately it was never carried
out with energy, and so the Greek militias were occasionally
able to render good service against invaders.
Towards the end of the century mention is made for the first
time of an incursion by Slavonic tribes (581). These invaders
are to be regarded as merely the forerunners of a
steady movement of immigration by which a con- f? K !JJ??
siderable part of Greece passed for a time into foreign aj^^ 9 '
hands. It is doubtful how far the newcomers won
their territory by force of arms; in view of the desolation of
many rural tracts, which had long been in progress as a result
of economic changes, it seems probable that numerous settle-
ments were made on unoccupied land and did not challenge
serious opposition. At any rate the effect upon the Greek popula-
tion was merely to accelerate its emigration from the interior
to the coastland and the cities. The foreigners, consisting mainly
of Slovenes and Wends, occupied the mountainous inland,
where they mostly led a pastoral life; the natives retained some
strips of plain and dwelt secure in their walled towns, among
which the newly-built fortresses of Monemvasia, Corone and
Calamata soon rose to prosperity. The Slavonic element, to
judge by the geographical names in that tongue which survive
in Greece, is specially marked in N.W. Greece and Peloponnesus;
central Greece appears to have been protected against them
by the fortress-square of Chalcis, Thebes, Corinth and Athens.
For a long time the two nations dwelt side by side without either
displacing the other. The Slavs were too rude and poor, and
too much distracted with cantonal feuds, to make any further
headway; the Greeks, unused to arms and engrossed in com-
merce, were content to adopt a passive attitude. The central
government took no steps to dislodge the invaders, until in 783
the empress Irene sent an expedition which reduced most of
the tribes to pay tribute. In 810 a desperate attempt by the
Slavs to capture Patrae was foiled; henceforth their power
steadily decreased and their submission to the emperor was
made complete by 850. A powerful factor in their subjugation
was the Greek clergy, who by the 10th century had christianized
and largely hellenized all the foreigners save a remnant in the
peninsula of Maina.
II. The Byzantine Period. — In the 7th century the Greek
language made its way into the imperial army and civil service,
but European Greece continued to have little voice in the
administration. The land was divided into four " themes "
under a yearly appointed civil and military governor. Imperial
troops were stationed at the chief strategic points, while the
natives contributed ships for naval defence. During the dispute
about images the Greeks were the backbone of the image-
worshipping party, and the iconoclastic edicts of Leo III. led
to a revolt in 727 which, however, was easily crushed by the
imperial fleet; a similar movement in 823, when the Greeks
sent 350 ships to aid a pretender, met with the same fate. The
firm government of the Isaurian dynasty seems to have benefited
Greece, whose commerce and industry again became flourishing.
In spite of occasional set-backs due to the depredations of
pirates, notably the Arab corsairs who visited the Aegean from
the 7th century onwards, the Greeks remained the chief carriers
in the Levant until the rise of the Italian republics, supplying
all Europe, with its silk fabrics.
In the 10th century Greece experienced a renewal of raids
from the Balkan tribes. The Bulgarians made incursions after
929 and sometimes penetrated to the Isthmus; but they mostly
failed to capture the cities, and in 995 their strength was broken
by a crushing defeat on the Spercheius at the hands of the
Byzantine army. Yet their devastations greatly thinned the
population of northern Greece, and after 1084 Thessaly was
occupied without resistance by nomad tribes of Vlachs. In
1084 also Greece was subjected to the first attack from the new
nations of the west, when the Sicilian Normans gained a footing
in the Ionian islands. The same people made a notable raid upon
the seaboard of Greece in 1145-1146, and sacked the cities of
Thebes and Corinth. The Venetians also appear as rivals of
464
GREECE
[HISTORY
the Greeks, and after 11 22 their encroachments in the Aegean
Sea never ceased.
In spite of these attacks, the country on the whole maintained
its prosperity. The travellers Idrisi of Palermo (1153) and
Benjamin of Tudela (1161) testify to the briskness of commerce,
which induced many foreign merchants to take up their residence
in Greece. But this prosperity revived an aristocracy of wealth
which used its riches and power for purely selfish ends, and under
the increasing laxity of imperial control the archonies or municipal
rulers often combined with the clergy in oppressing the poorer
classes. Least of all were these nobles prepared to become the
champions of Greece against foreign invaders at a time when they
alone could have organized an effectual resistance.
III. The Latin Occupation and Turkish Conquest. — The
capture of Constantinople and dissolution of the Byzantine
empire by the Latins (1204) brought in its train an invasion of
Greece by Frankish barons eager for new territory. The
natives, who had long forgotten the use of arms and dreaded
no worse oppression from their new masters, submitted almost
without resistance, and only the N.W. corner of Greece, where
Michael Angelus, a Byzantine prince, founded the "despotat"
of Epirus, was saved from foreign occupation. The rest of the
country was divided up between a number of Frankish barons,
chief among whom were the dukes of Achaea (or Peioponnese)
and " grand signors " of Thebes and Athens, the Venetians, who
held naval stations at different points and the island of Crete,
and various Italian adventurers who mainly settled in the
Cyclades. The conquerors transplanted their own language,
customs and religion to their new possessions, and endeavoured
to institute the feudal system of land-tenure. Yet recognizing
the superiority of Greek civil institutions they allowed the
natives to retain their law and internal administration and con-
firmed proprietors in possession of their land on payment of a
rent; the Greek church was subordinated to the Roman arch-
bishops, but upheld its former control over the people. The
commerce and industry of the Greek cities was hardly affected
by the change of government.
Greek history during the Latin occupation loses its unity and
has to be followed in several threads. In the north the " despots "
of Epirus extended their rule to Thessaly and Macedonia, but
eventually were repulsed by the Asiatic Greeks of Nicaea, and
after a decisive defeat at Pelagonia (1250) reduced to a small
dominion round Iannina. Thessaly continued to change masters
rapidly. Till 1308 it was governed by a branch line of the
Epirote dynasty. When this family died out it fell to the Grand
Catalan Company; in 1350 it was conquered along with Epirus
by Stephen Dushan, king of Servia. About 1397 it was annexed
by the Ottoman Turks, who after 1431 also gradually wrested
Epirus from its latest possessors, the Beneventine family of
Tocco (1390-1469).
The leading power in central Greece was the Burgundian
house de la Roche, which established a mild and judicious govern-
ment in Boeotia and Attica and in 1 261 was raised to ducal rank
by the French king Louis IX. A conflict with the Grand Catalan
Company resulted in a disastrous defeat of the Franks on the
Boeotian Cephissus (131 1) and the occupation of central Greece
by the Spanish mercenaries, who seized for themselves the barons'
fiefs and installed princes from the Sicilian house of Aragon as
" dukes of Athens and Neopatras " (Thessaly). After seventy-
five years of oppressive rule and constant wars with their
neighbours the Catalans were expelled by the Peloponnesian
baron Nerio Acciaiuoli. The new dynasty, whose peaceful
government revived its subjects' industry, became tributary to
the Turks about 141 5, but was deposed by Sultan Mahommed II.,
who annexed central Greece in 1456.
The conquest of the Peioponnese was effected by two French
knights, William Champlitte and Geoffrey Villehardouin, the
latter of whom founded a dynasty of " princes of all Achaea."
The rulers of this line were men of ability, who controlled their
barons and spiritual vassals with a firm hand and established
good order throughout their province. The Franks of the
Morea maintained as high a standard of culture as their com-
patriots at home, while the natives grew rich enough from their
industry to pay considerable taxes without discontent. The
climax of the Villehardouins' power was attained under Prince
William, who subdued the last independent cities of the coast
and the mountaineers of Maina ( 1 246-1 248) . In 1 2 59, however,
the same ruler was involved in the war between the rulers of
Epirus and Nicaea, and being captured at the battle of Pela-
gonia, could only ransom himself by the cession of Laconia
to the restored Byzantine empire. This new dependency after
1349 was treated with great care by the Byzantine monarchs,
who sought to repress the violence of the local aristocracies by
sending their kinsmen to govern under the title of " despots."
On the other hand, with the extinction of the Villehardouin
dynasty the Frankish province fell more and more into anarchy;
at the same time the numbers of the foreigners were constantly
dwindling through war, and as they disdained to recruit them
by intermarriage, the preponderance of the native element
in the Morea eventually became complete. Thus by 1400 the
Byzantines were enabled to recover control over almost the
whole peninsula and apportion it among several " despots."
But the mutual quarrels of these princes soon proved fatal to
their rule. Already in the 14th century they had employed
Albanians and the Turkish pirates who harried their coasts as
auxiliaries in their wars. The Albanians largely remained as
settlers, and the connexion with the Turks could no longer be
shaken off. In spite of attempts to fortify the Isthmus (1415) an
Ottoman army penetrated into Morea and deported many
inhabitants in 1423 . An invasion of central Greece by the despot
Constantine was punished by renewed raids in 1446 and 1450.
In 1457 the despot Thomas withheld the tribute which he had
recently stipulated to pay, but was reduced to obedience by an
expedition under Mahommed II. (1458). A renewed revolt in
1459 was punished by an invasion attended with executions and
deportations on a large scale, and by the annexation of the
Morea to Turkey (1460).
IV. The Turkish Dominion till 1S00.— Under the Ottoman
government Greece was split up into six sanjaks or military
divisions: (1) Morea, (2) Epirus, (3) Thessaly, (4) Euboea,
Boeotia and Attica, (5) Aetolia and Acarnania, (6) the rest of
central Greece, with capitals at Nauplia, Jannina, Trikkala,
Negropont (Chalkis), Karlili and Lepanto; further divisions
were subsequently composed of Crete and the islands. In each
sanjak a number of fiefs was apportioned to Turkish settlers,
who were bound in return to furnish some mounted men for
the sultan's army, the total force thus held in readiness being
over 7000. The local government was left in the hands of the
archonies or primates in each community, who also undertook
the farming of the taxes and the policing of their districts. Law
was usually administered by the Greek clergy. The natives
were not burdened with large imposts, but the levying of the
land-tithes was effected in an inconvenient fashion, and the
capitation-tax, to which all Christians were subjected was felt
as a humiliation. A further grievance lay in the requisitions
of forced labour which the pashas were entitled to call for; but
the most galling exaction was the tribute of children for the
recruiting of the Janissaries (q.v.), which was often levied with
great ruthlessness. The habitual weakness of the central govern-
ment also left the Greeks exposed to frequent oppression by the
Turkish residents and by their own magistrates and clergy.
But the new rulers met with singularly little opposition. The
dangerous elements of the population had been cleared away by
Mahommed's executions; the rest were content to absorb
their energies in agriculture and commerce, which in spite of
preferential duties and capitulations to foreign powers largely
fell again into the hands of Greeks. Another important instru-
ment by which the people were kept down was their own clergy,
whom the Turkish rulers treated with marked favour and so
induced to acquiesce in their dominion.
In the following centuries Greece was often the theatre of
war in which the Greeks played but a passive part. Several
wars with Venice (1463-79, 1498-1504) put the Turks in posses-
sion of the last Italian strongholds on the mainland. But the
HISTORY]
GREECE
4^5
issue was mainly fought out on sea; the conflicts which had
never ceased in the Aegean since the coming of the Italians
now grew fiercer than ever; Greek ships and sailors were
frequently requisitioned for the Turkish fleets, and the damage
done to the Greek seaboard by the belligerents and by fleets of
adventurers and corsairs brought about the depopulation of
many islands and coast-strips. The conquest of the Aegean
by the Ottomans was completed by 1570; but Venice retained
Crete till 1669 and never lost Corfu until its cession to France
in 1797.
In 1684 the Venetians took advantage of the preoccupation of
Turkey on the Danube to attack the Morea. A small mercenary
army under Francesco Morosini captured the strong places
with remarkable ease, and by 1687 had conquered almost the
whole peninsula. In 1687 the invaders also captured Athens
and Lepanto; but the former town had soon to be abandoned,
and with their failure to capture Negropont (1688) the Venetians
were brought to a standstill. By the peace of Karlowitz (1699)
the Morea became a possession of Venice. The new rulers, in
spite of the commercial restrictions which they imposed in favour
of their own traders, checked the impoverishment and decrease
of population (from 300,000 to 86,000) which the war had
caused. By their attempts to cooperate with the native magis-
trates and the mildness of their administration they improved
the spirit of their subjects. But they failed to make their
government popular, and when in 171 5 the Ottomans with
a large and well-disciplined army set themselves to recover
the Morea, the Venetians were left without support from the
Greeks. The peninsula was rapidly recaptured and by the peace
of Passarowitz (17 18) again became a Turkish dependency.
The gaps left about this time in the Greek population were
largely made up by an immigration from Albania.
The condition of the Greeks in the 18th century showed a
great improvement which gave rise to yet greater hopes. Already
in the 17 th century the personal services of the subjects had
been commuted into money contributions, and since 1676 the
tribute of children fell into abeyance. The increasing use of
Greek officials in the Turkish civil service, coupled with the
privileges accorded to the Greek clergy throughout the Balkan
countries, tended to recall the consciousness of former days of
predominance in the Levant. Lastly, the education of the
Greeks, which had always remained on a comparatively high
level, was rapidly improved by the foundation of new schools
and academies.
The long neglect which Greece had experienced at the hands
of the European Powers was broken in 1764, when Russian
agents appeared in the country with promises of a speedy
deliverance from the Turks. A small expedition under Feodor
and Alexis Orloff actually landed in the Morea in 1769, but failed
to rouse national sentiment. Although the Russian fleet gained
a notable victory off Chesme near Chios, a heavy defeat near
Tripolitza ruined the prospects of the army. The Albanian
troops in the Turkish army subsequently ravaged the country
far and wide, until in 1779 they were exterminated by a force
of Turkish regulars. In 1774 a concession, embodied in the
treaty of Kuchuk Kainarji, by which Greek traders were allowed
to sail under the protection of the Russian flag, marked an
important step in the rehabilitation of the country as an inde-
pendent power. Greek commerce henceforth spread swiftly
over the Mediterranean, and increased intercourse developed a
new sense of Hellenic unity. Among the pioneers who fostered
this movement should be mentioned Constantine Rhigas, the
" modern Tyrtaeus," and Adamantios Coraes (q.v.), the reformer
of the Greek tongue. The revived memories of ancient Hellas
and the impression created by the French revolution combined
to give the final impulse which made the Greeks strike for
freedom. By 1800 the population of Greece had increased to
1,000,000, and although 200,000 of these were Albanians, the
common aversion to the Moslem united the two races. The
military resources of the country alone remained deficient, for
the armatoli or local militias, which had never been quite dis-
banded since Byzantine times, were at last suppressed by Ali
Pasha of Iannina and found but a poor substitute in the klephts
who henceforth spring into prominence. But at the first sign
of weakness in the Turkish dominion the Greek nation was
ready to rise, and the actual outbreak of revolt had become
merely a question of time.
Authorities.— General: G. Finlay, History of Greece (ed. Tozer,
Oxford, 1877), especially vols. L, iv., v. ; K. Paparrhiropoulos,
'I<7Top(aroD *EXXipaKou Wvovs (4th ed., Athens, 1903), vols, ii.-v. ;
Histoire de la civilisation helUnique (Paris, 1878); R. v. Scala,
Das Griechentutn seit Alexander dem Grossen (Leipzig and Vienna,
1904) ; and specially W. Miller, The Latins in the Levant (1908).
Special — (a) The Roman period: Strabo, bks. viii.-x.; Pausanias,
Descriptio Graeciae; G. F. Hertzbere, Die Geschichte Griechenlands
unter der Herrschaft der Rdmer (Halle, 1 866-1875); Sp. Lampros,
'loropla Ttjs 'EXXdfos (Athens, 1888 sqq.)i vol. Hi.; A. Holm,
History of Greece (Eng. trans., London, 1 894-1 898), vol. iv., chs.
19, 24, 26, 28 seq. ; Th. Mommsen, The Provinces of the Roman
Empire (Eng. trans., London, 1886, ch. 7); J. P. Mahaffy, The
Greek World under Roman Sway, from Polybius to Plutarch (London,
1890); W. Miller, " The Romans in Greece " (Westminster Review,
August 1903, pp. 186-210); L. Friedlander, " Griechenland unter
den Rdmern " (Deutsche Rundschau, 1899, pp. 251-274, 402-430).
(b) The Byzantine and Latin periods: 6. F. Hertzberg, Geschichte
Griechenlands seit dem Absterben des antiken Lebens (uotha, 1876-
1879), vols, i., ii. ; C. Hopf, Geschichte Griechenlands im Mittelalter
(Leipzig, 1868) ; J. A. Buchon, Histoire des conquUcs et de Vktablisse-
ment des Francois dans les Utats de Vancienne Grece (Paris, 184.6) ;
G. Schmitt, The Chronicle of Morea (London, 1904); W. Miller,
" The Princes of the Peloponnese " (Quarterly Review, July 1905,
pp. 109-135) ; D. Bikelas, Seven Essays on Christian Greece (Paisley
and London, 1890); La Grece byzantine et moderne (Paris, 1893),
pp. 1 -193. (c) The Turkish and Venetian periods: Hertzberg,
op. cit., vol. iii.; K. M. Bartholdy, Geschichte Griechenlands von der
Eroberung Konstantinopels (Leipzig, 1870), bks. i. and ii., pp. 1-155;
K. N. Sathas, TovpKOKparovfxkvri 'EXXAs (Athens, 1869) ; W. Miller,
" Greece under the Turks " (Westminster Review, August and
\lish Historical Review,
p enetianer in Morea "
x _.. ^05-502). (d) Special subjects:
Religion. E. Hatch, The Influence of Greek Ideas and Usages upon
the Christian Church (London, 1890). Ethnology. J. P. Fallmerayer,
Geschichte der Halbinsel Morea wahrend des Mittelalters (Stuttgart
and Tubingen, 1830) ; S. Zampelios, EM mry&v vto€Xktivucrjs Wv&nrrw
(Athens, 1857) ; A. Philippson, " Zur Ethnographie des Peloponnes "
Petermanris Mitteilungen 36 (1890), pp. 1-11, 33-41]; A. Vasiljev,
" Die Slaven in Griechenland " [ VizanttjskyVremennik, St Petersburg,
5 (1898), pp. 404-458, 626-670].
See also Roman Empire, Later;
Athens,
(M. O. B. C.)
c. Modem History: i8oo-igo8.
At the beginning of the 19th century Greece was still under
Turkish domination, but the dawn of freedom was already
breaking, and a variety of forces were at work which
prepared the way for the acquisition of national JJj^JJ 1 *"
independence. The decadence of the Ottoman empire, Turkey.
which began with the retreat of the Turks from Vienna
in 1683, was indicated in the 18th century by the weakening of
the central power, the spread of anarchy in the provinces, the
ravages of the janissaries, and the establishment of practically
independent sovereignties or fiefs, such as those of Mehemet
of Bushat at Skodra and of Ali Pasha of Tepelen at Iannina;
the 19th century witnessed the first uprisings of the Christian
populations and the detachment of the outlying portions of
European Turkey. Up to the end of the 18 th century none of
the subject races had risen in spontaneous revolt against the
Turks, though in some instances they rendered aid to the sultan's
enemies; the spirit of the conquered nations had been broken
by ages of oppression. In some of the remoter and more moun-
tainous districts, however, the authority of the Turks had never
been completely established; in Montenegro a small fragment
of the Serb race maintained its independence; among the Greeks,
the Mainotes in the extreme south of the Morea and the Sphakiote
mountaineers in Crete had never been completely subdued.
Resistance to Ottoman rule was maintained sporadically in the
mountainous districts by the Greek klephts or brigands, the
counterpart of the Slavonic haiduks, and by the pirates of the
Aegean; the armatoles or bodies of Christian warriors, recognized
by the Turks as a local police, often differed little in their
proceedings from the brigands whom they were appointed to
pursue.
4 66
GREECE
[HISTORY
Of the series of insurrections which took place in the 19th
century, the first in order of time was the Servian, which broke
eut in 1804; the second was the Greek, which began
in 182 1. In both these movements the influence of
RusmImh
laflueaee.
Russia played a considerable part. In the case of
the Servians Russian aid was mainly diplomatic, in that of the
Greeks it eventually took a more material form. Since the days
of Peter the Great, the eyes of Russia had been fixed on Con-
stantinople, the great metropolis of the Orthodox faith. The
policy of inciting the Greek Christians to revolt against their
oppressors, which was first adopted in the reign of the empress
Anna, was put into practical operation by the empress Catharine
II., whose favourite, Orlov, appeared in the Aegean with a fleet
in 1769 and landed in the Morea, where he organized a revolt.
The attempt proved a failure; Orlov re-embarked, leaving the
Greeks at the mercy of the Turks, and terrible massacres took
place at Tripolitza, Lemnos and elsewhere. By the treaty of
Kutchuk-Kainarji (July 21, 1774) Russia obtained a vaguely-
defined protectorate over the Orthodox Greek subjects of Turkey,
and in 1 78 1 she arrived at an arrangement with Austria, known
as the " Greek project," for a partition of Turkish territory
and the restoration of the Byzantine empire under Constantine,
the son of Catharine II. The outbreak of the French Revolution
distracted the attention of the two empires, but Russia never
ceased to intrigue among the Christian subjects of Turkey. A
revolt of the inhabitants of Suli in 1700 took place with her
connivance, and in the two first decades of the 19th century
her agents were active and ubiquitous.
The influence of the French Revolution, which pervaded
all Europe, extended to the shores of the Aegean. The Greeks,
Onek wn <> had hitherto been drawn together mainly by a
revoht- common religion, were now animated by the sentiment
^JJJJj?' of nationality and by an ardent desire for political
freedom. The national awakening, as in the case of
the other subject Christian nations, was preceded by a literary
revival. Literary and patriotic societies, the Philhellenes, the
Philomousi, came into existence; Greek schools were founded
everywhere; the philological labours of Coraes, which created
the modern written language, furnished the nation with a mode
of literary expression; the songs of Rhigas of Velestino fired
the enthusiasm of the people. In 1815 was founded the cele-
brated Philiki Hetaerea, or friendly society, a revolutionary
organization with centres at Moscow, Bucharest, Triest, and in
all the cities of the Levant; it collected subscriptions, issued
manifestos, distributed arms and made preparations for the
coming insurrection. The revolt of Ali Pasha of Iannina against
the authority of the sultan in 1820 formed the prelude to the
Greek uprising; this despot, who had massacred the Greeks
by hundreds, now declared himself their friend, and became
a member of the Hetaerea, In March 182 1 Alexander Ypsi-
lanti, a former aide-de-camp of the tsar Alexander I., and
president of the Hetaerea, entered Moldavia from Russian
territory at the head of a small force; in the same month
Archbishop Germanos of Patras unfurled the standard of revolt
at Kaiavryta in the Morea.
For the history of the prolonged struggle which followed
see Greek War of Independence. The warfare was practically
brought to a close by the annihilation of the Egyptian
dtra*"/ fleet at Navarmo bv tne flcets *>f Great Britain, France
Orvece. and Russia on the 20th of October 1828. Nine months
previously, Count John Capo dTstria (q.v.), formerly
minister of foreign affairs of the tsar Alexander, had been
elected president of the Greek republic for a period of seven
years (January 18,1828). By the protocol of London (March 22,
1829) the Greek mainland south of a line drawn from the Gulf
of Arta to the Gulf of Volo, the Morea and the Cyclades were
declared a principality tributary to the sultan under a Christian
prince. The limits drawn by the protocol of London were
confirmed by the treaty of Adrianople (September 14, 1829),
by which Greece was constituted an independent monarchy.
The governments of Russia, France and England were far
from sharing the enthusiasm which the gallant resistance of the
Greeks had excited among the peoples of Europe, and which
inspired the devotion of Byron, Cochrane, Sir Richard Church,
Fabvier and other distinguished Philhellenes; jealousies
prevailed among the three protecting powers, and the newly-
liberated nation was treated in a niggardly spirit; its narrow
limits were reduced by a new protocol (February 3, 1830), which
drew the boundary line at the Aspropotamo, the Spercheios and
the Gulf of Lamia. Capo dTstria, whose Russian proclivities
and arbitrary government gave great offence to the Greeks, was
assassinated by two members of the Mavromichalis family
(October 9, 1831), and a state of anarchy followed. Before his
death the throne of Greece had been offered to Prince Leopold
of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, afterwards king of the Belgians, who
declined it, basing his refusal on the inadequacy of the limits
assigned to the new kingdom and especially the exclusion of
Crete.
By the convention of London (May 7, 1832) Greece was
declared an independent kingdom under the protection of
Great Britain, France and Russia with Prince Otto, j^- ^^
son of King Louis I. of Bavaria, as king. The frontier
line, now traced from the Gulf of Arta to the Gulf of Lamia,
was fixed by the arrangement of Constantinople (July 21, 1832).
Ring Otto, who had been brought up in a despotic court,
ruled absolutely for the first eleven years of his reign; he
surrounded himself with Bavarian advisers and Bavarian troops,
and his rule was never popular. The Greek chiefs and politicians,
who found themselves excluded from all influence and advance-
ment, were divided into three factions which attached themselves
respectively to the three protecting powers. On the 15th of
September 1843 a military revolt broke out which compelled the
king to dismiss the Bavarians and to accept a constitution. A
responsible ministry, a senate nominated by the king, and a
chamber elected by universal suffrage were now instituted.
Mavrocordatos, the leader of the English party, became the first
prime minister, but his government was overthrown at the
ensuing elections, and a coalition of the French and Russian
parties under Kolettes and Metaxas succeeded to power. The
warfare of factions was aggravated by the rivalry between the
British and French ministers, Sir Edmond Lyons and M.
Piscatory; King Otto supported the French party, and trouble
arose with the British government, which in 1847 despatched
warships to enforce the payment of interest on the loan con-
tracted after the War of Independence. A British fleet subse-
quently blockaded the Peiraeus in order to obtain satisfaction
for the claims of Pacifico, a Portuguese Jew under British
protection, whose house had been plundered during a riot. On
the outbreak of hostilities between Russia and Turkey in 1853
the Greeks displayed sympathy with Russia; armed bands
were sent into Thessaly, and an insurrection was fomented in
Epirus in the hope of securing an accession of territory. In
order to prevent further hostile action on the part of Greece,
British and French fleets made a demonstration against the
Peiraeus, which was occupied by a French force during the
Crimean War. The disappointment of the national hopes
increased the unpopularity of King Otto, who had never
acquiesced in constitutional rule. In 1862 a military revolt
broke out, and a national assembly pronounced his deposition.
The vacant throne was offered by the assembly to Duke Nicholas
of Leuchtenberg, a cousin of the tsar, but the mass of the people
desired a constitutional monarchy of the British type; a
plebiscite was taken, and Prince Alfred of England was elected
by an almost unanimous vote. The three protecting powers,
however, had bound themselves to the exclusion of any member
of their ruling houses. In the following year Prince William
George of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glucksburg, whom
the British government had designated as a suitable candidate,
was elected by the National Assembly with the title " George I.,
king of the Hellenes." Under the treaty of London (July 13,
1863) the change of dynasty was sanctioned by the three protect-
ing powers, Great Britain undertaking to cede to Greece the
seven Ionian Islands, which since 181 5 had formed a common-
wealth under British protection.
HISTORY]
GREECE
467
On the 29th of October 1863 the new sovereign arrived in
Athens, and in the following June the British authorities handed
over the Ionian Islands to a Greek commissioner.
A £** m i King George thus began his reign under the most
gtem^ favourable auspices, the patriotic sentiments of the
Greeks beingflattered by the acquisition of new territory.
He was, however, soon confronted with constitutional difficulties;
party spirit ran riot at Athens, the ministries which he appointed
proved short-lived, his counsellor, Count Sponneck, became
the object of violent attacks, and at the end of 1864 he was
compelled to accept an ultra-democratic constitution, drawn
up by the National Assembly. This, the sixth constitution voted
since the establishment of the kingdom, is that which is still in
force. In the following year Count Sponneck left Greece, and
the attention of the nation was concentrated on the affairs of
Crete. The revolution which broke out in that island received
moral and material support from the Greek government, with
the tacit approval of Russia; military preparations were
pressed forward at Athens, and cruisers were purchased, but the
king, aware of the inability of Greece to attain her ends by
warlike means, discouraged a provocative attitude towards
Turkey, and eventually dismissed the bellicose cabinet of
Koumoundouros. The removal of a powerful minister command-
ing a large parliamentary majority constituted an important
precedent in the exercise of the royal prerogative; the king
adopted a similar course with regard to Deiyannes in 1892 and
1897. The relations with the porte, however, continued to grow
worse, and Hobart Pasha, with a Turkish fleet, made a demonstra-
tion off Syra. The Cretan insurrection was finally crushed in
the spring of 1869, and a conference of the powers, which
assembled that year at Paris, imposed a settlement of the
Turkish dispute on Greece, but took no steps on behalf of the
Cretans. In 1 870 the murder of several Englishmen by brigands
in the neighbourhood of Athens produced an unfavourable
impression in Europe; in the following year the confiscation
of the Laurion mines, which had been ceded to a Franco-Italian
company, provoked energetic action on the part of France and
Italy. In 1875, after an acute constitutional crisis, Charilaos
Trikoupes, who but ten months previously had been imprisoned
for denouncing the crown in a newspaper article, was summoned
to form a cabinet. This remarkable man, the only great states-
man whom modern Greece has produced, exercised an extra-
ordinary influence over his countrymen for the next twenty
years; had he been able to maintain himself uninterruptedly
in power during that period, Greece might have escaped a long
succession of misfortunes. His principal opponent, Theodore
Deiyannes, succeeded in rallying a strong body of adherents,
and political parties, hitherto divided into numerous factions,
centred around these two prominent figures.
In 1877 the outbreak of the Russo-Turkish War produced a
fever of excitement in Greece; it was felt that the quarrels
of the party leaders compromised the interests of the
hnathr country, and the populace of Athens insisted on the
188U ' formation of a coalition cabinet. The " great " or
" oecumenical " ministry, as it was called, now came
into existence under the presidency of the veteran Kanares; in
reality, however, it was controlled by Trikoupes, who, recognizing
the unpreparedness of the country, resolved on a pacific policy.
The capture of Plevna by the Russians brought about the fall
of the " oecumenical " ministry, and Koumoundouros and
Deiyannes, who succeeded to power, ordered the invasion of
Thessaly. Their warlike energies, however, were soon checked
by the signing of the San Stefano Treaty, in which the claims
of Greece to an extension of frontier were altogether ignored.
At the Berlin congress two Greek delegates obtained a hearing
on the proposal of Lord Salisbury. The congress decided that
the rectification of the frontier should be left to Turkey and
Greece, the mediation of the powers being proposed in case of
non-agreement; it was suggested, however, that the rectified
frontier should extend from the valley of the Peneus on the east
to the mouth of the Kalamas, opposite the southern extremity
of Corfu, on the west. In 1879 a Greco-Turkish commission
for the delimitation met first at Prevesa, and subsequently at
Constantinople, but its conferences were without result, the
Turkish commissioners declining the boundary suggested at
Berlin. Greece then invoked the arbitration of the powers,
and the settlement of the question was undertaken by a confer-
ence of ambassadors at Berlin (1880). The line approved by
the conference was practically that suggested by the congress;
Turkey, however, refused to accept it, and the Greek army was
once more mobilized. In was evident, however, that nothing
could be gained by an appeal to arms, the powers not being
prepared to apply coercion to Turkey. By a convention signed
at Constantinople in July 1881, the demarcation was entrusted
to a commission representing the six powers and the two
interested parties. The line drawn ran westwards from a point
between the mouth of the Peneus and Platamona to the summits
of Mounts Kritiri and Zygos, thence following the course of
the river Arta to its mouth. An area of 13,395 square kilometres,
with a population of 300,000 souls, was thus added to the kingdom,
while Turkey was left in possession of Iannina, Metzovo and
most of Epirus. The ceded territory was occupied by Greek
troops before the close of the year.
In 1882 Trikoupes came into power at the head of a strong
party, over which he exercised an influence and authority
hitherto unknown in Greek political life. With the
exception of three brief intervals (May 1885 to May T5r J 00 ^ e *
1886, October 1890 to February 1892, and a few o^saaes.
months in 1893), he continued in office for the next
twelve years. The reforms which he introduced during this period
were generally of an unpopular character, and were loudly
denounced by his democratic rivals; most of them were cancelled
during the intervals when his opponent Deiyannes occupied the
premiership. The same want of continuity proved fatal to the
somewhat ambitious financial programme which he now inaugur-
ated. While pursuing a cautious foreign policy, and keeping
in control the rash impetuosity of his fellow-countrymen, he
shared to the full the national desire for expansion, but he looked
to the development of the material resources of the country
as a necessary preliminary to the realization of the dreams of
Hellenism. With this view he endeavoured to attract foreign
capital to the country, and the confidence which he inspired in
financial circles abroad enabled him to contract a number of
loans and to better the financial situation by a series of con-
versions. Under a stable, wise, and economical administration
this far-reaching programme might perhaps have been carried
out with success, but the vicissitudes of party politics and the
periodical outbursts of national sentiment rendered its realization
impossible. In April 1885 Trikoupes fell from power, and a
few months later the indignation excited in Greece by the revolu-
tion of Philippopolis placed Deiyannes once more at the head
of a warlike movement. The army and fleet were again
mobilized with a view to exacting territorial compensation
for the aggrandizement of Bulgaria, and several conflicts with
the Turkish troops took place on the frontier. The powers,
after repeatedly inviting the Deiyannes cabinet to disarm,
established a blockade of Peiraeus and other Greek ports (8th
May 1886), France alone declining to co-operate in this measure.
Deiyannes resigned (nth May) and Trikoupes, who succeeded
to power, issued a decree of disarmament (25th May). Hostilities,
however, continued on the frontier, and the blockade was not
raised till 7th June. Trikoupes had now to face the serious
financial situation brought about by the military activity of his
predecessor. He imposed heavy taxation, which the people,
for the time at least, bore without murmuring, and he continued
to inspire such confidence abroad that Greek securities maintained
their price in the foreign market. It was ominous, however,
that a loan which he issued in 1890 was only partially covered.
Meanwhile the Cretan difficulty had become once more a source
of trouble to Greece. In 1889 Trikoupes was grossly deceived
by the Turkish government, which, after inducing him to
dissuade the Cretans from opposing the occupation of certain
fortified posts, issued a firman annulling many important
provisions in the constitution of the island. The indignation
4 68
GREECE
[HISTORY
in Greece was intense, and popular discontent was increased
by the success of the Bulgarians in obtaining the exequatur of
the sultan for a number of bishops in Macedonia. In the
autumn of 1890 Trikoupes was beaten at the elections, and
Delyannes, who had promised the people a radical reform of
the taxation, succeeded to power. He proved unequal, however,
to cope with the financial difficulty, which now became urgent;
and the king, perceiving that a crisis was imminent, dismissed
him and recalled Trikoupes. The hope of averting national
bankruptcy depended on the possibility of raising a loan by
which the rapid depreciation of the paper currency might be
arrested, but foreign financiers demanded guarantees which
seemed likely to prove hurtful to Greek susceptibilities; an
agitation was raised at Athens, and Trikoupes suddenly resigned
(May 1893). His conduct at this juncture appears to have been
due to some misunderstandings which had arisen between him
and the king. The Sotiropoulos-Rhalles ministry which followed
effected a temporary settlement with the national creditors,
but Trikoupes, returning to power in the autumn, at once
annulled the arrangement. He now proceeded to a series of
arbitrary measures which provoked the severest criticism
throughout Europe and exposed Greece to the determined
hostility of Germany. A law was hastily passed which deprived
the creditors of 70% of their interest, and the proceeds of the
revenues conceded to the monopoly bondholders were seized
(December 1893). Long negotiations followed, resulting in an
arrangement which was subsequently reversed by the German
bondholders. In January 1895 Trikoupes resigned office, in
consequence of a disagreement with the crown prince on a
question of military discipline. His popularity had vanished,
his health was shattered, and he determined to abandon his
political career. His death at Cannes (nth April 1896), on the
eve of a great national convulsion, deprived Greece of his
masterly guidance and sober judgment at a critical moment
in her history.
His funeral took place at Athens on 23rd April, while the city
was still decorated with flags and garlands after the celebration
Nation' °* the Olympic games. The revival of the ancient
allMt festival, which drew together multitudes of Greeks
*gtt*ttoh from abroad, led to a lively awakening of the national
1896m sentiment, hitherto depressed by the economic mis-
fortunes of the kingdom, and a secret patriotic society, known
as the EthnitU Hetaerea, began to develop prodigious activity,
enrolling members from every rank of life and establishing
branches in all parts of the Hellenic world. The society had
been founded in 1894, by a handful of young officers who con-
sidered that the military organization of the country was
neglected by the government; its principal aim was the pre-
paration of an insurrectionary movement in Macedonia, which,
owing to the activity of the Bulgarians and the reconciliation
of Prince Ferdinand with Russia, seemed likely to be withdrawn
for ever from the domain of Greek irredentism. The outbreak
of another insurrection in Crete supplied the means of creating
a diversion for Turkey while the movement in Macedonia was
being matured; arms and volunteers were shipped to the
island, but the society was as yet unable to force the hand of the
government, and Delyannes, who had succeeded Trikoupes in
1895, loyally aided the powers in the restoration of order by
advising the Cretans to accept the constitution of 1896. The
appearance of strong insurgent bands in Macedonia in the
summer of that year testified to the activity of the society and
provoked the remonstrances of the powers, while the spread
of its propaganda in the army led to the issue of a royal rescript
announcing grand military manoeuvres, the formation of a
standing camp, and the rearmament of the troops with a new
weapon (6th December). The objects of the society were
effectually furthered by the evident determination of the porte
to evade the application of the stipulated reforms in Crete; the
Cretan Christians lost patience, and indignation was widespread
in Greece. Emissaries of the society were despatched to the
island, and affairs were brought to a climax by an outbreak
at Canea on 4th February 1897. The Turkish troops fired on
the Christians, thousands of whom took refuge on the warships
of the powers, and a portion of the town was consumed by fire.
Delyannes now announced that the government had
abandoned the policy of abstention. On the 6th two warships
were despatched to Canea, and on the 10th a torpedo
flotilla, commanded by Prince George, left Peiraeus ???*
amid tumultuous demonstrations. Theostensible object #497*'
of these measures was the protection of Greek subjects
in Crete, and Delyannes was still anxious to avoid a definite
rupture with Turkey, but the Ethnik6 Hetaerea had found
means to influence several members of the ministry and to alarm
the king. Prince George, who had received orders to prevent
the landing of Turkish reinforcements on the island, soon with-
drew from Cretan waters owing to the decisive attitude adopted
by the commanders of the international squadron. A note was
now addressed by the government to the powers, declaring
that Greece could no longer remain a passive spectator of events
in Crete, and on the 13 th of February a force of 1500 men, under
Colonel Vassos, embarked at Peiraeus. On the same day a
Greek warship fired on a Turkish steam yacht which was convey-
ing troops from Candia to Sitia. Landing near Canea on the
night of the 14th, Colonel Vassos issued a proclamation announc-
ing the occupation of Crete in the name of King George. He
had received orders to expel the Turkish garrisons from the
fortresses, but his advance on Canea was arrested by the inter-
national occupation of that town, and after a few engagements
with the Turkish troops and irregulars he withdrew into the
interior of the island. Proposals for the coercion of Greece were
now put forward by Germany, but Great Britain declined to
take action until an understanding had been arrived at with
regard to the future government of Crete. Eventually (and
March) collective notes were addressed to the Greek and Turkish
governments announcing the decision of the powers that (1)
Crete could in no case in present circumstances be annexed to
Greece; (2) in view of the delays caused by Turkey in the appli-
cation of the reforms, Crete should be endowed with an effective
autonomous administration, calculated to ensure it a separate
government, under the suzerainty of the sultan. Greece was at
the same time summoned to remove its army and fleet within
the space of six days, and Turkey was warned that its troops
must for the present be concentrated in the fortified towns and
ultimately withdrawn from the island. The action of the powers
produced the utmost exasperation at Athens; the populace
demanded war with Turkey and the annexation of Crete, and
the government drew up a reply to the powers in which, while
expressing the conviction that autonomy would prove a failure,
it indicated its readiness to withdraw some of the ships, but
declined to recall the army. A suggestion that the troops might
receive a European mandate for the preservation of order in
the island proved unacceptable to the powers, owing to the
aggressive action of Colonel Vassos after his arrival. Meanwhile
troops, volunteers and munitions of war were hurriedly
despatched to the Turkish frontier in anticipation of an inter-
national blockade of the Greek ports, but the powers contented
themselves with a pacific blockade of Crete, and military pre-
parations went on unimpeded.
While the powers dallied, the danger of war increased; on
29th March the crown prince assumed command of the Greek
troops in Thessaly, and a few days later hostilities
were precipitated by the irregular forces of the Ethnik6 Turkey.
Hetaerea, which attacked several Turkish outposts
near Grevena. According to a report of its proceedings, subse-
quently published by the society, this invasion received the
previous sanction of the prime minister. On 17th April Turkey
declared war. The disastrous campaign which followed was of
short duration, and it was evident from the outset that the
Greeks had greatly underrated the military strength of their
opponents (see Greco-Turkish War). After the evacuation
of Larissa on the 24th, great discontent prevailed at Athens;
Delyannes was invited by the king to resign, but refusing to do
so was dismissed (29th April). His successor, Rhalles, after
recalling the army from Crete (9th May) invoked the mediation
HISTORY]
GREECE
469
of the powers, and an armistice was concluded on the 19th of
that month. Thus ended an unfortunate enterprise, which
was undertaken in the hope that discord among the powers
would lead to a European war and the dismemberment of Turkey.
Greek interference in Crete had at least the result of compelling
Europe to withdraw the island for ever from Turkish rule. The
conditions of peace put forward by Turkey included a war
indemnity of £10,000,000 and the retention of Thessaly; the
latter demand, however, was resolutely opposed by Great
Britain, and the indemnity was subsequently reduced to
£4,000,000. The terms agreed to by the powers were rejected
by Rhalles; the chamber, however, refused him a vote of
confidence and King George summoned Zaimes to power
(October 3) . The definitive treaty of peace, which was signed
at Constantinople on the 6th of December, contained a provision
for a slight modification of the frontier, designed to afford
Turkey certain strategical advantages; the delimitation was
carried out by a commission composed of military delegates of
the powers and representatives of the interested parties. The
evacuation of Thessaly by the Turkish troops was completed
in June 1898. An immediate result of the war was the institution
of an international financial commission at Athens, charged with
the control of certain revenues assigned to the service of the
national debt. The state of the country after the conclusion of
hostilities was deplorable; the towns of northern Greece and
the islands were crowded with destitute refugees from Thessaly;
violent recriminations prevailed at Athens, and the position of
the dynasty seemed endangered. A reaction, however, set in,
in consequence of an attempt to assassinate King George (28th
February 1898), whose great services to the nation in obtaining
favourable terms from the powers began to receive general
recognition. In the following summer the king made a tour
through the country, and was everywhere received with
enthusiasm. In the autumn the powers, on the initiative of
Russia, decided to entrust Prince George of Greece with the
government of Crete; on 26th November an intimation that
the prince had been appointed high commissioner in the island
was formally conveyed to the court of Athens, and on 21st
December he landed in Crete amid enthusiastic demonstrations
(see Crete).
In April 1899 Zaimes gave way to Theotokes, the chief of
the Trikoupist party, who introduced various improvements in
the administration of justice and other reforms includ-
M***- ing a measure transferring the administration of the
'troubh*. armv f rom ti* e minister of war to the crown prince.
In May 1901 a meeting took place at Abbazia, under the
auspices of the Austro-Hungarian government, between King
George and King Charles of Rumania with a view to the conclusion
of a Graeco-Rumanian understanding directed against the growth
of Slavonic, and especially Bulgarian, influence in Macedonia.
The compact, however, was destined to be short-lived owing
to the prosecution of a Rumanian propaganda among the
semi-HeOenized Vlachs of Macedonia. In November riots took
place at Athens, the patriotic indignation of the university
students and the populace being excited by the issue of a transla-
tion of the Gospels into modern Greek at the suggestion of the
queen. The publication was attributed to Panslavist intrigues
against Greek supremacy over the Orthodox populations of
the East, and the archbishop of Athens was compelled to resign.
Theotokes, whose life was attempted, retired from power, and
Zaimes formed a cabinet. In 1902 the progress of the Bulgarian
movement in Macedonia once more caused great irritation in
Greece. Zaimes, having been defeated at the elections in
December, resigned, and was succeeded by Delyannes, whose
popularity had not been permanently impaired by the misfortunes
of the war. Delyannes now undertook to carry out extensive
economic reforms, and introduced a measure restoring the
control of the army to the ministry of war. He failed, however,
to carry out his programme, and, being deserted by a section
of his followers, resigned in June 1903, when Theotokes again
became prime minister. The new cabinet resigned within a
month owing to the outbreak of disturbances in the currant-
growing districts, and Rhalles took office for the second time
(July 8). The Bulgarian insurrection in Macedonia during the
autumn caused great excitement in Athens, and Rhalles adopted
a policy of friendship with Turkey (see Macedonia). The
co-operation of the Greek party in Macedonia with the Turkish
authorities exposed it to the vengeance of the insurgents, and
in the following year a number of Greek bands were sent into
that country. The campaign of retaliation was continued in
subsequent years.
In December Rhalles, who had lost the support of the
Delyannist party, was replaced by Theotokes, who promulgated
a scheme of army reorganization, introduced various
economies and imposed fresh taxation. In December o^l^f^
the government was defeated on a vote of confidence
and Delyannes once more became prime minister, obtaining a
considerable majority in the elections which followed (March
1905), but on the 13th of June he was assassinated. He was
succeeded by Rhalles, who effected a settlement of the currant
question and cultivated friendly relations with Turkey in regard
to Macedonia.
In the autumn anti- Greek demonstrations in Rumania led
to a rupture of relations with that country. In December the
ministry resigned owing to an adverse vote of the chamber,
and Theotokes formed a cabinet. The new government, as a
preliminary to military and naval reorganization, introduced
a law directed against the candidature of military officers for
parliament. Owing to obstruction practised by the military
members of the chamber a dissolution took place, and at the
subsequent elections (April 1906) Theotokes secured a large
majority. In the autumn various excesses committed against
the Greeks in Bulgaria in reprisal for the depredations of the
Greek bands in Macedonia caused great indignation in Greece,
but diplomatic relations between the two countries were not
suspended. On the 26th of September Prince George, who had
resigned the high commissionership of Crete, returned to Athens;
the designation of his successors was accorded by the protecting
powers to King George as a satisfaction to Greek national senti-
ment (see Crete). The great increase in the activity of the
Greek bands in Macedonia during the following spring and summer
led to the delivery of a Turkish note at Athens (July 1907),
which was supported by representations of the powers.
In October 1908 the proclamation by the Cretan assembly of
union with Greece threatened fresh complications, the cautious
attitude of the Greek government leading to an agitation in the
army, which came to a head in 1909. On the 18th of July a
popular demonstration against his Cretan policy led to the
resignation of Theotokes, whose successor, Rhalles, announced
a programme of military and economical reform. The army,
however, took matters into its own hands, and on the 23rd of
August Rhalles was replaced by Mavromichales, the nominee of
the " Military League." For the next six months constitutional
government was practically superseded by that of the League,
and for a while the crown itself seemed to be in danger. The
influence of the League, however, rapidly declined; army and
navy quarrelled; and a fresh coup d'itot at the beginning of 1910
failed of its effect, owing to the firmness of the king. On the 7th
of February Mavromichales resigned, and his successor, Dra-
goumis, accepting the Cretan leader Venezelo's suggestion of a
national assembly, succeeded in persuading the League to
dissolve (March 29) on receiving the king's assurance that such
an assembly would be convened. On the 31st, accordingly,
King George formally proclaimed the convocation of a national
assembly to deal with the questions at issue.
Authorities. — Finlay, History of Greece (Oxford, 1877) ; K. N.
Sathas, Mcvauovurfi /St/SXiottyxi? (7 vols., Venice, 1 872-1894); and
Mwititia 'KWrjvucijs laroplas. Documents inkdits relatifs dVhistoire du
moyen dge (9 vols., Paris, 1880-1890); Sp. Trikoupes, 'laropla rfc
'EWrjvucrjs brapaor brews (4 vols., 3rd ed., Athens, 1888); K.
Paparrhegopoulos, *laropla tov 'EXXtjvucoD Wvovs (5 vols., 4th ed.,
Athens, 1903) ; T. Philemon, AoKlpiov hrroptxbv irepl rijs 'EWrjpucrjs
kTravaaraaeox (Athens, 1 859-1 86 1 ) ; P. Kontoyannes, Ol'EWrjvtx icard
rdr vp&ror kicl AbcaTtplrqs *P<aaaorovpKix6u *6\enov (Athens, 1903) ;
D. G. Kampouroglos, "laropia r&v 'AStiwUcw. TovpicoKparla, 1 458-1 687
(2 vols., Athens, 1 889-1 890) ; and Mvrifxeia Hjs laropias tup 'Adtivaitm,
47°
GREEK ART
(3 vols., Athens, 1889-1892); G.E.Mavrogiannes, 'Icropla rw 'lovLwv
rive*, 1 797-18 1 5 (2 vols., Athens, 1 889); P. Karolides, 'leropla rod
td'al&vot, 1 8 14-1892 (Athens, 1 89 1- 1803); E. Kyriakides, l#rop(a
rovavyxphyov 'KKktivurpov 1 832-1 892 (2 vols., Athens, 1892); G.
Konstantinides, % loropla r&v 'J&tip&v teb Xpurrov yevrfjaeun iu%pl rod 18 21
(2nd ed., Athens, 1894) ; D. Bikelas, La Grece byzantine et moderne
(Paris, 1893). (J. D. B.)
GREEK ART. It is proposed in the present article to give a
brief account of the history of Greek art and of the principles
embodied in that history. In any broad view of history, the
products of the various arts practised by a people constitute an
objective and most important record of the spirit of that people.
But all nations have not excelled in the same way: some have
found their best expression in architecture, some in music, some
in poetry. The Greeks most fully embodied their ideas in two
ways, first in their splendid literature, both prose and verse, and
secondly, in their plastic and pictorial art, in which matter they
have remained to our days among the greatest instructors of
mankind. The three arts of architecture, sculpture and painting
were brought by them into a focus; and by their aid they pro-
duced a visible splendour of public life such as has perhaps been
nowhere else attained.
The volume of the remains of Greek civilization is so vast, and
the learning with which these have been discussed is so ample,
that it is hopeless to attempt to give in a work like the present
any complete account of either. Rather we shall be frankly
eclectic, choosing for consideration such results of Greek art
as are most noteworthy and most characteristic. In some cases
it will be possible to give a reference to a more detailed treat-
ment of particular monuments in these volumes under the
heading of the places to which they belong. Architectural
detail is relegated to Architecture and allied architectural
articles. Coins (see Numismatics) and gems (see Gems) are
treated apart, as are vases (Ceramics), and in the bibliography
which closes this article an effort is made to direct those who
wish for further information in any particular branch of our
subject.
1. The Rediscovery of Greek Art. — The visible works of Greek
architect, sculptor and painter, accumulated in the cities of
Greece and Asia Minor until the Roman conquest. And in spite
of the ravages of conquering Roman generals, and the more
systematic despoilings of the emperors, we know that when
Pausanias visited Greece, in the age of the Antonines, it was from
coast to coast a museum of works of art of all ages. But the tide
soon turned. Works of originality were no longer produced, and
a succession of disasters gradually obliterated those of previous
ages. In the course of the Teutonic and Slavonic invasions from
the north, or in consequence of earthquakes, very frequent in
Greece, the splendid cities and temples fell into ruins; and
with the taking of Constantinople by the Franks in 1204 the last
great collection of works of Greek sculpture disappeared. But
while paintings decayed, and works in metal were melted down,
many marble buildings and statues survived, at least in a
mutilated condition, while terra-cotta is almost proof against
decay.
With the Renaissance attention was directed to the extant
remains of Greek and Roman art; as early as the 15th century
collections of ancient sculpture, coins and gems began to be formed
in Italy; and in the 16th the enthusiasm spread to Germany and
France. The earl of Arundel, in the reign of James I., was the
first Englishman to collect antiques from Italy and Asia Minor:
his marbles are now in the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford.
Systematic travel in Greece for the discovery of buildings and
works of art was begun by Spon and Wheler (1675-1676); and
the discovery of Pompeii in 1748 opened a new chapter in the
history of ancient art.
But though kings delighted to form galleries of ancient statues,
and the great Italian artists of the Renaissance drew from them
inspiration for their paintings and bronzes, the first really
critical appreciation of Greek art belongs to Winckelmann
(Geschichte der Kunst des Alter turns, 1764). The monuments
accessible to Winckelmann were but a very small proportion of
those we now possess, and in fact mostly works of inferior merit :
but he was the first to introduce the historical method into the
treatment of ancient art, and to show how it embodied the
ideas of the great peoples of the ancient world. He was suc-
ceeded by Lessing, and the waves of thought and feeling set
in motion by these two affected the cultivated class in all nations,
— they inspired in particular Goethe in Germany and Lord Byron
in England.
The second stage in the recovery of Greek art begins with the
permission accorded by the Porte to Lord Elgin in 1800 to re-
move to England the sculptural decoration of the Parthenon
and other buildings of Athens. These splendid works, after
various vicissitudes, became the property of the English nation,
and are now the chief treasures of the British Museum. The
sight of them was a revelation to critics and artists, accustomed
only to the base copies which fill the Italian galleries, and a new
epoch in the appreciation of Greek art began. English and
German savants, among whom Cockerell and Stackelberg were
conspicuous, recovered the glories of the temples of Aegina and
Bassae. Leake and Ross, and later Curtius, journeyed through
the length and breadth of Greece, identifying ancient sites and
studying the monuments which were above ground. Ross re-
constructed the temple of Athena Nike on the Acropolis of Athens
from fragments rescued from a Turkish bastion.
Meantime more methodical exploration brought to light the
remains of remarkable civilizations in Asia, not only in the valley
of the Euphrates, but in Lycia, whence Sir Charles Fellows
brought to London the remains of noteworthy tombs, among
which the so-called Harpy Monument and Nereid Monument
take the first place. Still more important were the accessions
derived from the excavations of Sir Charles Newton, who in the
years 185 2-1859 resided as consul in Asia Minor, and explored
the sites of the mausoleum at Halicarnassus and the shrine of
Demeter at Cnidus. Pullan at Priene, and Wood at Ephesus also
made fruitful excavations.
The next landmark is set by the German excavations at
Olympia (1876 and foil.), which not only were conducted with
a scientific completeness before unknown, and at great cost, but
also established the principle that in future all the results of
excavations in Greece must remain in the country, the right of
first publication only remaining with the explorers. The dis-
covery of the Hermes of Praxiteles, almost the only certain
original of a great Greek sculptor which we possess, has fur-
nished a new and invaluable fulcrum for the study of ancient art.
In emulation of the achievements of the Germans at Olympia,
the Greek archaeological society methodically excavated the
Athenian acropolis, and were rewarded by finding numerous
statues and fragments of pediments belonging to the age of
Peisistratus, an age when the promise of art was in full bud.
More recently French explorers have made a very thorough
examination of the site of Delphi, and have succeeded in recover-
ing almost complete two small treasuries, those of the people of
Athens and of Cnidus or Siphnos, the latter of 6th-century
Ionian work, and adorned with extremely important sculpture.
No other site of the same importance as Athens, Olympia and
Delphi remains for excavation in Greece proper. But in all
parts of the country, at Tegea, Corinth, Sparta and on a number
of other ancient sites, striking and important monuments have
come to light. And at the same time monuments already known
in Italy and Sicily, such as the temples of Paestum, Selinus and
Agrigentum have been re-examined with fuller knowledge and
better system. Only Asia Minor, under the influence of Turkish
rule, has remained a country where systematic exploration is
difficult. Something, however, has been accomplished atEphesus,
Priene, Assos and Miletus, and great works of sculpture such as
the reliefs of the great altar at Pergamum, now at Berlin, and the
splendid sarcophagi from Sidon, now at Constantinople, show
what might be expected from methodic investigation of the
wealthy Greek cities of Asia.
From further excavations at Herculaneum we may expect a
rich harvest of works of art of the highest class, such as have
already been found in the excavations on that site in the past ;
and the building operations at Rome are constantly bringing
GENERAL PRINCIPLES]
GREEK ART
47i
to light fine statues brought from Greece in the time of the
Empire, which are now placed in the collections of the Capitol
and the Baths of Diocletian.
The work of explorers on Greek sites requires as its comple-
ment and corrective much labour in the great museums of
Europe. As museum work apart from exploration tends to
dilettantism and pedantry, so exploration by itself does not
produce reasoned knowledge. When a new building, a great
original statue, a series of vases is discovered, these have to be
fitted in to the existing frame of our knowledge; and it is by
such fitting in that the edifice of knowledge is enlarged. In all
the museums and universities of Europe the fresh examination
of new monuments, the study of style and subject, and attempts
to work out points in the history of ancient art, are incessantly
going on. Such archaeological work is an important element in
the gradual education of the world, and is fruitful, quite apart
from the particular results attained, because it encourages a
method of thought. Archaeology, dealing with things which
can be seen and handled, yet being a species of historic study,
lies on the borderland between the province of natural science
and that of historic science, and furnishes a bridge whereby the
methods of investigation proper to physical and biological study
may pass into the human field.
These investigations and studies are recorded, partly in books, but
more particularly in papers in learned journals (see bibliography),
such as the Mitteilungen of the German Institute, and the English
Journal of Hellenic Studies.
An example or two may serve to give the reader a clearer
notion of the recent progress in the knowledge of Greek art.
To begin with architecture. Each of the palmary sites of
which we have spoken has rendered up examples of early Greek
temples. At Olympia there is the Heraeum, earliest of known
temples of Greece proper, which clearly shows the process
whereby stone gradually superseded wood as a constructive
material. At Delphi the explorers have been so fortunate as to
be able to put together the treasuries of the Cnidians (or
Siphnians) and of the Athenians. The former (see fig. 17) is a
gem of early Ionic art, with two Caryatid figures in front in the
place of columns, and adorned with the most delicate tracery
and fine reliefs. On the Athenian acropolis very considerable
remains have been found of temples which were destroyed by
the Persians when they temporarily occupied the site in 480 B.C.
And recently the ever-renewed study of the Erechtheum has
resulted in a restoration of its original form more valuable and
trustworthy than any previously made.
In the field of sculpture recent discoveries have been too many
and too important to be mentioned at any length. One instance
may serve to mark the rapidity of our advance. When the
remains of the Mausoleum were brought to London from the
excavations begun by Sir Charles Newton in 1856 we knew from
Pliny that four great sculptors, Scopas, Bryaxis, Leochares and
Timotheus, had worked on the sculpture; but we knew of these
artists little more than the names. At present we possess many
fragments of two pediments at Tegea executed under the direction
of Scopas, we have a basis with reliefs signed by Bryaxis, we
have identified a group in the Vatican museum as a copy of the
Ganymede of Leochares, and we have pedimental remains from
Epidaurus which we know from inscriptional evidence to be
either the works of Timotheus or made from his models. Any one
can judge how enormously our power of criticizing the Mausoleum
sculptures, and of comparing them with contemporary monu-
ments, has increased.
In regard to ancient painting we can of course expect no such
fresh illumination. Many important wall-paintings of the Roman
age have been found at Rome and Pompeii: but we have no
certain or even probable work of any great Greek painter. We
have to content ourselves with studying the colouring of reliefs,
such as those of the sarcophagi at Constantinople, and the
drawings on vases, in order to get some notion of the composition
and drawing of painted scenes in the great age of Greece. As
to the portraits of the Roman age painted on wood which have
come in considerable quantities from Egypt, they stand at a far
lower level than even the paintings of Pompeii. The number ot
our vase-paintings, however, increases steadily, and whole
classes, such as the early vases of Ionia, are being marked off
from the crowd, and so becoming available for use in illustrating
the history of Hellenic civilization.
The study of Greek art is thus one which is eminently pro-
gressive. It has over the study of Greek literature the immense
advantage that its materials increase far more rapidly. And it
is becoming more and more evident that a sound and methodic
study of Greek art is quite as indispensable as a foundation for
an artistic and archaeological education as the study of Greek
poets and orators is as a basis of literary education. The extreme
simplicity and thorough rationality of Greek art make it an
unrivalled field for the training and exercise of the faculties
which go to the making of the art-critic and art historian.
2. The General Principles of Greek Art. — Before proceeding
to sketch the history of the rise and decline of Greek art, it is
desirable briefly to set forth the principles which underlie it
(see also P. Gardner's Grammar of Greek Art).
As the literature of Greece is composed in a particular language,
the grammar and the syntax of which have to be studied before
the works in poetry and prose can be read, so Greek works of art
are composed in what may be called an artistic language. To
the accidence of a grammar may be compared the mere technique
of sculpture and painting: to the syntax of a grammar corre-
spond the principles of composition and grouping of individual
figures into a relief or picture. By means of the rules of this
grammar the Greek artist threw into form the ideas which
belonged to him as a personal or a racial possession.
We may mention first some of the more external conditions
of Greek art; next, some of those which the Greek spirit posited
for itself.
No nation is in its works wholly free from the domination of
climate and geographical position; least of all a people so keenly
alive to the influence of the outer world as the Greeks. They
lived in a land where the soil was dry and rocky, far less hospitable
to vegetation than that of western Europe, while on all sides
the horizon of the land was bounded by hard and jagged lines
of mountain. The sky was extremely clear and bright, sunshine
for a great part of the year almost perpetual, and storms, which
are more than passing gales, rare. It was in accordance with these
natural features that temples and other buildings should be
simple in form and bounded by clear lines. Such forms as
the cube, the oblong, the cylinder, the triangle, the pyramid
abound in their constructions. Just as in Switzerland the gables
of the chalets match the pine-clad slopes and lofty summits of
the mountains, so in Greece, amid barer hills of less elevation,
the Greek temple looks thoroughly in place. But its construction
is related not only to the surface of the land, but also to the
character of the race. M. fimile Boutmy, in his interesting
Philosophic de V architecture en Grece, has shown how the temple
is a triumph of the senses and the intellect, not primarily
emotional, but showing in every part definite purpose and
design. It also exhibits in a remarkable degree the love of
balance, of symmetry, of a mathematical proportion of parts and
correctness of curvature which belong to the Greek artist.
The purposes of a Greek temple may be readily judged from
its plan. Primarily it was the abode of the deity, whose statue
dwelt in it as men dwell in their own houses. Hence the cella
or naos is the central feature of the building. Here was placed
the image to which worship was brought, while the treasures
belonging to the god were disposed partly in the cella itself,
partly in a kind of treasury which often existed, as in the
Parthenon, behind the cella. There was in large temples a
porch of approach, the pronaos, and another behind, the opistho-
domos. Temples were not meant for, nor accommodated to,
regular services or a throng of worshippers. Processions and
festivals took place in the open air, in the streets and fields, and
men entered the abodes of the gods at most in groups and
families, commonly alone. Thus when a place had been found
for the statue, which stood for the presence of the god, for the
small altar of incense, for the implements of cult and the gifts of
472
GREEK ART
[GENERAL PRINCIPLES
votaries, little space remained free, and great spaces or subsidiary
chapels such as are usual in Christian cathedrals did not exist
(see Temple).
Here our concern is not with the purposes or arrangements
of a temple, but with its appearance and construction, regarded
as a work of art, and as an embodiment of Greek ideas. A few
simple and striking principles may be formulated, which are
characteristic of all Greek buildings: —
(i.) Each member of the building has one function, and only
one, and this function controls even the decoration of that
member. The pillar of a temple is made to support the architrave
and is for that purpose only. The flutings of the pillar, being
perpendicular, emphasize this fact. The line of support which
runs up through the pillar is continued in the triglyph, which
also shows perpendicular grooves. On the other hand, the wall
of a temple is primarily meant to divide or space off; thus it
may well at the top be decorated by a horizontal band of relief,
which belongs to it as a border belongs to a curtain. The base of
a column, if moulded, is moulded in such a way as to suggest
support of a great weight; the capital of a column is so carved
as to form a transition between the column and the cornice which
it supports.
(ii.) Greek architects took the utmost pains with the propor-
tions, the symmetry as they called it, of the parts of their
buildings. This was a thing in which the keen and methodical
eyes of the Greeks delighted, to a degree which a modern finds
it hard to understand. Simple and natural relations, 1:2,
1:3, 2 13 and the like, prevailed between various members of a
construction. All curves were planned with great care, to
please the eye with their flow; and the alternations and corre-
spondences of features is visible at a glance. For example, the
temple must have two pediments and two porches, and on its
sides and fronts triglyph and metope must alternate with
unvarying regularity.
(iii.) Rigidity in the simple lines of a temple is avoided by the
device that scarcely any outline is actually straight. All are
carefully planned and adapted to the eye of the spectator. In
the Parthenon the line of the floor is curved, the profiles of the
columns are curved, the corner columns slope inward from their
bases, the columns are not even equidistant. This elaborate
adaptation, called entasis, was expounded by F. C. Penrose in
his work on Athenian architecture, and has since been observed
in several of the great temples of Greece.
(iv.) Elaborate decoration is reserved for those parts of the
temple which have, or at least appear to have, no strain laid upon
them. It is true that in the archaic age experiments were made
in carving reliefs on the lower drums of columns (as at Ephesus)
and on the line of the architrave (as at Assus). But such examples
were not followed. Nearly always the spaces reserved for
mythological reliefs or groups are the tops of walls, the spaces
between the triglyphs, and particularly the pediments surmount-
ing the two fronts, which might be left hollow without danger
to the stability of the edifice. Detached figures in the round are
in fact found only in the pediments, or standing upon the tops
of the pediments. And metopes are sculptured in higher relief
than friezes.
"When we examine in detail even the simplest architectural
decoration, we discover a combination of care, sense of proportion,
and reason. The flutings of an Ionic column are not in section mere
arcs of a circle, but made up of a combination of curves which produce
a beautiful optical effect; the lines of decoration, as may be best
seen in the case of the Erechtheum, are cut with a marvellous
delicacy. Instead of trying to invent new schemes, the mason
contents himself with improving the regular patterns until they
approach perfection, and he takes everything into consideration.
Mouldings on the outside of a temple, in the full light of the sun, are
differently planned from those in the diffused light of the interior.
Mouldings executed in soft stone are less fine than those in marble.
The mason thinks before he works, and while he works, and thinks
in entire correspondence with his surroundings." *
Greek architecture, however, is treated elsewhere (see Archi-
tecture); we will therefore proceed to speak briefly of the
principles exemplified in sculpture. Existing works of Greek
1 Grammar of Greek Art.
sculpture fall easily into two classes. The first class comprises
what may be called works of substantive art, statues or groups
made for their own sake and to be judged by themselves. Such
are cult-statues of gods and goddesses from temple and shrine,
honorary portraits of rulers or of athletes, dedicated groups
and the like. The second class comprises decorative sculptures,
such as were made, usually in relief, for the decoration of temples
and tombs and other buildings, and were intended to be sub-
ordinate to architectural effect.
Speaking broadly, it may be said that the works of substantive
sculpture in our museums are in the great majority of cases
copies of doubtful exactness and very various merit. The
Hermes of Praxiteles is almost the only marble statue which can
be assigned positively to one of the great sculptors; we have to
work back towards the productions of the peers of Praxiteles
through works of poor execution, often so much restored in modern
times as to be scarcely recognizable. Decorative works, on the
other hand, are very commonly originals, and their date can often
be accurately fixed, as they belong to known buildings. They are
thus infinitely more trustworthy and more easy to deal with than
the copies of statues of which the museums of Europe, and more
especially those of Italy, are full. They are also more commonly
unrestored. But yet there are certain disadvantages attaching
to them. Decorative works, even when carried out under the
supervision of a great sculptor, were but seldom executed by him.
Usually they were the productions of his pupils or masons.
Thus they are not on the same level of art as substantive sculpture.
And they vary in merit to an extraordinary extent, according
to the capacity of the man who happened to have them in hand,
and who was probably but little controlled. Every one knows
how noble are the pedimental sculptures of the Parthenon. But
we know no reason why they should be so vastly superior to the
frieze from Phigalia; nor why the heads from the temple at Tegea
should be so fine, while those from the contemporary temple
at Epidaurus should be comparatively insignificant. From the
records of payments made to the sculptors who worked on the
Erechtheum at Athens it appears that they were ordinary masons,
some of them not even citizens, and paid at the rate of 60 drachms
(about 60 francs) for each figure, whether of man or horse, which
they produced. Such piece-work would not, in our days, produce
a very satisfactory result.
Works of substantive sculpture may be divided into two
classes, the statues of human beings and those of the gods.
The line between the two is not, however, very easy to draw,
or very definite. For in representing men the Greek sculptor
had an irresistible inclination to idealize, to represent what was
generic and typical rather than what was individual, and the
essential rather than the accidental. And in representing
deities he so fully anthropomorphized them that they became
men and women, only raised above the level of everyday life
and endowed with a superhuman stateliness. Moreover, there
was a class of heroes represented largely in art who covered
the transition from men to gods. For example, if one regards
Heracles as a deity and Achilles as a man of the heroic age and of
heroic mould, the line between the two will be found to be very
narrow.
Nevertheless one may for convenience speak first of human
and afterwards of divine figures. It was the custom from the
6th century onwards to honour those who had done any great
achievement by setting up their statues in conspicuous positions.
One of the earliest examples is that of the tyrannicides, Harmodius
and Aristogiton, a group, a copy of which has come down to us
(Plate I. fig. 50 2 ). Again, people who had not won any distinc-
tion were in the habit of dedicating to the deities portraits of
themselves or of a priest or priestess, thus bringing themselves,
as it were, constantly under the notice of a divine patron. The
rows of statues before the temples at Miletus, Athens and
* It may here be pointed out that it was found impossible, with
any regard for the appearance of the pages, to arrange the Plates for
this article so as to preserve a chronological order in the individual
figures; they are not arranged consecutively as regards the history
or the period, and are only grouped for convenience in paging. — Ed.
GREEK ART
Plate I.
Photo, Brogi.
Pholo, Brogi.
Fig. 50— HARMODIUS AND ARISTOGITON.
(Nat. Mus., Naples.)
Fig. 51— FARNESE BULL. (N a plus.)
Pholo, A nderson.
Fig. 52.— LAOCOON GROUP. (Vatican.)
XII. 47a.
Photo, Anderson.
Fig. 53— GANYMEDE OF LEOCHARES.
(Vatican.)
Plate II.
GREEK ART
Photo, Anderson.
Fig. 54.— FLAYING OF
MARSYAS. (Villa Al-
bani, Rome.)
&&
Mm * m
^1
to ^1
1 / 1 ' H
■by Bin 1
K ■ L J 1
1
ny
■11
*
Photo, Anderson.
Fig. 55.— APOLLO OF THE BELVIDERE. (Vatican.)
Fig. 56.— HEAD OF YOUNG
ALEXANDER. (Brit. Mus.)
PS
Photo, Seebah.
Fig. 57.— HERMES OF ALCA-
MENES. (Constantinople.)
Fig. 58.— THESEUS AND
AMAZON (ERETRIA).
Photo, Man sell.
Fig. 59.— DRUM OF COLUMN FROM EPHESUS.
(Brit. Mus.)
Photo, Baldwin Coolidge.
Fig. 60— YOUNG HERMES.
(Mus. of Fine Arts, Boston.)
GENERAL PRINCIPLES]
GREEK ART
473
elsewhere came thus into being. But from the point of view of
art, by far the most important class of portraits consisted of
athletes who had won victories at some of the great games of
Greece, at Olympia, Delphi or elsewhere. Early in the 6th
century the custom arose of setting up portraits of athletic
victors in the great sacred places. We have records of number-
less such statues executed by all the greatest sculptors. When
Pausanias visited Greece he found them everywhere far too
numerous for complete mention.
It is the custom of studying and copying the forms of the
finest of the young athletes, combined with the Greek habit of
complete nudity during the sports, which lies at the basis of
Greek excellence in sculpture. Every sculptor had unlimited
opportunities for observing young vigorous bodies in every
pose and in every variety of strain. The natural sense of beauty
which was an endowment of the Greek race impelled him to copy
and preserve what was excellent, and to omit ivhat was ungainly
or poor. Thus there existed, and in fact there was constantly
accumulating, a vast series of types of male beauty, and the
public taste was cultivated to an extreme delicacy. And of
course this taste, though it took its start from athletic customs,
and was mainly nurtured by them, spread to all branches of
portraiture, so that elderly men, women, and at last even children,
were represented in art with a mixture of ideality and fidelity
to nature such as has not been reached by the sculpture of any
other people.
The statues of the gods began either with stiff and ungainly
figures roughly cut out of the trunk of a tree, or with the
monstrous and symbolical representations of Oriental art. In
the Greece of late times there were still standing rude pillars,
with the tops sometimes cut into a rough likeness to the human
form. And in early decoration of vases and vessels one may
find Greek deities represented with wings, carrying in their hands
lions or griffins, bearing on their heads lofty crowns. But as
Greek art progressed it grew out of this crude symbolism. In
the language of Brunn, the Greek artists borrowed from Oriental
or Mycenaean sources the letters used in their works, but with
these letters they spelled out the ideas of their own nation.
What the artists of Babylon and Egypt express in the character
of the gods by added attribute or symbol, swiftness by wings,
control of storms by the thunderbolt, traits of character by
animal heads, the artists of Greece work more and more fully
into the sculptural type; modifying the human subject by the
constant addition of something which is above the ordinary level
of humanity, until we reach the Zeus of Pheidias or the Demeter
of Cnidus. When the decay of the high ethical art of Greece
sets in, the gods become more and more warped to the merely
human level. They lose their dignity, but they never lose their
charm.
The decorative sculpture of Greece consists not of single
figures, but of groups; and in the arrangement of these groups
the strict Greek laws of symmetry, of rhythm, and of balance,
come in. We will take the three most usual forms, the pediment,
the metope and the frieze, all of which belong properly to the
temple, but are characteristic of all decoration, whether of tomb,
trophy or other monument.
The form of the pediment is triangular; the height of the
triangle in proportion to its length being about i : 8. The
conditions of space are here strict and dominant; to comply
with them requires some ingenuity. To a modern sculptor the
problem thus presented is almost insoluble; but it was allowable
in ancient art to represent figures in a single composition as
of various sizes, in correspondence not to actual physical
measurement but to importance. As the more important figures
naturally occupy the midmost place in a pediment, their greater
size comes in conveniently. And by placing some of the persons
of the group in a standing, some in a seated, some in a reclining
position, it can be so contrived that their heads are equidistant
from the upper line of the pediment.
The statues in a Greek pediment, which are after quite an
early period usually executed in the round, fall into three, five
or seven groups, according to the size of the whole. As examples
to illustrate this exposition we take the two pediments of the
temple at Olympia, the most complete which have come down to
us, which are represented in figs. 33 and 34. The east pediment
represents the preparation for the chariot race between Pelops
and Oenomaus. The central group consists of five figures, Zeus
standing between the two pairs of competitors and their wives.
In the corners recline the two river-gods Alpheus and Cladeus,
who mark the locality; and the two sides are filled up with the
closely corresponding groups of the chariots of Oenomaus and
Pelops with their grooms and attendants. Every figure to the
left of Zeus balances a corresponding figure on his right, and all
the lines of the composition slope towards a point above the
apex of the pediment.
In the opposite or western pediment is represented the battle
between Lapiths and Centaurs which broke out at the marriage
of Peirithous in Thessaly. Here we have no less than nine groups.
In the midst is Apollo. On each side of him is a group of three,
a centaur trying to carry off a woman and a Lapith striking at
him. Beyond these on each side is a struggling pair, next once
more a trio of two combatants and a woman, and finally in each
corner two reclining female figures, the outermost apparently
nymphs to mark locality. A careful examination of these
compositions will show the reader more clearly than detailed
description how clearly in this kind of group Greek artists
adhered to the rules of rhythm and of balance.
The metopes were the long series of square spaces which ran
along the outer walls of temples between the upright triglyphs
and the cornice. Originally they may have been left open and
served as windows; but the custom came in as early as the 7th
century, first of filling them in with painted boards or slabs of
stone, and next of adorning them with sculpture. The metopes
of the Treasury of Sicyon at Delphi (Plate IV. fig. 66) are as
early as the first half of the 6th century. This recurrence of a
long series of square fields for occupation well suited the genius
and the habits of the sculptor. As subjects he took the successive
exploits of some hero such as Heracles or Theseus, or the con-
temporary groups of a battle. His number of figures was
limited to two or three, and these figures had to be worked into
a group or scheme, the main features of which were determined
by artistic tradition, but which could be varied in a hundred
ways so as to produce a pleasing and in some degree novel result.
With metopes, as regards shape, we may compare the reliefs
of Greek tombs, which also usually occupy a space roughly
square, and which also comprise but a few figures arranged
in a scheme generally traditional. A figure standing giving
his hand to one seated, two men standing hand in hand, or a
single figure in some vigorous pose is sufficient to satisfy the
simple but severe taste of the Greeks.
In regard to friezes, which are long reliefs containing figures
ranged between parallel lines, there is more variety of custom.
In temples the height of the relief from the background varies
according to the light in which it was to stand, whether direct
or diffused. Almost all Greek friezes, however, are of great
simplicity in arrangement and perspective. Locality is at most
hinted at by a few stones or trees, never actually portrayed.
There is seldom more than one line of figures, in combat or pro-
cession, their heads all equidistant from the top line of the
frieze. They are often broken up into groups; and when this is
the case, figure will often balance figure on either side of a central
point almost as rigidly as in a pediment. An example of this
will be found in the section of the Mausoleum frieze shown in
fig. 70, Plate IV. Some of the friezes executed by Greek artists
for semi-Greek peoples, such as those adorning the tomb at
Trysa in Lycia, have two planes, the figures in the background
being at a higher level.
The rules of balance and symmetry in composition which are
followed in Greek decorative art are still more to be discerned
in the paintings of vases, which must serve, in the absence of
more dignified compositions, to enlighten us as to the methods
of Greek painters. Great painters would not, of course, be bound
by architectonic rule in the same degree as the mere workmen
who painted vases. Nevertheless we must never forget that
474
GREEK ART
[GENERAL PRINCIPLES
Greek painting of the earlier ages was of extreme simplicity.
It did not represent localities, save by some slight hint; it had
next to no perspective; the colours used were but very few
even down to the days of Apelles. Most of the great pictures of
which we hear consisted of but one or two figures; and when
several figures were introduced they were kept apart and
separately treated, though, of course, not without relation to
one another. Idealism and ethical purpose must have pre-
dominated in painting as in sculpture and in the drama and
in the writing of history.
We will take from vases a few simple groups to illustrate the
laws of Greek drawing; colouring we cannot illustrate.
The fields offered to the draughtsman on Greek vases naturally
follow the form of the vase; but they may be set down as
approximately round,
square or oblong. To
each of these spaces the
artist carefully adapts
his designs. In fig. i we
have ' a characteristic
adaptation to circular
form by the vase painter
Epictetus.
In the early period of
painting all the space not
occupied by the figures
is filled with patterns
or accessories, or even
animals which have no
connexion with the sub-
ject (fig. 9). In later
and more developed art,
as in this example, the outlines of the figures are so arranged
as to fill the space.
When the space is square we have much the same problem
as is presented by the metope spaces of a temple. In the case
of both square and oblong fields the laws of balance are carefully
observed. Thus if there is an even number of figures in the
scheme, two of them will form a sort of centre-piece, those on
either side balancing one another. If the number of figures
is uneven, either there will be a group of three in the midst, or
the midmost figure will be so contrived that he belongs wholly
to neither side, but is the balance between them. These remarks
will be made clear by figs. 2 and 3, which repeat the two sides
(Brit. Mus. Catalogue of Vases, Hi. PI. vi. 2).
Fig. i. — Kylix by Epictetus.
which represent the defeat of one of these by the other; the
vanquished has commonly fallen on his knees, but still defends
himself. There is a scheme for the leading away of a captive
woman; the captor leads her by the hand looking back at her,
while a friend walks behind to ward off pursuit. Such schemes
are constantly varied in detail, and often very skilfully varied;
but the Greek artist uses schemes as a sort of shorthand, to
show as clearly as possible what he meant. They serve the
same purpose as the mask in the acting of a play, the first
glance at which will tell the spectators what they have to
look for.
No doubt the great painters of Greece were not so much under
the dominion of these schemes as the very inferior painters of
vases. They used the schemes for their own purposes instead
of being used by them. But as great poets do not revolt against
the restrictions of the sonnet or of rhyme, so great artists in
Greece probably found recognized conventions more helpful
than hurtful.
Students of Greek sculpture and vases must be warned not
to suppose that Greek reliefs and drawings can be taken as
direct illustrations of Homer or the dramatists. Book illustra-
tion in the modern sense did not exist in Greece. The poet and
the painter pursued courses which were parallel, but never in
actual contact. Each moved by the traditions of his own craft.
The poet took the accepted tale and enshrined it in a setting
of feeling and imagination. The painter took the traditional
schemes which were current, and altered or enlarged them,
adding new figures and new motives, but not attempting to set
aside the general scheme. But varieties suitable to poetry were
not likely to be suitable in painting. Thus it is but seldom that
a vase-painter seems to have had in his mind, as he drew, passages
of the Homeric poems, though these might well be familiar to
him. And almost never does a vase-painting of the 5th century
show any sign of the influence of the dramatists, who were
bringing before the Athenian public on the stage many of the
tales and incidents popular with the vase-painter. Only on
vases of lower Italy of the 4th century and later we can occasion-
ally discern something of Aeschylean and Euripidean influence
in the treatment of a myth; and even in a few cases we may
discern that the vase-painter has taken suggestions direct from
the actors in the theatre.
3. Historic Sketch. — We propose next to trace in brief outline
the history of Greek art from its rise to its decay. We begin
with the rise of a national art, after the destruction of the
From Wiener VorlegebUUter, 1890, PI. viii., by permission of the Director of the K. K. Osterr. Archaol. Institut.
Fig. 2. Vase Drawings.
Fig. 3.
of an amphora, one of which bears a design of three figures, the
other of four.
The Greek artist not only adhered to the architectonic laws
of balance and symmetry, but he thought in schemes. Certain
group arrangements had a recognized signification. There are
schemes for warriors fighting on equal terms, and schemes
Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations of early Greece by the
irruption of tribes from the north, that is to say, about 800 B.C.,
and we stop with the Roman age of Greece, after which Greek
art works in the service of the conquerors (see Roman Art).
The period 800-50 B.C. we divide into four sections: (1) the
period down to the Persian Wars, 800-480 B.C.; (2) the period
ft
•a
So
tin
Fie
from
Aim
: ^riaj
** ,
80O-48O B.C.]
GREEK ART
475
of the early schools of art, 480-400 B.C.; (3) the period of the
later great schools, 400-300 B.C.; (4) the period of Hellenistic
art, 300-50 B.C. In dealing with these successive periods we
confine our sketch to the three greater branches of representative
art, architecture, sculpture and painting, which in Greece are
closely connected. The lesser arts, of pottery, gem-engraving,
coin-stamping and the like, are treated of under the heads of
Ceramics, Gem, Numismatics, &c, while the more technical
treatment of architectural construction are dealt with under
Architecture and allied architectural articles. Further, for
brief accounts of the chief artists the reader is referred to bio-
graphical articles, under such heads as Pheidias, Praxiteles,
Apelles. We treat here only of the main course of art in its
historic evolution.
Period I. 800-480 B.C. — The fact is now generally allowed
that the Mycenaean, or as it is now termed Aegean, civilization
j^^. was for the most part destroyed by an invasion from
invasion. tne north. This invasion appears to have been
gradual; its racial character is much in dispute.
Archaeological evidence abundantly proves that it was the
conquest of a more by a less rich and civilized race. In the graves
of the period (900-600 B.C.) we find none of the wealthy spoil
which has made celebrated the tombs of Mycenae andVaphio(g.t>.).
The character of the pottery and the bronze- work which is found
in these later graves reminds us of the art of the necropolis
of Hallstatt in Austria, and other sites belonging to what is
called the bronze age of North Europe. Its predominant
characteristic is the use of geometrical forms, the lozenge, the
triangle, the maeander, the circle with tangents, in place of the
elaborate spirals and plant-forms which mark Mycenaean ware.
For this reason the period from the 9th to the 7th century in
Greece passes by the name of " the Geometric Age." It is
commonly held that in the remains of the Geometric Age we
may trace the influence of the Dorians, who, coming in as a
hardy but uncultivated race, probably of purer Aryan blood
than the previous inhabitants of Greece, not only brought to an
end the wealth and the luxury which marked the Mycenaean
age, but also replaced an art which was in character essentially
southern by one which belonged rather to the north and the
west. The great difficulty inherent in this view, a difficulty
which has yet to be met, lies in the fact that some of the most
abundant and characteristic remains of the geometric age which
we possess come, not from Peloponnesus, but from Athens and
Boeotia, which were never conquered by the Dorians.
The geometric ware is for the most part adorned with painted
patterns only. Fig. 4 is a characteristic example, a small two-
handled vase from Rhodes in the Ashmolean Museum,
w*re. tne adornment of which consists in zigzags, circles
with tangents, and lines of water birds, perhaps swans.
Sometimes, however, especially in the case of large vases from
the cemetery at Athens, which adjoins the Dipylon gate, scenes
Fig. 4. — Geometric Vase from Rhodes. (Ashmolean Museum.)
from Greek life are depicted, from daily life, not from legend or
divine myth. Especially scenes from the lying-in-state and the
burial of the dead are prevalent. An excerpt from a Dipylon
vase (fig. 5) shows a dead man on his couch surrounded by
mourners, male and female. Both sexes are apparently repre-
sented naked, and are distinguished very simply; some of them
hold branches to sprinkle the corpse or to keep away flies. It
will be seen how primitive and conventional is the drawing of
this age, presenting a wonderful contrast to the free drawing
and modelling of the Mycenaean age. In the same graves with
the pottery are sometimes found plaques of gold or bronze, and
towards the end of the geometric age these somtimes bear
scenes from mythology, treated with the greatest simplicity.
Mon. d. inst. lx. 39.
Fig. 5. — Corpse with Mourners.
For example, in the museum of Berlin are the contents of a
tomb found at Corinth, consisting mainly of gold work of geo-
metric decoration. But in the same tomb were also found gold
plates or plaques of repousse" work bearing subjects from Greek
Arch. ZeU. 1884, 8. ^
Fig. 6.— Gold Plaques: Corinth.
legend. Two of these are shown in fig. 6. On one Theseus is
slaying the Minotaur, while Ariadne stands by and encourages
the hero. The tale could not have been told in a simpler or more
straightforward way. On the other we have an armed warrior
with his charioteer in a
chariot drawn by two
horses. The treatment of
the human body is here
more advanced than on
the vases of the Dipylon.
On the site of Olympia,
where Mycenaean remains
are not found, but the
earliest monuments show
the geometric style, a
quantity of dedications
in bronze have been
found, the decoration of
which belongs to this
style. Fig. 7 shows the
handle of a tripod from
Olympia, which is
adorned with geometric
patterns and surmounted Qlympia
by the figure of a horse. FlG . 7 ._ Han dle of Tripod.
It was about the 6th
century that the genius of the Greeks, almost suddenly, as it
seems to us, emancipated itself from the thraldom of tradition,
and passed beyond the limits with which the nations of the
east and west had hitherto been content, in a free and
bold effort towards the ideal. Thus the 6th century marks
476
GREEK ART
[800-480 B.C.
the stage in art in which it may be said to have become
definitely Hellenic. The Greeks still borrowed many of their
decorative forms, either from the prehistoric remains in their
own country or, through Phoenician agency, from the old-world
empires of Egypt and Babylon, but they used those forms freely
to express their own meaning. And gradually, in the course of
the century, we see both in the painting of vases and in sculpture
a national spirit and a national style forming under the influence
of Greek religion and mythology, Greek athletic training, Greek
worship of beauty. We must here lay emphasis on the fact,
which is sometimes overlooked in an age which is greatly given
to the Darwinian search after origins, that it is one thing to
trace back to its original sources the nascent art of Greece, and
quite another thing to follow and to understand its gradual
embodiment of Hellenic ideas and civilization. The immense
success with which the veil has in late years been lifted from the
prehistoric age of Greece, and the clearness with which we can
discern the various strands woven into the web of Greek art,
have tended to fix our attention rather on what Greece possessed
in common with all other peoples at the same early stage of
civilization than on what Greece added for herself to this common
stock. In many respects the art of Greece is incomparable — one
of the great inspirations which have redeemed the world from
mediocrity and vulgarity. And it is the searching out and
appreciation of this unique and ideal beauty in all its phases,
in idea and composition and execution, which is the true task
of Greek archaeological science.
In very recent years it has been possible, for the first time,
to trace the influence of Ionian painting, as represented by vases,
on the rise of art. The discoveries at Naucratis and
vaa*s. Daphnae in Egypt, due to the keenness and pertinacity
of W.M.Flinders Petrie,threw new light on this matter.
It became evident that when those cities were first inhabited
by Ionian Greeks, in the 7th century, they used pottery of
several distinct but allied
styles, the most notable
feature of which was the
use of the lotus in decora-
tion, the presence of con-
tinuous friezes of animals
and of monsters, and the
filling up of the back-
ground with rosettes,
lozenges and other forms.
Fig. 8 shows a vase found
in Rhodes which illus-
trates this Ionian decora-
tion. The sphinx, the
deer and the swan are
prominent on it, the last-
named serving as a link
between the geometric
ware and the more
brilliant and varied ware
of the Ionian cities. The
assignment of the many
species of early Ionic ware
Mus. Napoiion, 57. t various Greek localities,
Fig. 8.— Jug from Rhodes. Miletus, Samos, Phocaea
and other cities, is a work of great difficulty, which now closely
occupies the attention of archaeologists. For the results of
their studies the reader is referred to two recent German works,
Bohl&u's A us ionischen und italischen Nekropolen, and Endt's
Betir&ge zur ionischen Vasentnalerei. The feature which is most
interesting in this pottery from our present point of view is the
way in which representations of Greek myth and legend gradually
make their way, and relegate the mere decoration of the vases to
borders and neck. One of the earliest examples of representation
of a really Greek subject is the contest of Menelaus and Euphorbus
on a plate found in Rhodes. On the vases of Melos, of the 7th
century, which are, however, not Ionian, but rather Dorian in
character, we have a certain number of mythological scenes,
battles of Homeric heroes and the like. One of these is shown in
fig. 9. It represents Apollo in a chariot drawn by winged horses,
playing on the lyre, and accompanied by a pair of Muses, meeting
his sister Artemis. It is notable that Apollo is bearded, and that
Artemis holds her stag by the horns, much in the manner of the
deities on Babylonian cylinders; in the other hand she carries
an arrow; above is a line of water birds.
Some sites in Asia Minor and the islands adjoining, such cities
as Samos, Camirus in Rhodes, and the Ionian colonies on the
Conze, Mel. Tongejdsse, 4.
Fig. 9. — Vase Painting: Melos.
Black Sea, have furnished us with a mass of ware of the Ionian
class, but it seldom bears interesting subjects; it is essentially
decorative. For Ionian ware which has closer relation to Greek
mythology and history we must turn elsewhere. The cemeteries
of the great Etruscan cities, Caere in particular, have preserved
for us a large number of vases, which are now generally recognized
as Ionian in design and drawing, though they may in some cases
be only Italian imitations of Ionian imported ware. Thus has
been filled up what was a blank page in the history of early
Greek art. The Ionian painting is unrestrained in character,
characterized by a licence not foreign to the nature of the race,
and wants the self-control and moderation which belong to
Doric art, and to Attic art after the first.
Some of the most interesting examples of early Ionic painting
are found on the sarcophagi of Clazomenae. In that city in
archaic times an exceptional custom prevailed of burying the
dead in great coffins of terra-cotta adorned with painted scenes
from chariot-racing, war and the chase. The British Museum
possesses some remarkable specimens, which are published in
A. S. Murray's Terra-Cotta Sarcophagi of the British Museum.
On one of them he sees depicted a battle between Cimmerian
invaders and Greeks, the former accompanied to the field by
their great war-dogs. In some of the representations of hunting
on these sarcophagi the hunters ride in chariots, a way of hunting
quite foreign to the Greeks, but familiar to us from Assyrian
wall-sculptures. We know that the life of the Ionians before
the Persian conquest was refined and not untinged with luxury,
and they borrowed many of the stately ways of the satraps of
the kings of Assyria and Persia.
Fig. 10 shows a curious product of the Ionian workshops, a
fish of solid gold, adorned with reliefs which represent a flying
Furtwiagler, Goldjund v. Vcttersfelde.
Fig. 10.— Fish of Gold.
eagle, lions pulling down their prey, and a monstrous sea-god
among his fishes. This relic is the more valuable on account of
the spot where it was found— Vettersfelde in Brandenburg. It
GREEK ART
Plate III.
Photo, Giraudon.
Fig. 6i.— WINGED VICTORY
OF SAMOTHRACE. (Louvre.)
Photo, Giraudon.
Fig. 62.— WINGED VICTORY OF
SAMOTHRACE. (Louvre.)
Fig. 63.— HEAD OF WARRIOR,
RESTORED, FROM TEGEA.
Photo, Anderson.
Fig. 64.-
-MARSYAS OF MYRON.
(Later an Mus.)'
Photo, Mansell.
XII. 476.
Fig. 65.— EAST PEDIMENT OF THE PARTHENON; LEFT AND RIGHT ENDS. (Brit. Mus.)
\
Plate IV.
GREEK ART
Fig. 66— METOPE OF THE TREASURY OF SICVON
AT DELPHI.
(From Fouilles de Delphes, by permission of A. Fontemoing.)
Photo. F. Bruckmatn.
Fig. 68.— DISCOBOLUS OF MYRON, RESTORED BY
PROF. FURTWANGLER.
V" . r i: >Vij^a -^
Fig, 67,— GREEK PAINTING OF WOMAN'S HEAD,
(From Comples Rendus of St. Petersburg, 1865. PI. I.)
Photo, Giraudon.
Fig. 69.— FIGHTER OF AGASIAS. (Louvre.)
/Vio/o, MansfU.
Fig. 70.— PORTION OF FRIEZE OF MAUSOLEUM. (Brit. Mus.)
8OO-48O B.C.]
GREEK ART
477
furnishes a proof that the influence and perhaps the commerce
of the Greek colonies on the Black Sea spread far to the north
through the countries of the Scythians and other barbarians.
The fish dates from the 6th century B.C.
We may compare some of the gold ornaments from Camirus
in Rhodes, which show an Ionian tendency, perhaps combined
with Phoenician elements. On one of them (fig. 11) we see
a centaur with human forelegs holding up a fawn, on the other
the oriental goddess
whom the Greeks identi-
fied with their Artemis,
winged, and flanked by
lions. This form was
given to Artemis on the
Corinthian chest of
Cypselus, a work of art
preserved at Olympia,
and carefully described
for us by Pausanias.
From Ionia the style
of vase-painting which
has been called by various
names, but may best be
termed the " orientaliz-
ing," spread to Greece
proper. Its main home
here was in Corinth; and
small Corinthian un-
guent-vases bearing
figures of swans, lions, monsters and human beings, the intervals
between which are filled by rosettes, are found wherever
Corinthian trade penetrated, notably in the cemeteries of
Sicily. For the larger Corinthian vases, which bore more
elaborate scenes from mythology, we must again turn to the
graves of the cities of Etruria. Here, besides the Ionian
ware, of which mention has already been made, we find
pottery of three Greek cities clearly defined, that of Corinth,
that of Chalcis in Euboea, and that of Athens. Corinthian
and Chalcidian ware is most readily distinguished by means
of the alphabets used in the inscriptions which have
distinctive forms easily to be identified. Whether in the style
of the paintings coming from the various cities any distinct
differences may be traced is a far more difficult question, into
which we cannot now enter. The subjects are mostly from heroic
legend, and are treated with great simplicity and directness.
There is a manly vigour about them which distinguishes them
at a glance from the laxer works of Ionian style. Fig. 12 shows
a group from a Chalcidian vase, which represents the conflict
Brit. Mm*
Fig.
11. — Gold Ornaments from
Camirus.
Mon. d. Inst. i. 51.
Fig. 12. — Fight over the Body of Achilles.
over the dead body of Achilles. The corpse of the hero lies in
the midst, the arrow in his heel. The Trojan Glaucus tries to
draw away the body by means of a rope tied round the ankle,
but in doing so is transfixed by the spear of Ajax, who charges
under the protection of the goddess Athena. Paris on the Trojan
side shoots an arrow at Ajax.
In fig. 13, from a Corinthian vase, Ajax falls on his sword in
the presence of his colleagues, Odysseus and Diomedes. The short
stature of Odysseus is a well-known Homeric feature. These
vases are black-figured; the heroes are painted in silhouette on
the red ground of the vases. Their names are appended in
archaic Greek letters.
The early history of vase-painting at Athens is complicated.
It was only by degrees that the geometric style gave way to,
or developed into, what is known as the black-figured . tt
style. It would seem that until the age of Peisistratus
Athens was not notable in the world of art, and nothing could
be ruder than some of the vases of Athens in the 7th century,
Mus. Napolion, 66.
Fig. 13. — Suicide of Ajax.
for example that here figured, on one side of which are represented
the winged Harpies. (fig. 14) and on the other Perseus accompanied
by Athena flying from the pursuit of the Gorgons. This vase
retains in its decoration some features of geometric style; but
the lotus and rosette, the lion and sphinx which appear on it,
belong to the wave of Ionian influence. Although it involves a
departure from strict chronological order, it will be well here to
follow the course of development in pottery at Athens until the
end of our period. Neighbouring cities, and especially Corinth,
seem to have exercised a strong influence at Athens about the
Arch. Zeit. 1882, 9.
Fig. 14. — Harpies: Attic Vase.
7th century. We have even a class of vases called by archae-
ologists Corintho-Attic. But in the course of the 6th century
there is formed at Athens a distinct and marked black-figured
style. The most remarkable example of this ware is the so-called
Francois vase at Munich, by Clitias and Ergotimus, which
contains, in most careful and precise rendering, a number of
scenes from Greek myth. One of these vases is dated, since it
bears the name and the figure of Callias in his chariot (Mon.
dell* Inst, iii. 45), and this Callias won a victory at Olympia in
564 B.C. Fig. 15 shows the reverse of a somewhat later black-
figured vase of the Panathenaic class, given at Athens as a
prize to the winner of a foot-race at the Panathenaea, with the
foot-race (stadion) represented on it. A large number of Athenian
vases of the 6th century have reached us, which bear the signa-
tures of the potters who made, or the artists who painted them;
lists of these will be found in the useful work of Klein, Griechische
Vasen mil Meistersignaturen. The recent excavations on the
47 8
GREEK ART
[80O-4OO B.C.
Acropolis have proved the erroneousness of the view, strongly
maintained by Brunn, that the mass of the black-figured vases
were of a late and imitative fabric. We now know that, with a
few exceptions, vases of this class are not later than the early
part of the 5th century. The same excavations have also
proved that red-figured vase-painting, that is, vase-painting
in which the background was blocked out with black, and the
figures left in the natural colour of the vase originated at Athens
in the last quarter of the 6th century. We cannot here give a
Mm. d. Inst. x. 48 m.
Fig. 15. — Foot-race: Panathenaic Vase.
detailed account of the beautiful series of Athenian vases of this
fabric. Many of the finest of them are in the British Museum.
As an example, fig. 16 presents a group by the painter Pamphaeus,
representing Heracles wrestling with the river-monster Achelous,
which belongs to the age of the Persian Wars. The clear precision
of the figures, the vigour of the grouping, the correctness of the
anatomy and the delicacy of the lines are all marks of distinction.
The student of art will perhaps find the nearest parallel to these
vase-pictures in Japanese drawings. The Japanese artists are
very inferior to the Greek in their love and understanding of
the human body, but equal them in freshness and vigour of
design. At the same time began the beautiful series of white
Wiener VorlegebliUter. D. 6.
Fig.
i 6. — Heracles and Achelous.
vases made at Athens for the purpose of burial with the dead,
and found in great quantities in the cemeteries of Athens, of
Eretria, of Gela in Sicily, and of some other cities. They are
well represented in the British Museum and that of Oxford.
We now return to the early years of the 6th century, and
proceed to trace, by the aid of recent discoveries, the rise of
architecture and sculpture. The Greek temple in its character
and form gives the clue to the whole character of Greek art.
It is the abode of the deity, who is represented by his sacred
image; and the flat surfaces of the temple offer a great field
to the soilptor for the depicting of sacred legend. The process
of discovery has emphasized the line which divides Ionian from
Dorian architecture and art. We will speak first of the temples
and the sculpture of Ionia. The Ionians were a people far more
susceptible than were the Dorians to oriental influences. The
dress, the art, the luxury of western Asia attracted them with
irresistible force. We may suspect, as Brunn has suggested,
that Ionian artists worked in the great Assyrian and Persian
palaces, and that the reliefs which adorn the walls of those
palaces were in part their handiwork. Some of the great temples
of Ionia have been excavated in recent years, notably those of
Apollo at Miletus, of Hera at Samos, and of Artemis at Ephesus.
Very little, however, of the architecture of the 6th-century temples
of those sites has been recovered. Quite recently, however, the
French excavators at Delphi have successfully restored the
treasury of the people of Cnidus, which is quite a gem
of Ionic style, the entablature being supported in front
not by pillars but by two maidens or Corae, and a frieze running
all round the building above. But though this building is of
Delphi.
Ionic type T It is scarcely in the technical sense of
Ionic style, since the columns have not Ionic
capitals, but are carved with curious reliefs. The
Ionic capital proper is developed in Asia by degrees (see
Architecture and Capital; also Perrot and Chipiez, Hist.
de Vart, vii. ch. 4).
The Doric temple is not wholly of European origin. One
of the earliest examples is the old temple of Assus in Troas.
Yet it was developed mainly in Hellas and the west. The most
ancient example is the Heraeum at Olympia, next to which come
the fragmentary temples of Corinth and of Selinus in Sicily.
With the early Doric temple we are familiar from examples
which have survived in fair preservation to our own days at
Agrigentum in Sicily, Paestum in Italy, and other sites.
Of the decorative sculpture which adorned these early temples
we have more extensive remains than we have of actual con-
struction. It will be best to speak of them under their districts.
On the coast of Asia Minor, the most extensive series of archaic
decorative sculptures which has come down to us is that which
adorned the temple of Assus (fig. 18). These were placed in a
unique position on the temple, a long frieze running along the
entablature, with representations of wild animals, of centaurs,
of Hercules seizing Achelous, and of men feasting, scene succeed-
ing scene without much order or method. The only figures from
Miletus which can be considered as belonging to the original
temple destroyed by Darius, are the dedicated seated statues,
some of which, brought away by Sir Charles Newton, are now
preserved at the British Museum. At Ephesus Mr Wood has
been more successful, and has recovered considerable fragments
800-480 B.C.]
GREEK ART
479
of the temple of Artemis, to which, as Herodotus tells us, Croesus
presented many columns. The lower part of one of these columns,
bearing figures in relief of early Ionian style, has been put
together at the British Museum; and remains of inscriptions
recording the presentation by Croesus are still to be traced.
Reliefs from a cornice of somewhat later date are also to be
found at the British Museum. Among the Aegean islands,
From Perrot and Chipiez, vii. pi. 35, by permission of Chapman and Hall, Ltd., and
Hachcttc&Co.
Fig. 18. — Restoration of the Temple at Assus.
Delos has furnished us with the most important remains of early
art. French excavators have there found a very early statue of
a woman dedicated by one Nicandra to Artemis, a figure which
may be instructively compared with another from Samus,
dedicated to Hera by Cheramues. The Delian statue is in shape
like a fiat beam; the Samian, which is headless, is like a round
tree. The arms of the Delian figure are rigid to the sides; the
Samian lady has one arm clasped to her breast. A great im-
provement on these helpless and inexpressive figures is marked
by another figure found at Delos, and connected, though perhaps
incorrectly, with a basis recording the execution of a statue by
Archermus and Micciades, two sculptors who stood, in the
middle of the 6th century, at the head of a sculptural school at
Chios. The representation (fig. 19) is of a running or flying
figure, having six wings, like the seraphim in the vision of
Fig. 19. — Nike of Delos, restored.
Isaiah, and clad in long drapery. It may be a statue of Nike or
Victory, who is said to have been represented in winged form
by Archermus. The figure, with its neatness and precision of
work, its expressive face and strong outlines, certainly marks
great progress in the art of sculpture. When we examine the
early sculpture of Athens, we find reason to think that the Chian
school had great influence in that city in the days of Peisistratus.
At Athens, in the age 650-480, we may trace two quite distinct
periods of architecture and sculpture. In the earlier of the two
periods, a rough limestone was used alike for the walls
and the sculptural decoration of temples; in the
later period it was superseded by marble, whether
native or imported. Every visitor to the museum of the
Athenian acropolis stands astonished at the recently recovered
groups which decorated the pediments of Athenian temples
Athenian
sculpture.
Aiken. MUteil. x. 237.
Fig. 20. — Athenian Pediment : Heracles and Hydra.
before the age of Peisistratus — groups of large size, rudely cut
in soft stone, of primitive workmanship, and painted with bright
red, blue and green, in a fashion which makes no attempt to
follow nature, but only to produce a vivid result. The two
largest in scale of these groups seem to have belonged to the
pediments of the early 6th-century temple of Athena. On other
smaller pediments, perhaps belonging to shrines of Heracles
and Dionysus, we have conflicts of Heracles with Triton or with
other monstrous foes. It is notable how fond the Athenian artists
of this early time are of exaggerated muscles and of monstrous
forms, which combine the limbs of men and of animals; the
measure and moderation which mark developed Greek art are
as completely absent as are skill in execution or power of group-
ing. Fig. 20 shows a small pediment in which appears in relief
Aiken. MUteil. xxii. 3.
Fig. 21.— Pediment: Athena and Giant.
the slaying of the Lernaean hydra by Heracles. The hero strikes
at the many-headed water-snake, somewhat inappropriately,
with his club. Iolaus, his usual companion, holds the reins of
the chariot which awaits Heracles after his victory. On the
extreme left a huge crab comes to the aid of the hydra.
There can be little doubt that Athens owed its great start in
art to the influence of the court of Peisistratus, at which artists
of all kinds were welcome. We can trace a gradual transforma-
tion in sculpture, in which the influence of the Chian and other
progressive schools of sculpture is visible, not only in the sub-
stitution of island marble for native stone, but in increased
grace and truth to nature, in the toning down of glaring colour,
and the appearance of taste in composition. A transition
480
GREEK ART
[800-480 B.C.
between the older and the newer is furnished by the well-known
statue of the calf-bearer, an Athenian preparing to sacrifice a
calf to the deities, which is made of marble of Hymettus, and in
robust clumsiness of forms is not far removed from the lime-
stone pediments. The sacrificer has been
commonly spoken of as Hermes or Theseus,
but he seems rather to be an ordinary
human votary.
In the time of Peisistratus or his sons a
peristyle of columns was added to the old
temple of Athena; and this necessitated
the preparation of fresh pediments. These
were of marble. In one of them was re-
presented the battle between gods and
giants; in the midst Athena herself strik-
ing at a prostrate foe (fig. 21). In these
figures no eye can fail to trace remarkable
progress. On about the same level of art
are the charming statues dedicated to
Athena, which were set up in the latter half
of the 6th century in the Acropolis, whose
graceful though conventional forms and
delicate colouring make them one of the
great attractions of the Acropolis Museum.
We show a figure (fig. 22) which, if it be
rightly connected with the basis on which
it stands, is the work of the sculptor
Fig. 22. — Figure by Antenor, who was also author of a celebrated
Antenor, restored. group repr esenting the tyrant-slayers,
Harmodius and Aristogiton. To the same age belong many
other votive reliefs of the Acropolis, representing horsemen,
scribes and other votaries of Athena.
From Athens we pass to the seats of Dorian art. And in
doing so we find a complete change of character. In place of
draped goddesses and female figures, we find nude
Mcuipture. ma * e f° rms - * n place of Ionian softness and elegance,
we find hard, rigid outlines, strong muscular develop-
ment, a greater love of and faithfulness to the actual human
form — the influence of the palaestra rather than of the harem.
To the known series
of archaic male
figures, recent years
have added many
examples. We may
especially mention a
series of figures from
the temple of Apollo
Ptoos* in Boeotia,
probably represent-
ing the god himself.
Still more note-
worthy are two
colossal nude figures
of Apollo, remarkable
both for force and
for rudeness, found
at Delphi, the in-
scriptions of which
prove them to be
the work of an
Argive sculptor.
(Plate V. fig. 76.)
From Crete we have
Fig. 23. — Bust from Crete.
acquired the upper
part of a draped figure (fig. 23), whether male or female is not
certain, which should be an example of the early Daedalid
school, whence the art of Peloponnesus was derived; but we
can scarcely venture to treat it as a characteristic product of
that school; rather the likeness to the dedication of Nicandra
is striking.
Another remarkable piece of Athenian sculpture, of the time
of the Persian Wars, is the group of the tyrannicides Harmodius
OiympiMf
Spmrtm,
SettnaM.
Notable
and Aristogiton, set up by the people of Athens, and made by
the sculptors Critius and Nesiotes. These figures were hard and
rigid in outline, but showing some progress in the treatment of
the nude. Copies are preserved in the museum of Naples (Plate I.
fig. 50). It should be observed that one of the heads does not
belong.
Next in importance to Athens, as a find-spot for works of
early Greek art, ranks Olympia. Olympia, however, did not
suffer like Athens from sudden violence, and the
explorations there have brought to light a continuous
series of remains, beginning with the bronze tripods
of the geometric age already mentioned and ending
at the barbarian invasions of the 4th century a.d.
among the 6th-century stone-sculpture of Olympia are the
pediment of the treasury of
the people of Megara, in
which is represented a battle
of gods and giants, and a
huge rude head of Hera (fig.
24), which seems to be part of
the image worshipped in the
Heraeum. Its flatness and
want of style are noteworthy.
Among the temples of Greece
proper the Heraeum of
Olympia stands almost alone
for antiquity and interest, its
chief rival, besides the temples
of Athens, being the other
temple of Hera at Argos. It
appears to have been origin-
ally constructed of wood, for
which stone was by slow
degrees, part by part, sub-
stituted. In the time of
Pausanias one of the pillars Fig. 24. — Head of Hera : Olympia.
was still of oak, and at the
present day the varying diameter of the columns and other
structural irregularities bear witness to the process of constant
renewal which must have taken place. The early small
bronzes of Olympia form an important series, figures of deities
standing or striding, warriors in their armour, athletes with
exaggerated muscles, and
women draped in the
Ionian fashion, which did |
not become unpopular in I
Greece until after the
Persian Wars. Excava-
tions at Sparta have re-
vealed interesting monu-
ments belonging to the
worship of ancestors,
which seems in the con-
servative Dorian states of
Greece to have been more
strongly developed than
elsewhere. On some of
these stones, which doubt-
less belonged to the family
cults of Sparta, we see
the ancestor seated hold-
ing a wine-cup, accom-
panied by his faithful Spartan Tombstone : Berlin,
horse or dog; on some we ? t™
see the ancestor and ancestress seated side by side (fig. 25),
ready to receive the gifts of their descendants, who appear
in the corner of the relief on a much smaller scale. The male
figure holds a wine-cup, in allusion to the libations of wine
made at the tomb. The female figure holds her veil and the
pomegranate, the recognized food of the dead. A huge
serpent stands erect behind the pair. The style of these
sculptures is as striking as the subjects; we see lean, rigid
GREEK ART
Plate V.
1
i
OP
Photo, Anderson.
From a Cast.
Fig. 71.— APHRODITE OF CNIDUS. Fig. 72.— BRONZE BOXER OF TERME.
(Vatican.) (Rome.)
Fig. 73— BRONZE OF CERIGOTTO.
(Athens.) Found in the sea near Cythera.
Fig. 74.— AGIAS AT DELPHI.
(From Fouilles de Delphes, by
permission of A. Fontemoing.)
XII. 480.
Fig. 75— CORA (KORfi) OF ERECHTHEUM.
(Athens.)
Fig. 76— APOLLO AT DELPHI.
(From Fouilles de Delphes, by
permission of A. Fontemoing.)
Plate VI.
GREEK ART
Photo, Giraudon.
Fig. 77— APHRODITE OF
MELOS. (Louvre.)
Photo, Alinari.
Fig. 78— NIOBE AND HER YOUNGEST
DAUGHTER. (Florence.)
Photo, Anderson.
Fig. 79.— APOXYOMENUS.
(Vatican.)
Photo. Brogi
Fig. 80.— DORYPHORUS OF POLY-
CLITUS. (Nat. Mus., Naples.)
Photo, Alinari.
Fig. 81.— ANTIOCH SEATED ON A ROCK.
(Vatican.)
Photo, English Photographic Co.
Fig. 82.— HERMES OF PRAXI-
TELES. (Olympia.)
48O-4OO B.C.]
GREEK ART
481
forms with severe outline carved in a y«y low relief ,«
the surface of wtych is not rounded but flat. The name of
Selinus in Sicily, an early Megarian colony, has long been associ-
ated with some of the most curious of early sculptures, the
metopes of ancient temples, representing the exploits of Heracles
and of Perseus. Even more archaic metopes have in recent
years been brought to light, one representing a seated sphinx,
one the journey of Europa over the sea on the back of the
amorous bull (fig. 26), a pair of dolphins swimming beside her.
In simplicity and in rudeness of work these reliefs remind us
of the Hmestone pediments of Athens (fig. *©), but yet they are
of another and a severer style; the Ionian laxity is wanting.
The recent French excavations at Delphi add a new and
fmportant chapter to the history of 6th-century art. Of three
Delphi. treasure*houses, those of Sicyon, Cnidus and Athens,
the sculptural adornments have been in great part
recovered. These sculptures form a series almost covering the
century 570-47© B.C., and include representations of some myths
of which we have hither-
to had no example. We
may say here a few
words as to the sculpture
which has been dis-
covered, leaving to the
article Delphi an
account of the topo-
graphy and the buildings
of the sacred site. Of
the , archaic temple of
Apollo* built as Hero-:
dotus tells us by the
Alcmaepnidae of Athens,
the only sculptural re-
mains which have come
down to , us are some;
fragments of the pedi-
mental figures. Of the
treasuries which con-;
tained the offerings of
the pious at Delphi, the
most archaic of which
there are remains is that belonging to the people of Sicyon.
To it appertain a set of exceedingly primitive metopes.
One represents Idas and Dioscuri driving off cattle (Plate IV.,
fig. 66); another, the ship Argo; another, Europa on the bull,
others merely animals, a ram or a hoax. The treasury of the
people of Cnidus (or perhaps Siphnos) is in style some half a
century late* (see fig. 17). To it belongs a long frieze representing
a variety of curious subjects: a battle, perhaps between Greeks
FlG. 26. — Metope; Europa on Bull :
Palermo.
Castor and Pollux; Aeolus holding the winds in sacks. The
Treasury of the Athenians, erected at the time of the Persian
Wars, was adorned with metopes of singularly clear-cut and
beautiful style, but very fragmentary, representing the deeds
of Heracles and Theseus.
We have yet to speak of the most interesting and important of
all Greek archaic sculptures, the pediments of the temple at
Aegina (g.v.). These groups of nude athletes fighting A****,
over the corpses of their comrades are preserved at
Munich, and are familiar to artists and students. But the very
fruitful excavations of Professor Furtwangler have put them in
quite a new light. Furtwfingler (Aegina: Heiligtum der Ajhaia)
has entirely rearranged these pediments, in a way which removes
the extreme simplicity and rigour of the composition, and
introduces far greater variety of attitudes and motive". We
repeat here these new arrangements (figs. 27 and 28), the reasons
for which must be sought in Furtwangler's great publication.
The individual figures are not much altered, as the restorations of
Thorwaldsen, even when incorrect, have now a prescriptive right
of which it is not easy to deprive them. Besides the pediments of
Aegina must be set the remains of the pediments of the temple
of Apollo at Eretria in Euboea, the chief group of which (Plate II.
fig. 58), Theseus carrying off an Amazon, is one of the most
finely executed works of early Greek art.
Period II. 480-400 B.C. — The most marvellous phenomenon
in the whole history of art is the rapid progress made by Greece
in painting and sculpture during the 5th century B.C. As in
literature the 5th century takes us from the rude peasant plays
of /thespis to the drama of Sophocles and Euripides; as in
philosophy it takes us from Pythagoras to Socrates; so in
sculpture it covers the space from the primitive works made for
the Peisistratidae to some of the most perfect productions of the
chisel.
In architecture the 5th century is ennobled by the Theseum,
the Parthenon and the Erechtheum, the temples of Zeus at
Olympia, pf Apollo at Phigalia, and many other central
shrines, as well as by the Hall of the Mystae at Eleusis
and the Propylaea of the Acropolis. Some of the most
important of the Greek temples of Italy and Sicily, such as those
of Segesta and Selinus, date from the same age. It is, however,
only of their sculptural decorations, carried out by the greatest
masters in Qreece, that we need here treat in any detail.
It is the rule in the history of art that innovations and technical
progress are shown earlier in the case of painting than in that of
sculpture, a fact easily explained by the greater ease p^^ t i agt
and rapidity of the brush compared with the chisel.
That this was the order of development in Greek art cannot be
doubted. But our means for judging of the painting of the
5th century are very slight. The noble paintings of such masters
Asxbt.
ttctu/r.
F-*T^ntlhrt A TjiM Jtf prr mt l M U n Cf A fc-<-T-J T
Fig. 27. — Restoration of West Pediment, Aegina.
and Trojans, with gods and goddesses looking on; a giganto-
machy in which the figures of Poseidon, Athena, Hera, Apollo,'
Artemis and Cybele can be made out, with their opponents,
who are armed like Greek hoplites; Athena and Heracles in a
chariot; the carrying off of the daughters of Leucippus by
Fig. 28. — Restoration of East Pediment, Aegina.
as Polygnotus, Micon and Panaenus, which once adorned the
walls of the great porticoes of Athens and Delphi, have dis-
appeared. There remain only the designs drawn rather than
painted on the beautiful vases of the age, which in some degree
help us to realize, not the colouring or the charm of contemporary
hi. 16
482
GREEK ART
[480-4OO B.C.
paintings, but the principle of their composition and the accuracy
of their drawing.
Polygnotus of Thasos was regarded by his compatriots as a
great ethical painter. His colouring and composition were alike
very simple, his figures quiet and statuesque, his drawing careful
and precise. He won his fame largely by incorporating in his
works the best current ideas as to mythology, religion and morals.
In particular his painting of Hades with its rewards and punish-
From Monumenti delV Institute di Cotrespondenaa archeologica, xi. 40.
Fig. 29. — Vase of Orvieto. (The Children of Niobe.)
ments, which was on the walls of the building of the people of
Cnidus at Delphi, might be considered as a great religious work,
parallel to the paintings of the Campo Santo at Pisa or to the
painted windows of such churches as that at Fairford. But he
also introduced improvements in perspective and greater freedom
in grouping.
It is fortunate for us that the Greek traveller Pausanias has
left us very careful and detailed descriptions of some of the most
important of the frescoes of Polygnotus, notably of the Taking
of Troy and the Visit to Hades, which were at Delphi. A com-
parison of these descriptions with vase paintings of the middle
of the 5th century has enabled us to discern with great pro-
bability the principles of Polygnotan drawing and perspective.
Professor Robert has even ventured to restore the paintings
on the evidence of vases. We here represent one of the scenes
depicted on a vase found at Orvieto (fig. 29), which is certainly
Polygnotan in character. It represents the slaying of the
children of Niobe
by Apollo and
Artemis. Here we
may observe a
remarkable per-
spective. The
different heights
of the rocky back-
ground are repre-
sented by lines
traversing the
picture on which
the figures stand;
but the more
distant figures are
no smaller than
the nearer. The
forests of Mount
Sipylus are repre-
sented by a single
conventional tree.
The figures
jV/i luj u.vsjxxiv yxji rnrrr;
$0M
Arch. Zeil. 187&, pi. 22.
Fig. 30. — Vase Drawing
^m
are
beautifully drawn, and full of charm; but there is a want of
energy in the action.
There can be little doubt that the school of Polygnotus
exercised great influence on contemporary sculpture. Panaenus,
brother of Pheidias, worked with Polygnotus, and many of the
groupings found in the sculptures of the Parthenon remind us of
those usual with the Thasian master. At this simple and early
stage of art there was no essential difference between fresco-
painting and coloured relief, light and shade and aerial per-
spective being unknown. We reproduce two vase-paintings,
one (fig. 30) a group of man and horse which closely resembles
figures in the Panathenaic frieze of the Parthenon (fig. 31);
the other (fig. 32) representing Victory pouring water for a
sacrificial ox to drink, which reminds us of the balustrade of the
shrine of Wingless Victory at Athens.
Most writers on Greek painting have supposed that after the
middle of the 5th century the technique of painting rapidly
improved. This
may well have
been the case;
but we have
little means of
testing the ques-
tion. Such im-
p rove ments
would soon raise
such a barrier
between fresco-
painting and
vase-painting, —
which by its
very nature
must be simple
and architect-
onic, — that vases can no longer be used with confidence as
evidence for contemporary painting. The stories told us by
Pliny of the lives of Greek painters are mostly of a trivial and
untrustworthy character. Some of them are mentioned in this
Encyclopaedia under the names of individual artists. We can
only discern a few general facts. Of Agatharchus of Athens we
learn that he painted, under compulsion, the interior of the house
of Alcibiades. And we are told that he painted a scene for the
tragedies of Aeschylus or Sophocles. This has led some writers
to suppose that he attempted illusive landscape; but this is
contrary to the possibilities of the time; and it is fairly certain
that what he really did was to paint the wooden front of the
stage building in imitation of architecture ; in fact he painted
a permanent architectural background, and not one suited to
any particular play. Of other painters who flourished at the
end of the century, such as Zeuxis and Aristides, it will be best
to speak under the next period.
It is now generally held, in consequence of evidence furnished
by tombs, that the 5th century saw the end of the making of
inminmiifiiiiiiiiiimiBin
Fig. 31. — Part of Frieze of the Parthenon.
Fig. 32.— Nike and Bull.
vases on a great scale at Athens for export to Italy and Sicily.
And in fact few things in the history of art are more remarkable
than the rapidity with which vase-painting at Athens reached
its highest point and passed it on the downward road. At the
beginning of the century black-figured ware was scarcely out
of fashion, and the masters of the severe red-figured style,
Pamphaeus, Epictetus and their contemporaries, were in vogue.
480-400 B.C.]
GREEK ART
4.83
The schools of Euphronius, Hiero and Duns belong to the age
of the Persian wars. With the middle of the century the works
of these makers are succeeded by unsigned vases of most beautiful
design, some of them showing the influence of Polygnotus. In
the later years of the century, when the empire of Athens was
approaching its fall, drawing becomes laxer and more careless,
and in the treatment of drapery we frequently note the over-
elaboration of folds, the want of simplicity, which begin to mark
contemporary sculpture. These changes of style can only be
stood Zeus the supreme arbiter. On one side of him stood
Oenomaiis with his wife Sterope, on the other Pelops and Hippo-
dameia, the daughter of Oenomaiis, whose position at once
indicates that she is on the side of the newcomer, whatever her
parents may feel. Next on either side are the four-horse chariots
of the two competitors, that of Oenomaiis in the charge of his
perfidious groom Myrtilus, who contrived that it should break
down in the running, that of Pelops tended by his grooms.
At either end, where the pediment narrows to a point, reclines a
Fig. 33. — East Pediment, Olympia. Two Restorations.
satisfactorily followed in the vase rooms of the British Museum,
or other treasuries of Greek art (see also A. B. Walters, History
of Ancient Pottery; and the article Ceramics).
Among the sculptural works of this period the first place may
be given to the great temple of Zeus at Olympia. The statue by
Pheidias which once occupied the place of honour in
xgJJfjSb of tnat temple, and was regarded as the noblest monu-
Uu». ment of Greek religion, has of course disappeared, nor
are we able with confidence to restore it. But the plan
of the temple, its pavement, some of its architectural ornaments,
remain. The marbles which occupied the pediments and the
metopes of the temple have been in large part recovered, having
been probably thrown down by earthquakes and gradually buried
in the alluvial soil. The utmost ingenuity and science of the
archaeologists of Germany have been employed in the recovery
of the composition of these groups; and although doubt remains
as to the places of some figures, and their precise attitudes, yet
we may fairly say that we know more about the sculpture of
river god, at one end Alpheus, the chief stream of Olympia, at
the other end his tributary Cladeus. Only one figure remains,
not noticed in the careful description of Pausanias, the figure
of a handmaid kneeling, perhaps one of the attendants of Sterope.
Our engraving gives two conjectural restorations of the pediment,
that of Treu and that of Kekule, which differ principally in the
arrangement of the corners of the composition; the position
of the central figures and of the chariots can scarcely be called
in question. The moment chosen is one, not of action, but of
expectancy, perhaps of preparation for sacrifice. The arrange-
ment is undeniably stiff and formal, and in the figures we note
none of the trained perfection of style which belongs to the
sculptures of the Parthenon, an almost contemporary temple.
Faults abound, alike in the rendering of drapery and in the
representation of the human forms, and the sculptor has
evidently trusted to the painter who was afterwards to colour
his work, to remedy some of his clumsiness, or to make clear the
ambiguous. Nevertheless there is in the whole a dignity, a
Fig. 34. — West Pediment, Olympia. Two Restorations.
the Olympian temple of Zeus than about the sculpture of any
other great Greek temple. The exact date of these sculptures
is not certain, but we may with some confidence give them to
470-460 B.C. (In speaking of them we shall mostly follow the
opinion of Dr Treu, whose masterly work in vol. Hi. of the great
German publication on Olympia is a model of patience and of
science.) In the eastern pediment (fig. 33), as Pausanias tells
us, were represented the preparations for the chariot-race
between Oenomaiis and Pelops, the result of which was to
determine whether Pelops should find death or a bride and a
kingdom. In the midst, invisible to the contending heroes,
sobriety, and a simplicity, which reconcile us to the knowledge
that this pediment was certainly regarded in antiquity as a noble
work, fit to adorn even the palace of Zeus. In the other, the
western pediment (fig. 34), the subject is the riot of the Centaurs
when they attended the wedding of Peirithous in Thessaly, and,
attempting to carry off the bride and her comrades, were slain
by Peirithous and Theseus. In the midst of the pediment,
invisible like Zeus in the eastern pediment, stands Apollo, while
on either side of him Theseus and Peirithous attack the Centaurs
with weapons hastily snatched. Our illustration gives two
possible arrangements. The monsters are in various attitudes
4 8 4
GREER ART
[480-4OO B.C.
of attempted violence, of combat and defeat; with each grapples
one of the Lapith heroes in the endeavour to rob thenf of their
prey. In the corners of the pediment recline female figures,
perhaps attendant slaves, though the farthest pair may best be
identified as local Thessalian nymphs, looking on with the
calmness of divine superiority, yet not wholly unconcerned in
what is going forward. Though the composition of the two
pediments differs notably, the one bearing the impress of a
parade-like repose, the other of an overstrained activity, yet
Fig. 35. — Metope : Olympia ; restored.
the style and execution are the same in both, and the short-
comings must be attributed to the inferior skill of a local school
of sculptors compared with those of Athens or of Aegina. It
even appears likely that the designs also belong to a local school.
Pausanias, it is true, tells us that the pediments were the work-
of Alcamenes, the pupil of Pheidias, and of Paeonius, a sculptor
of Thrace, respectively; but it is almost certain that he was
misled by the local guides,
who would naturally be
anxious to connect ' the
sculptures of their great
temple with well -known
names.
The metopes of the
temple are in the same style
of art as the pediments, but
the defects of awkwardness
and want of mastery are
less conspicuous, . because
the narrow limits of the
metope exclude any elabo-
rate grouping. The sub-
jects are provided by the
twelve labours of Heracles;
the figures introduced in
each metope are but two or
at most three; and the
action is simplified as much
as possible. The example
shown (fig. 35) represents
Heracles holding up the
sky on a cushion, with the
Olympia, iii. 48.
Fig. 36. — Nike of Paeonius; restored.
friendly aid of a Hesperid nymph, while Atlas, whom he has
relieved of his usual burden, approaches bringing the apples
which it was the task of Heractes to procure.
Another of the fruits of the excavations of Olympia is the
floating Victory by Paeonius, unfortunately faceless (fig. 36),
which was set up in all probability in memory of the victory of
the Athenians and their Messenian allies at Sphacteria in 425 B.C.
The inscription states that it was dedicated by the Messenians
and people of Natipactus from the spoils of their enemies, but
the name of the enemy is not mentioned in the inscription.
The statue of Paeonius, which comes floating down through the
airjwith drapery borne backward, is of a bold and innovating
type, and we may trace its influence in many works of the next
age.
Among the discoveries at Delphi none is so striking and
valuable to us as the life-size status in bronze of a charioteer
holding in his hand the reins. This is maintained Dtipbk
by M. Homolle to be part of a chariot-group set up cbartotew.
by Polyzalus, brother of Gelo and Hiero of Syracuse,
in honour of a victory won in the chariot-race at the Pythian
games at Delphi (fig. 37). The charioteer is evidently a high-born
youth, and is clad in the long chiton which was necessary to
protect a driver of a chariot from the rush of -air. The date
would be about 480-47Q BX. .. Bronze groups representing
victorious chariots with their drivers were among the noblest
and most costly dedications of antiquity; the present figure
is our only satisfactory representative of them. In style the
figure is very notable, tall .and slight beyond all contemporary
examples. The contrast betweelr-the conventional decorousness
of face and drapery and the lifelike accuracy of hands and
Mimoires, Piot, 1897, 16.
Fig. 37.— Bronze Charioteer: Delphi.
feet is very striking, and indicates the clashing of various
tendencies in art at the time when the great style was formed
in Greece.
The three great masters of the 5th century, Myron, Pheidias
and Polyclitus are all in some degree known to us from their
works. Of Myron we have copies of two works, the Marsyas
(Plate HI. fig. 64) and the Discobolus. The Marsyas (a copy in
the Lateran Museum) represents the Satyr so named in the
grasp of conflicting emotions, eager to pick up the flutes which
Athena has thrown down, but at the same time dreading her
displeasure if he does so. The Discobolus has usually been
judged from the examples in the Vatican and the British Museum,
in which the anatomy is modernized and the head wrongly put on.
We have now photographs of the very superior replica in the
Lancelotti gallery at Rome, the pose of which is much nearer
to the original. Our illustration represents a restoration made
at Munich, by combining the Lancelotti head with the Vatican
body (Plate IV. fig. 68).
Of the works of Pheidias we have unfortunately no'certain
copy, if we except the small replicas at Athens of his Athena
Parthenos. The larger of these (fig. 38) was found in 1880:
it is very clumsy, and the wretched device by which a pillar
is introduced to support the Victory in the hand of Athena can
scarcely be supposed to have belonged to the great original
Tempting theories have been published by Furtwangler {Master-
pieces of Greek Sculpture) and other archaeologists, which
identify copies of the Athena Lemnia of Pheidias, his Pantarces,
480-4<X> B.C.J
GREEK ART
485
his Aphrodite Urania and other statues; but doubt hangs over
all these attributions.
A more pertinent and more promising question is, how far
we may take the decorative sculpture of the Parthenon, since
Lord Elgin's time the pride of the British Museum, as the
actual work of Pheidias, or as done from his designs. Here
again we have no conclusive evidence; but it appears from the
testimony of inscriptions that the pediments at all events were
not executed until after Pheidias's death.
Of course the pediments and frieze of the Parthenon (q.v),
whose work soever they may be, stand at the head of all Greek
decorative > * cu 1 pt u f e.'
Whether we regard the
grace of the composi-
tion, the exquisite finish
of the statues in the
round, or the delightful
atmosphere of poetry
and religion which sur-
rounds these sculptures,
they rank among the
masterpieces of the
w o r 1 d. T he G r e e k s
esteemed tihem far below
the/ statue ■ which >nhe
» temple was made to
shelter; but to; lis, who
have lost the great
figure in ivory* and gold,
the carvings of the casket;
which once contained it
are a perpetual source of
instruction and delight.
The whole is repro-
Fig. 3§. — Statuette ofAthena Parthenon duced by photography
in A. S. Murray's Sculptures of the Parthenon. 1
An ^abundant literature has sprung up in regard to these
sculptures in recent years. It will suffice here to mention the
discussions in Furtw&ngler's Masterpieces, and the very ingenious
attempts of Sauer to determine by a careful examination of the
bases and backgrounds of the pediments as they now stand how
the figures must have been arranged in them. ^The two ends
of the eastern pediment (Plate III. fig. 65) are the only fairly
well-preserved part of the pediments.
Among the pupils of Pheidias who may naturally be supposed
to have worked $n the sculptures of the Parthenon, the frnost
notable were Afeamenes and Agoracritus. Some fragments
remaip of the great statue of Nemesis at Rhamnus by Agoracritus.
And in interesting light has been thrown on Alcamenes by the
discovery at Pergamum of a professed copy of his Hermes set
up at the entrance to the Acropolis at Athens (Plate II.
fig- 57)- The style of this work, however, is conventional
and archaistic, and we can scarcely regard it as typical of the
master.
Another noted contemporary who was celebrated mainly for
his portraits was Cresilas, a Cretan. Several copies of Tifc
portrait of Pericles exist, and testify to the lofty and idealizing
style of portraiture in this great age
We possess also admirable sculpture belonging to the other
important temples of the Acropolis, the Erechtheum and the
temple of Nike. The temple of Nike is the earlier, being possibly
a memorial of the Spartan defeat at Sphacteria. The Erech-
theum belongs to the end of our period, and embodies the
delicacy and finish of the conservative school of sculpture at
Athens just as the Parthenon illustrates the ideas of the more
progressive school. The reconstructibh of the Erechtheum has
been a task which has long Occupied the attention of archaeo-
logists (see the paper by Mr Stevens in the American Journal
of Archaeology, 1906). Our illustration (Plate V. fig. 75) shows
one of the Corae or maidens who support the entablature of the
south porch of the Erechtheum in her proper setting. This
use of the female figure in place of a pillar is based on old Ionian
precedent (see fig. 17) and is not altogether happy; but the
idea is carried out with remarkable skill, the perfect repose
and solid strength of the maiden being emphasized.
Beside Pheidias of Athens must be placed the greatest of early
Argive sculptors, Polyclitus. His two typical athletes, the
Doryphorus or spear-bearer (Plate VI. fig. 80) and the Diadu-
menus, have long been identified, and though the copies are not
first-rate, they enable us to recover the principles of the master's
art.
Among the bases discovered at Olympia, whence the statues
had been removed, are three or four which bear the name of
Polyclitus, and the definite evidence furnished by M a . t
these bases as to the position of the feet of the ' "*"
statues which they once bore has enabled archaeologists,
especially Professor Furtwangler, to identify copies of those
statues among known works. Also newly discovered copies of
Polyclitan works have made their appearance. At Delos there
has been found a copy of the Diaduroenus, which is x>f much
finer work than the statue in the British Museum from Vaison.
The Museum of Fine Arts at Boston, U.S.A., has secured a very
beautiful statue of a yotmg Hermes, who but for the wing* on
the temples might pass as a boy atnlete of Polyclitan style
(Plate II. fig. 6o>. In fact, instead of relying ate regards the
manner of Polyclitus on Roman copies of the Dorvphorus and
Diadumenus, w£ have quite a gallery of athletes, boys, and men,
who all claim relationship, nearer or more remote, to the school
of the great Argive master It might have been Moped that the
excaya$ion% made under tShe Jfeacjership of Professor Waldstein
at the |Argjve Heraeum, would have enlightenedl u$ as to the
style of Polyclitus. Just as the sculptures of tjie Parthenon
are the best^monument of Pheidias, so it might secern Jflfely that
the sculptural"' decoration jof tjir great temple wftidi s contained
t.tte-Hera -of Polyclitus would show us at large how-his- school
worked in marble. Unfortunately the fragments of sculpture
from the Heraeum are few The most remarkable is a female
head, which may perhaps come from a pediment (fig. 30). But
archaeologists are not in agreement whether it is in style Poly-
Fig. 39.— Female Head : Heraeum.
clitan or whether it rather resembles in style Attic works. Other
heads and some highly-finished fragments of bodies come
apparently from the metopes of the same temple. (See also
article Argos.)
Another work of Polyclitus was his Amazon, made it is said
in competition with his great contemporaries, Pheidias, Cresilas
and Phradmon, all of whose Amazons were preserved in the
great temple of Artemis at Ephesus. In our museums are many
statues of Amazons representing 5th century originals. These
have usually been largely restored, and it is no easy matter to
discover their original type. Professor Michaelis has recovered
4&6
GREEK ART
[400-300 B.C.
successfully three types (fig. 40). The attribution of these is a
matter of controversy. The first has been given to the chisel
of Polyclitus; the second seems to represent the Wounded
Amazon of Cresilas; the third has by some archaeologists been
given to Pheidias. It does not represent a wounded amazon,
but one alert, about to leap upon her horse with the help of a
spear as a leaping pole.
We can devote little more than a passing mention to the
sculpture of other temples and shrines of the later 5th century,
Lycia, which nevertheless deserve careful study. The frieze
from the temple of Apollo at Phigalia, representing
Centaur and Amazon battles, is familiar to visitors of the British
Museum, where, however, its proximity to the remains of the
Fig. 40, — Types of Amazons (MichaeJis.)
Parthenon lays stress upon the faults of grouping and execution
which this frieze presents. It seems to have been executed by
local Arcadian artists. More pleasing is the sculpture of the
Ionic tomb called the Nereid monument, brought by Sir Charles
Fellows from Lycia. Here we have not only a series of bands
of relief which ran round the tomb, but also detached female
figures, whence the name which it bears is derived. A recent
view sees in these women with their fluttering drapery not
nymphs of the sea, but personifications of sea-breezes.
The series of known Lycian tombs has been in recent years
enriched through the acquisition by the museum of Vienna of
the sculptured friezes which adorned a heroon near Geul Bashi.
In the midst of the enclosure was a tomb, and the walls of the
enclosure itself were adorned within and without with a great
series of reliefs, mostly of mythologic purport. Many subjects
which but rarely occur in early Greek art, the siege of Troy, the
adventure of the Seven against Thebes, the carrying off of the
daughters of Leucippus, Ulysses shooting down the Suitors, are
here represented in detail. Professor Benndorf , who has pub-
lished these sculptures in an admirable volume, is disposed to
see in them the influence of the Thasian painter Polygnotus.
Any one can see their kinship to painting, and their subjects
recur in some of the great frescoes painted by Polygnotus,
Micon and others for the Athenians. Like other Lycian sculp-
tures, they contain non-Hellenic elements; in fact Lycia forms
a link of the chain which extends from the wall-paintings of
Assyria to works like the columns of Trajan and of Antoninus,
but is not embodied in the more purely idealistic works of the
highest Greek art. The date of the Vienna tomb is not much
later than the middle of the 5th century. A small part of the
frieze of this monument is shown in fig. 41. It will be seen that
in this fragment there are two scenes, one directly above the other.
In the upper line Ulysses, accompanied by his son Telemachus,
is in the act of shooting the suitors, who are reclining at table
in the midst of a feast; a cup-bearer, possibly Melanthius, is
escaping by a door behind Ulysses. In the lower line is the
central group of a frieze which represents the hunting of the
PortrmHs.
Calydonian boar, which is represented, as is usual in the best time
of Greek art, as an ordinary animal and no monster.
Archaeologists have recently begun to pay more attention
to an interesting branch of Greek, art which had until recently
been neglected, that of sculptured portraits. The
known portraits of the 5th century now include
Pericles, Herodotus, Thucydides, Anacreon, Sophocles, Euripides,
Socrates and others. As might be expected in a time when style
in sculpture was so strongly pronounced, these portraits, when not
later unfaithful copies, are notably ideal. They represent the
great men whom they portray not in the spirit of realism.
Details are neglected, expression is not elaborated; the sculptor
tries to represent what is permanent in his subject rather than
what is temporary. Hence these portraits do not seem to belong
to a particular time of life; they only represent a man in the
perfection of physical force and mental energy. And the race
or type is clearly shown through individual traits. In some
cases it is still disputed whether statues of this age represent
deities or mortals, so notable are the repose and dignity which
even human figures acquire under the hands of 5th-century
masters. The Pericles after Cresilas in the British Museum,
and the athlete-portraits of Polyclitus, are good examples.
Period III. 400-300 B.C. — The high ideal level attained by
Greek art at the end of the 5th century is maintained in the 4th.
There cannot be any question of decay in it save at Athens,
where undoubtedly the loss of religion and the decrease of
national prosperity acted prejudicially. But in Peloponnesus
the time was one of expansion; several new and important cities,
such as Messene, Megalopolis and Mantinea, arose under the
protection of Epaminondas. And in Asia the Greek cities were
still prosperous and artistic, as were the cities of Italy and Sicily
which kept their independence. On the whole we find during
this age some diminution of the freshness and simplicity of art;
Heroon of Gyeul Bashi Tryso. PI. 7.
Fig, 41. — Odysseus and Suitors; Hunting of Boar.
it works less in the service of the gods and more in that of private
patrons; it becomes less ethical and more sentimental and
emotional. On the other hand, there can be no doubt that
technique both in painting and sculpture advanced with rapid
strides; artists had a greater mastery of their materials, and
ventured on a wider range of subject.
In the 4th century no new temples of importance rose at
Athens; the Acropolis had taken its final form; but at Messene,
Tegea, Epidaurus and elsewhere, very admirable buildings arose.
The remains of the temple at Tegea are of wonderful beauty
and finish; as are those of the theatre and the so-called T hoi us
of Epidaurus. In Asia Minor vast temples of the Ionic order
arose, especially at Miletus and Ephesus. The colossal pillars
of Miletus astonish the visitors to the Louvre; while the
sculptured columns of Ephesus in the British Museum (Plate n.
fig. 59) show a high level of artistic skill. The Mausoleum
erected about 350 B.C. at Halicarnassus in memory of Mausolus,
king of Caria, and adorned with sculpture by the most noted
400-300 B.C.J
GREEK ART
487
artists of the day, was reckoned one of the wonders of the world.
It has been in part restored in the British Museum. Mr Oldfield's
conjectural restoration, published in Archaeologia for 1805,
though it has many rivals, surpasses them all in the lightness
of the effect, and in close correspondence to the description by
Pliny. We show a small part of the sculptural decoration,
representing a battle between Greeks and Amazons (Plate IV.
fig. 70), wherein the energy of the action and the careful balance
of figure against figure are remarkable. We possess also the
fine portraits of Mausolus himself and his wife Artemisia, which
stood in or on the building, as well as part of a gigantic chariot
with four horses which surmounted it.
Another architectural work of the 4th century, in its way a
gem, is the structure set up at Athens by Lysicrates, in memory
of a choragic victory. This still survives, though the reliefs
with which it is adorned have suffered severely from the weather.
The 4th century is the brilliant period of ancient painting.
It opens with the painters of the Asiatic School, Zeuxis and Par-
rhasius and Protogenes, with their contemporaries Nicias and
Apoilodorus of Athens, Timanthes of Sicyon or Cythnus, and
AAEIANAPGZ
AOHNAIOZ
EfPA(fEN
AHTft
NIOBM
4>OIBH
lAEAJPA
L
Nat Mus., Naples.
Fig. 42. — Greek Drawing of Women playing at Knucklebones.
Euphranor of Corinth. It witnesses the rise of a great school
at Sicyon, under Eupompus and Pamphilus, which was noted
for its scientific character and the fineness of its drawing, and
which culminated in Apelles, the painter of Alexander the Great,
and probably the greatest master of the art in antiquity. To
each of these painters a separate article is given, fixing their
place in the history of the art. Of their paintings unfortunately
we can form but a very inadequate notion. Vase-paintings,
which in the 5th century give us some notion at least of con-
temporary drawing, are less careful in the 4th century. Now
and then we find on them figures admirably designed, or success-
fully foreshortened; but these are rare occurrences. The art
of the vase decorator has ceased to follow the methods and
improvements of contemporary fresco painters, and is pursued
as a mere branch of commerce.
But very few actual paintings of the age survive, and even
these fragmentary remains have with time lost the freshness of
their colouring; nor are they in any case the work of a note-
worthy hand. We reproduce two examples. The first is from
a stone of the vault of a Crimean grave (Plate IV. fig. 67). The
date of the grave is fixed to the 4th century by ornaments found
in it, among which w#s a gold coin of Alexander the Great. The
Praxi-
teles.
representation is probably of Demeter or ber priestess, her hair
bound with poppies and other flowers. The original is of large
size. The other illustration (fig. 42) represents the remains of
a drawing on marble, representing a group of women playing
knucklebones. It was found at Hercujaneum. Though signed
by one Alexander of Athens, who was probably a worker of the
Roman age, Professor Robert is right in maintaining that
Alexander only copied a design of the age of Zeuxis and Par-
rhasius. In fact the drawing and grouping is so closely like that
of reliefs of about 400 B.C. that the drawing is of great historic
value, though there be no colouring. Several other drawings
of the same class have been found at Herculaneum, and on the
walls of the Transtiberine Villa at Rome (now in the Terme
Museum).
Until about the year 1880, our knowledge of the great Greek
sculptors of the 4th century was derived mostly from the
statements of ancient writers and from Roman
copies, or what were supposed to be copies, of
their works. We are now in a far more satisfactory
position. We now possess an original work of Praxiteles, and
sculptures executed under the immediate direction of, if not from
the hand of, other great sculptors of that age — Scopas, Timotheus
and others. Among all the discoveries made at Olympia, none
has become so familiar to the artistic world as that of the Hermes
of Praxiteles. It is the first time that we have become possessed
of a first-rate Greek original by one of the greatest of sculptors.
Hitherto almost all the statues in our museums have been either
late copies of Greek works of art, or else the mere decorative
sculpture of temples and tombs, which was by the ancients
themselves but little regarded. But we can venture without
misgiving to submit the new Hermes to the strictest examination,
sure that in every line and touch we have the work of a great
artist. This is more than we can say of any of the literary
remains of antiquity — poem, play or oration. Hermes is repre-
sented by the sculptor (fig. 43
and Plate VI. fig. 82) in the act
of carrying the young child
Dionysus to the nymphs who
were charged with his rearing.
On the journey he pauses and
amuses himself by holding out to
the child-god a bunch of grapes,
and watching his eagerness to
grasp them. To the modern eye
the child is not a success; only
the latest art of Greece is at home
in dealing with children. But the
Hermes, strong without excessive
muscular development, and grace-
ful without leanness, is a model
of physical formation, and his
face expresses the perfection of
health, natural endowment and
sweet nature. The statue can
scarcely be called a work of
religious art in the modem or
Christian sense of the word
religious, but from the Greek
point of view it is religious, as
embodying the result of the har-
monious development of all human faculties and life in accord-
ance with nature.
The Hermes not only adds to our knowledge of Praxiteles,
but also donfirms the received views in regard to him. Already
many works in galleries of sculpture had been identified as
copies of statues of his school. Noteworthy among these are,
the group at Munich representing Peace nursing the infant
Wealth, from an original by Cephisodotus, father of Praxiteles;
copies of the Cnidian Aphrodite of Praxiteles, especially one in
the Vatican which is here illustrated (Plate V. fig. 71); copies
of the Apollo slaying a lizard (Sauroctonus), of a Satyr (in the
Capitol Museum), and others. These works, which are noted
Olympia, ill. 53.
Fig. 43. — Hermes of Praxiteles ;
restored.
4 88
GREEK ART
[4OO-3OO B.C.
for their softness and charm, make us understand the saying of
ancient critics that Praxiteles and Scopas were noted for the
pathos of their works, as Pheidias and Polyclitus for the ethical
quality of those they produced. But the pathos of Praxiteles
is of a soft and dreamy character; there is no action, or next
to none; and the emotions which he rouses are sentimental
rather than passionate. Scopas, as we shall see, was of another
mood. The discovery of the Hermes has naturally set archae-
ologists searching in the museums of Europe for other works
which may from their likeness to it in various respects be set
down as Praxitelean in character. In the case of many of the
great sculptors of Greece — Strongylion, Silanion, Calamis and
others — it is of little use to search for copies of their works,
since we have little really trustworthy evidence on which to
base our inquiries. But in the case of Praxiteles we really stand
on a safe level. Naturally it is impossible in these pages to give
any sketch of the results, some almost certain, some very doubtful,
of the researches of archaeologists in quest of Praxitelean works.
But we may mention a few works which have been claimed
by good judges as coming from the master himself. Professor
Brunn claimed as work of Praxiteles a torso of a satyr in the
Louvre, in scheme identical with the well-known satyr of the
Capitol. Professor Furtwangler puts in. the same category a
delicately beautiful head of Aphrodite at Petworth- And his
translator, Mrs Strong, regards the Aberdeen head of a young
man in the British Museum as the actual work of Praxiteles.
Certainly this last head does not suffer when placed beside the
Olympian head of Hermes. At Mantinea has been found a basis
whereon stood a group of Latona and her two children, Apollo
and Artemis, made by Praxiteles. This, base bears reliefs
representing the musical contest of Apollo and Marsyas, with the
Muses as spectators, reliefs very pleasing in style, and quite
in the manner of Attic artists of the 4th century. But of course
we must not ascribe them to the hand of Praxiteles himself;
great sculptors did not themselves execute the reliefs which
' atloTBed temples and other monuments, but reserved them for
their pupils. Yet the graceful figures of the Muses of Mantinea
suggest how much was due to Praxiteles in determining the tone
and character of Athenian art in relief in the 4th century.
Exactly the same style which marks them belongs also to a mass
of sepulchral monuments at Athens, and such works as the
Sidonian sarcophagus of the Mourning Women, to be presently
mentioned.
Excavation on the site of the temple of Athena Alea at Tegea
has resulted in the recovery of works of the school of Scopas.
- Pausanias tells us that Scopas was the architect of
** ' the temple, and so important in the case of a Greek
temple is the sculptural decoration, that we can scarcely
doubt that the sculpture also of the temple at Tegea was
under the supervision of Scopas, especially as he was more
noted as a sculptor than as an architect. In the pediments
of the temple were represented two scenes from mythology,
the hunting of the Calydonian boar and the combat between
Achilles and Telephus. To one or other of these scenes belong
several heads of local marble discovered on the spot, which are
very striking from their extraordinary life and animation.
Unfortunately they are so much injured that they can scarcely
be made intelligible except by the help of restoration; we
therefore engrave one of them, the helmeted head, as restored
by a German sculptor (Plate III. fig. 63). The strong bony
frame of this head, and its depth from front to back, are not
less noteworthy than the parted lips and deeply set and strongly
shaded eye; the latter features impart to the head a vividness
of expression such as we have found in no previous work of Greek
art, but which sets the key to the developments of art which
take place in the Hellenistic age. A draped torso of Atalanta
from the same pediment has been fitted to one of these heads.
Hitherto Scopas was known to us, setting aside literary records,
only as one of the sculptors who had worked at the Mausoleum.
Ancient critics and travellers, however, bear ample testimony to
his fame, and the wide range of his activity, which extended to
northern Greece, Peloponnese and Asia Minor. His Maenads
and his Tritons and other beings of the sea were much copied in
antiquity. But perhaps he reached his highest level in statues
such as that of Apollo as leader of the Muses, clad in long drapery.
The interesting precinct of Aesculapius at Epidaurus has
furnished us with specimens of the style of an Athenian con-
temporary of Scopas, who worked with him- on the
Mausoleum. An inscription which records the sums™" 10 *** 11 *'
spent on the temple of the Physician-god, informs us^cAms.
that the models for the sculptures of the pediments; and
one set of acroteria or roof adornments, were the work of Timo-
theus. Of the pedimental figures and the acroteria considerable
fragments have been recovered, and we may with confidence
assume that at all events the models for these were by Timotheus.
It is strange that the unsatisfactory arrangement whereby a
noted sculptor makes models and some local workman the
figures enlarged from those models, should have been tolerated
by so artistic a people as the Greeks. The subjects of the pedi-
ments appear to have been the common ones of battles between
Greek and Amazon and between Lapith and Centaur. We
possess fragments of some of the Amazon figures, one of which,
striking downwards at the enemy, is here shown (fig. 44). Their
attitudes are vigorous and alert; but the work shows no delicacy
of detail. Figures of r
Nereids riding on |"
horses, which were
found on the same, site,
may very probably be
roof ornaments (acro-
teria) of the temple.
We have also several
figures of Victory,
Which probably were
acroteria on some
smaller temple, per-ii
haps that of Artemis.!
A base found at
Athens, sculptured
with figures of horse-
men in relief, bears the
name of Bryaxis, and
was probably made by
a pupil of his. Prob-j
able conjecture assigns
to- Leochares the
originals copied in the Fig- 44-*— Amazon from Epidaurus.
Ganymede of the Vatican, borne aloft by an eagle (Plate I.
&&.S3) and the noble statue of Alexander the Great at Munich
(see Leochares). Thus we may fairly say that we are now
acquainted with the work of all the great sculptors who worked
on the Mausoleum — Scopas, Bryaxis, Leochares and Timotheus;
and are in a far more advantageous position than were the
archaeologists of 1880 for determining the artistic problems
connected with that noblest of ancient tombs*
Contemporary with the Athenian school of Praxiteles and
Scopas was the great school of Argos and Sicyon, of which
Lysippus was the most distinguished member. Lysippus con-
tinued the academic traditions of Polyclitus, but he was far
bolder in his choice of subjects and more innovating in style.
Gods, heroes and mortals alike found in him a sculptor who knew
how to combine fine ideality with a vigorous actuality. He
was at the height of his fame during Alexander's life, and the
grandiose ambition of the great Macedonian found him ample
employment, especially in the frequent representation of himself
and his marshals.
We have none of the actual works of Lysippus; but our best
evidence for his style will be found in the statue of Agias an
athlete (Plate V. fig. 74) found at Delphi, and shown by an
inscription to be a marble copy of a bronze original by Lysippus.
The Apoxyomenus of the Vatican (man scraping himself with a
strigil) (Plate VI. fig. 70) has hitherto been regarded as a copy
from Lysippus; but of this there is no evidence, and the style
of that statue belongs rather to the 3rd century than the 4th.
400^300 B.C.J
GREEK ART
489
The Agias, on the other hand, is in style contemporary with the
works of 4th-century sculptors.
Of the elaborate groups of combatants with which Lysippus
enriched such centres as Olympia and Delphi, or of the huge bronze
statues which he erected in temples and shrines, we can form no
adequate notion. Perhaps among the extant heads of Alexander
the one which is most likely to preserve the style of Lysippus
is the head from Alexandria in the British Museum (Plate II.
fig. 56), though this was executed at a later time.
Many noted extant statues may be attributed with probability
to the latter part of the 4th or the earlier part of the 3rd century.
We will mention a few only. The celebrated group at Florence
representing Niobe and her children falling before the arrows of
Apollo and Artemis is certainly a work of the pathetic school,
and may be by a pupil of Praxiteles. Niobe, in an agony of
grief, which is in the marble tempered and idealized, tries to
protect her youngest daughter from destruction (Plate VI. fig. 78).
Whether the group can have originally been fitted into the gable
of a temple is a matter of dispute*
Two great works preserved in the Louvre are so noted that it is
but necessary to mention them, the Aphrodite of Melos (Plate
VI. fig. 77), in which archaeologists are now disposed to see the
influence of Scopas, and the Victory of Samothrace (Plate III. figs.
61 and 62), an original set up by Demetrius Poliorcetes after a
naval victory won at Salamis in Cyprus in 306 B.C. over the
fleet of Ptolemy, king of Egypt.
Nor can we pass over without notice two works so celebrated
as the Apollo of the Belvidere in the Vatican (Plate II. fig. 55),
and the Artemis of Versailles. The Apollo is now by most
archaeologists regarded as probably a copy of a work of Leochares,
to whose Ganymede it bears a superficial resemblance. The
Artemis is regarded as possibly due to some artist of the same
age. But it is by no means clear that we have the right to
remove either of these figures from among the statues of the
Hellenistic age. The old theory of Preller, which saw in them
copies from a trophy set up to commemorate the repulse of the
Gauls at Delphi in 278 B.C., has not lost its plausibility.
This may be the most appropriate place for mentioning the
remarkable find made at Sidon in 1886 of a number of sarcophagi,
which once doubtless contained the remains of kings
of Sidon. They are now in the museum of Constanti-
nople, and are admirably published by Hamdy Bey
and T. Reinach (Une NScropole toy ok & Sidon, 1892^
The sarcophagi in date cover a considerable period.
The earlier are made on Egyptian models, the covers shaped,
roughly in the form of a human body or mummy. The later,
hdwever, are Greek in form, and are clearly the work of skilled
Greek sculptors, who seem
to have been employed by
the grandees of Phoenicia
in the adornment of their
last resting r places. Four
of these sarcophagi in par-
ticular claim attention,
and in fact present us
with examples of Greek
art of the 5th and 4th
centuries in several of its
aspects. To the 5th
century belong the tomb
of the Satrap, the reliefs of
which bring before us the
activities and glories of
some unknown king,, and
the Lycian sarcophagus,
so called from its form,
which resembles that of
tombs found in Lycia, and which is also adorned with reliefs
which have reference to the past deeds of the hero buried in the
tomb, though these deeds are represented, not in the Oriental
manner directly, but in the Greek manner, clad in mythological
forms. To the 4th century belong two other sarcophagi. One
Smtvo-
phagi of
Sidon.
1896).
Hamdy et Retnach, tficropole & Sidon, PI. 7.
Fig. 45. — Tomb of Mourning Women :
Sidon.
of these is called the Tomb of Mourning Women. On all sides
of it alike are ranged a series of beautiful female figures, separated
by Ionic pillars, each in a somewhat different attitude, though all
attitudes denoting grief (fig. 45) . The pediments at the ends of the
cover are also closely connected with the mourning for the loss of
a friend and protector, which is the theme of the whole decoration
of the sarcophagus. We see depicted in them the telling of the
news of the death, with the results in the mournful attitude of the
two seated figures. The mourning women must be taken, not
as the representation of any persons in particular, but generally
as the expression of the feeling of a city. Such figures are familiar
to us in the art of the second Attic school; we could easily find
parallels to the sarcophagus among the 4th-century sepulchral
reliefs of Athens. We can scarcely be mistaken in attributing
the workmanship of this beautiful sarcophagus to some sculptor
trained in the school of Praxiteles. And it is a conjecture full of
probability that it once contained the body of Strato, king of
Sidon, who ruled about 380 B.C., and who was proxenos or public
friend of the Athenians.
More celebrated is the astonishing tomb called that of
Alexander, though there can be no doubt that, although it
commemorates the victories and exploits of Alexander, it was
made not to hold his remains, but those of some ruler of Sidon
who was high in his favour. Among all the monuments of anti-
quity which have come down to us, none is more admirable than
this, and none more characteristic of the Greek genius. We give,
in two lines, the composition which adorned one of the sides of
this sarcophagus. It represents a victory of Alexander, probably
that of the Granicus (fig. 46). On the left we see the Macedonian
king charging the Persian horse, on the right his general
Parmenio, and in the midst a younger officer, perhaps Cleitus.
Mingled with the chiefs are foot-soldiers, Greek and Macedonian,
with whom the Persians are mingled in unequal fray. What
most strikes the modern eye is the remarkable freshness and
force of the action and the attitudes. Those, however, who
have seen the originals have been specially impressed with the
colouring, whereof, of course, our engraving gives no hint, but
which is applied to the whole surface of the relief with equal
skill and delicacy. There are other features in the relief on
which a Greek eye would have dwelt with special pleasure — the
exceedingly careful symmetry of the whole, the balancing of
figure against figure, the skill with which the result of the battle
is hinted rather than depicted. The composition Is one in which
the most careful planning and the most precise calculation are
mingled with freedom of hand and expressiveness in detail.
The faces in particular show more expression than would be
tolerated in art of the previous century. We are unable as yet
to assign an author or even a school to the sculptor of this
sarcophagus; he comes to us as a new and striking phenomenon
in the history of ancient art. The reliefs which adorn the other
sides of the sarcophagus are almost equally interesting. On
one side we. see Alexander again, in the company of a Persian
noble, hunting a lion. The short sides also show us scenes of
fighting and hunting. In fact it can scarcely be doubted that
if we 1 had but a due to the interpretation of the reliefs, they
would be found to embody historic events of the end of the 4th
century.. There are but a few other works of art, such as the
Bayeux tapestry and the Column of Trajan, which, bring con-
temporary history so vividly before our eyes. The battles with
the Persians represented in some of the sculpture of the Parthenon
and the temple of Nike at Athens are treated conventionally
and with no attempt at realism; but here the ideal and the actual
are blended into a work of consummate art, which is at the same
time, to those who can read the language of Greek art, a historic
record. The portraits of Alexander the Great which appear on
this sarcophagus are almost contemporary, and the most
authentic likenesses of him which we possess. The great Mace-
donian exercised so strong an influence on contemporary art
that a multitude of heads of the age, both of gods and men, and
even the portraits of his successors, show traces of his type.
We have yet to mention what are among the most charming
and the most characteristic products of the Greek chisel, the
xrr* 16a
49°
GREEK ART
1300-50 B.C.
beautiful tombs, adorned with seated or standing portraits or
with reliefs, which were erected in great numbers on all the main
roads of Greece. A great number of these from the Dipylon
cemetery are preserved in the Central Museum at Athens, and
Hamdy et Reinach. Nteropole d Sidon, Pt. 30.
.-.., , Fig. 46. — Battle of The Granicus: Sarcophagus from Sidon.
impress all visitors by the gentle sentiment and the charm of
grouping which they display ( Gardner, Sculptured Tombs of
Hellas).
Period IV. 300-50 B.C. — There can be no question but that
the period which followed the death of Alexander, commonly
called the age of Hellenism, was one of great activity and expan-
sion in architecture. The number of cities founded by himself
and his immediate successors in Asia and Egypt was enormous.
The remains of these cities have in a few cases (Ephesus,
Pergamum, Assus, Priene, Alexandria) been partially excavated.
But the adaptation of Greek architecture to the needs of the
semi-Greek peoples included in the dominions of the kings of
Egypt, Syria and Pergamum is too vast a subject for us to enter
upon here (see Architecture).
Painting during this age ceased to be religious. It was no
longer for temples and public stoae that artists worked, but for
private persons; especially they made frescoes for the decoration
of the walls of houses, and panel pictures for galleries set up by
rich patrons. The names of very few painters of the Hellenistic
age have come down to us. There can be no doubt that the
character of the art declined, and there were no longer produced
great works to be the pride of cities, or to form an embodiment
for all future time of the qualities of a deity or the circumstances
of scenes mythical or historic. But at the same time the mural
paintings of Pompeii and other works of the Roman age, which
are usually more or less nearly derived from Hellenistic models,
prove that in technical matters painting continued to progress.
Colouring became more varied, groups more elaborate, per-
spective was worked out with greater accuracy, and imagination
shook itself free from many of the conventions of early art.
Pompeian painting, however, must be treated of under Roman,
not under Greek art. We figure a single example, to show the
elaboration of painting at Alexandria and elsewhere, the wonder-
ful Pompeian mosaic (fig. 47), which represents the victory of
Alexander at Issus. This work being in stone has preserved its
colouring; and it stands at a far higher level of art than ordinary
Pompeian paintings, which are the work of mere house-decorators.
This on the contrary is
certainly copied from
the work of a great
master. It is instructive
to compare it with the
sarcophagus illustrated
inFig.46,whichitexcels
in perspective and in
the freedom of indi-
vidual figures, though
thecompositionismuch
less careful and precise.
Alexander charges from
the left (his portrait
being the least success-
ful part of the picture) ,
and bears down ayoung
Persian; Darius in his
chariot flees towards the
right ; in the foreground
a young knight is trying
to manage a restive
horse. It will be ob-
served how very simple
is the indication of
locality: a few stones
and a broken tree stand
for rocks and woods.
Among the original
sculptural creations of
the early Hellenistic
age, a prominent place
is claimed by the statue
of Fortune, typifying
the city of Antioch
(Plate VI. fig. 81), a work of Eutychides, a pupil of Lysippus. Of
this we possess a small copy, which is sufficient to show how
worthy of admiration was the original. We have a beautiful
embodiment of the personality of the city, seated on a rock,
holding ears of corn, while the river Orontes, embodied in a
young male figure, springs forth at her feet.
This is, so far as we know, almost the only work of the early
part of the 3rd century which shows imagination. Sculptors
often worked on a colossal scale, producing such monsters as
the colossal Apollo at Rhodes, the work of Chares of Lindus,
which was more than 100 ft. in height. But they did not show
freshness or invention; and for the most part content themselves
From a photograph by G. Brogi.
Fig. 47. — Mosaic of the Battle of Issus (Naples).
with varying the types produced in the great schools of the 4th
century. The wealthy kings of Syria, Egypt and Asia Minor
formed art galleries, and were lavish in their payments; but
it has often been proved in the history of art that originality
cannot be produced by mere expenditure.
300-50 b.c]
GREEK ART
491
Fig. 48. — Head of Anytus : Lycosura.
A great artist, whose date has been disputed, but who is
now assigned to the Hellenistic age, Damophon of Messene,
is known to us from his actual works. He set up in the shrine
of the Mistress (Despoena) at Lycosura in Arcadia a great
group of figures consisting of Despoena, Demeter, Artemis
and the Titan Anytus. Three colossal heads found on the spot
probably belong to the three last-mentioned deities. We
illustrate the head of Anytus, with wild disordered hair and
turbulent expression (fig. 48). Dr DQrpfeld has argued, on
architectural grounds, that
shrine and images alike
must be given to a later
time than the 4th century;
and this judgment is now
confirmed, by inscriptional
and other evidence.
In one important direc-
tion sculpture certainly
made progress. Hitherto
Greek sculptors had con-
tented themselves with
studying the human body
whether in rest or motion,
from outside. The dissec-
tion of the human body,
with a consequent increase
in knowledge of anatomy,
became usual at Alexandria
in the medical school which
flourished under the Ptole-
mies. This improved ana-
tomical knowledge soon
reacted upon the art of
sculpture. Works such as
the Fighter of Agasias in the Louvre (Plate IV. fig. 69), and in a
less degree the Apoxyomenus (Plate VI. fig. 70) > display a
remarkable internal knowledge of the human frame, such as
could only come from the habit of dissection. Whether this
was really productive of improvement in sculpture may be
doubted. But it is impossible to withhold one's admiration
from works which show an astonishing knowledge of the body
of man down to its bony framework, and a power and mastery
of execution which have never since been surpassed.
With accuracy in the portrayal of men's bodies goes of necessity
a more naturalistic tendency in portraiture. As we have seen,
the art of portraiture was at a high ideal level in the Pheidian
age; and even in the age of Alexander the Great, notable men
were rendered rather according to the idea than the fact. To a
base and mechanical naturalism Greek art never at any time
descended. But from 300 b.c. onwards we have a marvellous
series of portraits which may be termed rather characteristic
than ideal, which are very minute in their execution, and delight
in laying emphasis on the havoc wrought by time and life on
the faces of noteworthy men. Such are the portraits of Demos-
thenes, of Antisthenes, of Zeno and others, which exist in our
galleries. And it was no long step from these actual portraits
to the invention of characteristic types to represent the great
men of a past generation, such as Homer and Lycurgus, or to
form generic images to represent weatherbeaten fishermen or
toothless old women.
Our knowledge of the art of the later Hellenistic age has
received a great accession since 1875 through the systematic
labours directed by the German Archaeological Insti-
i4 ** ro/ tute, which have resulted in recovering the remains
of Pergamum, the fortress-city which was the capital
of the dynasty of the Philetaeri. Among the ancient
buildings of Pergamum none was more ambitious in scale and
striking in execution than the great altar used for sacrifices to
Zeus, a monument supposed to be referred to in the phrase of
the Apocalypse " where Satan's throne is." This altar, like many
great sacrificial altars of later Greece, was a vast erection to
which one mounted by many steps, and its outside was adorned
with a frieze which represented on a gigantic scale, in the style
of the and century B.C., the battle between the gods and the
giants. This enormous frieze (see Pergamum) is now one of the
treasures of the Rijyal Museums of Berlin, and it cannot fail to
impress visitors by the size of the figures, the energy of the action,
and the strong vein of sentiment which pervades the whole r
giving it a certain air of modernity, though the subject is strange
to the Christian world. In early Greek art the giants where
they oppose the gods are represented as men armed in full
panoply, "in shining armour, holding long spears in their
hands," to use the phrase in which Hesiod describes them.
But in the Pergamene frieze the giants are strange compounds,
having the heads and bodies of wild and fierce barbarians,
sometimes also human legs, but sometimes in the place of legs
two long serpents, the heads of which take with the giants them-
selves a share in the battle. Sometimes also they are winged.
The gods appear in the forms which had been gradually made
for them in the course of Greek history, but they are usually
accompanied by the animals sacred to them in cultus, between
which and the serpent-feet of the giants a weird combat goes on.
We can conjecture the source whence the Pergamene artist
derived the shaggy hair, the fierce expression, the huge muscles
of his giants (fig. 49); probably these features came originally
from the Galatians, who at the time had settled in Asia Minor,
and were spreading the terror of their name and the report of
their savage devastations through all Asia Minor. The victory
over the giants clearly stands for the victory of Greek civilization
over Gallic barbarism; and this meaning is made more emphatic
because the gods are obviously inferior !h physical force to their
opponents, indeed, a large proportion of the divine combatants
are goddesses. Yet everywhere the giants are overthrown,
writhing in pain on the ground, or transfixed by the weapons of
'their opponents; everywhere the gods are victorious, yet in the
victory retain much of their divine calm. The piecing together
of the frieze at Berlin has been a labour of many years; it is
now complete, and there is
a special museum devoted to
it. Some of the groups have
become familiar to students
from photographs, especially
the group which represents
Zeus slaying his enemies with
thunderbolts, and the group
wherein Athena seizes by the
hair an overthrown opponent,
who is winged, while Victory
runs to crown her, and be-
neath is seen Gaia, the earth-
goddess who is the mother of
the giants, rising out of the
ground, and mourning over
her vanquished and tortured
c lildren. Another and smaller
frieze which also decorated
the altar-place gives us scenes
from the history of Telephus,
who opposed the landing oi
the army of Agamemnon in
Asia Minor and was over-
thrown by Achilles. This
frieze, which is quite fragmentary, is put together by Dr Schneider
in the Jahrbuch of the German Archaeological Institute for 1000.
Since the Renaissance Rome has continually produced a crop
pf works of Greek art of all periods, partly originals brought
from Greece by conquering generals, partly copies, such as the
group at Rome formerly known as Paetus and Arria, and the
overthrown giants and barbarians which came from the elaborate
trophy set up by Attalus at Athens, of which copies exist in
many museums. A noted work of kindred school is the group
of Laocoon and his sons (Plate I. fig. 52), signed by Rhodian
sculptors of the 1st century B.C., which has been perhaps more
discussed than any work of the Greek chisel, and served as a peg
Fig. 49. — Giant from Great Altar:
Pergamum.
492
GREEK FIRE
for the aesthetic theories of Lessing and Goethe. In our days
the histrionic and strained character of the group is regarded as
greatly diminishing its interest, in spite of the astounding skill
and knowledge of the human body shown by the artists. To
the same school belong the late representations of Marsyas
being flayed by the victorious Apollo (Plate II. fig. 54), a some-
what repulsive subject, chosen by the artists of this age as a
means for displaying their accurate knowledge of anatomy.
On what a scale some of the artists of Asia Minor would work
is shown us by the enormous group, by Apollonius and Tauriscus
of Trailes, which is called the Farnese Bull (Plate I. fig. 51), and
which represents how Dirce was tied to a wild bull by her step-
sons Zethus and Amphion.
The extensive excavations and alterations which have taken
place at Rome in recent years have been very fruitful; the
results may be found partly in the palace of the
Home. Conservatori on the Capitol, partly in the new museum
of the Terme. Among recently found statues none excel in
interest some bronzes of large size dating from the Hellenistic age.
In the figure of a seated boxer (Plate V. fig. 72), in scale somewhat
exceeding life, attitude and gesture are expressive. Evidently
the boxer has fought already, and is awaiting a further conflict.
His face is cut and swollen; on his hands are the terrible caestus,
here made of leather, and not loaded with iron, like the caestus
described by Virgil. The figure is of astounding force; but
though the face is brutal and the expression savage, in the sweep
of the limbs there is nobility, even ideal beauty. To the last the
•Greek artist could not set aside his admiration for physical
perfection. Another bronze figure of more than life-size is that
of a king of the Hellenistic age standing leaning on a spear. He
is absolutely nude, like the athletes of Polyclitus. Another
large bronze presents us with a Hellenistic type of Dionysus.
Besides the bronzes found in Rome we may set those recently
found in the sea on the coast of Cythera, the contents of a ship
sailing from Greece to Rome, and lost on the way. The date of
these bronze statues has been disputed. In any case, even if
executed in the Roman age, they go back to originals of the 5th
and 4th centuries. The most noteworthy among them is a
beautiful athlete (Plate V. fig. 73) standing with hand upraised,
which reflects the style of the' Attic school of the 4th century.
. After 146 B.C. when Corinth was destroyed and Greece became
a Roman province, Greek art, though by no means extinct,
worked mainly in the employ of the Roman conquerors (see
Roman Art).
IV. Select Bibliography. 1 — I. General works on Greek Art. —
The only recent general histories of Greek art are: H. Brunn,
Griechische Kunsteeschichte, bki. i. and ii., dealing with archaic art;
W. Klein, Geschichte der griechischen Kunst, no illustrations; Perrot
et Chipiez, Histoire de Vart dans I'antiquiti, vols. vii. and viii.
{archaic art only).
Introductory are: P. Gardner, Grammar of Greek Art; J. E.
Harrison, Introductory Studies in Greek Art; H. B. Walters, Art of
the Greeks,
Useful are also: H. Brunn, Geschichle der griechischen KUnstler,
(new edition, 1889); J. Overbeck, Die anUken SehHftqueUen zur
Geschichte der bildenden Kiinste bet den Griechen; untranslated
passages in Latin and Greek; the Elder Pliny's Chapters on the
History of Art, edited by K. lex-Blake and E. Sellers; H. S. Jones,
Ancient Writers on Greek Sculpture.
II. Periodic;*!* dealing with Greek Archaeology.— England :
Journal of Hellenic Studies; Annual of the British School at Athens;
Classical Review. France: Revue archeologique ; Gazette archk-
ologique; Bulletin de correspondence hellhtique. Germany: Jahr-
buch des K. deutschen arch. Instituts; MitteUungen des arch. Inst.,
Athenische Abteilung, Romische Abteilung; Antike Denkmdler.
Austria: Jahreshefte des K. OsterreUh. arch. Instituts. Italy:
Publications of the AcCademia dei Lincei; Monumenti antichi; Not.
dei scavi; Bulletino comunale di Roma. Greece: Ebhemeris
nrchaiologike; Deltion archaiologikon; Praktika of the Athenian
Archaeological Society.
III. Greek Architecture.— General : Perrot et Chipiez, Histoire de
Vart dans VantiquiU, vol. vii.; A. Choisy, Histoire de V architecture ,
vol. i. ; Anderson and Spiers, Architecture of Greece and Rome; E.
Boutmy, Philosophic de I architecture en Grece ; R. Sturgis, History of
Architecture, vol. 1.; A. Marquand, Greek Architecture.
IV. Greek Sculpture. — General: M. Collignon, Histoire de la
sculpture grecque (2 vols.) ; E. A. Gardner, Handbook of Greek Sculp-
1 The date is given when the work cannot be considered new.
ture ; A. Furtwangler, Masterpieces of Greek Sculpture, translated and
edited by E. Sellers; Friederichs and Woltera, Bausteine zur
Geschichte der griechisch-rdmischen Plastik (1887) ; von Mach, Hand-
book of Greek and Roman Sculpture, 500 places; H. Bulfe, Der schdne
Mensch in der Kunst: Alter turn, 216 plates; S. Reinach, Repertoire
de la statuaire grecque et romaine, 3 vols.
V. Greek Painting and Vases.— Woltmann and Woermann, History
of Painting, vol. i., translated and edited by S. Colvin (1880); H. B.
Walters, History of Ancient Pottery (2 vols.) ; Harrison and MacColl.
Greek Vase-paintings (1894) ; O. Rayet et M. Collignon, Histoire de
la c6r antique grecque (1888); P. Girard, La Peinture antique (1802);
S. Reinach, Repertoire des vases peints grecs et itrusques (2 vols.) ;
Furtwangler und Reichhold, "Griechische Vasenmalerei/' Wiener
VorlegebtiUter fur archdologische Obungen (1887- 1890).
VI. Special Schools and Sites. — A. Joubin, La Sculpture grecque
entre les guerres mSdiques et Vepoque de Periclbs; C. Waldstein, Essays
on the Art of Pheidias (1885); W. Klein, Praxiteles; G. Perrot,
Praxitele; A. S. Murray, Sculptures of the Parthenon; W. Klein,
Eufhronios; E. Pottier, Douris; P. Gardner, Sculptured Tombs of
Hellas; E. A. Gardner, Ancient Athens; A. Botticher, Olymjna;
Bernoulli, Griechische Ikonographie; P. Gardner, The Types of Greek
Coins (1883); E. A. Gardner, Six Greek Sculptors.
VII. Books related to the subject—-!. G. Frazer, Pausanias's
Description of Greece (6 vols.) ; J. Lange, Varstelluns des Menschen in
der dlteren griechischen Kunst; E. Brticke, The Human Figure; its
Beauties and Defects; A. Michaelis, Ancient Marbles in Great Britain
(1882) ; Catalogue of Greek Sctdpture in the British Museum (3 vols.) ;
Catalogue of Greek Vases in the British Museum (4 vols.) ; J. 6. Bury,
History of Greece (illustrated edition) ; Baumeister, Denkmdler des
klassischen A Iter turns (3 vols.). (P. G.)
GREEK FIRE, the name applied to inflammable and
destructive compositions used in warfare during the middle
ages and particularly by the Byzantine Greeks at the sieges of
Constantinople. The employment of liquid fire is represented
on Assyrian bas-reliefs. At the siege of Plataea (429 B.C.) the
Spartans attempted to burn the town by piling up against the
walls wood saturated with pitch and sulphur and. setting it on
fire (Thuc. ii. 77), and at the siege of Delium (424 B.C.) a cauldron
containing pitch, sulphur and burning charcoal, was placed
against the walls and urged into flame by the aid of a bellows,
the blast from which was conveyed through a hollow tree- trunk
(Thuc iv. 100). Aeneas Tacticus in the following century
mentions a mixture of sulphur, pitch, charcoal, incense and tow,
which was packed in -wooden vessels and thrown lighted upon
the decks of the enemy's ships. Later, as in receipts given by
Vegetius (c. a.d. 350), naphtha or petroleum is added, and some
nine centuries afterwards the same substances are found forming
part of mixtures described in the later receipts (which probably
date from the beginning of the 13th century) of the collection
known as the Liber ignium of Marcus Graecus. In subsequent
receipts saltpetre and turpentine make their appearance, and
the modern " carcass composition/' containing sulphur, tallow,
rosin, turpentine, saltpetre and crude antimony, is a repre-
sentative of the same class of mixtures, which became known
to the Crusaders as Greek fire but were more usually called
wildfire. Greek fire, properly so-called, was, however, of a some-
what different character. It is said that in the reign of Con-
stantine Pogonatus (648-685) an architect named Callinicus.
who had fled from Heliopolis in Syria to Constantinople, prepared
a wet fire which was thrown out from siphons (to £td tojv o-t^wiw
tK4>efi6ti*vov wvp vypdv), and that by its aid the ships of the
Saracens were set on fire at Cyzicus and their defeat assured.
The art of compounding this mixture, which is also referred to
as icvp Oakaaaiov, or sea fire, was jealously guarded at Con-
stantinople, and the possession of the secret on several occasions
proved of great advantage to the city. The nature of the
compound is somewhat obscure. It has been supposed that the
novelty introduced by Callinicus was saltpetre, but this view
involves the difficulty that that substance was apparently not
known till the 13 th century, even if it were capable of accounting
for the properties attributed to the wet fire. Lieut.-Coionei
H. W. L. Hime, after a close examination of the available
evidence, concludes that what distinguished Greek fire from the
other incendiaries of the period was the presence of quicklime,
which was well known to give rise to a large development of
heat when brought into contact with water. The mixture, then,
was composed of such materials as sulphur and naphtha with
GREEK INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF
493
quicklime, and took fire spontaneously when wetted — whence
the name of wet fire or sea fixe; and portions of it were " pro-
jected and at the same time ignited by applying the hose of a
water engine to the breech " of the siphon, which was a wooden
tube, cased with bronze.
See Lieut.-Col. H. W. L. Hime, Gunpowder and Ammunition, their
Origin and Pro&ess (London, 1904).
GREEK INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF, the name given to the
great rising of the Greek subjects of the sultan against the
Ottoman domination, which began in 182 1 and ended in 1833
with the establishment of the independent kingdom of Greece.
The circumstances that led to the insurrection and the general
diplomatic situation by which its fortunes were from time to time
affected are described elsewhere (see Greece: History ; Turkey:
History). The present article is confined to a description of the
general character and main events of the war itself. If we
exclude the abortive invasion of the Danubian principalities
by Prince Alexander Ypsilanti (March 182 1), which collapsed
ignominiously as soon as it was disavowed by the tsar, the
theatre of the war was confined to continental Greece, the Morea,
and the adjacent narrow seas. Its history may, broadly speaking,
be divided into three periods: the first (1821-1824), during
which the Greeks, aided by numerous volunteers from Europe,
were successfully pitted against the sultan's forces alone; the
second, from 1824, when the disciplined troops of Mehemet Ali,
pasha of Egypt, turned the tide against the insurgents; the
third, from the intervention of the European powers in the
autumn of 1827 to the end
When, on the 2nd of April 182 1, Archbishop Germanos, head
of the Hetaeria in the Morea, raised the standard of the cross at
Kalavryta as the signal for a general rising of the Christian
population, the circumstances were highly favourable* In the
Morea itself, in spite of plentiful warning, the Turks were whoDy
unprepared; while the bulk of the Ottoman army, under the
seraskier Khurshid Pasha, was engaged in the long task of
reducing the intrepid Ali, pasha of Iannina (see Ali, pasha of
Iannina).
Another factor, and that the determining one, soon came to the
aid of the Greeks. In warfare carried on in such a country a?
Greece, sea-girt and with a coast deeply indented, inland without
roads and intersected with rugged mountains, victory — as
Wellington was quick to observe — must rest with the side that
has command of the sea. This was assured to the insurgents at
the outset by the revolt of the maritime communities of the
Greek archipelago. The Greeks of the islands had been accus-
tomed from time immemorial to seafaring; their ships — some
as large as frigates — were well armed, to guard against the
Barbary pirates and rovers of their own kin; lastly, they had
furnished the bulk of the sailors to the Ottoman navy which,
now that this recruiting ground was closed, had to be manned
hastily with impressed crews of dock-labourers ,and peasants)
many of whom had never seen the sea. The Turkish fleet,
" adrift in the Archipelago " — as the British seamen put it —
though greatly superior m tonnage and weight of metal, could
never be a match for the Greek brigs, manned as these were by
trained, if not disciplined, crews.
The war was begun by the Greeks without definite plan and
without any generally recognized leadership. The force with
Outhrvmk w kich Germanos marched from Kalavryta against
of the Patras was composed of peasants armed with scythes,
jflsomp- clubs and slings, .among whom the " primates " exer-
***** cised a somewhat honorary authority. The town
itself was destroyed and those of its Mussulman inhabitants
who could not escape into the citadel were massacred; but tjhe
citadel remained in the hands of the Turks till 1828. . Mean-
while, in the south, leaders of another stamp had appeared:
Petros, bey of the Maina (q.v,) chief of the Mavromichales, who
at the head of his clan attacked Kalamata and put the Mussul-
man inhabitants to the sword; and Kolokotrones, a notable
brigand once in the service of the Ionian government, who—
fortified by a vision of the Virgin-*— captured Karytaena and
slaughtered its infidel population. Encouraged by these:
successes the revolt spread rapidly; within three weeks there
was not a Mussulman left in the open country, and the remnants
of the once dominant class were closely besieged in the fortified
towns by hosts of wild peasants and brigands. The flames ot
revolt now spread across the Isthmus of Corinth: early in April
the Christians of Dervenokhoria rose, and the whole of Boeotia
and Attica quickly followed suit; at the beginning of May the
Mussulman inhabitants of Athens were blockaded in the Acro-
polis. In the Morea, meanwhile, a few Mussulman fortresses still
held out : Coron, Modon, Navarino, Patras, Nauplia, Monem vasia,
Tripolitsa. One by one they fell, and everywhere were repeated
the same scenes of butchery. The horrors culminated in the
capture of Tripolitsa, the capital of the vilayet. In Sept-
ember this was taken by storm; Kolokotrones rode in triumph
to the citadel over streets carpeted with the dead; and the
crowning triumph of the Cross was celebrated by a cold-blooded
massacre of 2000 prisoners of all ages and both sexes. This
completed the success of the insurrection in the Morea, where
only Patras, Nauplia, and one or two lesser fortresses remained to
the Turks.
Meanwhile, north of the Isthmus, the fortunes of war had been
less one-sided. In the west Khurshid's lieutenant, Omar
Vrioni (a Mussulman Greek of the race of the Palaeologi), had
inflicted a series of defeats on the insurgents, recaptured Levadia,
and on the 30th of June relieved the Acropolis; but the rout
of the troops which Mahommed Pasha was bringing to his aid
by the Greeks in the defile of Mount Oeta, and the news of the fall
of Tripolitsa, forced him to retreat, and the campaign of 182 1
ended with the retirement of the Turks into Thessaly.
The month of April had witnessed the revolt of the principal
Greek islands, Spetsae on the 7th, Psara on the 23rd, Hydra
on the 28th and Samos on the 30th. Their fleets were divided
into squadrons, of which one, under Tombazes, was deputed
to watch for the entrance of the Ottomans into the archipelago,
while the other under Andreas Miaoulis (q.v,) sailed to blockade
Patras and watch the coasts of Epirus. At sea, as on land, the
Greeks opened the campaign with hideous atrocities, almost
their first exploit being the capture of a vessel carrying to Mecca
the sheik-ul-Islam and his family, whom they murdered with
every aggravation of outrage.
These inauspicious beginnings, indeed, set the whole tone of
the war, which was frankly one of mutual extermination. On
both sides the combatants were barbarians, without
discipline or competent organization. At sea t h e 2«nS»r
Greeks rapidly developed into mere pirates, and even ofthe wmr.
Miaoulis, for all his high character and courage, was
often unable to prevent his captains from sailing home at critical
moments, when pay or booty failed. On land the presence of
a few educated Phanariots, such as Demetrios Ypsilanti or
Alexander Mavrocordato, was powerless to inspire the rude
hordes with any sense of order or of humanity in warfare; while
every lull in the fighting, due to a temporary check to the Turks,
was the signal for internecine conflicts due to the rivalry of
leaders who, with rare exceptions, thought more of their personal
power and profit than of the cause of Greece.
This cause, indeed, was helped more by the impolitic re-
prisals of the Turks than by the heroism of the insurgents. All
Europe stood aghast at the news of the execution of ^.
the Patriarch Gregorios of Constantinople (April 22, rmpr**!*.
1821) and the wholesale massacres that followed,
culminating as these did in the extermination of the
prosperous community of Scio (Chios) in March 1822. The
cause of Greece was now that of Christendom, of the Catholic
and Protestant West, as of the Orthodox East. European
Liberalism, too, gagged and fettered under Metternich's Europe
"system," recognized in the Greeks the champions mad the
of its own cause; while even conservative states- fWv
men, schooled in the memories of ancient Hellas,
saw in the struggle a fight of civilization against
barbarism. This latter belief, which was, moreover, flattering
to their vanity, the Greek leaders were astute enough tp foster;
the propaganda of Adamantios Coraes (q.v.) had done its
PbttheU
494
GREEK INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF
work; and wily brigands, like Odysseus of Ithaka, assuming
the style and trappings of antiquity, posed as the champions
of classic culture against the barbarian. All Europe, then,
hailed with joy the exploit of Constantine Kanaris, who on the
night of June 18-19 succeeded in steering a fire-ship among the
Turkish squadron off Scio, and burned the flag-ship of the
capudan-pasha with 3000 souls on board.
Meanwhile Sultan Mahmud, now wide awake to the danger,
had been preparing for a systematic effort to suppress the
rising. The threatened breach with Russia had been avoided
by Metternich's influence on the tsar Alexander; the death of
Ah' of Iannina had set free the army of Khurshid Pasha, who now,
as seraskier of Rumelia, was charged with the task of reducing
the Morea. In the spring of 1822 two Turkish armies advanced
southwards: one, under Omar Vrioni, along the coast of Western
Hellas, the other, under AH, pasha of Drama (Dramali), through
Boeotia and Attica. Omar was held in check by the mud
Bxpedfr ramparts of Missolonghi; but Dramali, after exacting
ttonof fearful vengeance for the massacre of the Turkish
DnmaB, garrison of the Acropolis at Athens, crossed the
Isthmus and with the over-confidence of a conquering
barbarian advanced to the relief of the hard-pressed garrison
of Nauplia. He crossed the perilous defile of Dervenaki un-
opposed; and at the news of his approach most of the members
of the Greek government assembled at Argos fled in panic terror.
Demetrios Ypsilanti, however, with a few hundred men joined
the Mainote Karayanni in the castle of Larissa, which crowns
the acropolis of ancient Argos. This held Dramali* in check,
and gave Kolokotrones time to collect an army. The Turks,
in the absence of the fleet which was to have brought them
supplies, were forced to retreat (August 6) ; the Greeks, inspired
with new courage, awaited them in the pass of Dervenaki, where
the undisciplined Ottoman host, thrown into confusion by an
avalanche of boulders hurled upon them, was annihilated. In
Western Greece the campaign had an outcome scarcely less
disastrous for the Turks. The death of Ali of Iannina had been
followed by the suppression of the insurgent Suliotes and the
advance of Omar Vrioni southwards to Missolonghi; but the
town held out gallantly, a Turkish surprise attack, on the 6th of
January 1823, was beaten off, and Omar Vrioni had to abandon
the siege and retire northwards over the pass of Makrynoros.
The victorious outcome of the year's fighting had a disastrous
effect upon the Greeks. Their victories had been due mainly
to the guerilla tactics of the leaders of the type of
^monxtbe Kolokotrones; Mavrocordato, whose character and
OnekM. antecedents had marked him out as the natural head
of the new Greek state, in spite of his successful
defence of Missolonghi, had been discredited by failures else-
where; and the Greeks thus learned to despise their civilized
advisers and to Underrate the importance of discipline. The
temporary removal of the common peril, moreover, let loose all
the sectional and personal jealousies, which even in face of the
enemy had been with difficulty restrained, and the year 1823
witnessed the first civil war between the Greek parties. These
internecine feuds might easily have proved fatal to the cause
of Greece. In the Archipelago Hydriotes and Spetsiotes were
at daggers drawn; the men of Psara were at open war with
those of Samos; all semblance of discipline and cohesion had
vanished from the Greek fleet. Had Khosrev, the new Ottoman
admiral, been a man of enterprise, he might have regained the
command of the sea and, with it, that of the whole situation.
But the fate of his predecessor had filled him with a lively terror
of Kanaris and his fire-ships; he contented himself with a
cruise round the coasts of Greece, and was happy
ofw^ to return to safety under the guns of the Dardanelles
without having accomplished anything beyond throw-
ing supplies and troops into Coron, Modon and Patras.
On land, meanwhile, the events of the year before practically
repeated themselves'. In the west an army of Mussulman and
Catholic Albanians, under Mustai Pasha, advanced southwards.
On the night of the 21st of August occurred the celebrated
exploit of Marko Botzaris and his Suliotes: a successful surprise
attack on the camp of the Ottoman vanguard, in which the
Suliote leader fell. The jealousy of the Aetolian militia for the
Suliotes, however, prevented the victory being decisive; and
Mustai advanced to the siege of Anatoliko, a little town in the
lagoons near Missolonghi. Here he was detained until, on the
nth of December, he was forced to raise the siege and retire
northwards. His colleague, Yussuf Pasha, in East Hellas fared
no better; here, too, the Turks gained some initial successes,
but in the end the harassing tactics of Kolokotrones and his
guerilla bands forced them back into the plain of the Kephissos.
At the end of the year the Greeks were once more free to renew
their internecine feuds.
Just when these feuds were at their height, in the autumn
of 1823, the most famous of the Philhellenes who sacrificed
themselves for the cause of Greece, Lord Byron, arrived in
Greece.
The year 1824 was destined to be a fateful one for the Greek
cause. The large loans raised in Europe, the first instalment
of which Byron had himself brought over, while
providing the Greeks with the sinews of war, provided ^JJjyjJjL
them also with fresh material for strife. To the 1&4.
struggle for power was added a struggle for a share of
this booty, and a second civil war broke out, Kolokotrones
leading the attack on the forces of the government. Early in
1825 the government was victorious; Kolokotrones was in
prison; and Odysseus, the hero of so many exploits and so
many crimes, who had ended by turning traitor and selling his
services to the Turks, had been captured, imprisoned in the
Acropolis, and finally assassinated by his former lieutenant
Gouras (July 16, 1824). But a new and more terrible danger
now threatened Greece. Sultan Mahmud, despairing of sup-
pressing the insurrection by his own power, had reluctantly
summoned to his aid Mehemet Ali, pasha of Egypt, whose
well-equipped fleet and disciplined army were now i a tervea-
thrown into the scale against the Greeks. Already, tkutot
in June 1823, the pasha's son-in-law Hussein Bey **•*«"•*
had landed in Crete, and by April of the following
year had reduced the insurgent islanders to submission. Crete
now became the base of operations against the Greeks. On the
roth of June Hussein appeared before Kasos, a nest of pirates
of evil reputation, which he captured and destroyed. The same
day the Egyptian fleet, under Ibrahim Pasha, sailed from
Alexandria. Khosrev, too, emboldened by this new sense of
support, ventured to sea, surprised and destroyed Psara (July 2),
and planned an attack on Samos, which was defeated by Miaoulis
and his fire-ships (August 16, 17). On the 1st of September,
however, Khosrev succeeded in effecting a junction with Ibrahim
off Budrun, and two indecisive engagements followed with the
united Greek fleet on the 5th and 10th. The object of Ibrahim
was to reach Suda Bay with his transports, which the Greeks
should at all costs have prevented. A first attempt was defeated
by Miaoulis on the 16th of November, and Ibrahim was compelled
to retire and anchor off Rhodes; but the Greek admiral was
unable to keep his fleet together, the season was far advanced,
his captains were clamouring for arrears of pay, and the Greek
fleet sailed for Nauplia, leaving the sea unguarded. On the
5th of December Ibrahim again set sail, and reached Suda
without striking a blow. Here he completed his preparations,
and, on the 24th of February 1825, landed at Modon in the
Morea with a force of 4000 regular infantry and 500 cavalry.
The rest followed, without the Greeks making any effort to
intercept them.
The conditions of the war were now completely changed.
The Greeks, who had been squandering the money provided
by the loans in every sort of senseless extravagance,
affected to despise the Egyptian invaders, but they JJ l Jj£ to
were soon undeceived. On the 21st of March Ibrahim Mort*.
had laid siege to Navarino, and after some delay a
Greek force under Skourti, a Hydriote sea-captain, was sent to
its relief. The Greeks had in all some 7000 men, Suliotes,
Albanians, artnaloli from Rumelia, and some irregular Bulgarian
and Vlach cavalry. On the 10th of April they were met by
GREEK INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF
495
MlMSO-
tottghL
Ibrahim at Krommydi with 2000 regular infantry, 400 cavalry
and four guns. The Greek entrenchments were stormed at the
point of the bayonet by Ibrahim's fellahin at the first onset; the
defenders broke and fled, leaving 600 dead on the field. The
news of this disaster, and of the fall of Pylos and Navarino that
followed, struck terror into the Greek government; and in
answer to popular clamour Kolokotrones was taken from prison
and placed at the head of the army. But the guerilla tactics
of the wily klepht were powerless against Ibrahim, who marched
northward, and, avoiding Nauplia for the present, seized
Tripolitsa, and made this the base from which his columns
marched to devastate the country far and wide. '
Meanwhile from the north the Ottomans were making another
supreme effort. The command of the army that was to operate
ReMhM * n west Hellas had been given to Reshid " Kutahia,"
" Kutabia ** pasha of Iannina, an able general and a man of deter-
betiegen mined character. On the 6th of April, after bribing
the Albanian clansmen to neutrality, he passed the
defile of Makrynoros, which the Greeks had left
undefended, and on the 7th of May opened the second siege of
Missolonghi. For twelve months the population held out, re-
pulsing the attacks of the enemy, refusing every offer of honour-
able capitulation. This resistance was rendered possible by the
Greek command of the sea, Miaoulis from time to time entering
the lagoons with supplies; it came to an end when this command
was lost. In September 1825 Ibrahim, at the order of the sultan,
had joined Reshid before the town; piecemeal the outlying
forts and defences now fell, until the garrison, reduced by
starvation and disease, determined to hazard all on a final sortie.
This took place on the night of the 22nd of April 1826; but a
mistaken order threw the ranks of the Greeks into disorder,
and the Turks entered the town pell-mell with the retreating
crowd. Only a remnant of the defenders succeeded in gaining
the forests of Mount Zygos, where most of them perished.
The fall of Missolonghi, followed as this was by the submission
of many of the more notable chiefs, left Reshid free to turn his
attention to East Hellas, where Gouras had been ruling
as a practically independent chief and in the spirit
of a brigand. The peasants of the open country
welcomed the Turks as deliverers, and Reshid's conciliatory
policy facilitated his march to Athens, Which fell at the first
assault on the 25th of August, siege being at once laid to the
Acropolis, where Gouras and his troops had taken refuge.
Round this the war now centred; for all recognized that its
fall would involve that of the cause of Greece. In these straits
the Greek government entrusted the supreme command of the
troops to Karaiskakis, an old retainer of Ali of Iannina, a master
of the art of guerilla war, and, above all, a man of dauntless
courage and devoted patriotism. A first attempt to relieve the
Acropolis, with the assistance of some disciplined troops under
the French Colonel Fabvier, was defeated at Chaidari by the
Turks. The garrison of the Acropolis was hard pressed, and the
death of Gouras (October 13th) would have ended all, had not
his heroic wife taken over the command and inspired the defenders
with new courage. For months the siege dragged on, while
Karaiskakis fought with varying success in the mountains, a
final victory at Distomo (February 1827) over Omar Vrioni
securing the restoration to the Greek cause of all continental
Greece, except the towns actually held by the Turks.
It was at this juncture that the Greek government, reinforced
by a fresh loan from Europe, handed over the chief command
at sea to Lord Cochrane (earl of Dundonald, q.v.), and
Cochrane t kat of the land forces to General (afterwards Sir
Church. Richard) Church, both Miaoulis and Karaiskakis
consenting without demur to serve under them.
Cochrane and Church at once concentrated their energies on the
task of relieving the Acropolis. Already, on the 5th of February,
General Gordon had landed and entrenched himself on the hill
of Munychia, near the ancient Piraeus, and the efforts of the
Turks to dislodge him had failed, mainly owing to the fire of
the steamer " Karteria " commanded by Captain Hastings.
When Church and Cochrane arrived, a general assault on the
Kara'
Ottoman camp was decided on. This was preceded, on the
25th of April, by an attack, headed by Cochrane, on the Turkish
troops established near the monastery of St Spiridion, the result
of which was to establish communications between the Greeks
at Munychia and Phalerum and isolate Reshid's vanguard on
the promontory of the Piraeus. The monastery held out for
two days longer, when the Albanian garrison surrendered on
terms, but were massacred by the Greeks as they were marching
away under escort. For this miserable crime Church has, by
some historians, been held responsible by default; it is clear,
however, from his own account that no blame rests upon him
(see his MS. Narrative, voL i. chap. ii. p. 34). The assault on
the Turkish main camp was fixed for the 6th of May; but,
unfortunately, a chance skirmish brought on an engagement
the day before, in the course of which Karaiskakis was killed,
an irreparable loss in view of his prestige with the wild armatolu
The assault pn the following day was a disastrous failure. The
Greeks, advancing prematurely over broken ground
and in no sort of order, were fallen upon in flank by . 22rf a i
Reshid's horsemen, and fled in panic terror. The Athens.
English officers, who in vain tried to rally them,
themselves only just escaped by scrambling into their boats
and putting off to the war-vessels, whose guns checked the
pursuit and enabled a remnant of the fugitives to escape.
Church held Munychia till the 27th, when he sent instructions
for the garrison of the Acropolis to surrender. On the 5th of
June the remnant of the defenders marched out with the
honours of war, and continental Greece was once more in the
power of the Turks. Had Reshid at once advanced over the
Isthmus, the Morea also must have been subdued; but he
was jealous of Ibrahim, and preferred to return to Iannina to
consolidate his conquests.
The fate of Greece was now in the hands of the fowers, who
after years of diplomatic wrangling had at last realized that
intervention was necessary if Greece was to be saved
for European civilization. The worst enemy of the &££&.
Greeks was their own incurable spirit of faction; in
the very crisis of their fate, during the siege of Missolonghi, rival
presidents and rival assemblies struggled for supremacy, and a
third civil war had only been prevented by the arrival of Cochrane
and Church. Under their influence a new National Assembly
met at Troezene in March 1827 and elected as president Count
Capo d' Istria (?.v.), formerly Russian minister for foreign affairs;
at the same time a new constitution was promulgated which,
when the very life of the insurrection seemed on the point of
flickering out, set forth the full ideal of Pan-Hellenic dreams.
Anarchy followed; war of Rumeliotes against Moreotes, of chief
against chief; rival factions .bombarded each other from the
two forts at Nauplia over the stricken town, and in derision of
the impotent government. Finally, after months of inaction,
Ibrahim began once more his systematic devastation of the
country. To put a stop to this the Powers decided to intervene
by means of a joint demonstration of their fleets, in order to
enforce an armistice and compel Ibrahim to evacuate the Morea
(Treaty of London, July 6, 1827). The refusal of Ibrahim to
obey, without special instruction from the sultan, led to the
entrance of the allied British, French and Russian fleet into the
harbour of Navarino and the battle of the 20th of October 1827
(see Navarino). This, and the two campaigns of the Russo-
Turkish war of 1828-29, decided the issue.
Authorities. — There is no trustworthy history of the war, based
on atl the material now available, and all the existing works must be
read with caution, especially those by eye-witnesses, who were too
often prejudiced or the dupes of the Greek factions. The best-known
works are: G. Finlay, Hist, of the Greek Revolution (2 vols., London,
1861); T. Gordon, Hist, of the Greek Revolution (London, 1833);
C. W. P. Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, Geschichte Griechenlands, &c.
(Staatengeschichte der neuesten Zett) (2 vols., Leipzig, 1 870-1 874);
F. C. H. L. Pouqueville, Histoire de la rigSnSration de la Greet, &c.
(4 vols., Paris, 1824),— the author was French resident at the court
of Ali of Iannina and afterwards consul at Patras; Count A.
Prokesch-Osten, Geschichte des Abfalls der Griechen vom tHrkischen
Reich, &c. (6 vols., Vienna, 1867), the last four volumes consist-
ing of pieces JusHficatwes of much value. See also W. Alison
Phillips, The War of Greek Independence (London and New York,
4-9 6
GREEK LANGUAGE
^1807), a sketch compiled mainly from the above-mentioned works:
Spiridionos Tricoupi, 'Icropla riys 'EAX^urijs troiraerr&rews (Athens,
The insurrection in Greece to 1822, with many documents. Of great
value also are the 29 volumes of Correspondence and Papers of Sir
Richard Church, now in the British Museum (Add. MSS. 36,543-
36157 1 ). Among these is a Narrative by Church of the war in Greece
during his tenure of the command (vols, xxi.-xxiii., Nos. 36,563-
36,565), which contains the material for correcting many errors re-
peated in most works on the war, notably the strictures of Finlay and
others on Church's conduct before Athens. For further references
see the bibliography appended to W. Alison Phillips's chapter on
" Greece and the Balkan Peninsula " in the Cambridge Modern
History, x. 803. (W. A. P.)
GREEK LANGUAGE. Greek is one of the eight main
branches into which the Indo-European languages (q.v.) are
divided. The area in which it is spoken has been curiously
constant throughout its recorded history. These limits are,
roughly speaking, the shores of the Aegean, on both the
European and the Asiatic side, and the intermediate islands
(one of the most archaic of Greek dialects being found on the
eastern side in the island of Cyprus), and the Greek peninsula
generally from its southern promontories as far as the
mountains which shut in Thessaly on the north. Beyond
Mt. Olympus and the Cambunian mountains lay Macedonia,
in which a closely kindred dialect was spoken, so closely
related, indeed, that O. Hoffmann has argued (Die Makedonen,
Gottingen, 1906) that Macedonian is not only Greek, but
a part of the great Aeolic dialect which included Thessalian
to the south and Lesbian to the east. In the north-west,
Greek included many rude dialects little known even to the
ancient Greeks themselves, and it extended northwards beyond
Aetolia and Ambracia to southern Epirus and Thesprotia.
In the Homeric age the great shrine of Pelasgian Zeus was at
Dodona, but, by the time of Thucydides^ Aetolia and all north
of it had come to be looked upon as the most backward of Greek
lands, where men lived a savage life, speaking an almost unin-
telligible language, and eating raw flesh (dYPanrroraTOt 61 yT&raav
Kal d>juo^d7ot, Thuc. iii. 94, of the Aetolian Eurytanes). The
Greeks themselves had no memory of how they came to occupy
this land. Their earliest legends connected the origin of their
race with Thessaly and Mt. Pindus,but Athenians and Arcadians
also boasted themselves of autochthonous race, inhabiting a
country wherein no man had preceded their ancestors. The
Greek language, at any rate as it has come down to us, is
remarkably perfect, in vowel sounds being the most primitive
of any of the Indo-European languages, while its verb system
has no rival in completeness except in the earliest Sanskrit of
the Vedic literature. Its noun system, on the other hand, Is
much less complete, its' cases being more broken down than
those of the Aryan, Armenian, Slavonic and Italic families.
The most remarkable characteristic of Greek is one conditioned
by the geographical aspect of the land. Few countries are so broken
up with mountains as Greece. # Not only do mountain ranges as
elsewhere on the European continent run east and west, but other
ranges cross them from north to south, thus dividing the portions
of Greece at some distance from the sea into hollows without outlet,
every valley, being separated for a considerable part of the year
from contact with every other, and inter-communication at all
seasons being rendered difficult. Thus till external coercion from
Macedon came into play it was never possible to establish a great
central government controlling the Crreek mainland. The geo-
graphical situation of the islands in the Aegean equally led to the
isolation of one little territory from another. To these geographical
considerations may be added the inveterate desire of the Greeks
to make the x6X«, the city state, everywhere and at all timesan
independent unit, a desire which, originating in the geographical
conditions, even accentuated the isolating effect of the natural
features of the country. Thus at one time in the little island of
Amorgos there were no less than three separate and independent
political units. The inevitable result of geographical and political
division was the maintenance of a great number of local character-
istics in language, differentiating in this respect also each political
community from its nearest neighbours. It was only natural that
the inhabitants of a country so little adapted to maintain a numerous
population should have early sent off swarms to other lands. The
earliest stage of colonization lies in the borderland between myth
and history. The Greeks themselves knew that a population had
preceded them in the islands of the Cyclades which they identified
with the Carians of Asia Minor (Herodotus i. 171; Thucydides 1*
4. 8). The same population indeed appears to have preceded them
on the mainland of Greece, for there are similar place-names in Caria
and in Greece which have no etymology in Greek. Thus the endings
of words like Parnassus and Halicarnassus seem identical, and the
common ending of place-names in- odor, KAptvdor, Ilpo06\u>6ot, &c,
seems to be the same in origin with the common ending of Asiatic
names in ~nda, Alinda, Karyanda, &c. Probably the earnest portion
of Asia Minor to be colonized by the Greeks was the north-west, to
which came settlers from Thessaly, when the early inhabitants were
driven out by the Thesprotians, who later controlled Thessaly. The
name Aeolis, which after times eave to the N.W. of Asia Minor,
was the old name for Thessaly (Hdt. vii. 176). These Thesprotians
were of the same stock as the Dorians, to whose invasion of the
Peloponnese the later migration, which carried the Ionians to Asia
and the Cypriot Greeks to Cyprus, in all probability was due. From
the north Aegean probably the Dorians reached Crete, where alone
their existence is recorded by Homer (Odyssey, xix. 175 ff. ; Diodorus
Siculus v. 80. 2) ; cp. Fick, Vorgriechische Ortsnamen (1906).
Among the Greeks of the pre-Dorian period Herodotus distin-
Siishes various stocks. Though the name is not Homeric, both
erodotus and Thucydides recognize an Aeolian stock which must
have spread over Thessaly and far to the west till it was suppressed
and absorbed by the Dorian stock which came in from the north-
west. The name of Aeolis still attached in Thucydides' time to the
western area of Calydon between the mountains and the N. side of
the entrance to the Corinthian gulf (iii. 102). In Boeotia the same
stock survived (Thuc. vii. $7. «p? overlaid by an influx of Dorians,
and it came down to the isthmus; for the Corinthians, though
speaking in historical times a Doric dialect, were originally Aeolians
(Thuc. iv. 42). In the Peloponnese Herodotus recognizes (viii. 73)
three original stocks, the Arcadians, the Ionians of Cynuria. and the
Achaeans. In Arcadia there is little doubt that the pre-Dorian
population maintained itself and its language, just as in the moun-
tains of Wales, the Scottish Highlands and Connemara the Celtic
language has maintained itself against the Saxon invaders. By
Herodotus' time the Cynurians had been doricized, while the Ionians,
along the south side of the Corinthian gulf, were expelled by the
Achaeans (vii. 94, viii. 73), apparently themselves driven from their
own homes by the Dorian invasion (Strabo viii. p. 333 fin,). How-
ever this may be, the Achaeans of historical times spoke a dialect
akin to that of northern Elis and of the Greeks on the north side of
the Corinthian gulf. How close the relation may have been between
the language of the Achaeans of the Peloponnese in the Homeric age
and their contemporaries in Thessaly we nave no means of ascertain-
ing definitely, the documentary evidence for the history of the
dialects being all very much later than Homeric times. Even in
the Homeric catalogue Agamemnon has to lend the Arcadians ships
to take them to Troy (Iliad, ii. 612). But a population speaking the
same or a very similar dialect was probably seated on the eastern
coast, and migrated at the beginning of the Doric invasion to Cyprus.
As this population wrote not in the Greek alphabet but in a peculiar
syllabary and held little communication with the rest of the Greek
world, it succeeded in preserving in Cyprus a very archaic dialect
very closely akin to that of Arcadia, and also containing a consider*
able number of words found in the Homeric vocabulary but lost or
modified in later Greek elsewhere. • m ' ■
On this historical foundation alone is it possible to understand
clearly the relation of the dialects in historical times. The prehistoric
movements of the Greek tribes can to some extent be realized^ in
their dialects, as recorded in their inscriptions, though all existing
inscriptions belong to a much fetter period. Thus from the ancient
Aeolis of northern Greece sprang the historical dialects of Thessaly
and Lesbos with the neighbouring coast of Asia Minor. At an early
period the Dorians had invaded and to some extent affected the
character of the southern Thessalian an,d to a much greater extent
that of the : B6edtian dialect. The dialects of Locris, Phocis and
Aetolia were a somewhat uncouth and unliterary form of Doric
According to accepted tradition, Elis had been. colonized by Oxylus
the Aetolian, and the dialect of the more northerly part of Elis, as
already pointed out, is, along with the Achaean of the south side of
the Corinthian gulf, closely akin to those dialects north of the
Isthmus. The most southerly part of Elis — Triphylia — has a dialect
akin to Arcadian. Apart from Arcadian the other dialects of the
Peloponnese in historical times are all Doric, though in small details
they differ among themselves. Though we are unable to check the
statements of the historians as to the area occupied by Ionic in
prehistoric times, it is clear from the legends of die close connexion
between Athens and Troezen that the same dialect had been spoken
on both sides of the Saronic gulf, and may well have extended, as
Herodotus says, along the eastern coast of the Peloponnese and the
south side of the Corinthian gulf. According to legend, the Ionians
expelted from the Peloponnese collected at Athens before they
started on their migrations to the coast of Asia Minor. Be that as
it may, legend and language alike connected the Athenians with the
Ionians, though by the 5th century B.C. the Athenians no longer
cared to be known by the name (Hdt. I. 143). Lemnos, Imbros and
Scyros, which had long belonged to Athens, were Athenian also in
language. The great island of Euboea and all the islands of the
central Aegean between Greece and Asia were Ionic. Chios, the most
GREEK LANGUAGE
497
northerly Ionic island on the Asiatic coast, seems to have been origin-
ally Aeolic, and its Ionic retained some Aeolic characteristics. The
most southerly of the mainland towns which were originally Aeolic was
Smyrna, but this at an early date became Ionic (Hdt. i. 149). The
last important Ionic town to the south was Miletus, but at an early
Siriod Ionic widened its area towards the south also and took in
alicarnassus from the Dorians. According to Herodotus, there
were four kinds of Ionic (j^apaicr^pes y\&r<np rkrcrepes, i. 142).
Herodotus tells us the areas in which these dialects were spoken,
but nothing of the differences between them. They were (ij Samos,
(2) Chios and Erythrae, (3) the towns in Lydia, (4) the towns in Caria.
The language of the inscriptions unfortunately is a kouH}, a conven-
tional literary language which reveals no differences of importance.
Only recently has the characteristic so well known In Herodotus of k
appearing in certain words where other dialects have v (oW for
£*<«>$, kou for rod, &c.) been found in any inscription. It is, how-
ever, clear that this was a popular characteristic not considered to
be sufficiently dignified for official documents. We may conjecture
that the native languages spoken on the Lydian and Carian coasts
had affected the character of the language spoken by the Greek
immigrants, more especially as the settlers from Athens married
Carian women, while the settlers in the other towns were a mixture
of Greek tribes, many of them not Ionic at all (Hdt. i. 146).
The more southerly islands of the Aegean and the most southerly
peninsula of Asia Minor were Doric. In the Homeric age Dorians
were only one of many peoples in Crete, but in historical times,
though the dialects of the eastern and the western ends of the island
differ from one another and from the middle whence our most
valuable documents come, all are Doric. By Melos and Thera Dorians
carried their language to Cos, Calymnus, Cnidus and Rhodes.
These settlements, Aeolic, Ionic and Doric, grew and prospered,
and like flourishing hives themselves sent out fresh swarms to other
lands. Most prosperous and energetic of all was Miletus, which
established its trading posts in the Black Sea to the north and in the
delta of the Nile (Naucratis) to the south. The islands also sent off
their colonies, carrying their dialects with them, Paros to Thasos,
Euboea to the peninsulas of Chalcidice; the Dorians of Megara
guarded the entrance to the Black Sea at Chalcedon and Byzantium.
While Achaean influence spread out to the more southerly Ionian
islands, Corinth carried her dialect with her colonies to the coast of
Acarnania, Leucas and Corcyra. But the greatest of all Corinthian
colonies was much farther to the west — at Syracuse in Sicily. Un-
fortunately the continuous occupation of the same or adjacent sites
has led to the loss of almost all that is early from Corintn and from
Syracuse. Corcyra has bequeathed to us some interesting grave
inscriptions from the 6th century B.C. Southern Italy and Sicily
were early colonized by Greeks. According to tradition Cumae was
founded not long after the Trojan War; even if we bring the date
nearer the founding of Syracuse in 735 B.C., we have apparently no
record earlier than the first half of the 5th century B.C., though it is
still the earliest of Chalcidian inscriptions. Tarentum was a Laconlan
foundation, but the longest and most important document from a
Laconian colony in Italy comes from Heraclea about the end of the
4th century B.C. — the report of a commission upon and the lease of
temple lands with description and conditions almost of modern
precision. To Achaea belonged the south Italian towns of Croton,
Metapontum and Sybaris. The ancestry of the Greek towns of Sicily
has been explained by Thucydides (vi. 2-5). Selinus, a colony of
Megara, bewrays its origin in its dialect. Gela and Agrigentum no
less clearly show their descent from Rhodes. According to tradition
the great city of Cyrene in Africa was founded from Thera, itself an
offshoot irom Sparta.
Chief Characteristics of the Greek Dialects
1. Arcadian and Cyprian. — As Cyprian was written in a syllabary
which could not represent a consonant by itself, did not distinguish
between voiced, unvoiced and aspirated consonants, did not represent
at all a nasal before another consonant, and did not distinguish
between long and short vowels, the interpretation of the symbols is
of the nature of a conundrum and the answer is not always certain.
Thus the same combinatidn of two symbols would have to stand
for t6tc, rbM, Wrc, Sotrj, tMc^ rwfc, rb, ty. No inscription of more
than a few words in length is found in either dialect earlier than
the 5th century B.C. In Doth dialects the number of important in-
scriptions is steadily increasing. Both dialects change nnal o to v,
&*6 passing into &ir£. Arcadian changes the verb ending -at into
-oi. Arcadian uses 6 or £ for an original gw-sound, which appears in
Attic Greek as 0: flXXw, Attic 0AXX«, " throw." In inflexion both
agree in changing -So of masculine -fi stems into au (Arcadian carries
this form also into the feminine -a stems), and in using locatives in
-*i and -01 for the dative, such locatives being governed by the
prepositions &iH> and l£ (before a consonant 4$ in Arcadian), verbs
in -cuo, -w and -ow are declined not as -co, but as -/u verbs. The final
1 of the ending of the 3rd plural present changes the preceding t
to <r: Qkpowi, cp. Laconian (Doric) <f>ipom, Attic 4>kpov<ri, Lesbian
j&poun.. Instead of the Attic Hs, the interrogative pronoun appears
as crtt, the initial <r in Arcadian being written with a special symbol
* . The pronunciation is not certain. The original sound was aw,
as in Latin <piis, whence Attic ris and Thessalian kIs. In Arcadian
kov the Aeolic particle xe and the Ionic av seem to be combined.
2. Aeolic. — Though Boeotian is overlaid with a Doric element, it
nevertheless agrees with Thessalian and Lesbian in some character-
istics. Unlike Greek generally, they represent the original gw of the
word for jour by v before «, where Attic and other dialects have t :
iriTTa/xs, Attic rfcrraptt. The corresponding voiced and aspirated
sounds are similarly treated : Be\#aios the adjective in Thessalian to
AeX^of , and <Hp for ftjp. They all tend to change o to v : 5w/ua, " name" ;
ov for a in Thessalian: "AxXow, " Apollo " ; and v in Boeotian for 01:
Fvida (obcla)," house.* 1 They also make the dative plural of the
third declension in -ecrcrc, and the perfect participle active is declined
like a present participle in -«p. Instead of the Athenian method of
giving the father's name in the genitive when a citizen is described,
these dialects (especially Thessalian) tend to make an adjective:
thus instead of the Attic Armocdkvip Arjpoadtpovs, Aeolic would
rather have A. AripocObeios. Thessalian stands midway between
Lesbian and Boeotian, agreeing with Lesbian in the use of double
consonants, where Attic has a single consonant, with or without
lengthening of the previous syllable: kppl, Attic dpi for an
original *esmt; orAXXa, Attic orijXij; #wot for an earlier ZtoFos, Attic
&vos, Ionic fctpos, Doric tfjvos. Where Attic has -as from an earlier
-«/s or -cum, Lesbian has -eus: rals &px<jli$ accusative in Lesbian
for older tops &px<u*. Lesbian has no oxyton words according to
the grammarians, the accent being carried back to the penult or ante-
penultimate syllable. It has also no " rough breathing," but this
characteristic it shared with the Ionic of Asia Minor, and in the course
of time with other dialects. The characteristic particle of the dialects
is *€, which is used like the Doric xa, the Arcadian kov, and the Attic
and Ionic &?. Thessalian and Lesbian agree in making their long
vowels close, ti belonging «t (a close I, not a diphthong), vardp,
" father.' 1 The v sound did not become H as in Attic and Ionic,
and hence when the Ionic alphabet was introduced it was spelt ov,
or when in contact with dentals tov, as in bvlovpa—hwpa, " name,"
Ttouxa=Tvx»y, " chance "; the pronunciation, therefore, must have
been like the English sound in news, tune. Boeotian developed earlier
than other dialects the changes in the vowels which characterize
modern Greek : tu became e, koI passing into «^ : compare varetp
and Fwcla above: ct became 1 in *x*i has." Thessarian shows
some examples of the Homeric genitive in -010: voMpoio, &c;
its ordinary genitive of o- stems is in -01.
There are some points of connexion between this group and
Arcadian-Cyprian: in both Thessalian and Cyprian the character-
istic irroXts (Attic, &c, v6\ts) and 6avxya- for S6ut>pri are found, and
both groups form the " contracting verbs " not in -« but in -pi.
In the second group as in the first there is little that precedes the
5th century b»c. Future additions to our materials may be expected
to lessen the gap between the two groups and Homer.
3. Ionic-Attic.— One of the earliest of Greek inscriptions — of the
7th century, at least— is the Attic inscription written in two lines
from right to left upon a wine goblet (oboxoij) given as a prize:
h6s vw opxwtov x&rrov I hraK&rara ralfei toto betcav pu>. The last
words are uncertain. Till lately early inscriptions in Ionic were
few, but recently an early inscription has been found at Ephesus
and a later copy of a long early inscription at Miletus.
The most noticeable characteristic of Attic and Ionic is the change
of a into rj which is universal in Ionic but does not appear in Attic
after another vowel or p. Thus both dialects used ptrrip, tlp.1i from
an earlier pirqp, ripd, but Attic had aofta, rpaypa and x&P** not
a<xf>lrj, rpffcipa and x&P 1 ? as m Ionic. The apparent exception Kopn
is explained by the fact that in this word a digamma F has been lost
after p, In Doric K6pF a.. That the change took place after the Ionians
came into Asia is shown by the word Mi}6oi, which in Cyprian is
Mo&u; the Medes were certainly not known to the Greeks till long
after the conquest of Ionia. While Aeolic and the greater part of
Doric kept F, this symbol and the sound w represented by it had
disappeared from both Ionic an<J Attic before existing records begin —
in other words, were certainly not in use after 800 B.c. The symbol
was known and occurs in a few isolated instances. Both dialects
agreed in changing u into H , so that a u sound has to be represented
by ov. The short o tended towards u, so that the contraction of
0+0 gave ov. In the same way short e tended towards i, so that the
contraction of e+« gave et, which was not a diphthong but a close
e-sound. In Attic Greek these contractions were represented by O
and E respectively till the official adoption of the Ionic alphabet at
Athens in 403 B.C. So also were the lengthened syllables which
represent in their length the loss of an earlier consonant, as tptiva
and fwiMa, Aeolic l/wwa, tvwua, which stand for a prehistoric
*%PL€P<ra and *?wju<ra, containing the ~<r- of the first aorist, and
rote, oUovs, Ixotxrt representing an earlier t6w, oXkovs, tx oVTl
(3 pi. present) or *lxovr<ri (dative pi. of present participle). Both
dialects also agreed in changing r before t into & (like Aeolic), as in
txovai above, and in the 3rd person singular of -pi verbs, r#ij<ri,
atoWt, Sec, and in noun stems, as in 56>ts for an earlier *5ori*.
Neither dialect used the particle m or *a, but both have 6v instead.
One of the effects of the cnange of a into ij was thatthe combination
ao changed in both dialects to ijo, which m all Attic records and in
the later Ionic has become «wbya metathesis in the quantity of the
vowels: j>56s, earlier vaFfa, "temple," is in Homeric Greek w?6j,
in later Ionic and Attic vdn. In the dative (locative) plural of the
-o stems, Ionic has generally -171*1 on the analogy of the singular;
Attic had first the old locative form in ^tri, -curt, which survived
+9»
GREEK LANGUAGE
in form* which became adverbs like 'Aty^i and BOpbn; but
after 420 H.c. these were replaced by -om, 0b pan, &c. The Ionic
of Aula Minor showed many changes earlier than that of the Cyclades
and Kuboea. It lost the aspirate very early: hence in the Ionic
alphabet H J* ft, no* A; it changed av and tv into ao and to, and
very early replaced to a large extent the -hi by the -« verbs. This
confusion can l>e seen in progress in the Attic literature of the 5th
and 4th centuries ii.c, UUwut. gradually giving way to &tucvi>w,
while the literature generally uses forms like tybt for U>it) (impft.).
In Attica also the aspiration which survived in the Ionic of Euboea
and the ('yclades ceased by the end of the 5th century. The Ionic
of Asia Minor has -tot as the genitive of t-stcms; the other forms of
Ionic have -dot.
4. Doric—At already mentioned, the dialects of the North-West
differ in several respects from Doric elsewhere. As general character-
istics of Doric may l>c noted the contractions of a+« into rj, and
of a 4-o or w into a, while the results in Attic and Ionic of these con-
tractions are A and <o respectively: Mki? from w4«, Attic k»Ua\
nu&uu l pi. pre*, from rijidw, Attic nudu%v\ rw&y gen. pi. of nut
" honour, Attic rtuQv. In inflection the most noticeable points arc
the pronominal adverbs in locative form: rovrti, ri^d (this from a
stem limited to a few Doric dialects and the Bucolic Poets), t«*8«,
fo«t, &c. ; the nom. pi. of the article rol, rat. not ol, at, and so
roOroi in Sellnus and Rhodes; the 1st pi. of the verb in -mm,
not in -JW, cp. the Latin ~mus\ the aorist and future in -£-, where
other dialects have -*-, or contraction from presents in -fw; 5uAfw,
Ai\a*w, Doric Jua(w, Ac. ; the future passive with active endings,
JiriM«XQ0ip«Qm (Rhodes), found as yet only in the Doric islands
and in the Doric prose of Archimedes; the particles at "if " and
Ka with a similar value to the Aeolic k« and the Attic-Ionic av.
Doric had an accentuation system different both from Aeolic and
from Ionic-Attic, but the details of the system are very imperfectly
known.
In older works Doric is often divided into a dtalectus severior and a
diaUctus mitis. But the difference is one of time rather than of
place, the peculiarities of Doric being gradually softened down till
It was ultimately merged in the lingua franca, the kouHj, which in
time engulfed all the local dialects except the descendant of Spartan,
Tiakoumn. Here it Is possible to mention its varieties only in the
briefest form, (u) The southern dialects are well illustrated in the
Inscription* of Laconia recently much increased in number by the
excavations of the British School at Athens, Apart from some brief
dedications, the earliest inscription of importance is the list of names
placed on a brume column soon after 479 B.C. to commemorate the
tribes which had repulsed the Persians, The column, originally at
Delphi, is now at Constantinople. The most striking features of the
dialect are the retention of F at the beginning of words, as in the
dedication from the 6th century fara{(0ios (Annual of British
Sikool* xiv. 144). The dialect changed -*- between vowels into
•*-, utih* for jiftra " muse. 11 Later it changed 9 into a sound like the
English lk % wnieh was represented by a. Before o-sounds « here and
in some other Doric dialects changed toi: Mr, vti* for 0«6t" god."
The result of contraction and M compensatory lengthening '* was not
•4 and ov as in Attic and Ionic, but * and <d: fcw* infinitive -cfau
from Usmrn\ gen. sing, of o-stems in w: 0«&, ace. pi. in -«*s:fafc;
rfv was represented by W, not J\ as in Attic-Ionic; Mfotffc*
Mwf«* The dialect has many strange words, especially in connexion
with the state education and organisation of the boys and young men.
The Heraclean tables from a Laconian colony in S. Italy have curious
(onus in -••m for the dat, pi. of the participle rpo***rra<r<n » Attic
*t>Arr«wH. Of the dialect of Messenia we know tittle, the long
inscription about mysteries from Andania being only about 100 bx.
From Argolis there are a considerable number of early inscriptions,
and in a later form of the dialect the cures recorded at the temple of
Asktepktt at Kpidaurus present many points of interest. There is
also an inscription of the 6th century B.C. from the temple of
AphaU in Aegina, f survive* in the old inscriptions: fcFpcpfa'm
I •« •Wu*«) ; n » whether original or arising by sound change from -nty>
persist* till the and century bx,: JUmrvx**»«-4 #>titvxp5*«, rfc*
vMrt-nnH vto*t. The dialect of the Inachus valley seems to
resemble Laconian more closely than does that of the rest of the
Argotic area, Corint h and her colonies in the earliest inscriptions pre-
serve t and *\ » Lat in (^ before o and v sounds, and write $ and if by x»
and ♦*» the svmbol* which art* used also for this purpose in old Attic.
In the Corvvrean and Sicilian forms of the dialect, a before a dental
appear* as V: *t*rt*s -<KXri«t; and in Sicilian the perfect -active
was trotted a* a present: ftt&MM* for Wout. o\\ From Megara
tw* come lately an obscure inscription from the beginning of the 5th
century: its colony Sellnus has inscriptions from the middle of the
same centuiv : the inscriptions from B\ cantium and its other Pontic
colonies vlate only from Hellenistic times. In Crete, which shows a
considerable vorietv ot subduuVcts* the most important document is
the groit inscription from iVortyn containing twelve tables of family
Jaw, which was discowred 111*1^4, The local alphabet has no
^pxirate svmbols tor \ and *. and the** sounds are therefore written
with * anvl ». As in Arrive the combination -*t was kept both
media ll\ ami ntutlx except before words Uvinning with a consonant :
.* ^ w a> iv^es*'«tev\ by ,C\ uter b\ -rr*. as in Thess*dian and Boeotian :
^«^rrvs. Attk" ^wtfw*:"jukl £nallv bv -<^: X eombunxl with a pre-
vwUiiit \owvl iuu> an un-diphthvuij:: *^V*. Attic AV*. cp. the English
pronunciation of talk, &c. In Gortyn and some other towns *c$- was
assimilated to -09-, where must have been a spirant tike the English
th in thin; f of Attic Greek is represented initially by 6, medially
by M, but in some towns by r and rr: 6&6s( •»£<«&), bixiMtp
(-ȣtx6fcii'). Final consonants are generally assimilated to the
beginning of the next word. In inflection there are many local
peculiarities. In Melos and Thera some very old inscriptions have
been found written in an alphabet without symbols for <t>, x» ^, &
which are therefore written as xft, *h or P A, va, *v. The contractions
of t+t and of 0+0 are represented by E and O respectively. The
old rock inscriptions of Thera are among the most archaic yet
discovered. The most characteristic feature of Rhodian Doric
is the infinitive in -/tci?: 66/itiy, Sec. ( — Attic fovvat), which
passed also to Gela and Agrigentum. The inscriptions from Cos
are numerous, but too late to represent the earliest form of the
dialect.
(b) The dialects of N.W. Doric, Locrian, Phocian, Aetolian, with
which go Elean and Achaean, present a more uncouth appearance
than the other Doric dialects except perhaps Cretan. Only from
Locris and Phocis come fairly old inscriptions; later a tourf was
developed, in which the documents of the Aetolian league are
written, and of which the most distinctive mark is the dative plural
of consonant stems in -o«: apxbvrois ( = Attic Hpxovai), ayupois
(-Attic ay&jC), &c. Phocian and the Locrian of Opus have also
forms like Aeolic in -«r<u. In place of the dative in -<p, locatives in
-o t are used in Locrian and Phocian. Generally north of the Corinthian
gulf the middle present participle from -€w- verbs ends in -ojuyos;
similar forms are found also in Elean. Locrian changed c before p
into a: rarapa for rarkpa; cf. English Kerr and Carr, sergeant and
Sargeaunt. <rr appears for <r0, and P and F are still much in use in
the 5th century B.C. Many thousands of inscriptions were found in
the French excavations at Delphi, but nothing earlier than the 5th
century B.C. In the older inscriptions the Aeolic influence — datives
in -e*<ri, 6wua for tvo^a. — is better marked than later. In the
Laws of the Labyad phratry (about 400 B.C.} the genitive is in ov,
but a form in -« is also found, FoUu y which seems to be an old
ablative fossilized as an adverb. The nom. pi. facarb-opes is used
for the ace. ; similar forms are found in Elean and Achaean.
The more important of the older materials for Achaean come from
the Achaean colonies of S. Italy, and being scanty; give us only an
imperfect view of the dialect, but it is clearly in its main features
Doric. Much more remarkable is the Elean dialect known chiefly
from inscriptions found at Olympia, some of which are as early as the
beginning of the 6th century. The native dialect was replaced first
by a Doric and then by the Attic kou^i, but under the Caesars the
archaic dialect was restored. Many of its characteristics it shares
with the dialects north of the Corinthian gulf, but it changes original
I to a : pd «/i«, &c. ; 5 was apparently a spirant, as in modern Greek
(—/A in English the, thine), and is represented by f in some of the
earliest inscriptions. Final -s became -p; this is found also in
Laconian ; -ty- became -**-, but was not simplified as in Attic to
-«--: fo-cra— Attic 6acu
As we have seen, Ionians, Aetotians and Dorians tended to level
local peculiarities and make a generally intelligible dialect in which
treaties and other important records were framed. The language of
literature is always of necessity to some extent a kou^: with some
Greek writers the use of a «ou^wasr especially necessary. The
local dialect of Boeotia was not easily intelligible in other districts,
and a writer like Pindar, whose patrons were mostly not Boeotians,
had perforce to write in a dialect that they could understand. Hence
he writes in a conventional Doric with Aeolic elements, which forms
a strong contrast to that of Corinna, who kept more or less closely
to the Boeotian dialect. For different literary purposes Greek had
different kouhuL A poet who would write an epic must adopt a
form of language modelled on that of Homer ana Hesiod; Akaeus
and Sappho were the models for the love lyric, which was therefore
Aeolic; Stesichorus was the founder of the triumphal ode, which, as
he was a Dorian of Sicily, must henceforth be in Doric, though Pindar
was an Aeolian, and its other chief representatives, Simonides and
Bacchylides, were Ionians from Ceos. The choral ode of tragedy
was always conventional Doric, and in the iambics also are Doric
words like 6p4w, X4w, Sac. Elegy and epigram were founded on epic;
the satirical iambics of Hipponax and nis late disciple Herondas are
Ionic The first Greek prose was developed in Ionia, of which an
excellent example has been preserved to us in Herodotus. Thucy-
dides was not an Ionian, but he could not shake himself free of the
tradition: he therefore writes vp^waw, t&*ow, &c, with-**-, which
was Ionic, but is never found in Attic inscriptions nor in the writers
who imitate the language of common life — Aristophanes (when not
parodying tragedy, or other forms of literature or dialect), Plato and
the Orators (with the partial exception of Antiphon, who ordinarily
has -ot-. but in the one speech actually intended for the law-courts
-rr-). Similarly Hippocrates and his medical school in Cos wrote
in Ionic, not. however, in the Ionic of Herodotus, but in a language
more akin to the Ionic unr*} of the inscriptions: and this dialect
continued to be used in medicine later, much as doctors now use
Latin for their prescriptions. The first literary' document written
in Attic prose is the treatise on the Constitution of Athens, which is
generally printed amongst the minor works of Xenophon. but really
belongs to about 425 B.C. From the fragment of Aristophanes'
GREEK LANGUAGE
499
Banqueters and from the first speech of Lysias " Against Theomnestos "
it is clear that the Attic dialect had changed rapidly in the 6th and
5th centuries B.C., and that much of the phraseology of Solon's laws
was no longer intelligible by 400 B.C. Among the most difficult of
the literary dialects to trace is the earliest — the Homeric dialect.
The Homeric Question cannot be discussed here, and on that question
it may be saia quot homines tot sententiae. To the present writer,
however, it seems probable that the poems were composed in Chios
as tradition asserted; the language contains many Aeolisms, and
the heroes sung are, except for the Athenians (very briefly referred
to), and possibly Telamonian Ajax, not of the Ionic stock. Chios was
itself an Ionicized Aeolic colony (Diodorus v. 81. 7). The hypothesis
of a great poet writing on the basis of earlier Aeolic lays (itX*a
hvhp&v) in Chios seems to explain the main peculiarities of the
Homeric language, wHich, however, was modified to some extent
in later times first under Ionic and afterwards under Athenian
influence.
Of Dorian literature we know little. The works of Archimedes
written in the Syracusan dialect were much altered in language by
the late copyists. The most striking development of the late classical
age in Doric lands is that of pastoral poetry , which, like Spenser, is
" writ in no language," but, on a basis of Syracusan and possibly
Coan Doric, has in its structure many elements borrowed from the
Aeolic love lyric and from epic.
From the latter part of the 5th century B.c. Athens became ever
more important as a literary centre, and Attic prose became the
model for the later Kowff, which grew up as a consequence of the
decay of the local dialects. For this decay there were several
reasons. If the Athenian empire had survived the Peloponnesian
War, Attic influence would no doubt soon have permeated the whole
of that empire. This consummation was postponed. Attic became
the court language of Macedon, and, when Alexander's conquests
led to the foundation of great new towns, like Alexandria, filled with
inhabitants from all parts of the Greek world, this dialect furnished
a basis for common intercourse. # Naturally the resultant dialect
was not pure Attic. There were in it considerable traces of Ionic.
In Attica itself the dialect was less uniform than elsewhere even in
the 5th century B.C., because Athens was a centre of empire, litera-
ture and commerce. Like every other language which is not under
the dominion of the schoolmaster, it borrowed the names of foreign
objects which it imported from foreign lands, not only from those of
Greek-speaking peoples, but also from Egypt, Persia, Lydia, Phoe-
nicia, Thrace and elsewhere. The Ionians were great seafarers, and
from them Athens borrowed words for seacraf t and even for the tides :
(kfiTums " ebb," Mxfa " high tide," an Ionic word Avxfc) »pelt in
Attic fashion. From the Dorians it borrowed words connected with
war and sport: Xoxa-yfo, nwayfa, &c. A soldier of fortune like
Xenophon, who spent most of his life away from Athens, introduced
not only strange words but strange grammatical constructions also
into his literary compositions, mth Aristotle, not a born Athenian
but long resident in Athens, the Kourff may be said to have begun.
Some characteristics of Attic foreigners found it hard to acquire —
its subtle use of particles and its accent. ( Hence in Hellenistic Greek
particles are comparatively rare. According to Cicero, Theophrastus,
who came from as near Attica as Eretna in Euboea, was easily
detected by a market-woman as no Athenian after he had lived
thirty years in Athens. Thoucritus, an Athenian, who was taken
prisoner in the Peloponnesian War and lived for many years in
Epirus as a slave, was unable to recover the Athenian accent on his,
return, and his family lay under the suspicion that they were an
alien's children, as his son tells us in Demosthenes' speech " Against
Eubulides." In the muri} there were several divisions, though the
line between them is faint and irregular. There was a koo^ of
literary men like Polybius and of carefully prepared state documents,
as at Magnesia or Pergamum; and a different kou^ of the vulgar
which is represented to us in its Egyptian form in the Pentateuch,
in a later and at least partially Palestinian forrn in the Gospels.
Still more corrupt is the language which we find in the ill-written
and ill-spelt private letters found amongst the Egyptian papyri.
Not out of the old dialects but out of this kouHi arose modern Greek,
with a variety of dialects no less bewildering than that of ancient
Greek. In one place more rapidly, in another more slowly, the
characteristics of modern Greek begin to appear. As we have seen,
in Boeotia the vowels and diphthongs began to pass into the char-
acteristic sounds of modern Greek four centuries before Christ.
Dorian dialects illustrate early the passing of the old aspirate 0,
the sound of which was like the final / in English bit, into a sound like
the English th in thin, (nth, which it still retains in modern Greek.
The change of 7 between vowels into a y sound was charged by the
comic poets against Hyperbolus the demagogue about 415 B.C.
Only wnen the Attic sound changes stood isolated amongst the Greek
dialects did they give way in the toon) to Ionic. Thus the forms
with-w- instead: of -TT- won the day, while modern Greek shows that
sometimes the -pp~ which Attic shared with some Doric dialects and
Arcadian was retained, and that sometimes the Ionic -p*-, which
was also Lesbian and partly Doric, took its place. In other cases,
where Ionic and Attic dia not agree, forms came in which were
different fromeither: the genitives of masculine & stems were now
formed as in Doric with a, but the analogy of the other cases may
have been the effective force. The form vcJn u temple," instead of
Ionic prf6s, Attic w in , can only be Doric. 1 In the first five centuries of
the Christian era came in the modern Greek characteristics of Itacism
and vowel contraction, of the pronunciation of /**" and vr as mb
and nd and many other sound changes, the loss of the dative and the
confusion of the 1st with the 3rd declension, the dropping of the -/w
conjugation, the loss of the optative and the assimilation of the
imperfect and second aorist endings to those of the first aorist. 1
There were meantime spasmodic attempts at the revival of the old
language. Lucian wrote Attic dialogue with a facility almost equal
to Plato; the old dialect was revived in the inscriptions of Sparta;
Balbilla, a lady-in-waiting on Hadrian's empress, wrote epigrams
in Aeolic, and there were other attempts of the same kind. But they
were only tours de force, Kffrroi 'A&dvrios, whose flowers had no root
in the spoken language and therefore could not survive. Even in
the hands of a cultivated man like Plutarch the mudi of the 1st
century a.d. looks entirely different from Attic Greek. Apart from
non- Attic constructions, which are not very numerous, the difference
consists largely in the new vocabulary of the philosophical schools
since Aristotle, whose jargon had become part of the language of
educated men in Plutarch's^ time, and made a difference in the
language not unlike that which has been brought about in English
by the development of the natural sciences. It is hardly necessary
to say that these changes, whether of the Kotrij or of modern Greek,
did not of necessity impair the powers of the language as an organ of
expression; if elaborate inflection were a necessity for the highest
literary merit, then we must prefer Csedmon to Milton and Cynewulf
to Shakespeare.
The Chief Characteristics of Greek.
As is obvious from the foregoing account of the Greek dialects,
it is not possible to speak of the early history of Greek as handed
down to us as that of a single uniform tongue. From the earliest
times it shows much variety of dialect accentuated by the geo-
graphical characteristics of the country, but arising, at least in part,
from the fact that the Greeks came into the country in separate
waves divided from one another by centuries. For the history of the
language it is necessary to take as a beginning the form of the Indo-
European language from which Greek descended, so far as it can be
reconstructed from a comparison of the individual I.E. languages
(see Indo-European Languages). The sounds of this language, so
far as at present ascertained, were the following: —
(a) 11 vowels: a, a, e, I, i, *, 0, 0, u, U, 9 (a short indistinct vowel).
lb) 14 diphthongs: ai, au, ei, cu, oi, ou, &i, au, ei, eu, oi, ou, ri, 911.
(c) 20 stop consonants.
Labials: p, b, ph, bh (ph and bh being p and b followed by an
audible breath, not /and v).
Dentals: /, d, th, dh (th and dh not spirants like the two English
sounds in thin and then, but aspirated / and d).
Palatals: i, £, %h, £h (kh and gA aspirates as explained above).
Velars: q, g, qh, oh (velars diner from palatals by being produced
against the soft palate instead of the root of the mouth).
Labio- velars: g*, gi, qxh, jpJKthese differ from the velars by being
combined with a slight labial w-sound).
(d) Spirants —
Labial: to.
Dental: s, z, post-dental s, ?, interdental possibly f>, ff.
Palatal: x (Scotch ch) t y.
Velar: x (a deeply guttural x> heard now in Swiss dialects), 3,
Closely akin to w and y and often confused with them were
the semi-vowels u and i.
(e) Liquids: /,V.
(f) Nasals: m (labial), n (dental), fl (palatal), » (velar), the last
three in combination with similar consonants.
(a) As far as the vowels are concerned, Greek retains the original
state of things more accurately than any other language. The sounds
of short e and short o in Attic and Ionic were close, so that e-\-e
contracted to a long close e represented by ct, 0+0 to a long close o
represented by ©v. In these dialects u, both long and short, was
modified to u, and they changed the long a to e, though Attic has &
after e, t and p. In Greek 9 appeared regularly as a, but under the
influence of analogy often as e and o.
(b) The short diphthongs as a whole remained unchanged before a
following consonant. Before a following vowel the diphthong was
divided between the two syllables, the t or u forming a consonant at
the beginning of the second syllable, which ultimately disappeared.
Thus from a root dheu- " run " comes a verb $tu for 6e-F(a, from
an earlier *$€v~w. The corresponding adjective is 606* "swift,"
for 9o-Fo-s, from an earlier *0ou-o-j. The only dialect which kept
the whole diphthong in one syllable was Aeolic. The long diph-
thongs, except at the ends of words, were shortened in Attic. Some
of these appear merely as long vowels, having lost their second
element in the proethnic period. Apparent long diphthongs like
those in Xgrovpyla, ayfw arise by contraction of two syllables.
(c) The consonants suffered more extensive change. The voiced
aspirates became unvoiced, so that bh, dh, gh, gh, gxh are confused
with original ph, th, kh, qh, qth: I.E. *bherd (Skt. bharami) is Gr.
*kp<*\ I.E. *dhumos (Skt. dhumas), Gr. Ovtfs; I.E. *flfam«- (Skt.
1 Thumb, Die griechische Sprache im Zeitalter des HeUenismus
901), pp. 242-243.
(, *&
umb, op, cu. p. 249.
500
GREEK LANGUAGE
kima-), Gr. (aur)-xwo-r; I.E. *stigh~ (Skt. stigh*), Gr. <rr(x«;
I.E. *&ke*- (Skt. han-) t Gr. 04«> probably), <**W The palatal
and velar series cannot be distinguished in Greek; for the differ-
ences between them resort must be had to languages of the satem-
group, such as Sanskrit, Zend or Slavonic, where the palatals appear
as sibilants (see Indo-European Languages). The labio- velar
series present a great variety of forms in the different Greek dialects,
and in the same dialect before different sounds. Thus in Attic before
o vowels, nasals and liquids, the series appears as v, 0, <t>; before e
and t vowels as r, 0(8), $; in combination with u 9 which led to loss
of the * by dissimilation, *, y, %• Thus ixonox corresponds to the
Latin sequo-r, apart from the ending; fiovs to Latin bos (borrowed
from Sabine), English cow; <p6ms slaughter," hre^vov, old Irish
fonim, " I wound. ' Parallel to these forms with p are forms in the
talic languages except Latin and Faliscan, and in the Cymric
group of the Celtic languages. The [dental forms r, 6, stand by
themselves. Thus nt (from the same root as rod, iro?, rtfep, etc.;
is parallel to the Latin quis, the Oscan pis, old Irish da, Welsh pwy,
"who?" "what?"; Attic rbrrapts, Ionic T&r<rep« "four* is
parallel to Latin quaUuar, Oscan reropa, old Irish cethir, old Welsh
petguar; rUrts is from the same root as m>w$. For the voiced
sound, P is much more common than 6 before e and i sounds; thus
0lo$ " life," from the same root as Skt. jivas, Latin vivus; &U>s
" bowstring," Skt.jya, &c. In Arcado-Cypnan and Aeolic, *■ and
often precede e and i sounds. Thus parallel to Attic rkrrapes
Lesbian has wbravpts, Homer irlavpes, Boeotian irkrrnpts; Thes-
salian pkWonau, Boeotian fidXonai alongside of Attic /Sb&Aojuu,
Lesbian /ftXXopcu, Doric P&Xdijuu and also MiXopai. In Arcadian
and Cyprian the form corresponding to ns was <rn, in Thessalian
xis, where the labialization was lost (see the article on Q).
A great variety of changes in the stopped consonants arose in
combination with other sounds, especially j (a semivowel of the nature
of English v), u (w) and s; -r$-, -di- became first -co- and later -o- in
Attic Greek, -rr- in Boeotian (the precise pronunciation of -oo- and
-TT- is uncertain) : Attic 6-ir6<ros, earlier 6-ic6ocos s Boeotian b-Tbrros,
from the same stem as the Latin quot, quotiens; Homeric pkooos,
Attic nk<ros from *udOps f Latin titedius; -kj-, -xfc- became -<r<r-,
Attic -it- : vtooa pitch," Attic vitro, from *Hx^a t cp. Latin
pix, picis, kXaxrvoiv, Attic 4X&tt«v comparative to ikaxOs. fy and 74
became $*: 2*fc (Skt. Dydus) tXxlfw from *X*r£s, stem &Tt6-
11 hope," iJLcurrlfa from n&cmt, stem nearly- " lash."
(J) The sound 3 was represented in the Greek alphabet by f , the
u digamma," but in Attic and Ionic the sound was lost very early.
In Aeolic, particularly Boeotian and Lesbian, it was persistent, and
so also in many Doric dialects, especially at the beginning of words.
When the Ionic alphabet was adopted by districts which had retained
f, it was represented by 0: fipSSoy Aeolic for /Mfop, i.e. FpSbov.
In Attic it disappeared, leaving no trace; in Ionic it lengthened the
preceding syllable; thus in Homer broSeLras is scanned with o long
because the root of the verb contained F: 6F&-. Attic has £fcws,
but Ionic &tvos for $k»Fos. Its combination with r became -ov-,
Attic and Boeotian -tt-, inrbro-cpes, rkrrapes, vkf rapes for I.E. qfetu-.
But the most effective of all elements in changing the appearance
of Greek words was the sound s. Before vowels at the beginning,
or between vowels in the middle of words, it passed into an h sound,
the " rough breathing." Thus hrra is the same word as the Latin
septem, English seven; AX-j has the same stem as the Latin sal,
English sal-t; dJw for cOhoj is the same as the Latin uro (*eusd).
Combined with i Or u also it passes into h: ^, Skt. syuman,
"band"; i)M*, Doric* iSGs, Latin sua(d)vis, English sweet; cp.
oltcoio for Vbuaxrjp, vifbty Lesbian vavos " temple,' through waFos
from *vaaFo-s connected with vala " dwell." Before nasals and
liquids s was assimilated: pci-daw, Latin mi-ru-s, English smile;
ptya, Latin ntuem, English snow; Myu, Latin laxus y English slack;
£iw from *sreu-5 of the same origin as English stream (where t is a
later insertion), imperfect m*ov for *esreuom; cp. also ^iXo/zjkI&p,
ayawufas, AXXijjctos.
After nasals s is assimilated except finally; when assimilated, in all
dialects except Aeolic the previous syllable is lengthened if not
already long: Attic irapa, tfutva for the first aorist *cncmsa,
*emensa; but t6vs, tAw, &c, of the accusative pi. either remained
or became in Aeolic rots, rals, in Ionic and Attic rote, tAj, In Doric
t<&s, r&t; cp. nBdi fat *TtBivr<s, /Jds for *&&m, dj "one" for
*sem-s, then by analogy of the neuter *sens. Assimilation of <r to
preceding p and X is a matter of dialect: Ionic dafxrku, but Attic
6appQ, and so also the Doric of Thera: ficekta, but loretXa for
syllable ($
I original m becomes n; hence fiaivu with n, though from the same
root as English come. Original * does not survive in Greek, but is
represented by the aspirate at the beginning of words, 47^=Skt.
yajnas; medially after consonants it disappears, affecting the
C receding consonant or syllable where a consonant precedes;
etween vowels it disappears. A sound of the same kind is
indicated in Cyprian and some other dialects as a glide or transition
sound between two vowels.
(e) The most remarkable feature in the treatment of the nasals is
that when n or m forms a syllable by itself its consonant character
disappears altogether and it is represented by the vowel a only:
rarfa, Latin tcntus, a- negative particle, Latin in, English un;
d-xX^oi has the same prefix as the Latin sim-plex (sm). The liquids
in similar cases show Xa or aX and pa or up: ri-rXa-M**', xe-iraXTeu;
IhpaKQV, Bpaafc, Bapaos.
The ends of words were modified in appearance by the loss of all
stop-consonants and the change of final m to n, ttti£e, Latin dixit;
£vy6v, Latin iugum.
Accent. — The vowel system of Greek has been so well preserved
because it shows till late times very little in the way of stress accent.
As in early Sanskrit the accent was predominantly a pitch accent
(see Accent).
Noun System.— ^The I.E. noun had three numbers, but the dual
was limited to pairs, the two hands, the two horses in the chariot,
and was so little in use that the original form of the oblique cases
cannot be restored with certainty. Ionic has no dual. The I.E.
noun had the following cases: Nominative, Accusative, Genitive,
Ablative, Instrumental, Locative and Dative. The vocative was
not properly a case, because it usually stands outside the syntactical
construction of the sentence; when a distinctive form appears, it is
the bare stem, and there is no form (separate from the nominative)
for the plural. Greek has confused genitive and ablative (the dis-
tinction between them seems to have been derived from the pro-
nouns), except for the solitary FoUu^oUodev in an inscription
of Delphi. The instrumental, locative and dative are mixed in one
case, partly for phonetic, partly for syntactical reasons. In Arcadian,
Elean, Boeotian, and later widely in N. Greece, the locative -01 is
used for the dative. The masculine d-stems make the nom. in
most dialects in -as. The genitive is in -5o (with o borrowed from
the 0-stems), which remains in Homer and Boeotian, appears in
Arcado-Cyprian as -ou, and with metathesis of quantity -cc* in
Ionic. The Attic form in -ow is borrowed directly from the o-stems.
In the plural the -d and -0 stems follow the article in making their
nominatives in -at and -ot instead of the original -&s and -6s. The
neuter plural was in origin a collective singular, and for this reason
takes a singular verb ; the plural of {vy6v " yoke " was originally
*iug&, and declined like any other -a stem. But through the influence
01 tne masculine and feminine forms the neuter took the same oblique
cases, and like its own singular made the accusative the same as the
nominative. In the plural of -& and -6 stems, the locative in -auri,
-ouri was long kept apart from the instrumental-dative form in
-Oil, -OtJ.
The Verb System. — The verb system of Greek is more complete
than that of any of the other I.E. languages. Its only rival, the early
Vedic verb system, is already in decay when history begins, and
when the classical period of Sanskrit arrives the moods have broken
down, and the aorist, perfect, and imperfect tenses are syntactically
confused. Throughout the Greek classical period the moods are
maintained, but in the period of the Kou/fi the optative occurs less
and less and finally disappears. The original I.E. had two voices,
an active and a middle, and to these Greek has added a third, the
passive, distinguished from the middle in many verbs by separate
forms for the future and aorist, made with a syllable -Orj-, Tinrjtyaontu,
h-^rjBijp, though in this instance, n/xfaoMat, the future middle, is
often used with a passive sense. Other forms which Greek has added
to the original system are the pluperfect — in form a past of the
perfectstem with aorist endings. It merely expressed the perfect
action in past time, and, except as derived from the context, did not
possess the notion of relative time (past at a time already past),
which attaches to the Latin forms with the same name. The future
optative was also a new formation, betraying its origin in the fact
that it is almost entirely limited to Oratio Obliqua. The aorist
imperatives were also new; the history of some of them, as the second
sing. act. xavcov, is not very clear. The whole verb system is affected
by the distinction between -6 and -mi verbs; the former or thematic
verbs have a so-called " thematic vowel " between the root and the
personal suffix, while the -mi verbs attach the suffixes directly to
the root. The distinction is really one between monosyllabic and
disyllabic roots. The history of the personal endings is not altogether
clear; the -d verbs have in the present forms for the 2nd and 3rd
person in -«s and -«, which are not yet elucidated. In the middle,
Greek does not entirely agree with Sanskrit in its personal endings,
and the original forms cannot all be restored with certainty. Tne
endings of the primary tenses differed from those of the secondary,
but there has been a certain amount of confusion between them.
The syntax of the verb is founded on the original I.E. distinction
of the verb forms, not by time (tense), but by forms of action, pro-
gressive action (present and imperfect), consummated action (aorist),
state arising from action, emphatic or repeated action (perfect).
For the details of this see Indo-European Languages.
Bibliography. — (i.) A grammar of Greek, which will deal fully
with the whole material of the language, is at present a desideratum,
and is hardly possible so long as new dialect material is being con-
stantly added and while comparatively so little has been done on
the syntax of the dialects. The greatest collection of material is
to be found in the new edition of Ktihner's Griechische GrammaHk,
Laut- und Formenlehre, by Blass (2 vols., 1 890-1 892); Syntax, by
Gerth (2 vols., 1896, 1900). Blass's part is useful only for material,
the explanations being entirely antiquated. The only full historical
account of the language (sounds, forms and syntax) at present in
existence is K. Brugmann's Griechische Grammatik (3rd ed., 1900).
GREEK LAW
5oi
Gustav Meyer's Grieckische Grammatik (nothing on accent or syntax),
which did excellent pioneer work when it first appeared in 1880, was
hardly brought up to date in its 3rd edition (1896), but is still useful
lor the dialect and bibliographical material collected. See also
H. Hirt, Handbuch der griech. LauU und Formenlehre (1902). Of
smaller grammars in English perhaps the most complete is that of
I. Thompson (London, 1902). The grammar of Homer was handled
by D. B. Monro (2nd ed., Oxford, 1891). The syntax has been treated
in many special works, amongst which, may be mentioned W. W.
Goodwin, Syntax of the Greek Moods and Tenses (new ed., 1889) ;
B. L. Gildersleeve and C. W. E. Miller, Syntax of Classical Greek from
Homer to Demosthenes, pt. i. (New York, 1901 — and following);
J. M. Stahl, Kritisch-htstorische Syntax des griechischen Verbums
(1007); F. E. Thompson, Attic Greek Syntax (1907). (ii.) The
relations between Greek and the other I.E. languages are very well
brought out in P. Kretschmer's Einleitung in dte Geschichte der
griechischen Sprache (Gottingen, 1896). For comparative grammar
see K. Brugmann and B. Delbriick, Grundriss der vergleichenden
Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen (the 2nd ed., begun 1897,
is still incomplete) and Brugmann's Kuree vertfeichendt Grammatik
(1902- 1 903) ; A. Meiliet, Introduction d I'Stude comparative des langues
indo-europ$ennes (2nd ed., 1908). Greek compared with Latin and
English : r. Giles, A Short Manual of Comparative Philology for Classical
Students (2nd ed., iqoi, with an appendix containing a brief account
and specimens of the dialects); Kiemann and Goelaser, Grammaire
comparative du Gret et du Latin (1001), a parallel grammar in 2 vols.,
specially valuable for syntax, (iii.) For the dialects two works have
recently appeared, both covering in brief space the whole field:
A. Thumb, Handbuch der griechischen Dialekte (with bibliographies
for each dialect, 1909) ; C. D. Buck, Introduction to the Study of the
Greek Dialects, Grammar, Selected Inscriptions, Glossary (Boston,
191 o). Works on a larger scale have been undertaken by R. Meister,
by O. Hoffmann and by H. W. Smyth. For the koo4i may be
specialty mentioned A. Thumb, Die griech. Sprache in Zeitalter des
Hellenismus (1901); E. Mayser, Grammatik aer griechischen Papyri
aus der Ptolemaerzeit: Laut- und Wortlehre (1906) ; H. St J. Thackeray,
A Grammar of the Old Testament in Greek, vol. i. (1909); Blass,
Grammar of New Testament Greek, trans, by Thackeray (1898) ; J. H.
Moulton, A Grammar of New Testament Greek. L Prolegomena (3rd
ed., 1906). (iv.) For the development from the Kotrfi to modern
Greek: A. N. Jannaris, An Historical Greek Grammar, chiefly of the
Attic Dialect, as written and spoken from Classical Antiquity down
to the Present Time (1901); G. N. Hatzidakis, Einleitung in die
neugriechische Grammatik £1892); A. Thumb, Handbuch der neu-
griechischen Volkssprache (2nd ed. 1910). (v.) The inscriptions are
collected in Inscrtptiones Graecae in the course of publication by
the Berlin Academy, those important for dialect in the SaiHmlung
der griech. Dialektinschriften, edited by Collltz and Bechtel. The
earlier parts of this collection are to some extent superseded by
later volumes of the Inset. Graecae, containing better readings and
new inscriptions. A good selection (too brief) is Sohnsen's Insctip-
tiones Graecae ad Mustrandas dialectos selectae (3rd ed., 1910). A
serviceable lexicon for dialect words is van Herwerden's Lexicon
Graecum suppletotium et dialecticum (2nd ed., much enlarged, 2 vols.
1910). (vi.) The historical basis for the distribution of the Greek
•dialects is discussed at length in the histories of E. Meyer (Geschichte
des Altertums, ii.) and G. Busolt (Grieckische Geschichte, i'.); by Pro-
fessor Rid^eway, Early Age of Greece, i. (1001), and P. Kretschmer
in Gleita, 1. 9 ff. See also A. Fick, Die vot griechischen Ortsnamen
(J9<>S)* (vii.) Bibliographies containing the new publications on
Greek, with some account of their contents, appear from time*
to time in Indotermanische Forschunqen: Anzeigef (Strassburg,
Triibner), annually in Glotta (Gottingen, Vandenhoeck und
Ruprecht), and The Year's Work in Classical Studies (London,
Murr ay); (P. Gi.)
GREEK LAW. Ancient Greek law is a branch of comparative
jurisprudence the importance of which has been long ignored.
arvek law Jurats ^ ave commonly left its study to scholars, who
aadcout- have generally refrained from comparing the institu-
pmraUv tions of the Greeks with those of other nations. Greek
^j"jk" law has, however, been partially compared with
Roman law, and has been incidentally illustrated
with the aid of the primitive institutions of the Germanic
nations. It may now be studied in its earlier stages in the
laws of Gortyn; its influence may be traced in Legal docu-
ments preserved in Egyptian papyri; and it may.be recognized
as a consistent whole in its ultimate relations to Roman law in
the eastern provinces of the Roman empire.
The existence of certain panhellenic principles of law is implied
by the custom of settling a difference between two Greek states,
or between members of a single state, by resorting to external
arbitration. The general unity of Greek law is mainly to be
seen in the laws of inheritance and adoption, in laws of commerce
and contract, and in the publicity uniformly given to legal
agreements.
No systematic collection of Greek laws has come down to
us. Our knowledge of some of the earliest notions of the subject
is derived from the Homeric poems. For the details
of Attic law we have to depend on ex parte statements 22?** ,
in the speeches of the Attic orators, and we are some- rioee.
times enabled to check those statements by the
trustworthy, but often imperfect, aid of inscriptions. Incidental
illustrations of the laws of Athens may be found in the Laws
of Plato, who deals with the theory of the subject without
exercising any influence on actual practice. The Laws of
Plato are criticized in the Politics of Aristotle, who, besides
discussing laws in their relation to constitutions, reviews the
work of certain early Greek lawgivers. The treatise on the
Constitution of Athens includes an account of the jurisdiction of
the various public officials and of the machinery of the law courts,
and thus enables us to dispense with the second-hand testimony
of grammarians and scholiasts who derived their information
from that treatise (see Constitution or Athens). The works
of Theophrastus On the Laws, which included a recapitulation of
the laws of various barbaric as well as Grecian states, are now
represented by only a few fragments (Nos. 97-106, ed. Wimmer).
Our earliest evidence is to be sought in the Homeric poems.
In the primitive society of the heroic age (as noticed by Plato)
written laws were necessarily unknown; for, "in
that early period, they had no letters; they lived u Zier.
by habit and by the customs of their ancestors " (Laws,
680 a). We find a survival from a still more primitive time in
the savage Cyclops, who is " unfamiliar with dooms of law, or
rules of right" (ofrrt SUas ev eidbta o&re&purras, Od. ix. 215
and 112 f.)>
Diki (SUcri), assigned by Curtius (Etym. 134) to the same root as
heUwfXi, primarily means a " way pointed out," a " course pre-
scribed by usage/ hence " way " or u fashion," " manner " ■ Dft -
or "precedent." In the Homeric poems it sometimes
signifies a " doom " of law. a legal right," a "lawsuit "; while it
is rarely synonymous with "justice, as in Od. xiv. 84, where
" the gods honour justice," rlewi bitap.
Various senses of " right " are expressed in the same poems by
themis (Okvus) f a term assigned (ib. 254) to the same root as >rJ0wu*
In its primary sense themis is that which " has been laid . Ta ^ mia
down ; hence 1 a particular decision or "doom." The «•"■•
plural themistes implies a body of such precedents, " rules of right,"
which the king receives from Zeus with his sceptre (//. ix- 99).
Themis and di& have sometimes been compared with the Roman fas
and jus respectively, the former befng regarded as of divine, the
latter of human origin; and this is more satisfactory than the latest
view (that of Hirzel), which makes " counsel " the primary meaning
of themis.
Thesmos (farjilf), an ordinance (from the same root as themis), is
not found in " Homer," except in the last line of the fbeg moa
original form of the Odyssey (xxiii. 296), where it probably Namiha '
refers to the "ordinance" of wedlock. The common rf9gBam *
term for law, ripos* is first found in Hesiod, but not in a specially
legal sense (e.g. Op. 276). , . ,„ .
A trial for homicide is one of the scenes represented on the
shield of Achilles (II. xviii. 407-508). The folk are here to be
seen thronging the market-place, where a strife has rbmiHmt
arisen between two men as to the price of a man that WMi
has been slain. The slayer vows that he has paid all
(ttrxero ir&w' btfoScvvcu) , the kinsman of the slain protests
that he has received nothing (6\valvero nrfih ZSJkoQoj.); .both
are eager to join issue before an umpire, and both are favoured
by their friends among the folk, who are kept back by the heralds.
The cause is tried by the elders, who' are seated on polished
stones in a sacred circle, and in the midst there lie two talents
of gold, " to give to him who, among them all, sets forth the
cause most rightly " (rq> 86}jl€V & jtierd roicri diicrjv iObmara c&kk).
iThe discussions of the above passage have chiefly turned on two
points: (1) the legal questions at issue; and (2) the destination of
the " two talents. (1) In the ordinary view (a), it is solely a question
whether the fine or blood-money, corresponding to the Wergeld (see
Wergeld, Teutonic Peoples, Britain: Anglo-Saxon) of the old
Germanic law (Grimm, Rechtsalterthumer, 661 f .), has been paid or
not. (This is accepted by Thonissen, Lipsius, Sidgwick and Ridge-
way.) In the other view (b), it is held that the slayer * 4 claimed to
pay " the fine, and the kinama* of the slain " refused to accept any
compensation " (so Passow and Leaf, approved by Pollock). (2) The
11 two talents " (shown by Ridgeway to be a small sum, equal in
502
GREEK LAW
value to two oxen) are awarded either (a) to the litigant who " pleads
his cause most justly before them" (so Thonissen, Shilleto and
Lipsius, in accordance with the Attic use of phrases like limp etxeiv),
or (b) to the judge " who, among all the elders, gives the most
righteous judgment " (so Maine, approved by Sidgwick, Pollock,
Leaf and Ridgeway).
1 25 f. ; Ridgeway, ib. x. (1882), 30 f., and Journal of Hellenic Studies,
viii. (1887), 133 f. ; and Leaf, ib. viii. 122 f., and in his Commentary
on Iliad, ii. (1902), 610-614; also J. H. Lipsius in Leipzi$er Studien,
xii. (1890), 225-231, criticized by H. Sidgwick in Classical Review,
viii. (1894), 1-4.
We are told elsewhere in Homer that sometimes a man accepted
blood-money from the slayer of his brother or his son, and that
the slayer remained in the land after paying this penalty (//. ix.
633). As a rule the slayer found it safest to flee (Od. xxiii.
118 f.), but even so, he might be pursued by the friends of the
slain (Od. xv. 272-278). If he remained, the land was not (as
in later ages) deemed to be polluted by his presence. In Homer,
Orestes does not slay Clytaemestra, and he needs no " purifica-
tion " for slaying Aegisthus.
The laws of Sparta are ascribed to the legislation of Lycurgus,
whose traditional date is 884 B.C. Written laws are said to have
Greek Uw- Deen expressly forbidden by Lycurgus (Plutarch,
givers: Lycurgus, 13) ; hence the " laws of Sparta " are simply
Lycurgus a body of traditional observances. We learn that all
at Sparta. tr | a j g £ or homfcule came before the Council of Elders
and lasted for several days, and that all civil causes were tried
by the ephors (q.v*). We are also told that originally the land
was equally divided among the citizens of Sparta, and that this
equality was enforced by law (Polybius vi. 45-46). Early in the
4th century the ephor Epitadeus, owing to a disagreement with
his son, enacted that every Spartan should be allowed to transfer
his estate and his allotment to any other person (Plutarch, Agis,
5), while Aristotle, in a much-debated passage of the Politics
(ii. 9. 14-15), criticizes the Spartan constitution for allowing the
accumulation of property in a few hands, an evil aggravated by
the large number of " heiresses"; " a man (he adds) may
bestow his heiress on any one he pleases; and, if he dies intestate,
this privilege descends to his heir."
Law was first reduced to writing in the 7th century B.C. A
written code is a necessary condition of just judgment, and
such a code was the first concession which the people
{JJJJJJ^ in the Greek cities extorted from the ruling aristocracies.
iawt% The change was generally effected with the aid of a
single legislator entrusted with complete authority
to draw up a code.
The first communities to reach this stage of progress were
the Greek colonies in the West. The Epizephyrian Locrians,
ZahucuM near the extreme south of Italy, received the earliest
atLocri written code from Zaleucus (663 B.C.), whose strict
Epixe- ^d severe legislation put an end to a period of strife
pbyrU * and confusion, though we know little of his laws,
except that they attached definite penalties to each offence,
and that they strictly protected the rights of property. Two
centuries later, his code was adopted even by the
*Cmtu£ Atnenian colony of Thurii in south Italy (443 B.C.).
#ta Charondas, the " disciple " of Zaleucus, became the
lawgiver, not only of his native town of Catana on the
east coast of Sicily, but also of other Chalcidian colonies in
Sicily and Italy. The laws of Charondas were marked by a
singular precision, but there was nothing (says Aristotle)
damasof t * iat ne cou ld claim, as his own except the special
Rbegkim. procedure against false witnesses (Politics, ii. 12. n).
In the case of judges who neglected to serve in the
law courts, he inflicted a large fine on the rich and a small fine
on the poor (ib. vi. (iv.) 13. 2). Androdamas of Rhegium gave
Phiiaiau * atfS on homicide anc * ° n heiresses to the Chalcidians
ofCoriath. 0I " Thrace, while Philolaus of Corinth provided the
Thebans with " laws of adoption " with a view to
preventing any change in the number of the allotments of land
(ib. ii. 12. 8-14).
Local legislation in Crete is represented by the laws of the
important city of Gortyn, which lies to the south of Ida in a
plain watered by the Lethaeus. Part of that stream
forms a sluice for a water-mill, and at or near this mill of o0rtyn.
some fragmentary inscriptions were found by French
archaeologists in 1857 and 1879. The great inscription, to
which most of our knowledge of the laws is due, was not dis-
covered until 1884. It had been preserved on a wall 27 ft.
long and 5 ft. high, the larger part of which was buried in the
ground, while its farthest extremity passed obliquely athwart
the bed of the mill-stream. It was necessary to divert the water
before the last four columns could be transcribed by the Italian
scholar, Federico Halbherr, whose work was completed in the
same year by the excavation and transcription of the first eight
columns by the German scholar, E. Fabricius. In the foDowing
year Halbherr discovered more than eighty small fragments on
the neighbouring site of a former temple of the Pythian
Apollo.
These fragments, which are far earlier than the great inscription
above-mentioned, have been assigned to about 650 B.C. They
precede the introduction of coined money into Crete, the penalties
being reckoned, not in coins, but in caldrons. They deal with the
powers of the magistrates and the observances of religion, but are
mainly concerned with private matters of barter and sale, dowry
and adoption, inheritance and succession, fines for trespass and
questions of blood-money. As in the code of Zaleucus, we have a
faxed scale of penalties, including the fine of a single tripod, and rang-
ing from one to a hundred caldrons.
The great inscription is perhaps two centuries later (c. 450 B.C.).
It consists of a number of amendments or additions to an earlier code,
and it deals exclusively with private law, in which the family and
family property occupy the largest part. The procedure is entirely
oral; oaths and other oral testimony are alone admitted; there are
no documentary proofs, and no record of the verdict except in the
memory of the judge or of his " remembrancer.", All the causes are
tried before a single judge, who varies according to the nature of the
suit. Where the law specially enjoins it, he is bound to give judg-
ment (5uc6b5t») in accordance with the law and the " witnesses or
oaths," but, in other cases, he is permitted to take oath and decide
(Kplvtw) in view of " the contentions of the parties," as distinguished
from " the declarations of the witnesses. Offences against the
person are treated as matters of private compensation according to
a carefully graduated tariff. In certain cases the defendant may
clear himself by an " oath of purgation " with the support of " co-
jurors " (d/uoAi6nu), the Eideshelfer of old Germanic law (Grimm
859 f.)i who have no necessary knowledge of the facts. There is no
interference with the exposure of infants, except in the interest of
the father (if the child is free-born) or of the lord (in the case of serfs).
The law of debt is primitive, though less severe than that of the early
Romans. In contrast with these primitive elements we have others
which are distinctly progressive. The estates of husband, wife and
sons are regarded as absolutely distinct. Wills are unknown, even
in their most restricted form. Elaborate provisions are made to
secure with all speed the marriage of an " heiress "; she is bound to
marry the eldest of her paternal uncles or to surrender part of her
estate, and it is only if there are no paternal uncles that she is
permitted to marry one (and that the eldest) of their 60ns. Adoption
is made by the simple procedure of mounting a block of stone in the
market-place and making a public announcement at a time when the
citizens are assembled. The adopted son does not inherit any larger
share than that of a daughter. Any one who desires to repudiate his
adopted son makes a public announcement as before, and the person
repudiated receives, by way of nominal compensation, the girt of a
small number of staters. In these later " laws of Gortyn " we have
reached the time when payments are made, not in " caldrons," but
in coins. In the inscription itself the laws are simply described as
11 these writings."
The text of the grfeat inscription was first published by E. Fabricius
in Ath. Mitth. ix. (1885), 362-384; there 16 a cast of the whole in
the Cambridge Museum of Classical Archaeology. Cf. Compare tti's
Leggi di Gortyna (1893); Biicheler and Zittelmann in Rhetn. Mus.
xl. (1885); Dareste, Haussoullier and Th k Reinach, Inscr. juridiques
fecques, iii. (1894), 352-493 (with the literature there quoted).
ng. trans, by Roby in Law Quarterly Review (1886), i35-*5 2 ; s^
also E. S. Roberts, Gk. Epigraphy, i. 39 f., 52 f., 3*5-332 ; J- w -
Headlam in Journal of Hellenic Studies, xiii. (1892-1803), 48-69;
P. Gardner and F. B. Jevons, Greek Antiquities (1895), 560-574;
W. Wyse in Whibley's Companion to Greek Studies (1905), 378-383;
and Hermann Lipsius, Zum Recht von Gortyns (Leipzig, 1909).
A Roman writer ascribes to the Athenians the very invention
of lawsuits (Aelian, Var. Hist. iii. 38) , and the Athenians xttena.
themselves regarded their tribunals of homicide as
institutions of immemorial antiquity (Isocr. Paneg. 40).
GREEK LAW
503
On the abolition o! the single decennial archon l in 683 B.C., his
duties were distributed over several officials holding office for
one year only. The judicial duties thenceforth discharged by
the chief archon (the archon), in the case of citizens,
leahr** were discharged by the polemarch in the case of foreign
arcboaa. settlers or metics (jjfaroucoi); while the king-archon,
who succeeded to the religious functions of the ancient
kings, decided cases connected with religious observances (see
Archon). He also presided over the primitive council of the
state, which was identical with the council of the Areopagus.
It was possibly with a view to the recognition of the rights of the
lower classes that, about the middle of the 7th century B.C., the
three archons were raised to the number of nine by the institution
of the joint board of the six thesmothetae, who super-
™ e m intended the judicial system in general, kept a record
tbeute. " of all legal decisions, and drew attention to any defects
in the laws. It is probable that in their title we have
the earliest example in Attic Greek of the use of thesmos in the
sense of " law. "
The constitution was at this time thoroughly oligarchical.
With a view, however, to providing a remedy for the conflict
Dnco. between the several orders of the state, the first code
of Athenian law was drawn up and published by Draco
(strictly Dracon), who is definitely described as a thesmothetes
(621). His laws were known as thesmoi. The distinctive part
of his legislation was the law of homicide, which was held in
such high esteem that it was left unaltered in the legislation of
Solon and in the democratic restoration of 411 B.C. It is partly
preserved in an inscription of 409, which has been restored with
the aid of quotations from the orators (CI. A. i. 61; Inset, jurid.
grecques, ii. 1. 1-24; and Hicks, Gk. Hist. Inscr. No. 59). It drew
a careful distinction between different kinds of homicide. Of
the rest of Draco's legislation we only know that Aristotle
(Politics, ii. 12, 13) was struck by the severity of the penalties,
and that the creditor was permitted to seize the person of the
debtor as security for his debt.
The conflict of the orders was not allayed until both parties
agreed in choosing Solon as mediator and as archon (594 B.C.).
5 . Solon cancelled all mortgages and debts secured on
the person of the debtor, set free all who had become
slaves for debt, and forbade such slavery for the future (see
Solon). Thenceforth every citizen had also " the right of appeal
to the law-courts/ 5 and the privilege of claiming legal satisfaction
on behalf of any one who was wronged. Cases of constitutional
law (inter alia) came before large law-courts numbering hundreds
of jurors, and the power of voting in these law-courts made the
people masters of the constitution (Aristotle's Constitution of
Athens, c. 9). Solon's legislation also had an important effect
on the law of property. In primitive times, on a man's death, his
money or lands remained in the family, and, even in the absence
of direct descendants, the owner could not dispose of his property
by will. Permission to execute a will was first given to Athenian
citizens by the laws of Solon. But " the Athenian Will was only
an inchoate Testament " (Maine's Ancient Law, c. vi.); for this
permission was expressly limited to those citizens who had no
direct male descendants (Dem. Lept. 102; Plutarch, Solon, 21;
cf. Wyse on Isaeus, p. 325).
The law of intestate succession is imperfectly preserved in
[Dem.] 43, § 51 (cf. Wyse, ib. p. 562 f.). In the absence of direct
male descendants, a daughter who survived her father was
known as an eKUXypos, not an " heiress," but a " person who
went with the estate "; and, in the absence of a will, the right
or duty of marrying the daughter followed (with certain obvious
exceptions) the same rules as the right of succession to the
estate (cf. Wyse, ib. p. 348 f.).
Among the reforms of Cleisthenes (568) was the law of
ostracism (q.v.). The privileges of the Areopagus were
£fe£taft<M. curtailed (while its right to try certain cases of homicide
was left untouched) by the reforms of Ephialtes (462),
1 For further information as to the evolution of the Athenian
constitutionsee Archon. Areopagus, BoulS, Ecclesia, Strategus,
and articles on all the chief legislators.
CM*
and of Pericles, who also restored the thirty " local justices "
(453), limited the franchise to those of citizen-blood
by both parents (451), and was the first to assign to cfroii!*'
jurors a fee for their services in the law-courts, which
was raised to three obols by Cleon (425).
In contrast to legislative reforms brought about by lawgivers
entrusted with special authority, such as Draco, Solon and
Cleisthenes, there was the regular and normal course ortiasiy
of public legislation. The legislative power was not course of
exercised directly by the popular assembly (see '«***«-
Ecclesia), but the pieliminary consent of that body tioa '
was necessary for the appointment of a legislative commission.
In the 5th century (e.g. in 450 and 446 B.C.) certain com-
missioners called ovyypajxis were appointed to draw up laws
which, after approval by the council, were submitted ^ am
to the assembly. The same term was still in use gnpbeis.
in March 411 (Thuc. viii. 61). But in October, on Afomo-
the overthrow of the Four Hundred, the commissioners **•**••
are for the first time called nomothetae (ib. 97).
The procedure in ordinary legislation was as follows. At the first
meeting of the assembly in the year, the people was asked whether it
would permit motions to be made for altering or supplementing the
existing laws. A debate ensued, and, if such permission were granted,
any citizen who wished to make a motion to the above effect was
required to publish his proposals in the market-place, and to hand
them to the secretary of the council (Boule) to be read aloud at more
than one meeting of the assembly. At the third regular meeting the
people appointed the legislative commissioners, who were drawn by
lot from the whole number of those then qualified to act as jurors.
The number, and the duration of the commission, were determined in
each case by the people. The proceedings before the commission
were conducted exactly in- the manner of a lawsuit. Those who
desired to see old laws repealed, altered or replaced by new laws
came forward as accusers of those laws; those of the contrary opinion,
as defenders; and the defence was formally entrusted to public
advocates specially appointed for the purpose (awfryopot). The
number of the commissioners varied with the number or importance
of the laws in question ; there is evidence for the number 1001 (Dem.
xxiv. 27}. If a law approved by the commission was deemed to be
unconstitutional, the proposer was liable to be prosecuted (by a
yptut>ii Tapart/iw), just as in the case of the proposer of an unconstitu-
tional decree in the public assembly. Formal proceedings might
also be instituted against laws on the 6ole ground of their inexpedi-
ency (see note on Aristotle's Constitution of Athens, p. 219, ed.
Sandys). A prosecutor who (like Aeschines in his indictment of
Ctesiphon) failed to obtain one-fifth of the votes was fined 1000
drachmae (£40), and lost the right to adopt this procedure in future.
When a year had elapsed, the proposer of a law or a decree was free
from personal responsibility. This was the case with Leptines, but
the law itself could still be attacked, and, in this event, five advocates
were appointed to defend it (<rfa$uGoO» cf. Dem. Lept. 144, 146.
Limits of space make it impossible to include in the present
article any survey of the piurport of the extant remains of the
laws of Athens. Such a survey would begin with the
laws of the family, including laws of marriage, adoption fMbZn*.
and inheritance, followed by the law of property
and contracts, and the laws for the protection of life, the
protection of the person, and the protection of the constitution.
The texts have been collected and classified in Telfy's Corpus
juris Attici (1867), a work which can be supplemented or
corrected with the aid of Aristotle's Constitution of Athens;
while some of the recent expositions of the subject are mentioned
in the bibliography at the end of this article. We now proceed
to notice the law of homicide, but solely in connexion with
jurisdiction.
The general term for a tribunal is biKxurriipiov (from dtfcdfw),
Anglicized " dicastery." Of all the tribunals of Athens those
for the trial of homicide were at once the most primitive
and the least liable to suffer change through lapse ^^ ih9
of time. In the old Germanic law all trials whatsoever nv primb
were held in the open air (Grimm 793 f.). At Athens tivotrh
this custom was characteristic of all the five primitive bUMmia §or
courts of homicide, the object being to prevent the
prosecutor and the judges from coming under the
same roof as one who was charged with the shedding of blood
(Antiphon, De caede Herodis, 11). The place where the trial
was held depended on the nature of the charge.
the trial oi
5°4
GREEK LAW
At the
1. The rock of the Acropolis, outside the earliest of the city-walls,
was the proper place for the trial of persons charged with pre-
Oa the meditated homicide, or with wounding with intent to kill.
Ar+oDszuM. ^ e penary f° r the fonner crime was death; for the latter
pmgam% exile; and, in either case, the property was confiscated.
If the votes were equal, the person accused was acquitted. The
proceedings lasted for three days, and each side might make two
speeches. After the first speech the person accused of premeditated
homicide was mercifully permitted to go into exile, in which case his
property was confiscated, and in the ordinary course he remained in
exile for the rest of his life.
2. Charges of unpremeditated homicide, or of instigating another
to inflict bodily harm on a third person, or of killing a slave or a
resident alien or a foreigner, were tried at the Palladion,
the ancient shrine of Pallas, east of the city-walls. The
punishment for unpremeditated homicide was exile
(without confiscation) until such time as the criminal had propiti-
ated the relatives of the person slain, or (failing that) for some
definite time. The punishment for instigating a crime was the same
as for actually committing it.
At the Deh 3* Trials at the Delphinion, the shrine of Apollo
ohlalon Delphinios, in the same quarter, were reserved for special
* cases of either accidental or justifiable homicide.
4. If a man already in exile for unpremeditated homicide were
accused of premeditated homicide, or of wounding with intent to
At kill, provision was made for this rare contingency by per-
Phrettto, nutting him to approach the shore of Attica and conduct
his defence on board a boat, while his judges heard the
cause on shore, at a " place of pits " called Phreatto, near the
harbour of Zea. If the accused were found guilty, he incurred the
proper penalty; if acquitted, he remained in exile.
5. The court in the precincts of the Prytaneum, to the north of the
Acropolis, was only 01 ceremonial importance. It " solemnly heard
At the Pry- aiM * condemned undiscovered murderers, and animals or
taaeum inanimate objects that had caused the loss of life." 1
The writ ran " against the doer of the deed," and any
instrument of death that was found guilty was thrown across the
frontier. The trial was held by the four " tribe*kinzs" (4>v\o0cur&£s) t
an archaic survival from before the time of Cleisthenes. (On these
five courts see Aristotle's Constitution of Athens, c. 57, and Dem.
Aristoer. 65-79.)
In all the courts of homicide the president was the archoivbasi-
leus, or king-archon, who on these occasions laid aside his crown.
Ephttme Originally all these courts were under the jurisdiction of
^ * an ancient body of judges called the ephetae (i^trcu),
whose institution was ascribed to Draco. The transfer of the first
of the above courts to the council of the Areopagus is attributed
to Solon. In practice the jurisdiction of the ephetae (see also
Areopagus) was probably confined to the courts at the Palladion
and Delphinion; but even there the rights of this primitive body
became obsolete, for trials " at the Palladion " sometimes came before
an ordinary tribunal of 500 or 700 jurors (Isocr. 0* Callitn. 52, 54;
[Dem.] e. Neaeram, 10).
Except in the case of the primitive courts of homicide, the
right of jurisdiction was entrusted to th£ several archons until
The thedaje of Solon (594), When the direct jurisdiction
pmAfeats of the archons was impaired by Solon's institution
of the £ the " right of appeal to the law-courts," the
iHbamm99 ' dignity of those officials was recognized by their having
the privilege of presiding over the . new tribunals (Jfyttiovlo.
diKaarqolov). A similar position was assigned to the other
executive officers, such as the stra^egi (generals), the
In*©*. bowd °* P° Hce caU ^ d tl > e " Ele Y ea >" and the financial
. officers, all of whom presided over cases connected
with their respective departments. In their new position
as presidents of the several courts, the archons received
plaints, obtained from both parties the evidence which
**? °* they, proposed to present, formally presided at the
trial, and gave instructions for the execution of the
sentence. The choice of the presiding magistrate in each case
was determined by the normal duties of his office. Thus the
chief archon, the official guardian of orphans and
**•*•** widows, presided in all cases, public or private, con-
m nected with the family property of citizens (Aristotle,
u.s. c. 56). The king-archon had charge of all offences against
religion, e.g. indictments for impiety, disputes within
the family as to the right to hold a particular priest-
hood, and all actions for homicide (c. 57). The third
1 In the case of " animals," we may compare the Mosaic law of
Exod. xxxi. 28 and the old Germanic law (Grimm 664) ; and in that
of " inanimate objects," the English law of deodands (Blackstone i.
300), repealed in 1846. See also Frazer on Pausanias, i. 28. 10.
The
strmtegi.
The
Forty.
archon, the polemarch, discharged in relation to resident aliens
all such legal duties as were discharged by the chief archon in
relation to citizens (c. 58). The trial of military offences T th
was under the presidency of the strategi, who were ma <a e Aw.
assisted by the other military officers in preparing
the case for the court. The six junior archons, the thesmothetae,
acted as a board which was responsible for all cases not specially
assigned to any other officials (details in c. 59).
The Forty, who were appointed by lot, four for each of the
ten tribes, acted as sole judges in petty cases where the damages
claimed did not exceed ten drachmae. Claims beyond
that amount they handed over to the arbitrators.
The four representatives of any given tribe received
notice of such claims brought against members of that tribe. It
seems probable that they dealt with all private suits not other-
wise assigned, but, unlike the archons, they did not prepare any
case for the court but referred it, in the first instance, to a public
arbitrator appointed by lot (c. 53).*
The public arbitrators (SuwrnraL) were a body including all
Athenian citizens in the sixtieth year of their age. The arbitrator,
on receiving the case from the four representatives
of the Forty, first endeavoured to bring the parties ^^f*
to an agreement. If this failed, he heard the evidence tnton.
and gave a decision. If the decision were accepted,
the case was at an end, but, if either of the two parties insisted
on appealing to a law-court, the arbitrator placed in two caskets
(one for each party) copies of all the depositions, oaths and
challenges, and of all the laws quoted in the case, sealed them up,
and, after attaching a copy of his own decision, handed them
over to the four representatives of the Forty, who brought the
case into court and presided over the trial. Documents which
had not been brought before the arbitrator could not be produced
in court. The court consisted of 201 jurors where the sum in
question was not more than 1000 drachmae (£40); in other
cases the number of jurors was 401 (c. 53).
A small board of five appointed by lot, one for each pair of
tribes, and known as the " introducers " (<el<ray<ay&$) , brought
up certain of the cases that had to be decided within
a month ( tfxfxrjvoi 61koj), such as actions for restitution El8 ^ m
of dowry, repayment of capital for setting up a business, ** *"
and cases connected with banking.
The largest and most important of the legal tribunals, the
" dicastery " {par excellence), was known as the heliaea. The
name, which is of uncertain origin, 1 denotes not only ueUmem.
the place where the court was held but also the members
of the court, — the heliastae of Aristophanes, the dicastae, or
&p8(xs StKaoral, of the Attic orators. During the palmy days
of the Athenian democracy, in the interval between the Persian
and the Peloponnesian wars, the total number liable to serve
as jurors is said to have been 6000 (Aristotle, u.s. c. 24. 3),
and this number was never exceeded (Aristoph. Vesp. 661 f.).
Any Athenian citizen in full possession of his rights, and over
thirty years of age, was entitled to be placed on the list (Aristotle,
u.s. c. 63. 3). At the beginning of the year the whole body of
jurors assembled on the hill of Ardfjttos looking down on the
Panathenaic Stadium, and there took a Solemn oath to the
effect that they would judge according to the laws and decrees
of the Athenian people and of the council of the Five Hundred
(Boule), and that, in cases where there were no laws, they would
decide to the best of their judgment; that they would hear both
sides impartially, and vote on the case actually before the court.
It has been suggested that, as the normal number of a court
was 500, the maximum number of 6000 jurors was probably
divided into ten sections of 500 each, with 1000 reserves. There
is evidence in the 4th century for courts of 200, 400, 500, 700 and
1 Cf. R. J. Bonner, in Classical Philology (Chicago, 1907), 407-418,
who urges that only cases belonging to the Forty were subject to
public arbitration.
8 Connected either with aXifatfat, " to assemble," or 1j\ios, or
"HXu (cf. Curt Wachsmuth, Stadt Athen, ii. (1) 359-364). The first is
possibly right (cf . Rogers on Aristoph. Wasps, xvii. f .) ; the second
implies that this large court was held in the open ait (Lipsius, Att.
Recht, 172).
■GREEK LAW
505
mnd
assembly.
(in important political trials) various multiples. of 500, namely,
1000, 1500; 2000 or 2500. To some of these numbers one juror
is added; it -was probably added to all, to obviate the risk of
the votes being exactly equal.
The evidence as to the organization of the juntos in the early
part of the 4th century is imperfect* Passages in Aristophanes
{Ecclesiozusae, 6S2-688; Pluius, 1166 f.) imply that in 392+388
b,c. the total number was divided into ten sections distinguished
by the first ten letters of the Greek alphabet, A to K. .Every
juror, on his first appointment, received a ticket of boxwood
(or of bronze) bearing his name with that of his father and his
deme, and with one of the above letters in the upper .left-hand
corner. Of the bronze tickets many hav4 been found (see
notes on Aristotle's Constitution of Athens, c. 63, and fig. 1 in
frontispiece, ed. Sandys). These tickets formed part of the
machinery for allotting the jurors to the several courts. To
guard against the possibility of bribery or other undue influence,'
the allotment did not take place until immediately before the
hearing of the case. Each court contained an equal number
of jurors from each of the ten tribes, and thus represented the
whole body of the state. The juror, on entering the court
assigned him/ received a counter (see fig. 3 in frontispiece, «.*.),
on presenting which at the end pi the day he received his fee.
The machinery for carrying out the above arrangements is
minutely described at the end of Aristotle's Constitution of
Athens (for details, cf. Gilbert, 397-390, Erig. trans., or Wyse
in Whibley's Companion to Greek Studies, 387 f.)w
The law-courts gradually superseded most of the ancient
judicial functions of the council and the assembly, but the
council continued to hold a strict scrutiny (doxinavla)
*%£j£ tt of candidates for office or for. other privileges, while
of the the council itself, as well as all other officials, had to
give account (*Wwa) on ceasing to bold office. The
council also retained the right to deal with extra-
ordinary crimes against the state. It was open to any
citizen to bring such crimes to the knowledge of the council in
writing. The technical term for this information, denunciation
or impeachment was eisan&elia (dcr ayyetta). The
geHa' council could inflict a fine of 500 drachmae (£20), or,
in important cases, refer the matter either to a law-
court, as in the trial of Antiphon (Thuo. viii. 68), or to the
ecclesia, as in that of Alcibiades (415 B.C.), and the strategi in
command at Arginusae (406; Xen. Hell. i. 7. 1$). The term
daayyeXLa was also applied to denunciations brought against
persons who wronged the orphan or the widow, or against a public
arbitrator who had neglected his duty (Dem. Mcidias, 86 f.).
A " presentation " of criminal information (irpo0oX^) might
be laid before the assembly with a view to obtaining its pre-
Prab&r liminary sanction for bringing the case before a
judicial tribunal. Such was the mode of procedure
adopted against persons who had brought malicious, groundless
or vexatious accusations, or who had violated the sanctity of
certain public festivals. The leading example of the former
is the trial of the accusers who prompted the people to put to
death the generals who had won the Battle of Arginusae (Xen.
Hell. i. 7. 34); and, of the latter, the proceedings of Demosthenes
against Meidias.
Legal actions (8uw) were classified as private (iStcu) or
public (&7ju6at<u). The latter were also described as 700^04 or
" prosecutions," but some 7pa0al were called "private,"
C ^£f*i when the state was regarded as only indirectly injured
Ictioas, by a wrong done to an individual citizen (Dem, xxi. 47) .
A private suit could only be brought by the man
directly interested, or, in the case of a slave, a ward or an alien,
by the master, guardian or patron respectively; ancf, if the suit
were successful, the sum claimed generally went to the plaintiff.
Public actions may be divided into ordinary criminal cases, and
offences against the state. As a rule they could be instituted
by any person who possessed the franchise, and ,the penalty
was paid to the state. If the prosecutor failed to obtain one-fifth
of the votes, he had to pay a fine of 1000 drachmae (£40), and
lost the right of ever bringing a similar action.
Lawsuits, whether public or : private, were also distinguished
as dUcu *ard twos or rflb* riya, according as the defeated
party could or could not be personally punished. Actions
(Ayftw) were also distinguished as ay&ves n/iqroi ("to be
assessed "), in which the amount of damages had to be deter-
mined by the court, because it had not been fixed by law, and
drijopnet (" not to be assessed "), in which the damages had not
to be determined by the court, because they had already been
fixed by law or by special agreement.. ...
Among special kind* of action were iireryarpfr, k<p^ryrjats and
epfct£t$. These could only be employed when the offence
was patent and could not be denied, . In the first, the person
accused was summarily arrested by the prosecutor and haled
into the presence of the proper official. In the second, the
accuser took the officer with him to arrest the culprit (Dem.
xxii. 26). In the third, he lodged an information with the
official, and left the latter to effect the capture. $o<hs, a general
term for many kind* of legal. " information," was a form of
procedure specially directed against those who injured the fiscal
interests of the state, and against guardians, who neglected
the pecuniary, interests of their wards. 'Awy/wufr? was an action
for confiscating property in private hands, which was claimed
as belonging/ to thfe state, the term being derived from the
claimants' written inventory of the property in question.
The ordinary procedure in all lawsuits, public or private,
began with a personal summons {Trp&TKkyats) of the
defendant by the plaintiff at^mpanied by two 22T2L
witnesses (Kkrrrijoes). If the defendant failed to. cedur*.
appear in court, these witnesses gave proof of the
summons, and judgment went by default.
The action was begun by presenting a written statement of
the case to the magistrate who presided over trials of the class
in question. If the statement were accepted, court-fees were
paid by both parties in a private action, and by the prosecutor
alone in a public action. The magistrate fixed a day for the
preliminary investigation {iwkKptms), , and, whenever several
causes were instituted at the same time, he drew lota to determine
the order in which they should be taken. Hence the plaintiff
was said " to have a suit lasaigned him by lot " (Xcryxdmp dlicrjv) ,
a phrase practically equivalent to " obtaining leave to bring an
action/' At the tetxptoit the' plaintiff and defendant both
swore to the truth ;of their statements. If the defendant raised
no formal protest, the trial proceeded in regular course (eitivbuda),
but he might contend that the suit was inadmissible, and, to
prove his point, might bring witnesses to confront those on the
side of the plaintiff ijhajiaprvpia), or he might rely on argument
without witnesses by means of a written statement traversing
that of the plaintiff (vkpaypa^yfy) . The person who submitted the
•special plea in bar of action naturally spoke first, and, if he
gained the verdict* the main suit could not come on, or, at any
rate, not in the way proposed or before the same court. A
cross-action (foriy patfj) might be brought by the defendant,
but the verdict did not necessarily affect that of the original
suit.
In the preliminary examination copies of the laws or other
documents bearing on the case were produced. If any such
document were in the hands of a third person, he
could be compelled to produce it by an action foe that
purpose (els kfx4><&&v tartar <lo%p)> The depositions
were ordinarily made before the presiding officer and were
taken down in his presence. If a witness were compelled to
be absent, a certified copy of his deposition might be sent
(kKtiaprvpla). The depositions of slaves were not accepted,
unless made under torture, and for receiving such evidence
the consent of both parties was required.. Either party could
challenge the other to submit his slaves to the
test 0rp6fc\ir<rts ds 06xravov), and, in the event of the hnges.
challenge being refused, could comment on the fact
when the case came before the court. Either party could also
challenge the other to take an oath (TpoKkqa* els Iptov),
and, if the oath were declined, could similarly comment on the
fact,
Docu-
ments.
506
GREEK LAW
Mercantile cases had to be decided within the interval of a
month; others might be postponed for due cause. If, on the
Th trlml ^ ay °* ^^ ° ne °* tne P* 1 ** 68 was aDSent > n * s
representative had to show cause under oath (for-
(tfiocrla)) if the other party objected, he did so under oath
(&v0inrw/iocr{a). If the plea for delay were refused by the court,
and it were the defendant who failed to appear, judgment went
by default; in the absence of the plaintiff, the case was given
in favour of the defendant.
The official who had conducted the preliminary inquiry
also presided at the trial. The proceedings began with a solemn
sacrifice. The plea of the plaintiff and the formal reply of the
defendant were then read by the clerk. The court was next
addressed first by the plaintiff, next by the defendant; in some
cases there were two speeches on each side. Every litigant was
legally required to conduct his own case. The speeches were
often composed by professional experts for delivery by the
parties to the suit, who were required to speak in person, though
one or more unprofessional supporters (awiryopoi) might subse-
quently speak in support of the case. The length of the speeches
was in many cases limited by law to a fixed time recorded by
means of a water-clock (clepsydra). Documents were not
regarded as part of the speech, and, while these were being read,
the clock was stopped (Goethe found a similar custom in force
in Venice in October 1786). The witnesses were never cross-
examined, but one of the litigants might formally interrogate
the other. The case for the defence was sometimes finally
supported by pathetic appeals on the part of relatives and
friends.
When the speeches were over, the votes were taken. In the
5th century mussel-shells (xotpfrcu) were used for the purpose.
Each of the jurors received a shell, which he placed in one of the
two urns, in that to the front if he voted for acquittal; in that
to the back if he voted for condemnation. If a second vote had
to be taken to determine the amount of the penalty, wax tablets
were used, on which the juror drew a long line, if he gave the
heavy penalty demanded by the plaintiff; a short one, if he de-
cided in favour of the lighter penalty proposed by the defendant.
In the 4th century the mussel-shells were replaced by disks
of bronze. Each disk (inscribed with the words ¥H$02}
AH MOSIA) was about 1 in. in diameter, with a short tube running
through the centre. This tube was either perforated or closed
(see figs. 6 and 7 in frontispiece to Aristotle's Constitution of Athens,
ed. Sandys). One of each kind was given to every juror, who
was required to use the perforated or the closed disk, according
as he voted for the plaintiff or for the defendant. On the
platform there were two urns, one of bronze and one of wood.
The juror placed in the hollow of his hand the disk that he
proposed to use, and closed his fingers on the extremity of the
tube, so that no one could see whether it were a perforated disk
or not, and then deposited it in the bronze urn, and (with the
same precaution to ensure secrecy) dropped the unused disk into
the wooden urn. The votes were sorted by persons appointed
by lot, and counted by the president of the court, and the
result announced by the herald. For any second vote the same
procedure was adopted (Aristotle, **.*., c. 68 of Renyon's Berlin
text).
Pecuniary penalties were inflicted both in public and in
private suits; personal penalties, in public suits only. Personal
ftMftfes. P 611 *^* 68 included sentences of death or exile, or
different degrees of disfranchisement (drtpia) with or
without confiscation. Imprisonment before trial was common,
and persons mulcted in penalties might be imprisoned
until the penalties were paid, but imprisonment was never
inflicted as the sole penalty after conviction. Foreigners alone
could be sold into slavery. Sentences of death were carried
out under the supervision of the board of police called the
" Eleven." In ancient times a person condemned was hurled
into a deep pit (the barathrum) in a north-western suburb of
Athens. la later times he was compelled to drink the fatal
draught of hemlock. Common malefactors were beaten to
death with clubs. Fines were collected and confiscated property
sold by special officials, called ^rpdxropcs and irwXtp-ai respec-
tively. In private suits the sentence was executed by the state
if the latter had a share in any fine imposed, or if imprison-
ment were part of the penalty. Otherwise, the execution of the
sentence was left to the plaintiff, who had the right of distraint,
or, if this failed, could bring an action of ejectment (Sliai £{birpp).
From the verdict of the heliaea there was no appeal. But,
if judgment had been given by default, the person condemned
might bring an action to prove that he was not responsible for
such default, rip %pi\\tov (sc. dbcrjv) djnikayxkiw. The corre-
sponding term for challenging the award of an arbitrator was
rty fiif ofoar avriKayxavtLV. He might also bring an action for
false evidence (dlxrj ypcvdoitaprvpuav) against his opponent's
witnesses, and, on their conviction, have the sentence annulled.
This " denunciation " of false evidence was technically called
kiri<Ticr)\pLS and brixricfjirreodai.
The large number of the jurors made bribery difficult, but,
as was first proved by Anytus (in 409), not impossible. It also
diminished the feeling of personal responsibility, while chancier
it increased the influence of political motives. In of the
addressing such a court, the litigants were not above Athenian
appealing to the personal interests of the general trlbuamla '
public. We have a striking example of this in the terms
in which Lysias makes one of his clients close a speech in
prosecution of certain retail corn-dealers who have incurred the
penalty of death by buying more than 75 bushels of wheat at
one time: " If you condemn these persons, you will be doing
what is right, and will pay less for the purchase of your corn;
if you acquit them, you will pay more " (xxii. § 22).
Speakers were also tempted to take advantage of the popular
ignorance by misinterpreting the enactments of the law, and the
jurors could look for no aid from the officials who formally
presided over the courts. The latter were not necessarily experts,
for they owed their own original appointment to the caprice of
the lot. Almost the only officials specially elected as experts
were the strategi, and these presided only in their own courts.
Again, there was every temptation for the informer to propose
the confiscation of the property of a wealthy citizen, who would
naturally prefer paying blackmail to running the risk of having
his case tried before a large tribunal which was under every
temptation to decide in the interests of the treasury. In con-
clusion we may quote the opinions on the judicial system of
Athens which have been expressed by two eminent classical
scholars and English lawyers. " • * -* .
A translator of Aristophanes, Mr B. B. Rogers, records his opinion
" that it would be, difficult to devise a judicial system less adapted
for the due administration of justice " (Preface to Waste, xxxv. f.),
while a translator of Demosthenes, Mr C. R. Kennedy, observes that
the Athenian jurors " were persons of no legal education or learning;
taken at haphazard from the whole body of citizens, and mostly
belonging to the lowest and poorest class. On the other hand, the
Athenians were naturally the quickest and cleverest people in the
world. Their wits were sharpened by the habit ... of taking an
active part in important debates, and hearing the most splendid
orators. There was so much litigation at Athens that they were
constantly either engaged as jurors, or present as spectators in courts
of law" (Private Orations, p. 361).
Authorities. — 1. Greek Law. B. W. Leist, Graco-italische
Rechtsgeschichte (Jena, 1884) ; L. Mitteis, Reichsreckt und Volksreeht
in den dstlichen Provinten des rdmischen Kaiserreichs, mil Beitragen sur
Kenntnis des griechischen Reehts (Leipzig, 1891);!. H. Lipsius, Von
der Bedeutung des griechischen Reehts (Leipzig, 1893; ; G. Gilbert, " Zur
Entwickelungsgeschichte des . . . Griechischen Rechtes " in Jahrb.
fur kl. PhUaTogie (Leipzig, 1896) ; H. J. Hitzig, Die Bedeutung des
altgriechischenRechtes fur die vergleichende Rechtswissenschaft (Stutt-
gart, 1006); R. Hirzel, Themis, Dike und Verwandtes (Leipzig, 1907);
.J. Thonissen, Le Droit criminel de la Grece Ugendaire, followed by
> Droit penal de la rSpublique athenienne (Brussels, 1875).
2. Attic Law. (a) Editions of Greek texts: I. B. Telfy, Corpus
juris A tiki (Pest and Leipzig, 1868); Aristotle's Constitution of
Athens, ed. Kenyon (London, 1891, &c, and esp. ed. 4, Berlin, 1903) ;
ed. 4, Blass (Leipzig, 1903) ; text with critical and explanatory notes,
ed. Sandys (London, 1893) '* Lysias, ed. Frohberger (Leipzig, 1866-
1871); Isaeus, ed. Wyse (Cambridge, 1904); Demosthenes, Private
Orations, ed. Paley and Sandys, ed. 3 (Cambridge, 1896-1898);
Against Midias, ed. Goodwin (Cambridge, 1906); Dareste, Haus-
soullier, Th. Reinach, Inscr.juridiques grecques (Paris, 1891-1904).
(b) Modern treatises; K. F. Hermann, De vestigiis institutorum
ANCIENTJ
GREEK LITERATURE
507
. . . Atticorum per Platonis de legibus libros indagandis (Marburg,
1836); Staalsaltertumer , ed. 6, Thumser (Freiburg, 1892); Rechts-
altertUmer, ed. 3, Thalheim (Freiburg, 1884); G. Busolt, Stoats-
und Rechtsaltertumer, ed. 2 (Munich, 1892); U. von Wilamowitz-
Mdllendorff, Aristoteles und A then (Berlin, 1893); G. Gilbert, Gk.
Constitutional Antiquities (vol. i., Eng. trans., pp. 376-416, London,
1 895)i J* H. Lipsius, (1) new ed. of Meier and Schomann, Der
attische Process (Berlin, 1 883-1 887); (2) ed. 4 of Schomann, Gr.
AlterMmer (Berlin, 1 897-1902); M Das attische Recht und Rechts-
verfahren (Leipzig, 1905); Daremberg and Saglio, Dictionnaire des
antigiUtts (Paris, 1877); G. Glotz, La Solidarity de la famille dans U
droit criminel en Grice (Paris, 1904) ; L. Beauchet, Droit privi de la
rip. athen. (4 vols., Paris, 1897); C. R. Kennedy, Appendices to
transl. of Dent. vols. iii. and iv. (1 856-1 861); Smith's Dictionary of
. . . Antiquities, ed. 3 (1891); F. B. Jevons, in Gardner and fevons,
Greek Antiquities (1895, pp. 526-597); W. Wyse, in Whibiey's
Companion to Greek Studies (Cambridge, 1905), pp. 377-402.
(J. E. S.*)
GREEK LITERATURE— The literature of the Greek language
is broadly divisible into three main sections: (1) Ancient, (2)
Byzantine, (3) Modern. These are dealt with below in that
order.
I. The Ancient Greek Literature
The ancient literature falls into three periods: (A) The
Early Literature, to about 475 B.C.; epic, elegiac, iambic and
lyric poetry; the beginnings of literary prose. (B) The Attic
Literature 475-300 B.C.; tragic and comic drama; historical,
oratorical and philosophical prose. (C) The Literature of the
Decadence, 300 B.C. to a.d. 529; which may again be divided
into the Alexandrian period, 300-146 B.C., and the Graeco-
Roman period, 146 B.C. to a.d. 529.
For details regarding particular works or the lives of their
authors reference should be made to the separate articles devoted
to the principal Greek writers. The object of the following
pages is to sketch the literary development as a whole, to show
how its successive periods were related to each other, and to
mark the dominant characteristics of each.
(A) The Early Literature. — A process of natural growth may
be traced through all the best work of the Greek genius. The
Greeks were not literary imitators of foreign models; the forms
of poetry and prose in which they attained to such unequalled
excellence were first developed by themselves. Their literature
had its roots in their political and social life; it is the spontaneous
expression of that life in youth, maturity and decay; and the
order in which its several fruits are produced is not the result
of accident or caprice. Further, the old Greek literature has a
striking completeness, due to the fact that each great branch of
the Hellenic race bore a characteristic part in its development.
Ionians, Aeolians, Dorians, in turn contributed their share.
Each dialect corresponded to a certain aspect of Hellenic life
and character. Each found its appropriate work.
The Ionians on the coast of Asia Minor — a lively and genial
people, delighting in adventure, and keenly sensitive to every-
thing bright and joyous — created artistic epic poetry
dialects. out °* tne ^ avs m wn * cn Aeolic minstrels sang of the old
Achaean wars. And among the Ionians arose elegiac
poetry, the first variation on the epic type. These found a
fitting instrument in the harmonious Ionic dialect, the flexible
utterance of a quick and versatile intelligence. The Aeolians of
Lesbos next created the lyric of personal passion, in which the
traits of their race — its chivalrous pride, its bold but sensuous
fancy — found a fitting voice in the fiery strength and tenderness
of Aeolic speech. The Dorians of the Peloponnesus, Sicily and
Magna Graecia then perfected the choral lyric for festivals and
religious worship; and here again an earnest faith, a strong
pride in Dorian usage and renown had an apt interpreter in
the massive and sonorous Doric. Finally, the Attic branch of
the Ionian stock produced the drama, blending elements of all
the other kinds, and developed an artistic literary prose in
history, oratory and philosophy. It is in the Attic literature
that the Greek mind receives its most complete interpretation.
A natural affinity was felt to exist between each dialect and
that species of composition for which it had been specially used.
Hence the dialect of the Ionian epic poets would be adopted
with more or less thoroughness even by epic or elegiac poets who
Homeric
poetry.
of the
seasons.
were not Ionians. Thus the Aeolian Hesiod uses it in epos, the
Dorian Theognis in elegy, though not without alloy. Similarly,
the Dorian Theocritus wrote love-songs in Aeolic. All the
faculties and tones of the language were thus gradually brought
out by the co-operation of the dialects. Old Greek literature
has an essential unity — the unity of a living organism; and this
unity comprehends a number of distinct types, each of which
is complete in its own kind.
Extant Greek literature begins with the Homeric poems.
These are works of art which imply a long period of antecedent
poetical cultivation. Of the pre-Homeric poetry we
have no remains, and very little knowledge. Such
glimpses as we get of it connect it with two different
stages in the religion of the prehistoric Hellenes. The
first of these stages is that in which the agencies or forms of
external nature were personified indeed, yet with the conscious-
ness that the personal names were only symbols. Some very
ancient Greek songs of which mention is made may
have belonged to this stage — as the songs of Linus, SaJ w»
Ialemus and Hylas. Linus, the fair youth killed by
dogs, seems to be the spring passing away before
Sirius. Such songs have been aptly called " songs of the seasons."
The second stage is that in which the Hellenes have now defini-
tively personified the powers which they worship. Apollo,
Demeter, Dionysus, Cybele, have now become to them beings
with clearly conceived attributes. To this second stage belong
the hymns connected with the names of the legendary „
bards, such as Orpheus, Musaeus, Eumolpus, who are
themselves associated with the worship of the Pierian Muses and
the Attic ritual of Demeter. The seats of this early sacred
poetry are not only "Thracian" — i.e. 011 the borders of northern
Greece — but also " Phrygian " and " Cretan." It belongs,
that is, presumably to an age when the ancestors of the Hellenes
had left the Indo-European home in central Asia, but had not
yet taken full possession of the lands which were afterwards
Hellenic. Some of their tribes were still in Asia; others were
settling in the islands of the Aegean; others were passing through
the lands on its northern seaboard. If there was a period when
the Greeks possessed no poetry but hymns forming part of a
religious ritual, it may be conjectured that it was not of long
duration. Already in the Iliad a secular character belongs to the
marriage hymn and to the dirge for the dead, which in ancient
India were chanted by the priest. The bent of the Greeks was
to claim poetry and music as public joys; they would not long
have suffered them to remain sacerdotal mysteries. And among
the earliest themes on which the lay artist in poetry was employed
were probably war-ballads, sung by minstrels in 1 the houses of
the chiefs whose ancestors they celebrated.
Such war-ballads were the materials from which the earliest
epic poetry of Greece was constructed. By an " epic " poem
the Greeks meant a narrative of heroic action in - #
hexameter verse. The term hen meant at first simply
"verses"; it acquired its special meaning only when fik\n t
lyric songs set to music, came to be distinguished from torn,
verses not set to music, but merely recited. Epic poetry is the
only kind of extant Greek poetry which is older than about
700 B.C. The early epos of Greece is represented by the Iliad
and the Odyssey, Hesiod and the Homeric hymns; also by
some fragments of the " Cyclic " poets.
After the Dorian conquest of the Peloponnesus, the Aeolian
emigrants who settled in the north-west of Asia Minor brought
with them the warlike legends of their chiefs, the
Achaean princes of old. These legends lived in the Hjjufjt**"
ballads of the Aeolic minstrels, and from them passed **ody*sey."
southward into Ionia, where the Ionian poets gradually
shaped them into higher artistic forms. Among the seven
places which claimed to be the birthplace of Homer, that which
has the best title is Smyrna. Homer himself is called " son of
Meles "—the stream which flowed through old Smyrna, on the
border between Aeolia und Ionia. The tradition is significant in
regard to the origin and character of the Iliad, for in the Iliad we
have Achaean ballads worked up by Ionian art. A preponderance
5 o8
GREEK LITERATURE
[ANCIENT
of evidence is in favour of the view that the Odyssey also, at
least in its earliest form, was composed on the Ionian coast
of Asia Minor. According to the Spartan account, Lycurgus
was the first to bring to Greece a complete copy of the Homeric
poems, which he had obtained from the Creophylidae, a clan or
gild of poets in Samos. A better authenticated tradition connects
Athens with early attempts to preserve the chief poetical treasure
of the nation. Peisistratus is said to have charged some learned
men with the task of collecting all " the poems of Homer ";
but it is difficult to decide how much was comprehended under
this last phrase, or whether the province of the commission
went beyond the mere task of collecting. Nor can it be deter-
mined what exactly it was that Solon and Hipparchus respec-
tively did for the Homeric poems. Solon, it has been thought,
enacted that the poems should be recited from an authorized
text m wo0o\jfj); Hipparchus, that they should be recited
in a regular order (4£ woX^ews). At any rate, we know that
in the 6th century B.C. a recitation of the poems of Homer was
one of the established competitions at the Panathenaea, held
once in four years. The reciter was called a rhapsodist—
properly one who weaves a long, smoothfy'-flowing chant, then
an epic poet who chants his own' or another's poem. The
rhapsodist did not, like the earlyminstrel, use the accompaniment
of the harp; he gave the verses in. a. flowing recitative, bearing
in his hand a branch of laurel, the symbol of Apollo's inspiration.
In the 5th century b,c, we find that various Greek cities had
their own editions (at TroXtrucal, Kara iroXeis or kK rtiheuv
ttiteoiis) of the poems,. for recitation at their festivals. . Among
these were the editions, of Massiiia, .of. Chios and of Argolis.
There were also editions bearing the name of the individual
editor (at /car* &v6pa) — the best known being that which
Aristotle prepared for Alexander. , The recension, of the poems
by Aristarchus (156 b.c.) became the standard, one, and is
probably that on which the existing text is* based. The oldest
Homeric MS. extant, Veaetus A of the Iliad, is of the 10th
century; the first printed edition of Homer was that edited
by the Byzantine Demetrius Chalcondyles (Florence, 1488).
The ancient Greeks were almost unanimous in believing the
Iliad and the Odyssey to be the work of one man, Homer, to whom
they also ascribed some extant hymns, and probably
much more besides* Aristotle and Aristarcbus seem
to have put Homer's date about 1044 B.C., Herodotus
about $50' B.C. It is not till about 170 B.C. that the
grammarians HeUaaicus and Xenon put forward the view that
Homer was the: author of the Iliad, but. not of the Odyssey.
Those who followed them in assigning different authors to the
two poems were called the Separators (Chorizontes) * Aristarcbus
combated "the paradox of Xenon," and it does not seem to
have had much acceptance in antiquity.. Giovanni Battista
Vico, a Neapolitan (1668-1744), seems to have been the first
modern to suggest the composite authorship and pral tradition
of the Homeric poems; but this was a pure conjecture in support
of his theory that the names of ancient lawgivers and poets are
often mere symbols* F. A. Wolf, in the Prolegomena to his
edition (1795),. was the founder. of a scientific scepticism. The
IHod, he said (for he recognized the comparative unity and
consistency of the Odyssey), was pieced together from many
small unwritten poems by various hands, and was first committed
to writing in the time of Peisistratus. This view was in harmony
with the tone of German criticism at the time; it was welcomed
as a new testimony to the superiority of popular poetry, springing
from fresh natural sources, to elaborate works of art; and it at
once found enthusiastic adherents. For the course of, Homeric
controversy since Wolf the reader is referred to the article
Homer.
The Ionian school of epos produced a number of poems
founded on the legends of the Trojan war, and intended as
introductions or continuations to the Iliad and the
The
Homeric
Cyclic
pOOBM.
Odyssey. The grammarian Proclus (a.p. 140) has
preserved the names and subjects of some of these;
but the fragments are very scanty. The Nostoi or Homeward
Voyages, by Agias (or Hagias) of Troezen, filled up the gap of.
Heslodk
epos.
ten years between the Iliad and the Odyssey; the Lay of Telegonus,
by Eugammon of Cyrene, continued the story of the Odyssey
to the death of Odysseus by the hand of Telegonus, the son
whom Circe bore to him. Similarly the Cyprian Lays by Stasinus
of Cyprus, ascribed by others to Hegesias (or Hegesinus) of
Salamis or Halicarnassus, was introductory to the Iliad; the
Aethiopis and the Sack of Troy, by Arctinus of Miletus, and the
Little Iliad, by Lesches of Mytilene, were supplementary to it.
These and many other names of lost epics — some taken also
from the Theban myths (Thebats, Epigoni, Oedipodea) — serve
to show how prolific was that epic school of which only two great
examples remain. The name of epic cycle was properly applied
to a prose compilation of abstracts from these epics, pieced
together in the order of the events. The compilers were called
" cyclic " writers; and the term has now been transferred to
the epic poets whom they used. 1
The epic poetry of Ionia celebrated the great deeds of heroes
in the old wars. But in Greece proper there arose another
school of epos, which busied itself with religious lore
and ethical precepts, especially in relation to the rural
life of Boeotia. This school is represented by the name
of Hesiod. The legend spoke of him as vanquishing Homer
in a poetical contest of Chalris in Euboea; and it expresses the
fact that, to the old Greek mind, these two names stood for two
contrasted epic types. Nothing is certainly known of his date,
except that it must have been. subsequent to the maturity of
Ionian epos. iHe is conjecturally placed about 850-800 B.C.;
but some would refer him to the early part of the 7th century B.C.
His home was at Ascra, a village in a- valley under -Helicon,
whither his father had migrated from Cyme in.Aeoiis on the
coast of Asia Minor. In Hesiod's* Works and Days we have the
earliest example of a didactic poem. . The seasons and the labours
of the Boeotian farmer's year, are followed by a list of the days
which are lucky or unlucky for work. The Theogpny, or " Origin
of the Gods;" describes first how the visible order of nature arose
out of chaos; next, how the gods were born. Though it never
possessed the character of a sacred book, it remained a standard
authority on the genealogies of the gods. So far as a corrupt
and confused text warrants a judgment, the poet was piecing
together — not always intelligently — the fragments of a, very old
cosmogonic system, using for this purpose both the hymns
preserved in the temples and the myths which lived in folklore.
The epic lay in 4&0 lined called the Shield of Heracles — partly
imitated from the 18th book of the Iliad— is the work of an
author or authors later than Hesiod In the Hesiodic poetry,
as represented by the Works and Days and the Theogony, we
see the influence of the temple at Delphi. Hesiod recognizes
the existence of hoxp&vts — spirits of the departed who haunt
the earth as the invisible guardians of justice; and he connects
the office of the poet with that of the prophet. The poet is one
whom the gods have authorized to impress doctrine and practical
duties on men. A religious purpose was essentially characteristic
of the Hesiodic school. Its poets treated the old legends as
relics of a sacred history, and not merely,* in the Ionian manner,
as subjects of idealizing art. Such titles as the Maxims of
Chevron and the Lay of Melampus, the seer — lost poems of the
Hesiodic school — illustrate its ethical and its mystic tendencies.
The Homeric Hymns are a collection of pieces, some of them
very short, in hexameter verse. Their traditional title is —
Hymns or Preludes of Homer and the Homeridae. The 1
second of the alternative designations is the true one. ^*J, erfc
The pieces are not " hymns " used in formal worship, tymas.
but " preludes " or prefatory addresses (vpooifua)
with which the rhapsodists ushered in their recitations of epic
poetry. The " prelude " might be addressed to the presiding
god of the festival, or to any local deity whom the reciter wished
to honour. The pieces (of which there are 33) range in date
perhaps from 750 to 500 B.C. (though some authorities assign
dates as late as the 3rd and 4th centuries a.d.; see ed. by Sikes
and Allen, e.g. p. 228), and it is probable that the collection was
l For authorities and criticisms see T. W. Allen in Classical
Quarterly (Jan. and April 1908).
ANCIENT]
GREEK LITERATURE
509
formed in Attica, for the use of rhapsodists. The style is that
of the Ionian or Homeric epos; but there are also several traces
of the Hesiodic or Boeotian school. The principal " hymns "
are (1) to Apollo (generally treated as two or more hymns
combined in one); (2) to Hermes; (3) to Aphrodite; and (4)
to Demeter. The hymn to Apollo, quoted by Thucydides (hi.
104) as Homer's, is of peculiar interest on account of the lines
describing the Ionian festival at Delos. Two celebrated pieces
of a sportive kind passed under Homer's name. The Margiles —
a comic poem on one " who knew many things but knew them
all badly "—is regarded by Aristotle as the earliest germ of
comedy, and was possibly as old as 700 B.C. Only a few lines
remain. The B(^raoko(myo)mackia 1 or Battle of the Frogs and
Mice probably belongs to the decline of Greek literature, perhaps
to the 2nd century B.C. 1 About 300 verses of it are extant.
In the Iliad and the Odyssey the personal ppmiqns or sym-
pathies of the poet may sometimes be conjectured, but they are
Triagl. not declared or even hinted. Hesiod, indeed, some*
tton from times gives us a glimpse of his own troubles or views.
epos to Yet Hesiod is, on the whole, essentially- a prophet.
***&* ( . The message which he delivers :is not from himself;
the truths which he imparts have net been discovered
by his own search. He is the mouthpiece of the Delphian
Apollo. Personal opinion and feeling may tinge his utterance,
but they do not determine its general complexion. The egotism
is a single thread; it is not the basis of the texture. Epic poetry
was in Greece the foundation of all other poetry; for many
centuries no other kind was (generally cultivated, no other could
speak to the whole people* Politically, the age was monarchical
or aristocratic; intellectually* it was too. simple -for the analysis
of thought or emotion. Kings and princes loved to hear of the
great deeds of their ancestors; common men laved to* hear of
them too, for they had no other interest. The mind of Greece
found no subject' of contemplation, so attractive 1 as the warlike
past of the race, or so useful as that lore which experience and
tradition had bequeathed. But in the course of the 8th' century
B.C. the rule of hereditary princes began to disappear. Monarchy
gave place to oligarchy, and this^often after the intermediate
phase of a tyrannia— to democracy. Such a change was neces-
sarily favourable to the growth of reflection* The private cittaen
is no longer a mere cipher, the Homeric risi, a unit in the dim
multitude of the king^ruled folk; -he gains more power -of
independent action, his mental horizon is widened, his life
becomes fuller and more' interesting. He begins to feel the need
of expressing the thoughts and feelings that are stirred in him.
But as yet a prose literature does net exist; the new thoughts,
like the old heroic stories, must still be told in verse. The forms
of verse created by this need were the Elegiac and the Iambic.
The elegiac metre is, in form, a simple variation on the epic
metre, obtained by docking the second of two hexameters so as
^ to make it a verse of five feet or measures. But the
poetical capabilities of the elegiac couplet are of a
wholly different kind from those of heroic verse. &efo$ seems
to be .the Greek form of a name given by the Carians and Lydians
to a lament for the dead. This was accompanied by the soft
music of the Lydian flute, which continued to be associated with
Greek elegy. The non-Hellenic origin of elegy is indicated by
this very fact. The flute was to the Greeks an Asiatic instru-
ment—string instruments were those which they made their own
— and it would hardly have been wedded by them to a species of
poetry which had arisen among themselves. The early elegiac
poetry of Greece was by no means confined to mourning for the
dead. War, love, politics, proverbial philosophy, were in turn
its themes; it dealt, in fact, with the chief interest of the poet
and his friends, whatever that might be at the time. It is the
direct expression of the poet's own thoughts, addressed to a
sympathizing society. This is its first characteristic. The
second is that, even when most pathetic or most spirited, it
still preserves, on the whole, the tone of conversation or of
1 Others attribute it, as well as the Margites, to Pigres of Hali-
carnassus, the supposed brother of the Carian queen Artemisia,
who fought on the side of Xerxes at the battle of Salamis.
narrative. Greek elegy stops short of lyric passion. English
elegy, whether funereal as in Dryden and Pope, or reflective
as in Gray, is usually true to the same normal type. Roman
elegy is not equally true to it, but sometimes tends to trench on
the lyric province. For Roman elegy is mainly amatory or
sentimental; and its masters imitated, as a rule, not the early
Greek degists, not Tyrtaeus or Theognis , but the later Alexandrian
eJegists, such as Callimachus or Philetas. Catullus introduced
the metre to Latin literature, and used it with more fidelity than
his followers to its genuine Greek inspiration.
Elegy, as we have seen, was the first slight deviation from
epos. But almost at the same time another species arose which
had nothing in common with epos, either in form or in
spirits This was the iambic. The word tajujfos,
iambus {Ifanew, to dart or shoot) *was* used in reference
to the licensed raillery at the festivals of Demeter; ft was the
maiden Iambe, the myth said, who drew the first smile from
the mourning goddess. The iambic metre was at first used for
satire; and it was in this strain that it was chiefly employed
by its earliest master of note, Archiiochus of Paros (670 n.c).
But it was adapted to the expression generally of any pointed
thought. Thus it was suitable to fables. Elegiac and iambic
pdetry, both belong to the borderland between epic and lyric.
While, however, elegy stands nearer to epos, iambic stands
nearer to the lyric. Iambic rx>etry can express the personal
feeling of the poet with' greater intensity than 1 elegy does; on
the other hand, it has not the ljfric flexibility, self-abandonment
or glow. As we see in the case 6f Solon, iambic verse could
serve for the expression^ *hrit ; deepef thought; that more
inward self-communing, for which t&fc elegiac form would have
been inappropriate. J
But these two forms <rf poetry, both Ionian, the elegiac and
the iambic, belong essentially to the same stage of the literature.
They stand between the Ionian epos arid; the lyric poetry of the
Aeolian* and Dorians. *The earliest of the Greek elegists, Callinus
and Tyrtaeus, Use elegy to rottse a warlike spirit in sinking
hearts. Archiiochus too wrote warlike elegy, but used it also
in other strains, as in lament for the dead. The elegy of Mimner-'
mtas of Smyma'or Colophon is* the plaintive farewell of an easer
loving Ionian to the days of Ionian freedom. In Solon elegy
takes a higher range] it becomes political and ethical.* Theognis
represents the maturer union of politics with 'a proverbial
philosophy. Another gnomic poet was Phocylides of Miletus;
an admonitory .poem extant imder his name is probably the
work of an Alexandrine Jewish Christian. Xenophanes gives
a philosophic strain to elegy. With Srrnonides of Cebs it reverts,
in an exquisite form, to its earliest destination, and becomes
the vehicle of epitaph on those who fell in the Persian Wars.
Iambic verse was used by Simonides (or Semonides) of Amorgus,
as by Archiiochus, for satire — but satire directed against classes
rather than persons. ' Solon's iambics so far preserve the old
associations of the metre that they represent the polemical or
controversial side of his political poetry. Hipponax of Ephesus
was another iambic satirist — using the <r*afwi> (" limping ") or
choliambic verse, produced by substituting a spondee for an
iambus in the last place. But it was not until the rise of the
Attic drama that the full capabilities of iambic verse were seen.
The lyric poetry of early Greece may be regarded as the final
form of that effort at self-expression which in the elegiac and
iambic is still incomplete. The lyric expression is
deeper and more impassioned. Its intimate union
with music and with the rhythmical movement of
the dance gives to it more of an ideal character. At the same
time the continuity of the music permits pauses to the voice —
pauses necessary as reliefs after a climax. Before lyric poetry
could be effective, it was necessary that some progress should
have been made in the art of music. The instrument used by
the Greeks to accompany the voice was the four-stringed lyre,
and the first great epoch in Greek music was when Terpander
of Lesbos (660 b,c), by adding three strings, gave the lyre the
1 The extant fragments of Solon have been augmented by lengthy
quotations in the Constitution of Athens.
Lyric
poetry.
5i°
GREEK LITERATURE
[ANCIENT
Aeolian
school.
compass of the octave. Further improvements are ascribed to
Olympus and Thaletas. By 500 b.c. Greek music had probably
acquired all the powers of expression which the lyric poet could
demand. The period of Greek lyric poetry may be roughly
denned as from 670 to 440 B.C. Two different parts in its
development were taken by the Aeolians and the Dorians.
The lyric poetry of the Aeolians — especially of Lesbos — was
essentially the utterance of personal feeling, and was usually
intended for a single voice, not for a chorus. Lesbos,
in the 7th century b.c, had attained some naval
and commercial importance. But the strife of oligarchy
and democracy was active; the Lesbian nobles were often
driven by revolution to exchange their luxurious home-life
for the hardships of exile. It is such a life of contrasts and
excitements, working on a sensuous and fiery temperament,
that is reflected in the fragments of Alcaeus. In these glimpses
of war and love, of anxiety for the storm-tossed state and of
careless festivity, there is much of the cavalier spirit; if Archi-
lochus is in certain aspects a Greek Byron, Alcaeus might be
compared to Lovelace. The other great representative of the
Aeolian lyric is Sappho, the only woman of Greek race who is
known to have possessed poetical genius of the first order.
Intensity and melody are the characteristics of the fragments
that remain to us. 1 Probably no poet ever surpassed Sappho
as an interpreter of passion in exquisitely subtle harmonies of
form and sound. Anacreon of Teos, in Ionia, may be classed
with the Aeolian lyrists in so far as the matter and form of his
work resembled theirs, though the dialect in which he wrote was
mainly the Ionian. A few fragments remain from his hymns
to the gods, from love-poems and festive songs. The collection
of sixty short pieces which passes current under his name date
only from the 10th century. The short poems which it comprises
are of various age and authorship, probably ranging in date
from c. 200 B.C. to a.d. 400 or 500. They have not the pure style,
the flexible grace, or the sweetness of the classical fragments;
but the verses, though somewhat mechanical, are often pretty.
The Dorian lyric poetry, in contrast with the Aeolian, had
more of a public than of a personal character, and was for the
most part choral. Hymns or choruses for the public
worship of the gods, and odes to be sung at festivals on
occasions of public interest, were its characteristic
forms. Its central inspiration was the pride of the Dorians in
the Dorian past, in their traditions of worship, government and
social usage. The history of the Dorian lyric poetry does not
present us with vivid expressions of personal character, like
those of Alcaeus and Sappho, but rather with a series of artists
whose names are associated with improvements of form. Thus
Alcman (the Doric form of Alcmaeon; 660 B.C.) is said to have
introduced the balanced movement of strophe and antistrophe.
Stesichorus, of Himera in Sicily, added the epode, sung by the
chorus while stationary after these movements; Arion of
Methymna in Lesbos gave a finished form to the choral hymn
(" dithyramb ") in honour of Dionysus, and organized the
" cyclic " or circular chorus which sang it at the altar. Ibycus
of Rhegium (c. 540) wrote choral lyrics after Stesichorus and
glowing love-songs in the Aeolic style.
The culmination of the lyric poetry is marked by two great
names, Simonides and Pindar. Simonides (556-468) was an
Ionian of the island of Ceos, but his lyrics belonged by
Simonides f or m to the choral Dorian school. Many of his subjects
Pindar. were taken from the events of the Persian wars: his
epitaphs on those who fell at Thermopylae and Salamis
were celebrated. In him the lyric art of the Dorians is interpreted
by Ionian genius, and Athens — where part of his life was passed —
is the point at which they meet. Simonides is the first Greek
1 Since the above was written, four considerable fragments
generally assigned to Sappho have been discovered: a prayer to
the Nereids for the safe return of her brother Charaxus; the leave-
taking of a favourite pupil ; a greeting to Atthis, one of her friends,
in Lydia; the fourth, much mutilated, addressed to another pupil,
Gongyla. They are of great beauty and throw considerable light
on the personality of Sappho and the language and metre of ner
poems.
Dorian
lyrist whose significance is not merely Aeolian or Dorian but
Panhellenic. The same character belongs even more completely
to his younger contemporary. Pindar (5r8-c. 443) was born
in Boeotia of a Dorian stock; thus, as Ionian and Dorian
elements meet in Simonides, so Dorian and Aeolian elements
meet in Pindar. Simonides was perhaps the most tender and
most exquisite of the lyric poets. Pindar was the boldest, the
most fervid and the most sublime. His extant fragments 2
represent almost every branch of the lyric art. But he is known
to us mainly by forty-four Epinicia, or odes of victory, for the
Olympian, Pythian, Nemean and Isthmian festivals. The
general characteristic of the treatment is that the particular
victory is made the occasion of introducing heroic legends
connected with the family or city of the victor, and of inculcating
the moral lessons which they teach. No Greek lyric poetry
can be completely appreciated apart from the music, now lest,
to which it was set. Pindar's odes were, further, essentially
occasional poems; they abound in allusions of which the effect
is partly or wholly lost on us; and the glories which they cele-
brate belong to a life which we can but imperfectly realize.
Of all the great Greek poets, Pindar is perhaps the one to whom
it is hardest for us to do justice; yet we can at least recognize
his splendour of imagination, his strong rapidity and his soaring
flight
Bacchylides of Ceos (c. 504-430), the youngest of the three
great lyric poets and nephew of Simonides, was known only by
scanty fragments until the discovery of nineteen poems on an
Egyptian papyrus in 1896. They consist of thirteen (or fourteen)
epinicia, two of which celebrate the same victories as two odes
of Pindar. The papyrus also contains six odes for the festivals
of gods or heroes. The poems contain valuable information on
the court life of the time and legendary history. Bacchylides,
the little " Cean nightingale," is inferior to his great rival Pindar,
" the Swan of Dirce," in originality and splendour of language,
but he writes simply and elegantly, while his excellent yv&fxcu
attracted readers of a philosophical turn of mind, amongst them
the emperor Julian.
Similarly, the scanty fragments of Timotheus of Miletus
(d. 357), musical composer and poet, and inventor of the eleven-
stringed lyre, were increased by the discovery in 1002 of some
250 lines of his " nome " the Persae, written after the manner of
Terpander. The beginning is lost; the middle describes the
battle of Salamis; the end is of a personal nature. The papyrus
is the oldest Greek MS. and belongs to the age of Alexander the
Great. The language is frequently very obscure, and the whole
is a specimen of lyric poetry in its decline.
(B) The Attic Literature.— The lonians of Asia Minor, the
Aeolians and the Dorians had now performed their special parts
in the development of Greek literature. Epic poetry had inter-
preted the heroic legends of warlike deeds done by Zeus-nourished
kings and chiefs. Then, as the individual life became more and
more elegiac and iambic poetry had become the social expression
of that life in all its varied interests and feelings. Lastly, lyric
poetry had arisen to satisfy a twofold need — to be the more
intense utterance of personal emotion, or to give choral voice, at
stirring moments, to the faith or fame, the triumph or the sorrow,
of a city or a race, A new form of poetry was now to be created,
with elements borrowed from all the rest. And this was to be
achieved by the people of Attica, in whose character and
language the distinctive traits of an Ionian descent were
tempered with some of the best qualities of the Dorian stock.
The drama (q.v.) arose from the festivals of Dionysus, the
god of wine, which were held at intervals from the beginning of
winter to the beginning of spring. A troop of rustic
worshippers would gather around the altar of the god,
and sing a hymn in his honour, telling of his victories
or sufferings in his progress over the earth. " Tragedy " meant
" the goat-song/' a goat (rp&ryos) being sacrificed to Dionysus
before the hymn was sung. " Comedy," " the village-
song," is the same hymn regarded as an occasion for
1 Recently increased by specimens of the Partheneia (choral
songs for maidens) and paeans.
Origin of
Tragedy.
ANCIENT]
GREEK LITERATURE
5 11
rustic jest. Then the leader of the chorus would assume the
part of a messenger from Dionysus, or even that of the god
himself, and recite an adventure to the worshippers, who made
choral response. The next step was to arrange a dialogue between
the leader (Kopv<t>alos, coryphaeus) and one chosen member of the
chorus, hence called " the answerer " (incoicpirfp, hypocrites,
afterwards the ordinary word for " actor "). This last improve-
ment is ascribed to the Attic Thespis (about 536 B.C.). The
elements of drama were now ready. The choral hymn to
Dionysus (the " dithyramb ") had received an artistic form
from the Dorians; dialogue, though only between the leader
of the chorus and a single actor, had been introduced in Attica.
Phrynichus, an Athenian, celebrated in this manner some events
of the Persian Wars; but in his " drama " there was still only
one actor. Choerilus of Athens and Pratinas of Phlius, who
belonged to the same period, developed the satyric drama;
Pratinas also wrote tragedies, dithyrambs, and hyporchemata
(lively choral odes chiefly in honour of Apollo).
Aeschylus (born 525 B.C.) became the real founder of tragedy
by introducing a second actor, and thus rendering the dialogue
A—cbytoM. independent of the chorus. At the same time the
choral song — hitherto the principal part of the per-
formance — became subordinate to the dialogue; and drama
was mature. Aeschylus is also said to have made various
improvements of detail- in costume and the like; and it was
early in his career that the theatre of Dionysus under the acropolis
was commenced — the first permanent home of Greek drama, in
place of the temporary wooden platforms which had hitherto
been used. The system of the " trilogy " and the " tetralogy "
is further ascribed to Aeschylus, — the " trilogy " being properly
a series of three tragedies connected in subject, such as the
Agamemnon, Choiphori, Eumenides, which together form the
Oresteia, or Story of Orestes. The " tetralogy " is such a triad
with a " satyric drama " added — that is, a drama in which
" satyrs," the grotesque woodland beings who attended on
Dionysus, formed the chorus, as in the earlier dithyramb from
which drama sprang. The Cyclops of Euripides is the only
extant specimen of a satyric drama. In the seven tragedies
which alone remain of the seventy which Aeschylus is said to
have composed, the forms of kings and heroes have a grandeur
which is truly Homeric; there is a spirit of Panhellenic patriot-
ism such as the Persian Wars in which he fought might well
quicken in a soldier-poet; and, pervading all, there is a strain
of speculative thought which seeks to reconcile the apparent
conflicts between the gods of heaven and of the underworld by
the doctrine that both alike, constrained by necessity, are work-
SopAocfe*. * n 8 out *ke * aw °* righteousness. Sophocles, who was
born thirty years after Aeschylus (495 B.C.), is the
most perfect artist of the ancient drama. No one before or after
him gave to Greek tragedy so high a degree of ideal beauty,
or appreciated so finely the possibilities and the limitations of its
sphere. He excels especially in drawing character; his Antigone,
his Ajax, his Oedipus — indeed, all the chief persons of his dramas
— are typical studies in the great primary emotions of human
nature. He gave a freer scope to tragic dialogue by adding a
third actor; and in one of his later plays, the Oedipus at Colonus,
a fourth actor is required. From the time when he won the
tragic prize against Aeschylus in 468 to his death in 405 B.C.
he was the favourite dramatist of Athens; and for us he is not
only a great dramatist, but also the most spiritual representative
of the age of Pericles. The distinctive interest of Euripides is of
BartphhM, an °ther kind. He was only fifteen years younger than
Sophocles; but when he entered on his poetical career,
the old inspirations of tragedy were already failing. Euripides
marks a period of transition in the tragic art, and is, in fact, the
mediator between the classical and the romantic drama. The
myths and traditions with which the elder dramatists had dealt
no longer commanded an unquestioning faith. Euripides himself
was imbued with the new intellectual scepticism of the day;
and the speculative views which werp conflicting in his own mind
are reflected in his plays. He had much picturesque and pathetic
power; he was a master of expression; and he shows ingenuity
in devising fresh resources for tragedy — especially in his manage-
ment of the choral songs. Aeschylus is Panhellenic, Sophocles
is Athenian, Euripides is cosmopolitan. He stands nearer to the
modern worid than either of his predecessors; and though with
him Attic tragedy loses its highest beauty, it acquires new
elements of familiar human interest.
In Attica, as in England, a period of rather less than fifty years
sufficed for the complete development of the tragic art. The
two distinctive characteristics of Athenian drama are its origin-
ality and its abundance. The Greeks of Attica were not the
only inventors of drama, but they were the first people who
made drama a complete work of art. And the great tragic poets
of Attica were remarkably prolific. Aeschylus was the reputed
author of 70 tragedies, Sophocles of 115s Euripides of 92; and
there were others whose productiveness was equally great.
Comedy represented the lighter side, as tragedy the graver
side, of the Dionysiac worship; it was the joy of spring following
the gloom of winter. The process of growth was comuty.
nearly the same as in tragedy; but the Dorians, not
the Ionians of Attica, were the first who added dialogue to the
comic chorus. Susarion, a Dorian of Megara, exhibited, about
580 B.C., pieces of the kind known as " Megarian farces."
Epicharmus of Cos (who settled at Syracuse) gave literary form
to the Doric farce, and treated in burlesque style the stories of
gods and heroes, and subjects taken from everyday life. His
Syracusan contemporary Sophron (c. 450) was a famous writer
of mimes, chiefly scenes from low-class life. The most artistic
form of comedy seems, however, to have been developed in
Attica. The greatest names before Aristophanes are those of
Cratinus and EupoHs; but from about 470 B.C. there seems to
have been a continuous succession of comic dramatists, amongst
them Plato Comicus, the author of 28 comedies, political satires
and parodies after the style of the Middle Comedy.
Aristophanes came forward as a comic poet in 427 B.C. , phaneM.
and retained his popularity for about forty years. He
presents a perhaps unique union of bold fancy, exquisite humour,
critical acumen and lyrical power. His eleven extant comedies may
be divided into three groups, according as the licence of political
satire becomes more and more restricted. In the Acharnians,.
Knights, Clouds, Wasps and Peace (425-421) the poet uses
unrestrained freedom. In the Birds, Lysistrata, Thesmophori-
azusae and Frogs (414-405) a greater reserve may be perceived.
Lastly, in the Ecclesiazusae and the Plutus (392-388) personal
satire is almost wholly avoided. The same general tendency
continued. The so-called " Middle Comedy " (300-320) repre-
sents the transition from the Old Comedy, or political satire, to
satire of a literary or social nature; its chief writers were Anti-
phanes of Athens and Alexis of Thurii. The " New Comedy "
(320-250) resembled the modern " comedy of manners."
Its chief representative was Menander (342-291), the author of
105 comedies. Fragments have been discovered of seven of
these, of sufficient length to give an idea of their dramatic action.
His plays were produced on the stage as late as the time of
Plutarch, and his yv&pax, distinguished by worldly wisdom,
were issued in the form of anthologies, which enjoyed great
popularity. Other prominent writers of this class were Diphilus,
Philemon, Posidippus and Apollodorus of Carystus. About
330 B.C. Rhinthon of Tarentum revived the old Doric farce in
his Hilarolragoediae or travesties of tragic stories. These
successive periods cannot be sharply or precisely marked off.
The change which gradually passed over the comic drama was
simply the reflection of the change which passed over the political
and social life of Athens. The Old Comedy, as we see it in the
earlier plays of Aristophanes, was probably the most powerful
engine of public criticism that has ever existed in any community.
Unsparing personality was its essence. The comic poet used
this recognized right on an occasion at once festive and sacred,
in a society where every man of any note was known by name
and sight to the rest. The same thousands who heard a policy
or a character denounced or lauded in the theatre might be
required to pass sentence on it in the popular assembly or in
the courts of law.
512
GREEK LITERATURE
[ANCIENT
Literary
prose.
The development of Greek poetry had been completed before
a prose literature had begun to exist. The earliest name in
extant Greek prose literature is that of Herodotus;
and, when he wrote, the Attic drama had already
passed its prime. There had been, indeed, writers of
prose before Herodotus; but there had not been, in the proper
sense of the term, a prose literature. The causes of this compara-
tively late origin of Greek literary prose are independent of
the question as to the time at which the art of writing began to
be generally used for literary purposes. Epic poetry exercised
for a very long period a sovereign spell over the Greek mind.
In it was deposited all that the race possessed of history, theology,
philosophy, oratory. Even after an age of reflection had begun,
elegiac poetry, the first offshoot of epic, was, with iambic verse,
the vehicle of much which, among other races would have been
committed to prose. The basis of Greek culture was essentially
poetical A political cause worked in the same direction. In
the Eastern monarchies the king was the centre of all, and the
royal records afforded the elements of history from a remote date.
The Greek nation was broken up into small states, each busied
with its own affairs and its own men. It was the collision
between the Greek and the barbarian world which first provided
a national subject for a Greek historian. The work of Herodotus,
in its relation to Greek prose, is so far analogous to the Iliad
in its relation, to Greek poetry, that it is the earliest work of art,
and that it bears a Panhellenic stamp.
The sense and the degree in which Herodotus was original
may be inferred from what is known of earlier prose-writers*
For about a century before Herodotus there had been
f^ie a series of writers in philosophy, mythology, geography
writers. and history. The earliest, or among the earliest, of
the philosophical writers were Pherecydes of Syros
(550 B.C.) and the Ionian Anaximenes and Anaximander. It
is doubtful whether Cadmus of Miletus, supposed to have been
the first prose writer, was an historical personage. The Ionian
writers, especially called \oyoyp&<t>oi 9 " narrators in prose "
(as distinguished from eiroTrovol, makers of verse), were those
who compiled the myths, especially in genealogies, or who
described foreign, countries, their physical features, usages
and traditions. Hecataeus of Miletus (500 B.C.) is the best-
known, representative of the logographi in both these branches.
Hellanicus of Mytilene (450 B.C.), among whose works was a
history of Attica, appears to have made a nearer approach to
the character of a systematic historian. Other logographi were
Charon of Lampsacus; Pherecydes of Leros, who wrote on
the myths of early Attica; Hippysof Rhegium, the oldest writer
on Italy and Sicily; and AcusUaus of Argos in Boeotia, author
of genealogies {see Logographi, and Greece: Ancient History,
" Authorities ").
Herodotus was born in 484 b,c; and his history was probably
not completed before the beginning of the Peloponnesian War
(431 B.C.). His subject is the struggle between Greece
and Asia, which he deduces from the legendary rape
of the Argive Io by Phoenicians, and traces down to the
final victory of the Greeks over the invading host of; Xerxes,
His literary kinship with the historical or geographical writers
who had preceded him is seen mainly in two things. First,
though he draws a line between the mythological and the
historical age, he still holds that myths,' as such, are worthy to
be reported, and that in certain cases it is part of his duty to
report them. Secondly, he follows the example of such writers
as Hecataeus in describing the natural and social features of
countries. He seeks to combine the part of the geographer or
intelligent traveller with his. proper part as historian. But when
we turn from these minor traits to the larger aspects of his work,
Herodotus stands forth as an artist whose conception and whose
method were his own. His history has an epic unity. Various
as are the subordinate parts, the action narrated is one, great and
complete; and the unity is due to this, that Herodotus refers all
events of human history to the principle of divine Nemesis.
If Sophocles had told the story of Oedipus in the Oedipus
Tyrannus alone, and had not added to it the Oedipus at Colonus,
Hero-
dotus,
Tkmcy
mimes.
it would have been comparable to the story of Xerxes as told by
Herodotus. Great as an artist, great too in the largeness of his
historical conception, Herodotus fails chiefly by lack of insight
into political cause and effect, and by a general silence in regard
to the history of political institutions. Both his strength and
his weakness are seen most clearly when he is contrasted with
that other historian who was strictly his contemporary and
who yet seems divided from him by centuries.
Thucydides was only thirteen years younger than Herodotus;
but the intellectual space between the men is so great that they
seem to belong to different ages. Herodotus is the
first artist in historical writing; Thucydides is the
first thinker. Herodotus interweaves two threads of
causation — human agency, represented by the good or bad
qualities of men, and divine agency, represented by the vigilance
of the gods on behalf of justice. Thucydides concentrates his
attention on the human agency (without, however, denying the
other), and strives to trace its exact course. The subject of
Thucydides is the Peloponnesian War. In resolving to write
its history, he was moved, he says, by these considerations. It
was probably the greatest movement which had ever affected
Hellas collectively. It was possible for him as a contemporary
to record it with approximate accuracy. And this record was
likely to have a general value, over and above its particular
interest as a record, seeing that the political future was likely
to resemble the political past. This is what Thucydides means
when he calls his work " a possession for ever." The speeches
which he ascribes to the persons of the history are, as regards
form, his own essays in rhetoric of. the school to which Antiphon
belongs. As regards matter, they are always so far dramatic
that the thoughts and sentiments are such as he conceived
possible for the supposed speaker. Thucydides abstains, as a
rule, from moral comment; but he tells .his story as no one
could have told it who did not profoundly feel its tragic force;
and his general claim to the merit of impartiality is not invali-
dated by the possible exceptions — difficult to estimate — in the
cases of Cleon and Hyperbolus.
Strong as is the contrast between fterodotus and Thucydides,
their works have yet a character which distinguish both alike
from the historical work of Xenophon in the Anabasis
and the Hellenica. Herodotus gives us a vivid drama
with the unity of an epic. Thucydides takes a great
chapter of contemporary history and traces the causes which
are at work throughout it, so as to give the whole a scientific
unity. Xenophon has not the grasp either of the dramatist
or of the philosopher. His work does not possess the higher
unity either of art or of science. The true distinction of Xeno-
phon consists in his thorough combination of the practical with
the literary character. He was an accomplished soldier, who
had done and seen much. He was also a good writer, who could
make a story both clear and lively. But the several parts of
the story are not grouped around any central idea, such as a
divine Nemesis is for Herodotus, or such as Thucydides finds
in the nature of political man. The seven books of the Hellenica
form a supplement to the history of Thucydides, beginning in
41 1 and going down to 362 B.C. The chief blot on the Hellenica
is the author's partiality to Sparta, and in particular to Agesilaus.
Some of the greatest achievements of Epaminondas and Pelopidas
are passed over in silence. On the whole, Xenophon is perhaps
seen at his best in his narrative of the Retreat of the Ten Thousand
— a subject which exactly suits him. The Cyropaedeia is a
romance of little historical worth, but with many good passages.
The Recollections of Socrates, on the other hand, derive their
principal value from being uniformly matter-of-fact. In his
minor pieces on various subjects Xenophon appears as the
earliest essayist. It may be noted that one of the essays errone-
ously ascribed to him — that On the Athenian Polity — is probably
the oldest specimen in existence of literary Attic prose.
His contemporaries Ctesias of Cnidus and Philistus of Syracuse
wrote histories of Persia and Sicily. In the second half of the
4th century a number of histories were compiled by literary
men of little practical knowledge, who had been trained in the
Xeao-
ANCIENT]
GREEK LITERATURE
5*3
The A Wo
rhetorical schools. Such were Ephorus of Cyme and Theopompus
of Chios, both pupils of Isocrates; and the writers of Atthides
(chronicles of Attic history), the chief of whom were Androtion
and Philochorus. Timaeus of Tauromenium was the author of ;
a great work on Sicily, and introduced the system of reckoning
by Olympiads.
The steps by which an Attic prose style was developed, and the
principal forms which it assumed, can be traced most clearly
Oratory. m ^ e Attic orators. Every Athenian citizen who
aspired to take part in the affairs, of the city, or even
to be qualified for self-defence before a law-court, required
to have some degree of skill in public speaking; and an
Athenian audience looked upon public debate, whether political
or forensic, as a competitive trial of proficiency in a fine art.
Hence the speaker, no less than the writer, was necessarily a
student of finished expression; and oratory had a more direct
influence on the general structure of literary prose than has ever
perhaps been the case elsewhere. A systematic rhetoric took
its rise in Sicily, where Corax of Syracuse (466 B.C.) devised his
Art of Words to assist those who were pleading before the law-
courts; and it was brought to Athens by his disciple Tisias.
The teaching of the Sophists, again, directed attention, though
in a superficial and imperfect way, to the elements of grammar
and logic; and Gorgias of Leontini — whose declamation, however
turgid, must have been striking—gave an impulse at Athens
to the taste for elaborate rhetorical brilliancy.
Antiphon represents the earliest, and what has been called
the grand, style of Attic prose; its chief characteristics are
a grave, dignified movement, a frequent emphasis
on verbal contrasts, and a certain austere elevation.
The interest of Andocides is mainly historical; but
he has graphic power. Lysias, the representative of the " plain
style," breaks through the rigid mannerism of the elder school,
and uses the language of daily life with an ease and grace which,
though the result of study, do not betray their art. He is, in hi9
own way, the canon of an Attic style; and his speeches, written
for others, exhibit also a high degree of dramatic skill. Isocrates,
whose manner may be regarded as intermediate between that
of Antiphon and that of Lysias, wrote for readers rather than'
for hearers. The type of literary prose which he founded is
distinguished by ample periods, by studied smoothness and by
the temperate use of rhetorical ornament. From the middle
of the 4th century B.C. the Isocratic style of prose became
general in Greek literature. From the school of Rhodes, in which
it became more florid, it passed to Cicero, and through him it
has helped to shape the literary prose of the modern world. The
speeches^ of Isaeus in will-cases are interesting, — apart from
their bearing on Attic life, — because in them we see, as Dionysius
says, " the seeds and. the beginnings " of that technical mastery
in rhetorical argument which Demosthenes carries to perfection.
Isaeus has also, in a degree, some of the qualities of
Lysias. Demosthenes excels all other masters of
Greek prose not only in power but in variety; his
political speeches,, his orations in public or private causes, show
his consummate and versatile command over all the resources
of the language. In him the development of Attic prose is
completed, and the best elements in each of its earlier phases are
united. The modern world, can more .easily appreciate Demos-
thenes as a great natural orator than as an elaborate artist.
But, in order to apprehend his place in the history of Attic prose,
we must remember tfiat the ancients felt him to be both; and
that he was even reproached by detractors with excessive study
of effect. Aeschines is the most theatrical of the Greek orators;
he is vehement, and often brilliant, but seldom persuasive.
Hypereides was, after Demosthenes, probably the most effective;
he had much of the grace of Lysias, but also a wit, a fire and a
pathos which were his own. Portions of six of his speeches,
found in Egypt between 1847 and 1800, are extant. The one
oration of Lycurgus which remains to us is earnest and stately,
reminding us both of Antiphon and of Isocrates. Dinarchus
was merely a bad imitator of Demosthenes. There seems more
reason to regret that Demades is not represented by larger
fragments. The decline of Attic oratory may be dated from
Demetrius of Phalerum (318 B.C.), the pupil of Aristotle, and the
first to introduce the custom of making speeches on imaginary
subjects as practised in the rhetorical schools. Cicero names him
as the first who impaired the vigour of the earlier eloquence,
" preferring his own sweetness to the weight and dignity of his
predecessors." He forms a connecting link between Athens and
Alexandria, where he found refuge after his downfall and pro-
moted the foundation of the famous library.
In later times oratory chiefly flourished in the coast and
island settlements of Asia Minor, especially Rhodes. Here a
new, florid style of oration arose, called the " Asiatic," which
owed its origin to Hegesias of Magnesia (c. 250 B.C.).
The place of Plato in the history of Greek literature is as
unique as his place in the history of Greek thought. The literary
genius shown in the dialogues is many-sided: it pbuoao-
includes dramatic power, remarkable skill in parody, phical
a subtle faculty of satire, and, generally, a command prose-
over the finer tones of language. In passages of ^JJJoZfaf
continuous exposition, where the argument rises into
the higher regions of discussion, Plato's prose takes a more
decidedly poetical colouring — never florid or sentimental,
however, but lofty and austere. In Plato's later works — such,
for instance, as the Laws, Timaeus, Critias — we can perceive
that his style did not remain unaffected by the smooth literary
prose which contemporary writers had developed. Aristotle's
influence on the form of Attic prose literature would probably
have been considerable if his Rhetoric had been published while
Attic oratory had still a vigorous life before it. But in this,
as in other departments of mental effort, it was Aristotle's
lot to set in order what the Greek intellect had done in that
creative period which had now come to an end. His own chief
contribution to the original achievements of the race was the
most fitting one that could have been made by him in whose
lifetime they were closed. He bequeathed an instrument by
which analysis could be carried further, he founded a science
of reasoning, and left those who followed him to apply it in all
those provinces of knowledge which he had mapped out. 1
Theophrastus, his pupil and his successor in the Lyceum, opens
the new age of research and scientific classification with bis
extant works on botany, but is better known to modern readers
fry his lively Characters, the prototypes of such sketches in
English literature as those of Hall, Overbury and Earle.
(C) The Literature of the Decadence, — The period of decadence
in Greek literature begins with the extinction of free political
life in the Greek cities. So long as the Greek common- character
wealths were independent and vigorous, Greek life of the
rested on the identity ~of the man with the citizen. «****'•
The city state was the highest unit of social organiza- ***
tion; the whole training and character of the man were viewed
relatively to his membership of the city. The market-place,
the assembly, the theatre were places of frequent meeting, where
the sense of citizenship was quickened, where common standards
of opinion or feeling were formed. Poetry, music, sculpture,
literature, art, in all their forms, were matters of public interest.
Every citizen had some degree of acquaintance with them, and
was in some measure capable of judging them. The poet and the
musician, the historian and the sculptor, did not live a life of
studious seclusion or engrossing professional work. They were,
as a rule, in full sympathy with the practical interests of their
time. Their art, whatever its form might be, was the concen-
trated and ennobled expression of their political existence.
Aeschylus breathed into tragedy the inspiration of one who had
himself fought the great fight of national liberation. Sophocles
was the colleague of Pericles in a high military command.
Thucydides describes the operations of the Peloponnesian War
with the practical knowledge of one who had been in charge of
a fleet. Ictinus and Pheidias gave shape in stone, not to mere
visions of the studio, but to the more glorious, because more
1 His Constitution of Athens (£.0.), of which a papyrus MS. was
found in Egypt and published in 1891, forms j>art of a larger work
on the constitution of 158 Greek and foreign cities.
xn. 17
3*4
GREEK LITERATURE
[ANCIENT
real and vivid, perceptions which had been quickened in them
by a living communion with the Athenian spirit, by a daily
contemplation of Athenian greatness, in the theatre where
tragic poets idealized the legends of the past, in the ecclesia
where every citizen had his vote on the policy of the state, or in
that free and gracious society, full of beauty, yet exempt from
vexatious constraint, which belonged to the age of Pericles.
The tribunal which judged these works of literature or art was
such as was best fitted to preserve the favourable conditions
under which they arose. Criticism was not in the hands of a
literary clique or of a social caste. The influence of jealousy or
malevolence, and the more fatal influence of affectation, had
little power to affect the verdict. The verdict was pronounced
by the whole body of the citizens. The success or failure of a
tragedy was decided, not by the minor circumstance that it
gained the first or second prize, but by the collective opinion of
the citizens assembled in the theatre of Dionysus. A work of
Architecture or 'sculpture was approved or condemned, not by
the sentence of a few whom the multitude blindly followed, but
by the general judgment of some twenty thousand persons, each
of whom was in some degree qualified by education and by habit
to form an independent estimate. The artist worked for all his«
fellow-citizens, and knew that he would be judged by all. The
soul of his work was the fresh and living inspiration of nature;
it was the ennobled expression of his own life; and the public
opinion before which it came was free, intelligent and sincere.
Philip of Macedon did not take away the municipal inde-
pendence of the Greek cities, but he dealt a death-blow to the
old political life. The Athenian poet, historian, artist
MtUoato* mi 8* lt st *N d° 8°°d work, but he could never again have
HtUtalsm. that which used to be the very mainspring of all such
activity — the daily experience and consciousness of
participation in the affairs of an independent state. He could
no longer breathe the invigorating air of constitutional freedom,
or of the social intercourse to which that freedom lent dignity as
well as grace. Then came Alexanders conquests; Greek civiliza-
tion was diffused over Asia and the East by means of Greek
colonies in which Asiatic and Greek elements were mingled:
The life of such settlements, under the monarchies into which
Alexander's empire broke up, could not be animated by the spirit
of the Greek commonwealths in the old days of political freedom-
But the externals of Greek life were there — the temples, the
statues, the theatres, the porticos. Ceremonies and festivals
were conducted in the Greek manner. In private life Greek
usages prevailed. Greek was the language most used; Greek
books were in demand. The mixture of races would always in
some measure distinguish even the outward life of such a com-
munity from that of a pure Greek state; and the facility witrj
which Greek civilization was adopted would vary in different!
places. Syria, for example, was rapidly and completely Hellen*
ized. Judaea resisted the process to the last. In Egypt a Greek
aristocracy of office, birth and intellect existed side by side with
a distinct native life. But, viewed in its broadest aspect, this
new civilization may be called Hellenism. Hellenism (q.v.)
means the adoption of Hellenic ways; and it is properly applied
to a civilization, generally Hellenic in external things, pervading
people not necessarily or exclusively Hellenic by race. What the
Hellenic literature was to Hellas, that the Hellenistic literature
was to Hellenism. The literature of Hellenism has the Hellenic
form without the Hellenic soul. The literature of Hellas was
creative; the literature of Hellenism is derivative.
Alexandria was the centre of Greek intellectual activity from
Alexander to Augustus. Its " Museum," or college, and its
library, both founded by the first Ptolemy (Soter),
**?£**" gave it such attractions for learned men as no other
period. c * tv cou ld rival. The labours of research or arrange-
ment are those which characterize the Alexandrian
period. Even in its poetry spontaneous motive was replaced by
erudite skill, as in the hymns, epigrams and elegies of Calli-
Poetry machus, in the enigmatic verses of Lycophron, in
the highly finished epic of Apollonitis Rhodius, and
in the versified lore, astronomical or medical, of Aratus and
Nicander. The mimes of Herodas (or Herondas) of Cos (c. 200
B.C.), written in the Ionic dialect and choliambic verse, represent
scenes from everyday life. The papyrus (published in 1801)
contains seven complete poems and fragments of an eighth.
They are remarkably witty and full of shrewd observations, but
at times coarse. The pastoral poetry of the age — Dorian by
origin — was the most pleasing; for this, if it is to please at all,
must have its spring in the contemplation of nature. Theocritus
is not exempt from the artificialism of the HeUenizing literature;
but his true sense of natural beauty entitles him to a place in
the first rank of pastoral poets. Bion of Ionia and Moschus of
Syracuse also charm by the music and often by the pathos of
their bucolic verse. Excavations on the site of the temple of
Asclepius at Epidaurus have brought to light two hexameter
poems and a paean (in Ionic metre) on Apollo and Asclepius by
a local poet named Isyllus, who flourished about 280. Tragedy
was represented by the poets known as the Alexandrian Pleiad.
But it is not for its poetry of any kind that this period of Greek
literature is memorable. Its true work was in erudition
and science. Aristarchus (156 B.C.), the greatest in a ^^ Hion
long line of Alexandrian critics, set the example of a *dcnce.
more thorough method in revising and interpreting the
ancient texts, and may in this sense be said to have become
the founder of scientific scholarship. The critical studies of
Alexandria, carried on by the followers of Aristarchus, gradually
formed the basis for a science of grammar. The earliest Greek
grammar is that of Dionysius Thrax (born c. 166), a pupil of
Aristarchus. Translation was another province of work which
employed the learned of Alexandria — where the Septuagint
version of the Old Testament was begun, probably about 300-
250 B.C. Chronology was treated scientifically by Eratosthenes,
and was combined with history by Manetho in his chronicles
of Egypt, and by Berossus in his chronicles of Chaldaea. Euclid
was at Alexandria in the reign of Ptolemy Soter. Herophilus
and Erasistratus were distinguished physicians and anatomists,
and the authors of several medical works. The general results
of the Alexandrian period might perhdps be stated &fl|
thus. Alexandria produced a few eminent men of
science, some learned poets (in a few cases, of great literary
merit) and many able scholars. The preservation of the best
Greek literature was due chiefly to the unremitting care of the
Alexandrian critics, whose appreciation of it partly compensated
for the decay of the old Greek perceptions in literature and art,
and who did their utmost to hand it down in a form as free as
possible from the errors of copyists. On the whole, the patronage
of letters by the Ptolemies had probably as large a measure of
success as was possible under the existing conditions; and it was
afforded at a time when there was special danger that a true
literary tradition might die out of the world.
The Graeco-Roman period in the literature of Hellenism may
be dated from the Roman subjugation of Greece. " Greece
made a captive of the rough conqueror," but it did The
not follow from this intellectual conquest that Athens <»»«»-
became once more the intellectual centre of the world. R **£?
Under the empire, indeed, the university of Athens **
long enjoyed a pre-eminent reputation. But Rome gradually
became the point to which the greatest workers in every kind
Were drawn. Greek literature had already made a home there
before the close of the 2nd century B.C. Sulla brought a Greek
library from Athens to Rome. Such men as Cicero and Atticus
were indefatigable collectors and readers of Greek books. The
power of speaking and writing the Greek language became an
indispensable accomplishment for highly educated Romans.
The library planned by Julius Caesar and founded by Augustus
had two principal departments, one for LatiA, the other for Greek
works. Tiberius, Vespasian, Domitian and Trajan contributed
to enlarge the collection. Rome became more and more the
rival of Alexandria, not only as possessing great libraries, but
also as a seat of learning at which Greek men of letters found
appreciation and encouragement. Greek poetry, especially
in its higher forms, rhetoric and literary criticism, history and
philosophy, were all cultivated by Greek writers at Rome.
ANCIENT1
GREEK LITERATURE
5'5
The first part of the Graeco-Roman period may be defined
as extending from 146 B.C. to the close of the Roman republic.
At its commencement stands the name of one who
F ££& r ^ had more real affinity than any of his contemporaries
A.G, with the great writers of old Athens, and who, at the
same time, saw .most clearly how the empire of the
world was passing to Rome. Thesubject of Polybius (c. 205-120)
was the history of Roman conquest from 264 to 146 B.C. His
style, plain and straightforward, is free from the florid rhetoric
of the time. But the distinction of Polybius is that he is the
last Greek writer who in some measure retains the spirit of the
old citizen-life. He chose bis subject, not because it gave scope
to learning or literary skill, but with a motive akin to that which
prompted the. history of Thucydides — namely, because, as a
Greek citizen, he felt intensely the political importance of those
wars which had given Rome the mastery of the world. The
chief historical work which the following century produced —
the Universal History of Diodorus Siculus (fl. e. 50 B.C.) —
resembled that of Polybius. in recognizing Rome as the political
centre of the earth, as the point on which all earlier series of
events converged. In all else Diodorus represents the new
age in which the Greek historian had no longer the practical
knowledge and insight, of a traveller, a soldier or a statesman,
but only the diligence, and usually the dulness, of a laborious
compiler. . .
The Greek literature of the Roman empire, from Augustus
to Justinian, was enormc-usly prolific. The area over which
Seoomd ^ e Greek language was disused — either as a medium
par*.- of intercourse or as qin established branch of the higher
30 3.C- education — was ccpextensive with the empire itself.
A.D.S29. f^ i mmense s tqr e of materials had now been
accumulated, on which critics, commentators, compilers,
imitators, were employed with incessant industry. In very
many of its forms, the work of. composition or adaptation had
been reduced to a mechanical knack. If there is any one charac-
teristic which broadly distinguishes the Greek literature of these
five centuries, it is the absence of originality either in form or in
matter. Lucian is,, in his way, a rare exception; and his great
popularity — he is the only Greek writer of this period, except
Plutarch, who has been widely popular — illustrates the flatness
of the arid level above which be stands out. The sustained
abundance of literary production under the empire was partly
due to the fact that there was no open political career. Never,
probably,, was literature so important as a resource for educated
men; and the habit of reciting before friendly or obsequious
audiences swelled the number of, writers whose taste had been
cultivated to a point just short of perceiving that they ought
not to write. /
In the. manifold prose work of this period, four principal
departments may be distinguished. (1) History, with Biography,
Depart- an< ^ Geography. History is represented by Dionysius
mentM of of Halicarnassus^-also memorable for his criticisms on
prose ^e orators and his effort to revive a true standard
nterator ^ of Attic prose— by Cassius Dio, Josephus, Arrian,
Appian, Herodian, Eusebius and Zosimus. In biography, the
foremost names are Plutarch, Diogenes Laertius and Philo-
stratus; in geography, Hipparchus of Nicaea, Strabo, Ptolemy
and Pausanias. (2) Erudition and Science. The learned labours
of the Alexandrian schools were continued in all their various
fields. Under this head may be mentioned such works
as the lexicons of Julius Pollux, Harpocration and Hesychlus,
Hephaestion's treatise on metre, and Herodian's system of
accentuation; the commentaries of Galen on Plato and on
Hippocrates; the learned miscellanies of Athenaeus, Aelian
and Stobaeus; and the Stratagems of Polyaenus. (3) Rhetoric
and BeUes-Lettres. The most popular writers on the theory
of rhetoric were Hermagoras, Hermogenes, Aphthonius and
Cassius Longinus — the last the reputed author of the essay
On Sublimity. Among the most renowned teachers of rhetoric —
now distinctively] called " Sophists," or rhetoricians — were
Dio Chrysostom, Aelius Aristides, Themistius, Himerius,Libanius
and Herodes Atticus. Akin to the rhetorical exercises were
various forms of ornamental or imaginative prose — dialogues,
letters, essays or novels. Lucian, in his dialogues, exhibits
more of the classical style and of the classical spirit than any
writer of the later age; he has also a remarkable affinity with
the tone of modern satire, as in Swift or Voltaire. His Attic
prose, though necessarily artificial, was at least the best that
had been written for four centuries. The emperor Julian was
the author both of orations and of satirical pieces. The chief
of the Greek novelists (the forerunner of whom was Aristides
of Miletus, c. 100 B.C., in his Milesian Tales) are Xenophon of
Ephesus and Longus, representing a purely Greek type of
romance, aAd Heliodorus — with his imitators Achilles Tatius
and Chariton — representing a school influenced by Oriental
fiction. There were also many Christian romances in Greek,
usually of a religious tendency. Alciphron's fictitious Letters —
founded largely on the New Comedy of Athens — represent the
same kind of industry which produced the letters of Phalaris,
Aristaenetus and similar collections. (4) Philosophy is repre-
sented chiefly by Epictetus and Marcus Aurelius, in both of
whom the Stoic element is the prevailing one; by theNeo-
platonists, such as Plotinus, Porphyry, Iamblichus; and by
Proclus, of that eclectic school which arose at Athens in the
5th century a.d.
I Thfe Greek poetry of this period presents no work of high
merit. Babrius versified the Aesopic Fables; Oppian (or two
poets of this name) wrote didactic poems on fishing vene.
and hunting; Nonnus and Quintus Smyrnaeus made
elaborate essays in epic verse; and the Orphic lore inspired
Borne poems and hymns of a mystic character. The so-called
Sibylline Oracles, in hexameter verse, range in date from about'
170 B.C. to a.d. 700, and are partly the expression of the Jewish '
longings for the restoration of Israel, partly predictions of the
triumph of Christianity. By far the most pleasing com- Th A m
positions in verse which have come to us from this age ttohgy*
are some; of the short poems in the Greek Anthology,
which includes some pieces as early as the beginning of
the 5th century B.C. and some as late as the 6th century of the
(Christian era. *
1 The 4th century may be said to mark. the beginning of the
last stage in the decay of literary Hellenism. From that point
{the decline was rapid and nearly continuous. The attitude
of the church towards it was no longer that which had been held
by Clement of Alexandria, by Justin Martyr or by Origen.
There was now a Christian Greek literature, and a Christian
Greek eloquence of extraordinary power. . The laity became
more and more estranged from the Greek literature — however
intrinsically pure and noble — of the pagan past. At the same
time the Greek language — which had maintained its purity in
Italian seats — was becoming corrupted in the new Greek Rome
of the East. In a.d. 529 Justinian put forth an edict by which
the schools of heathen philosophy were formally closed. The
act had at least a symbolical meaning. It is necessary to guard
against the supposition that such assumed landmarks in political
or literary history always mark a definite transition from one
order of things to another. But it is practically convenient,
or necessary, to use such landmarks.
Bibliogra PHY .-^-The first attempt at a connected history of
Greek literature was the monumental and still indispensable work
of J. A. Fabricius (14 vols., 1705-1728; new ed. in 12 vols, by
G. C. Harless, 1 790-1800); this was followed by F. Scholl's Hist,
de la literature grecque (1813). Both these works begin with the
earliest times and go down to the latest period of the Byzantine
empire. Of more modern and recent works the following may be
mentioned: G. Bemhardy, Grundriss der griechischen Literatur
(1836-1845; 4th ed., 1876-1880; 5th ed. of vol. i. t by R. Volkmann,
1892), chiefly confined to the poets; C. O. Muller, History of Greek
Literature (unfinished), written for the London Society for the
Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, and published in English in 1840,
the translation being by G. Cornewafl Lewis and J. W . Donaldson
(the latter completed the work to the end of the Byzantine period
for the edition of 1858; the German text was published by E.
Mailer in 1841 ; 4th ed. by E. Heitz, 1882-1884) ; W. Mure, Critical
History of the Language and Literature of Ancient Greece (1850-
1857); T. Berck, Uriechische Literaturgeschichte (1872-1894, vols.
2, 3, ed. G. Hinrichs, vol. 4 by R. Peppmttller) containing epos,
516
GREEK LITERATURE
[BYZANTINE
lyric, drama down to Euripides, and the beginnings of prose; R.
Nicolai, GriecMsche Literaturgeschichte (2nd ed., 1873-1878), useful
for bibliography, but in other respects unsatisfactory; J. P. Mahaffy,
Hist, of classical Greek Literature (4th ed., 1903) ; A. and M. Croiset,
Hist, de la literature grecque (1887-1899, 2nd ed. 1896); W.
Christ, Geschichte der eriechischen Literatur bis au/dieZeit JusHnians
(4th ed., 1905; 5th ed., pt. i. r by O. St&hlin and W. Schmid, 1908),
by far the most serviceable handbook for the student. F. Susemihl's
Geschichte der griechischen Literatur in der Alexandrinerzeit (1891-
1892) is especially valuable for its notes. Of smaller manuals the
following will be found most useful: G. G. Murray, History of
Ancient Greek Literature (1897); F. B. Jevons, History of Greek
Literature (3rd ed., 1000) down to the time of Demosthenes; A. and
M. Croiset, Manuel a' hist, de la literature grecque (1900; Eng. trans.,
by G. F. Heffelbower, N.Y., 1904); also the general sketches by
17. von Wilamowitz-Mo'llendorff in Die Kultur der Gegenwart, i. 8
(1905), by A. Gercke in the Sammlung Gdschen (Leipzig, 2nd ed.,
1905), and by R. C. Jebb in Companion to Greek Studies (Cambridge,
1905). Other works generally connected with the subject are:
E. Htibner, Bibliographie der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft
(2nd ed., 1889), pp. 161-171; W. Engelmann, Bibliotheca scrjptorum
classicorum (8th ed., by E. Preuss, 1880); J. B. Mayor, Guide to
the Choice of Classical Books (1896), p. 86; W. Kroll, Die Alter-
tumswissenschaft im letzten Vierteljahrhundert i87$-iqoo (1905),
p. 465 foil.; }. E. Sandys, History of^ Classical Scholarship (1006-
1908) ; " Bibliotheca philologica classica," in C. Bursian's Janres-
bericht Hber die Fortschritte der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft;
articles in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencyclopddie der klassischen Alter-
tumswissenschaft (1894—). (R. C. J.; X.)
II. Byzantine Literature
By "Byzantine literature" is generally meant the literature,
written in Greek, of the so-called Byzantine period. There is no
justification whatever for the inclusion of Latin works
222^ of the time of the East Roman empire. The close of
the Byzantine period is clearly marked by the year
1453, at which date, with the fall of the Eastern etapire, the
peculiar culture and literary life of the Byzantines came to an
end. It is only as regards the beginning of the Byzantine period
that any doubts exist. There are no sufficient grounds for dating
it from Justinian, as was formerly often done. In surveying the
1 whole development of the political, ecclesiastical and literary
life and of the general culture of the Roman empire, and particu-
larly of its eastern portion, we arrive, on the contrary, at the
conclusion that the actual date of the beginning of this new era~
i.e. the Christian-Byzantine, in contradistinction to the Pagan-
Greek and Pagan- Roman — falls within the reign of Constantine
the Great. By the foundation of the new capital city of Con-
stantinople (which lay amid Greek surroundings) and by the
establishment of the Christian faith as the state religion, Con-
stantine finally broke with the Roman-Pagan tradition, and
s laid the foundation of the Christian-Byzantine period of develop-
ment. Moreover, in the department of language, so closely
allied with that of literature, the 4th century marks a new epoch.
About this time occurred the final disappearance of a character-
istic of the ancient Greek language, important alike in poetry
and in rhythmic prose, the difference of " quantity." Its place
was henceforth taken by, the accent, which became a determining
principle in poetry, as well as for the rhythmic conclusion of the
prose sentence. Thus the transition from the old musical
language to a modern conversational idiom was complete.
The reign of Constantine the Great undoubtedly marks the
beginning of a new period in the most important spheres of
national life, but it is equally certain that in most of
Trmtt$9m them ancient tradition long continued to exercise an
influence. Sudden breaches of continuity are less
common in the general culture and literary life of the
world than in its political or ecclesiastical development. This
is true of the transition from pagan antiquity to the Christian
middle ages. Many centuries passed before the final victory of
the new religious ideas and the new spirit in public and private
intellectual and moral life. The last noteworthy remnants of
paganism disappeared as late as the 6th and 7th centuries. The
last great educational establishment which rested upon pagan
foundations — the university of Athens — was not abolished till
a.d. 52Q. The Hellenizing of the seat of empire and of the state,
which was essential to the independent development of Byzantine
literature, proceeds yet more slowly. The first purely Greek
emperor was Tiberius II. (578-582); but the complete Hellen-
izing of the character of the state bad not been accomplished
until the 7th century. We shall, therefore, regard the period
from the 4th to the 7th century as that of the transition between
ancient times and the middle ages. This period coincides with
the rise of a new power in the world's history — Islam. But
though, in this transitional period, the old and the new elements
are both to a large extent present and are often inextricably
interwoven, yet it is certain that the new elements are, both as
regards their essential force and their influence upon the succeed-
ing period, of infinitely greater moment than the decrepit and
mostly artificial survivals of the antique.
In order to estimate rightly the diaricter of Byzantine
literature and its distinctive peculiarities, in contradistinction
to ancient Greek, it is imperative to examine the great M^rf
difference between the civilizations that produced character
them. The Byzantine did not possess the homo- otBy
geneous, organically constructed system of the ancient ^Sow!
civilization, but was the outcome of an amalgamation
of which Hellenism formed the basis. For, although the Latin
character of the empire was at first completely retained, even
after its final division in 395, yet the dominant position of Greek
in the Eastern empire gradually led to the Hellenizing of the
State. The last great act of the Latin tradition was the codifica-
tion, in the Latin language, of the law by Justinian (527-565).
But it is significant that the Novels of Justinian were composed
partly in Greek, as were all the laws of the succeeding period.
Of the emperors in the centuries following Justinian, many of
course were foreigners, Isaurians, Armenians and others; but in
language and education they were all Greeks. In the last five
centuries of the empire, under the Comneni and the Palaeologi,
court and state are purely Greek.
In spite of the dominant position of Greek in the Eastern
empire, a linguistic and national uniformity such as formed the
foundation of the old Latin Imperium Romcnum never existed
there. In the West, with the expansion of Rome's political
supremacy, the Latin language and Latin culture were every-
where introduced — first into the non-Latin provinces of Italy,
later into Spain, Gaul and North Africa, and at last even into
certain parts of the Eastern empire. This Latinizing was so
thorough that it weathered all storms, and, in the countries
affected by it, was the parent of new and vigorous nationalities,
the French, the Spaniards, the Portuguese and the Rumanians.
Only in Africa did " Latinism " fail to take root permanently.
From the 6th century that province relapsed into the hands of
the native barbarians and of the immigrant Arabs, and both the
Latin and the Greek influences (which had grown in strength
during the period of the Eastern empire) were, together with
Christianity, swept away without leaving a trace behind. It
might have been expected that the Hellenizing of the political
system of the Eastern empire would have likewise entailed the
Hellenizing of the non-Greek portions of the empire. Such,
however, was not the case; for all the conditions precedent
to such a development were wanting. The non-Greek portions
of the Eastern empire were not, from the outset, gradually
incorporated into the state from a Greek centre, as were the
provinces in the West from a Latin centre. They had been
acquired in the old period of the homogeneous Latin Imperium.
In the centuries immediately following the division of the empire,
the idea of Hellenizing the Eastern provinces could not take
root, owing to the fact that Latin was retained, at least in
principle, as the state language. During the later centuries,
in the non-Greek parts, centrifugal tendencies and the destructive
inroads of barbarians began on all sides; and the government
was too much occupied with the all but impossible task of
preserving the political unity of the empire to entertain seriously
the wider aim of an assimilation of language and culture. More-
over, the Greeks did not possess that enormous political energy
and force which enabled the Romans to assimilate foreign races;
and, finally, they were confronted by sturdy Oriental, mostly
Semitic, peoples, who were by no means so easy to subjugate as
BYZANTINE]
GREEK LITERATURE
517
were the racially related inhabitants of Gaul and Spain. Their
impotence against the peoples of the East will be still less hardly
judged if we remember the fact already mentioned, that even
the Romans were within a short period driven back and over*
whelmed by the North Afric&n Semites who for centuries had
been subjected to an apparently thorough process of Latin*
ization.
The influence of Greek culture then, was very slight; how
little indeed it penetrated into the oriental mind is shown by the
fact that, after the violent Arab invasion in the south-east
corner of the Mediterranean, the Copts and Syrians were able
to retain their language and their national characteristics,
while Greek culture almost completely disappeared. The one
great instance of assimilation of foreign nationalities by the
Greeks is the Hellenizing of the Slavs, who from the 6th century
had migrated into central Greece and the Peloponnese. All
other non-Greek tribes of any importance which came, whether
for longer or for shorter periods, within the sphere of the Eastern
empire and its civilization — such as the Copts, Syrians,
Armenians, Georgians, Rumanians, Serbs, Bulgarians, Albanians
— one and all retained their nationality and language. The
complete Latinizing of the West has, accordingly, no counterpart
in a similar Hellenizing of the East. This is clearly shown during
the Byzantine period in the progress of Christianity. Every-
where in the West, even among the non-Romanized Anglo-
Saxons, Irish and Germans, Latin maintained its position in the
church services and in the other branches of the ecclesiastical
system; down to the Reformation the church remained a
complete organic unity. In the East, at the earliest period of
its conversion to Christianity, several foreign tongues competed
with Greek, i.e. Syrian, Coptic, Armenian, Georgian, Gothic,
Old-Bulgarian and others. The sacred books were translated
into these languages and the church services were held in them
and not in Greek. One noticeable effect of this linguistic division
in the church was the formation of various sects and national
churches (cf. the Coptic Nestorians, the Syrian Monophysites,
the Armenian and, in more recent times, the Slavonic national
churches). The Church of the West was characterized by
uniformity in language and in constitution. In the Eastern
Church parallel to the multiplicity of languages developed also
a corresponding variety of doctrine and constitution.
Though the character of Byzantine culture is mainly Greek,
and Byzantine literature is attached by countless threads to
ancient Greek literature, yet the Roman element
tnflaeoce. forms a very essential part of it. The whole political
character of the Byzantine empire is, despite its
Greek form and colouring, genuinely Roman. Legislation and
administration, the military and naval traditions, are old Roman
work, and as such, apart from Immaterial alterations, they
continued to exist and operate, even when the state in head and
limbs had become Greek. It is strange, indeed, how strong
was the political conception of the Roman state (Stoatsgedanke),
and with what tenacity it held its own, even under the most
adverse conditions, down to the latter days of the empire. The
Greeks even adopted the name " Romans," which gradually
became so closely identified with them as to supersede the name
" Hellenes "; and thus a political was gradually converted into
an ethnographical and linguistic designation. JUumaioi was
the most common popular term for Greeks during the Turkish
period, and remains so still. The old glorious name " Hellene "
was used under the empire and even during the middle ages
in a contemptuous sense — " Heathen " — and has only in quite
modern times, on the formation of the kingdom of " Hellas/'
been artificially revived. The vast organization of the Roman
political system could not but exercise in various ways a profound
influence upon Byzantine civilization; and it often seemed
as if Roman political principles had educated and nerved the
unpolitical Greek people to great political enterprise. The
Roman influence has left distinct traces in the Greek language,
Greek of the Byzantine and modern period is rich in Latin
terms for conceptions connected with the departments of justice,
administration and the imperial court. In literature such
The
Orient
" barbarisms " were avoided as far as possible, and were replaced
by Greek periphrases.
But by far the most momentous and radical change wrought
on the old Hellenism was effected by Christianity; and yet
the transition was, in fact, by no means so abrupt as
one might be led to believe by comparing the Pagan- ^J^f"
Hellenic culture of Plato's day with the Christian-
Byzantine of the time of Justinian. For the path had been
most effectually prepared for the new religion by the crumbling
away of the ancient belief in the gods, by the humane doctrine
of the Stoics, and, finally, by the mystic intellectual tendencies
of Neoplatonism. Moreover, in many respects Christianity met
paganism halfway by adapting itself to popular usages and
ideas and by adopting important parts of the pagan literature.
The whole educational system especially, even in Christian times,
was in a very remarkable manner based almost entirely on the
methods and material inherited from paganism. Next to the
influences of Rome and of Christianity, that of the East was of
importance in developing the Byzantine civilization, and in
lending Byzantine literature its distinctive character.
Much that was oriental in the Eastern empire dates
back to ancient times, notably to the period of Alex-
ander the Great and his successors. Since the Greeks had
at that period Hellenized the East to the widest extent, and
had already founded everywhere flourishing cities, they them-
selves fell under the manifold influences of the soil they occupied.
In Egypt, Palestine and Syria, in Asia Minor as far inland
as Mesopotamia, Greek and oriental characteristics were often
blended. In respect of the wealth and the long duration of
its Greek intellectual life, Egypt stands supreme. It covers
a period of nearly a thousand years from the foundation of
Alexandria down to the conquest of Egypt by the Arabs (a.d.
643). The real significance of Egyptian Hellenism during
this long period can be properly estimated only if a practical
attempt be made to eliminate from the history of Greek literature
and science in pagan and in Christian times all that owed its
origin to the land of the Nile. The soil of Egypt proved itself
especially productive of Greek literature under the Cross (Origen,
Athanasius, Arius, Synesius), in the same way as the soil of
North Africa was productive of Latin literature (Tertullian,
Cyprian, Lactantius, Augustine). Monastic life, which is one
of the chief characteristic elements of Christian-Byzantine
civilization, had its birth in Egypt.
Syria and Palestine came under the influence of Greek civiliza-
tion at a later date than Egypt. In these, Greek literature and
culture attained their highest development between the 3rd and
the 8th centuries of the Christian era. Antioch rose to great
influence, owing at first to its pagan school of rhetoric and
later to its Christian school of exegesis. Gaza was renowned for
its school of rhetoric; Berytus for its academy of law. It is
no mere accident that sacred poetry, aesthetically the most
valuable class of Byzantine literature, was born in Syria and
Palestine.
In Asia Minor, the cities of Tarsus, Caesarea, Nicaea, Smyrna,
Ephesus, Nicopolis, &c, were all influential centres of Greek
culture and literature. For instance, the three great fathers
of Cappadoda, Basil, Gregory of Nyssa, and Gregory of Nazianzus
all belonged to Asia Minor.
If all the greater Greek authors of the first eight centuries
of the Christian era, i.e. the period of the complete development
of Byzantine culture, be classified according to the countries
of their birth, the significant fact becomes evident that nine-
tenths come from the African and Asiatic districts, which were
for the most part opened up only after Alexander the Great,
and only one-tenth from European Greece. In other words,
the old original European Greece was, under the emperors,
completely outstripped in intellectual productive force by the
newly founded African and Asiatic Greece. This huge tide
of conquest which surged from Greece over African and Syrian
territories occupied largely by foreign races and ancient
civilizations, could not fail to be fraught with serious con-
sequences for the Greeks themselves. The experience of the
S»8
GREEK LITERATURE
[BYZANTINE
Romans in their conquest of Greece (Graecia caplaferum victor em
cepit) repeated itself in the conquest of the East by Greece,
though to a minor extent and in a different way. The whole
literature of Egypt, Syria and Asia Minor cannot, despite
its international and cosmopolitan character, disavow the
influence of the Oriental soil on which it was nourished. Yet the
growth of too strong a local colouring in its literature was
repressed, partly by the checks imposed by ancient Greek
tradition, partly by the spirit of Christianity which reconciled
all national distinctions. Even more clearly and unmistakably
is Oriental influence shown in the province of Byzantine art,
as Joseph Strzygowski has conclusively proved.
The greater portion of Greek literature from the close of
ancient times down to the threshold of modern history was
Utnramge. wr *tten m a language identical in its principal features
with the common literary language, the so-called
Koini, which had its origin in the Alexandrian age. This is the
literary form of Greek as a universal language, though a form
that scintillates with many facets, from an almost Attic diction
down to one that approaches the language of everyday life
such as we have, for instance, in the New Testament. From
what has been, already said, it follows that this stable literary
language cannot always have remained a language of ordinary
life. For, like every living tongue, the vernacular Greek continu-
ally changed in pronunciation and form, as well as in vocabulary
and grammar, and thus the living language. surely and gradually
separated itself from the rigid written language. This gulf was,
moreover, considerably widened owing to the fact that there
took place in the written language a retrograde movement,
the so-called " Atticism." Introduced by Dionysius of Hali-
carnassus in the ist century before Christ, this linguistic-
literary fashion .attained its greatest height in the 2nd century
a.d., but still continued to flourish in succeeding centuries, and,
indirectly, throughout the whole Byzantine period. It is true
that it often seemed as though the living language would be
gradually introduced into literature; for several writers, such
as the chronicler Malalas in the 6th century, Leontius of Neapolis
(the author of Lives of Saints) in the 7th century, the chronicler
Theophanes at the beginning of the oth century, and the emperor
Constantine Porphyrogenitus in the 10th century, made in
their writings numerous concessions to the living language.
This progressive tendency might well have led, in the nth and
1 2th centuries, to the founding in the Greek vernacular of a new
literary language similar to the promising national languages
and literature which, at that period, in the Romance countries,
developed out of the despised popular idiom. In the case of the
Byzantines, unfortunately, such a radical change never took
place. All attempts in the direction of a popular reform of the
literary language, which were occasionally made in the period
from the 6th to the 10th centuries, were in turn extinguished
by the resuscitation of classical studies, a movement which,
begun in the 9th century by Photius and continued in the nth
by Psellus, attained its full development under the Comneni
and the Palaeologi. This classical renaissance turned back the
literary language into the old ossified forms,. as had previously
happened in the case of the Atticism' of the early centuries of
the empire. In the West, humanism (so closely connected
with the Byzantine renaissance under the Comneni and the
Palaeologi) also artificially reintroduced the " Ciceronian"
Latin, but was unable seriously to endanger the development
of the national languages, which had already attained to full
vitality. In Byzantium, the humanistic movement came
prematurely, and crushed the new language before it had fairly
established itself. Thus the language of the Byzantine writers
of the iith-isth centuries is almost Old Greek in colour; artifici-
ally learnt by grammar, lexicon and assiduous reading, it
followed Attic models more and more slavishly; to such an
extent that, in determining the date of works, the paradoxical
principle holds good that the more ancient the language, the
more recent the author.
Owing to this artificial return to ancient Greek, the contrast
that had long existed with the vernacular was now for the first
time fully revealed. The gulf between the two forms of la n guage
could no longer be bridged; and this fact fpund its expression
in literature also. While the vulgarizing authors of the 6th-ioth
centuries, like the Latin-writing Franks (such as Gregory of
Tours), still attempted a compromise between the language of
the schools and that of conversation! we meet after the 12th
century with authors who freely and naturally employed the
vernacular in their literary works. They accordingly form the
Greek counterpart of the oldest writers. in Italian, French and
other Romance languages. That they could not succeed like
their Roman colleagues, and always remained the pariahs of
Greek literature, is due to the all-powerful philological-anti-
quarian tendency which existed under the Comneni and the
Palaeologi. Yet once more did the vernacular attempt to assert
its literary rights, i.e. in Crete -and some other .islands in the
16th and 17th centuries. But this, attempt also was foiled by
the classical reaction of the 19th qentury . Hence it comes about .
that Greek literature even in the 20th centu y employs gram-
matical forms which were obsolete long before the 10th century.
Thus the Greeks, as regards their literary language, came into
a cul de sac similar to that in which certain rigidly conservative
Oriental nations find themselves,: e.g. the Arabs and Chinese, who,,
not possessing a literary language suited to modern requirements,
have to content themselves with the dead Old-Arabic or the
ossified Mandarin language. The divorce of the written .and
spoken languages is the, most prominent and also the most fatal
heritage that the modern Greeks have received from their
.Byzantine forefathers.
The whole Byzantine intellectual life, like that of the Western
medieval period, is dominated by theological interests. Theology
accordingly, in literature too* occupies the chief place, o^^/
in regard to both quantity and quality.- .Netxt to it chonder
conies the writing of history, which the Byzantines oiBy-
cultivated with great conscientiousness until after %&££&
the fall of the empire.. AH other kinds of prose writing, .
e.g. in geography, philosophy, rhetoric and the technical sciences,
were comparatively neglected, and such works axe of value for
the most part only in so far as they preserve and interpret old
material. In poetry, again, theology takes the lead. The poetry
of the Church produced works of high aesthetic merit and endur-
ing value. In secular poetry, the writing of epigrams especially
was cultivated with assiduity and often with ability. In popular
literature poetry predominates, and many productions worthy of
notice, new both in matter and in form, are here met with.
The great classical period of Greek theological literature is
that of the 4th century. Various factors contributed to this
result — some of them positive, particularly the neology.
establishment of Christianity as the official religion
and the protection accorded to it by the, state, others negative,
i.e. the heretical movements, especially Arianism, which at this
period arose in the east of the emplire and threatened the unity
of the doctrine and organization of the church* It was chiefly
against these that the subtle Athanasius of Alexandria directed
his attacks. The learned Eusebius founded a new department
of literature, church history. In Egypt, Antonius (St Anthony)
founded the Greek monastic system; Synesius of Cyrene, like
his greater contemporary Augustine in the West, represents
both in his life and in his writings the difficult transition from
Plato to Christ. At the centre, in the forefront of the great
intellectual movement of this century, stand the three great
Cappadocians, Basil the Great, the subtle dogmatist, his brother
Gregory of Nyssa, the philosophically trained defender of the
Christian faith, and Gregory of Nazianzus, the distinguished
orator and poet. Closely allied to them was St Chrysostom,
the courageous champion of ecclesiastical liberty and of moral
purity. To modern readers the greater part of this literature
appears strange and foreign; but, in order to be appreciated
rightly, it must be regarded as the outcome of the period in
which it was produced, a period stirred to its depths by religious
emotions. For the times in which they lived and for then-
readers, the Greek fathers reached the highest attainable;
though, of course, they produced nothing of such general human
BYZANTINE]
GREEK LITERATURE
5i9
interest, nothing so deep and true, as th& Confessions of St
Augustine, with which the poetical autobiography of Gregory
xd Na2iaiizus>cajHtot fcra moment -be compared,. .1 ,'
. The glorious bLoom pf the 4th. cemtuiy was t fallowed by a
perceptible decay in theological intellectual activity. Inde-
pendent production was in. succeeding centuries almost solely
prompted by divergent dogsiaitic&l views and heresies, for the
refutation of which orthodox authors were impelled to take up
the pen. In the 5th and 6th centuries a more copious literature
was called into existence by the Monophysites, who maintained
that there was but one nature in Christ; in the 7th century by
the Mohothetttes, who acknowledged but one will in Christ;
in the 8th century by the. Iconoclasts and by the new teaching
of Mahomet. One very* eminent theologian, whose importance
it has been, reserved for modern times to estimate aright —
Leontius of Byzantium (6th century) — was the first to introduce
Aristotelian definitions into theology, and may thus be called
the first scholastic In his works, he attacked the heretics of
his age, particularly the: Monophysites, who were also assailed
by his contemporary Anastaaiu» of Aatioch. The chief adver-
saries of the Monothelites were Sopbronius, patriarch of Jerusalem
(whose main importance, however, is due to his work in other
fields, in bagiography and homiletics), Maximus the Confessor,
and Anastasius Sinaites, who also composed an interpretation
of the Hexoemeron in, twelve books. Among writers in the
departments of critical interpretation and asceticism in this
period must be enumerated Procopius of Gaza, who devoted
himself principally to. the exegesis of the Old Testament;
Johannes Climax (6th century), named after his much-read
ascetic work KlitHax (Jacob's ladder); and Johanjaes Moscbus
<d.* 619), whose chief work Leimon (" spiritual pasture ") describes
monastic life in the form of statements and narratives of their
experiences by monks themselves. The last great heresy, which
shook the Greek Chuorch to its very foundations, the Iconoclast
rnpvei^entj/summonjedtothe fray the last great Greek theologian,
John of Damascus (Johannes Dasaascbnus); Yet his chief merit
Hes not so much in his polemical speeches against the Iconoclasts,
and in his much admired but over-refined poetry, as in his great.
dogmatic work, The Fountain of Knowledge, which cotttain&.the'
first comprehensive exposition of Christian dogma* It has
remained the standard work on Greek theology down to the
present day. Just as the internal development of the Greek
Church in all essentials reached its limit with the Iconoclasts,
so also its productive intellectual activity ceased with John, of 1
Damascus. Such theological works as were subsequently
produced, consisted mostly -in. the interpretation and revision
of old materials. An extremely copious, but unfruitful^ lit eratiiire
. was. produced by the disputes about the reunion of the Greek
and Roman Churches^ Of a more independent character is the
•literature which uxthe 14th century centred round the dissensions
of the Hesychasts. < :
Among theologians after John of Damascus must be mentioned:
the emperor Leo VI., the Wise (886-0,11), who wrote numerous
homilies and church hymns, and Theodorus of Studjum (750-
826), who. in his numerous writings affords us instructive glimpses
of monastic life. Pre-eminent stands the figure of the patriarch;
Phothts. Yet his importance consists less in his writings, which
often, to a remarkable extent, lack independence of thought
and judgment, than in his activity as a prince of the church..
For he t; it was who carried the differences which, jhad already
repeatedly arisen between Rome an^i Constantinople to a point
at which reconciliation was impossible) and was mainly instru-
mental in preparing the way for the separation of the Greek ; a^d
Latin.. Churches > accomplished in 1054 under the patriarch!
Michael Cerukrius. In the nth century the polyhistor Michael
Pseilus also wrote polemics against the Euchites, among whonii
the Syrian Gnosis was reviving. All literature, including
theology, experienced a considerable revival under the Comneni.
In the reign of Alexius I. Comnenus (1081-1118), Euthymius,
Zigabenus wrote his great dogmatic work, the Dogmatic Panoply;
which, like The Fountain of Knowledge of John of Damascus in
earlier times, was partly positive, furnishing an armoury of
theology, partly negative and. directed against tfie sects. In
addition to attacking the.(iead and. buried doctrines of the
Monqthelites, Iconoclasts, &c, to fight which was at this time
a. mere tilting at windfalls, Zigabenus also carried on a polemic
against the heretics of his own day, the Armenians, Bogomils
and Saracens. Zigabenus's. Panoply was continued and enlarged
a century later* by the historian Nicetas Acominatus, who
published it under the title Treasure of Orthodoxy. To the
writings against ancient heresies were next added a flood of
tracts, of all shapes and sizes, " against the Latins," i.e. against
the Roman Church, and among their authors must also be
enumerated an emperor, the gifted Theodore II. Lascaris (1254-
1258). The chief champion of the union with the Rpman Church
was the learned Johannes Beqcus (patriarch of Constantinople
.1275-1282). Of his opponents by far the most eminent was
Gregory of Cyprus, who succeeded him on the patriarchal throne.
The fluctuations in the fortunes of the two ecclesiastical parties
aue reflected in the occupation of the patriarchal throne. The
battles round the question of the union, which were waged with
southern passion, were for a while checked by the dissensions
aroused by the mystic tendency of the Hesychasts. The impetus
to this great literary movement was given by the monk Barlaam,
a native of Calabria, who came forward in Constantinople as an
opponent of the Latins and was in 1339 entrusted by Andronicus
III. with a mission to Pope Benedict XII. at Avignon. He
condemned the doctrine of the Hesychasts, and attacked them
both orally and in writing. Among those who shared his views
are conspicuous the historian Nioephorus Gregoras and Gregorius
Acindynus, the latter of whom closely followed Thomas Aquinas
in his writings. In fact the struggle against the Hesychasts was
essentially a struggle between sober western scholasticism and
dreamy Graeco-Oriental mysticism. On the side of the Hesychasts
fought Qregorius Palamas, who tried to give a dogmatic founda-
tion to the mysticism of the Hesychasts, Cabasilas, and the
emperor John. VL Cantacuzenus who, after his deposition,
sought, in the peaceful retreat of a monastery, consolation in
theological studies, and in his literary works refuted the Jews
and tj&e Mahommedans. For the greatest B yzantine ' ' apologia ' '
against Islamisnx .we are indebted to an emperor, Manuel II.
Palaeologua (1391-1425), who by learned discussions tried to
make up for the deficiency in martial prowess shown by the
Byzantines in their struggle with the Turks. On the whole,
theological literature was in the last century of the empire
almost, completely occupied with the struggles for and against
the union with Rome. The reason lay in the political conditions.
The emperors saw more and more clearly that without the aid
of the West they would no longer be able to stand their ground
against the Turks, the vanguard of the armies of the Crescent;
while the majority of Byzantine theologians feared that the
assistance of the West would force the Greeks to unite with
Rome, and thereby to forfeit their ecclesiastical independence.
Considering the supremacy of the theological party in Byzantium,
it was bu£. natural that religious considerations should gain the
day oyer political; and this was the view almost universally
held by the Byzantines in the later centuries of, the empire;
iiV the wouds of , the chronicler Ducas: " jt is better to fall into
the hands of the Turks than into those of the Franks." The
chief opponent of, $he union was Marcus Eugenicus, metropolitan
of Ephesu*, who, at the Council of Florence in 1439, denounced
tbp union wit J?. Rome accomplished by John VIII. Palaeologus.
Conspicuous there, among the partisans of the union, by reason
of his erudition and general literary merit, was Bessarion, after-
wards cardinal,, whose chief activity, already falls under the
head of Graeco^Ltalian humanism.
Hagiography, *,e. the : literature of the acts of the martyrs
and U?Le lives of the saints, forms an independent group and
one comparatively unaffected by dogmatic struggles.
The main interest centres here round the objects mpky.
described, the personalities of the martyrs and saints
themselves. The authors, on the other hand — the Acts of the
Martyrs are mostly anonymous — keep more in the background
than in other branches of literature. The man whose name is
520
GREEK LITERATURE
[BYZANTINE
mainly identified with Greek hagiography , Symeon Metaphrastes,
is important not as an original author, but only as an editor.
Symeon revised in the 10th century, according to the rhetorical
and linguistic principles of his day, numerous old Acts of the
Martyrs, and incorporated them in a collection consisting of
several volumes, which was circulated in innumerable copies,
and thus to a great extent superseded the older original texts.
These Acts of the Martyrs, in point of time, are anterior to our
period; but of the Lives of Saints the greater portion belong
to Byzantine literature. TTiey began with biographies of monks
distinguished for their saintly living, such as were used by
Palladius about 420 in his Historia Lausiaca. The most famous
work of this description is that by Athanasius of Alexandria,
viz. the biography of St Anthony, the founder of monachism.
In the 6th century Cyril of Scythopolis wrote several lives of
saints, distinguished by a simple and straightforward style.
More expert than any one else in reproducing the naive popular
style was Leontius of Neapolis in Cyprus who, in the 7th century,
wrote, among other works, a life of St John the Merciful, arch-
bishop of Alexandria, which is very remarkable as illustrating
the social and intellectual conditions of the time. From the
popular Lives of Saints, which for the reading public of the
middle ages formed the chief substitute for modern "belles
lettres," it is easy to trace the transition to the religious novel.
The most famous work of this class is the history of Ba&laam
AND JOSAPHAT (q.V.).
The religious poetry of the Greeks primarily suffered from
the influence of the ancient Greek form, which was fatal to
-^-^ original development. The oldest work of this class is
tnJSy!* *h e hymn, composed in anapaestic monometers and
dimeters, which was handed down in the manuscripts
with the Paedagogus of Clement of Alexandria (d. about 215),
but was probably not his work. The next piece of this class
is the famous " Maidens' Song " in the Banquet of St Methodius
(d. about 311), in which many striking violations of the old
rules of quantity are already apparent. More faithful to the
tradition of the schools was Gregory of Nazianzus. But, owing
to the fact that he generally employed antiquated versification
and very erudite language, his poems failed to reach the people
or to find a place in the services of the church. Just as little
could the artificial paraphrase of the Psalms composed by the
younger Apollinaris, or the subtle poems of Synesius, become
popular. It became more and more patent that, with the archaic
metre which was out of keeping with the character of the living
language, no genuine poetry suited to the age could possibly be
produced. Fortunately, an entirely new form of poetical art
was discovered, which conferred upon the Greek people the
blessings of an intelligible religious poetry — the rhythmic poem.
This no longer depended on difference of quantity in the syllables,
which had disappeared from the living language, but on the
accent. Yet the transition was not effected by the substitution
of accent for the old long syllables; the ancient verse form was
entirely abandoned, and in its stead new and variously con-
structed lines and strophes were formed. In the history of the
rhythmic sacred poetry three periods are clearly marked — the
preparatory period; that of the hymns; and that of the Canones.
About the first period we know, unfortunately, comparatively
little. It appears that in it church music was in the main confined
to the insertion of short songs between the Psalms or other
portions of Holy Writ and the acclamations of the congregation.
The oldest rhythmic songs date from Gregory of Nazianzus —
his " Maidens' Song " and his " Evening Hymn." Church
poetry reached its highest expression in the second period, in
the grand development of the hymns, i.e. lengthy songs compris-
ing from twenty to thirty similarly constructed strophes, each
connected with the next in acrostic fashion. Hymnology,
again, attained its highest perfection in the first half of the 6th
century with Romanos, who in the great number and excellence
of his hymns dominated this species of poetry, as Homer did
the Greek epic. From this period dates, moreover, the most
famous song of the Greek Church, the so-called Acathistus, an
anonymous hymn of praise to the Virgin 1 Mary, which has
sometimes, but erroneously, been attributed to the patriarch
Sergius.
Church poetry entered upon a new stage, characterized by an
increase in artistic finish and a falling off in poetical vigour,
with the composition of the Canones, songs artfully ctaoaeM.
built up out of eight or nine lyrics, all differently
constructed. Andreas, archbishop of Crete (c. 650-720), is
regarded as the inventor of this new class of song. His chief
work, " the great Canon," comprises no less than 250 strophes.
The most celebrated writers of Canones are John of Damascus
and Cosmas of Jerusalem, both of whom flourished in the first
half of the 8th century. The " vulgar " simplicity of Romanos
was regarded by them as an obsolete method; they again
resorted to the classical style of Gregory of Nazianzus, and John
of Damascus even took a special delight in the most elaborate
tricks of expression. In spite of this, or perhaps on that very
account, both he and Cosmas were much admired in later times,
were much read, and — as was very necessary — much commen-
tated. Later, sacred poetry was more particularly cultivated
in the monastery of the Studium at Constantinople by the abbot
Theodorus and others. Again, in the 9th century, Joseph, " the
hymn-writer," excelled as a writer of songs, and, finally, John
Mauropus (nth century), bishop of Euchaita, John Zonaras
(12th century), and Nicephorus Blemmydes (13th century),
were also distinguished as authors of sacred poems, i.e. Canones.
The Basilian Abbey of Grotta Ferrata near Rome, founded in
1004, and still existing, was also a nursery of religious poetry.
As regards the rhythmic church poetry, it may now be regarded
as certain that its origin was in the East. Old Hebrew and
Syrian models mainly stimulated it, and Romanos (q.v.) was
especially influenced by the metrical homilies of the great Syrian
father Ephraem (d. about 373).
In profane literature the writing of history takes the first
place, as regards both form and substance. The Greeks have
always been deeply interested in history, and they have protm
never omitted, amid all the vicissitudes of their
existence, to hand down a record to posterity. Thus,
they have produced a literature extending from the
Ionian logographers and Herodotus down to the times of
Sultan Mahommed II. In the Byzantine period all historical
accounts fall under one of two groups, entirely different, both in
form and in matter, (1) historical works, the authors of which
described, as did most historians of ancient times, a period of
history in which they themselves had lived and moved, or one
which only immediately preceded their own times; and (2)
chronicles, shortly recapitulating the history of the world. This
latter class has no exact counterpart in ancient literature. The
most clearly marked stage in the development of a Christian-
Byzantine universal history was the chronicle (unfortunately
lost) written by the Hellenized Jew, Justus of Tiberias, at the
beginning of the 2nd century of the Christian era; this work
began with the story of Moses.
Byzantine histories of contemporary events do not differ
substantially from ancient historical works, except in their
Christian colouring. Yet even this is often very faint and blurred
owing to close adherence to ancient methods. Apart from this,
neither a new style nor a new critical method nor any radically
new views appreciably altered the main character of Byzantine
historiography. In their style most Byzantine compilers of
contemporary history followed the beaten track of older his-
torians, e.g. Herodotus, Thucydides, and, in some details, also
Polybius. But, in spite of their often excessive tendency to
imitation, they displayed considerable power in the delineation
of character and were not wanting in independent judgment.
As regards the selection of their matter, they adhered to the
old custom of beginning their narrative where their predecessors
left off. '
The outstripping of the Latin West by the Greek East, which
after the close of the 4th century was a self-evident fact, is
reflected in historiography also. After Constantine the Great,
the history of the empire, although its Latin character was
maintained until the 6th century, was mostly written by Greeks;
BYZANTINE]
GREEK LITERATURE
e.g. Eunapius (c. 400), Olympiodorus (c. 450), Priscus (c. 450}*
Malchus (c. 490), and Zosjmus, the last pagan historian (c 500),
ail of whom, with the exception of Zosimus, are unfortunately
preserved to us only in fragments. Historiography received a
great impulse in the 6th century. The powerful Procopius and
Agathias (tf.v.)> tinged with poetical rhetoric, described the
stirring and eventful times of Justinian, while Theophanes of
Byzantium,, Menander Protector, Johannes of Epiphaneia and
Theophytactus of Simocatta described the second half of the
6th century. Towards the close of the 6th century also flourished
the last independent ecclesiastical historian, Evagrius, who
wrote the history of the church from 431 to 593. There now
followed, however, a lamentable falling off in production.
From the 7th to the 10th century the historical side is
represented by a few chronicles, and it was not until the 10th
century that, owing to the revival of ancient classical studies,
the art of writing history showed some signs of life. Several
historical works are associated with the name of. the emperor
Constantine VII. Porphyrogenitus. To his learned circle be-
longed also Joseph Genesius, who at the emperor's instance
compiled the history of the period from 813 to 886. A little work,
interesting from the point of view of historical and ethnographical
science, is the account of the taking of Thessalonica by the Cretan
Corsairs (a.d. 904), which a priest, Johannes Cameniata, an
eyewitness of the event, has bequeathed to posterity. There
is also contained in the excellent work of Leo Diaconus (on the
period from 959 to 975) a graphic account of the bloody wars of
the Byzantines with the Arabs in Crete and with the Bulgarians,
A continuation was undertaken by the philosopher Michael
Psellus in a work covering the period from 976 to 1077. A
valuable supplement to the latter (describing the period from
1034 to 1079) was supplied by the jurist Michael Attaliata.
The history of the Eastern empire during the Crusades was
written in four considerable works, by Nicephorus Bryennius,
his learned consort Anna Comnena, the " honest Aetolian,"
Johannes Cinnamus, and finally by Nicetas Acominatus in an
exhaustive work which is authoritative for the history of the
4th Crusade, The melancholy conditions and the ever increasing
decay of the empire under the Palaeologi (13th-! 5th centuries)
are described in the same lofty style, though with a still closer
following of classical models. The events which took place
bet weep the taking of Constantinople fry the Latins and the
restoration of Byzantine rule (1203-1261) are recounted by
Georgius Acropoiita, who emphasizes his own share in them.
The succeeding period was written by the versatile Georgius
Pachymeres, the erudite and high-principled Nicephorus
Gregoras, and the emperor John VI. Cantacuzenus, Lastly,
the death-struggle between the East Roman empire and the
mighty rising power of the Ottomans was narrated by three
historians, all differing in culture and in style, Laonicus Chalco-
condyles, Ducas and Georgius Phrantzes. With them may be
classed a fourth (though he lived outside the Byzantine period),
Critobulus, a high-born Greek of Imbros, who wrote, in the style
of the age of Pericles, the history of the times of the sultan
Mahommed II. (down to 1467).
The essential importance of the Byzantine chronicles (mostly
chronicles of the history of the world from the Creation) consists
in the fact that they in part. replace older lost works,
and thus fill up many gaps in our historical survey
(e.g. for the period from about 600 to 800 of which
very few records remain). They lay no claim to literary merit,
but are often serviceable for the history of language. Many such
chronicles were furnished with illustrations. The remains of
one such illustrated chronicle on papyrus, dating from the
beginning of the 5th century, has been preserved for us by the
soil of Egypt. 1 The authors of the chronicles were mostly monks,
who wished to compile handbooks of universal history for their
brethren and for pious laymen; and this explains the strong
clerical and popular tendency of these works. And it is due to
1 See Ad. Bauer and J. Strzygowski, " Eine alexandrinische
Weltchronik " (1005) (Denkschrifi der kaiserlich. Akademie der
Wissenschaften, li.).
Chntn-
521
these two qualities, that the chronicles obtained a circulation
abroad, both in the West and also among the peoples Christian-
ized from Byzantium, e.g. the Slavs, and in all of them sowed the
seeds of an indigenous historical literature. Thus the chronicles,
despite the jejuneness of their style and their uncritical treatment
of material were for the general culture of the middle ages of far
greater importance than the erudite contemporary histories
designed only for the highly educated circles in Byzantium.
The oldest Byzantine chronicle of universal history preserved
to us is that of Malalas (6th century), which is also the purest
type of this class of literature. In the 7th century was completed
the famous Easter or Paschal Chronicle (Chronicon Paschale).
About the end of the 8th or the beginning of the 9th century
Georgius Syncellus compiled a concise chronicle, which began
with the Creation and was continued down to the year 284.
At the request of the author, when on his death-bed, the con-
tinuation of this work was undertaken by Theophanes Confessor,
who brought down the account from a.d. 284 to his own times
(a.d. 813). This exceedingly valuable work of Theophanes
was again continued (from 813-961) by several anonymous
chroniclers. A contemporary of Theophanes, the patriarch
Nicephorus, wrote, in addition to a Short History of the period
from 602 to 769, a chronological sketch from Adam down to the
year of his own death in 829. Of great influence on the age that
followed was Georgius Monachus, only second in importance
as chronicler of the early Byzantine period, who compiled a
chronicle of the world's history (from Adam until the year 843,
the end of the Iconoclast movement), far more theological and
monkish in character than the work of Theophanes. Among
later chroniclers Johannes Scylitza stands out conspicuously.
His work (covering the period from 811 to 1057), as regards the
range of its subject-matter, is something between a universal
and a contemporary history. Georgius Cedrenus (c. 11 00)
embodied the whole of ScyHtza's work, almost unaltered, in
his Universal Chronicle. In the 1 2 th century the general increase
in literary production was evident also in the department of
chronicles of the world. From this period dates, for instance,
the most distinguished and learned work of this class, the great
universal chronicle of John Zonaras. In the same century
Michael Glycas compiled his chronicle of the world's history, a
work written in the old popular style and designed for the
widest circles of readers. Lastly, in the 12th century, Con-
stantine Manasses wrote a universal chronicle in the so-called
" political " verse. With this verse-chronicle must be classed
the imperial chronicle of Ephraem, written in Byzantine trimeters
at the beginning of the 14th century.
Geography and topography, subjects so closely connected
with history, were as much neglected by the Byzantines as by
their political forerunners, the Romans. Of purely ^^
practical importance are a few handbooks of navigation, gnphy.
itineraries, guides for pilgrims, and catalogues of
provinces and cities, metropolitan sees and bishoprics. The
geographical work of Stephanus of Byzantium, which dates
from Justinian's time, has been lost. To the same period belongs
the only large geographical work which has been preserved to us,
the Christian Topography of Cosmas Indicopleustes. For the
topography of Constantinople a work entitled Ancient History
(Patria) of Constantinople, which may be compared to the
medieval Mirabilia urbis Romae, and in late manuscripts has
been wrongly attributed to a certain Codinus, is of great import-
ance.
Ancient Greek philosophy under the empire sent forth two
new shoots — Neopythagoreanism and Neoplatonism. It was
the latter with which moribund paganism essayed to dhu^
stem the advancing tide of Christianity. The last great sopby.
exponent of this philosophy was Proclus in Athens
(d. 485). The dissolution, by order of Justinian, of the school
of philosophy at Athens in 529 was a fatal blow to this nebulous
system, which had long since outlived the conditions that made it
a living force. In the succeeding period philosophical activity
was of two main kinds; on the one hand, the old philosophy,
e.g. that of Aristotle, was employed to systematize Christian
xii. 17 a
522
GREEK LITERATURE
{BYZANTINE
doctrine, while, on the other, the old works were furnished with
copious commentaries and paraphrases. Leontius of Byzantium
had already introduced Aristotelian definitions into Christology;
but the real founder of medieval ecclesiastical philosophy was
John of Damascus. Owing, however, to his having early attained
to canonical authority, the independent progress of ecclesiastical
philosophy was arrested; and to this it is due that in this
respect the later Byzantine period is far poorer than is the West.
Byzantium cannot boast a scholastic like Thomas Aquinas.
In the nth century philosophical studies experienced a satis-
factory revival, mainly owing to Michael Psellus, who brought
Plato as well as Aristotle again into fashion.
Ancient rhetoric was cultivated in the Byzantine period with
greater ardour than scientific philosophy, being regarded as an
Rh toHc ^dispensable a *d to instruction. It would be difficult
to imagine anything more tedious than the numerous
theoretical writings on the subject and the examples of their
practical application: mechanical school essays, which here
count as " literature," and innumerable letters, the contents of
which are wholly insignificant. The evil effects 6f this were
felt beyond the proper sphere of rhetoric. The anxious attention
paid to the laws of rhetoric and the unrestricted use of its
withered flowers were detrimental to a great part of the rest of
Byzantine literature, and greatly hampered the development
of any individuality and simplicity of style. None the less,
among the rhetorical productions of the time are to be found a
few interesting pieces, such as the Pkilopatris, in the style of
Lucian, which gives us a remarkable picture of the times of
Nicephorus Phocas (ioth century). In two. other smaller works
a journey to the dwellings of the dead is described, after the
pattern of Lucian 's Nekyomanteia, viz. in Timarion (i 2th century)
and in Mazaris* Journey to the Underworld (c. 1414). A very
charming representative of Byzantine rhetoric is Michael
Acominatus, who, in addition to theological works, wrote
numerous occasional speeches, letters and poems.
In the field of scientific production, which can be accounted
literature in the modern acceptation of the term only in a limited
sense, Byzantium was dominated to an extravagant
and even grotesque extent by the rules of what in
modern times is termed " classical scholarship."
The numerous works which belong to this category, such as
grammars, dictionaries, commentaries on ancient authors,
extracts from ancient literature, and metrical and musical
treatises, are of little general interest, although of great value
for special branches of philological study, e.g. for tracing the
influences through which the ancient works handed down to
us have passed, as well as for their interpretation and emenda-
tion; for information about ancient authors now lost; for the
history of education; and for the underlying principles of in-
tellectual life in Byzantium. The most important monument of
Byzantine philology is, perhaps, the Library of the patriarch
Photius. The period from about 650 to 850 is marked by a
general decay of culture. Photius, who in the year 850 was
about thirty years of age, now set himself with admirable
energy to the task of making ancient literature, now for the most
part dead and forgotten, known once more to his contemporaries,
thus contributing to its preservation. He gave an account
of all that he read, and in this way composed 280 essays, which
were collected in what is commonly known as the Library
or Myriobiblon. The character of the individual sketches is
somewhat mechanical and formal; a more or less complete
account of the contents is followed by critical discussion, which
is nearly always confined to the linguistic form. With this
work may be compared in importance the great Lexikon of
Suidas, which appeared about a century later, a sort of encyclo-
paedia, of which the main feature was its articles on the history
of literature. A truly sympathetic figure is Eustathius, the
famous archbishop of Thessalonica (12th century) . His volumin-
ous commentaries on Homer, however, rivet the attention less
than his enthusiastic devotion to science, his energetic action
on behalf of the preservation of the literary works of antiquity,
and last, not least, his frank and heroic character, which had
Tb9
nothing in it of the Byzantine. If, 0ft the other hand, acquaint-
ance with a caricature of Byzantine philology be desired, it is
afforded by Johannes Tzetzes, a contemporary of Eustathius,
a Greek in neither name nor spirit, narrow-minded, angular,
superficial, and withal immeasurably conceited and ridiculously
coarse in his polemics. The transition to Western humanism
was effected by the philologists of the period of the Palaeologi,
such as Maximus Planudes, whose translation^ of numerous
works renewed the long-broken ties between Byzantium and the
West; Manuel Moschopulus, whose grammatical wotks and
commentaries were, down to the r6th century, used- as* school
text-books; Demetrius Triclinius, distinguished as a textual
critic; the versatile Theodorus Metochites, and others.
Originally, as is well known, Latin was the exclusive language
of Roman law. But with Justinian, who codified the laws in his
Corpus juris, the Hellenizing of the legal language
also began. The Institutes and the Digest were trans- nrwteaoe.
Iated into Greek, and the Novels also Were issued in
a Greek form. Under the Macedonian dynasty there began, after
a long stagnation, ' the resuscitation of the code of Justinian.
The emperor Basilius I. (867-886) had extracts made from the
existing law, and made preparations for the 1 codifying of all laws.
But the whole work was not completed till the time of Leo VI.
the Wise (886-912), and Constantine VII. Porphyrogenitus
(912-959), when it took the form of a grand compilation from
the Digests ', the Codex, and the Novels, and is commonly known
as the Basilica (TA /JcuwXikA). In the East it completely super-
seded the old Latin Corpus juris of Justinian. More that was
new was produced, during the Byzantine period, in canon law
than in secular legislation. The purely ecclesiastical rules of
law, the Canones, were blended with those of civil law, and thus
arose the so-called Nomocanon, the most important edition of
which is that of Theodorus Bestes in 1090. ' The alphabetical
handbook' of canon law written by Matthaeus Blastares about
the year 1335 also exercised a great' influence.
In the province of mathematics and astronomy the 1 remarkable
fact must be recorded that the revival among the Greeks of
these long-forgotten studies was primarily ' due to Mmtbe-
Perso-Arabian influence. The Great Syntaxis of mattes
Ptolemy operated in the oriental guise of the Almagest. ?****"
The most important direct source of this intellectual inmm ^ m
loan was not Arabia, however, but Persia. Towards the close
of the 13th century the Greeks became acquainted -with Persian
astronomy. At the beginning of the 14th oentury Georgius
Chrysococca and Isaac Argyrus wrote astronomical treatises
based on Persian works. Then the Byzantines themselves,
notably Theodorus Metochites and Nicephorus Gregoras, at
last had recourse to the original Greek sources.
The Byzantines did much independent work in the field of
military science. The most valuable work of the Mimmn ,
period on this subject is one on tactics, which has f Jf£ £ 1
come down to posterity associated with the name of
Leo VI., the Wise.
Of profane poetry — in complete contrast to sacred poetry —
the general characteristic was its close imitation of the antique
in point of form. All works belonging to this category
reproduce the ancient style and are framed after
ancient models. The metre is, for the most part,
either the Byzantine regular twelve-syllable trimeter, or the
" political " verse; more rarely the heroic and Anacreontic
measures.
Epic popular poetry, in the ancient sense, begins only with
the vernacular Greek literature (see below); but among the
literary works of the period there are several which can
be compared with the epics of the Alexandrine age.
Nonnus (c. 400) wrote, while yet a pagan, a fantastic epic on the
triumphal progress of the god Dionysus to India, and, as a
Christian, a voluminous commentary on the gospel of St John.
In the 7th century, Georgius Pisides sang in several lengthy
iambic poems the martial deeds of the emperor Heraclius, while
the deacon Theodosius (ioth century) immortalized in extrava-
gant language the victories of the brave Nicephorus Phocas.
poetry.
BYZANTINE]
GREEK EFTBRATURE
523
Didactic
pocma.
The
tpigntB.
From the nth century onwards, religious, grammatics},
astrological, medical, historical and allegorical poems, framed
partly in duodecasyllables and partly in " political '* .
verse; made their appearance in large quantities.
Didactic religious poems were composed, for example,'
by-'Philippus (e> Mo**T/to*r«i, Sblitarius, c. 1100), grafflmatico-
philological poems' by Johannes T^etzes, astrological by Johannes
Camaterus (12th century), others on natural science by Manuel 1
Philes (14th century) and J a great moral, allegorical, didadtfc!
epk by Georgius Lapithes (utfc century). ' ■
To these 7 may be added some voluminous poems, which in
style and matter must' be regarded as imitations of the ancient;
R Greek rdmatideS. Th^yalldatefroYnth»»§thceWu»y,
omance*. « a £ act eyi^^y connected With the general revival of
culture which characterizes the period of the Comneni. Two
of these romances are written in the duodecasylkfele 1 metre,
vifcltfie' stt*y of Rodarithe 1 and Dosicles byTheodortls Prod*6m4s,;
and ail imitation of this 1 Work, the story of Dmsilla and Charities'
by Nicetas Eugenianusf * one in " political " verse, the love stoiy
of Aristander and Callithea by Constantine Manasses, which has
only been preserved in fragments, and lastly one in prose, the
story of Hysmine and Hysmiflias, by Eustathiu* {or Eumattiius)
MacremboUta, which is the most insipid of all, ,
„ TJie objective pcfaii of' view -which dominated' the whole
Byaantine ^period was fatal to the development ofca profane
Liyr1a% lyrical poetry. At most a few poems by Johatmes
Geometres anid 1 Christdphorus of Mytilene and others,
in which personal experiences are recorded with some show or
taste, may "be placed in this category. The dominant farm
for all subjective poetry was the epigram, which' was employed
in all its variations from playful trifles to long elegiac and
narrative poems. Georgius Pfeides <7th century) treated did
most diverse 1 'themes. In- the oth century TheodorueibtStuctium
had lighted upon the happy idea of limmoitalimng
monastic life in a series of epigrams. -.The same
century produced the only poetess of the Bytantind
period, Casia, from whom we have •several epigrammatic pro->
ductions- and church hymns, all characterized l 'bjr originality j
Epigrammatic poetry 1 reached its highest development in thej
1 oth and nth centuries, in the productions of Johannes. Geo-
metres, Christophorus of Mytilene and John Mauropus: Less
happy are' Theodorus Prodromus (12th century)' and Manuel
Philes (14th century). From 5 the beginning of' the toth 4 century
also dates the most valuable collection of ancient and of Byfcahtine
epigrammatic poems, the Anthologia Pid&Hha (see ANtfironoetfK
Dramatid poetry, in the strict sense of the term, Was aa
completely lacking among the Byzantine Greeks as was 1 the)
• condition precedent to its' existence, namely, public
nma * performance. Apart from some moralizing allegorical
dialogues (by Theodaru^ Prodromus, Manuel Philes and (others) 4
' we possess only a single wort of the Byzantine period that, at
J^as^t, in external form; resembles a drama: the Sufferings -of
Christ (XptarfoJI&trxw):- this work, written prefcably in the
1 2th century, or at all events not earlier, is a cento, i.e. is in great;
#i meastfre compiosed of verses culled from' ancient writers, t:g.
Aeschylus, Euripides and Lycophron; but it was certainly
not written with a view to the dramatic production. .
The vernacular literature stands alone," - both *i *o*m and.in 1
contents. We have here remarkable originality of conception
and probably also entirely new and genuinely medieval
tafomk toatter - WMe m th * artificial literature prose is
literature, pre-eminent, in the Vernacular 1 literature," poetry,
both in- quantity atkl quality, takes the first place,' a$
was also the case among the Latin nations, where the vulgaf
tongue first invaded the field of -poetry 'and only later that of
prose. Though a : feVr preliminary attempts were made (rjroveilbs,
acclamations addressed by the people to the emperor, &o;)f, the
Greek vernacular was employed- for larger works only from 'the
1 2th century onwards; at first in poems, of which the major
portion were cast in " political *' verse, but some in the trochaic
eight-syllabled line. ToWarda the close of 1 the r$th century
rhyme came into use. The subjects treated in this vernacular
poetry are exceedingly diverse. In the capital dty a mixture
of the learned and the popular language was first used in poems
of admonition, praise and supplication. In this oldest class
of " vulgar" works must be reckoned tht Spaneos, an admoni-
tory poem in iitfitatioh of the letter of Pseudo-Isocrates addressed
to Demonicus; a supplicatory poem composed in prison by the
chronicler Michael Glycas, and several begging poems of Theo-
dorus Prodromus (Ptochoprodromos). In the succeeding period
erotic poems are met with, siich as the Rhodian love songs
preserved in a MS. in the British Museum (ed. W. Wagner,
Leipzig, 1S70), fairy-tale like romances such as the Story of
Ptochdeon, oracles, prayers* extracts from Holy Writ, lives of
saints,' &c. Great epic : rjeems, in which antique subjects are
treated, such as the legends of Troy and of Alexander, form a
separate group. To these may be added romances in verse after
the manner of the wbsks written in the artificial classical
language, e.g. CaUimochvs and ] Chrysorrho$i Belthandrus and
Chrysantza, Lybisfrus and Rhodamne, also romances in verse
after the Western pattern, such as Phlorius and Platziaphlora
(the old French. story of Flore ei Blanchefleur). Curious are
also sundry legends connected with animals and plants, such
as an adaptation of the famous medieval animal fables
of the Physiologus, a history of quadrupeds, and a book
of birds, both written with a satirical intention, and, lastly, a
rendering of the story of Reynard the Fox. Of quite peculiar
originality also are several legendary and historical poems, in
which famous heroes and historical events are celebrated.
There are, for instance, poems on the fall of Constantinople, the
taking of Athens and Trebizond, the devastating campaign of
Tfmur, the pkgue'in Rhodes in 1498, &c. In respect of import-
ance and antiquity the great heroic epic of Digenis Akritas
stands pre-eminent. »■•:.-■'•■••
Among prose? works written 'iff the vulgar tongue, or at least
In a compromise- with hv,< may be mentioned the Greek rendering
of two works frfcm -an Indian source, the Book of the
Smn Wise Mitste+$i(ns Syntipas me Philosopher by "^'"fcw"
Michael Andreopulus), and the Hitopadera or Mirror %£!**.
of Princes (through the Arabic ], KaHlah and Dinmah
by Simeon Sethiis as Sre<£aviT7ys Kal 'Iwrikbrri's), a fish book, a
fruit book (both skits on the Byzantinfc court and official circles).
To these must be added the Greek laws of Jerusalem and of
Cyprus of the 12th and 13th centuries, chronicles, &c. In spite
of many individual successes, : tte 1 'literature written in the
vulgar tongue succumbed, in the : race for existence, to its elder
sister, the literature written irf classical and polished Greek.
This was mainly due to the 1 continuous employment of the
ancient language in the state, the schools and the church.
The importance of Byzantine culture and literature in the
history of the world is beyond- dispute. The Christians of the
East Roman empire guarded for more than a thousand Ucnenl
years the intellectual heritage of antiquity against the kigaUh '
violent onslaught of the barbadians. They also called ^" **
into Hfe a peculiar medieval culture and literature. ^^^
They : communicated the treasures of the old pagan
as well as of their own Christian literature to neighbouring
nations; first to the Syrians, then to the Copts, the Armenians,
the Georgians; later, to the Arabians, the Bulgarians, the Serbs
and the Russians; Through their teaching they created a new
East European culture, embodied above all in : the Russian
empire, which, on its religious side, is included in the Orthodox
Eastern Church, and from the point of view of nationality
touches the two extremes bf Greek and Slav. Finally the learned
men 1 of the dying Byzantine empire, fleeing from the barbarism
of the Turks, transplanted the treasures of old Hellenic wisdom
to the West, and thereby fertilized the Western peoples with
rich germs of culture.
Bibliography. — 1. General sources: K. Krumbacher, Geschichte
der bytantinischen Literatur (2nd ed., 1897), supplemented in Die
bysantinische Zeitschrifl (1892 sea.), and the Byzantinisches Archiv
(1898 seq.), which is intended for the publication of more exhaustive
matter. The Russian works in this department are comprised in
the Vizantiisky Vremennik (1894 seq.).
2. Language: Grammar: A. N. Jannaris (Giannaris), An
52+
GREEK LITERATURE
[MODERN
Historical Greek Grammar (1897}; A. Dieterich, " Untersuchungen
zur Geschichte der griechischen Sprache von der hellenistischen Zeit
bis zum ioten Jahrhundert," in Byzant. Archiv, i. (1898). Glossary :
Ducange, Glossarium ad scriptores mediae et tnfimae Graecitaiis
(1688), in which particular attention is paid to the " vulgar "
language ; £. A. Sophocles, Greek Lexicon of the Roman and Byzantine
Periods (3rd ed., 1888).
3. Theology : Chief work, A. Ehrhard in Krumbacher's Geschichte
der by*. Lit. pp. 1-2 18. For the ancient period, cf. the works on
Greek patrology (underarticle Fathers of tub Church). Collective
edition of the Fathers (down to the 15th century); Patrologia,
series Graeca (ed. by Migne, 161 vols., 1857-1866). Church poetry:
A collection of Greek Church hymns was published by W. Christ
and M. Paranikas, entitled Anthologia Graeca carminum Christia-
norum (1871). Many unedited texts, particularly the songs of
Romanos, were published by Cardinal J. B. Pitra, under the title
Analecta sacra spicilegio Solesmensi parata (1876). A complete
edition of the hymns is edited by K. Krumbacner.
4. Historical literature: A collective edition of the Byzantine
historians and chroniclers was begun under Louis XIV., and con-
tinued later (1648-181^), called the Paris Corpus. This whole
collection was on B. G. Niebuhr's advice republished with some
additions (Bonn, 1828-1878), under the title Corpus scriptorum
historiae Byzantinae. The most important authors have also
appeared in the Bibliotheca Teubneriana. A few Byzantine and
oriental historical works are also contained in the collection edited
by J. B. Bury (1838 seq.).
5. Vernacular Greek literature: The most important collective
editions are: W. Wagner, Medieval Greek Texts (1870), Carmina
Graeca Medii Aevi (1874), Trois Pdemes gr ecs du moyen Age (1881);
E. Legrand, Collection ae monuments pour servir & Vtiude de la langue
nio-hetlenique (in 26 parts, 1869-1875), BibUothegue grecgue vulgaire
(in 8 vols., 1880-1896). (K. Kr.)
III. Modern Greek Literature (1453-1908)
After the capture of Constantinople, the destruction of Greek
national life and the almost total effacement of Greek civilization
naturally involved a more or less complete cessation of Greek
literary production in the regions subjected to the rule of a
barbarous conqueror. Learned Greeks found a refuge away
from their native land; they spoke the languages of foreign
people, and when they wrote books they often used those
languages, but in most cases they also wrote in Greek. The
fall of Constantinople must not therefore be taken as indicating
a break in the continuity of Greek literary history. Nor had
that event so decisive an influence as has been supposed on the
revival of learning in western Europe. The crusades bad
already brought the Greeks and Westerns together, and the rule
of the Franks at Constantinople and in the Levant had rendered
the contact closer. Greeks and Latins had keenly discussed the
dogmas which divided the Eastern and Western Churches;
some Greeks had adopted the Latin faith or had endeavoured
to reconcile the two communions, some had attained preferment
in the Roman Church. Many had become connected by marriage
or other ties with the Italian nobles who ruled in the Aegean
or the Heptanesos, and circumstances led them to settle in Italy.
Of the writers who thus found their way to the West before the
taking of Constantinople the most prominent were Leon or
Leontios Pilatos, Georgius Gemistus, or Pletho, Manuel and
John Chrysoloras, Theodore Gazes, George of Trebizond and
Cardinal Bessarion. -, j
The Ottoman conquest had reduced the Christian races in
the plains to a condition of serfdom, but the spirit of liberty
continued to breathe in the mountains, where groups
The f desperate men, the Klephts and the Haiduks,
peSty? maintained the struggle against alien tyranny. The
adventurous and romantic life of these champions
of freedom, spent amid the noblest solitudes of nature and often
tinged with the deepest tragedy, naturally produced a poetry
of its own, fresh, spontaneous and entirely indigenous. The
Klephtic ballads, all anonymous and composed in the language
of the people, are unquestionably the best and most genuine
Greek poetry of this epoch. They breathe the aroma of the
forests and mountains; like the early rhapsodies of antiquity,
which peopled nature with a thousand forms, they lend a voice
to the trees, the rocks, the rivers and to the mountains themselves,
which sing the prowess of the Klepht, bewail his death and
comfort his disconsolate wife or mother. Olympia boasts to
Ossa that the footstep of the Turk has never desecrated its
valleys; the standard of freedom floats over its springs; there
is a Klepht beneath every tree of its forests; an eagle sits on its
summit with the head of a warrior in its talons. The dying
Klepht bids his companions make him a large and lofty tomb
that he may stand therein and load hjs musket; " Make a
window in the side that the swallows may tell me that spring has
come, that the nightingales may sing me the approach of flowery
May." The wounded Vervos is addressed by his horse: " Rise,
my master, let us go and And our comrades." " My bay .horse,
I cannot rise; I am dying: dig me a tomb with thy silver-shod
hoof; take me in thy teeth and lay me therein* Bear my arms
to my companions and this handkerchief to my beloved, that
she may see it and lament me." Anotjbec type of the popular
poetry is presented by the folk-songs of the Aegean islanders
and the maritime population of the Asiatic coast. In many of
tfee former the influence of the Frapkish conquest is apparent.
Truces of the ancient mythology ape of ten to bp found in the
popular songs. Death is commonly personified by Charon, who
struggles with his victim; Charon is sometimes worsted, but as
a rule he triumphs in the conflict.
In Crete, which for nearly two centuries after the fall of
Constantinople remained under Venetian rule, a school of Greek
poetry arose strongly impressed with Italian influences. ckmtmm
The language employed is the dialect of the Candiotes, poetMm
with its large admixture of Venetian words. The
first product of this somewhat hybrid, literature was Erotocritos,
an epic poem in five cantos* which relates the love story of Arete,
daughter of Hercules, king of Athens, and Erotocritos, the son
of his minister. The poem presents an interesting picture of
Greece under the feudal Frankish princes, though professing
to describe an episode of the classical epoch; notwithstanding
some tedious passages, it possesses considerable merit and
contains some charming scenes. The metre is the rhymed
alexandrine. Of the author, Vicence Cornaro, who lived in the
middle or end of the 16th century, little is known; he probably
belonged to the ducal family of that name, from which Tasso
was descended. The second poem is the Erapkile of George
Chortakis, a Cretan, also written in the Candiote dialect. It is
a tragic drama, the scene of which is laid in Egypt, The dialogue
is poor, but there are some fine choral interludes, which perhaps
are by a different hand. Chortakis, who was brought up at
Retimo, lived at the end of the 16th and beginning of the 17th
centuries. The third Cretan poem worthy of notice is the
Shepherdess, a charming and graceful idyll written by Nicolas
Drimyticos, a native of Apokorona, early in the 17th century.
Other Cretan poets were J. Gregoropoulos and G. Melissinos
(1500),. who wrote epigrams, and Maroulos (1493), who
endeavoured to write Pindaric odes.
Among the Greeks who were prominent in spreading a know-
ledge of Greek in Europe after the fall of Constantinople were
John Argyropulos, Demetrius Chajcondyles, Con-
stantine and John Lascaris and Marcus Musurus, a
Cretan. These men wrote in the accepted literary mnertke
language; in general, however, they were rather **j*°Ji^
employed about literature than engaged in producing JJJJ^
it. They taught Greek; several of them wrote Greek
grammars; they transcribed and edited Greek, classical writers,
and they collected manuscripts. Their stores enriched the
newly founded libraries of St Mark at Venice, of the Escorial,
of the Vatican and of the National Library in Paris. But none
of them accomplished much in literature strictly so called. The
question which most deeply interested them was that of the rival
merits of the Platonic and Aristotelian philosophies, over which
a controversy of extraordinary bitterness broke out towards the
close of the 1 5th century. The dispute was in reality theological
rather than philosophical; the cause of Plato was championed
by the advocates of a union between the Eastern and Western
Churches, that of Aristotle was upheld by the opposing party,
and all the fury of the old Byzaptine dogmatic controversies
was revived. The patriarch, George Kurtesios or Gennadius,
whom Mahommed IL had appointed after the capture of
1+HttMiy
MODERN]
GREEK LITERATURE
$25
Historic*!
Constantinople, wrote a treatise in favour of Aristotle and ex-
communicated Gemistus Pletho, the principal writer among
the Platonists. On the other hand, George of Trebizond, who
attacked Pletho with unmeasured virulence, was compelled
to resign his post of secretary to Pope Nicholas V. and was
imprisoned by Pope Paul I. Scholarship was not wholly extinct
in Greece or among the Greeks for a considerable time after the
Turkish conquest: Assenius, who succeeded Musurua as bishop of
Monemvasia (1510), wrote commentaries on Aristophanes and
Euripides; his father, Apostoles, made a collection of Greek
proverbs. Aemilius Portos, a Cretan, and Leo AUatios (1600-
1650) of Chios edited a number of works of the classical and
later periods with commentaries and translations; AUatios
also wrote Greek verses showing skill and cleverness. Constan-
tino Rhodokanakes, physician to Charles II. of England, wrote
verses on the return of that monarch to England. About the
time of the fail o£ Constantinople we meet with some versifiers
who wrote poems: in the spoken dialect on historical subjects;
among these were Papaspondylos Zotikos (i444)> Georgilas
Limenitis (1450^1500) and Jacobos Trivoles (beginning of the
16th century); their poems. have little merit, but are interesting
as specimens of the popular language of the day and as illustrating
the manners and ideas of contemporary Greeks.
Among the prose writers of the 16th century were a number
of chroniclers. At the end of the 15th, Kritobulos of Imbros,
who had been .private secretary of Mahommed II.,
wrote the history of his master, Emmanuel Melazos
a history of the patriarchate, and Phranzes a history
of the PalaeologL Theodosius Zygomalas (1580) wrote a
history of Constantinople from 1391 to 1578. In the 17th
century Demetrius Cantemir, a Moldavian by birth, wrote a
history of the Ottoman empire, and G. Kontares tales of ancient
Athens. Others composed chronicles of Cyprus and Crete,
narratives of travels and biographies of saints. Most of these
works are written in the literary language, the study of which
was kept alive by the patriarchate and the schools which it
maintained at Constantinople and elsewhere. Various theo-
logical and philosophical works, grammars and dictionaries
were written during this period, but elegant literature practically
disappears. 1
A literary revival followed in the 18th century, the precursor
of the national uprising which resulted in the independence of
Greece. The efforts of the great Phanariote families
literary at CoBStentinople, the educational zeal of the higher
revival Greek clergy and the munificence of wealthy Greeks
in the provinces, chiefly merchants who had acquired
fortunes by commerce, combined to promote the spread of
education among a people adways eager for instruction. The
Turks, indifferent to educational matters, failed to discern the
significance of the movement. Schools were established in
every important Greek town, and school-books and translations
from Western languages issued from the presses of Venice, Triest,
Vienna and other cities w(here the Greeks possessed colonies.
Young men completed their studies in the Western universities
and returned to the East as the missionaries of modern civiliza-
tion. For the greater part of the 18th century the literature was
mainly theological. Notable theological writers of this epoch
were Elias Miniates, an elegant preacher, whose sermons are
written in the popular language, and Meletios of Iannina,
metropolitan of Athens, whose principal works were an ecclesi-
astical history, written in ancient Greek, and a descriptive
geography of Greece in the modern language, composed, like the
work of Pausanias r after a series of tours. The works of two
distinguished prelates, both natives of Corfu and both ardent
partisans of Russia, Nikephoros Theotokes (1731 ?-i8oo) and
Engenios B-ulgares. (1715-1806)/ mark the beginning of the
national and literary renaissance. They wrote much in defence
1 The patriarch Cyrillos Lucares (1572-1638), who had studied for
a time in England .and whose sympathies with Protestantism made
him many enemies, established a Greek printing-press at Constanti-
nople, from which he had the temerity to issue a work condemning
the faith of Mahomet; he was denounced to the Turks by the
Jesuits* and his printing-press was suppressed.
of Greek orthodoxy against Latin heresy. Theotokes, famous
as a preacher, wrote, besides theological and controversial works,
treatises on mathematics, geography and physics. Bulgares
was a most prolific author; he wrote numerous translations and,
works on theology, archaeology, philosophy, mathematics J
physics and astronomy; he translated the Aeneid and Ceorgicsl
of Virgil into Homeric verse at the request of Catherine II. His V
writings exercised a considerable influence over his contem-
poraries.
The poets of the earlier period of the Greek revival were
Constantinos Rhigas (q.v.), the Alcman of the revolutionary
movement, whose songs fired the spirit of his fellow- \
countrymen; Christopoulos (1772-1847), a Phanariote, ^anlek'
who wrote some charming Anacreontics, and Jacobos i»wv«j.
Rizos Neroulos (1778-1850), also a Phanariote, author
of tragedies, comedies and lyrics, and of a work in French on
modern Greek literature. They are followed in the epoch of.
Greek independence by the brothers Panagiotes and Alexander .
Soutzos (1800-1868 and 1803- 1863) and Alexander Rhizos
Rhangabfc (Rhankaves, 1 810-1892), all three Phanariotes. Both
Soutzos had a rich command of musical language, were highly
ideal in their conceptions, strongly patriotic and possessed an.
ardent love of liberty. Both imitated to some extent Byron,
Lamartine and B6ranger; they tried various forms of poetry,
but the genius of Panagiotes was essentially lyrical, that of
Alexander satirical. The other great poet of the Greek revival,
Alexander Rizos Rhangabfc, was a writer with a fine poetic
feeling, exquisite diction and singular beauty and purity of
thought and sentiment. Besides numerous odes, hymns,
ballads, narrative poems, tragedies and comedies, he wrote
several. prose works, including a history of ancient Greece, a
history of modern Greek literature, several novels and works on
ancient art and archaeology. Among the numerous dramatic
works of this time may be mentioned the Mapla Ao&rwrpij of
Demetrios Bernardakes, a Cretan, the scene of which is laid in
the Morea at the time of the crusades.
In prose composition, as in poetry, the national revival was ;
marked by an abundant output. Among the historians the
greatest is Spiridon Trikoupis, whose History of the
Revolution is a monumental work. It is distinguished
by beauty of style, clearness of exposition and an 0/ ^.
impartiality winch is all the more remarkable as the nv
author played a leading part in the events which he narrates.
Almost all the chiefs of the revolutionary movement left their
memoirs; even Kolokotrones, who was illiterate, dictated his
recollections. John Philemon, of Constantinople, wrote a history
of the revolution in six volumes. He was an ardent partisan
of Russia, and as such was opposed to Trikoupis, who was
attached to the English party. K. Paparrhegopoulos's History
of the Greek Notion is especially valuable in regard to the latej
periods; in regard to the earlier he largely follows Gibbon and
Grote. With him may be mentioned Moustoxides of Corfu,
who wrote on Greek history and literature; Sakellarios, who
dealt with the topography and history of Cyprus; N. Dragoumes,
whose historical memoirs treat of the period which followed
the revolution; K. Assopios; who wrote on Greek literature
and history. In theology Oeconomos fills the place occupied
by Miniates in the 1 7th century as a great preacher. Kontogones
is well known by his History of Patristic Literature of the First
Three Centuries and his Ecclesiastical History, and Philotheos
Bryennios, bishop of Serres, by his elaborate edition of Clemens
Rotnanus. Kastorches wrote well on Latin literature. Great
literary activity in the domains of law, political economy, mathe-
matics, the physical sciences and archaeology displayed itself
in the generation after the establishment of the Greek kingdom.
But the writer who at the time of the national revival not
only exercised the greatest influence over his contemporaries
but even to a large extent shaped the future course
of Greek literature was Adamantios Coraes (Korais)
of Chios. This remarkable man, who devoted his life to
philological studies, was at the same time an ardent patriot,
and in the prolegomena to his numerous editions of the classical
ConSw.
536
GREEK LITERATURE
[MODERN
writers, written in Greek or Ftferich, he strove to awake the
interest of his countrymen in the past glories of their race or
administered to them sage counsels, at the same time addressing
ardent appeals to civilized Europe on their behalf. The great
importance of Coraes, however, lies in the fact that he was
practically the founder of the modern literary language.
In contemporary Greek literature two distinct forms of the
modern language present themselves— the vernacular (4
The KaJdofMiXovnevrj) and the purified ($ Kadapevov<ra)l
modem The former is the oral language, spoken by the whole
w»n*y Greek world, with local dialectic variations; the
language. i atter j s based on the Greek of the Hellenistic writers;
, modified, but not essentially altered, in successive ages by the
popular speech. : At the time of the War of Independence thd
enthusiasm of the Greeks and the Philhellenes was fired by the
memory of an illustrious past, and at its close a classical reaction;
followed: the ancient nomenclature was introduced in every
department of the new state, towns and districts received their
former names, and children were christened after Greek heroes
and philosophers instead of the Christian saints. In the literary
revival which attended the national movement, two schools
of writers made their appearance — the purists, who:, rejecting
the spoken idiom as degenerate and corrupt, aimed at the
restoration of • the classical language; and the vulgarists, who
regarded the vernacular or " Romaic " as the genuine and
legitimate representative of the ancient tongue. A controversy
which had existed in former times was thus revived, with the
result that a state of confusion still prevails in the national
literature. The classical scholar who is as yet unacquainted
with modern Greek wili find, in the pages of an ordinary periodical
or ^newspaper, specimens of the conventional literary language,
which he can read with ease side by side with poems or even
prose in the vernacular which he will be altogether unable to
interpret.
The vernacular or oral language is never taught, but is univers-
ally spoken. It has been evolved from the ancient language by
a natural and regular process, similar to thai; which
Reforms « j^ produced the Romance languages from the Latin,
^ rt O Bm or the Russian, Bulgarian and Servian from the
* old Slavonic. lit has developed on parallel lines with
the modem European languages, and in obedience to the same
laws; like them, it nright haver grown into a literary language
had any great writers arisen in the middle ages, to do for it what
Dante and his successors of the trecento did for. Italian. But
the effort to adapt it to the requirements of modern literature
could hardly prove successful. In the first place, the national
sentiment of the Greeks prompts them to imitate the classical,
writers, and so far as possible to appropriate their diction.
The beauty and dignity of the ancient tongue possesses such an
attraction for cultivated writers that they are led insensibly toi
adopt its forms and borrow from its wealth of phrase and idiom.
In the next place, a certain literary tradition and usage has!
already been formed which cannot easily be broken down. For
more than half a century the generally accepted written language,
half modem 1 half ancient, has been in use in the schools, the
university, the parliament, the state departments and the 1
pulpit, and its influence upon the speech of the more educated
classes is already noticeable. It largely owes its present form —
though a fixed standard is still lacking — to the influence* and
teaching ; of Coraes. . As in the time of the decadence a Kotvif
SiakeKTos stood midway between the classical language and the
popular speech, so at the beginning of the ioth century there
existed a common literary dialect, largely influenced by the
vernacular, but retaining the characteristics of the old Hellenistic,
frorn which it was derived by an unbroken literary tradition*
This written language Coraes took as the basis of his reforms,
purging it of foreign elements, preserving its classical remnants
and enlarging its vocabulary with words borrowed from the
ancient lexicon or, in case of need, invented in accordance with
a fixed principle. He thus adopted a middle course, discounten-
ancing alike the pedantry of the purists and the over-confident
optimism of the vulgarists, who found in the uncouth popular
speech all the material for a langu4 savante. The language
which he thus endeavoured to shape : and reconstruct is, of
course, conventional and artificial In course of time it will
probably tend to approach the vernacular, while the latter
will gradually be modified by the spread of education. The
spoken and written languages, however, Will always be separated
by a wide interval. ;-ii £•;■ •
Many of the best poets of modeittuGaeece have* written in the
vernacular, which is best adapted for th&natural and spontaneous
expression of the feelings. Dionysios Solomos (1798- o^n^,
1857), the greatest of them all, employed the dialect \^ten
of the Ionian Islands. Of his lyrics^ which are full of in the
poetic fire and inspiration, the most celebrated is his *•*■*■
" Ode to Liberty." Other poets, of what may be aUar '
described as the Ionic school, such as Andreas Kalvos (1796-
1869), Julius Typaldos (1^14-1883), John Zampelios (1787-1856),
and Gerasimos Markoras (b. 1826), followed his example in
using the Heptanesian dialect. On the other hand, Georgios
Terzetes (1806-1874), Aristotle Valaorites (1824-1879) and
Gerasimos Mavrogiannes, though 1 natives of thi Ionian Islands,
adopted in their lyrics the language of the Klephtic ballads —
in other words, the vernacular of the Pindus range and the
mountainous district of Epirus. -Hits diafect had at least the
advantage of being generally current throughout the mainland,
while it derived distinction from -the heroic exploits of the
champions of Greek liberty. The poem* <# Valaorites, which are
characterized by vivid imagination and grace of style, have made
a deep impression on the nation. -Other poets who largely
employed the Epirotic dialect and drew their inspiration from
the Klephtic songs were John Vilaras (1771-1*823), George
Zalokostas (1805-1857) in his lyric pieces, and Theodore Aphen-
toules, a Cretan (d^ 1893). With the poems 'of this group may
be classed those of Demetrius Bikelas (b. 1835). The popular
language has been generally adopted by the younger generation
of poets, among whom may be mentioned Aristomenes Probelegios
(b. 1850), George Bizyenos (18 53-1896), George Drbsiiies, Kostes
Palamas (b. 1859), John Pol6mes, Argyres Ephthaliotes, and
Jacob Polylas (d. 1896).
Contemporary with the first-mentioned or Ionic group, there
existed at Constantinople a school of poets who wrote in the
accepted literary language, and whose writings serve
as models for the later group which gathered at Athens Po ^ cai
after the emancipation of Greece* The literary £ &"
traditions founded by Alexander Rizos Rhangabes convene
(1810-1892) and the brothers Alexander and Panagiotis ^°P aI
Soutzos (1803^1863 and 1800-1868), who belonged Un " ta ^
to Phanariot families, were maintained in Athens by Spzridion
Basiliades (1843-1874) Angelos Vlacho»j(b. S85S), John Kara-
soutzas (1824-1873), Demetrios Paparfhegopoulos (1843*1873),
and Achilles Parasehos (b*. 1838). The last, a poet of fine feeling,
has also employed the popular language. < In general the practice
Diversification in the conventional literary language has declined,
though sedulously encouraged by the university of Athens, and
fostered by annual poetic competitions; with prizes provided by
patriotic citizens. Greek lyric poetry during the first half of
the century was mainly inspired by the patriotic sentiment
aroused by the struggle for independence, but in the present
generation it often shows a tendency towards the philosophic
and contemplative mood under the influence of Western models.
There has been an abundant production of dramatic literature
in recent years. In succession to Alexander Rhangabes, John
Zampelios and the two Soutzos, wtoo. belong to the
past generation, Kleon Rhangabes/ Angelos Vlachos, ^JJ?"**
Demetrios Koromelas, Basiliades arid Bernadakes {/airf-
are the most prominent among modern • dramatic latota and
writers. Numerous translations of - foreign master- * * ******
pieces have appeared, among which the metrical versions of
Romeo and Juliet, Othello, King Lear, H ami el Macbeth and The
Merchant of Venice, by Demetrios Bikelas, deserve mention as
examples of artistic excellence. Goethe's Faust has been
rendered into verse by Probelegios, and Hamlet, Antony and
Cleopatra, Coriolanus and Julius Caesar, into prose by Damiroles.
GREEK RJELIGION
527
Among recent satirists, George Soures (b. 1853) occupies a unique
position. He reviews social and political events in the Toppos,
a witty little newspaper written entirely in verse, which is read
with delight by all classes of the population.
Almost all the pgose writers have employed the literary
language. In historical research the Greeks continue to display.
* much activity and erudition, but no great work>
j™^ comparable to Spiridion Trikoupis's History of the
wrtten* Revolution has appeared in the present generation.
A history of the Greek nation from the earliest times
to the present day, by Spiridion Lampros, and a general history
of the 19th century by Karolides, have recently been published.
The valuable Myij^a of Sathas, the/*«^T<w Buf amrijs hroplas
of Spiridion Zampelios and Mavrogiannes's History of the
Ionian Islands deserve special mention, as well as the essays
of Bikelas, which treat of the Byzantine and modern epochs of
Greek history. Some of the last-named were translated into
English by the late marquis of Bute. Among the writers on
jurisprudence are Peter Paparrhegopoulos, Kalligas, Basileios
Oekonomedes and Nikolaos Saripolos. Brailas-Armenes and
John Skaltzounes, the latter an opponent of Darwin, have
written philosophical works. The Ecclesiastical History of
Diomedes Kyriakos and the Theological Treatises of Archbishop
Latas should be noted. The best-known writers of philological
works are Constantine Kontos, a strong advocate of literary
purism, George HaUidakes, Theodore Papademetrakopoulos
and John Psichari; in archaeology, Stephen Koumanoudes,
Panagiotes Kawadias. and Christos Tsountas have won a
recognized position among scholars. John Svoronos is a high
authority on numismatics. The works of John Hatzidakes
on mathematics, Anast. Christomanos on chemistry, and
Demetrios Aeginetes on astronomy are well known.
The earlier works of fiction, written in the period succeeding
the emancipation of Qreece, were much affected by foreign
Wcttot^ influence. Modern Greece has not produced any great
novelist. The Kpqrticoi 70/101 of Spiridion Zampelios,
the scene of which is laid in Crete, and the Thanos Blechas
of Kalligas are interesting, the former for accuracy of
historical detail, the latter as a picture of peasant life in the
mountains of Greece. Original novel writing has not been much
cultivated, but translations of foreign romances abound. In
later times the short story has come into vogue through the
example of D. Bikelas, whose tales have acquired great popu-
larity; one of them, ^oukis Laras, has been translated into
many languages. The example of Bikelas has been followed by
Drosines Karkavitzas, Ephthaliotis, Xenopoulos and many
others.
The most distinguished of the writers who adhere to the
vernacular in prose is John Psichari, professor of the ficole des
PnB9 Hautes Etudes in Paris, He is the recognized leader of
writer* the vulgaris ts. Among the best known of his works
ltt f?- sue T^^cL^udti fwv t a narrative of a journey in Greek
"" "" lands, il&vttyo rod TiavvLprj> 'H ZouXea, and 6 MA70S.
The tales of Karkavitzas and Ephthaliotis are also in
the vernacular. Among the younger of M. Psichari's followers
is M. Palli, who has recently published a translation of the Iliad.
Owing to the. limited resources of the popular language, the
writers of this school are sometimes compelled to employ strange
and little-known words borrowed from the various dialects.
The vernacular has never been adopted by writers on scientific
subjects, owing to its inherent unsuitability and the incongruity
arising from the introduction of technical terms derived from
the ancient language. Notwithstanding the zeal of its adherents,
it seems unlikely to maintain its place in literature outside the
domain of poetry; nor can any other result be expected, unless
its advocates succeed in reforming the system of public instruc-
tion in Greece.
Many periodicals are published at Athens, among which
may be mentioned the Athena, edited by Constantine Kontos,
the Ethniki Agoge, a continuation of the old Hestia, the
Harmonia and the AtArkcuns r&v raJ&cov, an educational
review. The Parnassos, the Archaeological Society and other
learned bodies issue annual or quarterly reports. The Greek
journals are both numerous and widely read. They contain
much clever writing, which is often marred, by inac-
curacy and a deficient 'sense of responsibility. Their JjJfJ^Lj
tendency to exaggerated patriotic sentiment sometimes : j outnm i fh
borders on the ludicrous. For many years the Nea
: H enter a of Trieste exerted a considerable influence over the Greek
world, owing to the able political reviews of its editor, Anastasios
Byzantios (d. 1898), a publicist of remarkable insight and
judgment.
Authorities. — Constantine Sathas, NweWrjvucfi faXoXoyia (Athens,
1868); D. Bikelas, Ucpl veoeWtivuajs <f>i\o\oylas Sotdfuav (London, 1871),
reprinted in Aiatefrtt «ai A?a/<H^€ts( Athens, 1893); I. S. Blackie,
Hvrae HeUenicae (London, 1874); R. Nicolai, Gesehichte der ncu&rie-
chiscken Idteratur (Leipzig, .1676); A. R. Rhangabg, Histoire littt-
radre de la Grhce moderne (Paris, 1877); C. Gidel, Etudes sur la
literature erecque moderne (Paris, 1878); E. Legrand, Bibliotkeque
grecque vufgaire (vol. i., Paris, 1880); J. Lamber, Pohtes grecs eon*
temporains (Paris, 1881); Kontos, rXwo-ttoU xaaanjpi^is (Athene,
1882); Rhanrab6 and Sanders, Gesehichte der neupiechischen
Literatur von thren Anfdngen bis auf die neueste Zeit (Leipzig, 1885) ;
J. Psichari, Essais de grammaire kistorique nio-grecque (2 vols.,
Paris, 1886 and 1889); Etudes de philolope nio-grecque (Paris,.
1892); F. Blaas, Die Aussprache des Griechtschen (3rd ed., Berlin,
1888); Papademetrakopoulos, Bdaaws iXXtjvwriJs rpa^Qpas. (Athens.
1889) ; M. Konstantinides, Neo-heUenica (Dialogues in Modern Greek,
with Appendix on the Cypriot Dialect) (London, [1892) ; Rhoides,
Td BMcoXa. rXaxrcrun) neMrrj (Athens, 1893); Politee, VUXtral vepl red
Plov Ktd ri}s 7X£<r<np 'EXXqptxoO XAov (3 vols., Athens, 1 899).
For the Klephtic. ballads and folk-songs: C. Fauriel, Chants
populaires de la Grhce moderne (Paris, 1824, 1826); Passow, Po&u-
laria carmina Graeciae recentioris (Leipzig, i«So); von Hann,
Griechische und albanesische Mdrchen (Leipzig, 1864); Tc^aptop,
Ataporpbyovta (2nd ed., Athens, 1 868) ; E. Legrand, Recueil de chansons
populaires grecgues (Paris, 1874); Recueil de conies populaires grecs
(Paris, 1 881); Paul de Lagarde, Neugriechisches aus Kleinasien
(Gottingen, 1886) ; A. Jannaris, "Atruara K/mttuA (Kreta's Volks-
lieder) (Leipzig, 1876); A. Sakellariou, Td Kwrpioxd (Athens,
1891); Zcoypajxtot % Aya>v, published by the 'EXXqvucfc tfiXoWncta
oitXktryos (Constantinople, 1891). Translations: L. Garnett, Greek
Folksongs from the Turkish Provinces of Greece (London, 1885);
E. M . Gelaart, Folklore of Modern Greece (London, 1 884) . Lexicons :
A. N. Jannaris, A Concise Dictionary of ike English and Modern
Greek Languages (English-Greek) (London, l$9$)t Byzantios
(Skarlatos D.), At£txbv rijs 'EXXqrutys y\6xr<njs (Athens, 1895);
■ A. Sakeliario, Ae£uc6v rfc 'EXXijmijj yMocvrp (5th ed., Athens, 1898);.
S. Koumanoudes, Xwaytoyii vkvv \l£ea>v (Athens, 1900). Grammars:"
Mitsotakes, Praktische Grammatik der neueriechtschen Schrift- und
Umgangssprache (Stuttgart, 1891); M. Gardner* X Practical Modern
Greek Grammar (London, 1892); G. N. Hatzidakes, Einleitung in
die neugriechische Grammatik (Leipzig, 1892); E. Vincent and T. G.
Dickson, Handbook to Modern Greek (London, 1893); A. Thumb;
Handbuch der neugriechischen Volkssprache (Strassburg, 1895);
C. Wied, Die Kunst der neugriechischen Volkssprache durch
Selbstunterricht schneU und leicht zu lernen (2nd ed., undated,
Vienna): A. N. Jannaris, Historical Greek Grammar (London,
1897). (J.D.B.)
GREEK RELIGION. The recent development of anthropo-
logical science and of the comparative study of religions has
enabled us at last to assign to ancient Greek religion its proper
place in the classification of creeds and to appreciate its import-
ance for the history of civilization. In spite of all the diversities
of local cults we may find a general definition of the theological'
system of the Hellenic communities, and with sufficient accuracy
may describe it as an anthropomorphic polytheism, preserving
many traces of a pre-anthropomorphic period, unchecked by
any exacting dogma or tradition of revelation, and therefore
pliantly adapting itself to all the changing circumstance of the
social and political history of the race, and easily able to assimilate
• alien ideas and forms. Such a religion, continuing in whole or
in part throughout a period of at least 2000 years, was more
capable of progress than others, possibly higher, that have
crystallized at an early period into a fixed dogmatic type; and
as, owing to its essential character, it could not be convulsed
by any inner revolution that might obliterate the deposits of
its earlier life, it was likely to preserve the imprints of the succes-
sive ages of culture, and to reveal more clearly than any other
testimony the evolution of the race from savagery to civilization.
Hence it is that Greek religion appears to teem with incongruities,
the highest forms of religious life being often confronted with the
most primitive. And for this reason the student of savage
528
GREEK RELIGION
anthropology and the student of the higher religions of the
world are equally rewarded by its' study.
Modern ethnology has arrived at the conviction that the
Hellenic nation, like others that have played great parts in
history, was the product of a blend of populations, the conquering
tribes of Aryan descent coming from the north and settling among
and upon certain pre-Hellenic Mediterranean stocks. The conclu-
sion that is naturally drawn from this is that Hellenic religion
is also the product of a blend of early Aryan or Indo-Germanic
beliefs with the cult-ideas and practices of the Mediterranean
area that were from of old indigenous in the lands which the
later invaders conquered. But to disentangle these two com-
ponent parts of the whole, which might seem to be the first
problem for the history of the development of this religion, is
by no means an easy task; we may advance further towards
its solution, when the mysterious pre-Hellenic Mediterranean
language or group of languages, of which traces remain in
Hellenic place-names, and which may be lying uninterpreted
on the brick-tablets of the palace of Cnossus, has found its
interpreter. For the first question is naturally one of language.
But the comparative study of the Indo-European speech-group,
great as its philological triumphs have been, has been meagre
in its contributions to our positive knowledge of the original
belief of the primitive stock. It is not possible to reconstruct
a common Indo-European religion. The greater part of the
separate Aryan cult-systems may have developed after the
diffusion and may have been the result of contact in prehistoric
days with non-Aryan peoples. And many old religious etymo-
logical equations, such as 0^pav6s«= Sanskrit Varuna, t Ep/x^s=
Sarameyas, Athena «Ahana, were uncritically made and have
been abandoned. The chief fact that philology has revealed
concerning the religious vocabulary of the Aryan peoples is that
many of them are found to have designated a high god by a word
derived from a root meaning " bright," and which appears in
Zeus, Jupiter, Sanskrit Dyaus. This is important enough,
but we should not exaggerate its importance, nor draw the
unwarranted inference that therefore the primitive Indo-
Europeans worshipped one supreme God, the Sky-Father.
Besides the word " Zeus,'* the only other names of the Hellenic
pantheon that can be explained wholly or partly as words of
Aryan formation are Poseidon, Demeter, Hestia, Dionysus
(whose name and cult were derived from the Aryan stock of the
Thraco-Phrygians) and probably Pan. But other names, such
as Athena, Ares, Apollo, Artemis* Hera, Hermes, have no
discovered affinities with other Aryan speech-groups; and yet
there is nothing suspiciously non- Aryan in the formation of these
words, and they may all have belonged to the earliest Hellenic-
Aryan vocabulary. In regard to others, such as Rhea,
Hephaestus and Aphrodite, it is somewhat more probable that
they belonged to an older pre-Hellenic stock that survived in
Crete and other islands, and here and there on the mainland;
while we know that Zeus derived certain unintelligible titles
in Cretan cult from the indigenous Eteo-cretan speech.
A minute consideration of a large mass of evidence justifies
the conclusion that the main tribes of the Aryan Hellenes,
pushing down from the north, already possessed certain deities
in common such as Zeus, Poseidon and Apollo with whom they
associated certain goddesses, and that they maintained the cult
of Hestia or " Holy Hearth." Further, a comparison of the
developed religions of the respective Aryan peoples suggests
that they tended to give predominance to the male divinity,
although we have equally good reason to assert that the cult of
goddesses, and especially of the earth-goddess, is a genuinely
" Aryan " product. But when the tribes of this family poured
into the Greek peninsula, it is probable that they would find
in certain centres of a very ancient civilization, such as Argolis
and Crete, the dominant cult of a female divinity. 1 The recent
1 This has often been explained as a result of Mutterreckt, or
reckoning descant through the female: for reasons against this
hypothesis see L. R. Farneli in Archiv fur vergleichende Rdi^ons-
wisstnschaft (1904); cf. A. J. Evans, " Mycenaean Tree and Pillar
Cult," in Journ. of HdUnic Studies (1901).
excavations on the site of the Hera temple at Argos prove that a
powerful goddess was worshipped here many centuries before it
is probable that the Hellenic invader appeared. He may have
even found the name Hera there, or may have brought it with
him and applied it to the indigenous divinity. Again, we are
certain that the great mother-goddess of Crete, discovered by
Dr Arthur Evans, is the ancestress of Rhea and of the Greek
" Mother of the gods ": and it is a reasonable conjecture that
she accounts for many of the forms of Artemis and perhaps for
Athena. But the evidence by no means warrants us in assuming
as an axiom that wherever we find a dominant goddess-cult,
as that of Demeter at Eleusis, we are confronted with a non-
Hellenic religious phenomenon. The very name " Demeter "
and the study of other Aryan religions prove the prominence
of the worship of the earth-goddess in our own family of the
nations. Finally, we must reckon with the possibility that the
other great nations which fringed the Mediterranean, Hittite,
Semitic and Egyptian peoples, left their impress on early Greek
religion, although former scholars may have made rash use of
this hypothesis. 2
Recognizing then the great perplexity of these problems
concerning the ethnic origins of Hellenic religion, we may at
least reduce the tangle of facts to some order by
distinguishing its lower from its higher forms, and
thus provide the material for some theory of evolution. We
may collect and sift the phenomena that remain over from a
pre-anthropomorphic period, the imprints of a savage past,
the beliefs and practices that belong to the animistic or even the
pre-animistic period, fetishism, the worship of animals, human
sacrifice. We shall at once be struck with the contrast between
such civilized cults as those of Zeus, Athena, Apollo, high personal
divinities to whom the attributes of a progressive morality could
be attached, and practices that long survived in backward
communities, such as the Arcadian worship of the thunder and
the winds, the cult of Zeus Kcpawos " the thunder " at Mantinea
and Zeus Kamr&ras in Laconia, who is none other than the
mysterious meteoric stone that falls from heaven. These
are examples of a religious view in which certain natural pheno-
mena or objects are regarded as mysteriously divine or sacred
in their own right and a personal divinity has not yet emerged
or been separated from them. A noteworthy' product of primitive
animistic feeling is the universally prevalent cult of Hestia,
who is originally " Holy Hearth " pure and simple, and who
even under the developed polytheism, in Which she played no
small part, was never established as a separate anthropomorphic
personage.
The animistic belief that certain material objects can be
charged with a divine potency or spirit gives rise to fetishism,
a term which properly denotes the worshipful Or
superstitious use of objects made by art and invested
with mysterious power, so as to be used like amulets for
the purposes of protective magic of for higher purposes of
communion with the divinity. Prom the earliest discoverable
period down to the present day fetishism has been a powerful
factor in the religion of the Graeco-Roman world. The import-
ance of the sacred stone and pillar in the "Mycenaean" or
" Minoan " period which preceded Homer has been impressively
shown by Dr Arthur Evans, and the same fetishistic worship
continued throughout the historic ages of classic paganism, the
rude aniconic emblem of pillar or tree-trunk surviving often
by the side of the iconic masterpiece. It is a reasonable con-
jecture that the earliest anthropomorphic images of divinities,
which were beginning to make their appearance by the time of
Homer, were themselves evolved by slow transformation from
the upright sacred column. And the altar itself may have
arisen as another form of this; the simple heap of stones, such
•V. Berard has recently revived the discredited theory of a
prevalent Phoenician influence in his ingenious but uncritical
work, VOrigine des cultes arcadiens. M. r. Foucart believes in
very early borrowing from Egypt, as explaining much in the religion
of Demeter and Dionysus; see Les Grands Afysthres d'&leusis and
Le Culte de Dionysos en Attiquc.
Fetish-
GREEK TCELIGION
529
as those erected to Hermes by the way-side aad called ^Epfiaibi
M0ot, may have served both as a place of worship and as ah
agalma that could attract and absorb a divine potency into
itself. Hence the fetishistic power of the altar was; fully
recognized in Greek ritual, and hence also in the cult of
Apollo Agyieus the god and the altar are' called by the same
name.
It has been supposed that the ancestors* of the historic Greeks,
before they were habituated to conceive of their divinities as in
human form, may have been accustomed to invest them with
animal attributes and traits. We must not indeed suppose it
to be a general law of religious evolution that •" theriomorphism "
must always precede anthropomorphism and that the latter
transcends and obliterates the former. The two systems' can
exist side by side, and savages of low religious development can
conceive of their deities as assuming at one time human, at
another bestial, shape. Now the developed Greek religion was
devotedly anthropomorphic, and herein lay its strength and its
weakness; nevertheless, the advanced Hellene could imagine
his Dionysus entering temporarily into the body of the sacrificial
bull or goat, and the men of Phigalia in Arcadia were attached to
their horse-headed Demeter, and the primitive Laconians
possibly to a ram-headed Apollo. Theriolatry in itself, i.e. the
worship of certain animals as of divine power in their own right,
apart from any association with higher divinities, can scarcely
be traced among the Greek communities at any period. They
are not found to have paid reverence to any species, though
individual animals could acquire temporarily a divine character
through communion with the altar or with the god. The wolf
might at one time have been regarded as the incarnation of
Apollo, the wolf-god, and here and there we find faint traces of
a wolf-sacrifice and of offerings laid out for wolves. But the
occasional propitiation of wild beasts may fall short of actual
worship. The Athenian who slew a wolf might give it a sumptu-
ous funeral, probably to avoid a blood-feud with the wolfs
relatives, yet the Athenian state offered rewards for a wolf's
head. Nor did any Greek individual or state worship flies as a
class/ although a small oblation might be thrown to the flies
before the great sacrifice to Apollo on the Leticadian rock, to
please them and to persuade them not to worry the worshippers
at the great solemnity, where the reek of roast flesh would be
likely to attract them. ■»
Theriolatry suggests totemism; and though We nrfw know
that the former can arise and exist -quite independently of the
T ^ m latter, ' rece^ 'anthropologists have interpreted the>
Jj^" 1 " apparent sanctity or prestige of certain a&hrials 1 fur
parts of Greek mythology and religion as the deposit
of an earlier totemistic system. But this interpretation,
originated and maintained with great aettfnen by Andrew Lang
and W. Robertson Smith, appears now somewhat hazardous;
and as a scientific hypothesis there are many flaws in it. The
more observant study of existing totem-tribes has weakened
our impression of the importance of totemism as a primfciv6
religious phenomenon. It is in reality more important as a
social than as a religious factor. If indeed we choose to regard
totemism as a mere system of nomenclature, by which a tribe
names itself after some animal or plant, then we might quote a
few examples of Hellenic tribes totemistic in this sense. But
totemism is a fact of importance only when it affects the tribal
marriage laws or the tribal religion. And the tribal marriage
laws of ancient Greece, so far as they are known, betray no clear
mark of totemistic arrangements; nor does the totemism of
contemporary savages appear to affect their religion in any such
way as to suggest a natural explanation for any of the peculiar
phenomena of early Hellenic polytheism. Here and there we
have traces of a snake-tribe in Greece, the *0<t>idls in Aetolia,
the 'OQuryev&s in Cyprus and Parium, but we are not told that
these worshipped the snake; though the latter clan were on terms
of intimacy with it. Where the snake was actually worshipped
in Hellenic cult — the cases are few and doubtful — it may have
been regarded as the incarnation of the ancestor or as the avatar
of the under-world divinity.
Finally, among the primitive • or savage phenomena the
practice of human sacrifice looms large, £&couraged at one
time by the Delphic oracle, it Was becoming rare and
.repellent to the Conscience by the 6th century B.C.; Hu < ^ a
but it was not wholly extinct in the Greek world even ^
by the time of Porphyry. . The facts are very complex
\ and need critical handling, and a satisfying scientific explanation
of. them all is still to be sought.
- We- can now observe the higher aspects of the. advanced
polytheismi. And at the outset we must distinguish between
i mythology and religion strictly understood, between the stories
about the divinities and the private or public religious service.
No doubt the former are often a reflection of the latter, in many
cases being suggested by the ritual which they may have been
invented to interpret, and often envisaging important cult-ideas.
Such for example are the myths about the purification and trial
of Orestes, Theseus, Ixion, the story of Demeter's sorrow, of the
sufferings and triumph of Dionysus, and those about the abolition
of human sacrifice. Yet Greek mythology as a whole was irre-
sponsible, Without reserve, and unchecked by dogma or sacerdotal
prohibition; and frequently it sank below the level of the
current religion, winch was almost free from the impurities
which shock the modern reader of Hellenic myths. Nor again
did any one feel himself called upon to believe any particular
myth; in fact, faith, understood in the sense in which the term
is used m Christian theology, as the will to believe certain
dogmatic statements about the nature and action of divinity,
is a concept which was neither named nor recognized in Hellenic
ethics or religious doctrine; only, if a man proclaimed his
disbelief in the existence of the gods and refused to join in the
ritual of the community) he would become "suspect," and
might at times be persecuted by his fellows. Greek religion
was not so much an affair of doctrine as of ritual, religious
formulae of which the cult-titles of the divinities were an im-
portant component, and prayer; and the most illuminative
sources of our knowledge of ft are the ritual-inscriptions and
other Btate-docinnents, the private dedications, the monuments
of religious art and certain passages in the literature, philology
and archaeology being equally necessary to the equipment of
the student.-: •;./..
>Wt are tempted; to turn to Homer as the earliest authority.
Andrthough Homer is not primitive' and does not present even
an approximately complete account of Greek religion,
we can gather from his poems a picture of an advanced &Woa
polytheism which in form and structure at least is n*mr.
' that 'which was 'presented to the world of Aeschylus.
We discern a pantheon already to some extent systematized/
a certain hierarchy and family of divinities in which the
supremacy ef Zeus is established* as incontestable. And the
anthropomorphic "impulse, the strongest trend in the Greek
religious imagination, which filled the later world with fictitious
personages, generating transparent shams such as an Ampi-
dromus for the* ritual of the Ampidromia, Amphiction for the
Amphictiones, a hero Kkpafics for the gild of potters, is already
at its' height in the Homeric poems. The deities are already
clear-cut, individual personalities of distinct ethos, plastically
shaped figures such as the later sculpture and painting could
work upon, not vaguely conceived numina like the forms of the
old Roman religion. Nor can we call them for the most part
nature-deities like the personages of the Vedic system, thinly
disguised " personifications " of natural phenomena. Athena
is not the blue sky nor Apollo the sun; they are simply Athena
and Apollo, divine personages with certain powers and character,
as real for their people as Christ and the Virgin for Christendom.
By the side of these, though generally in a subordinate position,
we find that Homer recognized certain divinities that we may
properly call nature-powers, such as Helios, Gaia and the river-
deities, forms descending probably from a remote animistic
period, but maintaining themselves within the popular religion
till the end of Paganism. Again, though Homer may talk and
think at times with levity and banaliU about his deities, his
deeper utterances impute an advanced morality to the supreme
530
GREEK RELIGION
God. Hi* Zeu* is on the whole a power of righteousness, dealing
with men by a righteous law of nemesis, never being himself the
author of evil— an idea revealed in the opening passage of the
Odyssey — but protecting the good and punishing the wicked.
Vengeance, indeed, was one of the attributes of divinity both
for Homer and the average Greek of the later period, as.it is in
Judaic and* Christian theology, though Plato and Euripides,
protested strongly against such a view. But the Homeric Zeus
is equally a god of pity and mercy, and the man wher neglects
the prayers of the sorrowful and afflicted, Who violates the
sanctity of the suppliant and guest, or oppresses the pbor» or
the wanderer, may look for divine punishment. Though not
regarded as the physical author of the universe or the Creator;
he is in a moral sense the father of gods and men. And though
the sense of sin and the need of piacular sacrifice are expressed,
in the Homeric poems, the relations between gods and men tihat
they reveal are on the Whole genial and social; the deity sits
unseen at the good man's festal sacrifice, and there is a simple
apprehension of the idea of divine communion. There is also
indeed a glimmering of the dark background of the' nether
world, and the chthonian powers that might sendmp the .Erinys
to fulfil the curse of the wronged* Yet on the whole the religious
atmosphere is generally cheerful and bright; freer than that of
the later ages from the taint of magic and superstition; nor is
Homer troubled much about the life after death; he scarcely
recognizes the cult of the dead, 1 and is not oppressed by fear
of the ghost-world.
If we look now broadly over the salient facts of the Greek
public and private worship of the historic period we find much
in it that agrees with Homeric theology. His
Honwio* " Olympian " system retains a certain life almost to
period, the end of Paganism, and it is a serious mistake to
suppose that it had lost its hold upon the people of
the 5th and 4th century B.C. We find it, indeed, enriched in
the post-Homeric period with new figures of prestige and power ;
Dionysus, of whom Homer had only faintly heard, becomes a
high god with a worship full of promise for the future. Demeter
and Kore, the mother and the girl, whom Homer knew well
enough but could not use for his epic purposes* attract the ardent
affections and hopes of the people; and Asclepius, whom the
old poet did not recognize as a god, wins a conspicuous place
in the later shrines. But much that has been said of the Homeric
may be said of the later classical theology. The deities remain
anthropomorphic, and appear as clearly defined individuals.
A certain hierarchy is recognized; Zeus is supreme, even uot
the city of Athena, but each of the higher divinities played
many parts, and local enthusiasm could frustrate the depart*
mental system of divine functions; certain members of the
pantheon had a preference for the life of the fields, but as the
poiis emerged from the village communities, Demeter, Hermes,
Artemis and others, the gods and goddesses of the husbandmen
and shepherds, become powers of the council-chamber and the
market-place. The moral ideas that we find in the Homeric
religion are amply attested by. cult-records of the later period.
The deities are regarded on the whole . as beneficent, though
revengeful if wronged or neglected; the cult-titles used in prayer,
which more than any other witnesses reveal the thought and
wish of the worshipper, are nearly always euphemistic, the
doubtful title of Demeter Erinys being possibly an exception.
The important cults of Zeus 'Ifftaos and Upoar porous, the
suppliant's protecting deity, embody the ideas of pity and fnercy
that mark advanced religion; and many momentous steps in
the development of morality and law were either suggested or
assisted by the state-religion. For example, the sanctity of
the oath, the main source of the secular virtue of truthfulness,
was originally a religious sanction, and though the Greek may
have been prone to perjury*, yet the Hellenic like the Hebraic
religious ethics regarded it as a heinous sin. The sanctity of
1 This became very powerful from the jrth century onward, and
there are reasons for supposing that it existed in the pre-Homeric,
or Mvcenaean* period ; vide Rohde's Psyche (new edition), Tsountas
and Manatt, The Mycenaean Age,
family duties, the sacredness of the lifer of the kinsman, were
ideas fostered by early Hellenic religion before they generated
principles of secular ethics. In the post-Homeric period, the
development of the doctrine of parity, which was associated
with the ApolHne religion, combining with a growing dread of
the ghost-world, stimulated and influenced in many important
ways the evolution of the Greek law concerning homicide. 1
I And the beginnings of international law .and morality were
'rooted in religious sanctions and taboo. In fact, Greek state-
life was. indebted in manifold ways to Greek religion, and the
study of the Greek oracles would alone supply sufficient testimony
of tins. , In many cases the very origin of the state was religious,
the earliest palis sometimes having arisen under the shadow
' of the temple.
Yet as Greek religion was always in the service of the state,
and the priest a state-official, society was the reverse of theocratic.
Secular advance, moral progress and the march of science,
could never long be thwarted by religious tradition;* on the
contrary, speculative thought and artistic creation were con-
sidered as attributes of divinity. We may say that the religion
of, Hellas penetrated the whole life of the people, but rather
as a servant than as a master.
Distinct and apart from these public worships and those of
the clan and family were the mystic cults of Eleusis, Andania
and Samothrace, and the private services of the mystic brother-
hoods. The latter were scattered broadcast over Hellas, and
the influence of the former was strengthened and their significance
intensified by the wave of mysticism that spread at first from
the north from the beginning of the 7th century onwards, and
derived its strength from the power of Dionysus and the Orphic
brotherhoods. New ideals and hopes began to stir in the
religious consciousness, and we find a strong Salvationist tendency,
the promise of salvation relying on mystic communion with
the deity. Also a new and vital principle is at work; Orphism
is the only force in Greek religion of a clear apostolic purpose,
for it broke the barriers of the old tribal and civic cults, and
preached itsimessage to bond and free, Hellene and barbarian.
The later history of Greek paganism is mainly concerned
with its gradual penetration by Oriental ideas and .worships,
and the results of this BeoKoael* are discerned in an ever, increas-
ing mysticism and a tendency towards monotheism. Obliterated
as the old Hellenic religion appeared to be by Christianity, it
nevertheless retained a certain life, though transformed, under
the new creed to which it lent much of its hieratic organization
and religious terminology. The. indebtedness of Christianity
to Hellenism is one of the most interesting problems of com-
parative religion; and for an adequate estimate a minute
knowledge of the ritual and the mystic cults of Hellas is one of
the essential conditions.
Bibliography. — Older Authorities: A. Maury, Ristoire des
religions de la Greet antique (3 vols., 1 857-1 859) ; Welcker, Griechische
GdUerUhre (3 vols., 1857-1863); Preller, Griechiscke Mythologie,
2 vols. (4th edition by C. Robert, 1887). *H antiquated in regard to
theory, but still of some value for collection of materials. Recent
Literature — (a) General Treatises : O. Gruppe, " Griechi9che
Mythologje und Religionsgeschichte " in I wan von MftWet'sHandbuch
der hlassischen Alterturnswissenschaft, v. 2. 2 (1 902-1906); L.
R. Farnell's Cults of the Greek States, 4 vols. (1896-1906, vol. 5,
1908); Miss Jane Harrison's Prolegomena to the Study of Greek
Religion (ed. 1908) ; Chantepie de laSaussaye's Lehrbuch der Religions-
geschichte (Greek section, 1904); (ft) Special Works or Dissertations:
articles in Roscher's Ausfuhrliches Lexikon der grieckischen und
romischen Mythologies and Pauly-Wissowa Encyklapddie (1894- ) ;
iromerwahr, Kulte und Myihen Arkadiens (1891) ; Wide, Lakonische
Kulte (1893) * de Visser, De Graecorum diis non referenttbus speciem
kumanam (Leiden, 1900) . Greek Ritual and Festivals— A. Mbmmsen,
Feste der Stadt Aiken (1898); P. Stengel; "Die griechischen Sacral-
altertumer " in I wan von Mailers Handbuch, y. 3 (1898);
W. H. D. Rouse, Greek Votive Offerings (1902). Greek Religious
Thought and Speculation — L. Campbell s Religion in Greek Literature
(1898); Ducharme, La Critique des traditions religieuses chez Us
Grecs des origines au temps de Plutarque (Paris, 1904). See also
articles on individual deities, and cf. Roman Religion; Mysteries;
Mithras. . ' (L. R. F.)
'See L. R. Farnell, Evolution of Religion (Hibbert Lectures,
1905). PP- 139-152.
GREB&EY, -HORACE
r 52 J
GRBELEY, : HORACE /( 1 811-1^72), American stateatoan aadi
man of letters, was born at. Amherst, New Hampshire, on the;
3rd of February 181 1 . His parents were of Scottish-Irishjdescent,
but the ancestors of both had been in New England for sevenall
generations. He was the third of seven children;. His. father, 1
Zaccheus Gredcy^oJwned: a farm of Jo acres oLstony, 'Sterile^
land, from which ■ a- bare support. twas. wrung., Horace was. a)
feeble and precocious lad, taking httleinterest in; the ordinary!
sports of childhood, leading bo read before he was able to talkj
plainly, and the prodigy \ of the neighbourhood 1 for accurate;
spelling. Before Horace jwaa ten years old >(i8fi©),, M&ifatherj
became bankrupt, his homei was soldi by the sheriff y and Zaccheus
Greeley himself fled the /state to escape arrest for debt . The
family soon removed to West Havenv Vermont, , where j all
working together* they made a scanty living as ;<Ja#: labourer^
Horace from childhood desired to be a printer, and, when barely
eleven years Old, tried to be taken as an apprentice in an office!
at Whitehall,: New York^ but, was i rejected 6n account of.Jusi
lyouth. After, three ye 1 ars more iwilh! th? family as a>day labourer!
\ at . West Haven, he succeeded^ with his. father^ consent, 1 in being
apprenticed in the office of The Northern Spectator, at East
Poultney, Vermont* Here he soon became a good workman,:
developed a passion if or politics and especially foe political!
statistics, came to be depended upon for] nrdre or less of the
editling of the. paper, and was a figure in the village debating!
society/ He received only, $40 a year^ but he. sent- most o£ ins
money to has father, hln June j8&q: The Northern Spectator, was
suspended. Meantime . his /father {had removed to a small <tract,
of wild . land in the dense forests of . Western- JPpnnsyivania,|
30 m. from Eriea Thereleased apprentice now visited his parents,
and worked fox a little time wfith them on th&iarim. meanwhUej
seeking empfovmentjiq various printing onkesvjand,.wJien':he!
got it, giving nearly all his earnings to his father. At last; wkn 1
no further £rospecti tff ,werk nearer: honre^he started £onJ>Jew|
York. He travelled onfo^tiandiby jftanalvbtoat; eatcdnyiNtswl
York in August 1831, with all his clothes: in a? jbundle carried!
over his back, with a stick,! and. with/, but fxb' in has. pocket. 1
More than half, of > this! sum rwas exhausted while he made vain)
efforts to find employments Many refused to employ :him, in.
the: belief ithat he wis a runiawAy apprentice, aad< Irian poor , (
ill-fitting apparel and rustid look' were everywhere, ^eatly <againstj
Mm: At last he found work on a 3a?no iNew^i Testament,' set-
in agate, double columns^, with a middle column of notes in;
pearl. It was so difficult. and so pooriy.paid that, other pouters
had all abandoned it. He barely succeeded 'in niaking. enough
to pay his board bill; but. he finished the task* and ifchusrf wand
subsequent dmpioyment easier to get. .,', \ ' - 'j. :r V
In January > i&& < Greeley formed a "partnership with \ Erahais
V. Story, 3. fellow^ workman. 1 Their combined capital, amounted
to about $156. Procuring their type on 'credit, they 6£ened ia.
small office, and undertook the printing, of t the Morning RbH> the;
first .cheap paper ptiWished in New Yorki* Its. pdoj«cfcor >; Dr
Horatio D. Shepard^ meant taisell it for one cent, ittirb under the!
arguments of Greeley he 1 wasipeaHuaded to fit the furies at two
cents. The paper failed in less than three weeks, the .printers,
losing only $36or $60 by the experiment. They still nacLa, Bank
Note \ Reporter to print, and soon got the prating of. a tri+weekry
papery the GovMitutionalist, the organ p£ i some lottery - dealers.!
Within six months Story uras drowned, but his brothers-law,
Jdnas Winchester, took his place tin theiinn, Greeley wets tn«w
asked by James Gordon Berinett tOigo;into rjartacrsfcff) with him
in starting The Herald. He declined the venturey but recommended
the. partner whom Bennett subsequently took. rOn the 2tod of!
March 1934,. Greeley and Winchester issued the first number, of;
The New Yorkm, a weekly literary and news* paper, the firm $hen
supposing itself to be worth about $3000. Of tne^firsbinumber
they sold about 100 copies; of .the second, nearly 300. . There
was ah average increase for the next'mohtfrof abbut 100 copies;
per week. The second volume begem with a circulation -of >abdut
4550 copies, and with a loss on the first year's publication of
$3000. The second year ended with 7000 subscribers and a
further loss of $2000. By the end of the third yta%\.The\Nm
Yorker had reatned a circular job of 9500 copies, and had sustained
a total lc^ : of ,$7000., It, wa^pubUshed seven years (until the
*©th« of September. 1841), and was never profitable** but it w&s
widely popular, and it, gave Greeley, wha was its sole editor,
much .p»wiheace> On the jtbjOtfJuly ,1830 Greeley, marridd
Miss Mary. Y, Cheney, a Coaeecticut schooLteachet>; whomhe had
iratfa a Grahiwit^ York. 1
.- . J>urinjg 'thf ^publication oi Ste New Yorker he [added to the
scanty income which the job printing brought him by supplying
{editorials to the ahorirlfared J3a#y; JtfWgand vafRwao^fipuMka-
tions. In 1838 he had gained such standing;^ ia* writer that he
wasiseleoted by.Thu*k>w Weed, William H. Seward, and other
leaders of the Whig Party, for the editorship of a campaign paper
enthltd TMJeffersenian, publj^&zt Albany..: He continued
dhb NewiYorien .toilravdtedibetween Albany^and New York
each week to edit the two papers. The Jejfersonian wad a quiet and
instructive irather ; than a yehe«ttent campaign sheet, and the
iWhigs. beJaeirfejd. |ha*.it ihad'Aifcfoafcjefeet upon! the .eleatiojosne-f
*titorjexk>yearL When*, on the abdof May 1840, some time after
JtheinojuinatiohL bytheiWhte party of WilliamHency Harrisctn
for the PreaideiBcy, iOreeley-. began the puMicatfon of a new
weekly campaign pape*^T/w i^Ca&^i* sprang ^t once into 1 a
greatijcirculaitiQn; 4©,ooe- co^Sie&lof tbe- first ^number were -sold,
ajadfit>nna% rose to 8o>doq- tit was, considered ^ a^ brilliant
pohtieal audoess, but it iwasmot .profitable, ^and in. September
1S41 was merged in 1 the W<$ My Tribune- On the 3rd of April
i64t,t Greeley-amioimced .that on » the -follqwang Saturday , (April
iica^>>hfitwijiddteegin the* publicatiojaxrf a dail^ newspaper of the
same general piinmpfes, to be called The Ttihtm** / Hewas now
entireliy> withimiimoney. From a personal If riend^ James Cogges-
haHj he borrowed Stooo; otai which capital and. theteditor's reputa-
tion i2T/kj Jntewfl .was founded- . It began with ^oo.aubscribers.
The: first wteek ? fl expenses' Were %$2$ and the receipts $9^* By
the end of *the fbusthr^eek it^ had run-up a ckc*Uationa£6c<K>^arid
.bV:tiibiSeventhrcach^,ii,oc»^wfeiQh was then' the Ivll capacity
ofits pressi , Itwastalert, cheerful and aggressive, waa greatly
helped > by ithe attacks of rival papers, andipromised success
almost from the^start. . !» 1 , >< ■ ; »*.•!.
: fFrbin thisitime iQreeley was popularly identified, with The
>Tribwne y and its, share, in the^ubUtf di&cuaslo»of.thetiirte,ifthh
^hiatdry. \M soon beicame m^de^tely-prosperons^and h^s. assured
income should have placed him beyond 'pecuniary worry. \ His
inccmie w^slotgabx>vef $15, carper year, frecluently^asrtuch as
l35,ooo- or 1 mote. - But he lacked busineab thrift, inherited a
dispositaon tq endorse for his friends; apdi was often unable to
ddBtin^uiah between deserving applicants fbn aid Add adventurers.
;He was<thus frequently straitened, and,iashis necessiJtjes pressed,
he sold successivelinterests in his new^pap^r . • At the -outset he
ownedrthe whote of it. - When it wa* already finnlyestablishe:d
■ (in July r84i),«he tbokin Thomas McElrath roAnbttrual partner,
upon rJhe cbntributionot $aooo to the cotrimoto f«nd. B|y the
:tat 1 of January' 1840" he had seduced hk intereati to' 3>of shares out
•bi roo^by July;ahd, 1860, te*.i3:.flhareaj inii868he owned only
o; and M r&^a,- only 6* In 18617 th6 dtock> fcbld foresee per
shareyari^ hi&ilast sale was, for. $9600;' He bought wildlande,
tookr "stock Ss mining; doraparnes^ desiccated- egg, companies,
patent kjoms^phcitorlithogiaphic '«Mnpa»iiesi, ^ave' a1i?ay( pto-
fusely, lent to f>Musible rascaisrand was. the ready prey of every
new>inyentbr who chanced to find him with money., or with
property that) he. could i rea , diry convert inta 'money., .
In September; 1841, Greeley -^meirged his weekly papers, The
Log. Cabin and- The New.Yvrker, into The Weekly Tribune, which
soon attained as wide, circulation as its predecessors, and was
mnch more profitable, i It iooie in a time .of great political excite-
memt-to a/ total fcaroulalion of a^guarter of almiUiOri, and it some-
. times had' tfio&giKcesswe iyears J 40JOO0 to 50,000% : Of or Several
year⁢ was rarely ^.mwch bekw ^boo^ooo. Its Subscribers were
fbumd thrbugfeout ani^uarters<)fthefnortJbernfhalf of ^he Union
from Maine ittw«f)refeon, large packages' going to remote districts
beyond the Misaissijipij or Missouri, whose only connexion with
the outside world was through > a webkly or semi-weekly mail.
The reader* of this weekly paf>ee acquired, a pei^nal^tffectlQn for
532
GREELEY,. HORACE
it* editor, and he was thus for many years the American writer
most widely known and most popular among the rural classes.
The circulation of The Daily Tribune was never proportionately
great — its advocacy of a protective tariff, prohibitory liquor
legislation and other peculiarities, repelling a large support
which it might otherwise have commanded in New York. It
rose within a short time after its establishment to a circulation- of
20,000, reached 50,000 and 60,000 during the Civil War, and 1
thereafter ranged at from 30,000 to 45,000. After May 1845 a
semi-weekly edition was also printed, which ultimately reached
a steady circulation of from 1 5,000 to 2 5,000.
From the outset' it was a cardinal principle with Greeley to
heai all sides, and to extend a special hospitality to new ideas.
In March 1842 The Tribune began to give one column daily to a
discussion of the doctrines of Charles Fourier contributed lay
Albert Brisbane. Gradually Greeley came to advocate some of
these doctrines editorially* In 1846 he had a sharp discussion
upon them with a former subordinate^ Henry J. Raymond, then
employed upon a rival journal. It continued through Weive
articles on each side, and was subsequently published in book
form. Greeley became personally interested in one of the
Fourierite associations, the North American Phalanx, at Red
Bank, N. J. (1843-1855), while the influence of his discussions
doubtless led to or gave encouragement to other socialistic
experiments, such as that at Brook Farm. When this was
abandoned, its leader George Ripley, with one or two other
members, sought employment from Greeley upon The Tribune.
Greeley dissented from many of Fourier's propositions, and in
later years was careful to explain that the principle of association
for the common good of working men and the elevation of labour
was the chief feature which attracted him. Co-operation among
working men he continued to urge throughout his life. In 18150
the Fox Sisters, on his wife's invitation, spent several weeks in his
house. His attitude towards their "rappings" and "spiritual
manifestations" was one of observation and inquiry; and in his
Recollections he wrote concerning these manifestations: " That
some of them are the result of juggle, collusion or trick I am
confident; that others are not, I decidedly believe."
From boyhood he had believed in a protective tariff, and
throughout his active life he was its most trenchant advocate
and propagandist. Besides constantly urging it in the columns
of The Tribune, he appeared as early as 1843 in a public debate
on " The Grounds of Protection," with Samuel J. Tilden and
Parke Godwin as his opponents. A series of popular essays
on the subject were published over his own signature in The
Tribune in 1869, and subsequently republished in book form,:
with a title-page describing protection to home industry as a
system of national co-operation for the elevation of labour.
He opposed woman suffrage on the ground that the majority
of women did not want it and never would, and declared that
until woman should " emancipate herself from the thraldom
to etiquette," he "could not see how the 'woman's rights'
theory ' is ever to be anything more than a logically defensible
abstraction." He aided practical efforts, however, for extend-
ing the sphere of woman's employments. He opposed, the
theatres, and for a time refused to publish their advertisements.
He held the most rigid views on the sanctity of marriage and
against easy divorce, and vehemently defended them in con-
troversies with Robert Dale Owen and others. He practised
and pertinaciously advocated total* abstinence from spirituous:
liquors, but did not regard prohibitory laws as always rtise.
He denounced the repudiation of state debts or the failure to
pay interest on them. He was sealous for Irish repeal, once
held a place in the " Directory of the Friends of Ireland,-' and
contributed liberally to its support. He used the occasion of
Charles Dickens's first visit to America to urge international
copyright, and was one of the few editors to avoid alike the
flunkeyism with which Dickens was first received, and the
ferocity with which he was assailed after the publication of his
American Notes. On the occasion of Dickens's second visit to
America, Greeley presided at the great banquet given him
by the press of the country. He made the first elaborate reports
of popular scientific lectures by Louis AgfassLs and other authori-
ties; He gave ample hearing to the advocates of phonography
and of phonographic spelling. He was one of the most conspicu-
ous advocates of the Pacific railroads, and of many other internal
improvements.
But it is as an anti-slavery leader, and as perhaps the chief
agency in educating the; mass of the Northern people to that
opposition through legal forms to the extension of slavery
which culminated in the election of Abraham Lincoln and the
Civil War, that Greeley's main work was done. Incidents in
it were Ms vehement opposition to the Mexican War as a scheme
for more slavery territory, the assault made upon him in Washing-
ton by Congressman Albert Rust of Arkansas in 1856, an indict-
ment in Virginia in the same year for circulating incendiary
documents, perpetual denunciation of him in Southern news-
papers and speeches, and the hostility of the Abolitionists,
who regarded his course as too conservative. His anti-slavery
work culminated in his appeal to President Lincoln, entitled
" The Prayer of Twenty Millions;" i* which he urged " that all
attempts to put down the rebellion and at the same time uphold
its inciting cause " were preposterous 1 and futile, and that
" every hour of deference to* slavery " was " an hour of added
and deepened peril to the Union." President Lincoln in his
reply said: " My paramount object is to save the Union,
and not either to save xp destroy. ' slavery... .. What I do
about slavery and the coloured race, I do because I believe it
helps to save this Union; and what I forbear, I forbear because
I do not believe it would help to save the Union w . . I have here
stated my purpose according to my vtews of official duty; and
I intend no modification of my oft-expressed personal wish
that all men everywhere could be free." Precisely one month
after the date of this reply the Emancipation Proclamation was
issued.
Greeley's political activity, first as a Whig, and then as one
of the founders^ of the Republican party 4 was incessant; but he
held few offices. In 1848-1840 he served a three months' term
in Congress, filling a vacancy. He introduced the first bill for
giving small tracts of government land free to actual settlers,
and published an exposure of abuses in the allowance of mileage
to members, which corrected the evil, but brought him much
personal obloquy. In the' National Republican Convention in
i860, not being sent by the Republicans of his own state on
account of his opposition to William Seward as a candidate,
he was made a delegate for Oregon. His active hostility to
Seward did much to prevent the success of that statesman,
and to bring about instead the nomination of Abraham Lincoln.
This was attributed by his opponents to personal motives, and
a letter from Greeley to Seward, the publication of which he
challengedy was produced, to show that in his struggling days
he had been wounded at Seward's failure, to offer him office. In
1861 he was a candidate for United States senator, his principal
opponent being William M. Evarts. When it was clear that
Evarts could not be elected, his supporters threw their votes
for a third candidate, Ira Harris, who was thus chosen over
Greeley by a small majority. At the outbreak of the war he
favoured allowing the Southern states to secede, provided a
majority of their people at, a fair election should so decide,
declaring " that he hoped never to live in a Republic whereof
one section was pinned to the other by bayonets." When the
war began he urged the most vigorous prosecution of it. The
" On to Richmond " appeal, which appeased day after day in
The Tribune y was incorrectly attributed to him, and it did not
wholly meet his approval; but after the defeat in the first battle
of Bull Run he was widely blamed for it. In 1864 he urged
negotiations for peace with representatives of the Southern
Confederacy in Canada, and was sent by President Lincoln to
confer with them. They were found to have no sufficient
authority. In 1864 he was one of the Lincoln Presidential
electors for New York. At the close of the war, contrary to
the general feeling of his party, he urged universal amnesty and
impartial suffrage as the basis of reconstruction. In 1867 his
friends again wished to elect him to the Senate of the United
GREELEY
533
States, and the indications were all in his favour. But he refused
to be elected under any misapprehension of his attitude, and
with what his friends thought unnecessary candour restated
his obnoxious views on universal amnesty at length, just before
the time for the election, with the certainty that this would pre-
vent his success. Some months later he signed the bail bond of
Jefferson Davis, and this provoked a torrent of public indigna-
tion. He had written a popular history of the late war, the. first
volume having an immense sale and bringing him unusually
large profits. The second was just issued, and the subscribers,
in their anger, refused by thousands to receive it. An un-
successful attempt was also made to expel him; from Abe Union
League Club of New York.
In 1867 he was a detegate-at -large to the convention for the
revision of the state constitution, and in 1869 and 2870 he was
the Republican candidate for controller of the state and member
of Congress respectively, but in each case was defeated*
He was dissatisfied with General Grant's administration, and
became its sharp critic. The discontent which he did much to
develop ended in the organization of the liberal Republican
party, which held its National Convention at Cincinnati in
1872, and nominated Greeley for the presidency. For a time
the tide of feeling ran^trongly in his favour. It was first checked
by the action of his life-long opponents, the Democrats, who
also nominated him at their National Convention. He expected
their support, on account of his attitude toward the South
and hostility to Grant, but he thought it a mistake to give him
their formal nomination. The event proved his wisdom. Many
Republicans who had sympathized with his criticisms of the
administration, and with the declaration of principles adopted
at the first convention, were repelled by the coalition. This
feeling grew stronger until the election. His old party associates
regarded him as a renegade, the Democrats gave him a half-
hearted support. The tone of the canvass was one of unusual
bitterness, amounting sometimes to actual ferocity. In August,
on representations of the alarming state of the contest, he took
the field in person, and made a series of campaign speeches,
beginning in New England and extending throughout Pennsyl-
vania, Ohio and Indiana, which aroused great enthusiasm,
and were regarded at the time by both friends and opponents
as the most brilliant continuous exhibition of varied intellectual
power ever made by a candidate in a presidential canvass.
General Grant received in the election 3,597,070 votes, Greeley
2,834,079. The only states Greeley carried were Georgia,
Kentucky, Maryland, Missouri, Tennessee and Texas.
He had resigned his editorship of The Tribune immediately
after the nomination; he now resumed it cheerfully; but it
was soon apparent that bis powers had been overstrained*
For years he had suffered greatly from sleeplessness. During
the /intense excitement of the campaign the difficulty was
increased. Returning from his campaign tour, he went immedi-
ately to the bedside of his dying wife, and for some weeks had
practically no sleep at all. This resulted in an inflammation
of the upper membrane of the brain, delirium and death. He
expired on the 29th of November 1872. His funeral was a
simple but impressive public pageant. The body lay in state
in the City Hall, where it was surrounded by crowds of many
thousands. The ceremonies were attended by the President
and Vice-President of the United States, the Chief- Justice of
the Supreme Court, and a large number of eminent public men
of both parties, who followed the hearse in a solemn procession,
preceded by the mayor and other civic authorities, down
Broadway. He had been the target of constant attack during
his life, and his personal foibles, careless dress and mental
eccentricities were the theme of endless ridicule. But his
death revealed the high regard in which he was generally held
as a leader of. opinion and faithful public servant. " Our later
Franklin " Whittier called him, and it is in some such light his
.countrymen remember him.
In 1851 Greeley visited Europe for the first time, serving
as a juryman at the Crystal Palace Exhibition, appearing before
a committee of the House of Commons pn newspaper taxes,
and urging the repeal of the stamp duty on advertisements.
In 1855 he made a second trip to Europe. In Paris he was
arrested on the suit of a scujptor, whose statue had been injured
in the New York World's Fair (of which he had been a director),
and spent two days in Clichy, of which he gave an amusing
account. . In 1859 he visited Calilomia by the overland route,
and had numerous public receptions* . Ja 1871 he visited Texas,
and his trip through the southern country, where! he had once
been so hated, was an ovation. About 1852 he purchased a
farm at Chappaqua, New.Yoffk, where he afterwards habitually
spent his Saturdays, amd ^experimented in agriculture. He
was in constant demand as* a lecturer, from 1843, when he made
his first appearance on the platform, always drew large audiences,
and, in spite of his bad management in money matters, received
considerable sums, sometimes |6oop or $7000 for a single
winter's lecturing. He was also much sought for as a con-
tributor, oyer his own sjgnatiro,« tp the* weekly newspapers,
and. was sometimes largely paid for these articles. In religious
faith he was. from -boyhood a Universalis*, and for- many years
was a conspicuous member of the leading Universalis^ church
in New York. ;
His published works are: Hints, Toward Reforms (1850);
Glances at Europe (J851),; History -of the Struggle for Slavery
Extension (1856); Overlaid Journey, to San Francisco (i860);
The American Conflict ,(2 vols., 1864-1866); JtecoUections of a
Busy Life (1868; new : edition, with, appendix containing , an
account of his later years, his argument with Robert Dale Owen
on Marriage and Divorce, and Miscellanies, 1873); Essays
on Political Economy (1870); and What I know of Farming
{1871). He also assisted his brother-in-law, John F. Cleveland,
in editing A Political Text-book (1869), and supervised for many
years the annual issues of The Whig Almanac and The Tribune
Almanac, comprising extensive political statistics.
The best Lives of Greeley are those by James Partem (New York,
ifl55; new ed., Boston i 1872) and W. A. Linn (N.Y* 1903). Lives
have also been written by L, U. Reavis (New York, ,1872), and L.
D. Ingersoll (Chicago, 1873); and there is a Memorial of Horace
Greeley (New York, 1873). (W. R.)
GRfEELEY, a city and, the county-seat of Weld county,
Colorado, U.S.A., about 5am. N. by EL of Denver. Ppp. (1890)
2395; (1900) 3°?3 086 foreign-born); (1910} 8179. It is
served by the Union Pacific and the Colorado & Southern railways.
In 1908 a franchise was granted to the Denver & Greeley Electric
railway. Hie city is the. seat of the State Normal School of
Colorado (1889). There are rich coal-fields near the city, The
county is naturally arid and unproductive, and its agricultural
importance is due to an .elaborate system of irrigation. In
1899 Weld county had under irrigation 226,613 acres, repre-
senting an increase, of 102*2% since 1889, and a much larger
irrigated area than in any other county of the state. Irrigation
ditches are supplied with water chiefly from the Cache la Poudre,
Big Thompson and South Platte rivers, near the foothills.
The principal crops are potatoes, sugar beets, onions, cabbages
and peas; in 1899. Weld county raised 2,821,285 bushels of
potatoes on 23,19s acres (53% of the potato acreage for the
entire state), The manufacture of beet: sugar is a growing
industry, a large factory having been established at Greeley
in 1902. Beets are also grown as food for live stock, especially
sheep. Peas, tomatoes, cabbages and onions are canned here.
Greeley was founded in 1870 by Nathan Cook Meeker (1917-
1879), agricultural editor of the New York Tribune. With the
support of Horace Greeley (in whose honour the town was named),
he began in 1869 to advocate in The Tribune the founding of an
agricultural colony in Qplprado. Subsequently President Hayes
appointed him Indian agent ,at Whiter i$iver, Colorado, and he
was killed at what is now Meeker, Colorado, in ari uprising of the
Ute Indians. Under Meeker's scheme, which attracted mainly
people from New England and New York state, most of whom
wore able to contribute at least a little capital, the Union Colony
of Colorado was organised and chartered, and bought originally
11,000 acres of land, each member being entitled to buy from it
one residence lot, one business lot, an^a tract of farm land.
'534
GREEN, A. H,-^GREEN, M.
The funds thus acquired -were, to 'a targe extent, expended
•in making public iirqwovements. A clause inserted in all deeds
forbade the 1 sale of intoxictttirig* liiqiierrs on the land' concerned,
under* pain of the reversion of such prorjerty to the colony*
The initiation fees ($g) were used for the expenses of locating the
colony; 'and the membership Certificate fees ($150) Were ex-
pended; in' the Constriction of irrigating ditches,! as was the
money received from the sale oitown lots, : except about $i3,ooq
invested in a School building (now the Meeker Building) . Greeley
was organized as a town in r 871, aft d^vvas chartered as a city of the
^econdckssin 1886. The u UnionC6i6ny o£ Colorado" still exifets
• as' an incorporated body and holtis reversionary rights in streets^
alleys and public grounds, and in all places " where intoxicating
1 liquors ate manufactured* sold or given away, a^ a beverage:"
See Richard T. Ely, M A Study of a • Decreed * Town," Harper's
M agazine, vol. 106(1902^1903), p. 39© sqq;
" 'GREEN, ALEXANDER HENRY (1832-1896), English geolo-
gist, son* of the Tfcev: Thomak Sheld&n Green, master of the
- Ashby Grammar 1 Sch06l; was born at Maidstone 1 on the 10th of
October' $832. lie-was educated partly at his father's school,
Ashby-de-la-Zouch, and afterwards at Gonville and Caius
' College, Cambridge, where he graduated as sixth wrarigler
in 185$ and was elected afell6w of his college: In 1861 he
joined the Geological Survey or" 6reat Britain, and surveyed
' large areas of the midland counties, Derbyshire and Yorkshire;
He* wrote {wholly or in pairt) memoirs Y>nf the Geology of Banbury
1 (1864), of Stockport' (1866), of North Derbyshire (1869, 2nd ed.
1887), and of the Yorkshire. Coalfield (*6)fc). In 1874 he retired
frorn the Geological Survey/ having 1 beeti appointed professor;
of geology in the Yorkshire College at Leeds; in 18&5 he became
•' also processor of mathernatfcs, while for rhany* years he held
> the lectureship on geology at the school of military en^neering
at Chatham; ' Re was elected F.R.S. in 1886, and two years later
•was chosen professor -of igeolbgy in- the- university of.' Oxford;
His manual of Physical Geology (1876, 3rd<ed'. 1882) is an excellent
book. He' died at Boar'stjill, Oxford, oni&e 19th of August 1896!
A portrait of him, with brief memoir, was. published in Proc.
Yorksh. Geol. and Polytechnic Soc. xiii. 232.
. ' 'GREEN, DUFF (1^91-1875), American politician abd j6tirtialisti
was born l in Woodford county, Kehtuckvj'on the 15th of August
1 79 1 . He Was ai School teacher in' Ms riatrve state, served during
the War of '1812 in the Kentucky 'militia, and' then settled in
Missouri, 1 where he worked as a schoolmaster and practised law.
'He was a member of the Missouri Constitutional Convention
of iSi6, arid was elected to the state 'House of Representatives
in 182*0 and to the state Senate in 1822, serving one term in each
'housev Becoming interested in jourriahsm* he purchased and
'for two years edited the St Louis Enquirer. ' In 1825 he bought
and afterwards edited in Washington, D.C:, The United States
• Telegrafh y which soon became the principal organ of the Jackson
men in opposition to the Adams administration.' Upon Andrew
Jackson's election to : the presidency,' the Telegraph became the
principaimouthpiecebf the administration, and received printing
patronage estimated' in Value 1 at $50,060 a year, while Green
Tjecatme one of the coterie" of unofficial advisers of Jacks6n
known as ; the " Kitchen 1 Cabinet:"' ' Ih the quarrel between
Jackgon'uriti John C. Calhoun, Green Supported the latter, and
through the columns df • the' Telegraph ' violently attacked the
administration. In Cbriseciuettce, hfe paper Was deprived Of the
government printing' ih the spring of ! 1831. Green, hbwever^
continued to edit it rh £he Calhoun interest until 1835,' and gave
vigorous Support to that leader's nullification views. Froth 1835
to 1838 he edited The Reforinalion, a' radically partisan publica-
tion, devoted to free trade and the extreme states* rights theory.
In 1841-1843 he was hi Europe on behalf of the Tyler admiriistf a-
tion, and he is said to have been 1 rnstrurrierital' in causing the
appointment of Lord Ashbufrton to negotiate in ' Washington
concerning the boundary dispute 1 between* Maine and Canada.
In January 1843 Green established in New York City a short-lived
journal, The Republic, to combat' the spoils system and to
advocate free trade. ' In September 1844 Calhoun; then secretary
of state, sent Green to Texas ostensibly a$ consul at Galvestdn,
but actually, it appears, to report to the administration, then
considering the question of the annexation of Texas, concerning
the political situation in Texas and Mexico. After the close of
the war with Mexico Green was sent to that country. in 1849
by President Taylor to negotiate concerning the moneys which,
by the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, the United States had
agreed to pay; and he saved his- country a considerable sum by
arranging for payment in exchange instead of in specie. Subse-
quently Green was engaged in railway building in Georgia and
Alabama. On the 10th of June 1875 he died in Dalton, Georgia,
a city which in 1848 he faiad helped to found.
GREEN; JOHN RICHARD (1837-1883), English historian,
was born at Oxford on 12th December 1837, and educated at
Magdalen College School and at Jesus College, where he obtained
an open scholarship. On leaving Oxford he took orders and
became the incumbent of St Philip's, Stepney. His preaching
was eloquent and able; he worked diligently among his poor
parishioners and won their affection by his ready sympathy.
Meanwhile he studied history in a scholarly fashion, and wrote
much for the Saturday Review. Partly because his health was
weak and partly because he ceased to agree with the teaching
of the Church of England, he abandoned clerical life and devoted
himself to history; In 1868 he took the post of librarian at
Lambeth, but his health was already breaking down and he
was attacked by consumption. His Short Histbry of the English
People (1874) at once attained extraordinary popularity, and
was afterwardsexpandedin a work of four volumes (1877-1880).
Green is pre-eminently a picturesque historian; he had a "vivid
imagination and a keen eye for colour. His chief aim was to
depict the progressive life of the English people rather than to
write a political history of the English state. In accomplishing
this aim he worked tip the results of wide reading into a series
of brilliant pictures. While generally accurate in his statement
of facts, 'and showing • a firrn grasp of the maih tendency of a
'period, he often builds more on his authorities than is warranted
by their 1 words, and is apt to overlook points which WOuld have
forced hirri to! modify his representations arid lower' the tone of
his colours. From his animated pages thousands haVe learned
to take pleasure in the history of their own people, but Could
scarcely learn to 'appreciate tfte complexity inherent in all
historical movement. His style 1 is extremely bright, -but it
lacks sobriety and presents some affectations. His later histories,
The Making of England (188-2) and The Conquest of 'England
(1883), are more soberly written than his earlier books, ^and are
valuable contributions to historical knowledge. Green; died at
Merttbne on the 7th of March iSS^. He was a singularly attrac-
tive man 1 , of wide intellectual sympathies and an enthusiastic
temperament; his gOod-humour was unfailing and he was a
brilliant talker; and his Work wa^ done with admirable courage
in spite of ill-health. It is said that Mrs Humphry W r ard's
Robert Elsmere is largely aprbtraftof him. "In 1877 "Green
rirarried .Miss AHce Stopford; and Mrs Green, besides writing
a memoir Of her husband, prefixed to the 1888 edition of his
Short 'IFistbty; has herself done valuable work as' an historian,
particUlkrry in "tier Henry III in" the rt English Statesmen"
series (t888J; her f&um Lifemlhe t$th Century (1894)- attd The
Making of TrelaHd and its Undoing (1908).
1 See 1 *the Letters of J. R. Green (1901), edited by Leslie Stephen.
' "■■ '-i-l ■ ■' ' • • ■ ■ v. '(W.-Hu.)-
' GREEN, MATTHEW (1696-1737), English poet, was born of
Nonconformist parents. He had a post in the customhouse,
and the few anecdotes that have been preserved of him show him
td have been as witty as his poems would lead one to expeot.
He died* unmarried at his lodging in*Nag'$ Head Court, Grace-
church Street, in ^737. His Grotto, & poem on Queen Caroline's
grotto at Richmond, was printed in 1732; and his chief poem,
1 The Spleen, in 1737 with a preface by his friend Richard Glover,
'these and some other short poems were printed in Dodsley's
collection (1748), and subsequently in various editions of the
British poets. They were edited in 1796 with a preface by Dr
A'ikin and in 1883' by £'. E. A. Wilhnott with the poems of Gray
and others. The Spleen is an epistle to Mr Cuthbert Jackson,
GREEN, TVH*
:\ c
$35
advocating cheerfulness, exercise and a quiet content as remedies.
It is full of witty sayings. Thomas Gray said of it: " Thete
is a profusion of wit everywhere; reading would have. formed
his judgment, and harmonized his verse, for even his wood-nates
often break out into strains of real poetry and music.?
GREEN, THOMAS! HILL (1836-1882), English philosopher,
the most typical English representative of the school of thought
called Neo- Kantian, or Neo- Hegelian, was bom on the 7th of
April 1836 at Birkin, a village in the West Riding of Yorkshires
of which his father was rector. On the paternal side he was de-
scended from Oliver Cromwell, whose honest, sturdyihdependence
of character he seemed to: have inherited.' His education was
conducted entirely at home . until ^ at the age of * f onrteen y . he
entered Rugby, where he remained five years. In. 1855 -he
became* an undergraduate member of Balliol College, Oxfqrd,
of which society he was, in 1860, elected fellow. His life, hence-
forth, was devoted to teachipg (mainly philosophical} in the,
university — first as college tujor, afterwards, from 187$, until his.
death (at Oxford on the 26th of March 1882) as Whyte's, Professor
of. Moral Philosophy. The lectures he delivered as professor form
the substance of , his two ; most important works, vizj the fro^
legomena to Ethics and the Lectures on the Principle^ of Political
Obligation, which contain, the whole of iris positive constructive
teaching. These works were not published untU.»after his death,
but Green's views were previously known indirectly; through the
Introduction to the standard edition of Hume's, worits by Green
and T. H. Grose (d. 1906), fellow of Queen's College, in which
the doctrine of the " English " or " empirical " philosophy
was exhaustively examined. 1
. Hume's empiricism, combined with a belief in biological
evolution (derived from Herbert Spencer), was the chief feature
in English thought during the third quarter of the joth century.
Green represents primarily tJhe reaction against doctrines which,
when carried out to their logical, conclusion, pot only " rendered
all philosophy futile," but were fatal to practical* life. By
reducing the human mind to a series of unrelated atomic sensa-
tions, this teaching destroyed the possibility of knowledge, and
further, by representing man as,a " being who is simply the result
of natural forces/' it made conduct, or any theory of conduct,
unmeaning; for life in any human, intelligible sense implies, a,
personal self which (1) knew* wbat<tQ; do, (2))has power to do it-
Green was thus driven,, np^ theoretically, but as a practical
necessity, to raise again the whole question of man in relation
to nature. When (he held) we have discovered what man in him-
self is, and what his relation to his environment, we shall then
know his function — what hejs fitted to do. Jn the light of this
knowledge we shall be able to formulate the moral code, which,
in turn, will serve as a criterion of actual civic and social institu-
tions. These form, naturally and necessarily, the objective
expression of moral ideas, and it is in gome civic or social whole
that the moral ideal must finally take concrete shape.*
To ask "What is man?" is to ask "What is experience ?"
for experience means that of which I am conscious. The facts
of .consciousness are the only facts which, to begin with, we are
justified in asserting to exist. . On the other hand , they are valid
evidence for whatever is necessary to their own explanation;
i.e. for whatever is logically involved in them. Now the
most striking characteristic of man, that in fact which marks Mm
specially, as contrasted with other animals, is ^/-consciousness.
The simplest mental act into which we can analyse the operations
of the human mind — the act of sense-perception— is never
merely a change, physical or psychical, but is the consciousness of
a change. Human experience consists, not of- processes. in- -an
animal organism, but of these processes recognized as such.
That which we perceive is from the outset an .apprehended; fact—*
that is to say, it cannot be analysed into isolated' elements (so*
called sensations) which, as such, -are. not 'constituents of corir
sciousness at all, but exists from the first ast a synthesis of relations
in a consciousness which keeps distinct the " self " and the various
elements of the "object," though holding, ail together in the
unity of the act of perception. In other words, tlie whole mental
structure we call knowledge consists, in its simplest equally with
its most complex constituents; of dole "work of thtfinincL'.V Locke
and Hume held that! the work of the mindi was *9 ipso unreal
because it was "made -by " man -aitd not " given to" man.
It thus represented a subjective creation,, not an objective fact.
But tins consequence: follows ctaly upon the assumption tha't the
work of the mind is. arbitrary, an assumption shoWb to be urii
justified by ithe results^ exact scrancc, with the distinction,
universally recognized, which such, science draws! foetteeei* truth
and falsehood, be4w»e*jthe. real; and " mere, ideas v" ^ Thid
(obviously. valid) distinction logically involves the consequence
that 'the object, on icojotiantj, of i knowledge, viz. TeaJ&y^fs an
intelligible ideal reality, a system «rf tbdughtre&tior^ a spiritual
cosmos. How is the girisfeence of this Ideal whale tobeaccounted
for? Only by tne existence 1 of s6me "" principle which renders all
relations possible anid }s jtsetf determined by nqne of jthein, "; djq
eternal self -consciousness which knows in whole what we knojw
in part. Tb€odafeew<i<rM^tk>rriantb^
experience is God gradually made manifest*. '*
Carrying on,. the saine analytical method into the special
department of moral philosophy* Green held that ethics applies,
to the peculiar conditions of social life ahat investigation 'into
man's nature which metaphysics began. 'The faculty employed
in this further investigation, is no " separate moral faculty,*'
but that same reason which is the source of all our knowledge-
ethical and other: < Self -reflection gradually reveals to us human
capacity, "human furictioflJ'Witrjf, 1 consequently, Tiuman responsi^
biUty . It brings out info 'dear consciousness certain potentialities'
in the realisation of 1 which,; -man's, true good must consist. As
the result of this anaiysis, combined with in investigation intd
the Surroundings man' lives hi, a," content "*^-a moral' code— :
becomes gradually evolved, Personal good is perceived to be
realizable only by making actual *he conceptions .thus arrived a.%1
So long as these remain potential- or ideal} they 'form the motive
of action; motive consisting always in the idea of some u end •**
or " good " which man presents to himself as an end in the attain-
ment of which he would be satisfied, that is, in the realization o{
which he would tod his true self j < 'The determination to realize
the self in some definite wayjeonstrtutes an " act of will," which, as
thus constituted, r is neither arbitrary nor externally determined;
For the motive which may. be said to be its cause lies in the man
himself, and the identification of the self with such. a motive
is a ^-determination, 'which' is at once t>oth rational and freel
The " freedom of man " is corj&tituted, not by a supposed ability
to do anything he may choose, but in the power to identify him-
self with that true good which reason reveals to him as kis true
good. This good idonslsl^fet'theTCafifcatidri of personal character ;
hence the final good, £e. the moial ideal, as a w^ole, can be
realized only in some society of persons who, while remaining ends
to themselves in the sense that their individuality is not lost but
rendered more perfect, ;fincJ this prefection' attainable only when
the separate individualities are integrated as part of a social
whole. Society is as necessary tp form persons as persons afe
1 to constitute society. Social union is the indispensable condition
of the development of. tbfe special: capacities of tMe iodfitfdual
members. Human setf-perfection cannot be gamed dn^isola*
1 tion; it is attainable only m inter-relation withfellow+citizens
in the social community* -. j " ;• • ' i •
The laW of t>ur being, so reVealedy involves in its turn civic or
political duties. Moral goodness cannot be limited itov stall less
constituted by, the cultivation toft self-regarding virtues, but con-
sists in the attempt to realize in practice that moral ideal which
self-analysis has revealed J to us as> our ideal.': From this (fact
arises the ground of political obligation, for the institutions of
political or civic life are 'the concrete embodiment of moral
ideas in terms of our day and generation. But, as society exists
only for the proper developrhemVof persons, we have a criterion
by which to test* these institutions, viz. d» they, or do they not,
contribute to the development of moral character in the individual
citizens? It is obvious tfcat the final- moral ideal is not realized
in any body of civic institutions actually existing,. but the; same
analysis which demonstrates rials- deficiency points out the
direction which a true development will take. Hence arises the
53&
GREEN, V.*— GREENAWAY
conception of. rights aind duties which shdtddbe maintained by
law, as opposed to those actually maintained; with the further
consequence that it may become occasionally a moral duty to
rebel against the state in the interest of i the state itself, that is,
in order better to subserve that end or function which constitutes
the raison d'&re of the state. The state does not consist in any
definite concrete organization formed once for all. It represents
a "general will " which is a desire for a common good. Its
basis is not a coercive authority imposed upon the citizens from
without, but consists in the spiritual recognition, on the part of
the citizens, of that which constitutes their true nature. " Will,
not force, is the basis of the state."
Green's teaching was, directly and indirectly, the most potent
philosophical influence in England during the last quarter of the
ijth century, while his enthusiasm for a common citizenship, and
his personal example in practical municipal life, inspired much of
the effort made, in the years succeeding his death, to bring the
universities. more into touch with the people, and to break down
the rigour of class distinctions.
Of nis philosophical doctrine proper, the most striking char-
acteristic is Integration, as opposed to Disintegration, both in
thought and in reality. H That which is " is a whole, not an aggregate :
an organic complex of parts, not a mechanical mass; a " whole
too not material but spiritual, a " world of thought-relations/ 1
On the critical side this teaching is now admittedly valid against
the older empiricism, and the cogency of the reasoning by which
his constructive theory is supported is generally recognized. Never-
theless, Green's statement of his conclusions presents important
difficulties. Even apart from the impossibility of conceiving a
whole of relations which are relations and nothing else (this ob-
jection is perhaps largely verbal), no explanation is given of the
fact (obvious in experience) that the spiritual entities of which the
Universe is composed appear material. Certain elements present
themselves in feeling which seem stubbornly to resist any attempt
to explain them in terms of thought. While, again, legitimately
insisting upon personality as a fundamental constituent in any
true theory of reality, the relation between human individualities
and the divine Person is left vague. and obscure; nor is it easy to
see how the existence of several individualities — human or divine —
in one cosmos is theoretically possible. It is at the solution of these
two questions that philosophy In the immediate future may be
expected to work.
Green's most important treatise*— the Prolegomena to Ethics —
practically complete in manuscript at his death — was published
in the year following, under the editorship of A. C. Bradley (4th ed.,
1899). Shortly afterwards R. L, Nettleship's standard edition of
his Works (exclusive of the Prolegomena) appeared in three volumes:
vol. L containing reprints of Green's 'criticism of Hume, Spencer,
Lewes; vol. ii. Lectures on Kant, on l^ogic, on the Principles of
Political Obligation; vol. Hi. Miscellanies, preceded by a full Memoir
by the Editor. The Principles of Political Obligation was afterwards
published in separate form. A criticism of Neo-HegeUanism will be
found in Andrew Seth (Pringle P^ttison) f Jiegeiianism and Person-
ality, See also articles in Mind (January and April 1884) by A. J.
Balfour and Henry Sidgwick, in the Academy (xxviii. 242 and xxv.
297) by S/ Alexander, and in the Philosophical Review (vi., 1897)
by S. S. Laurie; W. H. Fairbrother, Philosophy of T. H. Green
(London and New York, 1896); D*. G. Ritchie, The Principles of
State Interference (London, 1891); H. Sidgwick, Lectures on the
Philosophy of Kant (London, 1905).; J. H. Muirhead, The Service of
the State-. Four Lectures on the Political Teaching of T. H. Green
(1008); A. W. Benn, English Rationalism in the XlXth Century
(1906), vol ii., pp. 401 foil. (W. H. F.,» X.)
GREEN, VALENTINE (1730-1813K British engraver, was
born at Halesowen. He was placed by his father in a solicitor's
office at Evesham, where he remained for two years; but ulti-
mately he decided, on his own responsibility, to abandon the
legal profession and became apupilof alineengraverat Worcester.
In 1765 he migrated to London and began work as a mezzotint
engraver, having taught himself the technicalities of this art, and
quickly rose to a position in absolutely the front rank of British
engravers. He became & member of the Incorporated Society of
Artists in 1767, an associate-engraver of the Royal Academy
in 1775, and for some forty years he followed his profession with
the greatest success. The exclusive right of engraving and
publishing plates from the pictures in the Dtisseidorf gallery was
granted him by the duke of Bavaria in 1789, but, after he had
issued more than twenty of these plates, the siege of that city by
the French put an end to this undertaking and caused him
serious financial loss. From this cause, and through the failure
of certain other speculations, he was reduced to poverty; and in
consequence he took the post of keeper of the British Institution
in 1805, and continued in this office for the remainder of his
life. During his career as an engraver he produced some
four hundred plates after portraits by Reynolds, Romney,
and other British artists, after the compositions of Benjamin
West, and after pictures by Van Dyck, Rubens, Muriilo, and
other old masters. It is claimed for hinrdmt he was one of the
first engravers to show how admirably mezzotint could be applied
to the translation of pictorial compositions as well as portraits,
but at the present time it is to his portraits that most attention
is given by collectors. His engravings are distinguished by
exceptional richness and subtlety of tone, and by very judicious
management of relations of light and shade; and they have,
almost without exception, notable freshness and grace of handling.
See Valentine Green, by Alfred Whitman (London, 1902).
GREEN, WILLIAM HENRY (182 5-1 900), American Hebrew
scholar, was born in Groveville, near Bordentown, New Jersey,
on the 27th of January 1825. He was descended in the sixth
generation from Jonathan Dickinson, first president of the
College of New Jersey (now Princeton University), and his
ancestors had been closely connected with the Presbyterian
church. He graduated in 1840 from Lafayette College, where he
was tutor in mathematics (1 840-1842) and adjunct professor
(1843-1844). In 1846 he graduated from Princeton Theological
Seminary, and was instructor in Hebrew there in 1 846-1849. He
was ordained in 1848 and was pastor of the Central Presbyterian
church of Philadelphia in 1849-1851. From August 1851 until
his death, in Princeton, New Jersey, on the 10th of February
1000, he was professor of Biblical and Oriental Literature in
Princeton Theological Seminary. From 1859 the title of his chair
was Oriental and Old Testament Literature. In 1868 he refused
the presidency of Princeton College; as senior professor he was
long acting head of the Theological Seminary. He was a great
Hebrew teacher: his Grammar of the Hebrew Language (1861,
revised 1888) was a distinct improvement in method on Gesenius,
Roediger, Ewald and Nordheimer. All his knowledge of Semitic
languages he used in a " conservative Higher Criticism," which is
maintained in the following works: The Pentateuch Vindicated
from the Aspersions of Bishop Cotenso (1863), Moses and the
Prophets (1883), The Hebrew Feasts in their Relation to Recent
Critical Hypotheses Concerning the Pentateuch (1885), The Unity of
the Book of Genesis (1895), The Higher CriHcism of the Pentateuch
(r895), and A General Introduction to the Old Testament, vol.i.
Canon (1898), vol. ii. Text (1899). He was the scholarly leader of
the orthodox wing of the Presbyterian church in America, and was
moderator of the General Assembly of 1891. Green was chair-
man of the Old Testament committee of the Anglo-American
Bible revision committee.
See the articles by John T>. Davis in The Biblical World, new
series, vol. xv., pp. 406-413 (Chicago, 1900), and The Presbyterian
and Reformed Reptew, vol xi. pp. 377-396 (Philadelphia, 1900).
GREENAWAY, KATE (1846-tooi), English artist and book
illustrator, was the daughter of John Greenaway; d well-known
draughtsman and engraver on wood, and was born in London on
the 17th of March 1846. After a course of study at South
Kensington, at " Heatherley's " life classes, and at the Slade
School, Kate Greenaway began, in 1868, to exhibit water-colour
drawings at the Dudley Gallery, London. Her more remarkable
early work, however, consisted of Christmas cards, which, by
reason of their quaint beauty of design and charm of draughts-
manship, enjoyed an extraordinary vogue. Her subjects were,
in the main, young girls, children, flowers, and landscape; and
the air of artless simplicity, freshness, humour, and purity of
these little works so appealed to public and artists alike that the
enthusiastic welcome habitually accorded to them is to be attri-
buted to something more than love of novelty. In the line she had
struck out Kate Greenaway was encouraged by H. Stacy Marks,
R.A., and she refused to listen to those friends who urged her to
return to a more conventional manner. Thenceforward her
illustrations for children (such as for Little Folks, 1873, et seq)
attracted much attention. In 1877 her drawings at the Dudley
Gallery were sold for £54, and her Royal Academy picture for
eighteen guineas; and in the same year she began to draw for the
GREENBACKS— GRE3NCASHLE
537
Illustrated London News. In the year 1879 she produced Under
the Window, of which 150,000 copies are said to have been sold,
and of which French and German editions were also issued.
Then followed The Birthday Booh, Mother Goose, Little Ann, and
other books for children which were appreciated not less by
adults, and were to be found on sale in the bookshops of every
capital in Europe and in the cities of America. The extraordinary
success achieved by the young girl may be estimated by the
amounts paid to her as her share of the profits: for Under the
Window she received £1130; for The Birthday Book, £1250;
for Mother Goose, £005; and for Little Ann, £567. These four
books alone produced a clear return of £8000. " Toy-books "
though they were, these little works created a revolution in
illustration, and so were of real importance; they were loudly
applauded by John Ruskin (Art of England and Fors Clavigera),
by Ernest Chesneau and Arsene Alexandre in France, by Dr
Muther in Germany, and by leading art-critics throughout the
world. In 1890 Kate Greenaway was elected a member of the
Royal Instituteof Painters in Water Colours, and in 1 89 1 , 1894 and
1898 she exhibited water-colour drawings, including illustrations
for her books, at the gallery of the Fine Art Society (by which a re-
presentative selection was exhibited in 1902), where they surprised
the world by the infinite delicacy , tenderness, and grace which they
displayed. A leading feature in Miss Greenaway's work was her
revival of the delightfully quaint costume of the beginning of the
19th century; this lent humour to her fancy, and so captivated
the public taste that it has been said, with poetic exaggeration,
that " Kate Greenaway dressed the children of two continents."
Her drawings of children have been compared with Stothard's
for grace and with Reynolds's for naturalness, and thoseof flowers
with the work of van Huysum and Botticelli. From 1883 to
1897, with a break only in 1896, she issued a series of Kate
Greenaway's Almanacs. Although she illustrated The Pied
Piper of Hamelin and other works, the artist preferred to pro-
vide her own text; the numerous verses which were found among
her papers after her death prove that she might have added to her
reputation with her pen. She had great charm of character, but
was extremely shy of public notice, and not less modest in private
life. Shedied at Hampstead on the 6th of November 1901.
See the Life, by M. H. Spielmann and G. S. Layard (1905).
(M. H. S.)
GREENBACKS, a form of paper currency in the United
States, so named from the green colour used on the backs of
the notes. They are treasury notes, and were first issued by
the government in 1862, " as a question of hard necessity,"
to provide for the expenses of the Civil War. The government,
following the example of the banks, had suspended specie pay-
ment. The new notes were therefore for the time being an
inconvertible paper currency, and, since they were made legal
tender, were really a form of fiat money. The first act, providing
for the issue of notes to the amount of $150,000,000, was that
of the 25th February 1862; the acts of nth July 1862 and
3rd March 1863 each authorized further issues of $150,000,000.
The notes soon depreciated in value, and at the lowest were
worth only 35 cents on the dollar. The act of 12th April 1866
authorized the retirement of $10,000,000 of notes within six
months and of $4,000,000 per month thereafter; this was dis-
continued by act of 4th February 1868. On ist January 1879
specie payment was resumed) and the nominal amount of notes
then stood at $£46,681,000, which is still outstanding.
The so-called Greenback party (also called the Independent, and the
National party) first appeared in a presidential campaign in 1876,
when its candidate, Peter Cooper, received 81,7^0 votes. It advo-
cated increasing the volume of greenbacks, forbidding bank issues,
and the paying in greenbacks of the principal of all government
bonds not expressly payable in coin. In 1878 the party, by various
fusions, cast over 1,000,000 votes and elected 14 Congressmen; and'
in 1880 there was fusion with labour reformers and it cast 308,578
votes for its presidential candidate, J. B. Weaver, and elected 8
Congressmen. In 1884 their candidate Benjamin F. Butler (also the
candidate of the Anti r Monopoly party) received 175.370 votes.
Subsequently the party went out of existence.
GREEN BAY, a city and the county-seat of Brown county,;
Wisconsin, U.S.A., at the S. extremity of Green Bay, at j^he
mouth of the Fox river, 114 m. N. of Milwaukee. Pop. (1890)
9069; (1000) 18,684, of whom 4022 were foreign-born and 33
were negroes; (1910 census) 25,236* The city is served
by the Chicago & North-Western, the Chicago, Milwaukee
& St Paul, the Kewaunee, Green Bay & Western, and the
Green Bay & Western railways, by an inter-urban electric
railway connecting with other Fox River Valley cities, and
by lake and river steamboat lines. Green Bay lies on high
level ground on both sides of the river, which is here crossed
by several bridges. The city has the Kellogg Public Library,
the Brown County Court House, two high schools, a business
college, several academies, two hospitals, an orphan asylum
and the State Odd Fellows' Home. It is the seat of a Roman
Catholic cathedral, the bishopric being the earliest established
in the North-west. The so-called " Tank Cottage," now in
Washington Park, is said to be the oldest house in Wisconsin;
it was built on the W. bank of the river near its mouth by Joseph
Roy, a French-Canadian voyageur, in 1766, was subsequently
somewhat modified, and in 1908 was bought and removed to
its present site by the Green Bay Historical Society. Midway
between Green Bay and De Pere (5 m. S.W. of Green Bay)
is the state reformatory, opened in 1809-1901. Green Bay's
fine harbour accommodates a considerable lake commerce, and
the city is the most important railway and wholesale distributing
centre in N.E. Wisconsin. Its manufactures include lumber
and lumber products, furniture, wagons, woodenware, farm
implements and machinery, flour, beer, canned goods, brick
and tile and dairy products; and it has lumber yards, grain
elevators, fish warehouses and railway repair shops. The
total value of the factory product in 1905 was $4,873,027, an
increase of 79*9% since 1000. The first recorded visit of a
European to the vicinity of what is now Green Bay is that of
Jean Nicolet, who was sent west by Champlain in 1634, and
found, probably at the Red Banks, some 10 m. below the present
city, a village of Winnebago Indians, who he thought at first
were Chinese. Between 1654 and 1658 Radisson and Groseilliers
and other coureurs des bois were at Green Bay. Claude Jean
Allouez, the Jesuit missionary, established a mission on the W.
shore of the bay, about 20 m. from the present city. Later
he removed his mission to the Red Banks, and in the winter
of 1671-1672 established it permanently 5 m. above the present
city, at Rapides des Peres, on the E. shore of the Fox river.
In 1673 Joliet and Marquette visited the spot. In 1683-1685
Le Sueur and Nicholas Perrot traded with the Indians here.
In 1718-1720 Fort St Francis was erected at the mouth of the
river on the W. bank, and after being several times deserted
was permanently re-established in 1732. About 1745 Augustin
de Langlade established a trading post at La Baye and later
brought his family there from Mackinac. This was the first
permanent settlement at Green Bay and in Wisconsin. The
British garrison which occupied the fort from 1761 to 1763,
during which time the fort received the name of Fort Edward
Augustus, was removed at the time of Pontiac's rising, and the
fort was never re-garrisoned by the English, except for a short
time during the War of 1812. The inhabitants of La Baye
were, however, acknowledged subjects of Great Britain, the
jurisdiction of the United States being practically a dead letter
until the American fort (Fort Howard) was garrisoned in 1816.
As early as 1810 fur traders, employed by John Jacob Astor,
were stationed here; about 1820 Astor erected a warehouse
and other buildings; and for many years Green Bay consisted
of two distinct settlements, Astor and Navarino, which were
finally united in 1839 as Green Bay. The city was chartered
in 1854. In 1893 Fort Howard was consolidated with it. The
Green Bay Intettigencer y the first newspaper in Wisconsin,
began publication here in 1833.
See Neville and Martin, Historic Green Bay (Green Bay. 1893) ;
and Martin and Beaumont, Old Green Bay (Green Bay, 1900).
GREENCASTLE, a city and the qounty-seat of Putnam
county,, Indiana, U.S.A., about 38 m. W. by S. of Indianapolis
and on the Big Walnut river. Pop. (1890) 4390; (1.900) 3661.
It is served by the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St. Louis,
ra*
GREENE, ' G'. W-.-y3REENE, N.'
the Chicago, Indianapolis & Louisville, the Vandalia, and the
TcrreHaute, Indianapolis & Eastern (electric) railways. It has
•manufactures of 'some importance, including lumber, pumps,
kitc^Ch-edbinfcts, dr&g-riiwsy hghtrtfag-rods and tin-plate, is in
the midst 'Of a broe grass region, and i§ a shipping point for beef
cattle.' The 1 city has a Carnegie library and is the seat of the
'dfc Pauw University (co-educational) , { a Methodist Episcopal.
Institution, founded as Indiana Asbury University in 1837,
and fenamed in' 18^4' in' honour of Washington Charles de Pauw,
(1822-1887), a successful capitalist, banker and glass manu-
facturer. The total gifts of Mr de Pauw and his family to the
institution amount to about $600,000. Among the presidents
of the University have been Bishop Matthew Simpson, Bishop
Thomas Bowman (b. 1817), and Bishop Edwin Holt Hughes
(b. 1866), all 6f the Methodist Episcopal church. The university
comprises the Asbury College of Liberal Arts, a School of Music,
a Senool of Art and an Academy, and had in toocr-ioio
43 instructors, a library of 37,000 volumes, and 1017 students.
Greencastle was first settled about 1820, and was chartered
as a city in r86i. " : '
GREENE, GEORGE WASHINGTON (1811-1883), American
historian, was born at East Greenwich; Rhode Island, on the
8th of April i8ri, the grandson of Major-General Nathanael
Greene. He* entered Brown University in 1824, left in his junior
year on account of ill-health, was in Europe during the next
twenty years, except In 1833-1834; when he was principal
of Kent Academy at East Greenwich, and was the United States
consul at Rome from 1837 to 1845. He was instructor in
modern languages in Brown University from 1848 to 1852;
and in 1871-1875 was non-resident lecturer in American history
in Cornell University. He died at East Greenwich, Rhode
Island, on the 2nd of February 1883. His published works
include French and Italian text-books; 'Historical Studies
(1850); Biographical Studies (i860);- Historical View of the
American Revolution (1865); Life of Nathanael Greene (3 vols.,
1867-187*); The German Element in the War of American
Independence (1876) ; and a Short History of Rhode Island (1877).
GREENE, MAURICE (1605-1755) English musical composer,
was born in London. He was the son of a clergyman in the
city, and soon became a 1 chorister of St Paul's cathedral, where!
he studied under Charles King, and subsequently under Richard
Brind, organist of the cathedral fromi707 to 1718, whom, on
his death in the last-named year, he ' succeeded. Nine years
later he became organist and composer to the chapel royal,
on the death of Dr Croft. In 1730 he was elected to the chair
of music in the university of Cambridge, and had the degree
of doctor of music conferred on him. Dr Greene was a!
voluminous composer of church music, and his collection of:
Forty Select Anthems became a standard! work of its kind. He
wrote a u Te Dcum," several oratorios, a masque, The Judgment
of Htrcules, and a pastoral opera, Phoebe (1748); also glees and
catches: and a collection of Catches and Canons for Three and t
Fo:ir Voices te amongst his compositions. * In addition he com-
posed many occasional pieces for the king's birthday, having
been appointed master of the king's band in 1735. But it is
as a composer of church music that Greene is chiefly remembered.
It is here that his contrapuntal skill and his sound musical
scholarship are chiefly shown. With Handel, Greene was
originally on intimate terms, but his equal friendship for
Buononrini, Handel's rival, estranged the German master's
feelings from him, and all personal intercourse between them
ceased. Greene, m conjunction with the violinist Michael
Christian Festing (17^7-175^) and others, originated the Society
of Musicians, for the support of poor artists and their families.
He died on the tst of December 1755:
GREENE, NATHANAEL (1741-1786), American general, son
of a Quaker farmer and smith, was bom at Potowomut, ia
the township of Warwick, Rhode Island, on the 7th of August
(not, as has been stated, 6th of June) 1742. Though his father's
sect discouraged 4% literary a>rcomphshments,*' he acquired a
large amount of general information, and made a special study
of mathematics, history and law. At Coventry, R.I., whither
he removed in 1770 to take charge of a forg* built by his father
and his uncles, he was the first to urge the establishment of a
public school; and in the same year he was chosen a member
'of the legislature of Rhode' Island, to >wiifoh he was re-elected
in 1771, 1772 and 1775. He sympathised strongly with the
Whig, or Patriot* element among the- colonists, and in 1774
joined the local militia. At this time he began to study the art
of war. In December 1774 he was on a committee appointed
by the assembly to revise the militia laws. His zeal in attending
to military duty led to his expulsion from the Society of Friends.
In 1775, in command of the contingent raised by Rhode Island,
he joined the American forces at Cambridge, and on the 22nd
of June was appointed a brigadier by Congress. To him
Washington assigned the command of the city of Boston after
it was evacuated by Howe in March 1776. Greene's letters of
October 1775 and January 1776 to Samuel Ward, then a delegate
from Rhode Island to the Continental Congress, favoured a
declaration of independence. On the 9th of August' 1776 he
was promoted to be one of the four new majdr*generals and wis
put in command of the Continental troops on Long Island;
he chose the place for fortifications (practically the same as that
picked by General Charles Lee) and built the redoubts and
entrenchments of Fort Greene on Brooklyn Heights. Severe
illness prevented his taking part in the battle of Long Island.
He was prominent among those who advised a retreat from New
York and the burning of the city, so that the British might not
use it. Greene was placed in command of Fort Lee, and on the
25th of October succeeded General Israel Putnam in command
of F6rt Washington. He received orders from Washington to
defend Fort Washington to the last extremity, and on the 1 xth of
October Congress had passed a resolution to the same effect; but
later Washington wrote to him to use his own discretion. . Greene
ordered Colonel Magaw, whowasmimmediate command,to defend
the place until he should hear from him again, and reinforced
it to meet General Howe's attack. Nevertheless, the blame for
the losses of Forts Washington and Lee was put upon Greene,
but apparently without his losing the confidence of Washington,
who indeed himself assumed the responsibility. At Trenton
Greene commanded one of the two American columns, his own,
accompanied' by Washington, arriving first; and after the
victory here he urged Washington to push on immediately to
Princeton, but was over-ruled by a council of war. At the
Brandy wine Greene commanded the reserve. At Germantown
Greene's command, having a greater distance to march than the
right wing under Sullivan, failed to arrive in good time — a failure
which Greene himself thought (without cause) would cost him
Washington's regard; on this, with the affair of Fort Washington,
Bancroft based his unfavourable estimate of Greene's ability.
But on their arrival, Greene and his troops distinguished them-
selves greatly.
At the urgent request of Washington, on the 2nd of March
1778, at \ alley Forge, he accepted the office of quartermaster-
general (succeeding Thomas Mifflin), and of his conduct in this
difficult work> which Washington heartily approved, a modern
critic, Colonel H. B. Carrington, has said that it was " as good
as was possible under the circumstances of that fluctuating
uncertain force." He had become quartermaster-general on
the understanding, however, that he should retain the right to
command troops in the field; thus We find him at the head of
the right wing at Monmouth on the 28th of June. In August
Greene and Lafayette commanded the land forces sent to Rhode
Island to co-operate with the French admiral d'Estaing, in an
expedition which proved abortive. In June 1780 Greene com-
manded in a skirmish at Springfield, New Jersey. In August
he resigned the oflSce of quartermaster-general, after a long and
bitter struggle with Congress over the interference in army
administration by the Treasury Board and by commissions
appointed by Congress. Before his resignation became effective
it fell to his lot to preside over the court which, on the 29th of
September, condemned Major John Andr6 to death.
On the 14th of October he succeeded Gates as, commander-in-
chief of the Southern army, and took command at Charlotte, N.C.,
GREENE; ROBERT
539
on the 2nd of December. The army. was weak and badly
equipped and was opposed by a superior force under Corjawalli*.
Greene decided to divide his own troops, thus forcing the division
of the British as well, and creating the possibility of a strategic
interplay of forces. This strategy led to GeneralDaniel Morgan's
victory of Cowpens (just oyer the South Carolina, line) on j the
17th of January 1781, and to the battle at Guilford Court
House, N.C. (March 15), in which after having weakened the
British troops by continual movements, and drawn in reinforce*
ments for his own army, Greene was defeated indeed, but only
at such cost to the victor that Tarleton called it '* the pledge of
ultimate defeat.' 7 Three days after this battle CornwaUis
withdrew toward Wilmington. Greene's generalship and judg-r
ment were again conspicuously illustrated in the next few weeks,
in which he allowed CornwaUis to march north to Virginia and
himself turned swiftly, to the reconquest of the inner country
of South Carolina. This, in spite of a reverse sustained at Lord
Rawdon's hands at Hobkirk's Hill (3 m. N. of Camden) on the 1
25th of April, he achieved by the end of June, the British retiring
to the coast. Greene then gave his forces a si* weeks' rest on
the High Hills of the Santee, and on the 8th of September, with
2600 men, engaged the British under Lieut.«-Coionel James
Stuart (who had succeeded Lord Rawdon). at Eutaw. Springs;
the battle, although tactically drawn, so weakened the, British
that they 'withdrew to Charleston, where Greene penned them
during the remaining Trionths of the war.. Greene's Southern
campaign showed remarkable strategic features that remind one
of those of Turenne, the commander whom he had taken as.hi$>
model in his studies before the war. He excelled in dividing,
eluding tmd tiring his opponent by long marches* and im actual
conflict forcing him to pay for a temporary. advantage a. price
that he <x>uld not afford. He was greatly assisted by abler 1
subordinates, including the Polish- engineer* Tadeusz Kosciusko,
the brilliant cavalry captains, Henry (" Light-Horse Harry ")
Lee and William Washington, and the partisan leaders, Thotoas
Suniter and Francis Marion.' ..,<;•
South Carolina and Georgia voted Greene liberals grants, oi
lands* and money. The South Carolina estate, Boone's. Barony,
S. of Edisto in Bamberg County, he sold to meet bills fox the >
rations of his Southern army. On the; Georgia estate, Mulberry
Grove, 14 m. above Savannah, on the river, he settled in 1785,
alter twice refusing (1781 and 1784) the post of secretary of war,
and there he died of sunstroke oath© 19th of June tyS6u Greene
was a singularly able, and— like other prominent generals on
the American side — a self-trained soldier, and was second
only to Washington among the officers oi the American army
in military ability. Like Washington he had the great gift of
using small means to the utmost advantage. His attitude
towards the Tories was humane : and even kindly, and he
generously defended Gates, who had repeatedly intrigued
against him, when Gates's conduct of the campaign in the South
was criticized. There is a monument to Greene in Savannah
(1820). His statue, with that of Roger Williams, represents the
state of Rhode Island in the National Hall oi Statuary in the
Capitol at Washington; in the same city there is a bronze
equestrian statue of him by H. JL Brown.
See the Life of Nathaniel Greene (3 vols^ 1867-^1871), by his grands
son, George W. Greene, and the biography (New- York, 189*5), by
Brig.-Gen. F. V. Greene, in the " Great Commanders Series/
6RSKNE, ROBERT (1. 1560-1502), English dramatist and
miscellaneous writer, was born at Norwich about 1560. The
identity of his father has been • disputed, but there is every
reason to believe that he belonged to the tradesmen's class and
had small means. It is doubtful whether Robert Greene attended
Norwich grammar school; but, as an eastern counties man
(to one of whose plays, Friar Bacon, the Norfolk and Suffolk
borderland owes a lasting poetic commemoration) he -naturally
found his way to Cambridge, where he entered St John's College
as a sizar in 1575 and took his B.A. thence in 1579, proceeding
M.A. in 1583 from Clare Hall. His life at the university was,
according to his own account, spent " among wags as lewd as
himself, with whom he consumed the flower of his youth." In;
z 588 he was incorporated at Oxford, so .that on. some oi his title-
pages he styles .himself /', utriusque Academiae in Artibus
Magister "; and Nashe humorously refers to him as " utriusque
Academiae Robertus, Greene." Between the years 4578 and
J 583 he had trayeljed ahroad, . according to his own account
very e«tensively v visi*ing Fiance, Qermany^ Poland and Denmark, .
besides learning at firsthand to " hate the pride of Italic "
and to know the taste oi that pott's fruit, " Spanish mirabolones."
The grounds upon whichit has been suggested that he took holy .
orders are quite insufficient ;, according to the title-page of a
pamphlet' published by him ,^1585 be. was then a "student in
phisicke*" , Already, however, after taking his M.A. degree, he
had according to his own account begun his London life >( and his
earliest extant literary production was in hand as early as 1580.
He now became " an author of playes and a. pepner of love-
t>amphlets^ so that I soone grew famous in that qualitie, that
who for that trade growne s,o, ordinary about London as Robin .
Greene?", " Glad was that. printer," says Nashe, '' tbjit might
bee so blest to pay him deare for the very dregs of his wit."
By his own. account he rapidly sank into the worst debaucheries
of the town, though Nashe. declares that he never knew him
guilty of notorious. crime. He wa£ not without passing impulses
towards., a more rightepus and sober life, and was derided in
consequence by his associates as a, " Purifa,ne and ^resizian."
It is possible that he* as well as his bitter enemy, Gabriel Harvey,
exaggerated the lopsenes6 qf his. conduct. His marriage ; which
took place in 1585,0* 158$, failed to steady him; if Francesco,
in Greene's pamphlet Never too late to mend (1599), is, in tended'
for the. author himself „ it. b&d.beeji, a runaway mafceh; tut: the
fiction and the autobiographical sketch jn .the Repentance, ^5^
in their account oi the unfaithfulness which followed on.t^e part,
bi the husband. He livecj with his wife, whose name, seems to
have been Dorothy ("Doll"; and ci n Dorothea in James IV.),
for a while.; " but forasmuch s& she, wwld, perswade me irom my
wilful wickednes, after I had a chikj by. tier, I cast ner oft, having
spent up the marriage-mpney which I obtained by tier. Then
left I her at six or se^en f wfco w£nt into Lincolnshire., apd.I to .
London,"' where bis. reputation a$ a playwright and. wf iter of
pamphlets of " love and vaine fantasy es " continued to increase,
and where his life was a feverish .alternation of labour, and :
debauchery. In bis last years be tpok it .upon himself to make
war- on the cutpurses and" conny*catchers " with whom, be cajne .
into contact, m the slums, and whose doings, he fearlessly exposed
in his writingBw Hfitejisu&how.at.ia&t he was friendless" except
it were in a fewe alehouses,*' where he was respected Q9j account ;
of the score he bad run. up,. .When .the end came, he was a
dependant on the charity, pfj^he, poor/and the pitying love of the
unfortunate. Henri Muxgfff has drawn no picture more sickening
and more pitiful than the, story qf Greene's death, as told by bis
Puritan adversary, Gabriel Harvey — a veracious .though a, far
from unprejudiced narrator. Greene had taken up the cudgels .
provided by the Harvey brothers on their intervention in the
Marprelate controversy, and made an attack (immediately
suppressed) upon Gabriel'* father. and family in the.prosertract
A Quip for an Upstart Courtier, or a Quaint Dispute between
Velvet Breeches and Goth Breeches, (1.592). After a banquet.
where the chief guest had been Thomas Nashe — an old associate
and perhaps a. college friend of Greene's, any great intimacy with
whom, however, he seems to have been aoxdous to disclaim —
Greene had fallen sick "of a surfeit of pickle herringe and
Rennish wine." At the house of a poor shoemaker near Dowgate,
deserted by all except his compassionate hostess (Mrs Isam) and
two women— one of them the sister of a notorious thief named
" Cutting Ball," and.the mother of his illegitimate son, Fortunatus
Greene — he died on the 3rd of September 1592. Shortly before
his death he wrote undfer a bond for £jo which he had given to
the good shoemaker, the following words addressed to his long-
forsaken wife: " Doll, I charge thee, by the loue of our youth
and by my soules rest, that thou wilte see this man paide; for
if hee and his wife had not succoured me, I had died in the
streetes. — Robert Greene."
Four Letters and Certain SonnetSy Harvey's attack on Greene,
54°
appeared almost immediately after' his death, as to the circum*
stances of which his relentless adversary had taken care to inform
himself personally. Nashe took up the defence of his dead friend
and ridiculed Harvey in Strange News (1593); and the dispute
continued for some years. But, before this, the dramatist Henry
Chettle published a pamphlet from the hand of the unhappy
man, entitled Greene's Groat' s-worth of WU bought with a Million
of Repentance (1592), containing the story of Roberto, who may
be regarded, for practical purposes; as representing Greene
himself. This ill-starred production rnay almost be said to have
done more to excite the resentment of posterity against Greene's
name than all the errors for which he professed his repentance.
For in it be exhorted to repentance three of his quondam acquaint-
ance. Of these three Marlowe was one— to whom and to whose
creation of "that Atheist Tamberlairie " he had repeatedly
alluded. The second was Peele, the third probably Nashe.
But the passage addressed to Peele contained a transparent
allusion to a fourth dramatist, who was an actor likewise, as
" an vpstart crow beautified with our feathers, that with his
Tygres heart wrapt in a players hyde supposes hee is as well able
to bombast out a blanke-verse as the best of you; and being an
absolute Iohannes-fac-totum, is in his owne conceyt the onely
shake-scene in a countrey." The phrase italicized parodies
a passage occurring in The True Tragedie of Richard, Duke of
York, &c, and retained in Part III. of Henry VI. If Greene
(as many eminent critics have thought) had a hand in The True
Tragedie, he must here have intended a charge of plagiarism
against Shakespeare. But while it seems more probable that
(as the late R. Simpson suggested) the upstart crow beautified
with the feathers of the three dramatists is a sneering description
of the actor who declaimed their verse, the animus of the whole
attack (as explained by Dr Ingleby) is revealed in its concluding
phrases. This " shake-scene," i.e. this actor had ventured to
intrude upon the domain of the regular staff of playwrights —
their monopoly was in danger!
Two other prose pamphlets of an autobiographical nature were
issued posthumously. Of these, The Repentance of Robert
Greene, Master of Arts (1592), must originally have been written
by him on his death-bed, under the influence, as he says, of
Father Parsons's Booke of Resolution (The Christian Directorie,
appertayning to Resolution, 1582, republished in an enlarged
form, which became very popular, in 1585); but it bears traces
of having been improved from the original; while Greene's
Vision was certainly not, as the title-page avers, written during
his last illness.
Altogether not less than thirty-five prose-tracts are ascribed
to Greene's prolific pen. Nearly all of them are interspersed
with verses; in their themes they range from the " misticall "
wonders of the heavens to the familiar but f ' pernitious sleights "
of the 1 sharpers of London* But the most widely attractive of
his prose publications were his " love-pamphlets," which brought
upon him the outcry of Puritan censors. The earliest of his
novels, as they fnay be called, MamiUia y was licensed in 1583.
This interesting story may be said to have accompanied Greene
through life; for even part if:, df which, though probably com-
pleted several years earKer, the earliest extant edition bears the
date 1593, had a sequel, The Anatomie of Lobe's Flatteries, which
contains a review of suitors recalling Portia's in The Merchant
of Venice. The Myrrour of Modtstie (the story of Susanna)
(1584); The Historie of Arhasto, King of Dermarke (1584);
Morando, the Tritameron of Love (sl rather tedious imitation of the
Decameron (1 584) ; Planetomachia (1385) (a contention in story-
telling between Venus and Saturn); Penelope's Web (1587)
(another string of stories); Alcida, Greene's Metamorphosis
(1588), and others, followed. In these popular productions he
appears very distinctly as a follower of John Lyly; indeed, the
first part of Mamillia was entered in the Stationers' Registers
in the year of the appearance of Euphues, and two of Greene's
novels are by their titles announced as a kind of sequel to the
parent romance: Euphues his Censure to Philautus (1587),
Menaphon. Camilla's Alarum to Slumbering Euphues (1589),
named in some later editions Greene's Arcadia. This pastoral
GREENE, ROBERT
romance, written in direct emulation of Sidney's, with a heroine
called Samila, contains St Sephestia's charming lullaby, with
its' refrain u Father's sorowe, father's joy." But, though Greene's
style copies the balanced oscillation, and his diction the ornate-
ness (including the proverbial philosophy) of Lyly, he contrives
to interest by the matter as well as to attract attention by the
manner of his narratives. Of his highly moral intentions he
leaves the reader in no doubt, since they are exposed on the
title-pages. The f ull title of the M yrrourof M odestie for instance
continues: " wherein appeareth as in a perfect glasse how the
Lord delivereth the innocent from all imminent perils, and
plagueth the blood-thirsty hypocrites with deserved punish-
ments," &c. On his Pandosto, The Triumph of Time (1588)
Shakespeare founded A Winter's Tale; in fact, the novel contains
the entire plot of the comedy, except the device of the living
statue; though some of the subordinate characters in the play,
including Autolycus, were added by Shakespeare, together with
the pastoral fragrance of one of its episodes.
In Greene's Never too Late (1500), announced as a " Powder
of Experience: sent to all youthfull gentlemen" for their
benefit, the hero, Francesco, is in all probability intended for
Greene himself , the sequel or second part is, however, pure fiction.
This episodical narrative has a vivacity and truthfulness of
manner which savour of an 18th century novel rather than of
an Elizabethan tale concerning the days of " Palmerin, King
of Great Britain." Philador, the prodigal of The Mourning
Garment (1590), is obviously also in some respects a portrait of
the writer. The experiences of the Roberto of Greene's Groat's-
worth of WU (1592) are even more palpably the experiences of
the author himself, though they are possibly overdrawn — for a
born rhetorician exaggerates everything, even his own sins.
Besides these and the posthumous pamphlets on his repentance,
Greene left realistic pictures of the very disreputable society
to which he finally descended, in his pamphlets on "conny-
catching ": A Notable Discovery of Coosnage (1591), The Blacke
Bookes Messenger. Laying open the Life and Death of Ned
Browne^ one of the most Notable Cutpurses, Crossbiters, and
Conny-catchers that ever lived in England (159s). Much in
Greene's manner, both in his romances and in his pictures of
low life, anticipated what proved the slow course of the actual
development of the English novel; and it is probable that his
true mitier, and that which bestsuited the bright fancy, ingenuity
and wit of which his genius was compounded, was pamphlet-
spinning and story-telling rather than dramatic composition.
It should be added that, euphuist as Greene was, few of his
contemporaries in their lyrics warbled wood-notes which like
his resemble Shakespeare's in their native freshness.
Curiously enough, as Mr Churton Collins has pointed out,
Greene, except in the two pamphlets written just before his
death, never refers, to his having written plays; and before 1592
his contemporaries are equally silent as to his labours as a
playwright. Only four plays remain to us of which he was
indisputably the sole author. The earliest of these seems to
have been the CamicaU History of Alphonsus, King of Arragon,
of which Henslowe's Diary contains no. trace. But it can hardly
have been first acted long after the production of Marlowe's
Tamburlaine, winch had, in all probability, been brought on the
stage in 1587. For this play, " comical " only in the negative
sense of having a happy ending, was manifestly written in
emulation as well as in direct imitation of Marlowe's tragedy.
While Greene cannot have thought himself capable of surpassing
Marlowe as a tragic poet, he very probably .wished to outdo him
in " business, " and to equal him in the rant which was sure to
bring down at least part of the house. Alphonsus is a history
proper— a dramatized chronicle or narrative of waxlike events.
Its fame could never equal that of Marlowe's tragedy; but its
composition showed that Greene could seek to rival the most
popular drama of the day, without falling very far short of his
model.
In the Honourable History of Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay
(not known to have been acted before February, 1592, but
probably written in 1589) Greene once more attempted to emulate
GREENFIELD-uGREENHEART
54i
Marlowe; and he Succeeded in producing a masterpiece of mY
own. Marlowe's Doctor Faustus, which doubtless suggested the
composition of Greene's comedy, reveals the mighty tragic
genius of its authbr;* but Greene resolved on an altogether
distinct treatment of a cognate theme. > Interweaving with the
popular tale of Friar Bacon and his wondrous doings a charming
idyl (so far as we know, of his own invention), the story of Prince
Edward's love for the Fair Maid of Fressingfield, he produced a
comedy brimful of amusing action and genial fun. Friar Bacon
remains a dramatic picture of English Elizabethan life with
which The Merry Wives alone can vie; and not even the ultra-
classicism in the similes of its diction can destroy the naturalness
which constitutes its perennial charm. The History of Orlando
Furioso, one of the Twelve Peeres of France has on unsatisfactory
evidence been dated as before 1586, and is known to have been
acted on the 21st of February 1592. It is a free dramatic
adaptation of Ariosto, Harington's translation of whom appeared
in 1 591, and who in one passage is textually quoted? and it
contains a large variety of characters and a superabundance of
action. Fairly lucid in arrangement and fluent in style, the
treatment of the madness of Orlando lacks tragic power. Very
few dramatists from Sophocles to Shakespeare have succeeded
in subordinating the grotesque effect of madness to the tragic;
and Greene is not to be induded in the list.
In The Scottish Historic of James IV. (acted 1592, licensed
for publication 1594) Greene seems to have reached the climax
of his dramatic powers. The " historical " character of this play
is pure pretence. The story is taken from one of Giraldi
Cinthio's tales. Its theme is the illicit passion of King James for
the chaste lady Ida, to obtain whose hand he endeavours, at the
suggestion of a villain called Ateukin, to make away with his own
wife. She escapes in doublet and hose, attended by her faithful
dwarf; but, on her father's making war upon her husband to
avenge her wrongs, she brings about a reconciliation between
them. Not only is this well-constructed story effectively worked
out, but the characters are vigorously drawn, and in Ateukin
there is a touch of Iago. The fooling by Slipper, the clown of the
piece, is unexceptionable; and, lest even so the play should hang
heavy on the audience, its action is carried off by a " pleasant
comedie " — i.e. a prelude and some dances between the acts —
" presented by Oboram, King of Fayeties," who is, however, a
very different person from the Oberon of A Midsummer Night 9 s
Dream.
George-a-Greene the Pinner of Wakefield (acted 1593, printed
1599), a delightful picture of English life fully worthy of the
author of Friar BuHgay, has been attributed to him; but the
external evidence is Very slight, and the internal unconvincing.
Of the comedy of Fair Em, which resembles Friar Bacon in more
than one 'point, Greene cannot have been the author; the
question as to the priority between the two plays is not so easily
solved. The conjecture as to his supposed share in the plays on
which the second and third parts of Henry VL are founded has
been already referred to. He was certainly joint author with
Thomas Lodge of the curious drama called A Looking Glassefor
London and England (acted in 1592 and printed in 1594)— a
dramatic apologue conveying to the living generation of English-
men the warning of Nineveh's corruption and prophesied doom.
The lesson^was frequently repeated in the streets of London by
the " Ninevitical motions '* of the puppets; but there are both
fire and wealth of language in Greene and Lodge's oratory. The
comic element is not absent, being supplied in abundance by
Adam, the clown of the piece, who. belongs to the family of
Slipper, and of Friar Bacon's servant, Miles.
Greene's dramatic genius has nothing in it of the intensity of
Marlowe's tragic muse; nor perhaps does he ever equal Peele at
his best. On the other hand, his dramatic poetry is occasionally
animated with the breezy freshness which no artifice can simulate.
He had considerable constructive skill, but he has created no
character of commanding power — unless Ateukin be excepted;
but his personages are living men and women, and marked out
from one another with a vigorous but far from rude hand. His
comic humour is undeniable, and he had the gift of light and
graceful dialogue. ' His diction is overloaded with classical
ornament, but his versification is-easy and fluent, and its cadence
is at times singularly sweet. He creates his best effects by the
simplest means; and he is indisputably one of the most attractive
of early English dramatic authors.
' Greene's dramatic works and poems were edited by Alexander
Dyce in 1831 with a life of the author. This edition was reissued
In oqe volume im 1858. His complete works were edited for the.
Huth Library by A. B. Grosart., This issue (1881-1886) contains a
translation of Nicholas Storojhenko's monograph on Greene (Moscow,
^yS). Greene's plays and poems were edited with introductions
and notes by J. Churton Collins in 2 vols. (Oxford, 1905); the
general introduction to this edition has superseded previous accounts
of Greene and his dramatic and lyrical writings. An account of
his pamphlets is to be found in J. J. Jusserancf s English Novel in
the Time of Shakespeare (Eng. trans., 1890). See also W. Bernhardt,
Robert Greenes Leben und Sckriften (1874); F. M. Bodenstedt, in
Shakespeare's Zeiteenossen und ikre Werke (1858): and an intro-
duction by A. W. Ward to Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay (Oxford,
1886, 4th ed., 1901). (A. W. W.)
GREENFIELD, a township and the county-seat of Franklin
county, in N.E. Massachusetts, U.S.A., including an area of
20 sq. m. of meadow and hill country, watered by the Green
and Deerfield rivers and various small tributaries. Pop. (1890)
5252, (1900) 7927, of whom 1431 were foreign-born; (1910
census) 10,427. The principal village, of the same name as
the township, is situated on the N. bank of the Deerfield river,
and on the Boston & Maine railway and the Connecticut Valley
street railway (electric). Among Greenfield's manufactures are
cutlery, machinery, and taps and dies. Greenfield, originally
part of Deerfield, was settled about 1682, was established as a
" district " in 1753, and on the 23rd of August 1775 was, by a
general Act, separated from Deerfield and incorporated as a
separate township, although it had assumed full township rights
in 1774 by sending delegates to the Provincial Congress. In
1793 part of it was taken to form the township of Gill; in 1838
part of it was annexed to Bernardston; and in 1896 it annexed
a part of Deerfield. It was much disaffected at the time of
Shays's Rebellion.
See F. M. Thompson, History of Greenfield (2 vols., Greenfield,
1904).
. GREENFINCH (Ger. GrUnfink) } or Green Linnet, as it is very
often called, a common European bird, the FringiUa chloris of
Linnaeus, ranked by many systematise with one section of haw-
finches, Coccotkraustes, but apparently more nearly allied to the
other section Hesperiphona f and perhaps justifiably deemed the
type of a distinct genus, to which the name Chloris or Ligurinus
ihas been applied. The cock, in his plumage of yellowish-green
and yellow is one of the most finely coloured of common English
birds^ but he is rather heavily built, and his song is hardly Com-
mended. The hen is much less brightly tinted. Throughout
Britain, as a rule, this species is one of the most plentiful birds,
and is found at all seasons of the year. It pervades almost the
whole of Europe, and in Asia reaches the river Ob. It visits
Palestine, but is unknown in Egypt. It is, however, abundant
in 7 Mauritania, whence specimens are so brightly coloured that
they have been deemed to form a distinct species, the Ligurinus
' aurantiiventris of Dr Cabanis, but that view is now generally
abandoned. In the ! nOrth-east of Asia and its adjacent islands
occur two allied species — the Fringilla shtica of Linnaeus and the
\F-; kawarahiba of Ternminck. (A. N.)
; GREENHEAUT, one of the most valuable of timbers, the
produce of Nectandra Rodiaei, natural order Lauraceae, a large
tree, native of tropical South America and the West Indies. The
Indian name of the tree is sipiri or bibiru, and from its bark and
fruits is obtained the febrifuge principle bibirine. Greenheart
wood is of a dark-green colour, sap wood and heart wood being so
much alike that they can with difficulty be distinguished from
each other. The* heart wood is one of the most durable of all
timbers, and its value is greatly enhanced by the fact that it is
proof against the ravages of many marine borers which rapidly
destroy piles and other submarine structures of most other
kinds of wood available for such purposes. In the Kelvingrove
Museum, Glasgow, there are two pieces of planking from a wreck
submerged during eighteen years on the west coast of Scotland.
54*
n
GREENLAND]
The one spccimen-^greenhcart — is merely stfghtly pitted on the
surface, the body of the wood being perfectly sound and untouched,
while the other— Heak — is almost; entirely eaten away. , Qreen-
heart, tested either by transverse or by tensile strain, is one of
the strongest of all woods, and it is also exceedingly, dense, .its
specific gravity being about 1150. It is included in the second
line of Lloyd's Register for shipbuilding purposes, and it is exten*
sively used for keelsons, beams, efcgine-bearers and planking, &c.,
as well as in the general engineering arts, but its excessive weight
unfits it for many purposes for which its* other properties would
render it eminently suitable.
GREENLAND (Danish, &c, Grdnland), a large continental
island, the greater portion of which lies within the Arctic Circle,
while the whole is arctic in. character. It is not connected with
any portion of Europe or America except by subbceanic ridges;
but in the extreme north it is separated only by a narrow strait
from Elle&mere Land in the archipelago of the American continent.
It is bounded on the east by the North Atlantic, the Norwegian
and Greenland Seas — Jan Mayen, Iceland, the Faeroe Islands
and the Shetlands being the only lands between it and Norway.
Denmark Strait is the sea between it and Iceland, and the
northern Norwegian Sea or Greenland Sea separates it from
Spitsbergen. On the west Davis Strait an4 Baffin Bay separate
it from Baffin Land. The so-called bay narrows northward into
the strait successively known as Smith Sound, Kane Basin,
Kennedy Channel and Robeson Channel. A submarine ridge, 1
about 300 fathoms deep at its deepest, unites Greenland with
Iceland (across Denmark Strait), the Faeroes and Scotland. A
similar submarine ridge unites it with the Cumberland Peninsula
of Baffin Land, across Davis Strait. Two large islands (with
others smaller) lie probably off the north coast, being apparently
divided from it by very narrow channels which are not yet ex-
plored. If tljey be reckoned as integral parts of Greenland, then
the north coast, fronting the polar sea, culminates about 83°4o' N.
Cape Farewell, the most southerly point (also on a small island),
is in 59 45' N. The extreme length of Greenland may therefore
be set down at about 1650 m., while its extreme breadth, which
occurs about 77 30' N., is approximately 800 m. The area-
is estimated at 827,275 sq, xn. Greenland is a jDwtisfocqtany,
inasmuch as the west coast and also the southern east, coast
belong to the Danish crown. The scattered settlements of
Europeans on the. southern parts of the coasts are Danish, and the ,
trade is a monopoly of the Danish government. 1
The southern and south-western coasts have been known,
a* will be mentioned later, since the 10th century, when Norse-
set tiers appeared there, and the names of many famous arctic
explorers have been associated with the exploration of Greenland*.
The communication between the Norse settlements in. Greenland
and the motherland Norway was broken off at the end of the 14th \
and the beginning of the 15th century, and the Norsemen',*
knowledge about their distant colony was gradually more or
less forgotten. The south and west coast of Greenland was then:
re-discovered by John Davis in July 1585, though pre viousr ex-
plorers, as Cortereal,JFrobisher and others, had seen it, and at the
end of the 16th and the beginning of the 17^ century the work
of Davis (1586-1588), Hudson (1610) and Baffin (1616) in the.
western seas afforded some knowledge of the west coast* This,
was added to by later explorers and by whalers and sealers.
Among explorers who in the 10th century were; specially con-
nected with the north-west coast may be mentioned E. A. ■
Inglefield (1852) who sailed into Smith's Sound, 1 Elisha KentKane
(1853-1855)' who worked northward through Smith Sound into
Kane Basin, and Charles Francis Hall (1871J who explored the
strait (Kennedy Channel and Robeson Channel) to the north of
this. 8
The northern east coast was sighted by Hudson (1607) in about
73° 30' N. (C* Hold with Hope), and during the 17th century and
1 Inglefield, Summer Search for Franklin (London, 1853).
* Second GrinneU Expedition (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1856).
* Davis, Polaris (Hall's) North Polar Expedition (Washington,
1876). See also Bessels, Die amerikanische Nordpol-Expedition
(Leipzig, 1879).
later thia northern coast was probably visited by many Dutch
whalers. The first who gave more accurate information was the
Scottish whaler, Captain William Scpresby, jun. (1822), who,
with his father, explored the coast between $9? and 75 N., and
gav$ the first fairly trustworthy map of it. 4 , Captains Edward
Sabine and Clavering (1823) visited the coast between 72° 5' and
75 , ra 7 N. and met the only Eskimo ever seen in this part of
Greenland. The second German polar expedition in 1870,
under Carl Christian Koldewey 6 (1837-1908), reached 77 N.
(Cape Bismarck); and the duke of Orleans, in 1005, ascertained
that this point was on an island (the Dove Bay of the German
expedition being in reality a strait) and penetrated farther north,
to about 73° 1 6'. From this point the north-east coast remained
unexplored, though a sight was reported in* 1670. by a whaler
named Lambert, and again in .1775 as far north as 79 by Daines
Harrington, until a Danish expedition under Mylius Erichsen in
1906-X908 explored it, discovering Norfch-East Foreland, the
easternmost point (see. Polar Regions, and map). The
southern part of the east coast was first explored by the Dane
Wilhelm August Graah (1829-1830). between Cape Farewell and
65 16' N. 6 In 1883-1885 the Danes, G. Hojm and T. V. Garde
carefully explored and mapped the coast from Cape Farewell
to Angmagssalik, in 66° ; N> 7 F. Nanseh and his companions
also travelled along a part of this coast in i88$, 8 A- E. Nordens-
kiold } in the " Sophia," landed near Angmagssalik, in 65 36' N.,
in 1883, 9 Captain C. Ryder, in i89i-r$93*explored and mapped
the large, Scoxesby Sound, or, more, correctly^ Scoresby Fjord. 10
Lieutenant G. Amdrup, in 2899, explored, the coast from Ang-
n>agssalik north to 67 22' N. 11 A part of this coast, about
67* N.,had ajso t)een seen J>y Nansen in 1882. 12 In 1899 Professor
A. G. NathoTst. explored the. land between Franz Josef Fjord
and Sqoresby Fjord, where $he large King Oscar Fjord, connecting
Davy's Sound with Franz Joseph Fjord, was discovered. 18 In
1900 Lieutenant Amdrup explored the still unknown east coast
from 69° 10/ N. south to 67 K 14
From the work oi explorers in the north-west it had been
possible to ; infer th/Q- approximate latitude, of the northward
termination of, Greenland long before it was definitely known.
Towards the dose of the 19th century several explorers gave
(attention to this question. Lieutenant (afterwards Admiral)
L. A- Beaumont ,(1876), of v the Nares Expedition,, explored the
coast north-east of, Robeson Channel to 82 ao' N. 16 .In 1882
(Lieut. J. B. Lockwood and Sergeant (afterwards Captain)
;D> L. Brainard, of the U.S. expedition to Lady Franklin
[Bay, 16 explored the north- w^st coast beypnd Beaumont's farthest
lto. : a promontory in, S3? 24' N„ and 40 46 1 ' E. and they saw
ito the north-east Cape Washington, in about 83° 38'. N. and
139° 3©' E., the most northerly point of land till then observed.
In July 1892 R. E. Peary an<J E. Astrup, crossing by land from
(Inglefield Gulf, Smith Sound, discovered Independence Bay on
jtta north-east coast in 8r° 37 ' N. and 34 5' W. lY In May 1895 it.
4 Journal of a Voyage to the Northern Whale Fishery (1823).
5 Dte zweite deutsche tfordpolarfahrt (1 873-1875).
1 *Reise til Ostkysten af Grdnland (^832; trans, by G. Gordon
Macdotigall, 1837). :
7 Meddelelser om Grdnlcnd, parts ix. and x. (Copenhagen, 1888).
8 The First Crossing of Greenland, vol. i. (London, 180c), H. Mohn
and F. Nansen ; " Wissenschaftliche Ergebnisse von Dr F. Nansen
Durchquerung von Grdnland M (1888), Erganzungsheft No. 105 zu
Petermanns Mitteilungen (Gotha, 1892).
1 9 A. F. Nordensldold, Den atidr* Dichsonska Expeditions til
Grdnland (Stockholm, 1885).
10 Meddelelser om Grdnland, pis. xvii.-xix. (Copenhagen, 1 895- 1896).
(1901),;
11 Geografisk Tidskrift, xv. 53-71 (Copenhagen, 1899).
,M Ibid. vii. 76-79 (Copenhagen, 1884).
! " The Geographical Journal, xiv. 534 (1899) ; xvii. 48
Tvd Somrar t Norra Ishafvet (Stockholm,. 1901).
14 Meddelelser om Grdnland, parts xxvi.-xxvii.
16 Nares, Voyage to the Polar Sea (2 vols. London, 1877). See
also Blue Book, journals, &c, (Nares) Expedition, 1875-1876 (London,
.1877).
16 A. W. Greely, Report on the Proceedings of the United States
Expedition to Lady Franklin Bay, GrinneU Land, vols. i. and ii.
(Washington, 1885); Three Years of Arctic Service (2 vols. London,
1886).
17 R. E. Peary, Northward over the " Great Ice " (2 vols. New York,
1898) ;E. Astrup, Blandt Nordpolen's Naboer (Chnstiania, 1895).
mbMLktit)
15*3
was revisited by Peary, who. supposed this bay to be a sound com-
municating % with Victoria Inlet on the. north- west coast.' To the
north Heilpfin Land and Melville Land were seen stretching;
northwards, tut the probability seemed to be ih%t \he. coast; sofa
.trended north-west. Inic-bi J*qary rounded the iiqirth poini^ f nd
penetrated as far north as 83 $0' N. The Scanty exploration of
the great ice-cap, or inland ice, which may be asserted ttx cover the
whole of the interior of Greenland, has been prosecuted chiefly
from the west coast. 1 In 1751 Lars Dalager, a DamfeH trader, 1
took some steps, in this direction from Frederiksfcaab. In 1870
Nordenskiold and Berggren walked 35 in. inland from the head,
of Aulatsivik Fjord (near Disco Bay) to an elevation of 2*00 ftJ
The Banish captain Jens Arnold Dietrich Jensen reached, in
1878, the Jensen Nunataks (5400 ft. above the sea), about 45 m.'
from the western margin, in 62* 50' ft. 1 NordeftsluoM^enetrated
in 1x883 about 70 ni. inland in ,68° 20' N., and two Lapps of bis
expedition went- still farther on skis, to a point nearly under -45°
W. at an elevation of 6600 it. Peary and Majqgaard Reached in
1886. about, jop.m. inland, a ^height of 7500 ft/in/69 30' itf.
Nansen with Svei companions in 1888 ; made. the. first complete
crossing of the inland ice, working from the east
coast to the west, about 64 25' N., and reached
a. height of ,8922 ft. Peary apd Astrup, as
already indicated, crossed in x8oa the northern
part of the inland ice between 78 and 82 N.,
reaching a height of about. 8000 ft., and deter-
mined tjhe northern termination of the ice-
covering. . Peary made very nearly the same
journey again in 1805. Captain T. V. Garde
explored in 1893 the interior of the inland ice
between 6i° and 62 N. near its southern
termination, and he reached a height of 7080 ft
about 60 m. from the margin. 2
Coasts.^ The coasts of Greenland, are for the
, most part deeply indented with i jonfa, being in-
tensely glaciated- The coast-Une of Melville Bay
(the northern part of the west coast) is to some
degree an exception, though the fjords may here
be somewhat filled with glaciers, and, for another
example, it may be noted that Peary observed
a marked contrast on the north coast. Eastward
as far as Cape Morris Jesup there are precipitous
headlands and islands, as elsewhere, with deep
. water close inshore. East of the, same cape there
is an abrupt change;, the coast is , unbroken, the
mountains recede inland, and there is shoal- water
for a considerable distance from the coast.
Numerous islands lie off the coasts where they
are indented; but these are in no case- large,
excepting those; off the north coast, and that -of
Disco off the west,, which is crossed by the parallel
of 70 N. This island, which is separated by
Waigat Strait .from the Nugsuak peninsula, as
lofty, and has an area of 3005 sq. m, Steenstrup
in 1398 discovered in it the warmest spring known
in Greenland, having a temperature of 66 F.
The unusual glaciation of the east coast is
evidently owing to the north polar current carry-
ing the ice masses from the north polar basin
south-westward along the land, and giving it
an entirely, arctic climate down to Cape Farewell.
In some parts the interior . ke-coyerine extends
down to the outer coast, while in other parts
its margin is, situated more inland, and the ice-bare
coast-land is deeply intersected by fjords extend-
ing! far into the interior, where they are blocked
by enormous glaciers or " ice-currents " from the
interior icercovering which discharge masses of
icebergs into them*. The east coast of Greenland
^ ia.in this respect highly interesting. All coasts
in the i world which are much intersected by deep
fjords have, with very few exceptions, a western
exposure, e.g. Norway, Scotland, British Columbia
and Alaska, Patagonia and Chile, and even
Spitsbergen and, Novaya Zemlya, whose. west
coasts are far more indented than their east ones.
Greenland forms the most prominent exception,
its eastern coast being quite as much indented as
its western. The reason is to be found in its geo-
graphical position, a cold ice-covered polar current
running soiith along the land, while not far out-
side these is an. open warmer sea, a circumstance
which, while producing a cold climate* roust also
give rise -to much precipitation, tbe^land being
thus exposed to, the alternate, erosion of a rough
atmosphere and large glaciers. On the east
coast of Baffin Land and Labrador* there are
i" 1 . .'»> similar conditions. The result: is that the east
cdast of Greenland hgSitke largest system of . typical ijords known
"tin the earth's surface.- Scoresby Fjord ihas a length of about
*«8or ni. from the outer >coast to the point where it is blocked by the
glaciers, arid with its 'numerous branches covers an enormous
area. Fran* j[oeef Fjord, wfth its branch King Oscar Fjord, com-
municating with Davy's Sound, forms a system of fjords on a
similar scale. \ These fjords are very deep; t£e greatest depth
• : 1 ■■ -
'- { a Meddeldser om Grdnland, part i. (Copenhagen, 1879).'
2 Ibid, part xvi. (Copenhagen, 1896). :
54.4
GREENLAND
found by Ryder in Scoresby Sound was 300 fathoms, but there are
certainly stul greater depths; like the Norwegian fiords they have,
however, probably all of them, a threshold or sill, with shallow
water, near their mouths. A few soundings made outside this
coast seem to indicate that the fjords continue as, deep submarine
valleys far out Into the sea. On the west coast' there are also
many great fjords. One of the best known from earlier days is
the great Godthaab Fjord (or Baals Revier) north of 64 N. Along
the east coast there are many high mountains, exceeding 6000 and
I
peaks are 6300 ft., and in the region of Umanak, 63° N., they even
exceed 6600 ft. At Umivik, where Nansen began his journey
across the inland ice, the highest peak projecting through the ice-
covering was Gamel's Nunatak, 6440 it., in 64° 34' N. In the
region of Angmagssalik, which is very mountainous, the mountains
rise to 6500 ft., the most prominent peak being Ingolf's Field, in
66° 20' N., about 6000 ft., which is seen from far out at sea, and forms
an excellent landmark. This is probably the Blaaserk (i.e. Blue
Sark or blue shirt) of the old Norsemen, their first landmark on
their way from Iceland to the Oster Bygd, the present Julianehaab
district, on the south-west coast of Greenland. A little farther
north the coast is much lower, rising only to heights of 2000 ft.,
and just north of 67 ° 10' N. only to 500 ft. or less. 1 The highest
mountains near the inner branches of Scoresby Fjord are about
7000 ft. The Petermann Spitze, near the shore of Franz Josef
Fjord, measured by Payer and found to be 11,000 ft., has hitherto
been considered to be the highest mountain in Greenland, but
according to Nathorst it "is probably only two-thirds as high as
Payer supposed," perhaps between 8000 and 9000 ft.
Along the west coast of Greenland the mountains are generally
not quite so high, but even here peaks of 5000 and 6000 ft. are not
uncommon. As a whole the coasts are unusually mountainous, and
Greenland forms in this respect an interesting exception, as there
is no other known land of such a size so filled along its coasts on all
sides with high mountains and deep fjords and valleys.
The Inland Ice. — The whole interior of Greenland is completely
covered by the so-called inland ice, an enormous glacier forming a
regular shield-shaped expanse of snow and glacier ice, and burying
all valleys and mountains far below its surface. Its area is about
15,400 sq. m., and it is by far the greatest glacier of the northern
.lemisphere. Only occasionally there emerge lofty rocks, isolated but
not completely covered by the ice-cap; such rocks are known as
nunataks (an Eskimo word). The inland ice rises in the interior to
a level of 9000, and in places perhaps 10,000 ft. or more, and descends
gradually by extremely gentle slopes towards the coasts or the
bottom of tne fjords on all sides, discharging a great part of its
yearly drainage or surplus of precipitation in the form of icebergs
in the fjords, the so-called ice-fjords, which are numerous both on
the west and on the east coast. These icebergs float away, and are
gradually melted in the sea, the temperature ofwhich is thus lowered
by cold stored up in the interior of Greenland. The last remains of
these icebergs are met with in the Atlantic south of Newfoundland.
The surface of the inland ice forms in a transverse section from the
west to the east coast an extremely regular curve, almost approach-
ing an arc of a wide circle, which along Nansen 's route has its highest
ridge somewhat nearer the east than the west coast. The same also
seems to be the case farther south. The curve shows, however,
slight irregularities in the shape of undulations. The angle of the
slope decreases gradually from the margin of the inland ice, where
it may be i° or more, towards the interior, where it is o°. In the
interior the surface of the inland ice is composed of dry snow which
never melts, and is constantly packed and worked smooth by the
winds. It extends as a completely even plain of snow, with long,
almost imperceptible, undulations or waves, at a height of 7000 to
10,000 ft., obliterating the features of the underlying land, the
mountains and valleys of which are completely interred. Over the
deepest valleys of the land in the interior this ice-cap must be at
least 6000 or 7000 ft. thick or more. Approaching the coasts from
the interior, tne snow of the surface gradually changes its structure.
At first it becomes more coarse-grained, like the Ftrn Schnee of the
Alps, and is moist by melting during the summer. Nearer the coast,
where the melting on the surface is more considerable, the wet.
snow freezes hard during the winter and is more or less transformed
into ice, on the surface of which rivers and lakes are formed, the
water of which, however, soon finds its way through crevasses and
holes in the ice down to its under surface, and reaches the sea as-a.
sub-glacial river. Near its margin the surface of the inland ice is
broken up by numerous large crevasses, formed by the outward
motion of the glacier coverine the underlying land. The steep ice-
walls at the margin of the inland ice show, especially where the
motion of the ice is slow, a distinct striation, which indicates the
strata of annual precipitation with the intervening thin seams. of
dust (Nordenskidld's kryokonite). This is partly dust blown on
l See C. Kruuse in Geografisk Tidskrift, xv. 64 (Copenhagen,
1899). See also F. Nansen, " Die Ostkuste Gronlands," Erganzungs-
heft No. 105 zu Petermanns MiUeilungen (Gotha, 1892), p. 55 and
pi. iv., sketch No. 11.
to the surface of the ice from the ice-bare coast-land and partly the
dust of the atmosphere brought down by the falling snow and
accumulated on the surface of the glacier's covering by the melting
during the summer. In the rapidly moving glaciers of. the ice-
fjords this striation is not distinctly visible, being evidently
obliterated by the strong motion of the ice masses. , •
The ice-cap of Greenland must to some extent be considered as a
viscous mass, which, by the vertical pressure in its interior, is pressed
outwards and slowly flows towards the coasts, just as a mass of
§itch placed on a table and left to itself will in the course of time
ow outwards towards all sides. The motion of the outwards-
creeping inland ice will naturally be more independent of the con-
figurations of the underlying land in the interior, where its thickness
is so enormous, than near the margin where it is thinner. Here the
ice converges into the valleys and moves with increasing velocity
in the form of glaciers into the fjords, where they break off as ice-
bergs. The drainage of the interior of Greenland is thus partly
given off in the solid form of icebergs, partly by the melting of the
snow and ice on the surface of the ice-cap, especially near its western
margin, and to some slight extent also by the melting produced on
its under side by the interior heat of the earth. After Professor
Amund Helland had, in July 1875, discovered the amazingly great
velocity, up to 64! ft. in twenty-four hours, with which the glaciers
of Greenland move into the sea, the margin of the inland ice and its
glaciers was studied by several expeditions. K. J. V. Steenstrup
during several years, Captain Hammer in 1 879-1 880, Captain Ryder
in 1886-1887, Dr Drygalski in 1891-1893," and several American
expeditions in later years, all examined the question closely. The
highest known velocities of glaciers were measured by Ryder in the
Upernivik glacier (in 73 NO, where, between the 13th and 14th of
August of 1886, he found a velocity of 12$ ft. in twenty-four hours,
and an average velocity during several days of 101 ft. (Danish).'
It was, however, ascertained that there is a great difference between
the velocities of the glaciers in winter and in summer. For instance,
Ryder found that the Upernivik glacier had an average velocity
of only 33 ft. in April 1887. There seem to be periodical oscillations
in the extension of the glaciers and the inland ice similar to those
that have been observed on the glaciers of the Alps and elsewhere.
But these interesting phenomena have not hitherto been subject to
systematic observation, and our knowledge of them is therefore
uncertain. Numerous glacial marks, however, such as polished
striated rocks, moraines, erratic blocks, &c., prove that the whole
of Greenland, even the small islands and skerries outside the coast,
has once been covered by the inland ice*
Numerous raised beaches and terraces, containing shells of marine
mollusca, &c, occur along the whole coast of Greenland, and indicate
that the whole of this large island has been raised, or the sea has
sunk, in post-glacial times, after the inland ice covered its now ice-
bare outskirts. In the north along the shores of Smith Sound these
traces of the gradual upheaval of the land, or sinking of the sea, are
very marked ; but they are also very distinct in the south, although
not found so high above sea-level, which seems to show that the
upheaval has been greater in the north. In Uvkusigsat Fjord
( 72 ° 20' N .) the highest terrace is 480 ft. above the sea. 4 On Manitsok
(65 ° 30' N.) the highest raised beach was 360 ft. above the sea. 8
In the Isortok Fjord: (67 n' N.) the highest raised beach is 380 ft.
above sea-level. e In the Ameralik Fjord (64 14' N.) the highest
marine terrace is about 340 ft. above sea-level, and at Ilivertalik
(63 14' N.), north of Fiskernaes, the highest terrace is about 325 ft.
above the sea. At Kakarsuak, near the Bjornesund (62 ° 50' N.),
a terrace is found at 615 ft. above the sea, but it is doubtful whether
this is of marine origin? In the Julianehaab district, between 60 °
and 61 ° N., the highest marine terraces are found at about 160 ft.
above the sea. 8 The highest marine terrace observed in Scoresby
Fjord, on the east coast, was 240 ft. above sea-level. 9 There is a
common belief that during guite recent times the west and south-
west coast, within the Danish possessions, has been sinking. Al-
though there are many indications which may make this probable,
none of them can be said to be quite decisive. 10
. . [Geolog 3V— So far as made out, the structure of explored Greenland
is as follows:
1. Laurentian gneiss forms the greatest mass of the exposed
rocks of the country bare of ice. They are found on both sides of
Smith Sound, rising to heights of 2000 ft., and underlie the Miocene
and Cretaceous rocks of Disco Island, Noursoak Peninsula and the
* E. v. Drygalski, Gronland-Expediiion der Gesdlschaft far Erd-
kunde zu Berlin, i8pi-i8p£ (2 vols., Berlin, 1897).
8 Meddelelser om Grdnland, part viii. pp. 203-270 "(Copenhagen,
1889).
4 Ibid., part iv. p. 230 (Copenhagen, 1883); see also part xiv. pp.
317 et seq., 323.
* Ibid, part xiv. p. 323 (Copenhagen, 1 898).
8 Ibid, partfi^pp. 18 1-1 $8 {Copenhagen, 1881).
7 Ibid, part L gp, 99-101 (Copenhagen, 1879).
8 Ibid, part u. p. 39 (Copenhagen, 1881); part xvi. pp.
150-154 (1896).
•Ibid., part xix. p. 175 (1896).
18 Ibid, part i. p. 34; part ii. p. 40; part xiv. pp. 343-347;
part iv. p, 237; part vih. p. 26.
GREENLAND
545
Oolites of Pendulum Island in East Greenland. Ancient schists
occur on the east coast south of Angmagssalik, and basalts and
schists are found in Scoresby Fjord. It is possible that some of
these rocks are also of Huroman age, but it is doubtful whether the
rocks so designated by the geologists of the " Alert " and " Dis-
covery " expedition are really the rocks so known in Canada, or
are a continuous portion of the fundamental or oldest gneiss of the
north-west of Scotland and the western isles.
2. Silurian. — Upper Silurian, having a strong relation to the
Wenlock group of Britain, but with an American fades, and Lower
Silurian, with a succession much the same as in British North
America, are found on the shores of Smith Sound, and Nathorst has
discovered them in King Oscar Fjord, but not as yet so far south
as the Danish possessions.
3. Devonian rocks are believed to occur in Igaliko and Tunnu-
diorbik Fjords, in S.W. Greenland, but as they are unfossiliferous
sandstone, rapidly disintegrating, this cannot be known. It is,
however, likely that this formation occurs in Greenland, for in
Dana Bay, Captain Feilden found a species of Spirifera and Pro-
ductus mesolobus or costatus, though it is possible that these fossils
represent the " Ursa stage " (Heer) of the Lower Carboniferous,
A few Devonian forms have also been recorded from the Parry
Archipelago, and Nathorst has shown the existence of Old Red
Sandstone fades of Devonian in Traill Island, Geographical Society
Island, Ymer Island and Gauss Peninsula.
4. Carboniferous. — In erratic blocks of sandstone, found on the
Disco shore of the Waigat have been detected a SigiUaria and a
species of either Pecopteriskx Gleichenia, perhaps of this age; and
probably much of the extreme northern coast of Ellesmere Land,
and therefore, in all likelihood, the opposite Greenland shore,
contains a clearly developed Carboniferous Limestone fauna,
identical with that so widely distributed over the North American
continent, and referable also to British and Spitsbergen species.
Of the Coal Measures above these, if they occur, we know nothing
at present. Capt. Feilden notes as suggestive that, though the
explorers have not met with this formation on the northern shores
of Greenland, yet it was observed that a continuation of the direction
of the known strike of the limestones of Feilden peninsula, carried
over the polar area, passes through the neighbourhood of Spitsbergen,
where the formation occurs, and contains certain species identical
with those of the Grinnell Land rocks of this horizon. The facies of
the fossils is, according to Mr Etheridge, North American and
Canadian, though many of the species are British. The corals are
few in number, but the Molluscoida (Polyzoa) are more numerous
in species and individuals. No Secondary rocks have been dis-
covered in the extreme northern parts of West Greenland, but they
are present on the east and west coasts in more southerly latitudes
than Smith Sound.
5. Jurassic. — These do not occur on the west coast, but on the
east coast the German expedition discovered marls and sandstones
on Kuhn Island, resembling those of the Russian Jurassic, charac-
terized by the presence of the genus Auceila, Olcostephanus Payeri,
O. striolariSf BeUmnites Panderianus, B. volgensis, B. absolutus,
and a Cyprina near to C. syssolae. On the south coast of the same
island are coarse-grained, brownish micaceous and light-coloured
calcareous sandstone and marls, containing fossils, which render
k probable that they are of the same age as the coal-bearing Jurassic
rocks of Brora (Scotland) and the Middle Dogger of Yorkshire.
There is also coal on Kuhn Island.
The Danish expeditions of 1899- 1900 have added considerably to
our knowledge of the Jurassic rocks of East Greenland. ' Rhaetic-
Lias plants have been described by Dr Hartz from Cape Stewart
and Vardekldf t. Dr Madsen has recognized fossils that correspond
with those from the Inferior oolite, Cornbrash and Callovian of
England. Upper Kimmeridge and Portlandian beds also occur.
6. Cretaceous. — Beds of this age, consisting of sandstones and
coal, are found on the northern coast of Disco Island and the
southern side of the Noursoak Peninsula, the beds in the former
locality, " the Kome strata " of Nordenskidld, being the oldest.
They reach 1000 ft. in thickness, occupying undulating hollows in
the underlying gneiss, and dip towards the Noursoak Peninsula at
20 , when the overlying Atanakerdluk strata come in. Both these
series contain numerous plant remains, evergreen oaks, magnolias,
aralias, &c, and seams of lignite (coal), which is burnt; but in
neither occur the marine beds of the United States. Still, the
presence of dicotyledonous leaves, such as Magnolia alter nans y in the
Atanakerdluk strata, proves thdr dose alliance with the Dakota
series of the United States. # The underlying Kome beds are not
present in the American series. They are characterized by fine
cycads (Zdmites arcticus and Glossozamites Hoheneggeri), which also
occur in the Urgonian strata of Wernsdorff.
7. Miocene.— This formation, one of the most widely spread in
polar lands, though the most local in Greenland, is also the best
known feature in its geology. It is limited to Disco Island, and
perhaps to a small part of the Noursoak Peninsula, and the neigh-
bouring country, and consists of numerous thin beds of sandstone,
shale and coal— the sideritic shale containing immense quantities
of leaves, stems, fruit, &c, as well as some insects, and, the coal
pieces of retinite. The study of these plant and insect remains
shows that forests containing a vegetation very similar to that of
California and the southern United States, in some instances even
the species of trees being all but identical, flourished in 70 N.
during geological periods comparatively recent. These beds, as
well as the Cretaceous series, from which they are as yet only im-
perfectly distinguished, are associated with sheets of basalt, which
penetrate them in great dikes, and in some places, owing to the
wearing away of the softer sedimentary rocks, stand out in long
walls running across the beds. These Miocene strata have not been
found farther north on the Greenland shore than the region
mentioned; but in Lady Franklin Bay, on the Grinnell Land side
of Smith Sound, they again appear, so that the chances are they
will be found on the opposite coast, though doubtless the great
disintegration Greenland has undergone and is undergoing has
destroyed many of the softer beds of fossiliferous rocks. On the
east coast, more particularly in Hochstetter Foreland, the Miocene
beds again appear, and we may add that there are traces of them
even on the west coast, between Sonntag Bay and Foulke Fjord, at
the entrance to Smith Sound. It thus appears that since early
Tertiary times there has been a great change in the climate of
Greenland.
Nathorst has suggested that the whole of Greenland is a "horst,"
in the subordinatelolds of which, as well as in the deeper " graben,"
the younger rocks are preserved, often with a covering of Tertiary
or later lava flows. 1 — J.' A. H.]
Minerals. — Native iron was found by Nordenski6ld at Ovifak,
on Disco Island, in 18701 and brought to Sweden(i87i)as meteorites.
The heaviest nodule weighed over 20 tons. Similar native iron has
later been found by K. J. V. Steenstrup in several places on the
west coast endosed as smaller or larger nodules in the Ibasalt. This
iron has very often beautiful Widmannstatten figures like those of
iron meteorites, but it is obviously of telluric origin. 2 In 1895
Peary found native iron at Cape York; since John Ross's voyage
in 1 818 it has been known to exist there, and from it the Eskimo got
iron for their weapons. In 1897 Peary brought the largest nodule
to New York; it was estimated to weigh nearly 100 tons. This
iron is considered by several of the first authoritiesjon the subject
to be of meteoric origin,* but no evidence hitherto given seems to
prove decisively that it cannot be telluric. That the nodules found
were lying on gneissic rock, with no basaltic rocks in the neighbour-
hood, does not prove that the iron may not originate from basalt,
for the nodules may have been transported by the glaciers, like
other erratic blocks, and will stand erosion much longer than the
basalt, which may long ago have disappeared. This iron seems,
however, in several respects to be unlike the celebrated large nodules
of iron found by NordenskiSld at Ovifak, but appears to resemble
much more closely the softer kind of iron nodules found by Steenstrup
in the basalt ; 4 it stands exposure to the air equally well, and has
similar Widmannstatten figures verv sharp, as is to be expected in
such a large mass. It contains, however, more nickel and also
phosphorus. A few other minerals may be noticed, and some have
been worked to a small extent — graphite is abundant, particularly
near Upernivik; cryolite is found almost exclusively at Ivigtut;
copper has been observed at several places, but only in nodules and
laminae of limited extent; and coal of poor quality is found in the
districts about Disco Bay and Umanak Fjord. Steatite or soapstone
has long been used by the natives for the manufacture of lamps and
vessels.
Climate. — The climate is very uncertain, the weather changing
suddenly from bright sunshine (when mosquitos often swarm) to
dense fog or heavy falls of snow and icy winds. At Julianehaab
in the extreme south-west the winter is not much colder than that
of Norway and Sweden in the same locality; but its mean tempera-
ture for the whole year probably approximates to that on the
Norwegian coast 600 m. farther north. The climate of the interior
has been found to be of a continental character, with large ranges
of temperature, and with an almost permanent anti-cyclonic region
over the interior of the inland ice, from which the prevailing winds
radiate towards the coasts. On the 64th parallel the mean annual
temperature at an elevation of 6560 ft. is supposed to be -13° F.,
or reduced to sea-levd 5° F. The mean annual temperature in the
i interior farther north is supposed to be -io° F. reduced to sea-levd.
The mean temperature of the warmest month, July, in the interior
should be, reduced to sea-level, on the 64th parallel 32 ° F., and
that of the coldest month, January, about -22 F., while in North
Greenland it is probably -40 ° reduced to sea-level. Here we may
probably find the lowest temperatures of the northern hemisphere.
The interior of Greenland contains both summer and winter a pole
of cold, situated in the opposite longitude to that of Siberia, with
which it is well able to compete in extreme severity. On Nansen's
expedition temperatures of about -49 ° F. were experienced during
1 See A. G. Nathorst, " Bidrag till nord6stra Gronlands geologi,"
with map Geologiska Foreningens i Stockholm Fdrhandlingar,
No. 257, Bd. 23, Heft 4, 1901; O. Heer, Flora fossilis Arctica
(7 vols., 1 868-1 883), and especially Meddelelser om Grdnland for
numerous papers on the geology and palaeontology.
* Medd. om Grdnl., part iv. pp. 115-131 (Copenhagen, 1883).
• See Peary, Northward over the " Great Ice" ii. 604 et seq.
(New York, 1898).
4 See loc. cit. pp. 127-128.
xn. 18
54&
GREENLAND
the nights in the beginning of September, and the minimum cjuring
the winter may probably sink to— 90 ° F. in the interior of the inland
ice. These low temperatures are evidently caused by the radiation
of heat from the snow-surface in the rarefied air in the interior.
The daily range of temperature is therefore very considerable,
sometimes amounting to 40 °. Such a range is elsewhere found only
in deserts, but the surface of the inland ice may be considered to be
an elevated desert of snow. 1 The climate of the east coast is on the
whole considerably more arctic than that of the west coast on
corresponding latitudes; the land is much more completely snow-
covered, and the snow-line goes considerably lower. The probability
also is that there is more precipitation, and that the mean tempera-
tures are lower. 1 The well-known strangely warm and dry /din-
winds of Greenland occur both on the west and the east coast;
they are more local than was formerly believed, and are formed by
cyclonic winds passing either over mountains or down the outer
slope of the inland ice.' Mirage and similar phenomena and the
aurora are common.
Fauna and Flora, — It was long a common belief that the fauna
and flora of Greenland were essentially European, a circumstance
which would make it probable that Greenland has been separated
by sea from America during a longer period of time than from
Europe. The correctness of this hypothesis may, however, be
doubted. The land mammals of Greenland are decidedly more
American than European; the musk-ox, the banded lemming
(Cuniculus tor qualm), the white polar wolf, of which there seems to
have been a new invasion recently round the northern part of the
country to the east coast, the Eskimo and the dog^— probably also
the reindeer — have all come from America, while the other land
mammals, the polar bear, the polar fox, the Arctic hare, the stoat
(Mustela erminea), are perfectly circumpolar forms. The species of
seals and whales are, if anything, more American than European,
and so to some extent are the fishes. The bladder-nose seal
(Cystophora cristata), for instance, may be said to be a Greenland-
American species, while a Scandinavian species, such as the grey
seal (Halichoerus fry pus) t appears to be very rare both in Greenland
and America. Of the sixty-one species of birds breeding in Green-
land, eight are European-Asiatic, four are American, and the rest
circumpolar or North Atlantic and North Pacific in their distribu-
tion. 4 About 310 species of vascular plants are found, of which
about forty species are American, forty-four European-Asiatic,
fifteen endemic, and the rest common both to America and Europe
or Asia. We thus see that the American and the European-Asiatic
elements of the flora are nearly equivalent; and if the flora of
Arctic North America were better known, the number of plants
common to America might be still more enlarged.*
In the south, a few goats, sheep, oxen and pigs have been intro-
duced. The whaling industry was formerly prolific off the west
coast but decayed when the right whale nearly disappeared. The
white whale fishery of the Eskimo, however, continued, and sealing
is important; walruses are also caught and sometimes narwhal.
There are also important fisheries for cod, caplin, halibut, red fish
(Sebastes) and nepisah (Cyclopterus lumfms); a shark (Somniosus
microcephalus) is taken for the oil from its liver; and sea-trout are
found in the streams and small lakes of the south. On land reindeer
were formerly hunted, to their practical extinction in the south,
but in the districts of Godthaab, Sukkertoppen and Holstensborg
there are still many reindeer. The eider-duck, guillemot and other
sea-birds are in some parts valuable for food in winter, and so is
the ptarmigan. Eggs of sea-birds are collected and eider-down.
Valuable fur is obtained from the white and blue fox, the skin of
the eider-duck and the polar bear.
At Tasiusak (73 22' N.), the most northern civilized settlement
in the world, gardening has been attempted without success, but
several plants do well in forcing frames. At Umanak (70 ° 40' N.)
is the most northern garden in the world. Broccoli and radishes
grow well, turnips (but not every year), lettuce and chervil suc-
ceed sometimes, but parsley cannot be reared. At Jacobshavn
1 H. Mohn. " The Climate of the Interior of Greenland," The
Scott Geogr. Matasine. vol. ix. (Edinburgh, 1893), pp. 142-145. *99;
H. Mohn and F. Nansen, ** Wlssenscnaftliche Ergebnisse," ic.
Ergitnzungshcft No. 105 zu Petermanns Miiteilungen (1892), p. 51.
• On the climate of the east coast of Greenland see V. Willaume-
Jantzen, Meddelelser om Gronland, part ix. (1889), pp. 285-310,
part xvii. (1895). pp. 171-180.
1 See A. Paulsen, Meteorolog. Zeiisckrift (1880), p. 241 ; F. Nansen,
The First Crossing of Greenland (London, 1890), vol. ii. pp. 496-407;
H. Mohn and F. Nansen, " Wissenschaf tliche Ergebnisse," &c.
Ergtnzungsheft No. 105 zu Petermanns Miiteilungen (1892), p. 51.
«H. Wtnge. "Gronlands Fugle," Meddelelser om Gronland,
part xxL pp. 62-63 (Copenhagen, 1899).
* See J. Lange, " Conspectus florae Groenlandicae," Meddelelser
om Gronland. part iii. (Copenhagen, 1880 and 1887) ; E. Warming,
"Om Gronlands Vegetation, 1 * Meddelelser om Gronland, part xn.
(Copenhagen. iSSS); and in Botamische Jakrbucher, vol. x. (1888-
i$8q\ See also A. Blvtt, Engters Jakrbucher, iL (1882), pp. 1-50;
A. G. Xathorst. Otserstgt of K. Veienshap. Akad.Forhandl. (Stock-
holm. 1884^; " Kritische Bemerkungen uber die Geschichte der
Vegetation GronbndV Botamische Jahrbucher* vol xiv. (1891).
(69° 12' N.), only some 15 m. from the inland ice, gardening succeeds
very well; broccoli and lettuce grow willingly; the spinach pro-
duces large leaves; chervil, pepper-grass, leeks, parsley and turnips
grow very well; the radishes are sown and gathered twice during
the summer (June to August). In the south, in the Julianehaab
district, even flowering plants, such as aster, nemophilia and
mignonette, are cultivated, and broccoli, spinach, sorrel, chervil,
parsley, rhubarb, turnips, lettuce, radishes grow well. Potatoes
give fair results when tney are taken good care of, carrots grow to
a thickness of ij in., while cabbage does poorly. Strawberries
and cucumbers have been ripened in a forcing frame. In the
" Kongespeil " (King's mirror) of the 13th century it is stated
that the old Norsemen tried in vain to raise barley.
The wild vegetation in the height of summer is, in favourable
situations, profuse in individual plants, though scanty in species.
The plants are of the usual arctic type, and identical with or allied
to those found in Lapland or on the summits of the highest British
hills. Forest there is none in all the country. In the north, where
the lichen-covered or ice-shaven rocks do not protrude, the ground
is covered with a carpet of mosses, creeping dwarf willows, crow-
berries and similar plants, while the flowers most common are the
andromeda, the yellow poppy, pedicularis, pyrola, &c. besides the
flowering mosses; but in South Greenland there is something in
the shape of bush, the dwarf birches even rising a few feet in very
sheltered places, the willows may grow higher than a man, and the
vegetation is less arctic and more abundant.
Government and Trade. — The trade of Greenland is a monopoly
of the Danish crown, dating from 1774, and is administered in
Copenhagen by a government board {Kongdige Gronlands ke
Handel) and in the country by various government officials
In order to meet the double purposes of government and trade ;
the west coast, up to nearly 74 N., is divided into two inspec-
torates, the southern extending to 67° 40' N., the northern com-
prising the rest of the country; the respective seats of govern-
ment being at Godthaab and Godhavn. These inspectorates
are ruled by two superior officials or governors responsible to
the director of the board in Copenhagen. Each of the inspec-
torates is divided into districts, each district having, in addition
to the chief settlement or coloni, several outlying posts and
Eskimo hunting stations, each presided over by an udligger,
who is responsible to the colonibestyrer, or superintendent of the
district. These trading settlements, which dot the coast for
a distance of 1000 m., are about sixty in number. From the
Eskimo hunting and fishing stations blubber is the chief article
received, and is forwarded in casks to the c oloni, where it is boiled
into oil, and prepared for being despatched to Copenhagen by
means of the government ships which arrive and leave between
May and November. For the rest of the year navigation is
stopped, though the winter months form the busy seal-killing
season. The principle upon which the government acts is to
give the natives low prices for their produce, but to sell them
European articles of necessity at prime cost, and other stores,
such as bread, at prices which will scarcely pay for the purchase
and freight, while no merchandise is charged, on an average,
more than 20% over the cost price in Denmark. In addition
the Greenlanders are allowed to order goods from private dealers
on paying freight for them at the rate of 2§d. per 10 lb. or is. 6d.
per cub. ft. The prices to be paid for European and native
articles are fixed every year, the prices current in Danish and
Eskimo being printed and distributed by the government.
Out of the payment five-sixths are given to the sellers, and one-
sixth devoted to the Greenlanders' public fund, spent in " public
works," in charity, and on other unforeseen contingencies.
The object of the monopoly is solely for the good of the Green-
landers — to prevent spirits being sold to them, and the vice,
disease and misery which usually attend the collision between
natives and civilization of the trader's type being introduced
into the primitive arctic community. The inspectors, in addition
to being trade superintendents, are magistrates, but serious
crime is very rare. Though the officials are all-powerful, local
councils or parsissaet were organized in 1857 in every district.
To these parish parliaments delegates are sent from every station.
These parsissoks, elected at the rate of about one representative
to 120 voters, wear a cap with a badge (a bear rampant), and aid
the European members of the council in distributing the surplus
profit apportioned to each district, and generally in advising as
to the welfare of that part of Greenland under their partial
GREENLAND
547
control. The municipal council has the disposal of 20% of the
annual profits made on produce purchased within the confines
of each district. It holds two sessions every year, and the
discussions are entirely in the Eskimo language. In addition
to their functions as guardians of the poor, the parish members
have to investigate crimes and punish misdemeanours, settle
litigations and divide inheritances. They can impose fines for
small offences not worth sending before the inspector, and, in
cases of high misdemeanour, have the power of inflicting corporal
punishment.
A Danish coloni in Greenland might seem to many not to be
a cheerful place at best; though in the long summer days they
would certainly find some of those on the southern fjords com-
paratively pleasant. The fact is, however, that most people
who ever lived some time in Greenland always long to go back.
There are generally in a coloni three or four Danish houses,
built of wood and pitched over, in addition to storehouses and
a blubber-boiling establishment. The Danish residents may
include, besides a coloni-bestyrer and his assistant, a missionair
or clergyman, at a few places also a doctor, and perhaps a.
carpenter and a schoolmaster. In addition there are generally
from twenty to several hundred Eskimo, who live in huts built
of stone and turf, each entered by a short tunnel. Lately their
houses in the colonis have also to some extent been built of
imported wood. Following the west coast northward, the
trading centres are these: in the south inspectorate, Juliane-
haab, near which are remains of the early Norse settlements of
Eric the Red and his companions (the Oster-Bygd) ; Frederiks-
haab, in which district are the cryolite mines of Ivigtut; Godt-
haab, the principal settlement of all, in the neighbourhood of
which are also early Norse remains (the Vester~Bygd); Sukker-
toppen, a most picturesque locality; and Holstenborg. In the
north inspectorate the centres are: Egedesminde, on an islet
at the mouth of Disco Bay; Christianshaab, one of the
pleasantest settlements in the north, and Jacobshavn, on the
inner shores of the same bay; Godh&vn (or Lievely) on the
south coast of Disco Island, formerly an important seat of
the whaling industry; Ritenbenk, Umanak, and, most northerly
of all, Upernivik. On the east coast there is but one coloni,
Angmagssalik, in -65° 30' N., only established in 1894. For
ecclesiastical purposes Danish Greenland is reckoned in the
province of the bishop of Zeeland. The Danish mission in
Greenland has a yearly grant of £2000 from the trading revenue
of the colony, besides a contribution of £880 from the state.
The Moravian mission, which had worked in Greenland for a
century and a half, retired from the countxy in 1000. The
trade of Greenland has on the whole much decreased in modern '
times, and trading and missions cost the Danish state a com-
paratively large sum (about £11,000 every year), although this
is. partly covered by the income from the royalty of the cryolite
mines at Ivigtut. There is, however, a yearly deficiency of more
than £6000. The decline in the value of the trade, which was
formerly very profitable, has to a great extent been brought
about by the fall in the price of seal-oil. It might be expected
that there should be a decrease in the Greenland seal fisheries,
caused by the European and American sealers catching larger
quantities every year, especially along the coasts of Newfoundland
and Labrador, and so actually diminishing the number of the
animals in the Greenland seas. The statistics of South Greenland,
however, do not seem to demonstrate any such decrease. The
average number of seals killed annually is about 33,000.* The
1 Owing to representations of the Swedish government in 1874
as to the killing of seals at breeding time on the east coast of Green-
land, and the consequent loss of young seals left to die of starvation,
the Seal Fisheries Act 1875 was passed in England to provide for
the establishment of a close, time for seal fishery in the seas in
question. This act empowered the crown, by order in council, to
put its provisions in force, when any foreign state, whose ships
or subjects were engaged in the seal nshery in the area mentioned
in the schedule thereto, had made, or was about to make, similar pro-
visions with respect to its ships and subjects. An order in council
under the act, declaring the season to begin on the 3rd of April in
each year, Was issued February 8, 1876. Rescinded February 15,
1876, it was re-enacted on November 28, 1876, and is still operative.
annual value of imports, consisting of manufactured goods,
foodstuffs, &c, may be taken somewhat to exceed £40,000.
The chief articles of export (together with those that have
lapsed) have been already indicated; but they may be sum-
marized as including seal-oil, seal, fox, bird and bear skins,
fish products and eiderdown, with some quantity of worked
skins! Walrus tusks and walrus hides, which in the days of the
old Norse settlements were the chief articles of export, are now
of little importance.
Population. — The area of the entire Danish colony is estimated
at 45,000 sq. m., and its population in 1001 was 11,893. The
Europeans number about 300. The Eskimo population of
Danish Greenland (west coast) seems to have decreased since
the middle of the 18th century. Hans Egede estimated the
population then at 30,000, but this is probably a large over-
estimate. The decrease may chiefly have been due to infectious
diseases, especially a very severe epidemic of smallpox. During
the last half of the 19th century there was on the Whole a slight
increase of the native population. The population fluctuates
a good deal, owing, to some extent, to an immigration of natives
from the east to the west coast. The population of the east
coast seems on the whole to be decreasing in number, several
hundreds chiefly living at Angmagssalik. In the north part of
the east coast, in the region of Scoresby Fjord and Franz Josef
Fjord, numerous ruins of Eskimo settlements are found, and in
1823 Clavering met Eskimo there, but now they have either
completely died out or have wandered south. A little tribe of
Eskimo living in the region of Cape York near Smith Sound —
the so-called " Arctic Highlanders " or Smith Sound Eskimo —
number about 240.
History. — In the beginning of the 10th century the Norwegian
Gunnbjorn, son of Ulf Kraka, is reported to have found some
islands to the west of Iceland, and he may have seen, without
landing upon it, the southern part of the east coast of Greenland.
In 082 the Norwegian Eric the Red sailed from Iceland to find
the land which Gunnbjdrn had seen, and he spent three years
on its south-western coasts exploring the country. On his return
to Iceland in 985 he called the land Greenland in order to make
people more willing to go there, and reported so favourably on
its possibilities that he had no difficulty in obtaining followers.
In 986 he started again from Iceland with 25 ships, but only
14 of them reached Greenland, where a colony was founded on
the south-west coast, in the present Julianehaab district. Eric
built his house at Brattalid, near the inner end of the fjord
Tunugdliarfik, just north of the present Julianehaab. Other
settlers followed and in a few years two colonies had been formed,
one called Ostetbygd in the present district of Julianehaab
comprising later about 190 farms, and another called Vester-
bygd farther north on the west coast in the present district
of Godthaab, comprising later about 90 farms. Numerous ruins
in the various fjords of these two districts indicate now where
these colonies were. Wooden coffins, with skeletons wrapped
in coarse hairy cloth, and both pagan and Christian tombstones
with runic inscriptions have been found. On a voyage from
Norway to Greenland Leif Ericsson (son of Eric the Red) dis-
covered America in the year 1000, and a few years later Torfinn
Karlsefne sailed with three ships and about 150 men, from Green-
land to Nova Scotia to form a colony, but returned three years
later (see Vinland).
When the Norsemen came to Greenland they found various
remains indicating, as the old sagas say, that there had been
people of a similar kind as those they met with in Vinland, in
America, whom they called Skraeling (the meaning of the word
is uncertain, it means possibly weak people); but the sagas
do not report that they actually met the natives then. But
somewhat later they have probably met with the Eskimo
farther north on the west coast in the neighbourhood of Disco
Bay, where the Norsemen went to catch seals, walrus, &c.
The Norse colonists penetrated on these fishing expeditions at
least to 73 N., where a small runic stone from the 14th century
has been found. On a voyage in 1267 they penetrated even still
farther north into the Melville Bay.
54 8
GREENLAW--GREENOCK
Christianity was introduced by Leif Ericsson at the instance
of Olaf Trygvasson, king of Norway, in iooo and following years.
In the beginning of the 12th century Greenland got its own
bishop, who resided at Garolar, near the present Eskimo station
Igoliko, on an isthmus between two fjords, Igaliksf jord (the old
Einarsfjord) and Tunugdliarnk (the old Eriksfjord), inside the
present colony Julianehaab. The Norse colonies had twelve
churches, one monastery and one nunnery in the tisterbygd,
and four churches in the Vesterbygd. Greenland, like Iceland,
had a republican organization up to the years 1247 to 1261,
when the Greenlanders were induced to swear allegiance to the
king of Norway. Greenland belonged to the Norwegian crown
till 1814, when, at the dissolution of the union between Denmark
and Norway, neither it nor Iceland and the Faeroes were men-
tioned, and they, therefore, were kept by the Danish king and
thus came to Denmark. The settlements were called respectively
. Osier Bygd (or eastern settlement) and V ester (western) Bygd,
both being now known to be on the south and west coast (in the
districts of Julianehaab and Godthaab respectively), though
for long the view was persistently held that the first was on the
east coast, and numerous expeditions have been sent in search
of these " lost colonies " and their imaginary survivors. These
settlements at the height of their prosperity are estimated to have
had 10,000 inhabitants, which, however, is an over-estimate, the
number having probably been nearer one-half or one-third of
that number. The last bishop appointed to Greenland died in
1540, but long before that date those appointed had never
reached their sees; the last bishop who resided in Greenland
died there in 1377. After the middle of the 14th century very
little is heard of the settlements, and their communication with
the motherland, Norway, evidently gradually ceased. This
may have been due in great part to the fact that the shipping
and trade of Greenland became a monopoly of the king of
Norway, who kept only one ship sailing at long intervals (of
years) to Greenland; at the same time the shipping and trade
of Norway came more and more in the hands of the Hanseatic
League, which took no interest in Greenland. The last ship that
is known to have visited the Norse colony in Greenland returned
to Norway in 1410. With no support from home the settlements
seem to have decayed rapidly. It has been supposed that they
were destroyed by attacks of the Eskimo, who about this period
seem to have become more numerous and to have extended
southwards along the coast from the north. This seems a less
feasible explanation; it is more probable that the Norse settlers
intermarried with the Eskimo and were gradually absorbed.
About the end of the 15th or the beginning of the z6th century
it would appear that all Norse colonization had practically
disappeared. When in 1585 John Davis visited it there was no
sign of any people save the Eskimo, among whose traditions are a
few directly relating to the old Norsemen, and several traces of
Norse influence. 1 For more than two hundred years Greenland
seems to have been neglected, almost forgotten. It was visited
by whalers, chiefly Dutch, but nothing in the form of permanent
European settlements was established until the year 1721, when
the first missionary, the Norwegian clergyman Hans Egede,
landed, and established a settlement near Godthaab. Amid
many hardships and discouragements he persevered; and at
the present day the native race is civilized and Christianized.
Many of the colonists of the 18th century were convicts and
other offenders; and in 1750 the trade became a monopoly in
the hands of a private company. In X733 _ *734 there was a
dreadful epidemic of smallpox, which destroyed a great number
of the people. In 1774 the trade ceased to be profitable as a
private monopoly, and to prevent it being abandoned the
government took it over. Julianehaab was founded in the
following year. In 1807-1814, owing to the war, communication
was cut off with Norway and Denmark; but subsequently the
colony prospered in a languid fashion.
Authorities. — As to the discovery of Greenland by the Norsemen
and its early history see Konrad Maurer's excellent paper, " Ge-
schichte der Entdcckung Ostgronlands " in the report of Die mveite
* » Cf. F. Nansen, Eskimo Life (London, 1893),
detdsche Nordpolarfahrt 1860-1870 (Leipzig, 1874), vol. i. ; G. Storm*
Studies on the u Vineland n Voyages (Copenhagen, 1889); Extraits
des Mimoires de la Sociiti Royale des Antiquaircs du Nord (1888);
K. J. V. Steenstrup, " Om Osterbygden," Meddelelser om Gronland,
part ix. (1882), jpp. I -51; Finnur Tdnsson, " Gronlands gamle
Topoerafi efter Kilderne " in Meddelelser om Gronland, part xx.
(1890), pp. 265-320 ; Joseph Fischer, The Discoveries of the Norsemen
in America, translated from German by B. H. Soulsby (London,
1903). As to the general literature on Greenland, a number of the
more important modern works have been noticed in footnotes.
The often-quoted Meddelelser om GrOnland is of especial value ; it
is published in parts (Copenhagen) since 1879, and is chiefly written
in Danish, but each part has a summary in French. In part xiu.
there is a most valuable list of literature about Greenland up to
1880. See also Geographical Journal, passim.
Amongst other important books on Greenland may be mentioned:
Hans Egede, Description of Greenland (London, 1745); Crantz,
History of Greenland (2 vols., London, 1820); Gronlands historiske
Mindesmerker (3 vols., Copenhagen, 1 838-1 845); H. Rink, Danish
Greenland (London, 1877); H. Rink, Tales of the Eskimo (London,
1875); (see also same, Eskimo Tribes" in Meddelelser om Gron-
land, part xi.) ; Johnstrup, Giesecke's Mineralogiske Reise i Grdnland
(Copenhagen, 1878). (F. N.)
GREENLAW (a " grassy hill "), a town of Berwickshire, Scot-
land. Pop. (1001) 611. It is situated on the Blackadder, 62} m.
S.E. of Edinburgh by the North British railway company's branch
line from Reston Junction to St Boswells. The town was buik
towards the end of the 17th century, to take the place of an older
one, which stood about a mile to the S.E. It was the county town
from 1696 to 1853, when for several years it shared this dignity
with Duns, which, however, is now the sole capital. The chief
manufactures are woollens and agricultural implements. About
3 m. to the S. the ruin of Hume Castle, founded in the 13th
century, occupies a commanding site. Captured by the English
in 1547, in spite of Lady Home's gallant defence, it was retaken
two years afterwards, only to fall again in 1569. After its
surrender to Cromwell in 1650 it gradually decayed. Towards
the close of the 18th century the 3rd earl of Marchmont had the
walls rebuilt out of the old stones, and the castle, though a mere
shell of the original structure, is now a picturesque ruin.
GREENLEAF, SIMON (1783-1853), American jurist, was
born at Newburyport, Massachusetts, on the 5th of December
1 783. When a child he was taken by his father to Maine, where
he studied law, and in 1806 began to practise at Standish. He
soon removed to Gray, where he practised for twelve years, and
in 1818 removed to Portland. He was reporter of the supreme
court of Maine from 1820 to 1832, and published nine volumes of
Reports of Cases in the Supreme Court of Maine (1822-1835).
In 1833 he became Royall professor, and in 1846 succeeded
Judge Joseph Story as Dane professor of law in Harvard Univer-
sity; in 1848 he retired from his active duties, and became
professor emeritus. After being for many years president of the
Massachusetts Bible Society, he died at Cambridge, Mass., on
the 6th of October 1853. Greenkaf 's principal work is a Treatise
on the Law of Evidence (3 vols., 1842-1853). He also published
A Full Collection of Cases Overruled, Denied, Doubted, or Limited
in their Application, taken from American and English Reports
(1821), and Examination of the Testimony of the Four Evangelists
by the Rules of Evidence administered in the Courts of Justice,
with an account of the Trial of Jesus (1846; London, 1847)- He
revised for the American courts William Cruise's Digest of Laws
respecting Real Property (3 vols., 1849-1850).
GREEN MONKEY, a west African representative of the typical
group of the guenon monkeys technically known as Cercopithecus
callitrichus, taking its name from the olive-greenish hue of the fur
of the back, which forms a marked contrast to the white whiskers
and belly.
GREENOCK, a municipal and police burgh and seaport of
Renfrewshire, Scotland, on the southern shore of the Firth of
Clyde, 23 m. W. by N. of Glasgow by the Caledonian and the
Glasgow & South- Western railways, 21 m. by the river and
firth. Pop. (1001) 68,142. The town has a water frontage of
nearly 4 m. and rises gradually to the hills behind the town in
which are situated, about 3 m. distant, Loch , Thorn and Loch
Gryf e, from both of which is derived the water supply for domestic
use, and for driving several mills and factories. The streets are
GREENOCKITE— GREENORE
549
laid out on the comparatively level tract behind the firth, the
older thoroughfares and buildings lying in the centre. The west
end. contains numerous handsome villas and a fine esplanade, i$m.
long, running from Prince's Pier to Fort Matilda, which is supplied
with submarine mines for the defence of the river. The capacious
bay, formerly known as the Bay of St Lawrence from a religious
house long since demolished, is protected by a sandbank that ends
here, and is hence known as the Tail of the Bank. The fairway
between this bank, which begins to the west of Dumbarton, and
the southern shore constitutes the safest anchorage in the upper
firth, there is a continuous line of electric tramways, connecting
with Port Glasgow on the east and Gourock on the west, a total
distance of 7$ m. The annual rainfall amounts to 64 in. and
Greenock thus has the reputation of being the wettest town in
Scotland.
Many of the public buildings are fine structures. The muni-
cipal buildings, an ornate example of Italian Renaissance, with
a tower 244 ft. high, were opened in 1887. The custom house on
the old steamboat quay, in classic style with a Doric portico,
dates from 1818. The county buildings (1867) have a tower and
spire 112 ft. high. The Watt Institution, founded in 1837 by a
son of the famous engineer, James Watt, contains the public
library (established in 1783), the Watt scientific library (pre-
sented in 18 16 by Watt himself), and the marble statue of James
Watt by Sir Francis Chantrey. Adjoining it are the museum and
lecture haU, the gift of James McLean, opened in 1876. Other
buildings are the sheriff court house, and the Spence Library,
founded by the widow of William Spence the mathematician.
In addition to numerous board schools there are the Greenock
academy for secondary education, the technical college (1900),
the school of art, and a school of navigation and engineering.
The charitable institutions include the infirmary; the cholera
hospital; the eye infirmary; the fever reception house; Sir
Gabriel Wood's mariners' asylum, an Elizabethan building
erected in 1851 for the accommodation of aged merchant sea-
men; and the Smithson poorhouse and lunatic asylum, built
beyond the southern boundary in 1879. Near Albert Harbour
stands the old west now the jiorth parish church (a Gothic
edifice dating from 1591) containing some stained-glass windows
by William Morris; in its kirkyard Burns's " Highland Mary "
was buried (1786). The west parish church in Nicholson Street
(1839) is in the Italian Renaissance style and has a campanile.
The middle parish church (1759) *& Cathcart Square is in the
Classic style with a fine spire. Besides burial grounds near the
infirmary and attached to a few of the older churches, a beauti-
ful cemetery, 90 acres in extent, has been laid out in the south-
western district. The parks and open spaces include Wellington
Park, Well Park in the heart of the town (these were the gift of
Sir Michael Shaw-Stewart), Whin Hill, Lyle Road — a broad drive
winding over the heights towards Gourock^ constructed as a
" relief work " in the severe winter of 1879-1880.
Greenock is under the jurisdiction of a town council with
provost and bailies. It is a parliamentary burgh, represented by
one member. The corporation owns the supplies of water (the
equipment of works and reservoirs is remarkably complete), gas,
electric light and power, and the tramways (leased to a company).
The staple industries are shipbuilding (established in 1760) and
sugar refining (1765), Greenock-built vessels have always been
esteemed, and many Cunard, P. & O. and Allan liners have been
constructed in the yards. The town has been one of the chief
centres of the sugar industry. Other important industries
include the making of boilers, steam-engines, locomotives,
anchors, chain-cables, sailcloth, ropes, paper, woollen and
worsted goods, besides general engineering, an aluminium
factory, a flax-spinning mill, distilleries and an oil-refinery. The
seal and whale fisheries, once vigorously prosecuted, are extinct,
but the fishing-fleets for the home waters and the Newfoundland
grounds are considerable. Till 1772 the town leased the first
harbour (finished in 17 10) from Sir John Shaw, the superior, but
acquired it in that and the following year, and a graving dock
was opened in 1786. Since then additions and improvements
have been periodically in progress, and there are now several
tidal harbours — among them Victoria harbour, Albert harbour,
the west harbour, the east harbour, the northern tidal harbour,
the western tidal harbour, the great harbour and James Watt
dock (completed in 1886 at a cost of £650,000 with an area of
2000 ft. by 400 ft. with a depth at low water of 32 ft.), Garvel
graving dock and other dry docks. The quayage exceeds 100
acres in area and the quay walls are over 3 m. in length. Both
the Caledonian and the Glasgow & South- Western railways
(in Prince's Pier the latter company possesses a landing-stage
nearly 1400 ft. long) have access to the quays. From first to last
the outlay on the harbour has exceeded £1,500,000.
In the earlier part of the 17 th century Greenock was a fishing
village, consisting of one row of thatched cottages. A century
later there were only six slated houses in the place. In 1635 it
was erected by Charles I. into a burgh of barony under a charter
granted to John Shaw, the government being administered by a
baron-bailie, or magistrate, appointed by the superior. Its
commercial prosperity received an enormous impetus from the
Treaty of Union (1707), under which trade with America and the
West Indies rapidly developed. The American War of Independ-
ence suspended progress for a brief interval, but revival set in
in 1783, and within the following seven years shipping trebled in
amount. Meanwhile Sir John Shaw — to whom and to whose
descendants, the Shaw-Stewarts, the town has always been
indebted — by charter (dated 1741 and 175 1) had empowered the
householders to elect a council of nine members, which proved to
be the most liberal constitution of any Scots burgh prior to the
Reform Act of 1832, when Greenock was raised to the status of
a parliamentary burgh with the right to return one member to
parliament. Greenock was the birthplace of James Watt,
William Spence (1777-1815) and Dr John Caird (1820-1898),
principal of Glasgow University, who died in the town and was
buried in Greenock cemetery. John Gait, the novelist, was
educated in Greenock, where he also served some time in the
custom house as a clerk. Rob Roy is said to have raided the
town in 171 5.
GREENOCKITE, a rare mineral composed of cadmium
sulphide, CdS, occurring as small, brilliant, honey-yellow crystals
or as a canary-yellow powder. Crystals are hexagonal with
hemimorphic development, being differently terminated at the
two ends. The faces of the hexagonal prism and of the numerous
hexagonal pyramids are deeply striated horizontally. The crys-
tals are translucent to transparent, and have an adamantine
to resinous lustre; hardness 3-3J; specific gravity 4*9; Crystals
have been found only in Scotland, at one or two places in the
neighbourhood of Glasgow, where they occur singly on prehnite
in the amygdaloidal cavities of basaltic igneous rocks — a rather
unusual mode of occurrence for a metallic sulphide. The first,
and largest crystal (about f in. across) was found, about the
year 1810, in the dolerite quarry at Bowling in Dumbartonshire,
but this was thought to be blende. A larger number of crystals,
but of smaller size, were found in 1840 during the cutting of the
Bishopton tunnel on the Glasgow & Greenock railway; they
were detected by Lord Greenock, afterwards the 2nd earl of
Cathcart, after whom the mineral was named. A third locality
is the Boyleston quarry near Barrhead. At all other localities —
Przibram in Bohemia, Laurion in Greece, Joplin in Missouri, &c.
— the mineral is represented only as a powder dusted over the
surface of zinc minerals, especially blende and calamine, which
contain a small amount of cadmium replacing zinc.
Isomorphous with greenockite is the hexagonal zinc sulphide
(ZnS) known as wurtzite. Both minerals have been prepared
artificially, and are not uncommon as furnace products. Previous
to the recent discovery in Sardinia of cadmium oxide as small
octahedral crystals, greenockite was the only known mineral
containing cadmium as an essential constituent. (L. J. S.).
GREENORE, a seaport and watering-place of county Louth,
Ireland, beautifully situated at the north of Carlingford Lough on
its western shore. It was brought to importance by the action
of the London & North- Western railway company of England,
which owns the pier and railways joining the Great Northern
system at Dundalk (12 J m.) and Newry (14 m.). A regular
550
GREENOUGH, G. B.— GREEN RIBBON CLUB
service of passenger steamers controlled by the company runs
to Holyhead, Wales, 80 m. S.E. A steam ferry crosses the Lough
to Greencastle, for Kilkeel, and the southern watering-places of
county Down. The company also owns the hotel, and laid out
the golf links. In the vicinity a good example of raised beach,
some 10 ft. above present sea-level, is to be seen.
GREENOUGH, GEORGE BELLAS (1778-1855), English geo-
logist, was born in London on the 18th of January 1778. He
was educated at Eton, and afterwards (1795) entered Pem-
broke College, Oxford, but never graduated. In 1798 he pro-
ceeded to Gattingen to prosecute legal studies, but having
.attended the lectures of Blumenbach he was attracted to the
study of natural history, and, coming into the possession of a
fortune, he abandoned law and devoted his attention to science.
He studied mineralogy at Freiburg under Werner, travelled in
various parts of Europe and the British Isles, and worked at
chemistry at the Royal Institution. A visit to Ireland aroused
■deep interest in political questions, and he was in 1807 elected
member of parliament for the borough of Gatton, continuing to
hold his seat until 1812. Meanwhile his interest in geology
increased, he was elected F.R.S. in 1807, and he was the chief
founder with others of the Geological Society of London in 1807.
He was the first chairman of that Society, and in 181 1, when it
was more regularly constituted, he was the first president: and
in this capacity he served on two subsequent occasions, and
did much to promote the advancement of geology. In 181 9
he published A Critical Examination of the First Principles of
Geology, a work which was useful mainly in refuting erroneous
theories. In the same year was published his famous Geological
Map of England and Woks, in six sheets; of which a second
edition was issued in 1839. This map was to a large extent based
on the original map of William Smith; but much new informa-
tion was embodied. In 1843 he commenced to prepare a geo-
logical map of India, which was published in 1854. He died at
Naples on the and of April 1855.
GREENOUGH, HORATIO (1805-1852), American sculptor,
son of a merchant, was born at Boston, on the 6th of September
1805. At the age of sixteen he entered Harvard, but he devoted
his principal attention to art, and in the autumn of 1825 he went
to Rome, where he studied under Thorwaldsen. After a short
visit in 1826 to Boston, where he executed busts of John Quincy
Adams and other people of distinction, he returned to Italy and
took up his residence at Florence. Here one of his first com-
missions was from James Fenimore Cooper for a group of Chant-
ing Cherubs; and he was chosen by the American government
to execute the colossal statue of Washington for the national
capital. It was unveiled in 1843, and was really a fine piece of
work for its day; but in modern times it has been sharply
criticized as unworthy and incongruous. Shortly afterwards
he received a second government commission for a colossal
group, the " Rescue," intended to represent the conflict between
the Anglo-Saxon and Indian races. In 1851 he returned to
Washington to superintend its erection, and in the autumn of
1852 he was attacked by brain fever, of which he died in Somer-
ville near Boston on the 18th of December. Among other works
of Greenough may be mentioned a bust of Lafayette, the Medora
and the Venus Victrix in the gallery of the Boston Athenaeum.
Greenough was a man of wide culture, and wrote well both in
prose and verse.
See H. T. Tuckerman, Memoir of Horatio Greenough (New York,
1853).
GREENOUGH, JAMES BRADSTREET (1833-1001)1 American
classical scholar, was born in Portland, Maine, on the 4th of May
1833. He graduated at Harvard in 1856, studied one year at
the Harvard Law School, was admitted to the Michigan bar,
and practised in Marshall, Michigan, until 1865, when he was
appointed tutor in Latin at Harvard. In 1873 he became
assistant professor, and in 1883 professor of Latin, a post which
he resigned hardly six weeks before his death at Cambridge,
Massachusetts, on the nth of October iooi. Following the
lead of Goodwin's Moods and Tenses (i860), he set himself to
study Latin historical syntax, and in 1870 published Analysis
of the Latin Subjunctive, a brief treatise, privately printed, of
much originality and value, and in many ways coinciding with
Berthold Delbriick's Gebrauch des Conjunctivs und Optativs in
Sanskrit und Griechischen (187 1), which, however, quite over-
shadowed the Analysis. In 1872 appeared A Latin Grammar
for Schools and Colleges, founded on Comparative Grammar,
by Joseph A. Allen and James B. Greenough, a work of great
critical carefulness. His theory of c«f»-constrtictions is that
adopted and developed by William Gardner Hale. In 1 87 2-1 880
Greenough offered the first courses in Sanskrit and comparative
philology given at Harvard. His fine abilities for advanced
scholarship were used outside the classroom in editing the Allen
and Greenough Latin Series of text-books, although he occa-
sionally contributed to Harvard Studies in Classical Philology
(founded in 1889 and endowed at his instance by his own class)
papers on Latin syntax, prosody and etymology — a subject
on which he planned a long work — on Roman archaeology and
on Greek religion at the time of the New Comedy. He assisted
largely in the founding of Radcliffe College. An able English
scholar and an excellent etymologist, he collaborated with,
Professor George L. Kittredge on Words and their Ways in
English Speech (1001), one of the best books on the subject in
the language. He wrote clever light verse, including The Black-
birds, a comedietta, first published in The Atlantic Monthly^
(vol. xxxix. 1877); The Rose and the Ring (1880), a pantomime'
adapted from Thackeray; TheQueen of Hearts (1885), a dramatic
fantasia; and Old King Cole (1889), an operetta. t [
See the sketch by George L. Kittredge in Harvard Studies in
Classical Philology ;, vol. xiv. (1903), pp. 1-17 (also printed in Harvard
Graduates* Magazine, vol. x., Dec. 1901, pp. 196-101). £
GREEN RIBBON CLUB, one of the earliest of the loosely
combined associations which met from time to time in London
taverns or coffee-houses for political purposes in the 1 7th century.
It had its meeting-place at the King's Head tavern at Chancery
Lane End, and was therefore known as the " King's Head Club."
It seems to have been founded about the year 1675 as a resort
for members of the political party hostile to the court, and as
these associates were in the habit of wearing in their hats a bow,
or "bob," of green ribbon, as a distinguishing badge useful
for the purpose of mutual recognition in street brawls, the name
of the club became changed, about 1679, to the Green Ribbon
Club. The frequenters of the club were the extreme faction of the
country party, the men who supported Titus Oates, and who
were concerned in the Rye House Plot and Monmouth's rebellion.
Roger North tells us that " they admitted all strangers that were
confidingly introduced, for it was a main end of their institutions
to make proselytes, especially of the raw estated youth newly
come to town." According to Dryden (A bsalom and Achitophet)
drinking was the chief attraction, and the members talked and
organized sedition over their cups. Thomas Dangerfield supplied
the court with a list of forty-eight members of the Green Ribbon
Club in 1679; and although Dangerfield's numerous perjuries
make his unsupported evidence worthless, it receives confirma-
tion as regards several names from a list given to James II. by
Nathan Wade in 1885 (Harleian MSS. 6845), while a number
of more eminent personages are mentioned in The Cabal, a satire
published in 1680, as also frequenting the club. From these
sources it would appear that the duke of Monmouth himself,
and statesmen like Halifax, Shaftesbury, Buckingham, Maccles-
field, Cavendish, Bedford, Grey of Warke, Herbert of Cherbury,
were among those who fraternized at the King's Head Tavern
with third-rate writers such as Scroop, Mulgrave and Shadwell,
with remnants of the Cromwellian regime like Falconbridge,
Henry Ireton and Claypole, with such profligates as Lord Howard
of Escrik and Sir Henry Blount, and with scoundrels of the
type of Dangerfield and Oates. An allusion to Dangerfield,
notorious among his other crimes and treacheries for a seditious
paper found in a meal-tub, is found in connexion with the club
in The Loyal Subjects 9 Litany, one of the innumerable satins
of the period, in which occur the lines:
" From the dark-lanthorn Plot, and the Green Ribbon Club
From brewing sedition in a sanctified Tub,
Libera nos, Domine"
GREENSAND
55*
The dub was the headquarters of the Whig opposition to the
court, and its members were active promoters of conspiracy and
sedition. The president was either Lord Shaftesbury or Sir
Robert Peyton, M.P. for Middlesex, who afterwards turned
informer. The Green Ribbon Club served both as a debating
society and an intelligence department for the Whig faction.
Questions under discussion in parliament were here threshed
out by the members over their tobacco and ale; the latest news
from Westminster or the city was retailed in the tavern, " for
some or others were continually coming and going," says Roger
North, " to import or export news and stories." Slander of the
court or the Tories was invented in the dub and sedulously
spread over the town, and measures were there concerted for
pushing on the Exdusion Bill, or for promoting the pretensions
of the duke of Monmouth. The popular credulity as to Catholic
outrages in the days of the Popish Plot was stimulated by the
scandalmongers of the dub, whose members went about in silk
armour, supposed to be bullet proof, " in which any man dressed
up was as safe as a house," says North, " for it was impossible
to strike him for laughing "; while in their pockets, " for street
and crowd-work," they carried the weapon of offence invented
by Stephen College and known as the " Protestant Flail."
The genius of Shaftesbury found in the Green Ribbon Club
the means of constructing the first systematized political organiza-
tion in England. North relates that "every post conveyed
the news and tales legitimated there, as also the malign construc-
tions of all the good actions of the government, especially to
places where elections were depending, to shape men's characters
into fit qualifications to be chosen or rejected." In the general
election of January and February 1679 the Whig interest
throughout the country was managed and controlled by a
committee sitting at the club in Chancery Lane. The dub's
organizing activity was also notably effective in the agitation
of the Petitioners in 1679. This celebrated movement was
engineered from the Green Ribbon Club with all the skill and
energy of a modern caucus. The petitions were prepared in
London and sent down to every part of the country, where paid
canvassers took them from house to house collecting signatures
with an air of authority that made refusal difficult. The great
" pope-burning " processions in 1680 and 1681, on the anniversary
of Queen Elizabeth's accession, were also organized by the dub.
They ended by the lighting of a huge bon-fire in front of the dub
windows; and as they proved an effective means of inflaming
the religious passions of the populace, it was at the Green Ribbon
Club that the mobile vulgus first recdved the nickname of " the
mob." The activity of the dub was, however, short-lived.
The failure to carry the Exclusion Bill, one of the favourite
projects of the faction, was a blow to its influence, which dedined
rapidly after the flight of Shaftesbury, the confiscation of the
city of London's charter, and the discovery of the Rye House
Plot, in which many of its members were implicated. In 1685
John Ayloffe, who was found to have been " a dubber at the
King's Head Tavern and a green-ribon man," was executed
in front of the premises on the spot where the " pope-burning "
bon-fires had been kindled; and although the tavern was still
in existence in the time of Queen Anne, the Green Ribbon Club
which made it famous did not survive the accession of James II.
The predse situation of the King's Head Tavern, described by
North as " over against the Inner Temple Gate," was at the
corner of Fleet Street and Chancery Lane, on the east side of the
latter thoroughfare.
See Sir Georee Sitwell, The First Whig (Scarborough, 1894),
containing an illustration of the Green Ribbon Club and a pope-
burning procession; Roger North, Examen (London, 1740);
Anchitell Grey, Debates of the House of Commons, 1667-1684, vol.
viii. (10 vols., London, 1769); Sir John Bramston, Autobiography
(Camden Soc., London, 1845). (R. J. M.)
GfcEENSAND, in geology, the name that has been applied to
no fewer than three distinct members of the Cretaceous System,
viz. the Uprjer Greensand (see Gauxt), the Lower Greensand
and the so-called Cambridge Greensand, a local phase of the base
of the Chalk (q.v.). The term was introduced by the early
English geologists for certain sandy rocks which frequently
exhibited a greenish colour on account of the presence of minute
grains of the green mineral glauconite. Until the fossils of these
rocks came to be carefully studied there was much confusion
between what is now known as the Upper Greensand (Selbornian)
and the Lower Greensand. Here we shall confine our attention
to the latter.
The Lower Greensand was first examined in detail by W. H.
Fitton (Q.J.G.S. iii., 1847), who, in 1845, had proposed the name
" Vectine " for the formation. The name was revived under the
form " Vectian " in 1885 by A. J. Jukes-Browne, because,
although sands and sandstones prevail, the green colour has
often changed by oxidation of the iron to various shades of red
and brown, and other lithological types, days and limestones
represent this horizon in certain areas. The Lower Greensand
is typically developed in the Wealden district, in the Isle of
Wight, in Dorsetshire about Swanage, and it appears again
beneath the northern outcrop of the Chalk in Berkshire, Oxford-
shire and Bedfordshire, and thence it is traceable through
Norfolk and Lincolnshire into east Yorkshire. It rests conform-
ably upon the Wealden formation in the south of England, but
it is dearly separable from the beds beneath by the occurrence
of marine fossils, and by the fact that there is a marked overlap
of the Lower Greensand on the Weald in Wiltshire, and derived
pebbles are found in the basal beds. The whole series is 800 ft.
thick at Atherfield in the Isle of Wight, but it thins rapidly
westward. It is usually dearly marked off from the overlying
Gault.
In the Wealden area the Lower Greensand has been sub-
divided as follows, although the several members are not every-
where recognizable: —
Isle of Wight.
Folkestone Beds (70-100 ft.) . Carstone and Sand rock series.
Sandgate Beds (75-100 ft.) . Ferruginous Sands (Shanklin sands).
Hythe Beds (80-300 ft.) . . Ferruginous Sands (Walpen sands).
Atherfield Clay (20-90 ft.). . Atherfield Clay.
The Atherfield Clay is usually a sandy day, fossilif erous. The
basal portion, 5-6 ft., is known as the " Ferna bed " from the
abundance of Perna Mulleti; other fossils are Hoplites Deshayesii,
Exogyra sinuata, Ancyloceras Mathesonianum. The Hythe beds
are interstratified thin limestones and sandstones; the former
are bluish-grey in colour, compact and hard, with a certain
amount of quartz and glauconite. The limestone is known
locally as " rag "; the Kentish Rag has been largdy employed
as a building stone and roads tone; it frequently contains layers
of chert (known as Sevenoaks stone near that town). The sandy
portions are very variable; the stone is often dayey and calcare-
ous and rarely hard enough to make a good building stone;
locally it is called " hassock " (or Calkstone). The two stones
are well exposed in the Iguanodon Quarry near Maidstone (so
called from the discovery of the bones of that reptile). South-
west of Dorking sandstone and grit become more prevalent, and
it is known there as " Bargate stone," much used around Godal-
ming. Pulborough stone is another local sandstone of the Hythe
beds. Fuller's earth occurs in parts of this formation in
Surrey. The Sandgate beds, mainly dark, argillaceous sand and
clay, are well developed in east Kent, and about Midhurst,
Pulborough and Petworth. At Nutfield the celebrated fuller's
earth deposits occur on this horizon; it is also found near
Maidstone, at Bletchingley and Red Hill. The Folkestone beds
are light-coloured, rather coarse sands, endosing layers of siliceous
limestone (Folkestone stone) and chert; a phosphatic bed is found
near the top. These beds are well seen in the cliffs at Folkestone
and near Reigate. At Ightham there is a fine, hard, white sand-
stone along with a green, quartzitic variety (Ightham stone). In
Sussex the limestone and chert are usually lacking, but a fer-
ruginous grit, " carstone," occurs in lenticular masses and layers,
which is used for road metal at Pulborough, Fittleworth, &c.
The Lower Greensand usually forms picturesque, healthy
country, as about Leith Hill, Hindhead, Midhurst, Petworth, at
Woburn, or at Shanklin and Sandown in the Isle of Wight.
Outside the southern area the Lower Greensand is represented by
the Faringdon sponge-bearing beds in Berkshire, the Sandy and
552
GREENSBORO—GREENVILLE
Potton beds in Bedfordshire, the Shotover iron sands of Oxford-
shire, the sands and fuller's earth of Woburn, the Leighton
Buzzard sands, the brick clays of Snettisham, and perhaps the
Sandringham sands of Norfolk, and the carstone of that county
and Lincolnshire. The upper ironstone, limestone and clay of the
Lincolnshire Tealby beds appear to belong to this horizon along
with the upper part of the Speeton beds of Yorkshire. The sands
of the Lower Greensand are largely employed for the manufacture
of glass, for which purpose they are dug at Aylesford, Godstone,
near Reigate, Hartshill, near Aylesbury and other places; the
ferruginous sand is worked as an iron ore at Seend.
This formation is continuous across the channel into France,
where it is well developed in Boulonnais. According to the
continental classification the Atherfield Clay is equivalent to the
Urgonian or Barremian; the Sandgate and Hythe beds belong to
the Aptian (q.v.); while the upper part of the Folkestone beds
would fall within the lower Albian (q.v.).
See the Memoirs of the Geological Survey, " Geology of the Weald "
(1875), " Geology of the Isle of Wight " (2nd ed. f 1889), " Geology
of the Isle of Purbeck " (1898) ; and the Record of Excursions,
Geologists' Association (London, 189 1). (J. A. H.)
GREENSBORO, a city and the county-seat of Guilford county,
North Carolina, U.S.A., about 80 m. N.W. of Raleigh. Pop.
(1890) 3317, (1900) 10,035, of whom 4086 were negroes;
(1906, estimate), 14,067. Greensboro is served by several lines
of the Southern railway. It is situated in the Piedmont region
of the state and has an excellent climate. The city is the seat of
the State Normal and Industrial College (1892) for girls; of the
Greensboro Female College (Methodist Episcopal, South;
chartered in 1838 and opened in 1846), of which the Rev. Charles
F. Deems was president in 1850-1854, and which, owing to the
burning of its buildings, was suspended from 1863 to 1874; and of
two institutions for negroes — a State Agriculturaland Mechanical
College, and Bennett College(Methodist Episcopal,co-educational,
1873) . Another school for negroes, Immanuel Lutheran College
(Evangelical Lutheran, co-educational), was opened at Concord,
N.C., in 1903, was removed to Greensboro in 1905, and in 1907
was established at Lutherville, E. of Greensboro. About 6 m. W.
of Greensboro is Guilford College (co-educational; Friends),
founded as " New Garden Boarding School " in 1837 and re-
chartered under its present name in 1888. Greensboro has a
Carnegie library, St Leo hospital and a large auditorium. It is
the shipping-point for an agricultural, lumbering and trucking
region, among whose products Indian corn, tobacco and cotton
are especially important; is an important insurance centre; has
a large wholesale trade; and has various manufactures, including
cotton goods 1 (especially blue denim), tobacco and cigars,
lumber, furniture, sash, doors and blinds, machinery, foundry
products and terra-cotta. The value of the factory products
increased from $925,411 in 1900 to $1,828,837 in 1905, or 97*6%.
The municipality owns and operates the water-works. Greensboro
was named in honour of General Nathanael Greene, who on the
15th of March 1781 fought with Cornwallis the battle of Guilford
Court House, about 6 m. N.W. of the city, where there is now a
Battle-Ground Park of 100 acres (including Lake Wilfong); this
park contains a Revolutionary museum, and twenty-nine monu-
ments, including a Colonial Column, an arch (1906) in memory
of Brig.-General Francis Nash (1720-1777), of North Carolina,
who died in October 1777 of wounds received at Germantown, and
Davidson Arch (1005), in honour of William Lee Davidson (1746-
1 78 1 ) , a brigadier-general of North Carolina troops, who was killed
at Catawba and in whose honour Davidson College, at Davidson,
N.C., was named. Greensboro was founded and became the
county-seat in 1808, was organized as a town in 1829, and was
first chartered as a city in 1870.
l One of the first cotton mills in the South and probably the
first in this state was established at Greensboro in 1852. It closed
about 20 years afterwards, and in 1889 new mills were built. Three
very large mills were built in the decade after 1895, and three mill
villages, Proximity, Revolution and White Oak, named from these
three mills, lie immediately N. of the city; in 1908 their population
was estimated at 8000. The owners of these mills maintain schools
for the children of operatives and carry on " welfare work " in these
villages.
GREENSBURG, a borough and the county-seat of Westmore-
land county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., 31 m. E.S.E. of Pittsburg.
Pop. (1890) 4202; (1900) 6508 (484 foreign-born); (1910) 5430.
It is served by two lines of the Pennsylvania railway. It is an
important coal centre, and manufactures engines, iron and brass
goods, flour, lumber and bricks. In addition to its public school
system, it has several private schools, including St Mary's
Academy and St Joseph's Academy, both Roman Catholic. About
3 m. N.E. of what is now Greensburg stood the village of Hanna's
Town, settled about 1770 and almost completely destroyed
by the Indians on the 13th of July 1782; here what is said to
have been the first court held west of the Alleghanies opened on
the 6th of April 1773, and the county .courts continued to be held
here until 1787. Greensburg was settled in 1784-1785, imme-
diately after the opening of the state road, not far from the trail
followed by General John Forbes on his march to Fort Duquesne
in 1758; it was made the county-seat in 1787, and was incor-
porated in 1 799. In 1905 the boroughs of Ludwick (pop. in 1900,
901), East Greensburg (1050), and South-east Greensburg (620)
were merged with Greensburg.
See John NfBoucher's History of Westmoreland County, Pa.
(3 vols., New York, 1906).
GRHENSHANK, one of the largest of the birds commonly
known as sandpipers, the Totanus glottis of most ornithological
writers. Some exercise of the imagination is however needed to
see in the dingy olive-coloured legs of this species a justification
of the English name by which it goes, and the application of that
name, which seems to be due to Pennant, was probably by way
of distinguishing it from two allied but perfectly distinct species
of Totanus (T. calidris and T.fuscus) having red legs and usually
called redshanks. The greenshank is a native of the northern
parts of the Old World, but in winter it wanders far to the south,
and occurs regularly at the Cape of Good Hope, in India and
thence throughout the Indo-Malay Archipelago to Australia.
It has also been recorded from North America, but its appearance
there must be considered accidental. Almost as bulky as a
woodcock, it is of a much more slender build, and its long legs
and neck give it a graceful appearance, which is enhanced by
the activity of its actions. Disturbed from the moor or marsh,
where it has its nest, it rises swiftly into the air, conspicuous
by its white back and rump, and uttering shrill cries flies round
the intruder. It will perch on the topmost bough of a tree,
if a tree be near, to watch his proceedings, and the cock exhibits
all the astounding gesticulations in which the males of so many
other Limicolae indulge during the breeding-season — with
certain variations, however, that are peculiarly its own. It
breeds in no small numbers in the Hebrides, and parts of the
Scottish Highlands from Argyllshire to Sutherland, as well as
in the more elevated or more northern districts of Norway,
Sweden and Finland, and probably also thence to Kam-
chatka. In North America it is represented by two species,
Totanus semipalmatus and 7\ melanoleucus, there called willets,
telltales or tattlers, which in general habits resemble the green-
shank of the Old World. (A. N.)
GREENVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Washington
county, Mississippi, U.S.A., on the E. bank of the Mississippi
river, about 75 m. N. of Vicksburg. Pop. (1890) 6658; (1900)
7642, of whom 4987 were negroes. Greenville is served by the
Southern and the Yazoo & Mississippi Valley railways, and by
various passenger and freight steamboat lines on the Mississippi
river. It is situated in the centre of the Yazoo Delta, a rich
cotton-producing region, and its industries are almost exclusively
connected with that staple. There are large warehouses, com-
presses and gins, extensive cotton-seed oil works and sawmills.
Old Greenville, about 1 m. S. of the present site, was the county
seat of Jefferson county until 1825 (when Fayette succeeded it),
and later became the county-seat of Washington county. Much
of the old town caved into the river, and during the Civil War it
was burned by the Federal forces soon after the capture of
Memphis, The present site was then adopted. The town of
Greenville was incorporated in 1870; in 1886 it was chartered
as a city.
GREENVILLE— GREENWICH
553
GREENVILLE* a city and the county-seat of Darke county,
Ohio, U.S.A., on ■ Greenville Creek, 36 m. N.W. of Dayton.
Pop. (1900) 5501 ; (1910) 6*37. It is served by the Pittsburg,
Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis and the Cincinnati Northern
railways, and by interurban electric railways. It is situated
about 1050 ft. above sea-level and is the trade centre of a large
and fertile agricultural district, producing cereals and tobacco.
It manufactures lumber, foundry products, canned goods and
creamery products and has grain elevators and tobacco ware-
houses. In the city is a Carnegie library, and 3 m. distant there
is a county Children's Home and Infirmary. The municipality
owns and operates its water-works. Greenville occupies the site
of an Indian village and of Fort Greenville (built by General
Anthony Wayne in 1793 and burned in 1796). Here, on the
3rd of August 1795, General Wayne, the year after his victory
over the Indians at Fallen Timbers, concluded with them the
treaty of Greenville, the Indians agreeing to a cessation of
hostilities and ceding to the United States a considerable portion
of Ohio and a number of small tracts in Indiana, Illinois and
Michigan (including the sites of Sandusky, Toledo, Defiance,
Fort Wayne, Detroit, Mackinac, Peoria and Chicago), and the
United States agreeing to pay to the Indians $20,000 worth of
goods immediately and an annuity of goods, valued at $9500,
for ever. The tribes concerned were the Wyandots, the Dela-
wares, the Shawnees, the Ottawas, the Chippewas, the Pottawa-
tomies, the Miamis, the Weeas, the Kickapoos, the Piankashas,
the Kaskaskias and the Eel-river tribe. Tecumseh lived at
Greenville from 1805 to 1809, and a second Indian treaty was
negotiated there in July 1814 by General W. H. Harrison and
Lewis Cass, by which the Wyandots, theDelawares, the Shawnees,
the (Ohio) Senecas and the Miamis agreed to aid the United
States in the war with Great Britain. The first permanent white
settlement of Greenville was established in 1808 and the town
was laid out in the same year. It was made the county-seat of
the newly erected county in 1809, was incorporated as a town in
1838 and chartered as a city in 1887.
GREENVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Greenville
county, South Carolina, U.S-A., on the Reedy river, about 140 m.
N.W. of Columbia, in the N.W. part of the state. Pop. (1890)
8607; (1900) n,86o, of whom 5414 were negroes; (1910, cen-
sus) 25,741..: , It is served by the Southern, the Greenville &
KnQxyjlie and the Charleston & Western Carolina railways.
It lies 376 ft. above sea^svel, neap the foot of the Blue Ridge
Mountains, its climate and scenery attracting summer visitors.
It is in an extensive cotton-growing and cotton-manufacturing
district. Greenville's chief interest is in cotton, but it has
various other manufactures, including carriages, wagons, iron
and fertilizers. The total value of the factory products of the
city in 1905 was $1,676,774, an. increase of 73*5% since 1900.
The city is the seat of Furman University, Chicora College for
girls (1893; Presbyterian), and Greenville Female College (18543
Baptist), which in 1 907-1 908 had 379 students, and which,
besides the usual departments, has ; a conservatory of musky
a school of art, a school of expression and physical culture and
a kindergarten normal training school. Furman University
(Baptist; opened in 1852) grew out of the " Furman Academy
and Theological Institution," opened at Edgefield, S.C., in 1827,
and named, in honour of Richard Furman (1755-1825), a well-
known Baptist clergyman of South Carolina, whose son, James
C. Furman (1809-1891), was long president of the University.
In 1 907-1 908 the university had a faculty, of 15 and 250 students,
of Whom 1 01 were in the; Furman Fitting School. Greenville
was laid out in 1797, was originally known as Pleasantburg and
was first chartered as a city in 1868.
GREENVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Hunt county,
Texas, U.S.A., near the headwaters of the Sabine river, 48 m.
N.E. of .Dallas. Pop. (190c) 6860, of whom 114 were foreign-
born and 1751 were negroes; (1910) 8850. It is served by the
Missouri, Kansas & Texas, the St Louis South- Western and the
Texas Midland railways. It is an important cotton market,
has gins and compresses, a large cotton seed oil refinery,
and other manufactories, and is a trade centre for a rich agri-
cultural district. The city owns and operates its electric-lighting
plant. It is the seat of Burleson College (Baptist), founded in
1893, and 1 m. from the city limits, in the village of Peniel
(pop. 1908, about 500), a community of " Holiness " people, are
the Texas Holiness University (1898), a Holiness orphan asylum
and a Holiness press. Greenville was settled in 1844, and was
chartered as a city in 1875. In 1907 the Texas legislature
granted to the city a new charter establishing a commission
government similar to that of Galveston.
GREENWICH, a township of Fairfield county, Connecticut,
U.S.A., on Long Island Sound, in the extreme S.W. part of the
state, about 28 m. N.E. of New York City. It contains a borough
of the same name and the villages of Cos Cob, Riverside and
Sound Beach, all served by the New York, New Haven & Hart-
ford Railway; the township has steamboat and electric railway
connexions with New York City. Pop. of the township (1900)
12,172, of whom 3271 were foreign-born; (1910) 16,463; of
the borough (1910) 3886. Greenwich is a summer resort,
principally for New Yorkers. Among the residents have been
Edwin Thomas Booth, John Henry Twachlman, the landscape
painter, and Henry Osborne Havemeyer (1847-1907), founder
of the American Sugar Company. There are several fine churches
in the township; of one in Sound Beach the Rev. William H. H.
Murray (1840-1904), called " Adirondack Murray," from his
Camp Life in ike Adirondack Mountains (1868), was once pastor.
In the borough are a public library, Greenwich Academy (1827;
co-educational), the Brunswick School for boys (1901), with
which Betts Academy of Stamford was united in 1908, and a
hospital. The principal manufactures are belting, woollens,
tinners' hardware, iron and gasolene motors. Oystersare shipped
from Greenwich. The first settlers came from the New Haven
Colony in X640; but the Dutch, on account of the explora-
tion of Long Island Sound by Adrian Blok in 1614, laid
claim to Greenwich, and as New Haven did nothing to assist
the settlers, they consented to union with New Netherland in
164a. Greenwich then became a Dutch manor. By a treaty
of 1650, which fixed the boundary between New Netherland and
the New Haven Colony, the Dutch relinquished their claim to
Greenwich, but the inhabitants of the town refused to submit
to the New Haven Colony until October 1656. Six years later
Greenwich was one of the first towns of the New Haven Colony
to submit to Connecticut. The township suffered severely
during the War of Independence on account of the frequent
quartering of American troops within its borders, the depreda-
tions of bands of lawless men after the occupation of New York
by the British in 1778 and its invasion by the British in 1779
(February 25) and 1781 (December 5). There was also a strong
loyalist sentiment. On the old post-road in Greenwich is the
inn, built about 1729, at which Israel Putnam was surprised in
February 1779 by a force under General Tryonj according to
tradition he escaped by riding down a flight of steep stone steps.
The inn was purchased in 1901 by the Daughters of the American
Revolution, who restored it. and made it a Putnam Memorial.
The township government of Greenwich was instituted in the
colonial period. The borough of Greenwich was incorporated in
1358.
See D.M. Mead, History of the Town ofGreenvrichQiew York, 1857).
GREENWICH, a south-eastern metropolitan borough of
London, England, bounded N. by the river Thames, E. by
Woolwich, S. by Lewisham and W. by Deptford. Pop. (1901)
95,770. Area, 3851*7 acres. It has a river-frontage of 4$ m.,
the Thames making two deep bends, enclosing the Isle of Dogs
on the north and a similar peninsula on the Greenwich side.
Greenwich is connected with Poplar on the north shore by the
Greenwich tunnel (1902), for foot-passengers, to the Isle of Dogs
(Cubitt Town), and by the Blackwall Tunnel (X897) for street
traffic, crossing to a point between the East and West India
Docks (see Poplar). The main thoroughfares from W. to E»
are Woolwich and Shooter's Hill Roads, the second representing
the old high road through Kent, the Roman Watling Street-
Greenwich is first noticed in the reign of Ethelred, when it was
a station of the Danish fleet (1011-1014).
xii. 18a
554
GREENWOOD, F:
The most noteworthy buildings are the hospital and the
observatory. Greenwich Hospital, as it is still called, became
in 1873 a Royal Naval College. Upon it or its site centre nearly
all the historical associations of the place. The noble buildings,
contrasting strangely with the wharves adjacent and opposite
to it, make a striking picture, standing on the low river-bank with
a background formed by the wooded elevation of Greenwich
Park. They occupy the site of an ancient royal palace called
Greenwich House, which was a favourite royal residence. as
early as 1300, but was granted by Henry V. to Thomas Beaufort,
duke of Exeter, from whom it passed to Humphrey, duke of
Gloucester, who largely improved the property and named it
PlacenHa. It did not revert to the crown till his death in 1447.
It was the birthplace of Henry VIII., Queen Mary and Queen
Elizabeth, and here Edward VI. died. The building was enlarged
by Edward IV., by Henry VIII., who made it one of his chief
residences, by James I. and by Charles I., who erected the
" Queen's House " for Henrietta Maria. The tenure of land
from the crown " as of the manor of East Greenwich " became at
this time a recognized formula, and occurs in a succession of
American colonial charters from those of Virginia in 1606, 1609
and 161 2 to that of New Jersey in 1674. Along with other royal
palaces Greenwich was at the Revolution appropriated by the
Protector, but it reverted to the crown on the restoration of
Charles II., by whom it was pulled down, and the west wing of
the present hospital was erected as part of an extensive design
which was not further carried out. In its unfinished state it
was assigned by the patent of William and Mary to certain of
the great officers of state, as commissioners for its conversion
into a hospital for seamen; and it was opened as such in 1705.
The building consists of four blocks. Behind a terrace 860 ft.
in length, stretching along the river side, are the buildings
erected in the time of Charles II. from Inigo Jones's designs, and
in that of Queen Anne from designs by Sir Christopher Wren;
and behind these buildings are on the west those of King William
and on the east those of Queen Mary, both from Wren's designs.
In the King William range is the painted hall. Here in 1806 the
remains of Nelson lay in state before their burial in St Paul's
Cathedral. Its walls and ceiling were painted by Sir James
Thornhill with various emblematic devices, and it is hung with
portraits of the most distinguished admirals and paintings of
the chief naval battles of England. In the Queen Anne range is
the Royal Naval Museum, containing models, relics of Nelson
and of Franklin, and other objects. In the centre of the principal
quadrangle of the hospital there is a statue of George II. by
Rysbrack, sculptured out of a single block of marble taken from
the French by Admiral Sir George Rooke. In the upper quad-
rangle is a bust of Nelson by Chantrey, and there are various
other memorials and relics. The oldest part of the building was
in some measure rebuilt in 181 1, and the present chapel was
erected to replace one destroyed by fire in 1779. The endow-
ments of the hospital were increased at various periods from
bequests and forfeited estates. Formerly 2700 retired seamen
were boarded within it, and 5000 or 6000 others, called out-
pensioners, received stipends at various rates out of its funds;
but in 1865 an act was passed empowering the Admiralty to
grant liberal pensions in lieu of food and lodging to such of the
inmates as were willing to quit the hospital, and in 1869 another
act was passed making their leaving on these conditions com-
pulsory. It was then devoted to the accommodation of the
students of the Royal Naval College, the Infirmary being granted
to the Seamen's Hospital Society. Behind the College is the
Royal Hospital School, where 1000 boys, sons of petty officers
and seamen, are boarded.
To the south of the hospital is Greenwich Park (185 acres),
lying high, and commanding extensive views over London, the
Thames and the plain of Essex. It was enclosed by Humphrey,
duke of Gloucester, and laid out by Charles II., and contains
a fine avenue of Spanish chestnuts planted in his time. In it is
situated the Royal Observatory, built in 1675 for the advance-
ment of navigation and nautical astronomy. From it the exact
lime is conveyed each day at one o'clock by electric signal to
the chief towns throughout the country; British and the majority
of foreign geographers reckon longitude from its meridian. A
standard clock and measures are seen at the entrance. A new
building was completed in 1899, the magnetic pavilion lying
some 400 yds. to the east, so placed to avoid the disturbance
of instruments which would be occasioned by the iron used in
the principal building. South of the park lies the open common
of Blackheath, mainly within the borough of Lewisham, and in
the east the borough includes the greater part of Woolwich
Common. ;
At Greenwich an annual banquet of cabinet ministers, known
as the whitebait dinner, formerly took place. This ceremony
arose out of a dinner held annually at Dageoham, on the Essex
shore of the Thames, by the commissioners for engineering
works carried out therein 1705-17 20 — a remarkable achievement
for this period — to save the lowlands from flooding. To one of
these dinners Pitt was invited, and was subsequently accom- r
panied by some of his colleagues. Early in the 19th century the'
venue of the dinner, which had now become a ministerial function,
was transferred to Greenwich, and though at first not always
held here, was later celebrated regularly at the " Ship," an
hotel of ancient foundation, closed in 1908. The banquet
continued till 1868, was revived in 1874- 1880, and was held for
the last time in 1894.
The parish church of Greenwich, in Church Street, is dedicated
to St Alphege, archbishop, who was martyred here by the
Danes in 1012. In the church Wolfe, who died at Quebec
( I 759)> and Tallis, the musician, are buried. A modern stained-
glass window commemorates Wolfe.
The parliamentary borough of Greenwich returns one member.
Two burgesses were returned in 1577, but it was not again repre-
sented till the same privilege was conferred on it in 1832.
The borough council consists of a mayor, five aldermen and
thirty councillors.
GREENWOOD, FREDERICK (1830-1909), English journalist
and man of letters, was born in April 1830. He was one of three
brothers — the others being James and Charles — who all gained
reputation as journalists. Frederick started life in a printing
house, but at an early age began to write in periodicals. In
1853 he contributed a sketch of Napoleon III. to a volume
called The Napoleon Dynasty (and ed., 1855). 'He also wrote
several novels: The Loves of an Apothecary (1854), The Path
of Roses (1859) and (with his brother James) Under a -Cloud
(i860). To the second number of the CornkiU Magazine he
contributed " An Essay without End/' and this led to an intro-
duction to Thackeray. In 1862, when Thackeray resigned the
editorship of the Cornkitt y Greenwood became joint editor with
G. H. Lewes. In 1864 he was appointed sole editor, a post
which he held until 1868. While at the CornhiU he wrote an
article in which he suggested, to some extent, how Thackeray
might have intended to conclude his unfinished work Denis
Duval, and in its pages appeared Margaret Dentil's History,
Greenwood's most ambitious work of fiction, published in
volume form in 1864. At that time Greenwood had conceived
the idea of an evening newspaper, which, while containing " all
the news proper to an evening journal," should, for the most
part, be made up " of original articles upon the many things
which engage the thoughts, or employ the energies, or amuse
the leisure of mankind." Public affairs, literature and art,
" and all the influences which strengthen or dissipate society "
were to be discussed by men whose independence and authority
were equally unquestionable. Canning's Anti* Jacobin and the
Saturday Review of 1864 were the joint models Greenwood had
before him. The idea was taken up by Mr George Smith, and
the PaU Mall Gazette (so named after Thackeray's imaginary
paper in Pendennis) was launched in February 1865, with
Greenwood as editor. Within a few years he had come to
exercise a great influence on public affairs. His views somewhat
rapidly ripened from what was described as philosophic Liberal-
ism into Conservatism. No minister in Great Britain, Mt
Gladstone declared, ever had a more able, a more zealous, a
more effective supporter for his policy than Lord Beacon sfield
GREENWOOD, J.— GREGARINES
had in Greenwood. It was on the suggestion of Greenwood
that Beaconsfield purchased in 1875 the Suez Canal shares of the
Khedive Ismail; the British government being ignorant, until
informed by Greenwood, that the shares were for sale and likely
to be bought by France. It was characteristic of Greenwood
that he declined to publish the news of the purchase of the shares
in the Pall Mall before the official announcement was made.
Early in 1880 the Pall Mall changed owners, and the new
proprietor required it to support Liberal policy. Greenwood
at once resigned his editorship, but in May a new paper, the
St James's Gazette, was started for him by Mr Henry Hucks
Gibbs (afterwards Lord Aldenham), and Greenwood proceeded
to carry on in it the tradition which he had established in the
Pott Mall, At the St James's Greenwood remained for over
eight years, continuing to exercise a marked influence upon,
political affairs, notably as a pungent critic of the Gladstone
administration (1880-188 5) and an independent supporter of
Lord Salisbury. His connexion with the paper ceased in August
1888, owing to disagreements with the new proprietor, Mr £.
Steinkopff, who had bought the St James's at Greenwood's
own suggestion. In January 1891 Greenwood brought out a
weekly review which he named the Anti- Jacobin. It failed,
however, to gain public support, the last number appearing in
January 1892. In 1893 he published The Lover's Lexicon and
in 1894 Imagination in Dreams. He continued to express his
views on political and social questions in contributions to
newspapers and magazines, writing frequently in the Westminster
Gazette, the Pall Mall, Blackwood, the CornkiU, &c. Towards
the end of his life his political views reverted in some respects
to the Liberalism of his early days.
In the words of George Meredith " Greenwood was not only a
great journalist, he had a statesman's head. The national
interests were always urgent at his heart." He was remarkable
for securing for his papers the services of the ablest writers of
the day, and for the gift of recognizing merit in new writers,
such, for instance, as Richard Jeffries and J. M. Barrie. His
instinct for capacity in others was as sure as was his journalistic
judgment. In 1905, on the occasion of his 75th birthday, a
dinner was given in his honour by leading statesmen, journalists,
and men of letters (with John Morley — who had succeeded him
as editor of the PaU Mall — in the chair). In May 1907 he
contributed to Blackwood an article on " The New Journalism/'
in which he drew a sharp contrast between the old and the new
conditions under which the work of a newspaper writer is con-
ducted. He died at Sydenham on the 14th of December 1909.
See Honouring Frederick Greenwood, being a report of the speeches
at the dinner on the 8th of April 1905 (London, privately printed,
1905); " Birth and Infancy of the Pall Mall Gazette," an article
contributed by Greenwood to the Pall Mall of the 14th of April
1897; " The blowing of the Trumpet " in the introduction to the
St James's (May ji, 1880); obituary notices in the Athenaeum
(Dec 2$, 1909) ana The Times (Dec. 17, 1909).
GREENWOOD, JOHN (d. 1593), English Puritan and
Separatist (the date and place of his birth are unknown), entered
as a sizar at Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, on the 18th of
March 157 7-1 578, and commenced B.A. 1581. Whether he was
directly influenced by the teaching of Robert Browne (q.v.),
a graduate of the same college, is uncertain; in any case he held
strong Puritan opinions, which ultimately led him to Separatism
of the most rigid type. In 1581 he was chaplain to Lord Rich,
at Rochford, Essex. At some unspecified time he had been
made deacon by John Aylraer, bishop of London, and priest
by Thomas Cooper, bishop of Lincoln; but ere long he re-
nounced this ordination as " wholly unlawful." Details of the
next few years are lacking; but by 1586 he was the recognized
leader of the London Separatists, of whom a considerable number
had been imprisoned at various times since 1567. Greenwood
was arrested early in October 1586, and the following May was
committed to the Fleet prison for an indefinite time, in default
of bail for conformity. During his imprisonment he wrote some
controversial tracts in conjunction with his fellow-prisoner
Henry Barrowe (q.v.). He is understood to have been at liberty
in the autumn of 1588; but this may have been merely " the
555
liberty of the prison." However, he was certainly at large in
September 1592, when he was elected "teacher" of the
Separatist church. Meanwhile he had written (1590) "An
Answer to George Gifford's pretended Defence of Read Prayers."
On the 5th of December he was again arrested; and the following
March was tried, together with Barrowe, and condemned to
death on a charge of " devising and circulating seditious books."
After two respites, one at the foot of the gallows, he was hanged
on the 6th of April 1593.
Authorities. — H. M. Dexter, Congregationalism during the last
three hundred years', The England and Holland of the Pilgrims;
F. J. Powicke, Henry Barrowe and the Exiled Church of Amsterdam;
B. Brook, Lives of the Puritans; C. H. Cooper, Atherrae Canto-
brigienses, vol ii«
OREO. WILLIAM RATHBONE (1809-1881), English essayist,
1 the son of a merchant, was born at Manchester in 1809. He was
educated at the university of Edinburgh and for a time managed
a mill of his father's at Bury, and in 1832 began business on his
own account. He entered with ardour into the struggle for
free trade, and obtained in 1842 the prize offered by the Anti-
Corn Law League for the best essay on " Agriculture and the
Corn Laws. ' ' He was too much occupied with political, economi-
cal and theological speculations to give undivided attention to
his business, which he gave up in 1850 to devote himself to writing.
His Creed of Christendom was published in 1851, and in 1852 he
contributed no less than twelve articles to four leading quarterlies.
Disraeli praised him; Sir George Cornewall Lewis bestowed
a Commissionership of Customs upon him in 1856; and in 1864
he was made Comptroller of the Stationery Office. Besides
contributions to periodicals he produced several volumes of
essays on political and social philosophy. The general spirit
of these is indicated by the titles of two of the best known,
The Enigmas of Life (1872) and Rocks Ahead (1874). They
represent a reaction from the high hopes of the author's youth,
when wise legislation was assumed to be a remedy for every
public ill. Gre$ was a man of deep moral earnestness of character
and was interested in many philanthropic works. He died at
Wimbledon on the 15th of November 1881. His brother,
Robert Hyde Greg (1795-1875), was an economist and
antiquary of some distinction. Another brother, Samuel Greg
( 1 804-1 876), became well known in Lancashire by his philan-
thropic efforts on behalf of the working-people. Percy Greg
(1836-1889), son of William Rathbone Greg, also wrote, like his
father, on politics, but his views were violently reactionary.
His History of the United States to the Reconstruction of the Union
(1887) is a polemic rather than a history.
OREOARINES (mod. Lat. Gregarina, from gregarius, collecting
in a flock or herd, grex) a large and abundant order of Sporozoa
Ectospora, in which a very high degree of morphological special-
ization and cytological differentiation of the cell-body is frequently
found. On the other hand, the life-cycle is, in general, fairly
simple. Other principal characters which distinguish Gregarines
from allied Sporozoan parasites are as follows: — The fully-
grown adult (trophozoite) is always " free " in some internal
cavity, i.e. it is extracellular; in nearly all cases prior to sporula-
tion two Gregarines (associates) become attached to one another,
forming a couple (syzygy), and are surrounded by a common
cyst; inside the cyst the body of each associate becomes
segmented up into a number of sexual elements (gametes,
primary sporoblasts), which then conjugate in pairs; the
resulting copula (zygote, definitive sporoblast) becomes usually
a spore by the secretion of spore-membranes (sporocyst), its
protoplasm (sporoplasm) dividing up to form the germs (sporo-
zoites).
F. Redi (1684) is 6aid to have been the first to observe a
Gregarine parasite, but his claim to this honour is by no
means certain. Muchlater (1787) Cavolini described Hi8torteai "
and figured an indubitable Gregarine (probably the
form now known as Aggregata conformis) from a Crustacean
(Pocky grapsus), which, however, he regarded as a tapeworm.
Leon Dufour, who in his researches on insect anatomy came
across several species of these parasites, also considered them as
allied to the worms and proposed the generic name of Gregarina.
55&
GREGARINES
The unicellular nature of Gregarines was first realized by A. von
Kolliker, who from 1845-1848 added considerably to our know-
ledge of the frequent occurrence and wide distribution of these
organisms. Further progress was due to F. Stein who demon-
strated about this
time the relation
of the "pseudo^
navicellae"
(spores) to the re-
production of the
parasites.
Apart from the
continually in-
creasing number
of known species,
matters remained
at about this
stage for many
years. It is, in
fact, only since
the closing years
of the 19th
century that the
complete life-
history has been
fully worked out;
this has now been
done in many
cases, thanks to
the researches of
M. Siedlecki, L.
Cu6not, L. Leger,
O. Duboscq, A.
Laveran, M.
Caullery, F.
Mesnil and
others, to whom
also we owe most
of our knowledge regarding the relations of the parasites to. the
cells of their host during their early development.
Gregarines are essentially parasites of Invertebrates; they are
not known to occur in any true Vertebrate although met with in
Occur* Ascidians. By far the greatest number of hosts is
nm»; furnished by the Arthropods. Many members of the
various groups of worms (especially the Annelids)
also harbour the parasites, and certain very interesting
forms are found in Echinoderms; in the other classes, they
either occur only sporadically or else are absent. Infection
is invariably of the accidental (casual) type, by way of the ali-
mentary canal, the spores being usually swallowed by the host
when feeding; a novel variation of this method has been
described by Woodcock (31) in the case of a Gregarine parasitic
in Cucutnaria, where the spores are sucked up through the cloaca
into the respiratory trees, by the inhalant current.
The favourite habitat is either the intestine (fig. 1) or its
diverticula (e.g. the Malpighian tubules), or the body-cavity.
From Wasielewski's Sporotoenkunde, after Pfeiffer.
Fig. I. — a, Transverse Section of Intestine of
Mealworm, infected with Gregarina (Clepsydrina)
polymorpha; 1 b, Part of a highly magnified.
mode of
Infection*
From Wasielewski, after Leger.
Fig. 2. — Cysts of a Coelomic Gregarine, in the body-cavity of a
larva of Tipula.
In the latter case, after infection has occurred, the liberated
germs at once traverse the intestinal epithelium. They may
come to rest in the connective tissue of the sub-mucosa (remain-
1 Figures 1, 2, 6, 7, 10, n, 12 and 16 are redrawn from
Wasielewski's Sporozoenkunde, by permission of the author and of
the publisher, Gustav Fischer, Jena,
ing, however, extracellular), grow considerably in that situation,
and ultimately fall into the body-cavity (e.g. Diplocystis)\ or
they may pass straightway into the body-cavity and lf ^ AMarf
there come into relation with some organ or tissue {e.g. taaatieolB
Monocystis of the earthworm, which is for a time intra- on hosu
cellular in the spermatoblasts (fig. 4, c). In the case
of intestinal Gregarines, the behaviour of the young trophozoite
with respect to the epithelial cells of its host varies greatly.
The parasite may remain only attached to the host-cell, never
becoming actually intracellular (e.g. fterocephalus); more
usually it penetrates partially into it, the extracellular portion
of the Gregarine, however, giving rise subsequently to most of
the adult (e.g. Gregarina); or lastly, in a few forms, the early
development is entirely intracellular (e.g. Lankesteria, Stenophora).
The effects on the host are confined to the parasitized cells.
These generally undergo at first marked hypertrophy and altera-
tion in character; this condition is succeeded by one of atrophy,
when the substance of the cell becomes in one way or another
practically absorbed by the
growing parasite (cf. also
Coccidia). Since, however,
the Gregarines never over-
run their hosts in the way
that many other Sporozoa
do (because of their lack, in
general, of the power of endo-
genous multiplication), the
number of cells of any tissue
attacked, even in the case of
a strong infection, is only a
From Lankester.
Fig. 3. — Porosporagiganteaf,
(E. van Ben.), from the intes-
tine of the lobster, a, Nucleus.
From Lankerter, after various authors. . '
Fig/ 4.
^Trophozoites oiMonocystis agitis.
a and b, Young individuals showing
changes of body-form.
Older individual, still enveloped
in a coat of spermatozoa.
e, Trophozoites of M. magma at-
tached to seminal funnel of
Lumbricus.
Goblet-shaped epithelial cells, in
which the extremity of the
parasite is inserted*
d,
very small percentage of the whole. In short the hosts do not,
as a rule, suffer any appreciable inconvenience from the presence
of the parasites.
The body of a Gregarine is always of a definite shape, usually oval
GREGARINES
557
or elongated ; in one or two instances (e.g. Diphdina) it is spherical,
* i Potospora (fig. 3) it is greatly
Morpbo*
&1\
and, on the other hand, in
drawn out and vermiform. In many adult Gregarines,
the body is divided into two distinct but unequal regions
or halves, the anterior part being known as the protomerite, the
hinder, generally the larger, as the deutomerite. This feature is
closely associated with another important morphological character,
one which is observable, however, only during the earlier stages of
growth and development,
namely, the presence of
a definite organ, the epi-
merite, which serves for
the attachment of the
parasite to the host-cell
In those Gregarines
(most intestinal forms)
which become attached to
an epithelial cell, the
attachment occurs by
means of a minute pro-
jection or beak (rostrum)
at the anterior end of the
sporozoite, which pushes
its way into the cell,
followed by the first part
of the growing germ. This
Aft»Sied!ecki,fromLanke8ter , 8rr«i/w««»Za7tofy. portion of the body in-
Fig. 5.— Part of a section through the creases in size much
apparatus of fixation of a Pterocephalus, quicker at first than the
snowing root-like processes extending rest (the extracellular
from the Gregarine between the epithelial Pa rt )» more or less fills up
cells, g, Head of Gregarine; r, Root-like the host-cell, and forms
processes; ep, Epithelial cells. the well-developed epi-
merite or secondary
attaching organella. The extracellular part of the Gregarine next
grows rapidly, and a transverse septum is formed at a short
distance away from (outside) the point where the body pene-
trates into the cell (fig. 6); this marks off the large deutomerite
posteriorly (distally). Leger thinks that this partition most likely
owes its origin to trophic considerations, i.e. to the slightly different
manner in which the two halves of the young parasite (the proximal,
largely intracellular part, and the distal, extracellular one) may be
supposed to obtain their nutriment. In the case of the one half, the
host-cell supplies the nutriment, in that of the other, the intestinal
liquid ; and the septum is, as it were, the expression of the conflicting
limit between these two methods. Nevertheless, the present writer
does not think that mechanical considerations should be altogether
left out of account. The septum may also be, to some extent, an
adaption for strengthening the body of the fixed parasite against
lateral thrusts or strains, due to
the impact of foreign bodies (food,
&c.) in the intestine.
At the point where the body
becomes actually intracellular, it is
constricted, and this Constriction
marks off the epimerite (internally)
from the middle portion (between
this point and the septum), which
is the protomerite. Further
growth is restricted, practically,
to the extracellular regions, and the
epimerite often comes to appear
ultimately as a small appendage
at the anterior end of the proto-
merite. A Gregarine at this stage
is known as a cephalont. Later
on, the parasite breaks loose from
the host-cell and becomes free in
the lumen, the separation taking
place at the constriction between
the protomerite and the epimerite ;
the latter is left behind in the
remains of the host-cell, the former
becomes the anterior part of the
free trophozoite.
In other Gregarines, however, those, namely, which pass inwards,
ultimately becoming " coelomic," as well as those which become
entirely intracellular, no epimerite is ever developed, and, further,
the body remains single or unseptate. These forms, which include,
for instance, Monocystis (fig. 4), Lankesteria, Diplocystis, are dis-
tinguished, as Acephalina or Aseptata (Haphcyta, Monocystida), ac-
cording to which character is referred to, from the others, termed
Cephalina or Septata (Polycystida).
The two sets of terms are not, however, completely identical or
interchangeable, for there are a few forms which possess an epimerite,
but which lack the division into protomerite and deutomerite, and
are hence known as Pseudomonocystida ; this condition may be
primitive (DoUocysPts) or (possibly) secondary, the partition having
, in course of time disappeared. Again, Stenophora is a septate form
From WaaWewski, alter Leger.
Fig. 6. — CoryceUa armata,
Leger. a, Cephalont; b t Epi-
merite in host-cell; c 9 Sporont.
which has become, secondarily, completely intracellular during the
young stages, and, doubtless correlated with this, shows no sign of
an epimerite.
With regard to the epimerites themselves, they are of all variety
of form and shape and need not be described in detail (fig. 7). In
one or two cases, however, another variety of attaching organella is
met with. Thus in Pyocephalus, only the rostrum of the sporozoite
Minute
I h 4
From Wasielewski, after Leger.
Fig. 7. — Forms of Epimerites.
1, Gregarina longa. 6, Cometoides crinitus.
2, Syria inopinata. 7, Geneiorhynchus monnieri.
3, Pyocephalus keerii. 8, Echinomera hispida.
4, Stylorhynchus longicoUis. o, Pterocephalus nobUis.
5, Beloides firmus.
penetrates into the host-cell, and no epimerite is formed. Instead, a
number of fine root-like processes are developed from near the
anterior end, which pass in between the host-cells (fig. 5) and thus
anchor the parasite firmly. Similarly, in the curious Schizogregarinae,
the anterior end of the (unseptate) body forms a number of stiff,
irregular processes, which perform the same function (fig. 8). It is
to be noted that these processes are non-motile, and not in any way
comparable to pseudopodia, to which they were formerly likened.
A very interesting and remarkable morphological peculiarity has
been recently described by Leger (18) in the case of a new Gregarine,
Taeniocystis. In this form the body is elongated and metamerically
segmented, recalling that of a segmented worm, the adult trophozo-
ites possessing numerous partitions or segments (each corresponding
to the septum between the proto- and deuto-merite in an ordinary
Polycystid), which divide up the cytoplasm into roughly equal
compartments. Leger thinks only the deutomerite becomes thus
segmented, the protomerite remaining small and undivided. The
nucleus remains single, so that there is no question as to the uni-
cellular or individual nature of the entire animal.
The general cytoplasm usually consists of distinct ectoplasm and
endoplasm, and is limited by a membrane or cuticle (epicyte),
secreted by the former. The cuticle varies considerably
in thickness, being well developed in active, intestinal
forms, but very thin and delicate in non-motile coelomic
forms (e.g. Diplodina). In the former case it may show longi-
tudinal striations. The cuticle also. forms the hooks or spines
of many epimerites. The ectoplasm usually shows (fig. 9A) a differ-
entiation into two layers,
an otiter, firmer layer, clear
and hyaline, the sarcocyte,
and an inner layer, the
myocyte, which is formed
of a network of muscle-
fibrillae (mainly longitu-
dinal and transverse, fig.
9B). The sarcocyte alone
constitutes the septum,
traversing the endoplasm,
in septate Gregarines. The
myohemes are undoubtedly
the^: agents responsible for
the active " gregarinoid "
movements (of flexion and
Contraction) to be observed After Leger anAHagenmflller, from Lankeater'B
in many forms. The Treatise an Zoology.
peculiar gliding movements Fig. 8.— Three Individuals (G) of
were formerly thought to Ophryocystis sckneideri, attached to
be produced by the extra- wall of Malpighian tubule of Blaps sp.
sion of a gelatinous thread p t Syncytial protoplasm of the tubule;
posteriorly, but Crawley (8) c , Cilia lining the lumen,
has recently ascribed them
to a complicated succession of wave-like contractions of the
myocyte layer. This view is supported by the fact 'that certain
coelomic forms, like Diplodina and others, which either lack
muscle-fibrils or else show no ectoplasmic differentiation at all,
are non^motile. The endoplasm, or nutritive plasm, consists of a
semi-fluid matrix in which are embedded vast numbers of grains
and spherules of various kinds and of all sizes, representing an
accumulation of food-material which is being stored up prior to
reproduction. The largest and most abundant grains are or a sub-
stance termed para-glycogen, a carbohydrate; in addition, flattened
S5»
GREGARINES
lenticular platelets, of an albuminoid character, and highJy-refringent
granules often occur.
The nucleus is always lodged in the endoplasm, and, in the septate
forms, in the deutomeritic half of the body. It is normally spherical
and always limited by a distinct nuclear membrane, which itself often
contains chromatin. The most char-
acteristic feature of the nucleus is
the deeply-staining, more or less
vacuolated spherical karyosome
(consisting of chromatin intimately
bound up with a plastinoid basis)
which is invariably present. In one
or two instances {e.g. Diplocystis
schneideri) the nucleus has more
than one lcaryosome. All the chro-
matin of the nucleus is not, how-
ever, confined to the lcaryosome,
some being in the form of grains
in the nuclear sap; and in some
cases at any rate (e.g. Diplodina,
Lankesteria) there is a well-marked
After Schewiakoff, from Lankester's
Treatise on Zoology.
Fig. 9A. — Longitudinal
section of a Gregarine in the
region of the septum between
?rotomerite ana deutomerite.
V, Protomerite.
De, Deutomerite.
s, Septum.
en, Endoplasm.
sc, Sarcocyte.
c, Cuticle.
m,/,Myocyte fibrils (cut
across).
g, Gelatinous layer.
Fig. 9B.— Gregarina munieri, show-
ing the network of myocyte fibrillae.
nuclear reticulum which is impregnated with granules and dots of
chromatin.
A sexual multiplication (schizogony) is only known certainly to
occur in a few cases, one being in a Monocystid form, a species of
Gonospora, which is for a long time intracellular (Caullery
hhZt an( * Mesnil [4]), the rest among the Schizogregarinae, so
history. named for this reason, in which schizogonous fission takes
place regularly during the free, trophic condition. Usually, the body
divides up, by a process of multiple fission (fig. 10), into a few (up to
eight) daughter - indi-
viduals; but in a new
genus (Eleuthero-
schizon), Brasil (3) finds
that a great number
of little merozoites are
formed, and a large
amount of vacuolated
cytoplasm is left over
unused.
In the vast majority
of Gregarines, however,
the life-cycle is limited
to gametogony and
sporogony. Avery
general, if not indeed
universal, prelude to
gametogony is the
characteristic and im-
portant feature of tie
order, known as associar
tion, the biological sig-
nificance of which has
only lately been fully
brought out (see H. M.
Woodcock J31J). In
From Wwidewski, after A. Schneider. P ™*} association, two
„ _ , . ~ L . A . individuals which are
Fig. io.— Schizogony in Ophryoeyshs to ^ regarded as of
francisci. a, Rosette of small individuals, opposite sex, come into
produced from a schizont which has just close contact with each
divided; b, A later stage, the daughter- other and reraa i n thus
individuals about to separate and assummg attached. The manner
the characters of the adult. m w hich the parasites
join varies in different
forms; the association may be end-to-end (terminal), either by
like or by unlike poles, or it may be side-to-side (lateral)
(fig. 12). The couple (syzygy) thus formed may proceed forthwith
to encystment and sporoblast-formation (Lankesteria, Monocystis),
or may continue in the trophic phase for some time longer (Gregarina).
In one or two instances (Zygocystis), association occurs as soon as the
trophozoites become adult. This leads on to the interesting pheno-
menon of precocious association (neogamy), found in non-motile,
coelomic Gregarines (e.g. Cystobia, Dtploiina and Diplocystis), in
which the parasitism is most advanced. Woodcock (loc. cit.) has de-
scribed and compared the different methods adopted to ensure a
permanent union, and the degree of neogamy attained, in these
forms. Here it must suffice to say that, in the extreme condition
(seen, for instance, in Diplodina minchinii) the union takes place very
early in the life-history, between individuals which are little more than
sporozoites, and is of a most intimate character, the actual cytoplasm
of the two associates join-
ing. In such cases, there rfSft A. C
is absolutely nothing to
indicate the " double "
nature of the growing tro-
phozoite, but the presence
of the two nuclei which
remain quite distinct.
There can be little doubt
that, in the great majority,
if not in all Gregarines,
association is necessary
for subsequent sporula-
tion to take place; i.e.
that the cytotactic attrac-
tion imparts a develop-
mental stimulus to both
partners, which is requisite
for the formation of prim-
ary sporoblasts (gametes).
This association is usually
permanent; but in one or
two cases (perhaps Gono-
spora sp.) temporary as-
sociation may ( suffice.
While association has
fundamentally a repro- From Waafefewaki, after Legs,
ductive (sexual) signifi- Fig. i i .—Eirmocystis 9pp. a, b, Associa-
cance, in some cases, this tions of two and three Gregarines; c,
function may be delayed Chain of five parasites; p, Primite; s,
or, as it were, temporarily Satellites,
suspended, the cytotactic
attraction serving meanwhile a subsidiary purpose in trophic life.
Thus, probably, are to be explained the curious multiple associations
and long chains of Gregarines (fig. n) sometimes met with (e.g.
Eirmocystis, Clepsydrina).
Encystment is nearly always double, i.e. of an associated couple.
Solitary encystment has been described, but whether successful
independent sporulation results, is uncertain; if it does, the encyst-
ment in such cases is, in all probability, only after prior (temporary)
association. In the case of free parasites, a well-developed cyst is
secreted by the syzygy, which rotates and gradually becomes
spherical. A thick, at first gelatinous, outer cyst-membrane
(ectocyst) is laid down, and then a thin, but firm internal one (endo-
cyst). The cyst once formed, further development is quite inde-
pendent of the host, and, in fact, often proceeds outside it. In
certain coelomic Gregarines, on the other hand, which remain in very
close relation with tne host's tissues, little
or nothing of an encystment-process on
the part of the parasites is recognizable,
the cyst-wall being formed by an enclosing
layer of the host (Diplodina).
The nuclear changes and multiplication
which precede sporoblast-formation vary
greatly in different Gregarines and can
only be outlined here. In the formation of
both sets of sexual elements (gametes) there
is always a comprehensive nuclear purifica-
tion or maturation. This elimination of a
part of the nuclear material (to be distin-
guished as trophic or somatic, from the
functional or germinal portion, which forms
the sexual nuclei) may occur at widely- Ltger?
different periods. In some cases (Lankes- Fig 12 Associations
ieria, MonocysHs), a large part of the f Gonospora spars*.
original (sporont-) nucleus of each associate
is at once got rid of, and the resulting (segmentation-) nucleus,
which is highly-specialized, represents the sexual part. In other
cases, again, the entire sporont-nucleus proceeds to division, and
the distinction between somatic and germinal portions does not
become manifest until after nuclear multiplication has continued
for some little time, when certain of the daughter-nuclei become
altered in character, and ultimately degenerate, the remainder
giving rise to the sporoblast-nuclei (Dtplodina, Stylorhynckus).
Even after the actual sporoblasts (sex-cells) themselves are con-
stituted, their nuclei may yet undergo a final maturation (e.g.
Clepsydrina ovata) ; and m MonocysUs, indeed, Brasil (2) finds
that what is apparently a similar process is delayed until after
conjugation and formation of the zygote (definitive sporoblast).
Nuclear multiplication. is usually indirect, the mitosis being, as a
Prom Wasidevrski, after
GREGMttNtS
559
rule, more elaborate in the earlier than in the later divisions. The
attraction-spheres are generally large and conspicuous, sometimes
consisting of a well-developed centrosphere, with or without centro-
somic granules, at other times of very large centrosomes with a few
astral rays. In those cases where the karyosome is retained, and
the sporont-nucleus divides up as a whole, however, the earliest
nuclear divisions are direct ; the daughter-nuclei being formed either
by a process of simple constriction (e.g. Diplodina), or by a kind of
multiple fission or fragmentation (Gregarina and Selenidium spp.).
Nevertheless, the later divisions, at any rate in Diplodina, are in-
direct.
By the time nuclear multiplication is well advanced or completed,
the bodies of the two parent-Gregarines (associates) have usually
become very irregular in shape, and produced into numerous lobes
and processes. While in some forms (p.g. Monocystis, Urosppra,
Stylorhynchus) the two individuals remain fairly separate and inde-
pendent of each other, in others (Lankesteria) they become inter-
twined and interlocked, often to a remarkable extent (Diplodina).
The sexual nuclei next pass to the surface of the processes and
segments, where they take up a position of uniform distribution.
Around each, a small area of cytoplasm becomes segregated, the
whole often projecting as a little bud or hillock from the general
surface. These uninuclear protuberances are at length cut on as the
sporoblasts or gametes. Frequently a large amount of the general
protoplasm of each parent-individual is left over unused, constituting
two cystal residua, which may subsequently fuse; in Diplodina,
however, practically the whole cytoplasm is used up in the formation
of the gametes.
The sporoblasts themselves show all gradations from a condition
of marked differentiation into male and female (anisogamy), to one
of complete equality (isogamy). Anisogamy is most highly developed
in Pterocephalus. Here, the male elements (microgametes) are
minute, elongated and spindle-like in shape, witn a minute rostrum
anteriorly and a long flagellum posteriorly, and very active; the
female elements (megagametes) are much larger, oblong to ovoid,
and quite passive. In Stylorhynchus the difference between the
conjugating gametes is not quite so pronounced (fig. 13), the male
elements being of about the same bulk as the females, but pyriform
After Leger, from Lank ester '3 Treatise on Zoology.
Fig. 13. — Development of the Gametes and Conjugation in
Stylorhynchus longicollis.
a, Undifferentiated gamete, /, g, Stages in conjugation and
attached to body of parent- nuclear union of the two
individual.
b-d, Stages in development of h,
motile male gamete. *,
e, Mature female gamete.
elements.
Zygote (copula). m
Spore, still with single
nucleus and undivided
sporoplasm.
instead of round, and possessing a distinct flagellum; a most inter-
esting point about this parasite is that certain highly motile and
spermatozoon-like male gametes are formed (fig. 13), which are,
however, quite sterile and have acquired a subsidiary function. In
other cases, again, the two kinds of element exhibit either very slight
differences (Monocystis) or none (Urospora, Gonospora), in size and
appearance, the chief distinction being in the nuclei, those of the male
elements being smaller and chromatically denser than those of the
females.
Lastly, in Lankesteria, Gregarina, Clepsydrina, Diplocystis and
Diplodina complete isogamy is found, there being no apparent
drfterence whatever between the conjugating elements. Neverthe-
less, these forms are also to be' regarded as instances of binary
sexuality and pot merely of exogamy; for it is practically certain
that this condition of isogamy is derived from 6ne of typical aniso-
gamy, through a stage such as is seen in Gonospora, &c. And,
similarly, just as in all instances where the formation of differentiated
gametes has been observed, the origin of the two conjugates is from
different associates (parent-sporonts), and all the elements arising
from the same parent are of the same sex, so it is doubtless the case
here.
The actual union is brought about or facilitated by the well-known
phenomenon termed the danse des- sporoblastes, which is due to various
Fig. 14. — Cyst of Monocystis agilis, the common Gregarine of the
Earthworm, snowing ripe spores and absence of any residual proto-
plasm in the cyst. (From Lankester.) . ,
causes. In the case of highly-differentiated gametes (Pterocephalus) ,
the actively motile microgametes rush about nere and there, and seek
out the female elements. In Stylorhynchus, Leger has shown that
the function of the sterile male gametes is to bring about, by their
vigorous movements, the nUUc sexueUe. In the forms where the
gametes are isogamous or only slightly differentiated and (probably)
not of themselves motile, other factors aid in producing the necessary
commingling. Thus in Gregarina sp. from the mealworm, the
unused somata or cystal residua become amoeboid and send out
processes which drive the peripherally-situated gametes round in the
cyst; in some cases where the residual soma becomes liquefied
(Urospora) the movements of the host are considered to be sufficient ;
and lastly, in Diplodina, owing to the extent to which the inter-
twining process is carried, if each gamete is not actually contiguous
to a suitable fellow-conjugant, a very slight movement or mutual
attraction will bring two such, when liberated, into contact.
An unusual modification of the process of sporoblast-formation
and conjugation, which occurs in Ophryocystis, must be mentioned.
Here encystment of two associates takes place.as usual ; the sporont-
nucleus of each, however, only divides twice, and one of the daughter-
nuclei resulting from each division degenerates. Hence only one
sporoblast-nucfeufc, representing a quarter of the original nuclear-
material, persists in each half. Around this some of the cytoplasm
condenses, the rest forming a residuum. The sporoblast or gamete
thus formed is completely isogamous and normally conjugates with
the like one from the other associate, when a single zygote results
which becomes a spore containing eight sporozoites, in the ordinary
manner. Sometimes, however, the septum between the two halves
of the cyst does not break down, in which case parthenogenesis
occurs, each sporoblast developing by itself into a small spore.
The two conjugating elements unite completely, cytoplasm with
cytoplasm and nucleus with nucleus, to form the definitive sporoblast
or zygote. The protoplasm assumes a definite outline, generally that
of an ovoid or barrel, and secretes a delicate membrane, the ectospore.
This subsequently becomes thickened, and often produced into rims,
spines or processes, giving rise to the characteristic appearance of the
Gregarine spore. Internal to the ectocyst, another, thinner mem-
brane, the endocyst, is also laid down. These two membranes form
the spore-wall (sporocyst). Meanwhile the contents of the spore have
been undergoing division. By successive divisions, usually mitotic,
the zygote-nucleus gives rise to eight daughter-nuclei, each of which
becomes the nucleus of a sporozoite. Next, the sporoplasm becomes
split longitudinally, around each nucleus, and thus eight sickle-
shaped (falciform) sporozoites are formed. There is usually a
5,6o
GREGARINES
certain amount of unused sporoplasm left over in the centre of the
spore, constituting the sporal residuum. It is important to note that
in all known Gregarines, with one exception, the number of sporo-
zoites in the spore is eight; the exception is Selenidium, in many
ways far from typical, where the number is half, viz. four.
Hitherto a variation from the general mode of spore-formation
has been considered to occur in certain Crustacean Gregarines, the
A ggregatidae and the Poro-
sporiaae. The spores of
these forms have been
regarded as gvmnospores
(naked), lacking the en-
veloping membranes
(sporocy st) of the ordinary
spores, and the sporo-
zoites, consequently, as
developed freely in the
cyst. In the case of the
first-named parasites,
however, what was taken
for sporogony has been
proved to be really schizo-
gony, and on other
grounds these forms are,
in the present writer's
opinion, preferably asso-
ciated with the Coccidia
sp^roductsT MESrf spores stilUeft Yn %^J^^^^W
the cyst; c, Endocyst; d, The everted Por ? s P°TV^: als °. * 1S
Fig. 15. — Ripe Cyst of Gregarina blat-
tarum, partially emptied. (From Lan-
kester.) a, Channels leading to the
sporoducts; e, Gelatinous ectocyst.
quite likely that the
gymnosporous cysts con-
sidered to belong to the
Gregarine Porospora (as known in the trophic condition) have really
no connexion with it, but represent the schizogonous generation of
some other form, similar to Aggregata ; in which, case the true spores
of Porospora have yet to be identified.
In the intestine of a fresh host the cysts rupture and the spores are
liberated. This is usually largely brought aoout by the swelling of
the residual protoplasm. Sometimes {e.g. Gregarina) long tubular
outgrowths, known as sporoducts (fig. 15), are developed from the
residual protoplasm, for the passage of the spores to the exterior.
The Gregarines are extremely numerous, and include several
families, characterized, for the most part, by the form
of the spores (fig. 16). The specialized Schizogregarinae are
usually separated off from the rest as a distinct sub-order.
Sub-order I. — Schizogregarinae.
Forms in which schizogonic reproduction is of general occurrence
during the extra-cellular, trophic phase. Three genera, Ophryo-
cystis, Schizocystis and Elenthervschizon, different peculiarities of
which have been referred to above. Mostly parasitic in the intestine
ClnMca*
Hon.
From Wasielewsld, after Llger. !
Fig. 16. — Spores of various Gregarines.
a, Eirntocystis, Sphaerocystis, &c. /, Styhrhynchidae (type of).
b, Eckinomera, Ptcroctphalus, &c. g, Menosporidae.
c t Grvgarina, &c. n, Gonospora terebeUae.
d t Beloides. i, Ceratospora.
e, Ancyrophora. k, Urosporu synaptae.
or Malpighian tubules of insects. (In this type of parasite, as ex-
emplified by Ophryocystis, the body was formerly wrongly considered
as amoeboid, and hence this genus was placed in a special order, the
A moebosporidia . )
SuBrORDfeR II. — Eugregarinae.
Schizogony very exceptional, only occurring during the intracellular
phase, if at all. Gregarines fall naturally into two tribes, described
as cephalont and septate, or as acephalont and aseptate (haplocytic),
respectively. In strictness, however, as already mentioned, these
two sets of terms do not agree absolutely, and whichever set is
adopted, the other must be taken into account in estimating the
proper position of certain parasites. Here the cephalont or acephal-
ont condition is regarded as the more primary and fundamental.
Tribe A. — Cephalina (practically equivalent to Septata).
Save exceptionally, the body possesses an epimerite, at any rate
during the early stages of growth, and is typically septate. Mostly
intestinal parasites of Arthropods.
The chief families, with representative genera, are as follows:
Porosporidae, with Porospora gigantea, at present thought to be
gymnosporous; Gregartnidae {Clepsydrintdae), with Gregarina,
Clepsydrina, Eirmocystis, Hyalospora, Cmenidospora, Stenophora\
Didymopkyidae, with Didymophyes; Dactylophortdae, with Dactylo-
phorus, Pterocephalus, Echinomera, Rhopalonia; AcUnouphaltdae
with Actinocephalus, Pyxinia, Coleorhynchus, Stephanophora, Legeria*
Stictospora, Pileocephalus, Sciadophora; Acanthosporidae with Acan-
thospora, CoryceUa, Cometoides; Menosporidae with Menospora*
Hoplorhynchus] Stylorhynchidae, with Stytorhynchus, Lophocephalus;
Doliocystidae with Dohocystis; and Taeniocystidae, with Taenio-
cystis. The curious genus Selenidium is somewhat apart.
Tribe B.—Acephalina (practically equivalent to A septata, Haplocyta).
The body never possesses an epimerite and is non-septate. Chiefly
coelomic parasites of " worms," Holothurians and insects.
The A septata have not been so completely arranged in families
as the Septata. Leger has distinguished two well-marked ones, but
the remaining genera still want classifying more in detail. Fam.
Gonosporidae, with Gonospora, Diplodina; and Urosporidae, with
Urosopora, Cystobia t Lithocystis, Ceratospora ; the genera Monocystis,
Diplocystis Lankesteria and Zygocystis probably constitute another;
Pterospora and, again, Syncyshs are distinct ; lastly, certain forms,
e -i- Zygosonta, Anchor a (Anchorina), are incompletely known.
There remains for mention the remarkable parasite, recently
described by J. Nusbaum (24) under the appropriate name of
Schaudinnella henleae, which inhabits the intestine of HenUa leptodera.
Briefly enumerated, the principal features in the life-cycle are as
follows. The young trophozoites (aseptate) are attached to the in-
testinal cells, but practically entirely extracellular. Association is
very primitive in character and indiscriminate; it takes place
indifferently between individuals which will give rise to gametes of
the same or opposite sex. Often it is only temporary ; at other times
it is multiple, several adults becoming more or less enclosed in a
gelatinous investment. Nevertheless, in no case does true encyst-
ment occur, the sex-cells being developed practically free. The
female gametes are large and egg-like; the males, minute and
sickle-like, but with no flagellum and apparently non-motile. While
many of the zygotes (" amphionts ") resulting from copulation pass
out to the exterior, to infect a new host, others, possessing a more
delicate investing-membrane, penetrate in between the intestinal
cells, producing a further .infection (autOrinfection). Numerous
sporozoites are formed in each zygote. It will be seen that Schau-
dinnella is a practically unique form. While, on the one hand, it
recalls the Gregarines in many ways, on the other hand it differs
widely from them in several characteristic features, being primitive
in some respects, but highly specialized in others, so that it cannot
be properly included in the order. Schaudinnetla rather represents
a primitive EctosDoran parasite, which has proceeded upon a line
of its own, intermediate between the Gregarines and Coccidia.
Bibliography. — Among the important papers relating to Grega-
rines are the following: 1. A. Kerndt, " Beitrag zur Kenntnis
der . . . Gregarinen, M Arch. Protistenk. 1, p. 375, 3 pis. (1902);
2. L. Brasil, " Recherches sur la reproduction des Gregarines
4. M. C&ullery and F. Mesnil, " Sur une Gregarine . . . pre'sentant
. . . une phase de multiplication asporulee," C.R. Ac. Sci. 126,
p. 262 (1898) ; 5. M. Caullery and F. Mesnil, " Le Parasitisme intra-
cellulaire des Gregarines," op* cit. 132, p. 220 (1901) ; 0. - M. Caullery
and F. Mesnil, "Sur une mode particuliere de division nucleaire
chez les Gregarines," Arch. anal, microsc. 3, p. 146, 1 pi. (1900); 7.
M. Caullery and F. Mesnil, " Sur quelques parasites internes des
Ann61ides, Jl/tsc. bic4. (Trav. Stat. Wimereux), 9, p. 80, 1 pi. (1899);
7a. J. Cecconi, "Sur Y Anchorina sagittata, &c, Arch. Protistenk.
- ,(1905)
the U.S., op. cit. 55, pp. 41, 632, 4 pis. (1903); 10. L. Cuenot,
" Recherches sur revolution et la conjugaison des Gregarines," Arch,
biol. 17, p. 581, 4 pis. (iqoi) ; 11. A. Laveran and F. Mesnil, " Sur
quelques particularites de revolution d'une Gregarine et la reaction
de la cellule-h6te," C.R. Soc. Biol. 52, p. 554, o figs. (1900) ; 12. L.
Leger, " Recherches sur les Gregarines," Tabl. zool. 3, p. i., 22 pis.
(10^2); li. L. Leger, " Contribution a la connaissance des Sporo-
zoaires, &c.,' 'Bull. Sci. France, 30, p. 240, 3 pis. (1897) ; 14. L. Leger,
11 Sur un nouveau Sporozoaire (SchizocysHs), &c," C.R. Ac. Sci. 131,
p. 722 (1900) ; 15. L. Leger, " La Reproduction sexuee chez les
Ophryocystis," /. c. p. 761 (1900); 16. L. Leger, " Sur une nouvelle
Gregarine (Aggregata coelomica,), &c," 6p. cit. 132, p. 1343 (1001);
17. L. Leger, " La Reproduction sexuee chez les Stylorhynchus,"
Arch. Protistenk. 3, p. 304, 2 pis. (1904) ; 18. L. Leger, " Etude sur
Taeniocystis mira (Leger), &c," op. at. 7, p. 307, 2 pis. (1906) ; 19.
L. Leger and O. Duboscq, " La Reproduction sexuee chez Ptero-
phalus" Arch. zool. exp. (N. et R.) (4) 1, p. 141, II figs. (1903);
). L. Leger and O. Duboscq, " Aggregata vagans, n. sp., &c," t. c.
grjSgoire
561
les Grggarines, &c, M Arch. ProUstenk. 4, p> 335, 2 pis* (1904); 23.
M. Ltihe, " Bau und Entwickelung der Gregarinen," /. c. p. 88,
several figs. (1904) ; 24. J. Nusbaum, " t)ber die . . . Fortpflanzung
einer . . . Gregaririe, Schaudinnella ketUeae," Zeit. wiss. Zool. 75,
p. 281, pi. 22 (I903); 25. F. Paehler, " Ober die Morphologie,
Fortpflanzung . . . von Gregarina ovata" Arch. Prottstenk. 4,
p. 64, 2 pis. (1904) ; 26. S. Prowazek, " Zur Entwickelung der Grega-
rinen," op. cit. t i, p. 297, pi. o (1902); 27. A. Schneider (Various
memoirs on Gregarines), Tool, zool. 1 and 2 (1 886-1 892); 28.
H. Schnitzler, " Ober die Fortpflanzung von Clepsydrina ovata"
Arch. ProUstenk. 6, p. 309, 2 pis. (1905); 29. M. Siedlecki, " (Jber
die geschlechtliche Vermehrung der Monocystis ascidiae, " Bull. Ac.
Cracovie, p. S15, 2 pis. (1900); 30. M. Siedlecki, " Contribution a
I'ltude des changements celluiaires provoquees par les Gregarines, "
Arch. anat. microsc. 4, p. 87, 9 figs. (1901); 31. H. M. Woodcock,
" The Life-Cycle of Cystobia irregularis, &c," Q.J.M. Set. 50, p. 1.
6 pis. (1906). (H. M. Wo.)
GRl&OIRE, HENRI (1750-1831), French revolutionist and
constitutional bishop of Blois, was born at Velio near Luneville,
on the 4th of December 1750, the son of a peasant. Educated
at the Jesuit college at Nancy, he became cure* of Embermenil
and a teacher at the Jesuit school at Pont-a-Mousson. In 1783
he was crowned by the academy of Nancy for his £loge de la
poisie, and in 1788 by that of Metz for an Essai sur la rigeniration
physique et morale des Juifs. He was elected in 1789 by the
clergy of the bailhage of Nancy to the states-general, where he
soon became conspicuous in the group of clerical and lay deputies
of Jansenist or Gallican sympathies who supported the Revolu-
tion. He was among the first of the clergy to join the third
estate, and contributed largely to the union of the three orders;
he presided at the permanent sitting of sixty-two hours while
the Bastille was being attacked by the people, and made a
vehement speech against the enemies of the nation. He sub-
sequently took a leading share in the abolition of the privileges
of the nobles and the Church. Under the new civil constitution
of the clergy, to which he was the first priest to take the oath
(December 27, 1790), he was elected bishop by two departments.
He selected that of Loire-et-Cher, taking the old title of bishop
of Blois, and for ten years (1791-1801) ruled his diocese with
exemplary zeal. An ardent republican, it was he who in the
first session of the National Convention (September 21, 1792).
proposed the motion for the abolition of the kingship, in a speech
in which occurred the memorable phrase that " kings are in the
moral order what monsters are in the natural." On the 15th of
November he delivered a speech in which he demanded that the
king should be brought to trial, and immediately afterwards
was elected president of the Convention, over which he presided
in his episcopal dress. During the trial of Louis XVI., being
absent with other three colleagues on a mission for the union of
Savoy to France, he along with them wrote a letter urging the
condemnation of the king, but omitting the words a tnort; and
he endeavoured to save the life of the king by proposing in the
Convention that the penalty of death should be suspended.
When on the 7th of November 1793 Gobel, bishop of Paris,
was intimidated into resigning his episcopal office at the bar of
the Convention, Gr6goire, who was temporarily absent from the
sitting, hearing what had happened, hurried to the hall, and in
the face of a howling mob of deputies refused to abjure either his
religion or his office. He was prepared to face the death which
he expected; but his courage, a rare quality at that time, won
the day, and the hubbub subsided in cries of " Let Gregoire
have his wayl " Throughout the Terror, in spite of attacks
in the Convention, in the press, and on placards posted at the
street corners, he appeared in the streets in his episcopal dress
and daily read mass in his house. After Robespierre's fall he
was the first to advocate the reopening of the churches (speech
of December 21,1794), He also exerted himself to get measures
put in execution for restraining the vandalistic fury against the
monuments of art, extended his protection to artists and men
of letters, and devoted much of his attention to the reorganiza-
tion of the public libraries, the establishment of botanic gardens,
and the improvement of technical education. He had taken
during the Constituent Assembly a great interest in Negro
emancipation, and it was on his motion that men of colour in
the French colonies were admitted to the same rights as whites.
On the establishment of the new constitution, Gregoire was
elected to the Council of 500, and after the 18th Brumaire he
became a member of the Corps Legislatif , then of the Senate
(1801). He took the lead in the national church councils of
1797 and 1801; but he was strenuously opposed to Napoleon's
policy of reconciliation with the Holy See, and after the signature
of the concordat he resigned his bishopric (October 8, 1801).
He was one of the minority of five in the Senate who voted
against the proclamation of the empire, and he opposed the
creation of the new nobility and the divorce of Napoleon from
Josephine; but notwithstanding this he was subsequently
created a count of the empire and officer of the Legion of Honour*
During the later years of Napoleon's reign he travelled in England
and Germany, but in 1814 he had returned to France and was
one of the chief instigators of the action that was taken against
the empire.
To the clerical and ultra-royalist faction which was supreme
in the Lower Chamber and in the circles of the court after the
second Restoration, Gregoire, as a revolutionist and a schismatic
bishop, was an object of double loathing. He was expelled from
the Institute and forced into retirement. But even in this period
of headlong reaction his influence was felt and feared. In 18 14
he had published a work, De la constitution fran^aise de Van 18x4*
in which he commented on the Charter from a Liberal point of
view, and this reached its fourth edition in 18 19. In this latter
year he was elected to the Lower Chamber by the department
of Isere. By the powers of the Quadruple Alliance this event
was regarded as of the most sinister omen, and the question was
even raised of a fresh armed intervention in France under the
terms of the secret treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. To prevent such
a catastrophe Louis XVIH. decided on a modification of the
franchise; the Dessolle ministry resigned; and the first act of
Decazes, the new premier, was to carry a vote in the chamber
annulling the election of Gregoire. From this time onward the
ex-bishop lived in retirement, occupying himself in literary pur-
suits and in correspondence with most of the eminent savants of
Europe; but as he had been deprived of his pension as a senator
he was compelled to sell his library to obtain means of support.
He died on the 30th of May 183 1.
To the last Gr6goire remained a devout Catholic, exactly
fulfilling all his obligations as a Christian and a priest; but be
refused to budge an inch from his revolutionary principles.
During his last illness he confessed to his parish cwl, a priest
of Jansenist sympathies, and expressed his desire for the last
sacraments of the Church. These the archbishop of Paris would
only concede on condition that he would, retract his oath to the
civil constitution of the clergy, which he peremptorily refused
to do. Thereupon, in defiance of the archbishop, the abb6
Baradere gave him the viaticum, while the rite of extreme unction
was administered by the abbe" Guillon, an opponent of the civil
constitution, without consulting the archbishop or the parish
cure*. The attitude of the archbishop roused great excitement
in Paris, and the government had to take precautions to avoid
a repetition of the riots which, in the preceding February had
led to the sacking of the church of St Germain l'Auxerrois and
the archiepiscopal palace. On the day after his death Gregoire's
funeral was celebrated at the church of the Abbaye-aux-Bois;
the clergy of the church had absented themselves in obedience
to the archbishop's orders, but mass was sung by the abbe
Grieu assisted by two clergy, the catafalque being decorated
with the episcopal insignia. After the hearse set out from the
church the horses were unyoked, and it was dragged by students
to the cemetery of Montparnasse, the cortege being followed by a
sympathetic crowd of some 20,000 people.
Whatever his merits as a writer or as a philanthropist,
Gregoire's name lives in history mainly by reason of his whole-
hearted effort to prove that Catholic Christianity is not irre-
concilable with modern conceptions of political liberty. In this
effort he was defeated, mainly because the Revolution, for lack
of experience in the right use of liberty, changed into a military
despotism which allied itself with the spiritual despotism of
Rome; partly because, when the Revolution was overthrown,
562
GREGORAS^GREGORY, ST
the parties of reaction sought salvation in the' "union of altar
and throne." Possibly Gr€goire's Gallicanism was fundamentally
irreconcilable with the Catholic idea of authority. At least it
made their traditional religion possible for those many French
Catholics who clung passionately to the benefits the Revolution
had brought them; and had it prevailed, it might have spared
France and the world that fatal gulf between Liberalism and
Catholicism which Pius IX. 's Syllabus of 1864 sought to make
impassable.
Besides several political pamphlets, Gregoire was the author of
Histoire des secies religfeuses, depuis le commencement du Steele dernier
jusqu'd Vipoque actuelle (2 vols., 1810); Essai historique sur Us
libertis de liaise gaUicane (181 8) ; De V influence du Christianisme sur
la condition desfemmes (1821) ; Histoire des confesseurs des empereurs,
des rois, et d'autres princes (1824) ; Histoire du mariage des prUres en
France (1826). Grigoireana, ou resume general de la conduite, des
actions, et des icrits de M. le comte Henri Grigoire, preceded by a
biographical notice by Cousin d'Avalon, was published in 1821 ; and
the Mimoires . . . de Grigoire, with a biographical notice by H.
Carnot, appeared in 1837 (2 vols.). See also A. Debidour, LAbbi
Grigoire (1881); A. Gazier, Etudes sur l x histoire religieuse de la
Resolution Francaise (1883); L. Maggiolo, La Vie et les eeuvres de
rabbi Grigoire (Nancy, 1884), and numerous articles in La Revolution
Francaise ; E. Meaume, Etude hist, et bio£. sur les Lorrains revolution-
naires (Nancy, 1882) ; and A. Gazier, Etudes sur Vhistoire religieuse
de la Revolution Francaise (1887).
GREGORAS, NICEPHORUS (c. 1295-1360), Byzantine
historian, man of learning and religious controversialist, was
born at Heraclea in Pontus. At an early age he settled at
Constantinople, where his reputation for learning brought him
under the notice of Andronicus II., by whom he was appointed
Chartophylax (keeper of the archives). In 1326 Gregoras pro-
posed (in a still extant treatise) certain reforms in the calendar,
which the emperor refused to carry out for fear of disturbances;
nearly two hundred years later they were introduced by Gregory
XIII. on almost the same lines. When Andronicus was de-
throned (1328) by his grandson Andronicus III., Gregoras
shared his downfall and retired into private life. Attacked by
Barlaam, the famous monk of Calabria, he was with difficulty
persuaded to come forward and meet him in a war of words, in
which Barlaam was worsted. This greatly enhanced his reputa-
tion and brought him a large number of pupils. Gregoras
remained loyal to the elder Andronicus to the last, but after
his death he succeeded in gaining the favour of his grandson, by
whom he was appointed to conduct the unsuccessful negotiations
(for a union of the Greek and Latin churches) with the ambas-
sadors of Pope John XXII. (1333). Gregoras subsequently took
an important part in the Hesychast controversy, in which
he violently opposed Gregorius Palamas, the chief supporter
of the sect. After the doctrines of Palamas had been recognized
at the synod of 1351, Gregoras, who refused to acquiesce, was
practically 1 imprisoned in a monastery for two years. Nothing
is known Of the end of his life. His chief work is his Roman
History, in 37 books, of the years 1204 to 1359. It thus partly
supplements arid partly continues the work of George Pachy-
meres. ' Gregoras shows considerable industry, but his style is
pompous and affected. Far too much space is devoted to
religious matters and dbgmatic quarrels. This work and that
of John Cantacuzene supplement and correct each other, and
should be read together. The other writings of Gregoras, which
(with a few exceptions) still remain unpublished, attest his great
versatility. Amongst them may be mentioned a history of
the dispute with Palamas; biographies of his uncle and early
instructor John, metropolitan of Heraclea, and of the martyr
Codratus of Antioch; funeral orations for Theodore Metochita,
and the two emperors Andronicus; commentaries on the wan-
derings of Odysseus and on Synesius's treatise on dreams;
tracts on orthography and on words of doubtful meaning; a
philosophical dialogue called Florentines or Concerning Wisdom^
astronomical treatises on the date of Easter and the preparation
of the astrolabe; and an extensive correspondence*.
Editions: in Bonn Corpus scriptorum hist. Byz., by L. Schopen
and I. Bekker, with life and list of works by J. Boivin (1829-18*5) ;
J. P. Migne, Patrologia graeca, cxlviii., cxlix. ; see also C. Rrumbacher,
Geschichte der byzanlinischen Litteratur (1897).
GREGOROVIUS, FERDINAND (1821-1801), German historian,
was born at Neidenburg on the 19th of January 1821, and
studied at the university of Konigsberg. After spending some
years in teaching he took up his residence, in Italy in 1852,
remaining in that country for over twenty years. He was made
a citizen of Rome, and he died at Munich on the 1st of May 189 1.
Gregorovius's interest in and acquaintance with Italy and
Italian history is mainly responsible for his great book, Geschichte
der Stadt Rom im MittclaUer (Stuttgart, i85o-x872, and other
editions), a work of much erudition and interest, which has been
translated into English by A. Hamilton (13 vols., 1 894-1 900),
and also into Italian at the expense of the Romans (Venice,
1874-1876). It deals with the history of Rome from about
a.d. 400 to the death of Pope Clement VII. in 1534, and in the
words of its author it describes " how, from the time of Charles
the Great to that of Charles V., the historic system of the papacy
remained inseparable from that of the Empire." The other
works of Gregorovius include: Geschichte des Kaisers Hadrian
und seiner Zeit (Kflnigsberg, 1851), English translation by M. E.
Robinson (1808); Corsica (Stuttgart, 1854), English translation
by R. Martineau (1855); Lucrena Borgia (Stuttgart, 1874),
English translation by J. L. Garner (1904); Die Grabdenkm&ler
der Fctpste (Leipzig, 1881), English translation by R. W. Seton-
Watson (1903); Wanderjakre in Italien (5 vols., Leipzig, 1888-
1892); Geschichte der Stadt Athen im MiUelalter (1889); Kleine
Sckriften zur Geschichte der KuUur (Leipzig, 1887-1892-); and
Urban VIII. im Widerspruch zu Spanien and dem Kaiser
(Stuttgart, 1879). This last work was translated into Italian
by the author himself (Rome, 1879). Gregorovius was also
something of a poet; he wrote a drama, Der Ted des Tiberius
(1851), and some Gedichte (Leipzig, 1891).
His Rdmiscke TagebOcher were edited by F. Althaus (Stuttgart,
1892), and were translated into English as the Roman Journals of
F. Gregorovius, by A. Hamilton (1907).
GREGORY, ST (c. 213-c. 270), surnamed in later ecclesiastical
tradition Thaumaturgus (the miracle* worker), was born of
noble and wealthy pagan parents at Neocaesarea in Pontus,
about a.d. 213. His original name was Theodoras. He took
up the study of civil law, and, with his brother Athenodorus,
was on his way to Berytus to complete his training when at
Caesarea he met Origen, and became his pupil and then his
convert (a.d. 233). In returning to Cappadocia some five years
after his conversion, it had been his original intention to live
a retired ascetic life (Eus, H.E. vi. 30), but, urged by Origen,
and at last almost compelled by. Phaedimus of Amasia, his
metropolitan, neither of whom was willing to see so much
learning, piety and masculine energy practically lost to the
church, he, after many attempts to evade the dignity,
was consecrated bishop of his native town (about 240)* His
episcopate, which lasted some thirty years, was characterized by
great missionary zeal, and by so much success that,' according
to the (doubtless somewhat rhetorical) statement of Gregory
of Nyssa, whereas at the outset of his labours there were only
seventeen Christians in the city, there were at his death only
seventeen persons in all who had not embraced Christianity.
This result he achieved in spite of the Decian persecution (250-
251), during which he had felt it to be his duty to absent himself
from his diocese, and notwithstanding the demoralizing effects
of an irruption of barbarians (Goths and Boranians) who laid
waste the diocese in a.d. 253-254. Gregory, although he has
not always escaped the charge of Sabellianism, now holds an
undisputed place among the fathers of the church; and although
the turn of his mind was practical rather than speculative, he
is known to have taken an energetic part in most of the doctrinal
controversies of his time. He was active at the first synod of
Antioch (a.d. 264-265), which investigated and condemned the
heresies of Paul of Samosata; and the rapid spread in Pontus of
a Trinitarianism approaching the Nicene type is attributed in large
measure to the weight of his influence. Gregory is believed to have
died in the reign of Aurelian, about the year 270, though perhaps
an earlier date is more probable. His festival (semiduplex) is ob-
served by the Roman Catholic Church on the X7th of November.
GREGORY OF NAZIANZUS
5^3
For the facts of his biography we have an outline of his early
years in his eulogy on Origen, and incidental notices in the writings
of Eusebius, of Basil of Caesarea and Jerome. Gregory of Nyssa s
untrustworthy panegyric represents him as having wrought miracles
of a very startling description; but nothing related by him comes
near the astounding narratives given in the Martyrologies, or even in
the Brcviarium Romanum, in connexion with his name.
The principal works of Gregory Thaumaturgus are the Panegyricus
in Origenem (Els 'Qpiykvriv Tramjyvpucds \6yos) t which he wrote when
on the point of leaving the school of that great master (it contains
a valuable minute description of Origen's mode of instruction), a
Metaphrasis in Ecdesiasten, characterized by Jerome as " short but
useful "; and an Epistola canonica, which treats of the discipline
to be undergone by those Christians who under pressure of persecu-
tion had relapsed into paganism, but desired to be restored to the
privileges of the Church. It gives a good picture of the conditions of
the time, and shows Gregory to be a true shepherd (cf . art Penance).
The "Erfcffts TrLareois (Expositio fidci), a short creed usually attri-
buted to Gregory, and traditionally alleged to have been received by
him immediately in vision from the apostle John himself, is probably
authentic. A sort of Platonic dialogue of doubtful authenticity "on
the impassivity and the passivity of God " in Syriac is in the British
Museum.
Editions: Gerhard Voss (Mainz, 1604), Fronto Ducaus (Paris,
1622), Migne, Pair. Grate, x. 963.
Translations: S. D. F. Salmond in Ante-Nicene Fathers, vi.; Lives,
by Paliavicini (Rome, 1644); J. L. Boye (Jena, 1709); H. R.
Reynolds (Did. Chr. Biog. ii.); G. Kruger, Early Chr. Lit.
226; Herzog-Hauck, Rsalencyk. vii. (where full bibliographies are
given).
GREGORY, ST, OF NAZIANZUS (320-389), sumamed
Theologus, one of the four great fathers of the Eastern Church,
was born about the year a.d. 329, at or near Nazianzus,
Cappadocia. His father, also named Gregory, had lately be-
come bishop of the diocese; his mother, Nonna, exercised a
powerful influence over the religious convictions of both father
and son. Gregory visited successively the two Caesareas,
Alexandria and Athens, as a student of grammar, mathematics,
rhetoric and philosophy; at Athens he had for fellow-students
Basil (q.v.), who afterwards became bishop of Caesarea, and
Julian, afterwards emperor. Shortly after his return to his
father's house at Nazianzus (about the year 360) Gregory
received baptism. He resolved to give himself to the service of
religion; but for some time, and indeed more or less throughout
his whole life, was in a state of hesitation as to the form which
that service ought to take. Strongly inclined by nature and
education to a contemplative life spent among books and in the
society of congenial friends, he was continually urged by outward
circumstances, as well as by an inward call, to active pastoral
labour. The spirit of refined intellectual monasticism, which
clung to him through life and never ceased to struggle for the
ascendancy, was about this time strongly encouraged by his
intercourse with Basil, who induced him to share the exalted
pleasures of his retirement in Pontus. To this peiiod belongs
the preparation of the $iXo*caX£a, a sort of chrestomathy com-
piled by the two friends from the writings of Origen. But the
events which were stirring the political and ecclesiastical life of
Cappadocia, and indeed of the whole Roman world, made a career
of learned leisure difficult if not impossible to a man of Gregory's
position and temperament. The emperor Constantius, having
by intrigue and intimidation succeeded in thrusting a semi-
Arian formula upon the Western bishops assembled at Ariminum
in Italy, had next attempted to follow the same course with the
Eastern episcopate. The aged bishop of Nazianzus having
yielded to the imperial threats, a great storm arose among the
monks of the diocese, which was only quelled by the influence
of the younger Gregory, who shortly afterwards (about 361) was
ordained to the priesthood. After a vain attempt to evade his
new duties and responsibilities by flight, he appears to have
continued to act as a presbyter in his father's diocese without in-
terruption for some considerable time; and it is probable that
his two Invectives against Julian are to be assigned to this period.
Subsequently (about 372), under a pressure which he somewhat
resented, he allowed himself to be nominated by Basil as bishop
of Sasima, a miserable little village some 32 m. from Tyana;
but he seems hardly, if at all, to have assumed the duties of this
diocese, for after another interval of " flight u we find him once
more (about 372-373) at Nazianzus, assisting his aged father,
on whose death (374) he retired to Seleucia in Isauria for a period
of some years. Meanwhile a more important field for his activities
was opening up. Towards 378-379 the small and depressed
remnant of the orthodox party in Constantinople sent him
an urgent summons to undertake the task of resuscitating their
cause, so long persecuted and borne down by the Arians of the
capital. With the accession of Theodosius to the imperial
throne, the prospect of success to the Nicene doctrine had dawned,
if only it could find some courageous and devoted champion.
The fame of Gregory as a learned and eloquent disciple of Origen,
and still more of Athanasius, pointed him out as such a defender;
nor could he resist the appeal made to him, although he took the
step reluctantly. Once arrived in Constantinople, he laboured
so zealously and well that the orthodox party speedily gathered
strength; and the small apartment in which they had been
accustomed to meet was soon exchanged for a vast and celebrated
church which received the significant name of Anastasia, the
Church of the Resurrection. Among the heaters of Gregory
were to be found, not only churchmen like Jerome and Evagrius,
but also heretics and pagans; and it says much for the sound
wisdom and practical tact of the preacher that he set himself
less to build up and defend a doctrinal position than to urge
his flock to the cultivation of the loving Christian spirit which
cherishes higher aims than mere heresy hunting or endless dis-
putation. Doctrinal, nevertheless, he was, as is abundantly
shown by the famous five discourses on the Trinity, which earned
for him the distinctive appellation of teoXoyo*. These orations
are the finest exposition of the Catholic doctrine of the Trinity
as conceived by the orthodox teachers of the East, and they
were directed especially against the Eunomians and Macedonians.
"There is perhaps no single book in Greek patristic literature
to which the student who desires to gain an exact and com-
prehensive view of Greek theology can be more confidently
referred." With' the arrival of Theodosius in 380 came the
visible triumph of the orthodox cause; the metropolitan see
was then conferred upon Gregory, and after the assembling
of the second ecumenical council in 381 he received consecration
from Meletius. In consequence, however, of a spirit of discord
and envy which had manifested itself in connexion with this
promotion, he soon afterwards resigned his dignity and withdrew
into comparative retirement. The rest of his days were spent
partly at Nazianzus in ecclesiastical affairs, and partly on his
neighbouring patrimonial estate at Arianzus, where he followed
his favourite literary pursuits, especially poetical composition,
until his death, which occurred in 389 or 390. His festival is
celebrated in the Eastern Church on the 25th and 30th of January,
in the Western on the 9th of May (duplex).
His extant works consist of poems, epistles and orations. The
poems, which include epigrams, elegies and an autobiographical
sketch, have been frequently printed, the editioprinceps being the
Aldine (1504). Other editions are those of Tollius (1696) and
Muratori (1709); a volume of Carmina selecta also has been edited
by Dronke (1840). The tragedy entitled Xpurrds i-farx"? usually
included is certainly not genuine. Gregory's poetry did not absorb
his best energies ; it was adopted in his later years as a recreation
rather than as a serious pursuit; thus it is occasionally delicate,
graphic, beautiful, but it is not sustained. Of the hymns none
nave passed into ecclesiastical use. The letters are entitled
to a higher place in literature. They are always easy and natural ;
and there is nothing forced in the manner in which their acute, witty
and profound sayings are introduced. Those to Basil introduce us
to the story of a most romantic friendship, those to Cledonius have '
theological value for their bearing on the Apollinarian controversy.
As an orator he was so facile, vigorous and persuasive, that men
forgot his small stature and emaciated countenance. Forty-five
orations are extant. Gregory was less an independent theologian
than an interpreter. He was influenced by Athanasius in his Christ*
ology, by Ongea in his anthropology, for, though teaching original
sin and deriving human mortality from the Fall, he insists on the
ability of the human will to choose the good and to co-operate in the
work of salvation with the will of God. Though possessed neither of
Basil's gift of government nor of Gregory of Nyssa 's power of specu-
lative thought, he worthily takes a place in that triumvirate of
Cappadocians whom the Catholic Church gratefully recognizes as
having been, during the critical struggles in the latter half <*f the
4th century, the best defenders of its faith. The Opera omnia were
5&4
GREGORY OF NYSSA— GREGORY OF TOURS
first published by Hervagius (Basel, 1550); the subsequent editions
have been those of Billius (Paris, 1609, 161 1; aucta ex interpreta-
tione Morelli, 1630), of the Benedictines (begun in 1778, but
interrupted by the French Revolution and not completed until
1840, Caillau being the final editor) and of Migne. The Theological
Orations (edited by A. J. Mason) were published separately at
Cambridge in 1899.
Scattered notices of the life of Gregory Nasianzen are to be found
in the writings of Socrates, Sozomen, Theodoret and Rufinus, as well
as in his own letters and poems. The data derived from these sources
do not always harmonize with the account of Suidas. The earlier
modern authorities, such as Tillemont (Mem. Eccl. t. iz.) and
Leclerc (Bib. Univ. t. xviii.), were used fey Gibbon. See also C.
Ullmann, Greeorius von Naziant, der Theologe (1825; Eng. trans, by
G. F. Coxe, M.A., 1857); A. Benoit, St Grlgoire de Nasianse; sa vie,
ses auvres, et son tpoque (1877); Montaut, Revue critique de quelques
questions historiques se rapjportant a St GrSgoire de Nazianze (1879} ;
¥. W. Farrar, Lives of the Fathers, i. 491-582, and F. Loofs in
Hauck-Herzog's Realencyh. far prot. Theologie, vii. 138.
GREGORY, ST, OF NYSSA (C.331-C. 39$), one of the four
great fathers of the Eastern Church, designated by one of the
later ecumenical councils as " a father of fathers/' was a younger
brother of Basil (the Great), bishop of Caesarea, and was born
(probably) at Neocaesarea about a.d. 331. For his education
he was chiefly indebted to his elder brother. At a comparatively
early age he entered the church, and held for some time the office
of anagnost or reader; subsequently he manifested a desire to
devote himself to the secular life as a rhetorician, an impulse
which was checked by the earnest remonstrances of Gregory of
Nazianzus. Finally, in 371 or 372 he was ordained by his brother
Basil to the bishopric of Nyssa, a small town in Cappadocia.
Here he is usually said (but on inadequate data) to have adopted
the opinion then gaining ground in favour of the celibacy of the
clergy, and to have separated from his wife Theosebia, who
became a deaconess in the church. His strict orthodoxy on the
subject of the Trinity and the Incarnation, together with his
vigorous eloquence, combined to make him peculiarly obnoxious
to the Arian faction, which was at that time in the ascendant
through the protection of the emperor Valens; and in 375,
the synod of Ancyra, convened by Demetrius the Arian governor
of Pont us, condemned him for alleged irregularities in his
election and in the administration of the finances of his diocese.
In 376 he was deprived of his see, and Valens sent him into exile,
whence he did not return till the publication of the edict of
Gratian in 37 8. Shortly afterwards he took part in the proceedings
of the synod which met at Antioch in Caria, principally in
connexion with the Melctian schism. At the great ecumenical
council held at Constantinople in 381, he was a conspicuous
champion of the orthodox faith; according to Nicephorus,
indeed, the additions made to the Nicene creed were entirely due
to his suggestion, but this statement is of doubtful authority.
That his eloquence was highly appreciated is shown by the facts
that he pronounced the discourse at the consecration of Gregory
of Nazianzus, and that he was chosen to deliver the funeral
oration on the death of Meletius the first president of the council.
In the following year, moreover (382), he was commissioned
by the council to inspect and set in order the churches of Arabia,
in connexion with which mission he also visited Jerusalem.
The impressions he gathered from this journey may, in part at
least, be gathered from his famous letter De cuntibus Hiero-
sdyma, in which an opinion strongly unfavourable to pilgrimages
is expressed. In 383 he was probably again in Constantinople;
where in 385 he pronounced the funeral orations of the princess
Pulcheria and afterwards of the empress Platilla. Once more
we read of him in 304 as having been present in that metropolis
at the synod held under the presidency of Nectaxius to settle
a controversy which had arisen among the bishops of Arabia;
in the same year he assisted at the consecration of the new church
of the apostles at Chalcedon, on which occasion there is reason to
believe that his discourse commonly but wrongly known as that
Els n)p lavrob x*f*m>*lav was delivered. The exact date of his
death is unknown; some authorities refer it to 376, others to 400*
His festival is observed by the Greek Church on the 10th of
January; in the Western martyrologies he is commemorated
on the 9th of March.
Gregory of Nyssa was not so firm and able an administrator
as his brother Basil, nor so magnificent an orator as Gregory of
Nazianzus, but he excelled them both, alike as a speculative
and constructive theologian, and in the wide extent of his
acquirements. His teaching, though strictly trinitarian, shows
considerable freedom and originality of thought; in many
points his mental and spiritual affinities with Origen show
themselves with advantage, as in his doctrine of ajKoKardaraxnt
or final restoration. There are marked pantheistic tendencies,
e.g. the inclusion of sin as a necessary part of the cosmical process,
which make him akin to the pantheistic monophysites and to
some modern thinkers.
His style has been frequently praised by competent authorities for
sweetness, richness and elegance. His numerous works may be
classified under five heads: (1) Treatises in doctrinal and polemical
theology. Of these the most important is that Against- Eunomhts
in twelve books. Its doctrinal thesis (which is supported with
great philosophic acumen and rhetorical power) is the divinity and
consuostantiality of the Word; incidentally the character of
Basil, which Eunomius had aspersed, is vindicated, and the heretic
himself is held up to scorn ana contempt. This is the work which,
most probably in a shorter draft, was read by its author when
at Constantinople before Gregory Nazianzen and Jerome in 381
(Jerome, De vir. ill. 128). To the same class belong the treatise
To Ablaviusy against the tritheists; On Faith, against the Arians;
On Common Notions, in explanation of the terms in current employ-
ment with regard to the Trinity; Ten Syllogisms, against the
Manichaeans; To TheophUus, against the Apolhnarians; an Antir-
rhetic against the same; Against Fate, a disputation with a heathen
philosopher; De anima et resurrectione, a dialogue with his dying
sister Macrina ; and the Or alio catechetica magna, an argument for the
incarnation as the best possible form of redemption, intended to
convince educated pagans and Tews. (2) Practical treatises. To
this category belong the tracts On Virginity and On Pilgrimages; as
also the Canonical Epistle upon the rules of penance. (3) Expository
and homiletical works, including the Hexaemeron, and several series
of discourses On the Workmanship of Man, On the Inscriptions of the
Psalms, On the Sixth Psalm, On the first three Chapters of Ecdesiastes,
On Canticles, On the Lord's Prayer and On the Eight Beatitudes,
(4) Biographical, consisting chiefly of funeral orations. (5) Letters.
The only complete editions of the whole works are those by (
Fronton le Due (Fronto Duc&us, Paris, 1615; with additions, 1618 '
and 1638) and by Migne. G. H. Forbes began an excellent critical
edition, but only two parts of the first volume appeared (Burntisland,
1855 and 1 861) containing the Explicatio apoloptica in hexaemeron
and the De opificio hominis. Of the new edition projected by F.
Oehler only the first volume, containing the Opera dogmoHca, has
appeared (1865). There have been numerous editions of several
single treatises, as for example of the Oratio catechetica (T. G.
Krabinger, Munich, 1838; J. H. Crawley, Cambridge, 1903), De
precatione and De anima et resurrectione.
See F. W. Farrar, Lives of the Fathers, ii. 56-83, the monograph by
LRupp (Gregors, des Bischofs von Nysea, Leben und Meinungen,
ipzig, 1834), and compare P. Heyns (Disputatio historico-theologica
de Greg, ifyss., 1815), C. W. M oiler (Gregorii Nyss. doctrinam de
homints natura et iUustravit et cum Origeniana comparavit, 1854) and
J. N. Stigler, Die Psychologic des h. Gregors von Nyssa (Regensbure,
1857), and many smaller monographs cited in Hauck-Herzog s
Realencyk. f&r proL Theol. vii. 149.
GREGORY, ST, OP TOURS (538-594), historian of the Franks,
was born in the chief city of the Arverni (the modern Clermont-
Ferrand) on the 30th of November 538. His real name was
Georgius Florentius, Georgius being his grandfather's name and
Florentius his father's. He was called Gregory after his maternal
great-grandfather, the bishop of Langres. Gregory belonged to
an illustrious senatorial family, many of whose members held
high office in the church and bear honoured names in the history
of Christianity. He was descended, it is said, from Vettius
Epagathus, who was martyred at Lyons in 177 with St Pothinus;
his paternal uncle, Gallus, was bishop of Clermont; his maternal
grand-uncle, Nicetius (St Nizier), occupied the see of Lyons;
and he was a kinsman of Euphronius, bishop of Tours.
Gregory lost his father early, and his mother Armentaria
settled in the kingdom of Burgundy on an estate belonging to
her near Cavaillon, where her son often visited her. Gregory was
brought up at Clermont-Ferrand by his uncle Gallus and by his
successor, Avitus, and there he received his education. Among
profane authors he read the first six books of the Aeneid and
Sallust's history of the Catiline conspiracy, but his education
was mainly religious. The principles of religion he learnt from
GREGORY THE ILLUMINATOR
565
the Bible, Sulpicius Severus and some lives of saints, but to
patristic literature and the subtleties of theology he remained
a stranger. In 563, at the age of twenty-five, he was ordained
deacon. Falling seriously ill, he went to Tours to seek a cure at
the tomb of St Martin. At Tours he lived with Euphronius,
and so great was the young man's popularity that, on the death
of Euphronius in 573, the people unanimously designated him
bishop.
At that time Tours belonged to Austrasia, and King Sigebert
hastened to confirm Gregory's election. After the assassination
of Sigebert (575), the province was ruled by Chilperic for nine
years, during which period Gregory displayed the greatest energy
in protecting his town and church from the Frankish king. He
had to contend with Count Leudast, the governor of Tours;
despite all the king's threats, he refused to give up Chilperic 's
son Meroving, who had sought refuge from his father's wrath
at the sanctuary of St Martin; and he defended Bishop Pre-
textatus against Chilperic, by whom hie had been condemned
for celebrating the marriage of Merovech and Queen Brunhilda.
In 580 Gregory was himself accused before a council at Berny of
using abusive language against Queen Fredegond, but he cleared
himself of the charge by an oath and was acquitted. On the
death of Chilperic, Tours remained for two years (584-585) in
the hands of Guntram, but when Guntram adopted his nephew
Childebert, Sigebert's son, it again became Australian. This
change was welcome to Gregory, who often visited the court.
In 586 he was at Coblenz, and on his return to Yvois (the
modern Carignan) visited the stylite Wulfilaic; in 588 we hear
of him at Metz and also at Chalon-sur-Sa6ne,whither he was sent
to obtain from King Guntram the ratification of the pact of
Andelot; in 593 he was at Orleans, where Childebert had just
succeeded his uncle Guntram. In the intervals of these journeys
he governed Tours with great firmness, repressing disorders
and reducing the monks and nuns to obedience. He died on
the 17th of November 594.
Gregory left many writings, of which he himself gives an
enumeration at the end of his Historia Francorum: " Decern
libros Historiarum, septem Miraculorum, unum de Vita Patrum
scripsi; in Psalterii tractatu librum unum commentatus sum;
de Cursibus etiam ecclesiasticis unum librum condidi." The
ten books of history are discussed below. The seven books of
miracles are divided into the De gloria martyrum, the De
virtutibus sancti Jtdiani, four books of Miracula sancti Martini,
and the De gloria confessorum, the last dealing mainly with
confessors who had dwelt in the cities of Tours and Clermont.
The Vitae patrum consists of twenty biographies of bishops,
abbots and hermits belonging to Gaul. The commentary on the
Psalms is lost, the preface and the titles of the chapters alone
being extant. The treatise De cursibus ecclesiasticis, discovered
in 1853, is a liturgical manual for deterrnining the hour of divers
nocturnal offices by the position of the stars. Gregory also left
a life of St Andrew, translated from the Greek, and a history of
the Seven Sleepers of Ephesus, translated from Syriac.
His most important work, however, is the Historia Francorum,
which is divided into three parts. The first four books, which
were composed at pne time, cover the period from the creation
of the world to the death of Sigebert in 575. The first book,
which is a mere compilation from the chronicles of St Jerome
and Orosius, is of no value. The second book, from 397 to
511, deals with the invasions of the Franks, and is based on
the histories of Sulpicius Alexander and Renatus Profuturus
Frigeridus, now lost; on the catalogues of the bishops of Cler-
mont and Tours; on some lives of saints, e.g. Remigius and
Maxentius, now lost; on the annals of Aries and Angers, now.
lost; and on legends, either collected by Gregory himself from
oral tradition, or cantilenes or epics written in the Latin and
Germanic languages. In the third and fourth books the earlier
part is based on materials collected from men older than himself;
of the later events he was himself an ever witness. The fifth and
sixth books, up to the death of Chilperic (584), deal with matters
within his own experience. The first six books are often separate
in the MSS., and it was these alone that were used by the
chronicler Fredegarius in his abridgment of Gregory's history.
To the first six books Gregory subsequently added chapters on
the bishops Salonius and Sagittarius, and on his quarrels with
Felix of Nantes. The authenticity of these chapters has been
undeservedly attacked by Catholic writers. Books viL to x,,
from 584 to 591, were written in the form of a diary; of each
important event, as it occurred, he inserted an account in his
book. The last six books are of great historical value.
Gregory had an intimate knowledge of contemporary events.
He was frequently at court, and he found Tours an excellent
place for collecting information. The shrine of St Martin
attracted the sick from all quarters, and the basilica of the saint
was a favourite sanctuary for political refugees. Moreover,
Tours was on the high road between the north and south of
France, and was a convenient stage for travellers, the am-
bassadors going to and from Spain frequently halting there.
Gregory plied every one with questions, and in this way gathered
a great mass of detailed information. He was, besides, at great
pains to be an impartial writer, but was not always successful.
His devotion to Austrasia made him very bitter against, and
perhaps unjust to, the sovereigns of Neustria, Chilperic and
Fredegond. As an orthodox Christian, he had no good word
for the Arians. He excuses the crimes of kings who protected
the church, such as Clovis, Clotaire I. and Guntram, but had
no mercy for those who violated ecclesiastical privileges. This
attitude, no doubt, explains his hatred for Chilperic. But if
Gregory's historical judgments are suspect, he at least concealed
nothing and invented nothing; and we can correct his judgments
by his own narrative. His history is a curious compound of
artlessness and shrewdness. He was ignorant of the rules of
grammar, confused genders and cases, and wrotein the vernacular
Latin of his time, apart from certain passages which are especi-
ally elaborated and filled with poetical and elegant expressions.
But in spite of his shortcomings he is an exceedingly attractive
writer, and his mastery of the art of narrative has earned for him
the name of the Herodotus of the barbarians.
T. Ruinart brought out a complete edition of Gregory's works at
Paris in 1699. The best modern complete edition is that of W.
Arndt and 6. Krusch in Mon. Germ. hist, script, rer. Merov. (vol. L,
1885). Of the many editions of the Historta Francorum may be
mentioned those of Guadet and Taranne in the Soc. de Vhist. de
France (4 vols., with French translation, 1836-1838), of Omont (the
first six books; a reproduction of the Corvey MS.; and of G. Collon
(the last four books; a reproduction of the Brussels MS. No. 9, 403).
Gregory's hagiographic works were published by H. Bordier in the
Soc.de Vhist. de France (4 vols., with French translation, 1857^1864).
Cf. J. W. L6bell, Gregqr von Tours und seine Zeit (2nd ed., Leipzig,
1868); G. Monod, "Etudes critiques sur les sources de l'histoire
merovingienne " in the Bibl. de f£cole des Hautes Eludes (1872):
G. Kurth, " Gregoire de Tours et les etudes classiques au VI* siecle
in the Revue des questions historiques (xxiv. 586 seq., 1878); Max
Bonnet, Le Latin de Grfyoire de Tours (Parts, 1890). For details, see
Ulysse Chevalier, Biobwliographie (2nd ed.). (C. Pf.)
GREGORY THE ILLUMINATOR, the reputed founder of the
Armenian Church. His legend is briefly as follows. His father
Anak, head of the Parthian clan of Suren, was bribed about
the time of his birth (c. 257) by the Sassanid king of Persia to
assassinate the Armenian king, Chosroes, who was of the old
Arsacid dynasty, and father of TiridAtes or Trdat, first Christian
king of Armenia. Anak was slain by his victim's soldiers;
Gregory was rescued by his Christian nurse, carried to Caesarea
in Cappadocia, and brought up a Christian. Grown to manhood
he took service under Tiridates, now king of Armenia, in order
by his own fidelity to atone for his father's treachery. . Presently
at a feast of Anahite Gregory refused to assist his sovereign in
offering pagan sacrifice, and his parentage being now revealed,
was thrown into a deep pit at Artaahat, where he languished
for fourteen years, during which persecution raged in Armenia.
The scene of the legend now shifts to Rome, where Diocletian
falls in love with a lovely nun named Ripsim6; she, rather than
gratify his passion, flees with her abbess Gaiana and several
priests to Armenia. Diocletian asks her back of Tiridates, who
meanwhile has fallen in love with her himself. He too is flouted,
and in his rage tortures and slays her and her companions.
The traditional date of this massacre is the 5th of .October,.
5 66
GREGORY (POPES)
a.d. 301. Providence, incensed at such cruelty, turns Tiridates
into a wild boar, and afflicts his subjects with madness; but his
sister, Chosrowidukht, has a revelation to bring Gregory back
out of his pit. The king consents, the saint is acclaimed, the
bodies of the thirty-seven martyrs solemnly interred, and the
king, after fasting five, and listening to Gregory's homilies for
sixty days, is healed. This all took place at Valarshapat, where
Gregory, anxious to fix a site on which to build shrines for the
relics of Ripsime and Gaiana, saw the Son of God come down in
a sheen of light, the stars of heaven attending, and smite the
earth with a golden hammer till the nether world resounded
to his blows. Three chapels were built on the spot, and Gregory
raised his cross there and elsewhere for the people to worship,
just as St Nino was doing about the same time in Georgia. There
followed a campaign against the idols whose temples and books
were destroyed. The time had now come for Gregory, who was
still a layman and father of two sons, to receive ordination;
so he went to Caesarea, where Leontius ordained and consecrated
him catholicos or vicar-general of Armenia. This was sometime
about 290, when Leontius may have acceded, though we first
hear of him as bishop in 314.
Gregory's ordination at Caesarea is historical. The vision
at Valarshapat was invented later by the Armenians when they
broke with the Greeks, in order to give to their church the
semblance, if not of apostolic, at least of divine origin.
According to Agathangelus, Tiridates went to Rome with
Gregory, Aristaces, son of Gregory, and Albianos, head of the
other priestly family, to make a pact with Constantine, newly
converted to the faith, and receive a pallium from Silvester.
The better sources make Sardica the scene of meeting and name
Eusebius (of Nicomedia) as the prelate who attended Constantine.
There is no reason to doubt that some such visit was made about
the year 315, when the death of Maximin Daza left Constantine
supreme. Eusebius testifies (H.E. ix. 8) that the Armenians
were ardent Christians, and ancient friends and allies of the
Roman empire when Maximin attacked them about the year
308. The conversion of Tiridates was probably a matter of
policy. His kingdom was honeycombed with Christianity, and
he wished to draw closer to the West, where he foresaw the
victory of the new faith, in order to fortify his realm against
the Sassanids of Persia. Following the same policy he sent
Aristaces in 325 to the council of Nice. Gregory is related to
have added a clause to the creed which Aristaces brought back;
he became a hermit on Mount Sebuh about the year 332, and
died there.
Is the Ripsime episode mere legend? The story of the
conversion of Georgia by St Nino in the same age is so full of
local colour, and coheres so closely with the story of Ripsim6
and Gaiana, that it seems over-sceptical to explain the latter
away as a mere doublet of the legend of Prisca and Valeria.
The historians Faustus of Byzant and Lazar of Pharp in the 5th
century already attest the reverence with which their memory
was invested. We know from many sources the prominence
assigned to women prophets in the Phrygian church. Nino's
story reads like that of such a female missionary, and something
similar must underlie the story of her Armenian companions.
The history of Gregory by Agathangelus is a compilation of
about 450, which was rendered into Greek 550. Professor Marr
has lately published an Arabic text from a MS. in Sinai which
seems to contain an older tradition. A letter of Bishop George
of Arabia to Jeshu, a priest of the town Anab, dated 714 (edited
by Dashian, Vienna, 1891), contains an independent tradition of
Gregory, and styles him a Roman by birth.
In spite of legendary accretions we can still discern the true
outlines and significance of his life. He did not really illumine
or convert great Armenia, for the people were in the main already
converted by Syrian missionaries to the Adoptionist or Ebionite
type of faith which was dominant in the far East, and was
afterwards known as Nestorianism. Marcionites and Montanists
had also worked in the field. Gregory persuaded Tiridates
to destroy the last relics of the old paganism, and carried out
in the religious sphere his sovereign's policy of detaching Great
Armenia from the Sassanid realm and allying it with the Graeco-
Roman empire and civilization. He set himself to Heilenize
or Catholicize Armenian Christianity, and in furtherance of this
aim set up a hierarchy officially dependent on the Cappadocian.
He in effect turned his country into a province of the Greek see
of Cappadocia. This hierarchical tie was soon snapped, but the
Hellenizing influence continued to work, and bore its most
abundant fruit in the 5th century. His career was thus analogous
to that of St Patrick in Ireland.
Authorities. — S. Weber, Die Catholischc Kirche in Armenien
(Freiburg, 1903, with bibliography); Bollandii, Acta sanctorum sept.
torn. 8 ; A. Carriere, Les Huit SancPuaires de VArmtnie (Paris, 1S99) ;
** Chrysostom " in Migne, P. Gr. torn. 63, col. 943 foil. ; C. Fortescue,
The Armenian Church (London, 1872); H. Gelzer, Die Anfange ier
armenischen Kirche (Leipzig, 1895) (Sdchs. Ge sells, der Wissensch.);
and s.v. " Armenien " in Herzog-Hauck (Leipzig, 1897); v. Gut-
Bchmid, Kleine Schriften (Leipzig, 1892); Himpel, Grew der
Erleuchter, Kl. v.; Issaverdenz, Hist, of Arm. Church (Venice,
1875); de Lagarde, Agathangelos (Gdttingen, 1888); Arshak Ter
Mikelian, Die arm, Kirche (Leipzig, 1892) ; Palmieri, " La Conver-
sion ufficiale degli Iberi," Orient Christ. (Rome, 1902); Rysael,
Bin Brief Greiors, ubersetst, Studien und Kritiken, 56, Bd. (1*83) ;
Samuelian, Bekehrung Armeniens (Vienna, 1844) ; Vetter, " Die arm.
Vater," in Nischrs Lehrbuch der Patrol, hi. 215-262, (Mainz, 1881-
1885); Malan, S. Gregory the Illuminator (Rivingtons, 1868).
(F. C. C.)
GREGORY (Gregorius), the name of sixteen popes and one
anti-pope.
Saint Gregory, surnamed the Great (c. 540-604), the fcrst
pope of that name, and the last of the four doctors of the Latin
Church, was born in Rome about the year 540. His father was
Gordianus " the regionary," a wealthy man of senatorial rank,
owner of large estates in Sicily and of a palace on the Caelian
Hill in Rome; his mother was Silvia, who is commemorated as
a saint on the 3rd of November. Of Gregory's early period we
know few details, and almost all the dates are conjectural. He
received the best education to be had at the time, and was noted
for his proficiency in the arts of grammar, rhetoric and dialectic.
Entering on a public career he held, about 573, the high office of
prefect of the city of Rome; but about 574, feeling irresistibly
attracted to the " religious " life, he resigned his post, founded
six monasteries in Sicily and one in Rome, and in the last — the
famous monastery of St Andrew — became himself a monk.
This grateful seclusion, however, he was not permitted long to
enjoy. About 578 he was ordained " seventh deacon " (or
possibly archdeacon) of the Roman Church, and in the following
spring Pope Pelagius II. appointed him " apocrisiarius," or
resident ambassador, at the imperial court in Constantinople.
Here he represented the interests of his church till about 586,
when he returned to Rome and was made abbot of St Andrew's
monastery. His rule, though popular, was characterized by
great severity, as may be inferred from the story of the monk
Justus, who was denied Christian burial because he had secreted
a small sum of money. About this time Gregory completed and
published his well-known exposition of the book of Job, cem-
menced in Constantinople: he also delivered lectures on the
Heptateuch, the books of Kings, the Prophets, the book of
Proverbs and the Song of Songs. To this period, moreover,
Bede's incident of the English slave-boys (if indeed it be accepted
as historical) ought to be assigned. Passing one day through
the Forum, Gregory saw some handsome slaves offered for sale,
and inquired their nation. " Angles," was the reply. " Good,"
said the abbot, " they have the faces of angels, and should be
coheirs with the angels in heaven. From what province do they
come ?" " From Deira." " Deira. Yea, verily, they shall be
saved from God's ire (de ira) and called to the mercy of Christ.
How is the king of that country named ?" " jEHa." " Then
must Allelulia be sung in iEUVs land." Gregory determined
personally to undertake the conversion of Britain, and with the
pope's consent actually set out upon the mission, but on the
third day of his journey he was overtaken by messengers recalling
him to Rome. In the year 590 Pelagius II. died of the plague
that was raging in the city; whereupon the clergy and people
unanimously chose Gregory as his successor. The abbot dkl his
best to avoid the dignity, petitioned the emperor Maurice not
GREGORY (POPES)
&7
to ratify his election, and even meditated , going 1 into hiding;
but, " while he was preparing for flight and concealment, he, was
seized and carried 06 and dragged to the basilica of St Peter/'
and there consecrated bishop, on the 3rd of September 500.
The fourteen years of Gregory's pontificate -were marked
by extraordinary vigour and activity. " He never rested/'
writes a biographer, 'he was always engaged in providing for
the interests of his people, or in writing some composition,
worthy of the church, or in searching out the secrets of heaven
by the grace of contemplation." His mode of life was simple
and ascetic in the extreme. Having banished all lay attendants
from his palace, he surrounded himself with clerics and monks,
with whom he lived as though he were still in a monastery. To
the spiritual needs of his people he ministered with pastoral
zeal, frequently appointing "stations" and delivering sermons;
nor was he less solicitous in providing for their physical neces-
sities. Deaconries (offices of alms) and guest-houses were
liberally endowed, and free distributions of food were made to
the poor in the convents and basilicas. The funds for these
and similar purposes were supplied from the Patrimony of
St Peter — the papal estates in Italy, the adjacent islands, Gaul,
Dalmatia and Africa. These extensive domains were usually
administered by specially appointed agents, — rectors and
defensors, — who resided on the spot; but the general superin-
tendence devolved upon the pope. In this sphere Gregory
manifested rare capacity. He was one of the best of the papal
landlords. During his pontificate the estates increased in
value, while at the same time the real grievances of the tenants
were redressed and their general position was materially improved.
Gregory's principal fault as a man of business was that he was
inclined to be too lavish of his revenues. It is said that he even
impoverished the treasury of the Roman Church by his unlimited
charities.
Within the strict bounds of his patriarchate, i.e. the churches
of the suburbicarian provinces and the islands, it was Gregory's
policy to watch with particular care over the election and
discipline of the bishops. With wise toleration he was willing
to recognize local deviations from Roman usage (e.g. in the
ritual of baptism and confirmation), yet he was resolute to
withstand any unauthorized usurpation of rights and privileges.
The following rules he took pains to enforce: that clerics
in holy orders should not cohabit with their wives or permit any
women, except those allowed by the canons, to live in their
houses; that clerics accused on ecclesiastical or lesser criminal
charges should be tried only in the ecclesiastical courts; that
clerics in holy orders who had lapsed should " utterly forfeit
their orders and never again approach the ministry of the altar " ;
that the revenues of each church should be divided by its bishop
into four equal parts, to be assigned to the bishop, the clergy,
the poor and the repair of the fabric of the church.
In his relations with the churches which lay outside the strict
limits of his patriarchate, in northern Italy, Spain, Gaul, Africa
and IUyricum and also in the East, Gregory consistently used
his influence to increase the prestige and authority of the Roman
See. In his view Rome, as the see of the Prince of the Apostles,
was by divine right " the head of all the churches." The decrees
of councils would have no binding force " without the authority
and consent of the apostolic see ": appeals might be made to
Rome against the decisions even of the patriarch of Constanti-
nople: all bishops, including the patriarchs, if guilty of heresy
or uncanonical proceedings, were subject to correction by the
pope. " If any fault is discovered in a bishop," Gregory wrote,
" I know of no one who is not subject to the apostolic see."
It is true that Gregory respected the rights of metropolitans and
disapproved of unnecessary interference within the sphere of
their jurisdiction canonically exercised; also that in his relations
with certain churches (e.g. those in Africa) he found it expedient
to abstain from any obtrusive assertion of Roman claims. But
of his general principle there can be no doubt. His sincere belief
in the apostolic authority of the see of St Peter, his outspoken
assertion of it, the consistency and firmness with which in
practice he maintained it (e.g. in his controversies with the
bishops of Ravenna concerning the use of, -the pallium,, flrfth
Maximus the "usurping" bishop of Salona,, and with the
patriarchs of Constantinople in respect of the title " ecumenic^
bishops"), contributed greatly to build up the system of • papal
absolutism. Moreover this consolidation of spiritual authority;
coincided with a remarkable development of the temporal
power of the papacy. In Italy Gregory occupied an .almost
regal position. Taking advantage of the opportunity which
circumstances offered, he boldly stepped into the place which
the emperors had left vacant and the Lombard kings had not the
strength to seize. For the first time in history the pope appeared
as a political power, a temporal prince. • He appointed governors
to cities, issued orders to generals, provided munitions Of war,
sent his ambassadors to negotiate with the Lombard king and
actually dared to conclude a private peace. In this direction
Gregory went farther than any of his predecessors: he laid
the foundation of a political influence which endured for centuries.
"Of the medieval papacy/' says Mihnan, "the real father is
Gregory the Great."
The first monk to become pope,' Gregory was naturally a
strong supporter of monasticism. He laid himself out 'to diffuse
the system, and also to carry out a reform of its abuses by en-
forcing a strict observance of the Rule, of St Benedict (of whom,
it may be noted, he was the earliest biographer). Two slight
innovations were introduced: the minimum age of aft abbess
was fixed at sixty, and the period of novitiate was prolonged
from one year to two. Gregory sought to protect the monks
from episcopal oppression by issuing privilegia, or charters
in restraint of abuses, in accordance with which the jurisdiction
of the bishops over the monasteries was confined to spiritual
matters, all illegal aggressions being strictly prohibited. The
documents are interesting as marking the beginning of a revolu-
tion which eventually emancipated the monks altogether from
the control of their diocesans and brought them under the direct
authority of the Holy See. Moreover Gregory strictly forbade
monks to minister in parish churches, ordaining that any monk
who was promoted to such ecclesiastical cure should lose all
rights in his monastery and should no longer reside there.
" The duties of each office separately are so weighty that no one
can rightly discharge them. It is therefore very improper that
one man should be considered fit to discharge the duties of
both, and that by this means the ecclesiastical order should
interfere with the monastic life, and the rule of the monastic
life in turn interfere with the interests of the churches."
Once more, Gregory is remembered as a great organizer of
missionary enterprise for the conversion of heathens and heretics.
Mose important was the two-fold mission to Britain — of St
Augustine in 596, of Mellitus, PauMnus and others in 601 ; but
Gregory also made strenuous efforts to uproot paganism in Gaul,
Italy, Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica, Arianism in Spain, Donatism
in Africa, Manichaeism in Sicily, the heresy of the Three Chapters
in Istria and northern Italy. In respect of the methods of
conversion which he advocated he was not less intolerant than
his contemporaries. Towards the Jews, however, he acted with
exceptional lenity, protecting them from persecution and
securing them the enjoyment of their legal privileges. The
so-called " simoniacal heresy," particularly prevalent in Gaul,
Blyrkum and the East, he repeatedly attacked; and against the
Gallican abuse of promoting laymen to bishoprics he protested
with vigour.
The extent and character of Gregory's works in connexion
with the liturgy and the music of the church is a subject of
dispute. If we are to credit a oth century biographer, Gregory
abbreviated and otherwise simplified the Sacramentary of
Gelasius, producing a revised edition with which his own name
has become associated, and which represents the groundwork
of the modern Roman Missal. But though it is certain that he
introduced three changes in the liturgy itself (viz. the addition
of some words in the prayer Hanc igitur^ the recitation of the
Pater Noster at the end of the Canon immediately before the
fraction of the bread, and the chanting of the Allelulia after the
Gradual at other times besides the season of Easter) and two
5 68
GREGORY (POPES)
others in the ceremonial connected therewith (forbidding
deacons to perform any musical portion of the service except
the chanting of the gospel, and subdeacons to wear chasubles),
neither the external nor the internal evidence appears to warrant
belief that the Gregorian Sacramentary is his work. Ecclesias-
tical tradition further ascribes to Gregory the compilation of an
Antiphonary, the revision and rearrangement of the system of
church music, and the foundation of the Roman schola cantorum.
It is highly doubtful, however, whether he had anything to do
either with the Antiphonary or with the invention or revival
of the cantos planus; it is certain that he was not the founder
of the Roman singing-school, though he may have interested
himself in its endowment and extension.
Finally, as Fourth Doctor of the Latin Church, Gregory
claims the attention of theologians. He is the link between
two epochs. The last of the great Latin Fathers and the first
representative of medieval Catholicism he brings the dogmatic
theology of Tertullian, Ambrose and Augustine into relation
with the Scholastic speculation of later ages. " He connects the
Graeco-Roman with the Romano-Germanic type of Christianity."
His teaching, indeed, is neither philosophical, systematic nor
truly original. Its importance lies mainly in its simple, popular
summarization of the doctrine of Augustine(whose works Gregory
had studied with infinite care, but not always with insight),
and in its detailed exposition of various religious conceptions
which were current in the Western Church, but had not hitherto
been defined with precision (e.g. the views on angelology and
demonology, on purgatory, the Eucharistic Sacrifice, and the
efficacy of relics). In his exposition of such ideas Gregory made
a distinct advance upon the older theology and influenced
profoundly the dogmatic development of the future. He im-
parted a life and impulse to prevailing tendencies, helping on the
construction of the system hereafter to be completed in Scholastic-
ism. He gave to theology a tone and emphasis which could not
be disregarded. From his time to that of Anselm no teacher
of equal eminence arose in the Church.
Gregory died on the 12th of March 604, and was buried the
same day in the portico of the basilica of St Peter, in front of
the sacristy. Translations took place in the 9th, 15th and 17th
centuries, and the remains now rest beneath the altar in the
chapel of Clement VIII. In respect of his character, while most
historians agree that he was 4 really great man, some deny that
he was also a great saint. The worst blot on his fair fame is his
adulatory congratulation erf the murderous usurper Phocas;
though his correspondence with the Frankish queen Brunhilda,
and the series of letters to and concerning the renegade monk
Venantius also present problems which his admirers find difficult
of solution. But while it may be admitted that Gregory was
inclined to be unduly subservient to the great, so that at times
he was willing to shut his eyes to the vices and even the crimes erf
persons of rank; yet it cannot fairly be denied that his character
as a whole was singularly noble and unselfish. His life was
entirely dominated by the religious motive. His sole desire was
to promote the glory of God and of his church. At all times he
strove honestly to live up to the light that was in him. " His
goal," says Lau, " was always that which he acknowledged as the
best." Physically, Gregory was of medium height and good
figure. His head was large and bald, surrounded with a fringe
of dark hair. His face was well-proportioned, with brown eyes,
aquiline nose, thick and red lips, high-coloured cheeks, and
prominent chin sparsely covered with a tawny beard, His hands,
with tapering fingers, were remarkable for their beauty.
Gregory's Work's. — The following are now universally admitted
to be genuine \~Epistolarum libri xiv., Moralium libri xxxv.,
Regulae pastor aiis liber, Dialoeorum Ubri iv., Homiliarum in
j&seckielem prophetam libri ii., Homiliarum in Evangelia libri ii.
These are all printed in Migne's Patrologia Latina. The Epistolae,
however, have been published separately by P. Ewald and L. M.
Hartmann in the Monumenta Germaniae historica (Berlin, 1887-
1899), and this splendid edition has superseded all others. The
question of the chronological reconstruction of the Register is dealt
with by Ewald in his celebrated article in the Neues Archiv der
Ges dischaft fur dltere deutsche Geschichtskunde, iii. pp. 433-625; and
briefly by T. Hodgkin, Italy and her Invaders, v. 333-343. For
information about these writings of Gregory, consult especially
G. T. T. Lau, Gregor I. der Grosse, pt. ii. chap. i. Die Schriften Gregors
and F. Homes Dudden, Gregory the Great (see Index II. B.). In
addition to the above-mentioned -works there are printed under
Gregory's name in Migne's Patrologia Latina, vol. lxxix., the follow-
ing: — Super Cantico Canticorum exbositio, In librum primum Return
variarum expositionum libri vi. t In septem psalmos poenitenttales
expositio and Concordia quorundam testimoniorum s. scripturae.
But (with the possible exception of the first) none of these treatises
are of Gregorian authorship. See the discussions in Mtgne, Lau
and Dudden.
Authorities. — (a) The principal ancient authorities for the life
and works of Gregory are given in their chronological order. They
are : Gregory of Tours, Historia Francorum, x. 1 ; Liber pontificaUs t
" Vita Gregorii Magni "; Isidore of Seville, De vir. illustr. 40, and
Ildef onsus of Toledo, De vir. iliustr. i. ; an anonymous Vita Gregprii
(of English authorship) belonging to the monastery of St Gall,
discovered by Ewald and published by F. A. Gasquet, A Life of
Pope St Gregory the Great (190$) ; Bede, Historia ecclesiastica, ii. c. 1 ;
Paul the Deacon, Vita Gregprii Magni (77o>-78o) ; John the Deacon,
Vita Gregorii (872-882). (b) Recent Literature: J. Barmby,
Gregory the Great (1892); T. Bonsmann, Gregor I. der Grosse, em
Lebensbild (1800); F. Homes Dudden, Gregory the Great: his Place
in History ana Thought (2 vols., 1905) ; G. J. T. Lau, Gregor 1. der
Grosse nach seinem Leben und seiner Lehre geschildert (1845); C*
Wolfsgruber, Gregor der Grosse (1897). See also F. Gregorovius,
Rome in the Middle Ages (Eng. trans.) ii. 16-103; T. Hodgkin,
Italy and her Invaders, v. cc. 7-10; H. K. Mann, The Lives of the
Popes, i. 1-250; F. W. Kellett, Pope Gregory the Great and his Re-
lations with Gaul; L. Pingaud, La Politique de Saint Grfyoire le
Grand; W. Wisbaum, Die wichiigsten Richtungen und Ziele der
Tdtigkeit des Papstes Gregors des Qrossen; W. Hohaus, Die Bedeu-
tung Gregors des Grossen afs liturgischer Schriftsteller; E. G. P. Wyatt,
St Gregory and the Gregorian Music ; and the bibliographies of Gregory
in Chevalier, Repertoire des sources historiques du moyen &ge, and
A. Potthast, Bibtiotheca historica medii aevi. (F. H. D.)
Gregory II., pope from 715 to 731, succeeded Constantine I.,
whom he accompanied from Constantinople in 7 10. Gregory did
all in his power to promote the spread of Christianity in Germany,
and gave special encouragement to the mission of St Boniface,
whom he consecrated bishop in 722. He was a staunch adherent
of the East Roman empire, which still exercised sovereignty over
Rome, Ravenna and some other parts of Italy, and he impeded
as far as possible the progress of the Lombards. About 726,
however, he became involved in a conflict with the emperor
Leo the Isaurian on account: of the excessive taxation of the
Italians, and, later, on the question of image worship, which
had been proscribed by the government of Constantinople. Leo
endeavoured to rid himself of the pope by violence, but Gregory,
supported by the people of Rome and also by the Lombards,
succeeded in eluding the emperor's attacks, and died peacefully
on the nth of February 731.
Gregory III., pope from 731 to 741. He condemned the
iconoclasts/ <at a council convened at Rome in November 731,
and, like his predecessor Gregory II., stimulated the missionary
labours of St Boniface, on whom he conferred the pallium.
Towards the Lombards he took up an imprudent attitude, in
support of which he in vain invoked the aid of the Frankish
prince Charles Martel.
Gregory IV., pope from 827 to 844, was chosen to succeed
Valentinus in December 827, on which occasion he recognized
the supremacy of the Frankish emperor in the most unequivocal
manner. His name is chiefly associated with the quarrels
between Lothair and Louis the Pious, in which he espoused
the cause of the former, for whom, in the Campus Mendacii
(JJtgenfeld, field of lies), as it is usually called (833); he secured
by his treachery a temporary advantage. The institution of the
feast of All Saints is usually attributed to this pope. He died
on the 25th of January 844, and was succeeded by Sergius II.
Gregory V. (Bruno), pope from 996 to 999, a great-grandson
of the emperor Otto the Great, succeeded John XV. when only
twenty-four years of age, and until the council of Pavia (997)
had a rival in the person of the anti-pope John XVL, whom the
people of Rome, in revolt against the will of the youthful emperor
Otto III., had chosen after having expelled Gregory. The most
memorable acts of his pontificate were those arising out of the
contumacy of the French king, Robert, who was ultimately
brought to submission by the rigorous infliction of a sentence
GREGORY (POPES)
369
of excommunication. Gregory died suddenly, and not without
suspicion of foul play, on the 18th of February 999. Hk successor
was Silvester II.
Gregory VI. , pope from 1045 to 1046. As Johannes Gratianus
he had earned a high reputation for learning and probity, and in
1045 ne bought the Roman pontificate from his godson Benedict
IX. At a council held by the emperor Henry III. at Sutri in
1046, he was accused of simony and deposed. He was banished
into Germany, where he died in 1047. He was' accompanied into
exile by his young proteg6 Hildebrand (afterwards pope as
Gregory VII.), and was succeeded by Clement II. (L. D.*)
Gregory VII., pope from 1073 to 1085. Hildebrand (the
future pope) would seem to have been born in Tuscany — perhaps
Raovacum — early in the third decade of the nth century. The
son of a plain citizen, Bunicus or Bonizo, he came to Rome at an
early age for his education; an uncle of his being abbot of the
convent of St Mary on the Aventine. His instructors appear
to have included the archpriest Johannes Gratianus, who, by
disbursing a considerable sum to Benedict IX., smoothed his
way to the papal throne and actually ascended it as Gregory VI.
But when the emperor Henry III., on his expedition to Rome
(1046), terminated the scandalous impasse in which three popes
laid claim to the chair of Peter by deposing all three, Gregory VI.
was banished to Germany, and Hildebrand found himself
obliged to accompany him. As he himself afterwards admitted,
it was with extreme reluctance that he crossed the Alps. But
his residence in Germany was of great educative value, and full
of significance for his later official activity. In Cologne he was
enabled to pursue his studies; he came into touch with the circles
of Lorraine where interest in the elevation of the Church and her
life was highest, and gained acquaintance with the political
and ecclesiastical circumstances of that country which was
destined to figure so largely in his career. Whether, on the
death of Gregory VI. in the beginning of 1048, Hildebrand
proceeded to Cluny is doubtful. His brief residence there, if it
actually occurred, is to be regarded as no more than a visit; for
he was never a monk of Cluny. His contemporaries indeed
describe him as a monk; but his entry into the convent must be
assigned to the period preceding or following his German travels
and presumably took place in Rome. He returned to that city
with Bishop Bruno of Toul, who was nominated pope under the
title of Leo IX. (1048-1054). Under him Hildebrand found his
first employment in the ecclesiastical service, becoming a sub-
deacon and steward in the Roman Church. He acted, moreover,
as a legate in France, where he was occupied inter alia with the
question of Berengarius of Tours, whose views on the Lord's
Supper had excited opposition. On the death of Leo IX. he
was commissioned by the Romans as their envoy to the German
court, to conduct the negotiations with regard to his successor.
The emperor pronounced in favour of Bishop Gebhard of Eich-
stadt, who, in the course of his short reign as Victor II. (1055*-
1057), again employed Hildebrand as his legate to France.
When Stephen IX. (Frederick of Lorraine) was raised to the
papacy, without previous consultation with the German court,
Hildebrand and Bishop Anselm of Lucca were despatched to
Germany to secure a belated recognition, and he succeeded in
gaining the consent of the empress Agnes. Stephen, however,
died before his return, and, by the hasty elevation of Bishop
Johannes of Velletri, the Roman aristocracy made a last attempt
to recover their lost influence on the appointment to the papal
throne — a proceeding which was charged with peril to the Church
as it implied a renewal of the disastrous patrician regime. That
the crisis was surmounted was essentially the work of Hildebrand.
To Benedict X., the aristocratic nominee, he opposed a rival
pope in the person of Bishop Gerhard of Florence, with whom
the victory rested. The reign of Nicholas II. (1059-1061) was
distinguished by events which exercised a potent influence on
the policy of the Curia during the next two decades — the
rapprochement with the Normans in the south of Italy, and the
alliance with the democratic and, subsequently, anti-German
movement of the Patarenes in the north. It was also under his
pontificate(i059) that the law was enacted which transferred the
papal election to the College of Cardinals, thus withdrawing it
from the nobility and populace of Rome and thrusting the
German influence on one side. It would be too much to maintain
that these measures were due to Hildebrand alone, but it is
obvious that he was already a dominant personality on the Curia,
through he still held no more exalted office than that of arch-
deacon, which was indeed only conferred on him in 1059. Again ,
when Nicholas II. died and a new schism broke out, the dis-
comfiture of Honorius II. (Bishop Cadalus of Parma) and the
success of his rival (Anselm of Lucca) must be ascribed princi-
pally, if not entirely, to Hildebrand's opposition to the former.
Under the sway of Alexander II. (1061-1073) this man loomed
larger and larger in the eye of his contemporaries as the sotil of
the Curial policy. It must be confessed the general political
conditions, especially in Germany, were at that period exception-
ally favourable to the Curia, but to utilize them with the sagacity
actually shown was nevertheless no slight achievement, and the
position of Alexander at the end of his pontificate was a brilliant
justification of the Hildebrandine statecraft. "*
On the death of Alexander II. (April 21, 1073), Hildebrand
became pope and took the style of Gregory VII. The mode of
his election was bitterly assailed by his opponents. True, many
of the charges preferred are obviously the emanations of scandal
and personal dislike, liable to suspicion from the very fact that
they were not raised to impugn his promotion till several year*
had elapsed (c. 1076); still it is plain from his own account of
the circumstances of his elevation that it was conducted in
extremely irregular fashion, and that the forms prescribed by the
law of 1059 were not observed. But the sequel justified his
election — of which the worst that Can be said is that there was
no general suffrage. And this sequel again o wed > none of its
success to chance, but was the fruit of his own exertions. In his
character were united wide experience and great energy tested
in difficult situations. It is proof of the popular faith in his
qualifications that, although the circumstances of his election
invited assault in 1073, no sort of attempt was then made to set
up a rival pontiff. When, however, the opposition which took
head against him had gone so far as to produce a pretender to the
chair, his long and undisputed possession tended to prove the
original legality of his papacy; and the appeal to irregularities
at its beginning not only lost all cogency but assumed the
appearance of a mere biased attack. On the land of May he
received sacerdotal ordination, and on the 30th of June episcopal
consecration; the empress Agnes and the duchess Beatrice of
Tuscany being present at the ceremony, in addition to Bishop
Gregory of Vercelli, the chancellor of the German king, to whom
Gregory would thus seem to have communicated the result of
the election.
The focus of the ecclesiastico-political projects of Gregory VII.
is to be found in his relationship with Germany. Since the death
of Henry III. the strength of the monarchy in that country had
been seriously impaired, and his son Henry IV. had to contend
with great internal difficulties. This* state of affairs was of
material assistance to the pope. His advantage was still further
accentuated by the fact that in 1073 Henry was but twenty-three
years of age and by temperament inclined to precipitate action*
Many sharp lessons were needful before he learned to bridle his
impetuosity, and he lacked the support and advice of a dis-
interested and experienced statesman. Such beingtheconditions,
a conflict between Gregory VII. and Henry IV. could have only
one issue — the victory of the former.
In the two following years Henry was compelled by the Saxon
rebellion to come to amicable terms with the pope at any cost.
Consequently in May 1074 he did penance at Nuremberg in
presence of the legates to expiate his continued intimacy with
the members of his council banned by Gregory, took an oatfcof
obedience, and promised his support in the work of reforming
the Church. This attitude, however, which at first won him the
confidence of the pope, he abandoned so soon as he gained the
upper hand of the Saxons: this he achieved by his victory a*
Hohenburg on the Unstrut (June 9, 1075). He now attempted
to reassert his rights of suzerain in upper Italy without delay.
57P
He sent Count Ebferhard to Lombardy to combat the Patarenes;
nominated the cleric Tedaido to the archbishopric of Milan,
thus settling a prolonged and contentious question; and finally
endeavoured to establish relations with the Norman duke,
Robert Guiscard. Gregory VII. answered with a rough letter,
dated December 8, in which— among other charges— he re-
proached the German king with breach of his word and with
his further countenance of the excommunicated councillors;
while at the same time he sent by word of mouth a brusque
message intimating that the enormous crimes which would be
laid to his account rendered him liable, not only to the ban of the
church, but to the deprivation of his crown. Gregory ventured
on these audacious measures at a time when he himself was
confronted by a reckless opponent in the person of Cencius, who
on Christmas-night did not scruple to surprise him in church
and carry him off as a prisoner, though on the following day
be was obliged to surrender his captive. The reprimands of
the pope, couched as they were in such an unprecedented form,
infuriated Henry and his court, and their answer was the hastily
convened national council in Worms, which met on the 24th
of January 1076. In the higher ranks of the German clergy
Gregory had many enemies, and a Roman cardinal, Hugo
Candidus, once on intimate terms with him but now at variance,
bad made a hurried expedition to Germany for the occasion and
appeared at Worms with the rest. All the gross scandals with
regard to the pontiff that this prelate could utter were greedily
received by the assembly, which committed itself to the ill-
considered and disastrous resolution that Gregory had forfeited
his papal dignity. In a document full of accusations the bishops
renounced their allegiance. In another King Henry pronounced
him deposed, and the Romans were required to choose a new
occupant for the vacant chair of St Peter. With the utmost
haste two bishops were despatched to Italy in company with
Count Eberhard under commission of the council, and they suc-
ceeded in procuring a similar act of deposition from the Lombard
bishops in the synod of Piacenza. The communication of these
decisions to the pope was undertaken by the priest Roland of
Parma, and he was fortunate enough to gain an opportunity
for speech in the synod, which had barely assembled in the
Lateran church, and there to deliver his message announcing
the dethronement of the pontiff. For the moment the members
were petrified with horror, but soon such a storm of indignation
was aroused that it was only due to the moderation of Gregory
himself that the envoy was not cut down on the spot. On the
following day the pope pronounced the sentence of excommunica-
tion against the German king with all formal solemnity, divested
him of his royal dignity and absolved his subjects from the oaths
they had sworn to him. This sentence purported to eject the
king from the church and to strip him of his crown. Whether
it would produce this effect, or whether it would remain an idle
threat, depended not on the author of the verdict, but on the
subjects of Henry — before all, on the German princes. We
know from contemporary evidence that the excommunication
of the king made a profound impression both in Germany and
Italy. Thirty years before, Henry III. had deposed three popes,
and thereby rendered a great and acknowledged service to the
church. When Henry IV. attempted to copy this summary
procedure he came to grief, for he lacked the support of the
people. In Germany there was a speedy and general revulsion
of sentiment in favour of Gregory, and the particularism of the
princes utilized the auspicious moment for prosecuting their
anti-regal policy under the cloak of respect for the papal decision.
When at Whitsuntide the king proposed to discuss the measures
to be taken against Gregory in a council of his nobles at Mainz,
only a few made their appearance; the Saxons snatched at the
golden opportunity for renewing their insurrection and the
anti-royalist party grew in strength from month to month. The
situation now became extremely critical for Henry. As a result
of the agitation, which was zealously fostered by the papal legate
Bishop Altmann of Passau, the princes met in October at Tribur
to elect a new German king, and Henry, who was stationed at
Oppenheim on the left bank of the Rhine, was only saved from
GREGORY (POPES)
the loss of his sceptre by the failure of the assembled princes
to agree on the question of his successor. Their dissension,
however, merely induced them to postpone the verdict. Henry,
they declared, must make reparation to the pope and pledge
himself to obedience; and they settled . that, if, on the anni-
versary of his excommunication, he still lay under the ban, the
throne should be considered vacant. At the same time they
determined to invite Gregory to Augsburg, there to decide the
conflict. These arrangements showed Henry the course to be
pursued. It was imperative, under any circumstances and at
any price, to secure his absolution from Gregory before the period
named, otherwise he could scarcely foil his opponents in their
intention to pursue their attack against himself and justify their
measures by an appeal to his excommunication. At first he
attempted to attain his ends by an embassy, but when Gregory
rejected his overtures he took the celebrated step of going to
Italy in person. The pope had already left Rome, and had
intimated to the German princes that he would expect their
escort for his journey on January 8 in Mantua. But this escort
had not appeared when he received the news of the king's
arrival. Henry, who travelled through Burgundy, had been
greeted with wild enthusiasm by the Lombards, but resisted the
temptation to employ force against Gregory. He chose instead
the unexpected and unusual, but, as events proved, the safest
course, and determined to compel the pope to grant him absolu-
tion by doing penance before him at Canossa, where he had taken
refuge. This occurrence was quickly embellished and inwoven
by legend, and great uncertainty still prevails with regard to
several important points. The reconciliation was only effected
after prolonged negotiations and definite pledges on the part
of the king, and it was with reluctance that Gregory at length
gave way, for, if be conferred his absolution, the diet of princes
in Augsburg, in which he might reasonably hope to act as
arbitrator, would either be rendered purposeless, or, if it met at
all, would wear an entirely different character. It was impossible,
however, to deny the penitent re-entrance into the church, and
the politician had in this case to be subordinated to the priest.
Still the removal of the ban did not imply a genuine reconciliation,
and no basis was gained for a settlement of the great questions
at issue — notably that of investiture. A new conflict was
indeed inevitable from the very fact that Henry IV. naturally
considered the sentence of deposition repealed with that of
excommunication; while Gregory on the other hand, intent on
reserving his freedom of action, gave no hint on the subject at
Canossa. *
That the excommunication of Henry IV. was simply a pretext
— not a motive — for the opposition of the rebellious German
nobles is manifest. For not only did they persist in their policy
after his absolution, but they took the more decided step of
setting up a rival king in the person of Duke Rudolph of Swabia
(Forchheim, March 1077). At the election the papal legates
present observed the appearance of neutrality, and Gregory
himself sought to maintain this attitude during the following
years. His task was the easier in that the two parties were of
fairly equal strength, each endeavouring to gain the upper hand
by the accession of the pope to their side. But his hopes and
labours, with the object of receiving an appeal to act as arbitrator
in the dynastic strife, were fruitless, and the result of his non-
committal policy was that he forfeited in large measure the
confidence of both parties. Finally he decided for Rudolph of
Swabia in consequence of his victory at Flarchheim (January 27,
1060). Under pressure from the Saxons, and misinformed as
to the significance of this battle, Gregory abandoned his waiting
policy and again pronounced the excommunication and deposi-
tion of King Henry (March 7, 1080), unloosing at the same time
all oaths sworn to him in the past or the future. But the papal
censure now proved a very different thing from the papal censure
four years previously. In wide circles it was felt to be an in-
justice, and men began to put the question — so dangerous to the
prestige of the pope — whether an excommunication pronounced
on frivolous grounds was entitled to respect. To make matters
I worse, Rudolph of Swabia died on the 16th of October of the
GREGORY (POPES)
same year. True, a new claimant — Hermann of Luxemburg —
was put forward In August 1081, but his personality was ill
adapted for a leader of the Gregorian party in Germany, and the
power of Henry IV. was in the ascendant. The king, who had
now been schooled by experience, took up the struggle thus
forced upon him with great vigour. He refused to acknowledge
the ban on the ground of illegality. A council had been sum-
moned at Brixen, and on the 2$th of June 1080 it pronounced
Gregory deposed and nominated the archbishop Guibert of
Ravenna as his successor — a policy of anti-king, anti-pope. In
1081 Henry opened the conflict against Gregory in Italy. The-
latter had now fallen on evil days, and he lived to see thirteen
cardinals desert him, Rome surrendered by the Romans to the
German king, Guibert of Ravenna enthroned as Clement III.
(March 24, 1084), and Henry crowned emperor by his rival,
while he himself was constrained to flee from Rome.
^ The relations of Gregory to the remaining European states
were powerfully influenced by his German policy; for Germany,
by engrossing the bulk of his powers, not infrequently compelled
him to show to other rulers that moderation and forbearance
which he withheld from the German king. The attitude of the
Normans brought him a rude awakening. The great concessions
made to them under Nicholas II. were not only powerless to
stem their advance into central Italy but failed to secure even
the expected protection for the papacy. When Gregory was
hard pressed by Henry IV., Robert Guiscard left him to his fate,
and only interfered when he himself was menaced with the
German arms. Then, on the capture of Rome, he abandoned ]
the city to the tender mercies of his warriors, and by the popular
indignation evoked by his act brought about the banishment of
Gregory.
In the case of several countries, Gregory attempted to establish
a claim of suzerainty dn the part of the see of St Peter, and to
secure the recognition of its self-asserted rights of possession. .
On the ground of " immemorial usage " Corsica and Sardinia
were assumed to belong to the Roman Church. Spain and
Hungary were also claimed as her property, and an attempt was
made to induce the king of Denmark to hold Jus realm as a fief
from the pope. Philip I. of France, by his simony and the
violence of his proceedings against the church, provoked a
threat of summary. measures; and excommunication, deposition'
and the interdict, appeared to be imminent in 1074* Gregory,
however, refrained from translating his menaces into actions,
although the attitude of the king showed no change, for he
wished to avoid a dispersion of his strength in the conflict soon
to break out in Germany. In England, again, William the
Conqueror . derived no less benefit from this state of affairs.
He felt himself so safe that he interfered autocratically with the .
management of the* church, forbade the bishops to visit Rome,
filled bishoprics and abbeys, and evinced little anxiety when the
pope expatiated to him on the different principles, which he
entertained as to the relationship of church and state, or -when
he prohibited him from commerce or commanded him to
acknowledge himself a vassal of the apostolic chair. Gregory
had no power to compel the English king to an alteration in ( his
ecclesiastical policy, so chose to ignore what he could not approve, (
and even considered it advisable to assure him of his particular
affection.
Gregory, in fact, established relations — if no more— with ^
every land in Christendom; though these relations did not
invariably realize the ecclesiastico-political hopes connected
with them. His correspondence extended to Poland, Russia and
Bohemia. He wrote in friendly terms to the Saracen king of
Mauretania in north Africa, and attempted, .though without
success, to bring the Armenians into, closer contact with Rome.
The East, especially, claimed his interest. The; ecclesiastical
rupture between the bishops of Rome and Byzantium was a
severe blow to him, and he laboured hard to restore the former
amicable relationship. At that period it was impossible to
suspect that the schism implied a definite separation, for pro-
longed schisms had existed in past. centuries, but had always
been surmounted in the end. Both sides, moreover , 1 had an
•'57-1
interest in repairing the breach between the churches. Thus,
immediately on his accession to the pontificate, Gregory sought
to come into touch with the emperor Michael VII. and succeeded.
When the news of the Saracenic outrages on the Christians in the
East filtered to Rome, and the political embarrassments of the
Byzantine emperor increased, he conceived the project of a
great military expedition and exhorted the faithful to participa-
tion in the task of recovering the sepulchre of the Lord (1074).
Thus the idea of a crusade to the Holy Land already floated
before Gregory's vision, and his intention was to place himself
at the head. But the hour for such a gigantic enterprise was
not yet come, and the impending struggle with Henry IV. turned
his energies into another channel.
In his treatment of ecclesiastical policy and ecclesiastical
reform, Gregory did not stand alone, but on the contrary found
powerful support. Since the middle of the nth century the
tendency — mainly represented by Cluny — towards a stricter
morality and a more earnest attitude to life, especially on the
part of the clergy, had converted the papacy ';, and, from Leo IX.
onward, the popes had taken the lead in the movement. Even
before his election, Gregory had gained the confidence of these
circles, and, when he assumed the guidance of the church, they
laboured for him with extreme devotion. From his letters we see
how he fostered his connexion with them and stimulated their
zeal, how he strove to awake the consciousness that his cause
was the cause of God and that to further it was to render service
to God. By this means he created a personal party, uncon-
ditionally attached to himself, and he had his confidants in every
country. In Italy Bishop Anselm of Lucca, to take an example,
belonged to their number. Again, the duchess Beatrice of
Tuscany and her daughter the Margravine Matilda, who put her
great wealth at his disposal, were of inestimable .service. The
empress Agnes also adhered to his cause. In upper Italy the
Patarenes had worked for him in many ways, and all who stood
for their objects stood for the pope. In Germany at the begin-
ning of his reign the higher ranks of tJbe clergy stood aloof from
him and were confirmed in their attitude by some of his. regula-
tions. But Bishop Altmanm of Passau, who has already been
mentioned, and Archbishop Gebhard of Salzburg, were among
his most zealous followers. That the convent of Hirschau in
Swabia was held by Gregory was a fact of much significance,
for its. monks spread over the land as itinerant agitators and
accomplished much for him in southern Germany. In England
Archbishop Lanfranc of Canterbury probably stood closest to
him; in France his champion Was Bishop Hugo of Die, who
afterwards ascended the archiepiscopal chair of Lyons. ,
The, whole life-work of Gregory VII. was based on his convic-
tion that the church has. been founded by God. and. entrusted
with the .task of embracing all mankind in a single society in
which His will is the only law; that, in her capacity as a divine
institution, she outtops all human structures; and that the pope,
qua head of. the church, is the vice-regent of God on earth, so
that disobedience to him implies . disobedience to God — or, in
other words, a defection from Christianity. Elaborating an
idea discoverable in St Augustine, he looked on the worldly
state — a purely human creation— as an unhallowed edifice whose
character is sufficiently manifest from the fact that it abolishes
the equality of man, and. that it is built up by violence and
injustice. He developed these views in a famous series of letters
to Bishop (Hermann of Metz. But it is clear from the. outset
that we are only dealing with reflections of strictly theoretical
importance; for any attempt to interpret them in terms of
action would have bound the church to annihilate not merely
a single definite state, but all states. Thus Gregory, as a
politician desirous of achieving some result, was driven in
practice to adopt a different standpoint. He acknowledged
the existence of the state as a dispensation cf Providence,
described the coexistence of church and state as a divine ordin-
ance, and emphasized the necessity of union between the sacer-
dotium and the imperium. But at no period would he have
dreamed of putting the two powers, on an equality; the
superiority of church to state was to him a fact which admitted
57*
of no discussion and which he had never doubted. Again, this
very superiority of the church implied in his eyes a superiority
of the papacy, and he did not shrink from drawing the extreme
conclusions from these premises. In other words, he claimed
the right of excommunicating and deposing incapable monarchs,
and of confirming the choice of their successors. This habit of
thought needs to be appreciated in order to understand his
efforts to bring individual states into feudal subjection to the
chair of St Peter. It was no mere question of formality, but the
first step to the realization of his ideal theocracy comprising each
and every state.
Since this papal conception of the state involved the exclusion
of independence and autonomy, the history of the relationship
between church and state is the history of one continued struggle.
In the time of Gregory it was the question of appointment to
spiritual offices — the so-called investiture — which brought the
theoretical controversy to a head. The preparatory steps had
already been taken by Leo IX., and the subsequent popes had
advanced still further on the path he indicated; but it was
reserved for Gregory and his enactments to provoke the outbreak
of the great conflict which dominated the following decades.
By the first law (107 s) the right of investiture for churches was
in general terms denied to the laity. In 1078 neglect of this
prohibition was made punishable by excommunication, and, by
a further decree of the same year, every investiture conferred
by a layman was declared invalid and its acceptance pronounced
liable to penalty. It was, moreover, enacted that every layman
should restore, under pain of excommunication, all lands of the
church, held by him as fiefs from princes or clerics; and that,
henceforward, the assent of the pope, the archbishop, &c, was
requisite for any investiture of ecclesiastical property. Finally
in 1080 the forms regulating the canonical appointment to a
bishopric were promulgated. In case of a vacancy the election
was to be conducted by the people and clergy under the auspices
of a bishop nominated by the pope or metropolitan; after
which the consent of the pope or archbishop was to be procured;
if any violation of these injunctions occurred, the election should
be null and void and the right of choice pass to the pope or
metropolitan. In so legislating, Gregory had two objects: in
the first place, to withdraw the appointment to episcopal offices
from the influence of the king; in the second, to replace that
influence by his own. The intention was not to increase the power
of the metropolitan: he simply desired that the nomination of
bishops by the pope should be substituted for the prevalent
nomination of bishops by the king. But in this course of action
Gregory had a still more ambitious goal before his eyes. If
he could once succeed in abolishing the lay investiture the king
would, ipso facto, be deprived of his control over the great
possessions assigned to the church by himself and his predecessors,
and he could have no security that the duties and services
attached to those possessions would continue to be discharged
for the benefit of the Empire. The bishops in fact were to
retain their position as princes of the Empire, with all the lands
and rights of supremacy pertaining to them in that capacity,
but the bond between them and the Empire was to be dissolved:
they were to owe allegiance not to the king, but to the pope —
a non-German sovereign who, in consequence of the Italian
policy of the German monarchy, found himself in perpetual
opposition to Germany. Thus, by his ecclesiastical legislation,
Gregory attempted to shake the very foundations on which the
constitution of the German empire rested, while completely
ignoring the historical development of that constitution (see
Investiture).
That energy which Gregory threw into the expansion of the
papal authority, and which brought him into collision with the
secular powers, was manifested no less in the internal government
of the church. He wished to see all important matters of dispute
referred to Rome ; appeals were to be addressed to himself, and
he arrogated the right of legislation. The fact that his laws were
usually promulgated by Roman synods which he convened during
Lent does not imply that these possessed an independent position;
on the contrary, they were entirely dominated by his influence,
GREGORY (POPES)
and were no more than the instruments of his will. The central-
ization of ecclesiastical government in Rome naturally involved
a curtailment of the powers of the bishops and metropolitans.
Since these in part refused to submit voluntarily and attempted
to assert their traditional independence, the pontificate of
Gregory is crowded with struggles against the higher ranks of
the prelacy. Among the methods he employed to break their
power of resistance, the despatch of legates proved peculiarly
effective. The regulation, again, that the metropolitans should
apply at Rome in person for the pallium — pronounced essential
to their qualifications for office — served to school them in
humility.
This battle for the foundation of papal omnipotence within the
church is connected with his championship of compulsory celibacy
among the clergy and his attack on simony. Gregory VII. did
not introduce the celibacy of the priesthood into the church,
for even in antiquity it was enjoined by numerous laws.
He was not even the first pope to renew the injunction in the
nth century, for legislation on the question begins as early as
in the reign of Leo IX. But he took up the struggle with greater
energy and persistence than his predecessors. In 1074 he
published an encyclical, requiring all to renounce their obedience
to those bishops who showed indulgence to their clergy in the
matter of celibacy. In the following year he commanded the
laity to accept no official ministrations from married priests and
to rise against all such. He further deprived these clerics of
their revenues. Wherever these enactments were proclaimed
they encountered tenacious opposition, and violent scenes were
not infrequent, as the custom of marriage was widely diffused
throughout the contemporary priesthood. Other decrees were
issued by Gregory in subsequent years, but were now couched in
milder terms, since it was no part of his interest to increase the
numbers of the German faction. As to the objectionable nature
of simony— the transference or acquisition of a spiritual office
for monetary considerations — no doubt could exist in the mind
of an earnest Christian, and no theoretical justification was
ever attempted. The practice, however, had attained great
dimensions both among the clergy and the laity, and the sharp
campaign, which had been waged since the days of Leo IX., had
done little to limit its scope. The reason was that in many
cases it had assumed an extremely subtle form, and detection
was difficult when the simony took the character of a tax or an
honorarium. The fact, again, that lay investiture was described
as simony, inevitably brought with it an element of confusion,,
and, in the case of a charge of simoniacal practices, enormously
accentuates the difficulty of determining the actual state of
affairs. The war against simony in its original form was un-
doubtedly necessary, but it led to highly complicated and pro-
blematic issues. Was the priest or bishop, whose ordination was
due to simony, actually in the possession of the sacerdotal or
episcopal power or not? If the answer was in the affirmative,
it would seem possible to buy the Holy Ghost; if in the negative,
then obviously all the official acts of the respective priest or
bishop — which, according to the doctrine of the church, pre-
supposed the possession of a spiritual quality — were invalid.
And, since the number of simoniacal bishops was at that period
extremely large, incalculable consequences resulted. The diffi-
culty of the problem accounts for the diversity of solutions
propounded. The perplexity of the situation was aggravated
by the fact that, if the stricter view was adopted, it followed that
the sacrament of ordination must be pronounced invalid, even
in the cases where it had been unconsciously sought at the hands
of a simoniac, for the dispenser was in point of fact no bishop,
although he exercised the episcopal functions and his trans-
gressions were unknown, and consequently it was impossible for
him to ordain others. In the time of Gregory the conflict was
still swaying to and fro, and he himself in 1078 declared consecra-
tion by a simoniac null and void.
The pontificate of Gregory VII. came to a melancholy close,
for he died an exile in Salerno; the Romans and a number of his
most trusted coadjutors had renounced him, and the faithful
band in Germany had shrunk to scant proportions* Too much
GREGORY (POPES)
the politician, too rough in his methods, too exclusively the
representative of the Roman see and its interests, he had gained
more enemies than friends. He was of course a master of state-
craft; he had pursued political ends with consummate skill,
causing them to masquerade as requirements of religion; but
he forgot that incitement to civil war, the preaching of rebellion,
and the release of subjects from their oaths, were methods which
must infallibly lead to moral anarchy, and tend, with justice, to
stifle the confidence once felt in him. The more he accustomed
his contemporaries to the belief that any and every measure —
so long as it opened up some prospect of success — was good in his
sight, no matter how dangerous the fruits it might mature, the
fainter grew their perception of the fact that he was not only a
statesman but primarily the head of the Christian Church. That
the frail bonds of piety and religious veneration for the chair of
St Peter had given way in the struggle for power was obvious
to all, when he himself lost that power and the star of his opponent
was in the ascendant. He had given the rein to his splendid
gifts as a ruler, and in his capacity of pope he omitted to provide
an equivalent counterpoise. We are told that he was once an
impressive preacher, and he could write to his faithful countesses
in terms which prove that he was not wanting in religious feeling;
but in the whirlpool of secular politics this phase of his character
was never sufficiently developed to allow the vice-gerent of
Christ to be heard instead of the hierarch in his official acts.
But to estimate the pontificate of Gregory by the disasters
of its closing years would be to misconceive its significance for
the history of the papacy entirely. On the contrary, his reign
forms an important chapter in the history of the popedom as an
institution; it contains the germs of far-reaching modifications
of the church, and it gave new impulses to both theory and
practice, the Value of which may indeed be differently estimated,
but of which the effects are indubitable. It was he who conceived
and formulated the ideal of the papacy as a structure embracing*
all peoples and lands. He took the first step towards the codifica-
tion of ecclesiastical law and the definite ratification of the claims
of the apostolic chair as corner-stones in the church's foundation.
He educated the clergy and the lay world in obedience to Rome;
and, finally, it was due to his efforts that the duty of the priest
with regard to sexual abstinence was never afterwards a matter
of doubt in the Catholic Christianity of the West.
On the 25th of May 1085 he died, unbroken by the misfortunes
of his last years, and unshaken in his self-certainty. Dilexi
justitiam et odivi iniquitatem: propterea morior in exilio — are said
to have been his last words. In 1584 Gregory XIII. received him
into the Martyr ologium Romanum) in 1606 he was canonized
by Paul V. The words dedicated to him in the Breviarium
Romanum, for May 25, contain such an apotheosis of his ponti-
ficate that in the 18th and 19th centuries they were prohibited
by the governments of several countries with, Roman Catholic
populations.
Bibliography.— A comprehensive survey of the sources and,
literature for the history of Gregory VII. is given by C. Mirbt, s.v.
" Gregor VII." in Herzog-Hauck, Kealencyktopddie, 3rd ed. vol. vii.
pp. 96 sqq. The main source for the reign of Gregory consists of
his letters and decrees, the greater part of which are collected in the
Registrum (ed. P. Jaffa}, Bibliotheca rerum Germanicarum, ii., Berlin,
1865). The letters preserved in addition to this official collection,
are also reprinted by JaflS under the title of Epistolae coUectae.
The Dictatus Papae — a list of 4 twenty-seven short sentences on the
rights of the pope, — which is given in the Registrum, is not the work
of Gregory VII., but should probably be ascribed to Cardinal Deus-
dedit. Further: A. Potthast, Bibliotheca historica medii aevi, 1.
(2nd ed., Berlin, 1896), pp. 541 sq., ii. 1351; P. Jaffe, Regesta ponti-
ficum (2nd ed., 1865), tome 1. pp. 594-649, Nr. 4771-5313, tome ii.
p. 751. The most important letters and decrees of Gregory VII.
are reprinted by C. Mirbt, Quellen but Geschichte des Papsttums
(2nd ed., Tubingen, 1901), Nr. 183 sqq., pp. 100 sqq. The oldest
life of Gregory is that by Paul von fiermried, reprinted, e.g. by
Watterich, Vitae pontificum, i. 474-546. Among the historians the
following are of especial importance: Berthold, Bernold, Lambert
von Hersfeld, Bruno, Marianus Scotus, Leo of Ostia, Peter of Marte
Cassino, Sigebert of Gembloux, Hugo of Flavigny, Arnulph and
Landulf of Milan, Donizo — their works being reprinted in the section
" Scriptores " in the Monumenta Germaniae historica, vols, v., vi.,
vii., viii., xii. The struggles which broke out under Gregory VII.
573
and were partially continued in the subsequent decades gave rise to
a pamphlet literature which is of extreme importance for their
internal history. The extant materials vary greatly in extent,
and display much diversity from the literary-historical point of view.
Most of them are printed in the Monumenta Germaniae, under the
title, IAbeUi de lite imperatorum et pontificum saeculis XL et XII.
conscripH, tome i. (Hanover, 1891), tome ii. (1892), tome in. (1897).
The scientific investigation of the Gregorian age has received enor-
mous benefit from the critical editions of the sources in the Monu-
menta Germaniae, so that the old literature is for the most part
antiquated. This is true even of the great monograph on this pope
—A. F. Gfr6rer, Papst Gregorius VII. und sein Zeitalter (7 vols.,
Schaffhausen, 1859-1861), which must be used with extreme caution.
The present state of criticism is represented by the followingworks:
G. Meyer von Knonau, JahrbUcher des deutschen Reichs unter Heinrich
IV. und Heinrich V., vol. i. (Leipzig, 1890), ii. (1804), iii. (1900), iv.
(1903) J W. Martens, Gregor VII., sein Leben una Werken (2 vols.,
Leipzig, 1904) ; C. Mirbt, Die Publizistik im ZeitaUer Gregor s VII.
(Leipzig, 1894) ; A. Hauck, Kirchengeschichte Deutscklands (3 vote.,
Leipzig, 1894). The special literature on individual events during
the Gregorian pontificate is so extensive that no list can be given here.
On Gregory's elevation to the chair, cf. C. Mirbt, Die Wahl Gregor s
VII. (Marburg, 1802). See also A. H. Mathew, D.D., Life and
Times of Hildebrand, Pope Gregory VII. (1910). (C. M.)
Gregory Vm. (Mauritius Burdinus) y antipope from 11 18
to 1 121, was a native of southern France, who had crossed the
Pyrenees while young and had later been made archbishop of
Braga. Suspended by Paschal II. in 1 1 14 on account of a dispute
with the Spanish primate and papal legate, the archbishop of
Toledo, he went to Rome and regained favour to such an extent
that he was employed by the pope on important legations. He
opposed the extreme Hildebrandine policy, and, on the refusal
of Gelasius II. tQ concede the emperor's claim to investiture,
he was proclaimed pope at Rome by Henry V, on the 8th of
March m8. He was not universally recognized, however, and
never fully enjoyed the papal office. He was excommunicated
by Gelasius II. in April 11 18, and by Calixtus II. at the synod
of Reims (October 11 19). He was driven from Rome by the
latter in June 11 21, and, having been surrendered by the citizens
of Sutri, he was forced to accompany in ridiculous guise the
triumphal procession of Calixtus through Rome. He was exiled
to the convent -of La Cava, where be died.
The life of Gregory VIII. by Baluzius in Baluzii miscellanea,
vol. 1, ed. by J. D. Mansi (Lucca, 1761), is an excellent vindication of
an antipope. The chief sources are in Monumenta Germaniae
historica, Scriptores, vols. 5 and 20, and in J. M. Watterich, Pontif.
Roman, vitae, vol. 2. See C. Mirbt, Die Publizistik im Zeitalter
Gregors VII. (Leipzig, 1894) '* J- L^&en, Geschichte der rdmischen
Kirche von Gregor VII. bts Innocenz III. (Bonn, 1893); Jaffe\
Regesta pontif. Roman., 2nd ed., (1885-1888); K. J. von Hefele,
Conciliengesckichte, Bd. 5, 2nd ed.; F. Greeorovius, Rome in the
Middle Ages, vol. 4, trans, by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London,
1000-1902); P. B. Gams, Kirchengeschichte von Spanien, vol. 3
(Regensburg, 1876).
Gregory VIIL (Alberto de Mora), pope from the 21st of
October to the 17th of December 1187, a native of Benevento
and Praemoristratensian monk, successively abbot of St Martin
at Laon, cardinal-deacon of San' Adriano al foro, cardinal-priest
of San Lorenzo in Lucina,and chancellor of the Roman Church,
was elected to succeed Urban III. Of amiable disposition, he
hastened to make peace with Henry VI. and promised not to
oppose the tatter's claim to Sicily. He addressed general letters
both to the bishops, reminding them of their duties to the
Roman Church; especially of their required visits ad limina p
and to the whole Christian people, urging a new crusade to
recover Jerusalem. He died at Pisa while engaged in making
peace between the Pisans and Genoese in order to secure the
help of both cities in the crusade. His successor was Clement III.
Hie letters are in J. P. Migne, Patrol. Lot. vol. 202. Consult also
T. M. Watterich, Pontif. Roman, vitae, voL 2 (Leipzig, 1862), and
Taffe-Wattenbach, Regesta pontif. Roman, (1885-1888). See J.
Langen, Geschichte der rdmischen Kirche von Gregor VII, bts Innocenz
III. (Bonn, 1893); P. Nadig, Gregors VIII. 57tdgiges Pontifikat
(Basel, 1890) ; P. Scheffer-Boichorst, Friedrichs I. letzter Streit mil
der Kurie (Berlin, 1866) ; F. Gregorovius, Rome in the Middle Ages,
vol. 4, trans, by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, 1896).
Gregory IX. (Ugolino Conti de Segni), pope from the 19th of
March 1227, to the 22nd of August 1241, was a nobleman of
Anagni and probably a nephew of Innocent III. He studied
574
GREGORY (POPES)
at Paris and Bologna, and, having been successively archpriest
of St Peter's, papal chaplain, cardinal-deacon of Sant' Eustachio,
cardinal-bishop of Ostia, the first protector of the Franciscan
order, and papal legate in Germany under Innocent III., and
Honorius III., he succeeded the latter in the papacy. He had long
been on friendly terms with the emperor Frederick II., but now
excommunicated him (29th of September 1227) for continued
neglect of his vows and refusal to undertake the crusade. When
Frederick finally set out the following June without making
submission to the pope, Gregory raised an insurrection against
him in Germany, and forced him in 1230 to beg for absolution.
The Romans, however, soon began a very bitter war against the
temporal power and exiled the pope (1st of June 1231). Hardly
had this contest been brought to an end favourable to the papacy
(May 1235) when Gregory came into fresh conflict with Frederick
II. He again excommunicated the emperor and released his
subjects from their allegiance (24th of March 1239). Frederick,
on his side, invaded the Papal States and prevented the assem-
bling of a general council convoked for Easter 1241. The work
of Gregory, however, was by no means limited to his relations,
with emperor and Romans. He systematized the Inquisition
and entrusted it to the Dominicans; his rules against heretics
remained in force until the time of Sixtus V. He supported
Henry IU. against the English barons, and protested against
the Pragmatic Sanction of Louis IX. of France. He sent
monks to Constantinople to negotiate with the Greeks for church
unity, but without result. He canonized Saints Elizabeth of
Thuringia, Dominic, Anthony of Padua and Francis of Assisi.
He permitted free study of the Aristotelian writings, and issued
(1234), through his chaplain, Raymond of Pennaforte, an
important new compilation of decretals which he prescribed in
the bull Rex pacificus should be the standard text-book in 'canon,
law at the universities of Bologna and Paris.' Gregory was
famed for his learning and eloquence, his blameless life, and his.
great strength of character. He died on the 22nd of August
1241, while Frederick II. was advancing against him, and was
succeeded by Celestme IV.
For the life of Gregory IX., consult his Letters in Monumenta
Germaniae his toxica, Epistolae saeculi XIII. e regestis pontif. Roman,
selectae (Berlin, 1883); "Les Registres de Gregoire IX," ed. L.
Auvray in Bibliothhque des 4coles franchises d*Atkenes et de Rome
See J. Felten, Papst Gregor IX. (Freiburg L B., 1886); J. Marx,
Die Vita GregorU IX. oueUenkritisch untersucht (1889); P. Balan,
Storia di Gregorio IX e dei suoi tempi (3 vols., Modena, 1872-1873) ;
F. Gregorovius, Rome in the Middle Ages, vol. 5, trans, by Mrs G. W.
Hamilton (London, 1900-1902); H. H. Milman, Latin Christianity,
vol. 5 (London, 1899); R. Honig, Rapporti tra Federico II e
Gregorio IX rispetto alia spedizione in Palestina (1896) ; P. T.
Maaetti, J Pontefici Onorio III, Gregorio IX ed Innocenzo IV a,
fronte delV Imperatore Federico II net secolo XIII (1984); T.
Frantz, Der grosse Kampf zwischen Kaisertum u f Papsttum zur Zeit
des Hohenstaufen Friedrich II. (Berlin, 1903) ; W. Norderi, Das
Papsttum u. Byzanz (Berlin, 1903). An exhaustive bibliography
and an excellent article on Gregory by Carl Mirbt are to be found in
Hauck's Realencyklopddie, 3rd edition. .
Gregory X. (Tebaldo Visconti), *pope from the 1st of September
1 27 1, to the 10th of January 1276, was born at Piacenza in 1208,
studied for the church, and became archdeacon of Liege. The
eighteen cardinals who met to elect a successor Mo Clement IV.
were divided into French and Italian factions, which wrangled
over the election for nearly three years in the. midst of great
popular excitement, until finally, stirred by the eloquence of St
Bonaventura, the Franciscan monk, they entrusted the ch6ice
to six electors, who hit on Visconti, at that time accompanying
Edward of England on the crusade. He returned to Rome and
was ordained priest on the 19th of March 1272, and consecrated
on the 27th. He at once summoned the fourteenth general
council of the Catholic Church, which met at Lyons in 1274,
with an attendance of some 1600 prelates, for the purpose of
considering the eastern schism, the condition of the Holy Land,
and the abuses in the church. The Greeks were persuaded,
thanks to St Bonaventura, to consent to a union with Rome for
the time being, and Rudolph of Habsburg renounced at the
council all imperial rights in the States of the Church. The
most celebrated among the many reform decrees issued by
Gregory was the constitution determining for the first time the
form of conclave at papal elections, which in large measure has
remained ever since the law of the church. Gregory was on his
way to Rome to crown Rudolph and send him out on a great
crusade in company with the kings of England, France, Aragon
and Sicily, when he died at Arezzo on the 10th of January 1276.
He was a nobleman, fond of peace and actuated by the conscious-
ness of a great mission. He has been honoured as a saint by the
inhabitants of Arezzo and Piacenza. His successor in the
papacy was Innocent V.
The registers of Gregory X. have been published by J. Guiraud
in the Btoliothhque des teoles francaises d'Athhnes et de Rome (Paris,
1802-1898). See K. J. von Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, vol. 5, 2nd
edition (1873- 1890); H. Finke, Konzilienstudien z. Gesch. des
J3ten Jahrhunderts (Munster, 1801) ; P. Piacenza, Compendia deUa
storia del b. Gregorio X, papa (Piacenza, 1876); F. Gregorovius,
Rome in the Middle Ages, vol. 5, trans, by Mrs G. W. Hamilton
(London, 1900-1902); H. Otto, Die Beziehungen Rudolfs von
Habsburgs zu 'Papst Gregor X. (Innsbruck, 1895); A Zisterer,
Gregor X. u. Rudolf von Habsburg in ihren gegenseitigen Beziehungen
(Freiburg, i. B., 1891) ; F. Walter, Die PoHtik der Kurie unier Gregor
X. ( Berlin , 1804) ; A. Pott hast, Regesta pontif. Roman, vol. 2
(Berlin, 1875) ; W. Norden, Das Papsttum una Byzanz (Berlin, 1903) ;
J. Loserth, " Akten liber die Wahl Gregors X." in Neues Archiv,
xxi. (1895); [A. von Hirsch-Gereuth, "Die Kreuzzugspolitik
Gregors X. " in Studien z. Gesch. d. Kreuzmugsidee nach den Kreuzzilgen
(Munich, 1896). There is an excellent article by Carl Mirbt in Hauck's
Realencyklopddie, 3rd edition.
Gregory XI. {Pierre Roger de Beaufort) , pope from the 30th
of December 1370 to the 27th of March 1378, born in Limousin
in 1330, created cardinal-deacon of Sta Maria Nuova by his
uncle, Clement VI., was the successor of Urban V. His efforts
to establish peace between France and England and to aid the
Eastern Christians against the Turks were fruitless, but he
prevented the Visconti of Milan from making further encroach-
ments on the States of the Church. . He introduced many
reforms in the various monastic orders and took vigorous
measures against the heresies of the time. His energy was
stimulated by the stirring words of Catherine of Siena, to whom
in particular the transference of the papal see back to Italy
(17 th of January 1377) was almost entirely due. Whilst at
Rome he issued several bulls to the archbishop of Canterbury,
the king of England, and the university of Oxford, commanding
an investigation of WyclinVs doctrines. Gregory was meditating
a return to Avignon when he died. He was the last of the French
popes who for some seventy years had made Avignon their see,
a man learned and full of zeal for the church, but irresolute and
guilty of nepotism. The great schism, which was to endure fifty
years, broke out soon after the election of his successor, Urban VI.
See H. J. Tomaseth, " Die Register u. Secretare Urbans V. u.
Gregors A I." in Mitleilungen des Instituts fur osterreichische Ge-
schichtsforscHung (1898) ; Baluzius, Vitae pap. Avenion. vol. 1 (Paris,
1693) ; L. Pastor, History of the Popes, vol. 1, trans, by F. I. Antrobus
(London, 1899) ; F. Gregorovius, Rome in the Middle Ages, vol. 6,
trans, by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, 1900-1902) ; J. P. Kirsch,
Die Rnckkehr der Papste Urban V. u. Gregor XL con Avignon nach
Rom (Paderborn, 1898); J. B. Christophe, Histoire de la papauU
pendant le XIV* siecle, vol. 2 (Paris, 1853). There is a good article
by J. N» Brischar in the Kirchenlexikon, 2nd edition.
Gregory XII. {Angelo Coriaro, or Correi), pope from the
30th of November 1406, to the 4th of July 1415, was born of a
noble family at Venice about 1326. Successively bishop of
Castello, Latin patriarch of Constantinople, cardinal-priest of
San Marco, and papal secretary, he was elected to succeed
Innocent VII. , after an interregnum of twenty-four days, under
the express condition that, should the antipope Benedict XIII.
at Avignon renounce all claim to the papacy, he also would
renounce his, so that the long schism might be terminated.
As pope, he concluded a treaty with his rival at Marseilles, by
which a general council was to be held at Savona in September,
1408, but King Ladislaus of Naples, who opposed the plan from
policy, seized Rome and brought the negotiations to nought.
Gregory had promised not to create any more cardinals, and
when he did so, in 1408, his former cardinals deserted him and,
together with the Avignon cardinals, convoked the council of
GREGORY (POPES)
Pisa, which, despite its irregularity, proclaimed in JuAe 1469
the deposition of both popes and the election of Alexander V.
Gregory, still supported by Naples, Hungary, Bavaria, and by
Rupert, king of the Romans, found protection with Ladislaus,
and in a synod at Cividale del Friuli banned Benedict and
Alexander as schismatical, perjured and scandalous. John
XXIII., having succeeded to the claims of Alexander in 1410,
concluded a treaty with Ladislaus, by which Gregory was
banished from Naples on the 31st of October 141 1. The pope
then took refuge with Carlo Malatesta, lord of Rimini, through
whom he presented his resignation to the council of Constance
on the 4th of July 141 5. A weak and easily-influenced old man,
his resignation was the noblest act of his pontificate. The
rest of his life was spent in peaceful obscurity as cardinal-bishop
of Porto and legate of the mark of Ancona. He died at Recanati
on the 18th of October 141 7. Some writers reckon Alexander V.
and John XXIII. as popes rather than as antipopes, and accord-
ingly count Gregory's pontificate from 1406 to 1409. Roman
Catholic authorities, however, incline to the other reckoning.
See L. Pastor, History of the Popes, vol. L, trans, by F. I. Antrobus
(London, 1 899); M. Creighton, History of the Papacy, vol. 1
(London, 1899); N. Valois, La France et le grand schisme d' Occident
(Paris, 1S96-1902); Louis Gayet, Le Grand Schisme oV Occident
(Paris, 1898); J. von Haller, Papsttum u. Kirchenreform (Berlin,
1903); J. Loserth, Geschichte des spdteren Mittelalters (1003);
Theodertci de Nyem de schismate libri ires, ed. by G. Erler (Leipzig,
1890). There is an excellent article by J. N. Brischar in the Kirchen-
lexikon 2nd ed., vol. j>. (C. H. Ha.) .
Gregory XIII. (Ugo Buoncompagno), pope from 1572 to 1585,
was born on the 7th of January 1502, in Bologna, where he
received his education, and subsequently taught, until called
to Rome (1539) by Paul HI., who employed him in various
offices. He bore a prominent part in the council of Trent, 1562-
1563. In 1564 he was made cardinal by Pius IV., and, in the
following year, sent to Spain as legate. On the 13th of May
1572 he was chosen pope to succeed Pius V. His previous life
had been rather worldly, and not wholly free from spot; but
as pope he gave no occasion of offence. He submitted to the
influence of the rigorists, and carried forward the war upon
heresy, though not with the savage vehemence of his predecessor.
However, he received the news of the massacre of St Bartholomew
(23rd of August 1572) with joy, and publicly celebrated the
event, having been led to believe, according to his apologists,
that France had been miraculously delivered, and that the
Huguenots had suffered justly as traitors. Having failed to rouse
Spain and Venice against the Turks, Gregory attempted to form
a general coalition against the Protestants. He subsidized
Philip II. in his wars in the Netherlands; aided the Catholic
League in France; incited attacks upon Elizabeth by way of
Ireland. With the aid of the Jesuits, whose privileges he multi-
plied, he conducted a vigorous propaganda. He established
or endowed above a score of colleges, among them the Collegium
Romanum (founded by Ignatius Loyola in 1550), and the
Collegium Germanicum, in Rome. Among his noteworthy
achievements are the reform of the calendar on the 24th of
February 1582 (see Calendar); the improved edition of the
Corpus juris canonici, 1582; the splendid Gregorian Chapel
in St Peter's; the fountains of the Piazza Navona; the Quirinal
Palace; and many other public works. To meet the expenses
entailed by his liberality and extravagance, Gregory resorted
to confiscation, on the pretext of defective titles or long-standing
arrearages. The result was disastrous to the public peace:
nobles armed in their defence; old feuds revived; the country
became infested with bandits; not even in Rome could order be
maintained. Amid these disturbances Gregory died, on the 10th
of April 1 585, leaving to his successor, Sixtus V., the task of
pacifying the state.
See the contemporary lives by Cicarella, continuator of Platina,
De vitis pontiff. Kom.; Ciacomus, Vitae et res gestae summorum
pontiff. Kom. (Rome, 1 601-1602); and Ciappi, Comp. dell* attioni
e santa vita di Gregorio XIII (Rome, 159 1). See also Bompiano,
Hist, pontificatus Gregorii XIII. (Rome, 1655);. Ranke, Popes
(Eng. trans., Austin), i. 428 seq. ; v. Keumont, Gesch* der Stadt Rom,
hi. 2, 566 seq. ; and for numerous references upon Gregory's relation
to the massacre of St Bartholomew, Cambridge Mod. Etlst. iii. 771 seq.
575
Gregory XIV. (NioolA Sfondrato), pope 1 $00-1 591, was born
m Cremona, on the nth of February 2535, studied in Perugia*
and Padua, became bishop of his native place in 1560, and took
part in the council of Trent, 1 562-1 563. Gregory XIII. made
him a cardinal, 1583, but ill-health forbade his active participa-
tion in affairs. His election to the papacy, to succeed Urban VII.,
on the 5th of December 1500, was due to Spanish influence.
Gregory was upright and devout, but utterly ignorant of politics.
During his short pontificate the States of the Church suffered
dire calamities, famine, epidemic and a fresh outbreak of brigand-
age. Gregory was completely subservient to Philip II.; he
aided the league, excommunicated Henry of Navarre, and
threatened his adherents with the ban; but the effect of his
intervention was only to rally the moderate Catholics to the
support of Henry, and to hasten his conversion. Gregory died
on the 15th of October 1591, and was succeeded by Innocent IX.
See Ciaconius, Vitae et res gestae summorum pontiff; Rom. (Rome,
1601-1602) ; Cicarella, continuator of Platina, ue vitis pontiff. Rom.
(both contemporary) ; Brosch, Gesch. des Kirchenstaates (1880), i. 300 ;
Ranke, Popes (Eng. trans., Austin), ii. 228 seq.
Gregory XV. (Alessandro Ludovist) was born on the 9th of
January 1554, in Bologna, where he also studied and taught.
He was made archbishop of his native place and cardinal by
Paul V., whom he succeeded as pope on the 9th of February 162 1.
Despite his age and feebleness, Gregory displayed remarkable
energy. He aided the emperor in the Thirty Years' War, and
the king of Poland against the Turks. He endorsed the claims
of Maximilian of Bavaria to the electoral dignity, and was
rewarded with the gift of the Heidelberg library, which was
carried off to Rome. Gregory foundep! the Congregation of the
Propaganda, encouraged missions, fixed the order to be observed
in conclaves, and canonized Ignatius Loyola, Francis Xavier,
Philip Neri and Theresa de Jesus. He died on the 8th of July
1623, and was succeeded by Urban VIII. ' *,
See the contemporary life by Vitorelli, continuator of Ciaconius,
Vitae et res gestae summorum pontiff. Rom.; Ranke's excellent
account, Popes (Eng. trans., Austin), ii. 468 seq. ; v. Reumont, Gesch.
der Stadt Rom, iii 2, 609 seq.; Brosch, Gesch. des Kirchenstaates
(1880), i. 370 seq.; and the extended bibliography in Herzog-Hauck,
Realencyklopadic, s.v. " Gregor XV." (T. F. C.)
Gregory XVI. (Bartolommeo Alberto Cappellari), pope from
183 1 to 1846, was born at Belhino on the 18th of September 1765,
and at an early age entered the order of the Camaldoli, among
whom he rapidly gained distinction for his theological and
linguistic acquirements. His first appearance before a wider
public was in 1799, when he published against the Italian
Jansenists a controversial work entitled // Trionfo delta Santa
Sede, which, besides passing through several editions in Italy,
has been translated into several European languages. In 1800
he became a member of the Academy of the Catholic Religion,
founded by Phis VII., to which he contributed a number of
memoirs on theological and philosophical questions and in 1805
was made abbot of San Gregorio on the Caelian Hill. When
Pius VII. was carried off from Rome in 1809, Cappellari withdrew
to Murano, near Venice, and in 1814, with some other members
of his order, he removed to Padua; but soon after the restoration
of the pope he was recalled to Rome, where he received successive
appointments as vicar-general of the Camaldoli, councillor of the
Inquisition, prefect of the Propaganda, and examiner of bishops.
In March 1825 he was created cardinal by Leo XII,, and shortly
afterwards was entrusted with an important mission to adjust
a concordat regarding the interests of the Catholics of Belgium
and the Protestants of Holland. On the 2nd of February 183 1
he was, after sixty-four days' conclave, unexpectedly chosen to
succeed Pius VIII. in the papal chair. The revolution of 1830
had just inflicted a severe blow on the ecclesiastical party in
France, and almost the first act of the new government there
was to seize Ancona, thus throwing all Italy, and particularly
the Papal States, into an excited condition which seemed to
demand strongly repressive measures. In the course of the
struggle which ensued it was more than once necessary to call
in the Austrian bayonets. The reactionaries in power put
1 off their promised reforms so persistently as to anger even
576
GREGORY
Metternicb; nor did the replacement of Bernetti by Lambruschini
in 1836 mend matters; for the new cardinal secretary of state
objected even to railways and illuminating gas, and was liberal
chiefly in his employment of spies and of prisons. The embar-
rassed financial condition in which Gregory left the States of the
Church makes it doubtful how far his lavish expenditure in
architectural and engineering works, and his magnificent patron-
age of learning in the hands of Mai, Mezzof anti,Gaetano, Moroni
and others, were for the real benefit of his subjects. The years
of his pontificate were marked by the steady development and
diffusion of those ultramontane ideas which were ultimately
formulated, under the presidency of his successor Pius IX., by
the council of the Vatican. He died on the 1st of June 1846.
See A. M. Bernasconi, Acta Gregorii Papae XVI. scilicet constitu-
tdones, bullae, litterae apostolicae, epistolae, vols, t-4 (Rome, 1901 ft.) ;
Cardinal Wiseman, Recollections of the Last Four Popes (London,
1858) ; Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopddie, vol. vii. (Leipzig, 1899), 127
ff. (gives literature) ; Frederik Nielsen, History of the Papacy in the
iQth Century, ii. (London, 1906). (W. W. R.*)
GREGORY, 1 the name of a Scottish family, many members
of which attained high eminence in various departments of science,
fourteen having held professorships in mathematics or medicine.
Of the most distinguished of their number a notice is given
below.
I. David Gregory (1627-1720), eldest son of the Rev. John
Gregory of Drumoak, Aberdeenshire, who married Janet
Anderson in 162 1. JJe was for some time connected with a
mercantile house in Holland, but on succeeding to the family
estate of Kinardie returned to Scotland, and occupied most of his
time in scientific pursuits, freely giving his poorer neighbours the
benefit of his medical skill. He is said to have been the first
possessor of a barometer in the north of Scotland; and on
account of his success by means of it in predicting changes in
the weather, he was accused of witchcraft before the presbytery
of Aberdeen, but he succeeded in convincing that body of his
innocence.
II. James Gregory (1638*1675), Scottish mathematician,
younger brother of the preceding, was educated at the grammar
school of Aberdeen and at Marischal College of that city. At an
early period he manifested a strong inclination and capacity for
mathematics and kindred sciences; and in 1663 he published his
famous treatise Optica promote, in which he made known his
great invention, the Gregorian reflecting telescope. About 1665
he went to the university of Padua, where he studied for some
years, and in 1667 published Vera circuit et hyperbolae quadra*
twra, in which he discussed infinite convergent series for the areas
of the circle and hyperbola. In the following year he published
also at Padua Geometriae pars universalis, in which he gave
a series of rules for the rectification of curves and the mensuration
of their solids of revolution. On his return to England in this
year he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society; in 1669 he
became professor of mathematics in the university of St Andrews;
and in 1674 he was transferred to the chair of mathematics in
Edinburgh. In October 1675, while showing the satellites of
the planet Jupiter to some of his students through one of his
telescopes, he was suddenly struck with blindness, and he died
a few days afterwards.
He was also the author of Exercitatumes geometricae (1668), and,
it is alleged, of a satirical tract entitled The Great and New Art of
Weighing Vanity, intended to ridicule certain fallacies of a con-
temporary writer on hydraulics, and published at Glasgow in 1672,
grofessedly by " Patrick Mathers, archbeadle of the university of
t Andrews."
III. David Gregory (1661-1708), son of David Gregory
(16 27-1 7 20), was born in Aberdeen and educated partly in his
native city and partly in Edinburgh, where he became professor
of mathematics in 1683. From 1691 till his death he was Savilian
professor of astronomy at Oxford. His principal works are
Exercitatio geometrica de dimensions figurarum (1684), Catoptricae
et dioptricae sphaericae elementa (1695), and Astronomiae
pkysicae et geometricae elementa (1702) — the last a work
highly esteemed by Sir Isaac Newton, of whose system it is an
illustration and a defence. A Treatise on Practical Geometry
1 See A. G. Stewart, The Academic Gregories.
which he left in manuscript was translated from the Latin
and published in 1745. He was succeeded in the chair of mathe-
matics in Edinburgh by his brother James; another brother,
Charles, was in 1707 appointed professor of mathematics in the
university of St Andrews; and his eldest son, David (1696-
1767), became professor of modern history at Oxford, and canon
and subsequently dean of Christ Church.
IV. John Gregory (1724-1773), Scottish physician, grandson
of James Gregory (1638-167 5) and youngest son of Dr James
Gregory (d. 1731), professor of medicine in King's College,
Aberdeen, was born at Aberdeen on the 3rd of June 1724. He
received his early education at the grammar school of Aberdeen
and at King's College in that city, and in 1741 he attended the
medical classes at Edinburgh university. In 1745 he went to
Leiden to complete his medical studies, and during his stay
there he received without solicitation the degree of doctor of
medicine from King's College, Aberdeen. On his- return from
Holland he was elected professor of philosophy at King's College,
but in 1749 he resigned his professorship on account of its duties
interfering too much with his private practice. In 1754 he pro-
ceeded to London, where he made the acquaintance of many
persons of distinction, and the same year was chosen fellow of
the Royal Society. On the death in November 1755 of his
brother Dr James Gregory, who had succeeded his father as
professor of medicine in King's College, Aberdeen, he was
appointed to that office. In 1764 he removed to Edinburgh in
the hope of obtaining a more extended field of practice as a
physician, and in 1766 he was appointed professor of the practice
of medicine in the university of Edinburgh, to whose eminence
as a medical school he largely contributed He died of gout on
the 10th of February 1773.
He is the author of A Comparative View of the State and Faculties
of Man with those of the Animal World (1765); Observations on the
Duties, Offices and Qualifications of a Physician (1772); Elements
of the Practice of Physic (1772); and A Father's Legacy to his
Daughters (1774). His Whole Works, with a life by Mr Tytler (after-
wards Lord Woodhouselee), were published at Edinburgh in 1788.
V. James Gregory (1753-182 i), Scottish physician, eldest
son of the preceding, was born at Aberdeen in January 1753.
He accompanied his father to Edinburgh in 1764, and after
going through the usual course of literary studies at that uni-
versity, he was for a short time a student at Christchurch,
Oxford. It was there probably that he acquired that taste for
classical learning which afterwards distinguished him. He
studied medicine at Edinburgh, and, after graduating doctor of
medicine in 1774, spent the greater part of the next two years
in Holland, France and Italy. Shortly after his return to
Scotland he was appointed in 1776 to the chair his father had
formerly held, and in the following year he also entered on the
duties of teacher of clinical medicine in the Royal Infirmary.
On the illness of Dr William Cullen in 1700 he was appointed
joint-professor of the practice of medicine, and he became the
head of the Edinburgh Medical School on the death of Dr Cullen
in the same year. He died on the 2nd of April 182 1. As a medical
practitioner Gregory was for the last ten years of his life at the
head of the profession in Scotland. He was at one time president
of the Edinburgh College of Physicians, but his indiscretion in
publishing certain private proceedings of the college led to bis
suspension on the 13th of May 1809 from all rights and privileges
which pertained to the fellowship.
Besides his Conspectus medicinae theoreticae, published in 1788 as
a text-book for his lectures on the institutes, Dr Gregory was the
author of " A Theory of the Moods of Verbs," published in the
Edin. Phil. Trans. (1787), and of Literary and Philosophical Essays,
published in two volumes in 1792.
VI. William Gregory (1803-1858), son of James Gregory
(1 753-1821), was born on the 25th of December 1803. In 1837
he became professor of chemistry at the Andersonian Institution.
Glasgow, in 1839 at King's College, Aberdeen, and in 1844 at
Edinburgh University. He died on the 24th of April 1858.
Gregory was one of the first in England to advocate the theories
of Justus von Liebig, and translated several of his works. He
is also the author of Outlines of Chemistry (1845), and an Ele-
mentary Treatise on Chemistry (1853).
GREGORY, E, J.— GREISEN
VII. Dtoica** Fakqotahsoh Gregory (1^13-1844), brother
of the preceding, was born on the 13th of April 1S13. After
studying at the university of Edinburgh he in 1833 entered
Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was for a time assistant
professor of chemistry, but he devoted his attention chiefly
to mathematics. He died on the 23rd of February 1844.
The Cambridge Mathematical Journal was originated, and for 9ome
time edited, by him \ and he also published a Collection of Examples
of Process** %m the Differential and. Integral Calculus (1&11). A
Treatise on the Application of Analysis to Solid Geometry, which he
left unfinished, was completed by W. Walton, and published posthum-
ously in 1846. Hw Mathematical Writings, edited by W. Wakon,
with a biographical memoir by Robert Leslie Ellis, appeared in 1865.
GRE60RY, EDWARD JOHN (1850-100$), British painter,
born at Southampton, began work at the age of fifteen in the
engineer's drawing office of the Peninsular and Oriental Company.
Afterwards he* studied at South Kensington, and about 1871
entered on a successful career as an illustrator and as an admir-
able painter in oil and water colour. He was elected associate of
the Royal Academy fci 1883, academician in 1B9&, and president
of the Royal Institute of Painters in Water Colours in 1898.
Hk work is distinguished by remarkable technical qualities,
by exceptional firmness and decision of draughtsmanship and
by unusual certainty el handling. His "Marooned," a water
colour, h in the National Gallery of British Art. Many* of his
pictures were shown at Burlington House st the winter exhibi-
tion of 1 909- 1 910 after his death in June 1909.
vRBGORY, OLWTHUS GILBERT (1774-1841), Fngfish
mathematician, was born on the 29th of January 1774 at Yaxley
in Huntingdonshire. Having been educated by Richard Weston,
a Leicester botanist, he published in 1793 a treatise-, Lessons
Astronomical and Philosophical. Having settled at Cambridge
in 1706, Gregory first acted as sub-editor on the Cambridge
Intelligencer, and then opened a bookseller's shop. In r8b2 he
obtained an appointment as mathematical master at Woolwich
through the influence of Charles Hutton, to whose notice he had
been brought by a manuscript on the " Use of the Sliding
Rule "; and wfeen Hutton resigned in 1807 Gregory succeeded
him in the professorship. Failing heahh obliged him to retire
in 1838, and he died at Woolwich on the 2nd of February 2841.
Gregory wrote Hints for the Use of Teachers of Elementary Mathe-
matics (1840, new edition 1853),. and Mathematics for Practical
Men (1825), which was revised aid enlarged by Henry Law in 1848,
and again by L R« Young in 1862. His Letters on the Evidences of
Christianity (is 15) have been several times reprinted, and an abridg-
ment was published by the Religious Tract Society in 1853. He
will probably be longest remembered for fans Biography of Robert Hall,
which first appeared in the collected edition of Hall's workv wa*
published separately in 1833, and has since passed through several
editions. The minor importance of his Memoir of John mason Good
(1 828) is due to the narrower fame of the subject. Gregory was one
of the founders of the Royal: Astronomical Society* In 1802 he was
appointed editor of the Gentlemen's Diary, and in 2&I8 editor of the
Ladies 1 Diary and superintendent of the almanacs of the Stationers'
Company.
GREIFENBERG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Pomerania, on the Rega, 45 m. N.E. of Stettin on the railway
to Kolberg. Pop. (190$) 7208, It has two Evangelical churches
(among them that of St Mary, dating from 13th century), two
ancient gateways, a powder tower and a gymnasium. The
manufacture of machines, stoves and bricks are the principal
industries. Greifenberg possessed municipal rights as early as
1262, and in the 14th and 15th centuries bad a considerable
shipping trade* but it lost much of its prosperity during the
Thirty Years' War.
See Riemamv Geschichte der Stadt Greifenberg (1862^, , ,
GREIFEfcttUGEV,, a town of. Germany, ia the. Prussian,
province of Pomerania, on, the Regjitz, ia nj. S.S.W, of Stettin
by rail. Pop* G1905} 6473. Its prosperity depends^ chiefly. 00
agriculture and it to a considerable trade m cattle* There, are
also felt manufactures and saw mills. GreaCeabagen was built
in 1330, and was raised to the rank of a town and. fortifta*. about
1250, Inj the Thirty Years' War it. was taken* both by the
knperialist3 and the Swedes,. and ia- 167 5 it was captured by the
Braadenburgers, into whose possession it came fiaaUv ins 1679,
577
GRlEIFSWALiy, a town of Germany, m the Prussian province
of Pomerania, on the navigable Ryk, 3 m. from its mouth o*
the Baltic at the little port of Wyk, and 20 m. S.E. from Stralsund
by rail. Pop. (1875) 18,022, (roos) 23,750. It has wide and
regular streets, flanked by numerous gabled houses, and is
surrounded by pleasant promenades on the site of its old ram-
parts. The three Gothic Protestant churches, the Marienkirche,
the Nikolaikirche and the Jakobikirche, and the town-hall
(Rathaus) are the principal edifices, and these with their lofty
spires are very picturesque. There is a statue of the emperor
Frederick III. and a war memorial in the town. The industries
mainly consist in shipbuilding, fish-curing, and the manufacture
of machinery (particularly for agriculture), and the commerce in
the export of corn, wood and fish. There is a theatre, an
orphanage and a municipal library. Greifswald is, however,
best known to fame by reason of its university. This, founded
in 1456, is weB endowed and is largely frequented by students
of medicine. Connected with it are a library of 1 50,000 volumes
and Boo MSS,, a ch em i cal l abo r atory, a zoological museum, a
gynaecological institute, an ophthalmological school, a botanical
garden and at Eldena (a seaside resort on the Baltic) an agri-
cultural school. In front of the university, which had 77s
students and about too teachers in 1904, stands a monument
commemorating its four hundredth anniversary.
Greifswald was founded about 1246 by traders from the
Netherlands. In 1250 it received a town constitution and
Lubeck rights from Duke Wratfelaw of Pomerania. In 1270 it
joined the Hanse towns, Stralsund, Rostock, Wismar and
Lilbeek, and took part in the wars which they carried on against
the kings of Denmark and Norway. During the Thirty Years'
War it was formed into a fortress by the fmperiaKsts, but they
vacated it in 163 1 to the Swedes, m whose possession ft remained
after the peace of Westphalia. In 1678 it was captured by the
elector of Brandenburg, but was restored to the Swedes in the
following year; in 1713 ft was desolated by the Russians; fir
17 1 5 it came into the possession of Denmark; and fn 1721 it
was again restored to Sweden, under whose protection it remained
till 1815, when, along with the whole of Swedish Pomerania,
it came into the possession of Prussia.
See J. G. L. Kosegarten, Geschichte der Untversit&t Greifswald
(1856); C, Gestterding, Beitrag xur Geschichte der Stadt Greksmald
£3 vote., 1827-1829); and I. Ziegler, Geschichte der Stadt Greifswald
(Greifswald, 1897).
GREISEN (in French, hy&hmicte), a modification of granite,
consisting essentially of quartz and white mica, and distinguished
from granite by the absence of felspar and biotite. La the hand
specimen the rock has a silvery glittering appearance from the
abundance of lamellar crystals of muscovite, but many gressais
have much of the appearance of granite, except that they are
paler in colour. The commonest accessory minerals are tourma-
line, topaz, apatite, fluorspar and iron oxides;, a little felspar
more or less altered may also be present and a brown mica which
is. biotite or Uthionite. The tourmaline in section is brewa r
green, blue or colourless, and often the same crystal shows many
different tints. The white mica forms mostly large plates with*
imperfect crystalline outlines. The quartz is rich m fluid
enclosures. Apatite and topaz are both colourless and of
irregular form. Felspar if present may be oxtbodase and
oligoclase*
Gretsen occurs typically in belts or veins uartersecting .granite.
At the centre of each vein there i& usually a fissure which may
be open or fiUed with quartz. The greisen bands are from 1 in*
up to a ft. or more in thickness. At their outer edges they pass
gradually into the granite, for they contain felspar crystals more
or lesa completely altered into aggregates of white mica and
quartz. The transition between the two rocks- is perfectly
gradual, a fact which shows that the greisen has been, produced
by alteration of the granite. Vapours or fluids rising through
the Assure have been the agents which effected the transmutation,
They must have contained fluorine, boron and probably also,
lithium* far topaz, mica and tourmaline,, the new minerals of the
granite, contain these elements. The change is a post-volcanic;
xii. 19
57 8
GREIZ— GRENADE
or pneumatolytic one induced by the vapours set free by the
granite magma when it cools. Probably the rock was at a
relatively high temperature at the time. A similar type of
alteration, the development of white mica, quartz and tourmaline,
is found sometimes in sedimentary rocks around granite masses.
Greisen is closely connected with schorl rock both in its minera-
logical composition and in its mode of origin. The latter is a
pneumatolytic product consisting of quartz and tourmaline;
it often contains white mica and thus passes by all stages into
greisen. Both of these rocks carry frequently small percentages
of tin oxide (cassiterite) and may be worked as ores of tin. They
are common in Cornwall, Saxony, Tasmania and other districts
which are centres of tin-mining. Many other greisens occur
in which no tin is found. The analyses show the composition
SiO,.
AM)..
FcO,.
FeO.
CaO.
MgO.
K*0.
NaaO.
Fl.
B.O..
Granite
Greisen
70-17
6942
15-07
1565
•88
1-25
179
3'30
1-13
•63
i-ii
1-02
573
4-06
2-69
-27
3-36
tr.
•59
of Cornish granite and greisen. They make it clear that there
has been an introduction of fluorine and boron and a diminution
in the alkalies during the transformation of the granitic rock
into the greisen. (J. S. F.)
GREIZ, a town of Germany, capital of the principality of
Reuss-Greiz (Reuss the Elder), in a pleasant valley on the right
bank of the White Elster, near the borders of Saxony, and 66 m.
by rail S. from Leipzig. Pop. (1875) 12,657; (1905) 23,114.
It consists of two parts, the old town on the right bank and the
new town on the left bank of the river; it is rapidly growing
and is regularly laid out. The principal buildings are the
palace of the prince of Reuss-Greiz, surrounded by a fine park,
the old chateau on a rocky hill overlooking the town, the summer
palace with a fine garden, the old town church dating from 1225
and possessing a beautiful tower, the town hall, the govern-
mental buildings and statues of the emperor William I. and
of Bismarck. There are classical and modern schools and a
school of textile industry. The industries are considerable,
and include dyeing, tanning and the manufacture of woollen,
cotton, shawls, coverlets and paper, Greiz (formerly Grewcz) is
apparently a town of Slav origin. From the 12th century it
was governed by advocati (Vogte), but in 1236 it came into the
possession of Gera, and in 1550 of the younger line of the house
of Plauen. It was wholly destroyed by fire in 1494, and almost
totally in 1802.
See Wilke, Greiz und seine Untgebung (1875), and Jahresberichte
des Vereins f&r Greizer Geschichte (1894, seq.)
GRENADA, the southernmost of the Windward Islands,
British West Indies. It lies between n° 58' and 12 15' N.
and between 6i° 35' and 6i° 50' W., being 140 m. S.W. of
Barbados and 85 m. N. by W. of Trinidad. In shape oval, it is
21 m. long, 12 m. broad at its maximum and has an area of 133
sq. m. It owes much of its beauty to a well-wooded range of
mountains traversing the island from N. to S. and throwing off
from the centre spurs which form picturesque and fertile valleys.
These mountains attain their highest elevation in MountCatharine
(2750 ft.). In the S.E. and N.W. there are stretches of low or
undulating ground, devoted to fruit growing and cattle raising.
The island is of volcanic origin; the only signs of upheaval are
raised limestone beaches in the extreme N. Red and grey
sandstones, hornblende and argillaceous schist are found in the
mountains, porphyry and basaltic rocks also occur; sulphur
and fuller's earth are worked. In the centre, at the height of
1740 ft. above the sea, is the chief natural curiosity of Grenada,
the Grand Etang, a circular lake, 13 acres in extent, occupying
the site of an ancient crater. Near it is a large sanatorium,
much frequented as a health resort. In the north-east is a larger
lake, Lake Antoine, also occupying a crater, but it lies almost at
the sea level. The island is watered by several short rivers, mainly
on the east and south; there are numerous fresh water springs,
as well as hot chalybeate and sulphurous springs. The south-
eastern coast is much indented with bays. The climate is good,
the temperature equable and epidemic diseases are rare. In the
low country the average yearly temperature is 82 F., but it is
cooler in the heights. The rainfall is very heavy, amounting in
some parts to as much as 200 in., a year. The rainy season lasts
from May to December, but refreshing showers frequently occur
during other parts of the year. The average annual rainfall
at St Georges is 79-07 in., and at Grand Etang 164 in. The
excellent climate and good sea-bathing have made Grenada the
health resort of the neighbouring islands, especially of Trinidad.
Good roads and byeways intersect it in every direction. The soil
is extraordinarily fertile, the chief products being cocoa and
spices, especially nutmegs. The exports, sent chiefly to Great
Britain, are cocoa, spices, wool, cotton, coffee, live stock, hides,
turtles, turtle shell, kola nuts, vanilla and timber. Barbados
is dependent on Grenada for the majority of
its firewood. Sugar is still grown, and rum
and molasses are made, but the consump-
tion of these is confined to the island.
Elementary education is. chiefly in the
hands of the various denominations, whose
schools are assisted by government grants-in-aid. There are,
however, a few secular schools conducted by the government,
and government-aided secondary schools for , girls and a
grammar school for boys. The schools are controlled by a
board of education, the members of which are nominated
by the government, and small fees are charged in all schools.
The governor of the Windward Islands resides in Grenada and
is administrator of it. The Legislative Council consists of 14
members; 7 including the governor are ex-officio members and
the rest are nominated by the Crown. English is universally
spoken, but the negroes use a French patois, which, however,
is gradually dying out. Only 2% of the inhabitants are white,
the rest being negroes and mulattoes with a few East Indians.
The capital, St George, in the south-west, is built upon a lava
peninsula jutting into the sea and forming one side of its land-
locked harbour. It is surrounded by an amphitheatre of hills,
up the sides of which climb the red-brick houses of the town.
At the extremity of the peninsula is Fort St George, with a
saluting battery. The ridge connecting Fort St George with
Hospital Hill is tunnelled to give access to the two parts of the
town lying on either side. The population in 1901 was 5198.
There are four other towns — on the west coast Gouyave, or
Charlotte Town, and 4 m. N. of it Victoria; on the north coast
Sauteurs; and Grenville at the head of a wide bay on the east.
They are all in frequent communication with the capital by
steamer. The population of the entire colony in 1901 was 63,438.
History.-*- Grenada was discovered in 1498 by Columbus,
who named it Conception. Neither the Spanish nor the British,
to whom it was granted in 1627, settled on the island. The
governor of Martinique, du Parquet, purchased it in 1650,
and the French were well received by the Caribs, whom they
afterwards extirpated with the greatest cruelty. In 1665
Grenada passed into the hands of the French West India Com-
pany, and was administered by it until its dissolution in 1674,
when the island passed to the French Crown. Cocoa, coffee and
cotton were introduced in 17 14. During the wars between Great
Britain and France, Grenada capitulated to the British forces in
1762, and was formally ceded next year by the Treaty of Paris.
The French, under Count d'Estaing, re-captured the island in
1779, but it was restored to Great Britain by the Treaty of
Versailles in 1 783. A rebellion against the British rule, instigated
and assisted by the French, occurred in 1795, but was quelled by
Sir Ralph Abercromby in the following year. The emancipation
of the slaves took place in 1 837 , and by 1877 it was found necessary
to introduce East Indian labour. Grenada, with cocoa as its
staple, has not experienced similar depression to that which
overtook the sugar-growing islands of the West Indies.
See Grenada Handbook (London, 1905).
GRENADE (from the French word for a pomegranate, from a
resemblance in shape to that fruit), a small spherical explosive
vessel thrown by hand. Hand-grenades were used in war in
the 16th century, but the word " grenade " was also from the
GRENADIER— GRENOBLE
579
first used to imply an explosive shell fired from a gun; this
survives to the present day in the German Granate. These
weapons were employed after about 1660, by special troops
called " grenadiers " (q.v.) t and in the wars of the 17th and 18th
centuries they are continually met with. They became obsolete
in the 19th century, but were given a new lease of life in the 20th,
owing to their employment in the siege of Port Arthur in 1004,
where hand-grenades of a modern type, and containing powerful
modern explosives, proved very effective (see Ammunition, Shell).
Hand-grenades filled with chemicals and made of glass are used
as a method of fire-extinction, and similar vessels containing a
liquid with a very strong smell are used to discover defects in a
drain or sewer.
GRENADIER, originally a soldier whose special duty it was
to throw hand-grenades. The latter were in use for a considerable
time before any special organization was given to the troops
who were to use them. In 1667 four men per company in the
French Rtgiment du Roi were trained with grenades (siege of
Lille), and in 166&-1670 grenadier companies were formed in
this regiment and in about thirty others of the French line.
Evelyn, in his Diary, tells us that on the 29th of June 1678 he
saw at Hounslow " a new sort of soldiers called granadiers, who
were dexterous in flinging hand-granades." As in the case of
the fusiliers, the French practice was therefore quickly copied
in England. Eventually each English battalion had a grenadier
company (see for illustrations Archaeological Journal, xxiii. 222,
and xlvii. 321-324). Besides their grenades and the firelock,
grenadiers carried axes which, with the grenades, were employed
in the assault of fortresses, as we are told in the celebrated song,
" The British Grenadiers."
The grenadier companies were formed always of the most
powerful men in the regiment and, when the grenade ceased
to be used, they maintained their existence as the " crack "
companies of their battalions, taking the right of the line on
parade and wearing the distinctive grenadier headdress. This
system was almost universal, and the typical infantry regiment
of the 1 8th and early 19th century had a grenadier and a light
company besides its " line " companies. In the British and other
armies these ilile companies were frequently taken from their
regiments and combined in grenadier andlight infantry battalions
for special service, and Napoleon carried this practice still further
in the French army by organizing brigades and divisions of
grenadiers (and correspondingly of voltigeurs). Indeed the
companies thus detached from the line practically never returned
to it, and this was attended with serious evils, for the battalion
at the outbreak of war lost perhaps a quarter of its best men,
the average men only remaining with theHne. This special organ-
ization of grenadiers and light companies lasted in the British
army until about 1858. In the Prussian service the grenadiers
became permanent and independent battalions about 1740, and
the gradual adoption of the four-company battalion by Prussia
and other nations tended still further to place the grenadiers by
themselves and apart from the line. Thus at the present day
in Germany, Russia and other countries, the title of "grenadiers"
is borne by line regiments, indistinguishable, except for details
of uniform and often the esprit de corps inherited from the old
Hite companies, from the rest. In the British service the only
grenadiers remaining are the Grenadier Guards, originally the
1st regiment of Foot Guards, which was formed in 1660 on the
nucleus of a regiment of English royalists which followed the
fortunes of Charles II. in exile. In Russia a whole army corps
(headquarters Moscow), inclusive of its artillery units, bears the
title.
The special headdress of the grenadier was a pointed cap, with
peak and flaps, of embroidered cloth, or a loose fur cap of similar
shape; both these were light field service caps. The fur cap
has in the course of time developed into the tall " bearskin "
worn by British guards and various corps of other armies; the
embroidered field cap survives, transformed, however, into a
heavy brass headdress, in the uniform of the xst Prussian Foot
Guards, the ist Prussian Guard Grenadiers and the Russian
Paul (Pavlovsky) Grenadier Guards.
GRENADINES, a chain of islets in the Windward Islands,
West Indies. They stretch for 60 m. between St Vincent and
Grenada, following a N.E. to S.W. direction, and consist of some
600 islets and rocks. Some are a few square miles in extent,
others are merely rocky cones projecting from the deep. For
purposes of administration they are divided between St Vincent
and Grenada. Bequia, the chief island in the St Vincent group,
is long and narrow, with an area 6 sq. m. Owing to a lack of
water it is only slightly cultivated, but game is plentiful.
Admiralty Bay, on the W. side, is a safe and commodious
harbour. Carriacou, belonging to Grenada, is the largest of the
group, being 7 m. long, 2 m. wide and 13 sq. m. in extent.. A ridge
of hills, rising to an altitude of 700 ft., traverses the centre from
N.E. to S.W.; here admirable building stone is found. There
are two good harbours on the west coast, Hillsborough Bay on
which stands Hillsborough, the chief town, and Tyrell Bay,
farther south. The island is thickly populated, the negro
peasantry occupying small lots and working on the metayer
system. Excellent oysters are found along the coast, and cotton
and cattle are the chief exports. Pop. of the group, mostly on
Carriacou (1001) 6497.
GREN0BLE 9 the ancient capital of the Dauphine* in S.E.
France, and now the chief town of the Is£re department, 75 m.
by rail from Lyons, 38$ m. from Chamb&y and 85J m. from
Gap. Pop. (1906), town, 58,641; commune, 73,022. It is one
of the most beautifully situated, and also one of the most strongly
fortified, cities in Europe. Built at a height of 702 ft. on both
banks of the river Isere just above its junction with the Drac,
the town occupies a considerable plain at the south-western end
of the fertile Graisivaudan valley. To the north rise the moun-
tains of the Grande Chartreuse, to the east the range of Belle-
donne, and to the south those of Taillefer and the Moucherotte,
the higher summits of these ranges being partly covered with
snow. From the Jardin de Ville and the quays of the banks of
the Is&re the summit of Mont Blanc itself is visible. The greater
part of the town rises on the left bank of the Is&re, which is
bordered by broad quays. The older portion has the tortuous
and narrow streets usual in towns that have been confined within
fortifications, but in modern times these hindrances have been
demolished. The newer portion of the town has wide thorough-
fares and buildings of the modern French type, solid but not
picturesque. The original town (of but small extent) was built
on the right bank of the Is&re at the southern foot of the Mont
Rachais, now covered by a succession of fortresses that rise
picturesquely on the slope of that hill to a very considerable
height (885 ft. above the town).
Grenoble is the seat of a bishopric which was founded in the
4th century, and now comprises the department of the Isdre —
formerly a suffragan of Vienne it now forms part of the ecclesi-
astical province of Lyons. The most remarkable building in the
town is the Palais de Justice, erected (late 15th century to 16th
century) on the site of the old palace of the Parlement of the
Dauphin6. Opposite is the most noteworthy church of the city,
that of St Andr6 (13th century), formerly the chapel of the
dauphins of the Viennois: in it is the 17th century monument
of Bayard (1476-15 24), the chevalier sans peur et sans reproche,
which was removed hither in 1822; but it is uncertain whose
bones are therein. The cathedral church of Notre Dame is a
heavy building, dating in part from the nth century. The
church of St Laurent, on the right bank of the Isere, is the oldest
in the city (nth century) and has a remarkable crypt, dating
from Merovingian times. The town hall is a mainly modern
building, constructed on the site of the palace of the dauphins,
while the prefecture is entirely modern. The town ' library
contains a considerable collection of paintings, mainly of the
modern French school, but is more remarkable for its very rich
collection of MSS. (7000) and printed books (250,000 vols.)
which in great part belonged till 1793 to the monastery of the
Grande Chartreuse. The natural history museum houses rich
collections of various kinds, which contain {inter alia) numerous
geological specimens from the neighbouring districts of the
Dauphin^ and Savoy. The university, revived in modern times
S*o
GRENVILLE, SIR B.— GRENVILLE, G.
after t long abeyance, occupies a modern building, as does also
the hospital, though founded as far back as the 15th century.
There are numerous societies in the town, including the Academic
Deiphinale (founded in 1772), and many charitable institutions.
The staple industry of Grenoble is the manufacture of kid
gloves, most of the so-called gants Jouvin being made here— they
are named after the reviver of the art, X. Jouvin (1800-1844).
There are about 80 glove factories, which employ 18,500 persons
(of whom 15,000 are women), the annual output being about
800,000 dozen pairs of gloves. Among other articles produced
at Grenoble are artificial cements, liqueurs, straw hats and
carved furniture.
Grenoble occupies the site of Cularo, a village of the Allobroges,
which only became of importance when fortified by Diocletian
and Maximian at the end of the 3rd century. Its present name
is a corruption of Gratianopolis, a title assumed probably in
honour of Gratian (4th century), who raised it to the rank of a
eivUas. After passing under the power of the Burgundians
(e. 440) and the Franks (532) it became part of the kingdom
of Provence (879-1032). On the break-up of that kingdom a
long struggle for supremacy ensued between the bishops of
the city and the counts of Albon, the latter finally winning the
day in the 12th century, and taking the title of Dauphins of the
Viennois in the 13th century. In 1349 Grenoble was ceded with
the rest of the Dauphine to France, but retained various municipal
privileges which had been granted by the dauphins to the town,
originally by a charter of 1242. In 1562 it was sacked by the
Protestants under the baron des Adrets, but in 1 572 the firmness
of its governor, Bertrand tie Gordes, saved it from a repetition
of the Massacre of St Bartholomew. In 1590 Lesdiguieres
(1 543-1626) took the town in the name of Henry IV M then still
a Protestant, and during his long governorship (which lasted
to his death) did much for it by the construction of fortifications,
quays, &c. In 1 768 the attempt of the king to weaken the power
of the parlement of Grenoble (which, though strictly a judicial
authority, had preserved traditions of independence, since the
suspension of the states-general of the Dauphin in 1628) roused
the people to arms, and the " day of the tiles " (7th of June 1788)
is memorable for the defeat of the royal forces. In 1790, on the
formation of the department of the Isere, Grenoble became its
capital. Grenoble was the first important town to open its gates
to Napoleon on his return from Elba (7th of March 1815), but
a few months later (July) it was obliged to surrender to the
Austrian army. Owing to its situation Grenoble was formerly
much subject to floods, particularly in the case of the wild Drac.
One of the worst took place in 1 2 19, while that of 1 778 was known
as the fflnge de la Saint Cripin* Among the celebrities who
have been born at Grenoble are Vaucanson (1700-1 783), Mably
(1709-1785), Condillac (1715-1780), Beyle, best known as
Stendhal, his nam de guerre (1783-1842), Barnave (1761-1793)
and Casimir Perier (1777-1832).
See A. Prudhomme, Histoire de Grenoble (1888); X. Roux, La
Corporation des gantiers de Grenoble (1887); H. Duhamel, Grenoble
consid£r6 conme centre d' excursions (1902); J. Marion, Cartulair.es
de Vtglise cathterale de Grenoble (Paris, 1869). (W. A. B. C.)
GRENVILLE, SIR BEVIL (1 596-1 643), Royalist soldier in the
English Civil War (see Great Rebellion), was educated at
Exeter College, Oxford. As member of Parliament, first for
Cornwall, then for Launceston, Grenvilk supported Sir John
Eliot and the opposition, and his intimacy with Eliot was lifelong.
In 1630, however, he appears as a royalist going to the Scottish
War in the train of Charles I. The reasons of this change of
front are unknown, but Grenvilk's honour was above suspicion,
and he must have entirely convinced himself that he was doing
right. At any rate he was a very valuable recruit to the royalist
cause, being '* the most generally loved man in Cornwall." At
the outbreak of the Civil War he and others of the gentry not
only proclaimed the king's Commission of Array at Launceston
assises, but also persuaded the grand jury of the county to
declare their opponents guilty of riot and unlawful assembly,
whereupon the Passe comitoius was called out to expel them*
Under the command of Sir Ralph Hopton, Sir Bevil took a
distinguished part in the action of Bradock Down, and at
Stratton (16 May 1643) > where the parliamentary earl of Stamford
w?» completely routed by the Corrishmei^ie^
parties which captured Chudleigh's tines (Clarendon,, vii. 89). A
month later, the endeavour of Hopton to unite with Maurice and
Hertford from Oxford brought on the battle of Lansdown, near
Bath. Here Grenville was killed at the head of the Cornish
infantry as it reached the top of the Mil. His death was a blow
from which the king's cause an the West never recovered, for
he alone knew how to handle the Comishmen, Boptoa they
revered and respected, but Grenville they loved as peculiarly their
own commander, and after his death there is little more heard
of the reckless valour which had won Stratton and Lansdown.
Grenville is the type of all that was best in English royahsm.
He was neither rapacious, drunken nor dissolute, but his loyalty
was unselfish, his life pure and his skill no less than ins bravery
unquestionable. A monument to him has been erected on the
field of Lansdown.
See Lloyd, Memoirs of Excellent Personage* (ri&S) ; S. R. Gardiner,
History of the English Cml War (vol. i. passim).
GRENVILLE, GEORGE (1712-1770), English statesman,
second son of Richard Grenville and Hester Temple, afterwards
Countess Temple, was born on the 14th of October 171 2. He
was educated at Eton and at Christ Church, Oxford, and was
called to the bar in 1735. He entered parliament in 1741 as
member for Buckingham, and continued to represent that
borough till his death. In parliament he was a member of
the u Boy Patriot " party which opposed Sir Robert WalpoJe,
In December 1744 he became a lord erf the admiralty in the
Pelham administration. He allied hanself with his brother
Richard and with William Pitt in forcing their feeble chief to give
them promotion by rebelling against trisauthority and obstructing
business. In June 1747 he became a lord of the treasury, and
m 1 7 54 treasurer of the navy and privy counciQor. As treasurer
of the navy in 175S he introduced and earned a ball which
established a less unfair system off paying the wages of the
seamen than had existed before* • He remained in office in 1761,
when his brother Lord Temple and his brother-in-law Pitt
resigned upon the question of the war with Spain, and in the
administration of Lord Bute he was entrusted with the leadership
of the House of Commons. In May 1762 he was appointed
secretary of state, and in October first lord of the admmtlty;
and in April 1763 he became first ton! of the treasury and
chancellor of the exchequer* The mdst prominent measures
of his administration were the prosecution a£ Wilkes amd the
passing of the American Stamp Act, which lad to the first
symptoms of alienatao* bet ween America ami the mother
country. During the latter period of his term of nffioe he was
on a very unsatisfactory footing with tiie young king George IIL,
who gradually came to fed a kini of horror of the interminable
persistency of his conversation, and whom he endeavoured to
make use of as the mere puppet of the ministry. The king made
various attempts to induce Pitt to come to hisTescue by forming
a ministry, but without success, and at last had recourse to the
marquis of Rockingham, on whose agreeing to accept office
Grenville was dismissed July 1765. He never again held office,
and died on the 15th of November 1770.
The nickname of " gentle shepherd " was given him because
he bored the House by asking over and over again, during the
debate on the Cider Bill of 1763, that somebody should tell him
" where " to lay the new tax if it was not to be pat on cider.
Pitt whistled the air of the popular tune " Gentle Shepherd, tell
me where," and the House laughed. Though few excelled him
in a knowledge of the forms of the House or in mastery of
administrative details, his tact in dealing with men and with
affairs was so defective that there is perhaps no one who has
been at the head of an English administration to whom a lower
place can be assigned -as a statesman.
In 1749 he married Elizabeth, daughter of Sk William Wynd-
ham, by whom he had a large family. His son, the second Earl
Temple, was created marquess, and his grandson duke, of
Buckingham. Another son was William, afterwards Lord
GRENVILLE, SIR R.-^GRENVTLLE, LORD
581
Grenville. Another, Thomas Grenvitte {1755-1*46^ "who was,
-with one interval, a member of parliament from 1760 to 18 16,
and lor a few months during 1806 and 1807 president of the
board of control and first lord of the admiralty, is perhaps more
famous as a book-collector than as a statesman; he bequeathed
his large and valuable hbrary to the British Mirsrum.
The Grenville Papers, being ike Correspondence ef Richard Gremille,
Earl Temple, K.G., and the Ri&t Hon. George Grenville, ibeir Friends
and Contemporaries, were published at London in 1852, and afford
the chief authority for his life. But see also H. Walpole's Memoirs
of the Reign of George II. (London, 1845) ; Lord Stanhope's History
of England (London, 1 858) ; Lecky 's History of England (1885) ; and
E. D. Adams, The Influence of GreneiUe en Pitt's Foreign Policy
(Washington, J904).
GRENVILLE (or Greynvjle), SIR RICHARD (c. 1541-1591),
British naval commander, was born of an old Cornish family
about 1 541. His grandfather, Sir Richard, had been marshal of
Calais in the time of Henry VIII., and his father commanded
and was lost in the " Mary Rose " in 1545- At an early age
Grenville is supposed to have served in Hungary under the
emperor Maximilian against the Turks. In the years 157* and
1584 he sat in parliament for Cornwall, and in 1563 and 1584
he was commissioner for the works at Dover harbour. He appears
to have been a man of much pride and ambition. Of his bravery
there can be no doubt. In 1585 he commanded the fleet of seven
vessels by which the colonists sent out by his cousin, Sir Walter
Raleigh, were carried to Roanoke Island in the. present North
Carolina. Grenville himself soon returned wijth the -fleet to
England, capturing a. Spanish vessel on his way, but m 1586 he
carried provfcians to Roanoke, and finding the colony deserted,
left a few men to maintain possession. He then held an im-
portant poet in charge of the defences of the western counties of
England. WJiei* a squadron was despatched in 1 5Qi> under Lord
Thomas Howafld, to intercept the homeward-bound treasure-fleet
of Spain, Grenville was appointed as second in command on board
the " Reyenge," a ship o£ 500 tons which had been commanded
by Drake against the Armada in 1568* At the end of August
Howard with x6 ships lay at anchor, to the north of Flores in the
Azores. Qn the last day of the month he received news from a
pinnace, sent by the earl of Cumberland, who was then off the
Portugal coast, that a Spanish fleet of 53 vessels was then,
bearing up to the Azores to meet the> treasure-ships. Not being in
a position to tight a fleet more than titfee times the siae of his
own, Howard gave orders to wejgh anchor and stand out to
sea* But, either from some misunderstanding of the order, or
from some idea of Granville's that the Spanish vessels, rapidly
approaching were the ships for which they had been waiting,
the " Revenge " was delayed and cut off from her consorts by
the Spaniards* GrenviHe resolved to try to break through the
middle of the Spanish line* His ship was becalmed under the lee
of a buge galleon, and after a hand-to-hand fight lasting through
fifteen hours against fifteen Spanish ships and a force of five
thousand men, the " Revenge " with her hundred and fifty men
was captured. Grenville himself wascarried on board the Spanish
flag-ship " San Pablo/' and died a few days later. The incident
is commemorated in Tennyson's ballad of " The Revenge,"
The spelling of Sir Richard's name has. led to much controversy-
Four different families, each of which claim to be descended from
him, spell it Granville, Grenville, Grenfell and Greenfield. The
spelling usually accepted is Grenville, but his own signature,
in a bold clear handwriting, among the Tanner MSS. in the
Bodleian library at Oxford, is Greynvile.
GRENVILLE (or Grawixe), SIR RICHARD (1000-1658),
English royalist, was the third son of Sir Bernard Grenville
(1 559-1636), and a grandson of the famous seaman, Sir Richard
Grenville. Having served in France, Germany and the Nether-
lands, Grenville gained the favour of the duke of Buckingham,
took part in the expeditions to Cadiz, to the island of Rhe and
to La Rochelle, was knighted, and in i6i8 was chosen member
of parliament for Fowey. Having married Mary Fitz (1596-
1 67 1 ) , widow of Sir Charles Howard (d. 162 2) and a lady of fortune,
Grenville was made a baronet in 1630; his violent temper,
however, made the marriage an unhappy one, and he was ruined
aad imprisoned as the result of two lawsuits, one with his wife,
and the other with her kinsman, the eari of Suffolk. In 1633 he
escaped from prison and went to Germany, returning to England
six years later to join the army which Charles I. was collecting
to maTch against the Soots. Early in 1641, just after the out-
break of the Irish rebellion, Sir Richard ted some troops to Ireland,
where he won some fame and became governor of Trim; then
returning to England in 1643 he was arrested at Liverpool
by an officer of the parliament, but was soon released and sent
to join the parliamentary army. Having, however, secured men
and money, he hurried to Charles X. at Oxford and was despatched
to take part in the siege of Plymouth, quickly becdming the leader
of the forces engaged in this enterprise. Compelled to raise
the siege he retired into Cornwall, where he helped to resist the
advancing Parliamentarians; but he quickly showed signs of
insubordination, and, whilst sharing in the siege of Taunton,
he was wounded and obliged to resign his command. About
this time loud complaints were brought against Grenville. He
had behaved, it was said, in a very arbitrary fashion; he had
hanged some men and imprisoned others; he had extorted
money and had used the contributions towards the cost of the
war for his own ends. Many of these charges were undoubtedly
true, but upon his recovery the councillors of the prince of Wales
gave him a position under Lord Goring, whom, however, he
refused to obey. Equally recalcitrant was his attitude towards
Goring's successor, Sir Ralph Hopton, and in January 1646 he was
arrested. But he was soon released ; he went to France and Italy,
and after visiting England in disguise passed some time in
Holland. He was excepted by parliament from pardon in 1648,
and after the king's execution he was with Charles II. in France
and elsewhere until some unfounded accusation which he brought
against Edward Hyde, afterwards earl of Clarendon, led to his
removal from court* He died in 1658, and was buried at Ghent.
In 1644,, when Grenville deserted the parliamentary party:, a
proclamation was put. out against him; in this there were at-
tached to his name several offensive epithets, among them being
skdhwty a word probably derived from the German Sckelm,
a scoundrel. Hence he is often called " skellum GrenviHe."
Grenville wrote an account of affairs in the west of England, which
was printed in T. Carte's Original' Letters (1739). To this partisan
account Clarendon drew up an- answer, the bulk of which he after-
wards incorporated in his History, In 1654 Grenville wrotehis Single
defence against aU aspersions of all malignant persons. This is
printed in the Works of George Granville, Lord Lansdowne (London,
1736), where Lansdowne's VindicmUou of his kinsman, Sir Richard,
against Clarendon's changes is also found. See also Clarendon.
History. of the Rebellion, edited by W. D. Macray (pxford, 18&8);
and R. Granville, The King's General in the West (1908).
GRBWILI& WILLIAM WYNDHAM GRENVILLE Baron
(i759~r$34)> English statesman, youngest son of George Gren-
ville, was bom on the 25th of October *759« He was educated
at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, gaining the chancellor's
prize for Latin verse in 1779. In February 1782 Grenville was
returned to parliament as member for the borough of Bucking-
ham, and in the following September he became secretary to the
lord lieutenant of Ireland, who at this time was his brother,
Earl Temple, afterwards marquess of Buckingham. He left
office in June 1783, but in the following December he became
paymaster-general of the forces under his cousin, William Pitt,
and in 1786 vice-president of the. committee of trade. In 1787
he was sent on an important mission to the Hague and Versailles
with reference to the affairs of Holland. In January 1789 he
was chosen speaker of the House of Commons, but he vacated the
chair, in the same year on being appointed secretary of state for
the home department; about the same time he resigned his other
offices, but he became president of the board of control, and in
November 1790 was created a peer as Baron Grenville. In the
House of Lords he was very active in directing the business of the
government, and in. 1791 he was transferred to the foreign office,
retaining his post at the board of control until 1793. He was
doubtless regarded by Pitt as the man best fitted to carry out
his policy with reference to France, but in the succeeding years
he and his chief were frequently at variance on important
5 82
GRESHAM, SIR T.
questions of foreign policy. In spite of his multifarious duties
at the foreign office Grenville continued to take a lively interest
in domestic matters, which he showed by introducing various
bills into the House of Lords. In February 1801 he resigned
office with Pitt because George III. would not consent to the
introduction of any measure of Roman Catholic relief, .and in
opposition he gradually separated himself from his former leader.
When Pitt returned to power in 1804 Grenville refused to join
the ministry unless his political ally, Fox, was also admitted
thereto; this was impossible and he remained out of office until
February 1806, when just after Pitt's death he became the
nominal head of a coalition government. This ministry was very
unfortunate in its conduct of foreign affairs, but it deserves to
be remembered with honour on account of the act passed in 1807
for the abolition of the slave trade. Its influence, however,
was weakened by the death of Fox, and in consequence of a
minute drawn up by Grenville and some of his colleagues the
king demanded from his ministers an assurance that in future
they would not urge upon him any measures for the relief of
Roman Catholics. They refused to give this assurance and in
March 1807 they resigned. Grenville's attitude in this matter
was somewhat aggressive; his colleagues were not unanimous
in supporting him, and Sheridan, one of them, said " he had
known many men knock their heads against a wall, but he had
never before heard of any man who collected the bricks and built
the very wall with an intention to knock out his own brains
against it."
Lord Grenville never held office again, although he was
requested to do so on several occasions. He continued, however,
to take part in public life, being one of the chief supporters of
Roman Catholic emancipation, and during the remaining years of
his active political career, which ended in 1823, he generally voted
with the Whigs, although in 1815 he separated himself from his
colleague, Charles Grey, and supported the warlike policy of
Lord Liverpool. In 1 819, when the marquess of Lansdowne
brought forward his motion for an inquiry into the causes of the
distress and discontent in the manufacturing districts, Grenville
delivered an alarmist speech advocating repressive measures.
His concluding years were spent at Dropmore, Buckinghamshire,
where he died on the 12th of January 1834. His wife, whom he
married in 1792, was Anne (1772-1864), daughter of Thomas Pitt,
ist Baron Camelford, but he had no issue and his title became
extinct. In 1809 he was elected chancellor of Oxford university.
Though Grenville's talents were not of the highest order his
straightforwardness and industry, together with his knowledge
of politics and the moderation of his opinions, secured for him
considerable political influence. He may be enrolled among the
band Of English statesmen who have distinguished themselves
in literature. He edited Lord Chatham's letters to his nephew,
Thomas Pitt, afterwards Lord Camelford (London, 1804, and
other editions); he wrote a small volume, Nuga€Metr4cae(i&*4)>
being translations into Latin from English, Greek and Italian, and
an Essay on the Supposed Advantages of a Sinking Ftmd (1828).
The Dropmore MSS. contain much of Grenville's correspondence,
and on this the Historical Manuscripts Commission has published a
report.
GRESHAM, SIR THOMAS (i5r9-'*579)> London merchant,
the founder of the Royal Exchange and of Gresham College,
London, was descended from an old Norfolk family; he was the
only son of Sir Richard Gresham, a leading London merchant,
who for some time held the office of lord mayor, and for his
services as agent of Henry VIII. in negotiating loans with foreign
merchants received the honour of knighthood . Though his father
intended him to follow his own profession, he nevertheless sent
him for some time to Caius College, Cambridge, but there is no
information as to the duration of his residence. It is uncertain
also whether it was before or after this that he was apprenticed
to his uncle Sir John Gresham, who was also a merchant, but
we have his own testimony that he served an apprenticeship of
eight years. In 1 543, at the age of twenty-four, he was admitted
a member of the Mercers' Company, and in the same year he
went to the Low Countries, where, either on his own account or
on that of his father or Uncle, he both carried on business aa a
merchant and acted in various matters as an agent for Henry
VIII. In 1 544 he married the widow of William Read, a London
merchant, but, he still continued to reside principally in the Low
Countries, having his headquarters at Antwerp. When in 155 1
the mismanagement of Sir William Dansell, " king's merchant "
in the Low Countries, had brought the English government into
great financial embarrassment, Gresham was called in to give
his advice, and chosen to carry out his own proposals. Their
leading feature was the adoption of various methods — highly
ingenious, but quite arbitrary and unfair — for raising the value
of the pound sterling on the " bourse " of Antwerp, and it was
so successful that in a few years nearly all King Edward's debts
were discharged. The advice of Gresham was likewise sought
by the government in all their money difficulties, and he was
also frequently employed in various diplomatic missions. He
had no stated salary, but in reward of his services received from
Edward various grants of lands, the annual value of which at that
time was ultimately about £400 a year. On the accession of
Mary he was for a short time in disfavour, and was displaced
in his post by Alderman William Dauntsey. But Dauntsey's
financial operations were not very successful and Gresham was
soon reinstated; and as he professed his zealous desire to serve
the queen, and manifested great adroitness both in negotiating
loans and in smuggling money, arms arid foreign goods, not only
were his services retained throughout her reign, but besides his
salary of twenty shillings per diem he received grants of church
lands to the yearly value of £200. Under Queen Elizabeth,
besides continuing in his post as financial agent of the crown,
he acted temporarily as ambassador at the court of the duchess of
Parma, being knighted in 1559 previous to his departure. By
the outbreak of the war in the Low Countries he was compelled
to leave Antwerp on the 19th of March 1567; but, though he
spent the remainder of his life in London, he continued his
business as merchant and financial agent of the government
in much the same way as formerly. Elizabeth also found him
useful in a great variety of other ways, among which was that
of acting as jailer, to Lady Mary Grey, who, as a punishment for
marrying Thomas Keys the sergeant porter, remained a prisoner
in his house from June 156910 the end of 1572. In 1565 Gresham
made a proposal to the court of aldermen of London to build
at his own expense a bourse or exchange, on condition that they
purchased for this purpose a piece of suitable ground. In this
proposal he seems to have had an eye to his own interest as well
as to the general gdod of the merchants, for by a yearly rental
of £700 obtained for the shops in the upper part of the building
he received a sufficient return for his trouble and expense.
Gresham died suddenly, apparently of apoplexy, on the 21st
of November 1579. His only son predeceased him, and his
illegitimate daughter Anne he married to Sir Nathaniel Bacon,
brother of the great Lord Bacon. With the exception of a
number of small sums bequeathed to the support of various
charities, the bulk of his property, consisting of estates in various
parts of England of the annual value of more than £2300, was
bequeathed to his widow and her heirs with the stipulation that
after her decease his residence in Bishopsgate Street, as well as
the rents arising from the Royal Exchange, should be vested
in the hands of the corporation of London and the Mercers'
Company, for the purpose of instituting a college in which seven
professors should read lectures — one each day of the week — on
astronomy, geometry, physic, law, divinity, rhetoric and music.
The lectures were begun in 1 597, and were delivered in theoriginal
building until 1768, when, on the ground that the trustees were
losers by the gift, it was made over to the crown for a yearly rent
of £500, and converted into an excise office. From that time
a room in the Royal Exchange was used for the lectures until in
1843 the present building was erected at a cost of £7000.
A notice of Gresham is contained in Fuller's Worthies and Ward's
Gresham Professors; but the fullest account of him, as well as of the
history of the Exchange and Gresham College is that by J. M. Burgon
in his Life and Times of Sir Thomas Gresham (2 vols., 1839). See
also a Brief Memoir of Sir Thomas Gresham (1833); and The Life of
Sir Thomas Gresham, Founder of the Royal Exchange (1845).
GRESHAM, W; Q^~GRETRY
:5»3
GRESHAM, WAJLTER QUIHTON (£832-0895). American
statesman and jurist, was bom near Lanesvilie, Harmon county,
Indiana, on the 17th of March 1832. He spent two years in an
academy at Cory don, Indiana, and one year at the Indiana State
University at Bloomington, then studied law, and in 1854 was
admitted to the bar. He was active as a campaign speaker for
the Republican ticket in 1856, and in i860 was elected to the
State House of Representatives as a Republican in a strong
Democratic district. In the House, as chairman of the committee
on military affairs, he did much to prepare the Indiana troops
for service in the Federal army; in 1861 he became colonel
of the 53rd Indiana Volunteer Infantry, and subsequently took
part in Grant's Tennessee campaign of 1862, and in the operations
against Corinth and Vicksburg, where he commanded a brigade.
In August 1863 he was appointed brigadier-general of volunteers,
and was placed in cbmmand of the Federal forces at Natchez.
In 1864 hie commanded a division, of the 17th Army Corps
in Sherman's Atlanta campaign, and before Atlanta, on the
20th of July, he received a wound which forced Mm to retire
from active service, and left him lame for life. In 1865 he was
brevetted major-general of volunteers. After the war he practised
law at New Albany, Indiana, and in 1869 was appointed by
President Grant United States District Judge- for Indiana.
In April 1883 he succeeded Timothy O. Howe (181 6-1 883) as
postmaster-general in President Arthur's' cabinet, taking an
active part in the suppression of the Louisiana Lottery, and in
September 1884. succeeded Charles J. Folger as secretary of the
treasury. In the following month he resigned to accept an
appointment as United States Judge for the Seventh Judicial
Circuit. Gresham was a candidate for the Republican presi-
dential nomination in 1884 and 1888, in the latter year leading
for some time in the balloting. Gradually, however, he grew
out of sympathy with the Republican leaders and policy, and in
1893 advocated the election of the Democratic candidate, Grover
Cleveland, for the presidency* . From the 7th of March 1893
until his death at Washington on the 28th of May 1895, he was
secretary of state in President Cleveland's cabinet.
GRESHAM'S LAW, in economics, the name suggested in 1857
by H. D. Macleod for the principle of currency which may be
briefly summarized—" bad money drives out good.' 9 . Macleod
gave it this name, which has been universally adopted, under the
impression that, the principle was first explained by Sir Thomas
Gresham in 1558. In reality it had been well set forth by earlier
economic writers, notably Oresme and Copernicus* Macleod
states the law in these terms: the worst form of currency in
circulation regulates the value of the whole currency and drives
all other forms of currency out of circulation. Gresham's law
applies where there is underweight or debased coin in circulation
with full-weight coin of the' same metal; where there are two
metals in circulation, and one is undervalued as compared with
the other, and where inconvertible paper money is put into
circulation side by side with a metallic currency. See further
Bimetallism; Monev.
GRESSET, JEAN BAPTISTS LOUIS (1709-^1777), French
poet and dramatist, was born at Amiens on the 29th of August
1709. His poem Vert Vert is his main title to fame. He spent,
however*, the last twenty-five years of his life in regretting the
frivolity which enabled him to produce this most charming of
poems. He was brought up by the Jesuits of Amiens. He was
accepted as a novice at the age of sixteen, and sent to pursue his
studies at the College Louis le Grand in Paris. After completing
his course he was appointed, being then under twenty years of
age, to a post as assistant master in a college at Rouen. He pub-
lished Vert Vert at Rouen in 1734. It is a story, in itself exceed-
ingly humorous, showing how a parrot, the delight of a convent,
whose talk was. all of prayers and pious ejaculations, was
conveyed to another convent as a visitor to please the nuns. On
the way he falls among bad companions, forgets his convent
language, and shocks the sisters , on arrival by profane swearing.
He is sent back in disgrace, punished by solitude. and plain
bread, presently repents, reforms and is killed by kindness. The
story, however, is nothing. The treatment of (he subject, the
atmosphere which surrounds it, the delicacy in which the little
prattling ways of the nuns, their jealousies, their tiny trifles, are
presented, takes the reader entirely by surprise. The poem stands
absolutely unrivalled, even among French contes en iters.
Gresset found himself famous. He left Rouen, went up to
Paris, where he found refuge in the same garret which had
sheltered him when a boy at the College Louis le Grand, and
there wrote his second poem, La Chartreuse. It was followed
by the Car fane impromptu, the Lutrin vivant and Les Ombres.
Then trouble came upon him; complaints were made to the
fathers of the alleged licentiousness of his verses, the real cause
of complaint being the ridicule which Vert Vert seemed to throw
upon the whole race of nuns and the anti-clerical tendency of
the other poems. An example, it was urged, must be made;
Gresset was expelled the order. Men of robust mind would have
been glad to get rid of such a yoke. Gresset, who had never been
taught to stand alone, went forth weeping. He went to Paris
in 1740. and there produced Xtdouard III, a tragedy (1740)
and Sidnei ( 1 745) , a comedy. These were followed by Le MSehartt
which still keeps the stage, and is qualified by Brunetiere
as thet>est verse comedy 9f the French rSth century theatre,
not excepting even the "MHrbmanie of Aleftis Piron. Gresset
was admitted to the Academy in 1748. And then, still young,
be retired to Amiens, where his relapse from the discipline of the
church became the subject of the -deepest rernorse. He died
at Amiens on the 16th of June 1777.'
The best edition of his poems is A. A. RenouatdV(r8li). See Jules
Wogue, ./. B. L. Gresset (1894). t
GRETNA GREEN, or Graitkey Green, a village in the south-
east of Dumfriesshire, Scotland, about 8 m. E. of Annan, 9 m.
N.N;W. of Carlisle, arid} m. from the river Sark, here the
dividing-line between England and Scotland, with a station on
the Glasgow & South- Western railway. The Caledonian and
North British railways have a station at Gretna on the English
side of the Border, As the neatest village on the Scottish side,
Gretna Green was notorious as the resort of doping couples,
who had failed to obtain the consent of pared ts or guardians to
their union. Up till 1754; when Loro^Hdrdwicke's act abolishing
clandestine marriages came into force, the ceremony had com-
monly been performed in the Fleet prison in London. After
that date runaway couples were compelled to seek the hospitality
of a country where it sufficed for them to declare their wish
to marry in the presence of witnesses. At Gretna Green the
ceremony was usually performed by the blacksmith,' but the toll-
keeper, ferryman or in fact any person might officiate, and the
toll-house, the inn, or, after 1826, Gretna Hall was the scene of
many such weddings, the fees varying from half a guinea to a
sum as large as impudence could extort or extravagance bestow.
As many as two hundred couples were married at tjie toll-house
in a year. The romantic traffic . was practically, though not
necessarily, put an end to in 1856, when the law required one of
the contracting parties to reside in Scotland three weeks previous
to the event.
GR*TRY, ANDRfi ERNEST MQMKTK (*74*-*S*$), French
composer, was born at Li£ge on thetSth of.Februajryi74i^his
father being a poor musician. He was a choir, boy at the church
of St Denis* . In 1753 he became a pupil of Leclerc and later of
Renekin and Moreau. But. of greater importance was the
practical tuition he received, by attending the performance of
an Italian opera company. Here he heard the operas of Galuppi,
Pergolesi and other masters; and the desire of completing his
own studies in Italy was the immediate result*. To : find the
necessary means be composed in 1759 a mass which he dedicated
to the canons of the Li6ge cathedral, and it was at the cost of
Canon Hurley that he went to Italy in the March of 1759. In
Rome he went to the College de Ltege. , IJere Grtey resided for
five years, studiously employed in. completing his musical
education under Casali. His proficiency in harmony and counter-
point was, however, according to his own confession, at all times
very moderate. His first great success was achieved by La
Vendemmiatrice, an Italian intermezzo or operetta? composed for
the Aliberti theatre in Rome and received with universal
5H
greuze; j. b.
applause. It fi said that the study of the scare oi one of Jdon-
slgny '* operas, lent to him by a secretary of the French embassy
Jn Home, decided Gretry to devote himself to French comic
opera. On New Year's day 1767 he accordingly left Rome,
and after a short stay at Geneva (where he made the acquaintance
of Voltaire, and produced another operetta) went to Paris.
There for two years he had to contend with the difficulties
Incident to poverty and obscurity. He was, however, not without
friends, ami by the intercession of Count Greutz, the Swedish
ambassador, Gretry obtained a libretto from. Marmontei, which
he set to music in less than six weeks, and which, on its perform-
ance in August 1768, met with unparalleled success. The name
of the opera wan Le Huron. Two others, Lucile and Le Tableau
parlwt, soon followed, and thenceforth Gretry's position as the
leading composer of comic opera was safely established. Alto-
gether he composed some fifty operas. His masterpieces are
Z4mire el Amr and Richard Ceeur deLfon,—iht first produced in
1771, the second in 1784. The latter in an indirect way became
connected with a great historic event. In it occurs the celebrated
romance, Richard, 6 mm mi, I'umvars t i abandon»c f which was
sung nt the banquet—" fatal as that of Thyestes," remarks
Carlyle -given by the bodyguard to the officers of the Versailles
garrison on October 3, 1789. The Marseillaise not long after-
wards became the roply of the people to the expression of loyalty
borrowed from Gretry's opera. The composer himself was not
uninfluenced by the great events he witnessed, and the titles of
some of his operas, such aa La Rosiere ripuNiGoine and La Ftte
de h raison, sufficiently indicate the epoch to which they belong;
but they are mere pilots d$ eveenstauee, and the republican
enthusiasm displayed is not genuine. Little more successful
was Gretry in his dealings with classical subjects. His genuine
power lay in the delineation, oi character and in the expression
of tender and typically French sentiment. The structure of his
concerted pieces on the other hand is frequently flimsy, and his
instrumentation so feeble that the orchestral parts of some of his
works had to be rewritten by other composers* in order to make
them acceptable to modern audiences. During the revolution
Gretry lost much of bis property, but the successive governments
of France vied in favouring the composer, regardless of political
differences. From the old court he received distinctions and
rewards of all kinds; the republic made him an inspector of the
conservatoire; Napoleon granted him the cross of the legion of
honour and a pension. Gretry died on the »4th of September
i8m, at the Hermitage in Montmorency, formerly the house
of Rousseau. Fifteen years after his death Gretry's heart was
transferred to his birthplace, permission having been obtained
after a tedious lawsuit. In 1841 a colossal bronze statue of the
composer was set up at Liege.
Se* Michael Brenet. Vw de GrHry (Paris, 18^4); Joach. le Breton,
tftfiee kistoriqm smr le We H Us eueragtt de Gritry (Paris* 1814);
A, Gritry this nephew), OrHry eniamtue (Paris, 1814); Felix van
Hulst, 0WJr,v (U6ge, 184^; L. D. Sw Not** ta*raM*9"* smr Grttry
(Hruxclhtt, lM*j).
niUtt JBAN EAmtni (17*5-1805), IWn* painter, was
born at Tfcuraus, In Burgundy, on the sist of August 1725, and
is generally said to have formed his own talent; this & however,
true only in the most limited sense, for at an early age his in-
clination*, though thwarted by his father, were encouraged by a
Lyonntse artist named Grandon, or Grondom, who enjoyed
during his lifetime considerable reputation as a portrait-painter.
Grandon not only persuaded the father of Greuze to give way
to hb *on*» wished and permit the lad to accompany him as his
pupil to Lynns, but, when at a later date he himself left Lyons
tfer W*-- where his son-in-law Gfttry the celebrated composer
enjoyed the height of favour — GrandoncarricdyouagGreuzewith
hinv Settled in VarK Greua* worked from the living model in
theachoolof the Royal Academy, but did not attract the attention
of his t**cwm: and when he produced hi* first picture, * Le PSre
d* uuniU* expNquant la Bible a sesenffcnts." considerable dowbt
was tkh and shown as to h» share in its production. By other
and more remarkable works of the same class Greua* soon
established hb claims beyond contest, and wen for himself the
notice and support of the well-known connoisseur La Lire- de
Jutty, the brotber-in4aCT of Madame d'£pinsy~ In 1755 Greuze
exhibited his " Aveugle trompe/' upon which, presented by
Ptgalle the sculptor, he was immediately agrit by the Academy.
Towards the close of the same year he left France for Italy, in
company with the Abbe Louis Gougcnot, who had deserted from
the magistraiure — although he had obtained the post of u con-
seiilier an Chatelet "—in order to take the u petit collet."
Gougenot had some acquaintance with the arts^ and was highly
valued by the Academicians, who, during his journey with
Greuze, elected him an honorary member of their body oh
account of his studies in mythology and allegory; bis acquire-
ments in these respects are said to have been largely utilized by
them, but to Greuze they were of doubtful advantage, and be
lost rather than gained by this visit to Italy in Gongenot's
company. He had undertaken it probably in order to silence
those who taxed him with ignorance of " great- models of style,"
but the Italian subjects which formed the entirety of has contri-
butions, to the Salon of 1757 showed that he had been! put on a
false track, and he speedily returned to the* source oi his first
inspiration* In 1759, 1761 ^ u L\Accordfede village M *-Louvre),
and 1763 Greuse exhibited with era-increasing success; in 1765
he reached the zexritji of hs. powers, and reputation. In that year
he was represented wish no less than thirteen Works, amongst
which may be cited " La Jenne FiDe qui pleure son otseau inert,"
" La Bonne Mere," " Le Maavais fila puni " (Louvre) and " La
Malediction patexnelle" (Louvre). The Academy took occasion to
press Greuze for his diploma picture, the execution of which had
been long delayed, and foibade him to exhibit on their walls
until he had complied with their regulations. u J'ai vu la kttre,"
says Diderot, " qui est un modele d*honnetete et d'estime;
j'ai vu la r6ponse de Greuze, qui est un modele de vanfcc
et d'impertinence: il fallait appuyer cela d'un chef-d'oeuvre,
et c*est ce que Greuze n'a pas fait." Greuze wished to be
received as a historical painter, and produced a work which he
intended to vindicate hk right to despise his qualifications as a
peirUre de genre. This unfortunate canvasr— " Severeet Caracalla,"
(Louvre)-— was exhibited in 1760 side by side with Greuse's
portrait oi Jeaurat (Louvre) and his admirable " Petite Fille an
chien noir." The Academicians received their new member with
all due honours, but at the dose of the ceremonies the Director
addressed Greuze in these words — " Monsieur, PAcademie vous
a re$u, mais e'est comme peintre de genre; elle a en egaxd k ves
andennes productions, qui sent excellentes, et elle a ferine ks
yeux sur celle-ci, qui n'est digne ni d'elle ni de vous." Greuze,
greatly incensed, quarrelled with his confreres, and ceased to
exhibit until, in 1804, the Revolution had thrown open the doors
of the Academy to all the world. In the following year, on the
4th of March 1805, he died in the Louvre in great poverty. He
had been in receipt of considerable wealth, which he had dissi-
pated by extravagance and bad management, so that during
his dosing- years he was forced even to solicit commissions which
his enfeebled powers no longer enabled him to carry out with
success. The brilliant reputation which Greuze acquired seems
to have been due, not to his acquirements as a painter— -lor
his practice is evidently that current in his own day—but to the
character oi the subjects which he treated. That return to
nature which inspired Rousseau's attacks upon an artificial
civilization demanded expression in art. Diderot, in Le FUs
natmret HU per* d* famske, tried to turn the vein of domestic
drama to account on the stage; that which he tried and failed
to do Greuze, in painting, achieved with extraordinary success,
although his works, like the plays of Diderot, were affected by
that very artificiality against which they protested. The touch
of melodramatic exaggeration, however, which runs through
them finds an apology in the firm and briftiaat play of line, in the
freshness and vigour of the flesh tints, in the enticing softness of
expression (often obtained by almost an. abuse of mipists), by the
alluring air of health and youth, by the sensuous attractions, in
short . with which Greuze invests his lesson* of bourgeois morality.
AsDidpmtsaidof u LaBoM*Mere,""capT
and a certain piquancy oi contrast is the result which newer
OREVILLE-t-GREW
S«S
fails to obtain admirers. " La Jeune FiUe a Pagneau " fetched,
indeed, at the Pqurtalessale in 186.5, no leas than 1,000,200 frames.
One of Greuse's pupils, Madame Le Doux, imitated with success
the manner of her master.; his daughter and granddaughter,
Madame de Valory, also inherited, some traditions of his talent.
Madame de Valory published in 1813 a cometlie^vaudeville,
Greuse, on Vaccontte de village, to which she prefixed a notice
of her grandfather's life and works, and the Salons of Diderot also
contain, besides many other particulars, the story at full length
of Greuze's quarrel with the Academy. • Four of the most
distinguished engravers of that date, Massard pert, Flipart,
Gaillard and Levasseur, were specially entrusted, by Greuze
with the reproduction of his subjects, but there are also excellent
prints by other engravers, notably by Cars atad Le Ras.
See also Normand, J. B. Gremxe (1803). (£. F. 3. D.)
GRBVIUUR, CHARLES CAVENDISH HJLKB (1704-1865),
English diarist, a great-grandson by his father of the 5th earl of
Warwick, and sdn of Lady Charlotte Bentinck, daughter of the
duke of Portland, formerly a leader of the Whig party, and
first minister of the crown, was born on the and of April 1794.
Much of his childhood was spent at his grandfather's house
at Bulstrode. He was one of the pages of George III., and vas
educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford; but he left the
university early, having been appointed private secretary to
Earl Bathurst before he was twenty. The interest of the duke
of Portland had secured for htm the secretaryship of the island
of Jamaica, which was a sinecure office, the duties being per-
formed by a deputy! and the reversion of the clerkship of the
council* GrcviBe entered upon the discharge of the duties df
oferkof the. council inordinary in 1821, and continued to perform
thornier nearly forty years* He therefore served under three
successive sovereigns,-?-George IV.^ WflBiaan IV. and Victoria,-^
and although no pofitioai or confidential; functions «re attached
to that office, it is one winch brings auaan into habitual inter-
course with the chiefs <rf all the parties in the state. WelMborn^
well-bred, ; handsome and accomplished, ; GreviHe ' led the easy
life of a maa>ef fashion, taking an occasional palrt in the transac-
tions of his day and much consulted in the affairs of private life.
Uaftil 1855 when he sold mVsfcud he Was an active'.member of
the Hirf, and he trained successively with Lord Gcidrge Bentintk,
and with the duke of Portland. But the celebrity Which now
4tt*cheafo his name is entirely dueto the posthumous publication
of a pettfen.of « Joathfcl or Ddatry whkzh it was hk practice to
keep during the, greater part of his Jif e* j These papers -were
given by him to his friend Mr Bear? Ibeeve a -short time before
his death (whfeh took place on the > 18th otf January 186$), with
«m injunction that they should be pubBshed, as far as- was
feasible, at not too remote a period after the writer's death. The
journals of the reigns of George IV. and William IV. (extending
from 1800 to 1837) were accordingly 00 published in -obedience
to Us directions about ten years after that event. Few pubftca-
tiens have been received with greater interest by the public;
five large editions were sold in little more than a year, and «he
demand in America was as great as in England. These journals
wafie regarded as a faithful record of the impressions made on
the mind of a competent (observer, at the time, by the events he
ivit&essed and the persons with whom' he associated. Grevfflle
did not stoop to collect or record private scandal. His object
appears-to have been to leave bettnd him some tof the materials
of history, by which the men and actions of his own time would
be judged. He records not so much public events as the private
causes, which led to them; and perhaps no English memoir-*
writer has left behind him' a more valuable contribution to the
history of the ooth century. GrevUe published anonymously, in
*&4S, a volume on the Paskt and Present Policy of England id
Ireland, in which he advocated the payment of the Roman
Catholic clergy; and he was also the author of several pamphlets
oa the events of .fab day*
His brother, Henry Gkevhjle (iSo^tS^), Attache" to the
British embassy in Paris foam 1834 to 1&44, also kept a diary,
of which part was published by Viscountess Enfield, Leaves from
ike Divyof Henry GreriUe (London, 1885^884).
See the preface and notes to the GreviUe Memoirs by Henry Reeve.
The memoirs appeared in three sets— one from 1817 to 1837 (London,
1875, 3 vols.), and two for the period from 1837 to i860, three volumes
in 1885 and two in 1887. When the first series appeared in 1 875 some
passages caused extreme offence. The copies issued were as far as
possible recalled and passages suppressed.
GItisYIN, JACQUES (c. 1539-1570), French dramatist, was bom
at Clermont about 1539. He studied medicine at the university
of Paris. He became a disciple of Ronsard, and was one of the
band of dramatists who sought to introduce the classical drama
in France. As Sainte-Beuve points out, the comedies of Grevin
show considerable affinity with the farces and soties that preceded
them. His first pfaty, La MaitberHne, was lost, and formed the
basis of a new comedy, La Tr&soriere, first performed at the
college of Beauvais in 1558, though it had been originally com-
posed at the desire of Henry IL to celebrate the marriage of
Claude, duchess of Lorraine. In 1560 followed the tragedy of
Jades Cisar, imitated from the Latin of Muret, and a comedy,
Let £bahis, the most important but also the most indecent of
his works. Gre>in was also the author of some medical works
and of miscellaneous poems, which were praised by Ronsard
until the friends were separated by religious differences. Grevin
became in 1561 physician and counsellor to Margaret of Savoy,
and died at her court in Turin in 1570.
The Tk#Ltre of Jacques GrSvin was printed in 1562, and in the
Ancien TWUr* framfais, vol. iv. (1855-1856). See L. Pmvert,
Jacques Grevin (1899).
GR&VY, FRANCOIS PAUL JULES (i8i3*-r8ox), President
of the French Republic, was born at Mont-sous- Vaudrey in the
Jura, on the 15th of August 1813.' Bfe "became an advocate' in
1837, and, having steadily maintained republican principles
under the Orleans monarchy, was elected by his native depart*-
ment to the Constituent Assembly of 1848. Foreseeing that
Loiife Bonaparte would be elected-president by the people, he
proposed to vest the chief authority in a president of the Council
elected and removable by the Assembly, or in other words, to
suppress the Presidency of the Republic. After* the itoup d>6tot
this proposition gained Grevy a reputation for Sagacity, and upon
his' return to public life in 1868 he took a prominent place m
the repubBcan party. After the fall of the Empire he was
chosen president of the Assembly on the 16th of February iSfr,
and occupied this position tiB the *nd of April 1-876, when he
resigned on account of the exposition of the Right, "which
blamed him for having called one of its members to order in the
session of the previous day. On the 8th of March 1876 he was
elected president of the Chamber of "Deputies, a post which he
filled with such efficiency that upon the resignation of Marshal
MacMahon he seemed to step naturally into the Presidency of
the Republic ($oth January r879)', and was elected without
opposition hy the repuMcan parties {see France: History).
Quiet, shrewd, attentive to the public interest and bis own,
but without any particular distinction, he would have left an
unblemished reputation if he had not unfortunately accepted
a second terra (18th December 1885). Shortly afterwards the
traffic of Ins son-in-law (Danid Wtbon) in the decorations of the
Legion of Honour came to light. Gr6vy was not accused of
personal participation in these scandals, but he was 1 somewhat
obstinate in refusing to realize that he was responsible indirectly
for the use which his relative had made of the firysee, and it had
to be unpleasantly impressed upon him that his resignation was
inevitable (2nd December 1887) . He died at Mont-sous- Vaudrey
on the 9th of September i8or. He owed both his success and
his failure to the completeness irith which he represented the
particular type of the thrifty, generally sensible and patriotic,
but narrow-minded and frequently egoistic bourgeois.
See his Disconrs pditiqaes et judidaires, rapports et messages
. j . accompogtris de noHces hiStor4qu*s et proctitis #une -introduction
par L.Ihlabrousse (s vote*, U888).
GREW, NEHEM1AH (^41-1712), English vegetable anatomist
and physiologist, was the only son of Obadiah<}rew (1607-1688),
Nonconformist divine and vicar of St Michaef s, Coventry, and
toras horn in Warwickshire in 1641. He graduated at Cambridge
m *€6i, and ten years later took the degree of M.D. at Leiden,
xn. 19 a
5*6
GREY, 2nd EARL*
bii thes if being Disputatio medito~physlca . . : de liquor therioso.
He began observations on the anatomy of plants in 1664, and in
1670 his essay, The Anatomy of Vegetables begun, was communi-
cated to the Royal Society by Bishop Wilkins, on whose recom-
mendation he was in the following year elected a fellow. In
1672, when the essay was published, he settled in London, and
soon acquired an extensive practice as a physician. In 1673
he published his Idea of a Phytological History, which consisted
of papers be had communicated to the Royal Society in the
preceding year, and in 1677 he succeeded Henry Oldenburg as
secretary of the society. He edited the Philosophical Transac-
tions in 1678-1679, and in 1681 he published " by request " a
descriptive catalogue of the rarities preserved at Gresham
College, with which were printed some papers he had read to
the Royal Society on the Comparative Anatomy of Stomachs and
Cuts. In 1682 appeared his great work on the Anatomy of'
Plants, which also was largely a collection of previous publications.
It was divided into four books, Anatomy of Vegetables begun,
Anatomy of Roots, Anatomy of Trunks and Anatomy of Leaves,
Flowers, Fruits and Seeds, and was illustrated with eighty-two
plates, while appended to it were seven papers mostly of a
chemical character. Among his other publications were Sea-
water made Fresh (1684), the Nature and Use of the Salt contained
in Epsom and such other Waters (1697), which was a rendering
of his Tractatus de salts . . . usu (1695), and Cosmologia sacra
(1701). He died suddenly on the 25th of March 171 2. Linnaeus
named a genua of trees Grewia (nat. ord. Tihaceae) in his
honour.
GREY, CHARLES GREY, 2ND Earl (1764-1845)1 English
statesman, waa the eldest surviving son of General Sir Charles
Grey, afterwards 1st Earl Grey. He was born at his father's
residence, Fallodon, near Alnwick, on the 13th of March (764.
General Grey (1729-1807), who waa a younger son of the house
of Grey of Howick, one of the most considerable territorial
families in Northumberland, had already begun a career of active
service which, like the political career of his son, covered nearly
half a century. Before the latter was born, General Grey had
served on the staff of Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick in the Seven
Years' War and had been wounded at Mjnden. While the son
was making verses at Eton, the father was serving against the
revolted colonists in Pennsylvania and New Jersey, and .while
the young member for Northumberland waa denouncing Pitt's
war against the Convention, the veteran soldier was destroying
the remnant of the French colonial empire by the capture of
Martinique and Guadeloupe. When Napoleon threatened an
invasion, General Grey took the command of the southern dis-
trict, and at the peace of Amiens he was rewarded with a peerage,
as Baron Grey of Alnwick, being created in 1806 Earl Grey and
Viscount Howick. His elder brother, Sir Henry Grey of Howick,
the head of the family, had supported the government in parlia*
ment. But the political career of young Grey, who was heir-
presumptive to the family estates, took a different complexion.
Young Grey expected to reoccupy the seat which had been
his uncle's; and his early years were spent in preparation for
a parliamentary career. He was sent to Eton, and proceeded
thence to Cambridge. William Pitt, a youth five years older,
was then in residence as a master of arts, studiously paying court
to the Whigs of the university; and at the general election of
17S0 he came forward as a candidate for the academical seat.
His name stood last on the poll, but he was brought in elsewhere,
and his first speech proved him a man of the first mark. The
unparalleled successes which followed portended grave changes.
Pitt's elevation to the premiership, his brilliant and hard-fought
battle in the house, and his complete rout of the Whig party at
the general election of i^S^ when he came in for Cambridge
at the head of the poll, threatened the great territorial interest
with nothing less than extinction. It was to this interest that
Grey belonged; and hence, when at length returned for North-
umberland in 1 7 $6, he at once came forward as a vigorous assailant
of the government of Pitt. He was hailed by the opposition,
and associated with Fox, Burke and Sheridan as a manager in the
Hastings impeachment. During the nineteen years which
remained of the career of Fox, he followed the great Whig
statesman with absolute fidelity, and succeeded him as leader
of the party. The shortcomings of Fox's statesmanship were
inherited by Grey. Both were equally devoid of political
originality, shunned the severer labours of the politician, and
instinctively feared any deviation from the traditions of their
party. Such men cannot save a party in its decadence, and the
history of Fox and Grey has been aptly termed the history of
the decline and fall of Whiggism.
The stunning blow of 17S4 was the first incident in this history.
Its full significance was not at once perceived. An opposition,
however weak in the beginning, generally has a tendency to
revive, and Grey's early successes in the house helped to revive
the Foxites. The European situation became favourable to this
revival. The struggle in France for popular rights, culminating
in the great Revolution, was watched by Fox with interested
sympathy. He affected to regard the domination of Pitt as the
domination of the crown, and as leading logically to absolutism,
and saw in that popular sympathy for the French Revolution
which naturally arose in England an instrument which might
be employed to overthrow this domination.
But Pitt gathered the fruits of the windfall. The spread of
" Jacobinism," or " French principles," became the pretext
on which the stronger half of the opposition went over to the
government. Burke led the movement in the Commons, the duke
of Portland and Lord Fitzwilliam in the Lords, and with this
second incident in the Whig decline began the difficulties of
Grey's career. The domination of the premier had already
stirred the keenest resentment in the younger and more ambitious
members of the Whig party. Freed from the restraint of the
steadier politicians under Buifce and Portland, the residuum
under Fox fell into a series of grave mistakes. Of this residuum
Grey became the moving spirit, for though Fox did not check
their activity,, he disclaimed the responsibility of their policy.
Fox had refused to condemn " French principles," and denounced
the war with France; but he would take no part in exciting
agitation in England. It was otherwise with the restless spirits
among whom Grey was found. Enraged by the. attitude of Pitt,
Which was grounded on the support of the constituencies as they
then stood, the residuum plotted an ill-timed agitation for
parliamentary reform. , «
The demand for parliamentary reform was as yet in a rudi-
mentary stage. Forty years later it had became the demand of
an unenfranchised nation, disabused by a sudden spread of
political and economical knowledge. It was as yet but the
occasional instrument of the scheming politician. Chatham
had employed the cry in this sense. The Middlesex agitators
had done the same; even the premier of the time, after his
accession to power, had sought to strengthen his hands in the
same way. But Pitt's hands were now strengthened abundantly;
whereas the opposition had nothing to lose and much to gain by
such a measure. The cry for reform thus became their natural
expedient. Powerless to carry reform in the House, they sought
to overawe parliament by external agitation, and formed the
Society of the Friends of the People, destined to unite the forces
of all the " patriotic " societies which already existed in the
country, and to pour their violence irresistibly on a terrffied
parliament. Grey and his friends were enrolled in this portentous
association, and presented in parliament its menacing petitions.
Such petitions, which were in fact violent impeachments of
parliament itself, proceeding from voluntary associations having
no corporate existence, had been hitherto unknown in the English
parliament. They had been well known in the French assembly.
They had heralded and furthered the victory of the Jacobins,
the dissolution of the constitution, the calling of the Convention
and the fall of the monarchy.
The Society of the Friends of the People was originally am
after-dinner folly, extemporized at the house of a man who after-
wards gained an earldom by denouncing it as seditious. Fax
discountenanced it, though he did not directly condemn it; but
Grey was overborne by the fierce Jacobinism of Lauderdale, and
avowed himself the parliamentary mouthpiece of this <
)
:G#EY^w>]EARL
5«7
agitation. But Pitt, strong in his position* .cut the ground
from under Grey's feet by suppressing the agitation with a strong
hand. The suspension of the Habeas Corpus Act, the Gagging
Acts and the state prosecutions form a painful historical episode
But the discredit belongs as much to Grey and Lauderdale as to
Pitt. Grey always spoke regretfully of his share in the movement.
" One word from Fox, " he said, " would have kept me out of
all the mess of the Friends of the People. But he never spoke it."
It was Grey who moved the impeachment of Pitt, and he next
promoted the. equally foolish " Secession.'' Since the parliament
did not properly represent the nation, and refused to reform itself
or to impeach the minister, nothing remained but to disown it;
and the opposition announced their intention of " seceding,"
or systematically absenting themselves from their places in
parliament. This futile movement was originated by Grey,
Lauderdale and the duke of Bedford. It obtained a somewhat
wider support. It suited the languor of some dispirited
politicians like Fox, and the avarice of some lawyers in large
practice.like Erskine; but sensible politicians at once condemned
it. It directly ignored parliamentary go vernment,. and amounted
to nothing but a pettish threat of revolution. " Secession,"
said Lord Lansdowne, with characteristic shrewdness, " either
means rebellion, or it is nonsense." Pitt easily dashed this feeble
weapon from the hands of his opponents. . He; roused jealousy
in/the absent by praising the parts and the patriotism of the rest,
and thus gradually brought them back. Grey himself reappeared
to protest against the union with Ireland.
When Pitt died in 1806 nothing could prevent the reunited,
opposition from coming into power, and thus the Broad-bottom
ministry was formed under Fox. On his death Grenville became
premier, and Grey, now Lord Howick, foreign secretary, and
leader of the House of Commons. Disunion, always the bane of
English Liberalism, lurked in the coalition, and the Foxites
and GrenviUites were only ostensibly at one. Grey opposed the
war policy of Grenville; and this policy was not more successful
than it had been in the hands of Pitt. And the change from the
leadership of Fox to that of Grenville was only too perceptible.
Both in court and country Grenville affected the role of Pitt, and
assumed a stiff and peremptory attitude which ill became him.
An ill-advised dissolution weakened their majority; they lost
ground by the " delicate investigation " into the conduct of the
princess of Wales; Lord Henry Petty 's budget was too specious
to command confidence; and the king, fully aware of then-
weak situation, resolved to get rid of them. When they proposed .
to concede a portion of the Catholic claims, George refused
and demanded of them an undertaking never to propose such
a measure again. This was refused, and the Grenville-Grey
cabinet retired in March 1807. In the same year Grey's father
died, and Grey went to the Upper House. Opposition united
Grey and Grenville for a time, but the parties finally split on
the old war question. When Napoleon returned from Elba
in 181 5, and once more seized the government of France, the
same question arose which had arisen in 1792, Was England to go
to war for the restoration of the Bourbons? Grenville followed
the traditions of Pitt, and supported* the ministry in at once
renewing hostilities. Grey followed those of Fox, and maintained
the right of France to choose her own governors, and the im-
possibility of checking the reaction in the emperor's favour. .
The victory of Waterloo put an end to the dispute, but the I
disruption became permanent. The termination of the war; and
the cessation of all action in common, reduced the power of the
opposition to nothing. Grenville retired froni public life, and his ,
adherents reinforced the ministry . Little remained for the Whigs
to do. But the persecution of the queen afforded an opportunity
of showing that the ministry were not omnipotent; and the part
taken on that occasion by Grey won him at once the increased ;
respect of the nation and the undying aversion of George IV.
It sealed the exclusion of himself and his few friends from office ;
during the king's life; and when in 1&27 Grey came forth to'
denounce the ministry of Canning, he. declared that' he stood
alone in the political world. His words were soon justified, for,
when Lord Goderich resigned, the remnant 1 which; had hitherto
supported Grey, hastened to support the ministry, of the duke of
Wellington.
We now reach the principal episode in Grey's career. In -1027
he seemed to stand forth the solitary and powerless relic of an
extinct party. . In 1832 we find that party restored to its old
numbers and activity, supreme in parliament, popular in the
nation, and Lord Grey at. its head* The duke of Wellington's
foolish declaration against parliamentary reform, made in a
season of great popular excitement, suddenly deprived him of
the confidence of the country, and a coalition of the Whigs and
Canningites became inevitable. The Whigs had in 1827 sup-
ported the Canningites; the latter, now supported the Whigs,
of whom Grey remained the traditional. head. George IV. was
dead, and no obstacle existed to Grey's elevation. Grey was
sent for by William IV. in Novepaber 1830, and formed a coalition
cabinet, pledged to carry on the work in which the duke of
Wellington had faltered. But Grey himself was the mere instru-
ment of the times. An old-fashioned Whig, he had little personal
sympathy with the popular cause, though he had sometimes
indicated a certain measure of reform as necessary. When he
took office, he guessed neither the extent to which the Reform
Act would go, nor the means by which it would be carried. That
he procured for the country a measure of constitutional reform'
for which he had agitated in his youth was little more than a
coincidence. In his youth he had put himself at the head of a
frantic agitation against .parliament, because ' he there found
himself powerless. In his old age the case was reversed.
Suddenly raised to a position of authority in the country, he
boldly stood between parliament, as then constituted, and the
formidable agitation which now threatened it and by a forced
reform saved it from revolution. In his youth he had assailed
Pitt's administration because Pitt's administration threatened
with extinction the political monopoly of that landed interest
to which he belonged. In his old age, on the contrary, unable
to check the progress of the wave, he swam with it, and headed
the movement which compelled that landed interest to surrender
its monopoly.
The second reading of the first Reform Bill was carried in the
Commons by a majority of one. This was equivalent to a defeat,
and further failures precipitated a dissolution. The confidence
which the bold, action of the ministry had won was soon plainly
proved, for the second reading was carried in the new parliament
by a majority of 136. When the bill had at length passed the
Commons after months of debate, it was Grey's task to introduce
it to the Lords. It was rejected by a majority of 41. The safety
of the country now depended on the prudence and courage of
the ministry. The resignation of Grey and his colleagues was
dreaded even by the opposition, and they remained in office
with the intention of introducing a third Reform Bill in the next
session. The last months of 1831 were the beginning of a political
crisis such as England had not seen since 1688. The two extreme
parties, the Ultra-Radicals and the Ultra-Tories, were ready for
civil war. Between them stood the ministry and the majority of
intelligent peace-loving Englishmen; and their course of action
was soon decided. The bill must be passed, and there were but
two ways of passing it. One was. to declare the consent of the
House of Lords unnecessary to the measure, the other to create,
if necessary, new peers in sufficient number to outvote the
opposition. These two. expedients did not in reality differ. To
swamp the house in the. way proposed would have been to destroy
it. The question whether the ministry should demand the king's
consent to such a creation, if necessary, was debated in the
cabinet in September. Brougham proposed it, and gradually a
majority of the cabinet were won over. Grey had at first refused
to employ even the threat of so unconstitutional a device as a
means to the proposed end. But his: continued refusal would
have broken up the ministry, and the breaking up of the ministry
must now have been the signal for revolution. The second
reading in the Commons was passed in Deceniber by a majority
of 162, and on New- Year's day 1832 the majority of the cabinet
resolved on demanding power to carry it in the Lords by a
creation of peers. Grey carried the resolution to the king.
5 88
GREY, SIR B.— GREY, SIR G.
Some time stitt remained before the bill could be committed and
read a third time. It was not until the 9th of April that Grey
moved the second reading in the Lords* A sufficient number of
the opposition temporized; and the second reading was allowed
to pass by a. majority of nine. Their intention was to mutilate
the bill in committee. The Ultra-Tories, headed by the duke of
Wellington, had entered a protest against the second reading,
but they were now politically powerless. The struggle had
become a struggle on the one hand for the whole bill, to be
carried by a creation of peers, and on the other for some mutilated
measure. Grey's instinct divined that the crisis was approaching.
Either the king must consent to swamp the House, or the ministry
must cease to stand in the breach between the peers and the
country. The king, a weak and inexperienced politician, had
in the meantime been wrought upon by the temporizing leaders
in the Lords. He was induced to believe that if the Commons
should reject the mutilated bill when it was returned to them,
and the ministry should consequently retire, the mutilated bill
might be reintroduced and passed by a Tory ministry. He was
deaf to all representations of the state of public opinion; and to
the surprise of the ministry, and the terror and indignation of
every man of sense in the country, he rejected their proposal
and accepted their resignation, May 9, 1832. The duke of
Wellington undertook the hopeless task of constructing a
ministry which should pass a restricted or sham Reform Bill.
The only man who could have made the success of such a ministry
even probable was Peel, and Peel's conscience and good sense
forbade the attempt. He refusedy and after a week of the pro-
foundest agitation throughout the country) the king, beaten
and mortified, was forced to send for Grey and Brougham. On
being told that his consent to the creation of peers was the. only
condition on which they could undertake the government,
he angrily and reluctantly yielded. The chancellor, with cool
forethought, demanded this consent in writing. Grey thought
such a demand harsh and unnecessary. "I wonder,' 1 he said
to Brougham, when the interview was over, a you could have had
the heart to press it." But Brougham was inexorable, and the
king signed the following paper: " The king grants permission
to EarL Grey, and to his chancellor, Lord Brougham,, to create
such a number of peers as will be sufficient to ensure the passing
of the Reform Bill, first calling up peers' eldest sans. — William
R., Windsor, May 17, 1852,"
Grey had now won the game. There was no danger that he
would have to resort to the expedient which he was authorized
to employ. The mtroductsoii of sixty new peers would have
destroyed the opposition, but it would have been equivalent
to the abolition of the House. The king's consent made known,
a sufficient iuimber of peers were sure to withdraw to enable the
bilk to pass, and thus the dignity of both: king and peerage would
be saved. The duke of Wettzngton headed this movement on
the part of the opposition; and the third reading o£ the raU was
carried in die Lords by a majority of 84.
It is well known, that in after years both Grey and Brougham
disclaimed any intention of executing their threat. If this were
so, they must have merely pretended to brave a danger which
they secretly feared to face, and intended to avoid; and the
credit of rescuing the country would belong to the duke of
Wellington and the peers who seceded with him- To argue such
cowardice in them from statements made when the crisis was
long past, and when they were naturally willing to palliate the
rough policy whkh they were forced to adopt, would be to set up ,
a needless and unjustifiable paradox. Nothing else in the career
of either Grey or Brougham leads us to suppose them capable
of the moral baseness of yielding up the helm of state, in an hour
of darkness and peril, to reckless and unskilled hands. Such
would have been the result if they had lacked the determination
to carry out their programme to the ctkL The influence of every
statesman in the country would then have been extinguished,
and the United Kingdom would have been absolutely in the
hands of O'Connell and Orator Hunt*
Grey took but little part in directing the legislation of the
reformed pyif*™*"* Never anxious for power, be had executed
the arduous task of 1831-1832 rather as a matter of duty than, of
inclination, and wished for an opportunity of retiring. Such an
opportunity very shortly presented itself. The Irish policy of
the ministry had not conciliated the Irish people, and O'Connell
denounced them with the greatest bitterness. On the renewal
of the customary Coercion Bill, the ministry was divided on the
question whether to continue to the lord-lieutenant the power
of suppressing public meetings. Littleton, the Irish secretary,
was for abolishing it; and with the view of conciliating O'Connell,
he informed him that the ministry intended to abandon it. But
the result proved him to have been mistaken, and O'Connell,
with some reason supposing himself to have been duped, called
on Littleton to resign his secretaryship. It had also transpired
in the discussion that Lord Althorp, the leader of the House of
Commons, was privately opposed to retaining those clauses
which it was his duty to push through the house. Lord Althorp
therefore resigned, and Grey, who had lately passed his seventieth
year, took the opportunity of resigning also. It was his opinion,
it appeared, which had overborne the cabinet in favour of the
public meeting clauses; and his voluntary withdrawal enabled
Lord Althorp to return to his post and to proceed with the bill
in its milder form. Grey was succeeded by Lord Melbourne;
but no other change was made in. the cabinet. Grey took no
further part in politics. During most of his remaining years he
continued to live in retirement at Howkk, where he died ori the
17th of July 1845, in his eighty-second year. By hk wife Mary
Elizabeth, only daughter of the first Lord PoBSonby y whom he
married on the 18th of -November 1704, he became the father of
ten sons and five daughters. Grey's eldest son Henry (4.9.) be-
came the 3rd earl, and among his other sons were General Charles
Grey (1804-1870) and Admiral Frederick Grey (1805-1878).
In. public hie, Grey could always be upon occasion bold,
strenuous and self-sacrificing; but he was little disposed for the
active work of the politician. He was not one of those who took
the statesman's duty " as a pleasure he was to enjoy." A certain
strffnrss and reserve ever seemed in the popular eye to hedge him
in; nor was his oratory of the kind whkh stirs enthusiasm and
delight. A tali, stately figure, fine voice and calm aristocratic
bearing reminded the listener of Pitt rather than of Fox, and his
speeches were constructed 00 the Attic rather than the Asiatic
modeL Though simple and straightforward, they never lacked
either point or dignity; and they were admirably adapted to the
audience to which they were 'addressed* The sempdous up-
rightness of Grey's political and private character completed the
ascendancy which he gained; and no politician could be named
who, without being a statesman of the highest crass, has left a
name more enviably placed in English history, (£; J. P.)
GRRY, SIR EDWARD, 3rd Bart. (186*- ), English
statesman, was educated at Winchester and at BaQiol College,
Oxford, and succeeded his grandfather, the 2nd baronet*, at the
age of twenty. He entered the House of Commons as Liberal
member for Berwkk-«n*Tweed m 1B85, but he was best known
as a country gentleman with a taste for sport r and as amateur
champion tennis-player. His interest in polities was rather
languid, but be was a disciple of Lord Roseberyy and in the
i8o2~e8o5: liberal ministry he was under-secretary for foreign
affairs. In. this position he earned a reputation as. a politician
of thorough straightforwardness and grit, and as one who would
maintain British interests independently of patty; and he shared
with Mr Asquith the reputation of being the ablest of the
Imperialists who followed Lord Rosebery. Though outside
foreign affairs he played but a small part in the period of Liberal
opposition between 1895 and 1005, he retained public confidence
as one who was indispensable to a Liberal administration.
When Sir Henry CampbeU-Barmerman's cabinet was formed
in December 1905 he became foreign minister, and he retained
this office when in April 1008 Mr Asquhh became prime
minister.
GREY, SIR wBOROB (i8i2-r£o8f), British colonial governor
and statesman,, only son of Lieulenant-Coknel Grey of the
30th Foot, was bom in Lisbon on the 14th of April r£rs, eight
days after the death of his father at the storming of Badajoz.
GREY, SIR G.
589
He passed through Sandhurst with credit, and received hid com*
mission in 1829. His lieutenancy was dated 1833, and his
captaincy 1839, in which year he sold out and left the army.
In the earjy 'thirties he was quartered in Iceland, where the
wretchedness of the poorer classes left a deep impression on his
mind. In 1*36 the Royal Geographical Society accepted hw
offer to explore the north-west region of West AusttaHa, and
accordingly he landed at Hanover Bay at the end of 1&37.
The surrounding country he found broken and difficult, and his
hardships were aggravated by the tropical heat and his ignorance
of the continent. In a skirmish with the natives, in which he
was speared near the hip, he showed great courage, and put the
assailants to flight, shooting the chief, who had wounded him.
After a brave endeavour to continue his: journey his wound
forced him to retreat to the const, whence he sailed to Mauritius
to recruit. Next year he again essayed exploration, this time
on the coast to the north and south of Shark's Bay. He had
three whale-boats and an ample supply oi provisions, but by a
series of disasters his stores were spoilt by storms, his boats
wrecked in the surf, and the party had to tramp on foot from
Gantheaume Bay to Perth, where Grey, in the end, walked in
alone, so changed by suffering that friends did not know him.
In 1&39 he was appointed governor-resident at Albany, and
during his stay there married Harriett, daughter of Admiral
Spencer, and also prepared for publication an account, in two
volumes, of his expeditions- In 1840 he returned to England, to
be immediately appointed by Lord John Russell to succeed
Colonel Gawler as governor of South Australia. Reaching the
colony in May 1841, he found it in the depths of a depression
caused by mismanagement and insane^ land speculation. By
rigprously reducing, public expenditure, and forcing the settlers
to quit the town and betake themselves to tilling their land?,
and with the opportune help of valuable copper discoveries,
Grey was able to, aid the infant colony to em^ge from the slough.
So striking were his energy and determination that when, in
1845, the little settlements in New Zealand were found to be
involved in a native war, and on the verge of ruin, he was sent
to save them. The Maori chiefs in open rebeHion were defeated,
and made their submission* Another powerful leader suspected
of fomenting discontent was arrested, and ; friendly chieftains
were subsidized and honoured. Bands oi the natives- were
employed in making government roads, and were paid good
wages. The governor gained the veneration of the Maori tribes,
in whose welfare be took a cloae personal interest, and of whose
legends and myths he made a valuable, a^d scholarly collection*
published in New Zealand in 1855 and reprinted thirty years
afterwards. With peace prosperity came to New Zealand, awl
the colonial office desired to give the growing settlements full
self-government, Grey, arguing that this would renew .war
with the Maori, returned the constitution to Downing Street.
But though the colonial office sustained him, he became involved
in harassing disputes with the colonists, who organized an active
agitation for autonomy* In the and a second constitution,
partly framed by Grey himself, was granted them, and Grey,
after eight years of despotic but successful rule, was transferred
to Cape Colony. He had been knighted for his services, and had
undoubtedly shown strength* dexterity and humanity in dealing
with the whites and natives. In South Africa his success con-
tinued. He thwarted a formidable Kaffir rebellion in the Eastern
Provinces, and pushed on the work oi settlement by bringing out
men from the German Legion and providing them with hornet
He gained the respect oi the British, the confidence of the Boers,
the admiration and the trust of the natives. The Dutch of the
Free State and the Basuto chose him as arbitrator oi their
quarrels. When the news of the Indian Mutiny reached Cape
Town he strained every nerve to help Lord Canning, despatching
men, horses, stores and £60,000 in specie to Bombay. He. per-
suaded a detachment, then on its way round the Cape as a rein-
forcement for Lord Elgin in China, to divert its voyage to Calcutta.
Finally, in 1859, Grey almost reached what would have been the
culminating point of his career by federating South Africa.
Persuaded by him, the Orange Free State passed resolutions }n
favour of this great step, and their action was welcomed by Cape
Town. But the colonial office disapproved of the change, and
when Grey attempted to persevere with it Sir Edward Bulwer
Lytton recalled him. A change of ministry during his voyage to
England displaced Sir Edward Bulwer Lytton. But though the
duke of Newcastle reinstated Grey, it was with instructions to
let federation drop. In 1S61 the colonial office sent him, for the
fourth time in succession, to take up a post of exceptional diffi-
culty by again entrusting him with the governorship of New
Zealand, where an inglorious native war in Taranaki had just
been succeeded by an armed truce. Grey did his best to make
terms with the rebels and to re-establish friendship with the
Maori king and the land league of tribes formed to stop further
sales of land to the whites. But the Maori had got guns and
powder, and were suspicious and truculent. In vain Grey,
supported by Bishop Selwyn and by Fox and the peace party
among the settlers, strove to avert war. It came in 1863, and
spread from province to province. Tea thousand regulars and
as many colonial riflemen were employed to put it down. The
imperial troops were badly handled, and Grey, losing patience>
became involved in bitter disputes with their commanders.
As an example to the former he himself attacked and captured
Weraroa, the strongest of the Maori stockades, with a handful
oi militia, a feat which delighted the colonists, but made him as
much disliked at the war office as he now was at Downing Street.
Moreover, Grey had no logger real control, over the islands.
New Zealand had become a self-governing colony, and though
he vindicated the colonists generally when libellous imputations
of cruelty and land-grabbing were freely made against them in
London, he crossed swords with his ministers when the latter
confiscated three million acres of tribal land belonging to the
insurgent Maori. Yet through all these troubles progress was
made; many successes were gained in 1866, chiefly by the
colonial militia, and a condition of something like tranquillity
had been reached in 5867, when he received a curt intimation
from the duke of Buckingham that be was about tobes,uperseded.
The colonists, who believed he was. sacrificed for upholding their
interests and good name, bade farewell to him in i86& in an out-
burst oi gratitude and sympathy; but his, career as a colonial
governor was at. an end. Returning to pngland, he tried to enter
public life* delivered many able speeches advocating what later
came to be termed Imperialism, and stood for Newark. Dis-
couraged, however, by the official Liberals, he. withdrew and
tunned again to New Zealand. In 1872 be was given a pension
of £1000 a year, and settled down on the island of JCawau, not
far from Auckland, which he bought, and where he passed his
leisure in. planting, gardening and collecting book*. In. 1875,
on the invitation of the Auckland settlers, he became super-
intendent of their province, and entered the New Zealand House
oi Representatives to resist the abolition of the provincial
councils of the colony, a change then being urged on by Sir Julius
Vogel in alliance with the CeRtrafet Party, In this he failed,
but his eloquence and courage drew round him a strong Radical
following, and gave him, the premiership in 1877. Manhood
suffrage, triennial parliaments, a land-tax, the purchase oi large
estates and the popular election of the governor, were leading
points of his policy. All these reforms, except the last, he lived
to see carried; none of them were passed by him- A commercial
depression in 1879 shook his popularity, and on the fall of his
ministry in 1879 ne wa * deposed, and for the next fifteen years
remained a solitary and pathetic figure in the New Zealand
parliament, respect fully treated, courteously listened to, but never
again invited to lead. In 1891 he came before Australia as one of
the New Zealand delegates to the federal convention at Sydney,
and characteristically made his mark by standing out almost
alone for " one man one vote " as the federal, franchise* This
point he carried, and the Australians thronged to hear him, so
that his visits to Victoria and South Australia were personal
triumphs. When, too, in 1894, he quitted New Zealand for
London, some reparation was at last made him by the imperial
government ; he was called to the privy council, and graciously
received by Queen Victoria on his visit to Windsor. Thereafter
59°
GREY, 3RD EARL— GREY, LADY JANE
he lived in London, and died on the 20th of September 1898. He
was given a public funeral at St Paul's. Grey was all his life
a collector of books and manuscripts. After leaving Cape
Colony, he gave his library to Cape Town in 1862 ; his subsequent
collection, which numbered 12,000 volumes, he presented to the
citizens of Auckland in 1887. In gratitude the people of Cape
Town erected a statue of him opposite their library building.
Lives of Sir George Grey have been written by W. L. and L. Rees
(1892), Professor G. C. Henderson (1907) and J. Collier (1909).
GREY, HENRY GREY, 3RD Earl (1802-1894), English
statesman, was born on the 28th of December 1802, the son of
the 2nd Earl Grey, prime minister at the time of the Reform
Bill of 1832. He entered parliament in 1826, under the title of
Viscount Howick, as member for Winchilsea, which constituency
he left in 1831 for Northumberland. On the accession of the
Whigs to power in 1830 he was made under-secretary for the
colonies, and laid the foundation of his intimate acquaintance
with colonial questions. He belonged at the time to the more
advanced party of colonial reformers, sharing the views of
Edward Gibbon Wakefield on questions of land and emigration,
and resigned in 1834 from dissatisfaction that slave emancipation
was made gradual instead of immediate. In 1835 he entered
Lord Melbourne's cabinet as secretary at war, and effected
some valuable administrative reforms, especially by suppressing
malpractices detrimental to the troops in India. After the partial
reconstruction of the ministry in 1839 he again resigned, dis-
approving of the more advanced views of some of his colleagues.
These repeated resignations gave him a reputation for crotcheti-
ness, which he did not decrease by his disposition to embarrass his
old colleagues by his action on free trade questions in the session
of 1841. During the exile of the Liberals from power he went
still farther on the path of free trade, and anticipated Lord
John Russell's declaration against the corn laws. When, on
Sir Robert Peel's resignation in December 1845, Lord John
Russell was called upon to form a ministry, Howick, who had
become Earl Grey by the death of his father in the preceding
July, refused to enter the new cabinet if Lord Palmerston were
foreign secretary (see J. R. Thursfield in vol. i. and Hon. F. H.
Baring in vol. xxiii. of the English Historical Review). He was
greatly censured for perverseness, and particularly when in the
following July he accepted Lord Palmerston as a colleague
without remonstrance. His conduct, nevertheless, afforded Lord
John Russell an escape from an embarrassing situation. Be-
coming colonial secretary in 1846, he found himself everywhere
confronted with arduous problems, which in the main he en-
countered with success. His administration formed an epoch.
He was the first minister to proclaim that the colonies were to
be governed for their own benefit and not for the mother-
country's; the first systematically to accord them self-govern-
ment so far as then seemed possible; the first to introduce free
trade into their relations with Great Britain and Ireland. The
concession by which colonies were allowed to tax imports from
the mother-country ad libitum was not his; he protested against
it, but was overruled. In the West Indies he suppressed, if he
could not overcome, discontent; in Ceylon he put down rebellion;
in New Zealand he suspended the constitution he had himself
accorded, and yielded everything into the masterful hands of
Sir George Grey. The least successful part of his administration
was his treatment of the convict question at the Cape of Good
Hope, which seemed an exception to his rule that the colonies
were to be governed for their own benefit and in accordance with
their own wishes, and subjected him to a humiliating defeat.
After his retirement he wrote a history and defence of his colonial
policy in the form of letters to Lord John Russell, a dry but
instructive book {Colonial Policy of Lord John RusseWs Admini-
stration, 1853). He resigned with his colleagues in 1852. No
room was found for him in the Coalition Cabinet of 1853, and
although during the Crimean struggle public opinion pointed
to him as the fittest man as minister for war, he never again
held office. During the remainder of his long life he exercised
a vigilant criticism on public affairs. In 1858 he wrote a work
(republished in 1864) on parliamentary reform; in 1888 he wrote
another on the state of Ireland; and in 1892 one on the United
States tariff. In his latter years he was a frequent contributor
of weighty letters to The Times on land, tithes, currency and
other public questions. His principal parliamentary appearances
were when he moved for a committee on Irish affairs in 1866,
and when in 187& he passionately opposed the policy of the
Beaconsfield cabinet in India. He nevertheless supported Lord
Beaconsfield at the dissolution, regarding Mr Gladstone's acces-
sion to power with much greater alarm. He was a determined
opponent of Mr Gladstone's Home Rule policy. He died on the
9th of October 1894. None ever doubted his capacity or his
conscientiousness, but he was generally deemed impracticable
and disagreeable. Prince Albert, however, who expressed
himself as ready to subscribe to all Grey's principles, and
applauded him for having principles, told Stockmar that, although
dogmatic, he was' amenable to argument; and Sir Henry
Taylor credits him with " more freedom from littlenesses of
feeling than I have met before in any public man." His chief
defect was perceived and expressed by his original tutor and
subsequent adversary in colonial affairs, Edward Gibbon Wake-
field, who wrote, " With more than a common talent for under-
standing principles, he has no originality of thought, which
compels him to take all his ideas from somebody; and no power
of working out theory in practice, which compels him to be
always in somebody's hands as respects decision and action."
The earl had no sons, and he was followed as 4th earl by his
nephew Albert Henry George (b. 1851), who in 1904 became
governor-general of Canada.
GREY, LADY JANE ^537-1554), a lady remarkable no
less for her accomplishments than for her misfortunes, was the
great-granddaughter of Henry VII. of England. Her descent
from that king was traced through a line of females. His
second daughter Mary, after being left a widow by Louis XII.
of France, married Charles Brandon, duke of Suffolk, who was
a favourite with her brother King Henry VIII. Of this marriage
came two daughters, the elder of whom, Lady Frances Brandon,
was married to Henry Grey, marquess of Dorset; and their
issue, again, consisted of daughters only. Lady Jane, the
subject of this article, was the eldest of three whom the marquess
had by Lady Frances. Thus it will appear that even if the crown
of England had ever fallen into the female line of descent from
Henry VII., she could not have put in a rightful claim unless the
issue of his elder daughter, Margaret, had become extinct.
But Margaret had married James IV. of Scotland; and, though
her descendant, James VI., was ultimately called to the English
throne, Henry VIII. had placed her family after that of his second
sister in the succession; so that, failing the lawful issue of Henry
himself, Lady Jane would, according to this arrangement,
have succeeded. It was to these circumstances that she owed
her exceptional position in history, and became the victim of an
ambition which was not her own.
She was born at her father's seat named Broadgate in Leicester-
shire about the year 1537. Her parents, though severe disciplin-
arians, bestowed more than ordinary care upon her education,
and she herself was so teachable and delighted so much in study
that she became the marvel of the age for her acquirements.
She not only excelled in needlework and in music, both vocal
and instrumental, but while still very young she had thoroughly
mastered Latin, Greek, French and Italian. She was able to
speak and write both Greek and Latin with an accuracy that
satisfied even such critics as Ascham and her tutor Dr Aylmer,
afterwards bishop of London. She also acquired some knowledge
of at least three Oriental tongues, Hebrew, Chaldee and Arabic.
In Ascham's Schoolmaster is given a touching account of the
devotion with which she pursued her studies and the harshness
she experienced from her parents. The love of learning was her
solace; in reading Demosthenes and Plato she found a refuge
from domestic unhappiness. When about ten years old she
was placed for a time in the household of Thomas, Lord Seymour,
who, having obtained her wardship, induced her parents to let
her stay with him, even after the death of his wife, Queen
GREY DE WILTON
59*
Catherine Parr, by promising to marry her to his nephew; King
Edward VI. Lord Seymour, howeyer, was attainted of high
treason and beheaded in 1549, and his brother, the duke of
Somerset, made some overtures to the marquess of Dorset to
marry her to his son the earl of Hertford. These projects,
however, came to nothing. The duke of Somerset in his turn
fell a victim to the ambition of Dudley, duke of Northumberland,
and was beheaded three years after his brother. Meanwhile,
the dukedom of Suffolk having become extinct by the deaths
of Charles Brandon and his two sons, the title was conferred
upon the marquess of Dorset, Lady Jane's father. Northumber-
land, who was now all-powerful, fearing a great reverse of fortune
in case of the king's death, as his health began visibly to decline,
endeavoured to strengthen himself by marriages between his
family and those of other powerful noblemen, especially of the
new-made duke of Suffolk. His three eldest sons being already
married, the fourth, who was named Lord Guilford Dudley,
was accordingly wedded to Lady Jane Grey about the end of
May 1553. The match received the full approval of the king,
who furnished the wedding apparel of the parties by royal
warrant. But Edward's state of health warned Northumberland
that he must lose no time in putting the rest of his project into
execution. He persuaded the king that if the crown should
descend to his sister Mary the work of the Reformation would
be undone and the liberties of the kingdom would be in danger.
Besides, both Mary and her sister Elizabeth had been declared
illegitimate by separate acts of parliament, and the objections
to Mary queen of Scots did not require to be pointed out.
Edward was easily persuaded to break through his father's will
and make a new settlement of the crown by deed. The document
was witnessed by the signatures of all the council and of all but
one of the judges; but those of the latter body were obtained
only with difficulty by threats and intimidation.
Edward VL died on the 6th July 1553, and it was announced
to Lady Jane that she was queen. She was then but sixteen
years of age. The news came upon her as a most unwelcome
surprise, and for some time she resisted all persuasions to accept
the fatal dignity; but at length she yielded to the entreaties
of her father, her father-in-law and her husband. The better
to mature their plans the cabal had kept the king's death secret
for some days, but they proclaimed Queen Jane in the city on
the 10th. The people received the announcement with manifest
coldness, and a vintner's boy was even so bold as to raise a cry
for Queen Mary, for which he next day had his ears nailed to the
pillory and afterwards cut off. Mary, however, had received
early intimation of her brother's death, and, retiring from
Hunsdon into Norfolk, gathered round her the nobility and
commons of those parts. Northumberland was despatched
thither with an army to oppose her; but after reaching New-
market he complained that the council had not sent him forces
in sufficient numbers and his followers began to desert. News
also came that the earl of Oxford had declared for Queen Mary;
and as most of the council themselves were only seeking an
opportunity to wash their hands of rebellion, they procured a
meeting at Baynard's Castle, revoked their former acts as done
under coercion, and caused the lord mayor to proclaim Queen
Mary, which he did amid the shouts of the citizens. The duke of
Suffolk was obliged to tell his daughter that she must lay aside
her royal dignity and become a private person once more. She
replied that she relinquished most willingly a crown that she
had only accepted out of obedience to him and her mother,
and her nine days' reign was over.
The leading actors in the conspiracy were now called to
answer for their deeds. Northumberland was brought up
to London a prisoner, tried and sent to the block, along with
some of his partisans. The duke of Suffolk and Lady Jane were
also committed to the Tower; but the former, by the influence
of his duchess, procured a pardon. Lady Jane and her husband
Lord Guilford Dudley were also tried, and received sentence
of death for treason. This, however, was not immediately
carried out; on the contrary, the queen seems to have wished
to spare their Hves and mitigated the rigour of their confinement.
Unfortunately, owing to the general dislike of the queen's
marriage with Philip of Spain, Sir Thomas Wyat soon after
raised a rebellion in which the duke of Suffolk and his brothers
took part, and on its suppression the queen was persuaded that
it was unsafe to spare the lives of Lady Jane and her husband
any longer. On hearing that they were to die, Lady Jane
declined a parting interview with her husband lest it should
increase their pain, and prepared to meet her fate with Christian
fortitude. She and her husband were executed on the same day,
on the 1 2th of February 1554, her husband on Tower Hill, and
herself within the Tower an hour afterwards, amidst universal
sympathy and compassion.
See Ascham's Schoolmaster; Burnet's History of the Reformation;
Howard's Lady Jane Grey; Nicolas's Literary Remains of Lady Jane
Grey; Tytler's England under Edward VI. and Mary; The Chronicles
of Queen Jane, ed. J. G. Nichols; The Accession of Queen Mary
(Gnaras's narrative), ed. R. Garnett (1892); Foxe's Acts and
Monuments.
GREY DE WILTON and Grey de Ruthyn. The first Baron
Grey de Wilton was Reginald de Grey, who was summoned to
parliament as a baron in 1295 and who died in 1308. Reginald's
son John, the 2nd baron (1268-13 23), was one of the lords
ordainers in i3io*and was a prominent figure in English politics
during the reign of Edward II. The later barons Grey de Wilton
were descended from John's eldest son Henry (d. 1342), while a
younger son Roger (d. 1353) was the ancestor of the barons
Grey de Ruthyn.
William, 13TH Lord Grey de Wilton (d. 1562), who suc-
ceeded to the title on the death of his brother Richard, about
1520, won great fame as a soldier by his conduct m France
during the concluding years of Henry VIII.'s reign, and was one
of the leaders of the victorious English army at the battle of
Pinkie in 1547. He was then employed on the Scottish marches
and in Scotland, and in 1549 he rendered good service in sup-
pressing the rebellion in Oxfordshire and in the west of England;
in 1 55 1 he was imprisoned ad* a friend of the fallen protector,
the duke of Somerset, and he was concerned in the attempt made
by John Dudley, duke of Northumberland, to place Lady Jane
Grey on the English throne in 1553. However, he was pardoned
by Queen Mary and was entrusted with the defence of Guines.
Although indifferently supported he defended the town with
great gallantry, but in January 1558 he was forced to surrender
and for some time he remained a prisoner in France. Under
Elizabeth, Grey was again employed on the Scottish border,
and he was responsible for the pertinacious but unavailing
attempt to capture Leith in May 1560. He died at Cheshunt
in Hertfordshire on the I4th/25th of December 1562.
He was described by William Cecil as " a noble, valiant, painful
and careful gentleman," and his son and successor, Arthur, wrote
A Commentary of the Services and Charges of William, Lord Grey of
Wilton, K.G. This has been edited by Sir P. de M. Grey Egerton
for the Camden Society (1847). _ _^_
Grey's elder son Arthur, 14TH Lord Grey de Wilton (1536-
i593)> was during early life with his father in France and in
Scotland; he fought at the battle of St Quentin and helped to
defend Guines and to assault Leith. In July 1580 he was
appointed lord deputy of Ireland, and after an initial defeat in
Wicklow was successful in reducing many of the rebels to a
temporary submission. Perhaps the most noteworthy event
during his tenure of this office was the massacre of 600 Italians
and Spaniards at Smerwick in November 1580, an action for
which he was responsible. Having incurred a heavy burden of
debt Grey frequently implored the queen to recall him, and in
August 1582 he was allowed to return to England (see E.
Spenser, View of the State of Ireland, edited by H. Morley, 1890,
and R. Bagwell, Ireland under the Tudor s, vol. iii., 1800). While
in Ireland Grey was served as secretary by Edmund Spenser,
and in book v. of the Faerie Queene the poet represents his
patron as a knight of very noble qualities named Artegall. As
one of the commissioners who tried Mary queen of Scots, Grey
defended the action of Elizabeth's secretary, William Davison,
with regard to this matter, and he took part in the preparations
for the defence of England against the Spaniards id 1588. His
592
GREYMOUTH— GRIBEAUVAL
account of the defence of Guinea was used by Holinshed in his
Chronicles.
When he died ©a the 14th of October 1593 he was succeeded
as 15 th baron by his son Thomas (d. 1614), who while serving in
Ireland incurred the enmity of Robert Devereux, earl of Essex,
and of Henry Wriothesley, earl of Southampton; and after
lighting against Spain in the Netherlands he was a member of
the court which sentenced these two noblemen to death in 1601.
On the accession of James L he was arrested for his share in the
" Bye " plot, an attempt made by William Watson and others
to seize the king. He was tried and sentenced to death, but the
sentence was not carried out and he remained in prison until his
death on the 9th of July 1614. He displayed both ability and
courage at his trial, remarking after sentence had been passed,
" the house of Wilton hath spent many lives in their prince's
service and Grey cannot beg his." Like his father Grey was a
strong Puritan. He left no children and his barony became
extinct.
In 1784 Sir Thomas Egertoh, Bart., a descendant in the female
line of the 14th baron, was created Baron Grey de Wilton. He died
without sons in September 1814, when his barony became extinct;
but the titles of Viscount Grey de Wilton and earl of Wilton, which
had been conferred upon him in 1801, passed to Thomas Grosvenor
( 1 790-1 882), the second son of his daughter Eleanor (d. 1846), and
her husband Robert Grosvenor, 1st marquess of Westminster.
Thomas took the name of Egerton and his descendants still hold the
titles.
Roger Grey, ist Baron Grey de Ruthyn, who was sum*
moned to parliament as a baron in 1324, saw much service as a
soldier before his death on the 6 th of March 1353. The second
baron was his pan Reginald, whose son Reginald (c. 1364-1440)
succeeded to the title on his father's death in July 1388. In
,1410 after a long dispute the younger Reginald won the tight to
bear the arms of the Hastings family. He enjoyed the favour
both of Richard II. and Henry IV., and his chief military exploits
were against tht Welsh, who took him prisoner in 1401 and only
released him upon payment of a heavy ransom. Grey was a
member of the council which governed England during the
absence of Henry V. in France in 141 5; he fought in the French
-wars in 14*0 and 142 1 and died on the 30th of September 1440.
His eldest son, Sir John Grey, K.G. (d. 1439), who predeceased
his father, fought at Agincourt and was deputy of Iceland in 1427.
He was the father of Edmund Grey (d. 1489), who succeeded
his grandfather as Lord Grey de Ruthyain 1440 and was created
earl of Kent in 1465.
One of Reginald Grey's younger eon6, Edward (1415-4457),
succeeded his maternal grandfather as Baron Ferrers of (Jroby in
1445. He was the ancestor of the earls of Stamford and also of the
Greys, marquesses of Dorset and dukes of Suffolk.
The barony of Grey de Ruthyn was merged in the earldom of
Kent until the death of Henry, the 8th earl, in November 1639.
It then devolved upon Kent's nephew Charles LonguevtUe (1612-
1643), through whose daughter Susan (d* 1676) it came to the family
of Yeiverton, who were earls of Sussex from 1 717 to 1799. The next
holder was Henry Edward Gould (1780-1816), a grandson of Henry
Yeiverton, earl of Sussex; and through Goukfs daughter Barbara,
marchioness of Hastings (d, 1858), it passed to the last marquess of
Hastings Jon whose death in 1868 the barony fell into abeyance, this
being terminated in 1885 in favour of Hastings* s sister Bertha
(d. 1887), the wife of Augustus Wykeham Chfton. Their son,
Rawdon George Grey Clifton (h. 1858), succeeded his mother as 24th
holder of the barony.
GRBYMOUTH, a seaport of New Zealand, the principal port
on the west ooast of South Island, m Grey county. Pop. (1906)
4560. It stands on the small estuary of the Grey or Mawhera
river, has a good harbour, and railway communication with
Hokitika, Reef ton, &c^ while the construction oi a line to connect
with Christchurch and Nelson was begun in 1887. The district
is both auriferous and coal-bearing. Gold-dredging is a rich
industry, and the coal-mines have attendant industries in coke,
bricks and fire-clay. The timber trade is also well developed.
The neighbouring scenery is picturesque, especially among the
hills surrounding Lake Brunner (1 5 m. S.E.) .
GREYTOWN (San JuaM del Nohte), the principal seaport on
the Caribbean coast of Nicaragua, in the extreme south-eastern
corner of the republic, and at the mouth of the northern channel
of the San Juan river delta. Pop* (1005) about 3500. The town
occupies the seaward side of a narrow peninsula, formed by the
windings of the river. Moat of its houses are. raised on piles
2 or 3 ft. above the ground. The neighbourhood is unhealthy
and unstated for agriculture, so that almost all foodistufis must
be imported, and the cost of living is high. Greytown has
suffered severely from the accumulation of sand in its once fine
harbour. Between 1832 and 1&48 Point Arenas, the seaward
end of the peninsula, was enlarged by a sandbaok more than
1 m. long; between 1850 and 1875 the depth of water over the
bar decreased from about 25 ft. to 5 ft., and the entrance channel,
which had been neariy $ia. wide, was almost closed. Subsequent
attempts to improve the harbour by dredging and building
jetties have only had partial success; but Greytown remains
the headquarters of Nicaraguan commerce with Europe and
eastern America. The village called America, 1 m. N., was
built as the eastern terminus of a proposed interoceanic canal.
The harbour of San Juan, discovered by Columbus, was
brought into further notice by Captain Diego Madraca, who in
1539 sailed down the river from Lake Nicaragua. The date of
the first Spanish settlement on the spot is not known, but in the
17th century there were fortifications at the mouth of the river.
In 1796 San Juan was made a port oi entry by royal charter,
and new defences were erected in i8fei» In virtue of the pro-
tectorate claimed by Great Britain over the Mosquito Coast
(#>t>.), the Mosquito Indians, aided by a British fdrce, sensed the
town in 1&48 and occupied it untH 1:860, when Great Britain
ceded its protectorate to Nicaragua by the treaty of Managua.
This treaty secured religious liberty and trial by jury for all
civil and criminal charges in Greytown; its seventh article
declared the port free, but was never enforced. .
6REYWAGK& or Grauwacks (» German word, signifying
a grey earthy rock), the designation, formerly more generally
used by English geologists than at the present day, for impure,
highly composite, gritty rocks belonging ho.' tht Palaeozoic
systems. They correspond to the sandstones, gate and fine
conglomerates of the later periods. Greywackes are mostly
grey, brown, yellow or black, discoloured, sandy rocks which
may occur in thick or thin beds along with slates, limestones, &c,
and are abundant in Wales, the south of Scotland and the Lake
district of England. They contain a very great variety of
minerals, of. which the principal are quarts, orthoclase and
plagiocJase> caWte, iron oxides and graphitic .'carbonaceous
matters, together with (in the coarser kinds), iragtnents of such
rock* a* feteite, chert, slate, gneiss* various aqhisti, quarteite.
Among other minerals found in them are iriwttte arid chlorite,
tourmaline, epidote, -apatite, garnet, hornblende and augite,
aphene, pyrites. The cementing material may he siliceous or
argillaceous, and is sometime* calcareous. As a rule greywackes
are not fossittferou*, but organic remains may the com m on in
the finer beds associated with them. Their oompoment particles
are usually not much rounded by attrition, and the rodks have
often been considerably indurated by pressume and mineral
changes, such as the introduction of interstitial idica, La same
districts the greywackes are cleaved, bat they show phenomena
of this kind much less perfectly than the slate. Although the
group is so diverse that it is difficult to characterize mmera-
logicauy, ft has a well-estabUsbed place in petrographkal
dassificationa, because these peculiar composite arenaceous
deposits are very frequent among Silurian and Cambrian rocks,
and rarely occur in Secondary or Tertiary systems. Their
essential features are their gritty character and their complex
composition. By increasing metamorphisin greywackes fre-
quently pass into mica-schists, chloritic schists and sedimentary
gneisses. (j. S. F.)
QRIBEAUVAI* JEAtf ftaPTBTK DE (1715-1739), French
artillery general, was the son of a magistrate of Amiens and was
born there on the 15th of September 171 5. He entered the
French royal artillery in 1732 as a volunteer, and became an
officer in 1735. For nearly twenty years regimental duty and
scientific work occupied him, and in 1752 he became captain of a
company oi miners. A few years later oe was employed in a
military mission in Prussia. In 1757, being, then a lieu tenant-
GRIBO YEDOV-^-GRIEG
593
.colonel, he was Lent lo the Austrian army on the outbreak of the
Seven Yeais' War, and served as * general officer of artillery.
The siege of Giatz and the defence of Schweidnitz were his
principal exploits. The empress Maria Theresa rewarded him
ioc his work with the rank of lieutenant field-marshal and the
cross of the Maria Theresa order. On his return to France he
was made martckal de camp, in 1764 inspector of artillery, and
in 1765 lieutenant-general and commander of the order of St
Louis. For some years after this he was in disfavour at court,
and he became first inspector of artillery only in 1776, in which
year also he received the grand cross of the St Louis order. He
was now able to carry out the reforms in the artillery arm which
are his chief title to fame. See Artillery; and for full details
GribeauvaTs own Table des constructions des principaux aUirails
de V art&crie . . .deM.de Gribedttval, and the regUment for the
JFxench artillery issued in 1776. He died in 1 7S9,
See Pnysegur in Journal de Paris, supplement of the 8th el July
1789; Chevafier de Passaic, Precis surM.de Gribeauoai (Paris, 1Z16) ;
Veyrines, Gribeauvol (Paris, 1889), and Hennebert, Gribeauval,
Ueutenant-giiUral des armies du roy (Paris, 1896).
GRIBOYEDOV, ALEXANDER SERGUEEVICH (1795-1829),
Russian dramatic author, was born in 1795 at Moscow, where
he studied at the university from 18 10 to 181 2. He then obtained
a commission in a hussar regiment, but resigned it in 1816.
Next year he enteiied the civil service, and in 1818 was appointed
secretary of the Russian legation in Persia, whence he was
transferred to Georgia. He had commenced writing early, and
had produced on the stage at St Petersburg in 1816 a comedy
in verse, translated f com the French, catted The Young Spouses,
which was followed by other pieces el the same hind. But
neither these nor the essays and verses which he wrote would
have been long remembered but for the immense success gained
.by his comedy in verse, Govt ot urna, or '** Misfortune from
Intettigente " (fiug. trans, by N. Benardaky, 1&57). A satke
opon Russian society, or, as a high official styled it, "A pasquin-
ade on Moscow," its plot is slight, its merits consisting fa its
accurate representation of certain .social and official types—
such as Famousoff, the lover of old abuses, the hater of reforms;
Oris secretary, Moldianin, servile fawner upon all hi office; the
aristocratic young liberal and' Anglotaaaiac, ' Repetftoff ; con-
trasted with whom is the hero of the piece, Tchatsky, the ironical
satirist, just returned from <dhe west of Europe, who exposes and
ridicules the weaknesses of the rest, his words echoing that outcry
of the young generation Of i&so which reached its climax in the
mititaty insurrection of 1B25, and was then sternly silenced by
.Nicholas. Griboyedac* spent the summer of 1S23 in Russia,
completed his play and took it to St Petersburg. There it was
«>ectcd by the censorship. Manyoopies were made and privately
circulated, but Griboyedov never saw ft published. The first
edition was 'printed in 1833, four years after his death. Only
once did he see it on the stage, when it was acted by the officers
of the garrison at Erivan. Soured by disappointment he returned
to Georgia, made himself useful by his linguistic knowledge to
his relative Count Paskaevitch-Erivansky during a campaign
against Persia, and was sent to St Petersburg with the treaty
at 182&. Brilliantly received there, he thought of devoting
himself to literature, and commenced a romantic drama, A
Georgian NitftL But he was suddenly sent to Persia as minister
plenipotentiary. Soon after his arrival at Teheran a tumult
arose, caused by the anger of the populace against some Georgian
and Armenian captives— -Russian subjects — who had taken
refuge in the Russiaaembassy* It was stormed, Griboyedov was
killed (February 11, x8ao), and his body was for three days so
ill-treated by the mob that it was at last recognised only by an
old scar on the hand, due to a wound received in a duel, it was
taken to Tiffis, and buried in the Monastery of St David. There
a momument was erected to his memory by his widow, to whom
he had been but a lew months married.
GRIE6, RDVAUD HA3EROT (1*43-1407), Norwegian musical
composer, was born on the 15th of June 1843 in Bergen, where
his father, Alexander Greig {sic) , was English consul. The Greig
family wese of Scottish origin, but the composer's grandfather,
a supporter of the Pretender, left his home at Aberdeen after
Charles Edward's defeat at Cuiloden, and went to Bergen, where
he carried on business. The composer's mother, GesineHagerup,
belonged to a pure Norwegian peasant family; and it is from
the mother rather than from the father that Edvard Grieg
derived his musical talent. She had been educated as a pianist
and began to give her son lessons on the pianoforte when he was
six years of age. His first composition, " Variations on a German
melody," was written at the age of nine. A summer holiday in
Norway with his father in i8$8 seems to haveexercised a powerful
influence on the child's musical imagination, which was easily
kindled at the sight of mountain and fjord. In the autumn of
the same year, at the recommendation of Ok Bull, young Grieg
entered the Leipzig Conservatorium, where he passed, like all
his contemporaries, under the Influence of the Mendelssohn and
Schumann school of romantics. But the curriculum of academic
study was too narrow for him. He dreamed half his time away
and overworked during the other half. In 186* he completed
his Leipzig studies, and appeared as pianist and composer
before his fellow-citizens of Bergen. In 1863 he studied in
Copenhagen for a short time with Gade and Emil Hartmann,
both composers representing a sentitoerital strain of Scandinavian
temperament, from which Grieg emancipated himself in favour
of the harder inspiration of Richard Nordraak. u The scales
fell from my eyes," says Grieg of his acquaintance with Nerdraak.
" For the first time 1 learned through him to know the northern
folk tunes and my own nature. We made a pact to combat the
effeminate. Gade-Mendelssohn, mixture of Scandinavism, and
boldly entered upon the new path along which the northern
school at present pursues its course. " Grieg now made a kind of
crusade in favour of national music. In the winter of 1B64-
1865 he founded the Copenhagen concert-society Euterpe,
which was intended to produce the works of young Norwegian
composers. During the winters of r86s~i$66 and 1869-1870
Grieg was in Rome. In the autumn of. 1866 he settled in
Christianity where from 1867 till 3880 he conducted a musical
union. From 1880. to 1882 he directed the concerts of the
Harmonic Society in Bergen. In 1871 the Royal Musical
Academy of Sweden made Grieg a member ; in. JS74 the
Norwegian Storthing granted him an annual stipend of 1600
kronen. He had already been decorated with the (Mai order in
*$73. In 1888 he played his pfanofdrte eoncertb and conducted
Ms " two nielodies for strings w at a Philharmonic concert in
London, and visited England again in j&ox, 1894 and 1896,
receiving the dtagree of Mus.D. from the unfrretsity of Cambridge
in 1994. He died at Bergen on the 4th of September 1907.
As a composer Grieg's extinguishing quality is lyrical
Whether lus orchestral works or his songs or his best pianoforte
works are submitted to examination, it is almost always the note
of song that tells* Sometimes, as in the music to Ibsen's Peer
Gynt, or in the suite for stringed orchestra, Aus H otter gs Zeit,
this characteristic is combined with a strong power for. raising
pictures in the listener's mind, and the romantic " programme "
tendency in Griejg's music becomes dearer the farther writers
like Richard Strauss carry this movement. Grieg's songs may
be said to be generally the mora spontaneous the more closely
they conform to the simple model of the Volksiied? yet the
inuch suag " Ich liebe dick ^ is a song of a different kind, which
has hardly ever been surpassed for the perfection with which it
depicts a strong momentary emotion, and it is difficult to ascribe
greater merits to songs of Grieg even so characteristic as " Sol-
vejg*s lied " and " Ein Schwan." The pianoforte concerto is
brilliant and spontaneous; it has been perforined by most
pianists of the first rank, but its essential qualities and the pure
nationality of its themes have been brought out to their perfec-
tion by one player only — the Norwegian pianist Knujlsea. The
first and second of Grieg's violin sbnatas are agreeable, so free
and artless is the flow of their melody. In his numerous piano
pieces and m those of his songs which are devoid of a definitely
national inspiration the impression made is less permanent.
Billow called Grieg the " Chopin of the North." The phrase
is an exaggeration rather than an expression of the truth, for
594
GRIESBACH—GRIFFENFELDT
the range of the appeal in Chopin la far wider, nor has the national
movement inaugurated by Grieg shown promise of great develop-
ment. He is rather to be regarded as the pioneer of a musical
mission which has been perfectly carried out by himself alone.
See La Mara, Edvard Grieg (Leipzig, 1898).
GRIESBACH, JOHANH JAKOB (1745-1&"), German biblical
critic, was born at Butzbach, a small town of Hesse-Darmstadt,
where his father, Konrad Kaspar (1705-1777), was pastor, on
the 4th of January 1745. He was educated at Frankfort-on-the-
Main, and at the universities of Tubingen, Leipzig and Halle,
where he became one of J. S. Sender's most ardent disciples.
It was Semler who induced him to turn his attention* to the
textual criticism of the New Testament. At the close of his
undergraduate career he undertook a literary tour through
Germany, Holland, France and England. On his return to
Halle, he acted for some time as Privatdozent, but in 1773 was
appointed to a professorial chair; in 1775 he was translated to
Jena, where the rest of his life was spent (though he received calls
to other universities). He died on the 24th of March 18x2.
Griesbach's fame rests upon his work in New Testament criticism,
in which he inaugurated a new epoch.
His critical edition of the New Testament first appeared at Halle,
in three volumes, in 1 774-1 775. The first volume contained the first
three Gospels, synoptically arranged; the second, the Epistles and
the book of Revelation. All the historical books were reprinted
in one volume in 1777, the synoptical arrangement of the Gospels
having been abandoned as inconvenient. Of the second edition,
considerably enlarged and improved, the first volume appeared in
1 796 and the second in 1806 (Halle and London). Of a third edition, J
edited by David Schulz,. only the first volume, containing the four
Gospels, appeared (1827).
For the construction of his critical text Griesbach took as his basis
the Elzevir edition. Where he differed from it he placed the Elzevir
reading on the inner margin along with other readings he thought
worthy of special consideration (these last, however , being printed
in smaller type). To all the readings on this margin he attached
special marks indicating the precise degree of probability in his
opinion attaching to each. In weighing these probabilities he pror
ceeded upon a particular theory which in its leading features he had
derived from J. A. Bengel and J. S. Semler, dividing all the MSS.
into three main groups— the Alexandrian, the Western and the
Byzantine (see Bible: [Neyj Testament, "Textual Criticism").
A reading supported by only one recension he considered as having
only one witness in its favour; those readings which were supported
by all the three recensions, or even by two of them, especially if
these two were the Alexandrian and the Western, he unhesitatingly
accepted as genuine. Only when each of the three recensions gives
a different reading does he proceed to discuss the question on other
grounds. See his Symbolae criticae ad supplendas et corrigendas
variarum N.T. UeHonum coUecHones (Halle, 1785, 1793), and his
Cothmentarius criticus in textum Graecum N.T., which extends to
the end of Mark, and discusses the more important various readings
with great care and thoroughness (Jena, 1794 ff.). Among the other
works of Griesbach (which are comparatively unimportant) may be
mentioned his university thesis De codicibus quatuor evangelistarum
Origenianu (Halle, 1771) and a work upon systematic theology
(Anleitung zur Kenntniss der populdren Dogmatik, Jena, 1779).
His Opuscula, consisting chiefly of university "Programs" and
addresses, were edited by Gabler (2 vols., Jena, 1824).
See the article in Herrog-Hauck, Realencyklop&die, and the
Allgemeine deutsche Biographic.
GRIESBACH, a watering-place in the grand duchy of Baden,
in the valley of the Rench, 1550 ft. above the sea, 6 m. W. from
Freudenstadt in Wtirttemberg. It is celebrated for its saline
chalybeate waters (twelve springs), which are specific in cases
of anaemia, feminine disorders and diseases of the nervous
system, and were used in the 16th century. The annual number
of visitors is nearly 2000. Pop. (1900) 800. From 1665 to 1805
Griesbach was part of the bishopric of Strassburg.
See Haberer, Die Renchb&der Petersthal und Griesbach (Wurzburg,
1866).
6RIFFB (French for "claw"), an architectural term for the
spur, an ornament carved at the angle of the square base of
columns.
GRIFFENFELDT, PEDER, Count (Peder Schumacher) (1635-
1699), Danish statesman, was born at Copenhagen on the 24th
of August 1635, of a wealthy trading family connected with the
leading civic, clerical and learned circles in the Danish capital.
His tutor, Jens Vorde, who prepared him in his eleventh year
for the university, praises his extraordinary gifts, his mastery
of the classical languages and his almost disquieting diligence.
The brilliant way in which he sustained his preliminary examina-
tion won him the friendship of the examiner, Bishop Jasper
Brokman, at whose palace he first met Frederick ILL The king
was struck with the lad's bright grey eyes and pleasant humorous
face; and Brokman, proud of his pupil, made him translate a
chapter from a Hebrew Bible first into Latin and then into
Danish, for the entertainment of the scholarly monarch. In 1 6 54
young Schumacher went abroad for eight years, to complete
his education. From Germany he proceeded to the Netherlands,
staying at Leiden, Utrecht and Amsterdam, and passing in 1657
to Queen's College, Oxford, where he lived three years. The
epoch-making events which occurred in England, while he was
at Oxford profoundly interested him, and coinciding with the
Revolution in Denmark, which threw open a career to the middle
classes, convinced him that his proper sphere was politics. In
the autumn of 1660 Schumacher visited Paris, shortly after
Mazarin's death, when the young Louis XIV. first seized the
reins of power. Schumacher seems to have been profoundly
impressed by the administrative superiority of a strong central-
ised monarchy in the hands of an energetic monarch who knew
his own mind; and, in politics, as in manners, France ever
afterwards was his model The last year of his travels was
spent in Spain, where he obtained a thorough knowledge of the
Castilian language and literature. His travels, however, if they
enriched his mind, relaxed his character, and he brought home
easy morals as well as exquisite manners.
On his return to Copenhagen, in 1662, Schumacher found the
monarchy established on the ruins of the aristocracy, and eager
to buy the services of every man of the middle classes who had
superior talents to offer. Determined to make his way in this
" new Promised Land," the young adventurer contrived to
secure the protection of Rristoffer Gabel, the king's confidant,
and in 1663 was appointed the royal librarian. A romantic
friendship with the king's bastard, Count Ulric Frederick
Gyldenlove, consolidated his position. In 1665 Schumacher
obtained his first political post as the king's secretary, and the
same year composed the memorable Kartgelov (see Denmark,
History).. He was now a personage at court, where he won all
hearts by his amiability and gaiety; and in political matters
also his influence was beginning to be felt.
On the death of Frederick IIL (February 9th, 1670)
Schumacher was the most trusted of all the royal counsellors.
He alone was aware of the existence of the new throne of walrus
ivory embellished with three silver life-size lions, and of the new
regalia, both of which treasures he had, by the king's command,
concealed in a vault beneath the soyal castle. Frederick III.
had also confided to him a sealed packet containing the Kongeloo,
which was to be delivered to his successor alone. Schumacher
had been recommended to his son by Frederick III. on his death-
bed. " Make him a great man, but do it slowly 1" said Frederick,
who thoroughly understood the characters of his son and of his
minister. Christian V, was, moreover, deeply impressed by the
confidence which his father had ever shown to Schumacher.
When, on the 9th of February 1670, Schumacher delivered
the Kongelov to Christian V., the king bade all those about him
withdraw, and after being closeted a good hour with Schumacher,
appointed him his " Obergeheimesekreter." His promotion
was now almost disquietingly rapid. In May 1670 he received
the titles of excellency and privy councillor; in July of the same
year he was ennobled under the name of Griffenfeldt, deriving
his title from the gold griffin with outspread wings which sur-
mounted his escutcheon; in November 1673 he was created a
count, a knight of the Elephant and, finally, imperial chancellor.
In the course of the next few months he gathered into his hands
every branch of the government: he had reached the apogee
of his short-lived greatness.
But if his offices were . manifold, so also were his talents.
Seldom has any man united so many and such Various gifts in
his own person and carried them so easily — a playful wit, a
vivid imagination, oratorical and literary eloquence and, above
all, a profound knowledge of human nature both male and female,
griffin;
595
of every class and rank, from the king to the meanest citizen.
He had captivated the accomplished Frederick III. by his
literary graces and ingenious speculations; he won the obtuse
and ignorant Christian V. by saving him trouble, by acting and
thinking for him, and at the same time making him believe
that he was thinking and acting for himself. Moreover, his
commanding qualities were coupled with an organizing talent
which made itself felt in every department of the state, and
with a marvellous adaptability which made him an ideal
diplomatist.
On the 25 th of May 16 71 the dignities of count and baron
were introduced into Denmark " to give lustre to the court ";
a few months later the order of the Danebrog was instituted as a
fresh means of winning adherents by marks of favour. Griff en-
f eldt was the originator of these new institutions. To him
monarchy was the ideal form of government. But he had also
a political object. The aristocracy of birth, despite its reverses,
still remained the elite of society; and Griff enf eldt, the son of
a burgess as well as the protagonist of monarchy, was its most
determined enemy. The new baronies and countships, owing
their existence entirely to the crown, introduced a strong solvent
into aristocratic circles.; Griffenfeldt saw that, in future, the
first at court would be the first everywhere. Much was also done
to promote trade and. industry, notably by the revival of the
Kammer KoUegium, or board of trade, and the abolition of some
of the most harmful monopolies. Both the higher and the
provincial administrations were thoroughly reformed with the
view of making them more centralized and efficient; and the
positions and duties of the various magistrates, who now also
received fixed salaries, were for the first time exactly defined.
But what Griffenfeldt could create, Griffenfeldt could dispense
with, and it was not long before he began to encroach upon the
jurisdiction of the new departments of state by private con-
ferences with their chiefs. Nevertheless it is indisputable that,
under the single direction of this master-mind, the Danish state
was now able, for a time, to utilize all its resources as it had
never done before.
In the last three years of his administration, Griffenfeldt gave
himself entirely to the conduct of the foreign policy of Denmark.
It is difficult to form a clear idea of this, first, because his influence
was perpetually traversed by opposite tendencies; in the second
place, because the force of circumstances compelled him,
again and again, to shift his standpoint; and finally because
personal considerations largely intermingled with his foreign
policy, and made it more elusive and ambiguous than it need have
been. Briefly, Griffenfeldt aimed at restoring Denmark to the
rank of a great power. He proposed to accomplish this by
carefully nursing her resources, and in the meantime securing
and enriching her by alliances, which would bring in large sub-
sidies while imposing a minimum of obligations. Such a con-
ditional and tentative policy, on the part of a second-rate power,
in a period of universal tension and turmoil, was most difficult;
but Griffenfeldt did not regard it as impossible. The first
postulate of such a policy was peace, especially peace with
Denmark's most dangerous neighbour, Sweden. The second
postulate was a sound financial basis, which he expected the
wealth of France to supply in the shape of subsidies to be spent
on armaments. Above all things Denmark was to beware of
making enemies of France and Sweden at the same time. An
alliance, on fairly equal terms, between the three powers, would,
in these circumstances, be the consummation of Griffenfeldt's
" system "; an alliance with France to the exclusion of Sweden
would be the next best policy; but an alliance between France
and Sweden, without the admission of Denmark, was to be
avoided at all hazards. Had Griffenfeldt's policy succeeded,
Denmark might have recovered her ancient possessions to the
south and east comparatively cheaply. But again and again he
was overruled. Despite his open protests and subterraneous
counter-mining, war was actually declared against Sweden in
1675, anc * his subsequent policy seemed so obscure and hazardous
to those who did not possess the clue to the perhaps purposely
tangled skein, that the numerous enemies whom his arrogance
and superciliousness had raised up against him, resolved to
destroy him.
On the nth of March 1676, wttile on his way to the royal
apartments, Griffenfeldt was arrested in the king's name and
conducted to the citadel, a prisoner of state. A minute scrutiny
of his papers, lasting nearly six weeks, revealed nothing treason-
able; but it provided the enemies of the fallen statesman with
a deadly weapon against him in the shape of an entry in his
private diary, in which he had imprudently noted that, on one
occasion Christian V. in a conversation with a foreign ambassador
had " spoken like a child." On the 3rd of May Griffenfeldt was
tried not by the usual tribunal, in such cases the Hojesteret, or
supreme court, but by an extraordinary tribunal of 10 dignitaries,
none of whom was particularly well disposed towards the accused.
Griffenfeldt, who was charged with simony , bribery, oath-breaking,
malversation and lese-majestS, conducted his own defence under
every imaginable difficulty. For forty-six days before his
trial he had been closely confined in a dungeon without lights,
books or writing materials. Every legal assistance was illegally
denied him. Nevertheless he proved more than a match for the
forensic ability arrayed against him, and his first plea in defence
is in a high degree dignified and manly. Finally, he was con-
demned to degradation and decapitation; though one of the ten
judges not only refused to sign the sentence, but remonstrated
in private with the king against its injustice. And indeed its
injustice was flagrant. The primary offence of the ex-chancellor
was the taking of bribes, which no twisting of the law could
convert into a capital offence, while the charge of treason had not
been substantiated. Griffenfeldt was pardoned on the scaffold,
at the very moment when the axe was about to descend. On
hearing that the sentence was commuted to life-long imprison-
ment, he declared that the pardon was harder than the punish-
ment, and vainly petitioned for leave to serve his king for the rest
of his life as a common soldier. For the next two and' twenty
years Denmark's greatest statesman lingered out his life in a
lonely state-prison, first in the fortress of Copenhagen, and
finally at Munkholm on Trondh jem fiord. He died at Trondh jem
on the 12th of March 1690. Griffenfeldt married Kitty Nansen,
the granddaughter of the great Burgomaster Hans Nansen,
who brought him half a million rix-dollars. She died in 1672,
after bearing him a daughter.
See DanmarVs Riges Histoire, vol. v. (Copenhagen, 1897-1905) ;
Jorgenaon, Peter Schumacher-Griffenfeldt (Copenhagen, 1893-1894) ;
O. Vaupell, Rigskansler Grev Griffenfeldt (Copenhagen, 18 80- 18 82);
Bain, Scandinavia, cap. x. (Cambridge, 1905;. (R. N. B.)
GRIFFIN [O'Griobta, O'Greeva], GERALD (1803- 1840),
Irish novelist and dramatic writer, was born at Limerick of good
family, on the 1 2th of December 1803. His parents emigrated in
1820 to America, but he was left with an. elder brother, who was
a medical practitioner at Adare. As early as his eighteenth
year he undertook for a short time the editorship of a newspaper
in Limerick. Having written a tragedy, A guire, which was highly
praised by his friends, he set out in 1823 for London with the
purpose of " revolutionizing the dramatic taste of the time by
writing for the stage." In spite of the recommendations of
John Banim, he had a hard struggle with poverty. It was only
by degrees that his literary work obtained any favour. The
Noyades, an opera entirely in recitative, was produced at the
English Opera House in 1826; and thejraccess of Holland Tide
Tales (1827) led to Tales of the Munster Festivals (3 vote., 1827),
which were still more popular. In 1829 appeared his fine novel,
The Collegians, afterwards successfully adapted for the stage
by Dion Boucicault under the title of The Colleen Bawn. He
followed up this success with The Invasion (1832), Tales of my
Neighbourhood (1835), The Duke of Monmouth (1836), and
Talis QualtSy or Tales of the Jury^room (1842). He also wrote a
number of lyrics touched with his native melancholy. But he
became doubtful as to the moral influence of his writings, and
ultimately he came to the conclusion that his true sphere of duty
was to be found within the Church. He was admitted into a
society of the Christian Brothers at Dublin, in September 1838,
under the name of Brother Joseph, and in the following summer
59 6
GRIFFIN— GRILLPARZER
be removed to Cork, where he died of typhus fever on the 12th
of June 1840. Before adopting the monastic habit he burned
ail his manuscripts; but Gisippur, a tragedy which he had
composed before he was twenty, accidentally escaped destruction,
and in 1842 was put on the Drury Lane stage by Macready with
great success.
The collected works of Gerald Griffin were published in 1S42-
1843 in eight volumes, with a Life by his brother William Grimn,
M.D. ; an edition of hi9 Poetical and Dramatic Works (Dublin, 1895)
by C. G. Duffy; and a selection of his lyrics, with a notice by George
Sigerson, is included in the Treasury of Irish Poetry* edited by
Stopford A. Brooke and T. W. Rolleston (London, 1900).
GRIFFIN, a city and the county-seat of Spalding county,
Georgia, U.SA., 43 m. S. of Atlanta, and about 970 ft* above
the sea. Pop. (1890) 4503; (1000) 6857 (3258 negroes); (1910)
7478. It is served by the Southern, and the Central of Georgia
railways, and is the southern terminus of the Griffin & Chat-
tanooga Division of the latter. The city is situated in a rich
agricultural region, and just outside the corporate limits is an
agricultural experiment station, established by the state bat
maintained by the Federal government. Griffin has a large
trade in cotton and fruit. The principal industry is the manu-
facture of cotton and cotton-seed oIL Buggies, wagons, chairs
and harness are among the other manufactures. The munici-
pality owns and operates the water and electric-lighting systems,
Griffin was founded in 1840 and was chartered as a city in 1846.
GRIFFIN* Gkitfqn or Gkhphon (from Fr. griffon, Lat.
grypkus, Gr. iptyX in the natural history of the ancients, the
name of an imaginary rapacious creature of the eagle species,
represented with four legs, wings and a beak r — the fore part
resembling an eagie and the hinder a Hon. In addition, some
writers describe the tail as a serpent. This animal, which was
supposed to watch over geld mines and hidden treasures, and to
be the enemy of the horse, was consecrated to the Sun; and the
ancient painters represented the chariot of the Sun as drawn
by griffins. According to Spanheim, those of" Jupiter arid
Nemesis were similarly provided. The griffin of Scripture is
probably the asprey, and the name is now given to a species oi
vulture. The griffin was said to inhabit Asiatic Scythia, where
gold and precious stones were abundant; and when stranger*
approached to gather these the creatures leapt upon them and
tore them in pieces, thus chastising human avarice and greed.
The one-eyed Arimaspi waged constant war with them, according
to Herodotus (iii. 16). Sir John de Mandevilte, in his Traveis\
described a griffin as eight times larger than a lion.
The griffin is frequently seen as a charge m heraldry (see
Heraldry, fig. 163); and in architectural decoration is usually
represented as a four-footed beast with wings and the head of a
leopard or tiger with horns, or with the head and beak Of an
eagle; in the latter case, but very rarely, with two legs. To
what extent it owes its origin to Persian sculpture is not known,
the capitals at Persepohs have sometimes leopard or lion heads
with horns, and four-footed beasts with the beaks of eagles are
represented in bas-reliefs. In the temple of Apollo Rranchidae
near Miletus in Asia Minor, the winged griffin oi the capitals has
leopards' heads with horns. In the capitals of the so»caUed
lesser pcopylaea, at Eleusis conventional eagles with two feet
support the angles oi the abacus. The greater number of those
in Rome have eagles' beaks, as in the irieae of the temple
of Antoninus and Faustina, and their tails develop into
conventional foliage. A similar device was found in the Forum
of Trajan. The best decorative employment of the griffin is
found in the vertical supports of tanks, of which there are
two or three examples in Pompeii and others in the Vatican
and the museums in Rome. In some oi these cases the head
is that of a lion at one end of the support and an eagk at the
other end, and there is only one strongly developed paw; the
wings circling round at the top form conspicuous features on
the sides of these supports, the surfaces below being filled with
conventional Greek foliage.
GRIFFITH, SIR RICHARD JOHN (1784-1^), Irish geologist,
was born in Dublin on the 20th of September 1784. He obtained
in 1700 a commission in the Royal Irish Artillery,, but a year
later, when the corps was incorporated with that of England,
he retired, and devoted his attention to civil engineering and
mining. He studied chemistry, mineralogy and mining for two
years in London under William Nicholson (editor of the Journal
of Nat. PkU.) f and afterward* examined the mining districts
in various parts oi England, Wales and Scotland. While in
Cornwall he discovered ores of nickel and cobalt in material that
had been rejected as worthless. He completed his studies under
Robert Jameson and others at Edinburgh, was elected a Fellow
of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1807, a member of the
newly established Geological Society- of London in 1808, and in
the same year he returned to Ireland. In 1800 he was appointed
by the commissioners to inquire into the nature and extent of
the bogs in Ireland 7 and the means of improving them. In 1&12
he was elected professor of geology and mining engineer to the
Royal Dublin Society. During subsequent years he made many
surveys and issued many reports on mineral districts in Ireland;
and these formed the foundation oi his first geological map of the
country (181 5). In 182? Griffith became engineer oi public
works in Cork, Kerry and Limerick, and was occupied until 1850
in repairing old roads and in laying tout many miles of new roads.
Meanwhile in 1825 he was appointed to carry out the perambula-
tion or boundary survey of Ireland, the object of which waa to
ascertain and mark the boundaries of every county, barony,
parish and townland in preparation for the ordnance survey.
This work was finished in 1844. He was also called upon to assist
in preparing a bill for the general valuation of Ireland; the act
was passed in 1826, and he was appointed commissioner of
valuation, in which capacity he continued to act until 186&.
On " Griffith's valuation " the various local and public assess-
ments were made. His extensive investigations furnished him
with ample material for improving his geological map, and the
second edition was. published in 1855. A third edition on a
larger scale (1 in. to 4 m.) was issued under the Board of Ordnance
in 1830, and it was further revised in 1855. For this great work
and his other services to science he was awarded the WoUastoa
medal by the Geological Society in 1854. In 1850 he was made
chairman of the Irish Board of Works, and in 1858 he was created
a "baronet. He died in Dublin on the a and of September 187&
Among his many geological works the f ohowiagnay be mentioned:
Outline of the GeoUty of Ireland (i8a8); Notice reepeOuM the- Fossil*
of the Mountain Limestone of. Ireland, as compared with those of Great
Britain, and also with the Devonian System. C1842) ; A Synopsis of the
Characters of the Carboniferous Limestone Fossils of Ireland (1844)
(with F. McCoy); A Synopsis of the Silurian Fossils of Ireland (1846)
(with F. McCoy). See memoirs io Quart* Jo%rn. Geol. Soc. xaavv
39; and GeoL Meg,* 1878, p. 524, wkh bibliography.
GRILLE, a French term for an. enclosure in either iron or
bronze; there is no equivalent in English, " grating " applying
more to a horizontal frame of bars over a sunk area, and u grate "
to the iron bars of an open fireplace. The finest examples of
the grille are those known as the re$as, which in Spanish churches
form the enclosures of the chapels, such as the. reja in (he CapiUa
Real at Granada in wrought iron partly gttt (isaa). Similar
grilles are employed to protect the grouud^aoor windows of
mansions not only in Spain but in Italy and Germany. In
England the most beautiful example is that in front of Queen
Eleanor's tomb in Westminster Abbey , in wrought iron. The
finest grilles in Italy are the enclosures of the tombs of the
Delia Scalas at Verona (end of 13th century), iu Germany the
grille of the cenotaph of .Maximilian at Innsbruck (early 16th
century) and in France those which enclose the Place Stanislaus)
the Place de la Carriers and the churches of Nancy, which were
wrought by Jean Lamour in the middle of the 18th century.
Generally, however, throughout Germany the wrought iron
grilles are fine examples of forging, and they are employed for
the enclosures of the numerous fountains^ in the tympana of
gateways, and for the protection of windows. At Danzig in the
Maiienkirche are some fine examples in brass,
GRILLPARZER, FRANZ (1791-1872), the greatest dramatic
poet of Austria, was born in Vienna, on the 15th of January
1791. His father, severe, pedantic, a staunch upholder of the
liberal traditions oi the reign of Joseph JI* was an advocate
GRILLPARZER
597
of some standing; his mother, a nervous, finely-strung woman,
belonged to the well-known musical family of Sonnleithner.
After a desultory education, Grillparzer entered in 1807 the
university of Vienna as a student of jurisprudence; but two
years, later his. father died, leaving the family in straitened
circumstances, and Franz, the eldest son, was obliged to turn
to private tutoring. In 1815 he received an appointment in the
court library, but as this was unpaid, he accepted after some
months a clerkship that offered more solid prospects, in. the
Lower Austrian revenue administration. Through the influence
of Graf Stadion, the minister of finance, he was in x£x& appointed
poet to the Hofburgtheater, and promoted to the Hof hammer
(exchequer) ; in 1852 he became director of the archives of that
department, and in 1856 retired from the civil service with the
. title of Hofrat. Grillparzer had little capacity for an official
career and regarded his office merely as a .means of independence.
In 181 7 the first representation of his tragedy Die Ahnfrau
made him famous, but before this he had written a long tragedy
in iambics, Blanea von QastUien (1807-1809), which was obviously
modelled on Schiller's Don Carlos; and even more promising
were the dramatic fragments Spartacus and Alfred der Grosse
(1809). Die Ahnfrau is a gruesome " fate-tragedy " in the
trochaic measure of the Spanish drama, already made popular
by Adolf Miillner in his Sehuld; but Grillparzer's work is a play
of real poetic beauties, and reveals an instinct for dramatic
as opposed to merely theatrical effect, which distinguishes it
from other " fate-dramas " of the day. Unfortunately its
success led to the poet's being classed for the best part of his
life with playwrights like Mullner and HouwakL Die Ahnfrau
was followed by Sappho (1818), a drama of a very different type;
in the classic spirit of Goethe's Tasso, Grillparzer unrolled the
tragedy of poetic genius, the renunciation of earthly, happiness
imposed upon the poet by his higher mission. In 1821 appeared
Das goldene Vliess, a trilogy which had been interrupted in i£io
by the death of the poet's mother — in a fit of depression she had
taken her own life — and a subsequent visit to Italy. Opening
wfth a powerful dramatic prelude in que act, Der Vastfrcmd,
Grillparzer depicts in Die Argonauien Jason's adventures in his
quest for the Fleece; while Medea, a tragedy of noble classic
proportions, contains tie, culminating events of the story which
had been sov often dramatized before. The theme is, similar
to that of Sappho, but the scale on which it is represented is
larger; it is again the tragedy of the heart fs desire, the conflict
of thesimpje. bfrppy life with that sinister power-— be it genius,
or ambitioa— which upsets the equilibrium of Mfe. The end is
bitter . disillusiomnent, the only consolation renunciation.
Medea, her geveage stilled, her children dead, bears, the fatal
Fleece back *p_ Delphi, while Jason is left to realize the nothing-
ness of human striving and earthly happiness.
For his historical tragedy K&nig (Makars GlUch und Ende
(1823, but owing to di&cuMies with the censor, not perforated
until 1825) » Grillparzer chose one of. the most picturesque
events in : Austrian domestic history, the conflict of Ottokar
of Jtafcew& with Rudolph vojd Hsbsburg, With an almost
modern, realism he reproduced* the motley world of the old
chronicler, at the, same tmetnot losing, sight of the needs of the
theatre; the f ajU of Ottokar is, but another text from which the
poet preached the futility of endeavour and the vanity of
worldly gfeatoess, A second historical tragedy, Ein better
Dienqr seines Bettn (*8a6, performed 1808), attempts to embody
armors heroic gospel; but the subject— the superhuman self*
effacement of Bankbanua before Duke Otto of Meraa— -proved
too uncompromising an illustration of Kant's categorical impera-
tive of duty to be palatable in the theatre. With these historical
tragedies began the darkest ten years in, the poet's life. They
brought him into conflict with the. Austrian censor— a conflict
which grated em GsiUpajrzef '& sensitive soul, and was aggravated
by his own position as a servant of the state; in 1826 he paid a
visit to Goethe in Weimar* and was able to compare the en*
tightened conditions which prevailed in the little Saxon duchy
with the intellectual thraldom of Vienna. . To these troubles
were added more serious personal worries. In the winter of
1820-1821 he had met for the first time Katharina Frchkch
(1801-1879), and the acquaintance rapidly ripened into love
on both sides; but whether owing to a presentiment of mutual
incompatibility, or merely owing to GriUparzei's conviction that
life had no happiness, in store for him, he shrank from marriage.
Whatever the cause may have. been, the poet was plunged into
an abyss of misery and despair to which his diary bears heart-
rending witness; his sufferings found poetic expression in the
fine cycle of poems bearing the significant title Trietia ex Ponte
Yet to these years we owe the completion of two of Grillparzer 's
greatest dramas, Des Metres und der laebe Wellen (1831) and Der
Traum, ein Leben (1834). In the former tragedy, a dramatization
of the story of Hero and Leander, he returned to the Hellenic
world of Sappho, and produced what is perhaps the finest of all
German love-tragedies. His mastery of dramatic technique
is here combined with a ripeness of poetic expression and with
an insight into motive which suggests the modern psychological
drama of Hebbei and Ibsen; the old Greek love-story of Musaeus
is, moreover, endowed with something of that ineffable poetic
grace which the poet had borrowed from the great Spanish
poets, Lope de Vega and Calderon. Der Traum, ein Leben,
Grillparzer's technical masterpiece, is in form perhaps even more
Spanish; it is also more of what Goethe called a " confession."
The aspirations of Rustan, an ambitious young peasant, are
shadowed forth in the hero's dream, which takes up nearly three
acts of the play; ultimately Rustan awakens from his nightmare
to realize the truth of GriBparzer's own pessimistic doctrine
that ah 4 earthly ambitions and aspirations are vanity; the only
true happiness is contentment with one's lot, " des Innern stiller
Frieden und die schuldbefreite Brust." Der Traum, ein Leben
was the first of Grillparzer's dramas, which did not end tragically,
and in 1838 he produced his only comedy, Weh' dent* tier Higt.
But WeK dem, dor Ulgt> in spite of its humour of situation, its
sparkling dialogue and the originality of its idea— namely, that
the hero gains his end by invariably, telling the tr^ith, where his
enemies as invariably expect him to be lying — was too strange
to meet with approval in its day. Its failure. was a blow to the
poet, who turned his back for ever on the; German theatre. In
1836 Grillparzer paid a visit to Paris : and London, in 1843 to
Athens and Constantinople. Then came the , Revolution which
struck, off the intellectual fetters under which Grillparzer and
his contemporaries had groaned in Austria, but the liberation
came too late for him* . Honouis ^er* heaped upon him; he
was rnade a member of the Academy of Sciences; Heinrich
Laubej as director of the Burgtheatar, reinstated his plays on
the repertory ; he was in 2861 elected to the Austrian Herrenhans;
his eightieth birthday was a national festival, and when he died
in, Vienna, on the 2*st of January 187?, the mourning of the
Austrian people was universal. With, the exception of a beautiful
fragment* Bather (1861), Grillparzer published no more dramatic
poetry after the fiasco of Weh 7 dem, der lilgt, but at his death three
completed tragedies were found among his papers, Of these,
Die Jtidin von Toledo, an admirable adaptation from the Spanish
has won a permanent place, in the German classical repertory;
Ein Btudenmist im Borne Hobshurg is a powerful historical
tragedy and Libussa is perhaps the ripest, as it t9 certainly the
deepest of all Grittpspzer's. dramas; the latter two plays prove
how much was lost by the poet's divorce from the theatre.
Although Grillparzer was essentially a dramatist, bis lyric
poetry is in the intensity of its personal note hardly inferior
to Lenau's; and the bitterness of his later years found vent in
biting and stinging epigrams that spared few of. his greater conr
temporaries* As a prose writer, he has left one powerful short
story, Der arme Spielmann (1848}, and a volume of critical
studies an the Spanish drama, which shows how completely
he had succeeded in identifying himself with the Spanish point
of view. 1
Grillparzer's brooding, unbalanced temperament, his lack of
will-power t bis pessimistic renunciation and the bitterness which
his self-iinposed martyrdom produced in him, made him peculiarly
adapted to express the niood of Austria in the epoch of intellectual
59«
GRIMALD—-GRIMKE
thraldom that lay between the Napoleonic wars and the Revolu-
tion of 1848; his poetry reflects exactly the spirit of his people
under the Metternich regime, and there is a deep truth behind
the description of Der Trautn, ein Leben as the Austrian Faust.
His fame was in accordance with the general tenor of his life;
even in Austria a true understanding for his genius was late in
coming, and not until the centenary of 189 1 did the German-
speaking world realize that it possessed in him a dramatic poet
of the first rank; in other words, that Grillparzer was no mere
" Epigone " of the classic period, but a poet who, by a rare
assimilation of the strength of the Greeks, the imaginative
depth of German classicism and the delicacy and grace of the
Spaniards, had Opened up new paths for the higher dramatic
poetry of Europe.
Grillparzer's S&mUiche Werke are edited by A. Sauer, in 20 vols.,
5th edition (Stuttgart, 1892-1894); also, since the expiry of the
copyright in 1901, innumerable cheap reprints. Brief e und Tage-
bucher, edited by C. Glossy and A. Sauer (2 vols., Stuttgart, 1903).
Jahrbuch der Grulparzer-Gesellsckaft, edited by K. Glossy (the publica-
tion of the Grillparzer Society) (Vienna, 1891 ff.). See also H.
Laube, Franz Grillfarzers Lebensgeschichte (Stuttgart, 1884);
J. Volkelt, Franz GriUparzer als Dichier des Tragischen (Nordlingen,
1888); E. Reich, Franz Grillparzers Dramen (Dresden, 1894.);
A. Ehrhard, Franz GriUparzer (Paris, 1900) (German translation by
M. Necker, Munich, 1902); H. Sittenberger, Grillparzer \ sein Leben
und Wirken (Berlin, 1904); Gustav Pollak, F. Grillparzer and the
Austrian Drama (New York, 1907). Of Grillparzer's works, transla-
tions have appeared in English of Sappho (1820, by J. Bramsen;
1846, by E. B. Lee; 1855, by L. C. Cumming; 1876, by E. Froth-
ingham); and of Medea (1879, by F. W. Thurstan and J. A. Witt-
mann). Byron's warm admiration of Sappho (Letters and Journals,
v. 171) is well known, while Carlyle's criticism, in his essay on
German Playwrights (1820), is interesting as expressing the generally
accepted estimate of Grillparzer in the first half of the 19th century.
See the bibliography in K. Goedeke's Grundriss zur Geschichte der
deutsehen Dicktung, 2nd ed., vol. viii. (1905). (J. G. R.)
' GRIMALD (or Grimoald), NICHOLAS (1519-1562), English
poet, was born in Huntingdonshire, the son probably of Giovanni
Baptista Grimaldi, who had been a clerk in the service of Empson
and Dudley in the reign of Henry VH. He was educated at
Christ's College, Cambridge, where he took his B.A. degree in
1540. He then removed to Oxford, becoming a probationer-
fellow of Merton College in 1541. In 1547 he was lecturing on
rhetoric at Christ Church, and shortly afterwards became
chaplain to Bishop Ridley, who, when he was in prison, desired
Grimald to translate Laurentius Valla's book against the alleged
Donation of Constantine, and the De gestis Basiliensis ConciUi
of Aeneas Sylvius (Pius II.) . His connexion with Ridley brought
him under suspicion, and he was imprisoned in the Marshalsea.
It is said that he escaped the penalties of heresy by recanting
his errors, and was despised accordingly by his Protestant con-
temporaries. Grimald contributed to the original edition
(June 1557) of Songes and Sonet tes (commonly known as TotteVs
Miscellany) , forty poems, only ten of which are retained in the
second edition published in the next month. He translated
(1553) Cicero's De officii* as Marcus Tullius Ciceroes thre bokes
of duties (2nd ed., 1556) ; a Latin paraphrase of Virgil's Georgics
(printed 1591) is attributed to him, but most of the works assigned
to him by Bale are lost. Two Latin tragedies are extant;
Archipropkela sive Johannes Baptista, printed at Cologne in 1548,
probably performed at Oxford the year before, and Ghristus re-
divivus (Cologne, 1 543) , edited by Prof. J. M. Hart (for the Modern
Language Association of America, 1886, separately issued 1899).
It cannot be determined whether Grimald was familiar with
Buchanan's Baptisks (1543), or with J. Schoeppe's Johannes
decollafus vet Ectrachdistes (1546). Grimald provides a purely
romantic motive for the catastrophe in the passionate attach-
ment of Herod i as to Herod, ;ind constantly resorts to lyrical
methods. As a poet Grimald is memorable as the earliest
follower of Surrey in the production of blank verse. He writes
sometimes simply enough, as in the lines on his own childhood
addressed to his mother, but in general his style is more artificial,
and his metaphors more studied than is the case with the other
co n t rifou tors to t he Mis^lta ny . His classical reading shows itself
nparative terseness and smartness of his verses. His
1 by Barnabt; Googe in May 1562.
See C. H. Herford, Studies in the Literary Relations of England and
Germany (pp« 113-119, 1886). A Catalogue ofprintea books . . . by
writers bearing the name of Grimaldi (ed. A. B. Grimaldi), printed
1883; and Arber's reprint of ToUeVs Miscellany.
GRIMALDI, GIOVANNI FRANCESCO (1606- 16 80), Italian
architect and painter, named II Bolognese from the place of his
birth, was a relative of the Caracci family, under whom it is
presumed he studied first. He was afterwards a pupil of Albani.
He went to Rome, and was appointed architect to Pope Paul V.,
and was also patronized by succeeding popes. Towards 1648
he was invited to France by Cardinal Mazarin, and for about
two years was employed in buildings for that minister and for
Louis XIV., and in fresco-painting in the Louvre. His colour
was strong, somewhat excessive in the use of green; his touch
light. He painted history, portraits and landscapes — the last
with predilection, especially in his advanced years — and executed
engravings and etchings from his own landscapes and from
those of Titian and the Caracci. Returning to Rome, he was
made president of the Academy of St Luke; and in that city he
died on the 28th of November 1680, in high repute not only
for his artistic skill but for his upright and charitable deeds.
His son Alessandro assisted him both in painting and in engraving.
Paintings by Grimaldi are preserved in the Quirinal and Vatican
palaces, and in the church of S. Martino a'Monti; there is also
a series of his landscapes in the Colonna Gallery.
GRIMALDI, JOSEPH (1779-1837), the most celebrated of
English clowns, was born in London on the 18th of December
1779, the son of an Italian actor. When less than two years
old he was brought upon the stage at Drury Lane; at the age
of three he began to appear at Sadler's Wells; and he did not
finally retire until 1828. As the clown of pantomime he was
considered without an equal, his greatest success being in
Mother Goose , at Covent Garden (1806 and often revived).
Grimaldi died on the 31st of May 1837.
His Memoirs in two volumes (1838) were edited by Charles
Dickens.
GRIMKt, SARAH MOORE (1 792-1873) and ANGELINA
EMILT (1805-1879), American reformers, born in Charleston,
South Carolina — Sarah on the 6th of November 1792, and
Angelina on the 20th of February 1805 — were daughters of
John Fachereau Grimk6 (1 752-1819), an artillery officer in the
Continental army, a jurist of some distinction, a man of wealth
and culture and a slave-holder. -
Their older brother, Thomas Smith GRimrf; (1786-1834),
was born in Charleston; graduated at Yale in 1807; was a
successful lawyer, and in 1 826-1830 was a member of the state
Senate, in which he, almost alone of the prominent lawyers of
the state, opposed nullification; he strongly advocated spelling-
reform, temperance and absolute non-resistance, and published
Addresses on Science, Education and Literature (1831). His early
intellectual influence on Sarah was strong.
In her thirteenth year Sarah was godmother to her sister
Angelina. Sarah in 182 1 revisited Philadelphia, whither she
had accompanied her father on his last illness, and there, having
been already dissatisfied with the Episcopal Church and with
the Presbyterian, she became a Quaker; so, too, did Angelina,
who joined her in 1829. Both sisters (Angelina first) soon grew
into a belief in immediate abolition, strongly censured by many
Quakers, who were even more shocked by a sympathetic letter
dated " 8th Month, 30th, 1835 " written by Angelina to W. L.
Garrison, followed in 1836 by her Appeal to the Christian Women
of the South, and at the end of that year, by an Epistle to the
Clergy of the Southern States, written by Sarah, who now
thoroughly agreed with her younger sister. In the same year,
at the invitation of Elizur Wright (1804-1885), corresponding
secretary of the American Anti-Slavery Society, Angelina,
accompanied by Sarah, began giving talks on slavery, first in
private and then in public, so that in 1837, when they set to
work in Massachusetts, they had to secure the use of large halls.
Their speaking from public platforms resulted in a letter issued
by some members of the General Association of Congregational
Ministers of Massachusetts, calling on the clergy to close their
GRIMM, BARON VON
599
churches to women, extorters; Garrison denounced the attack
on the Grimke sisters and Whittier ridiculed it in his poem
" The Pastoral Letter J 9 Angelina pointedly answered Miss
Beecher on the Slave Question (1837) in letters in the Liberator.
Sarah, who had never forgotten that her studies had been
curtailed because she was a girl, contributed to the Boston
Spectator papers on " The Province of Woman " and published
Letters on the Condition of Women and the Equality of the Sexes
(1838) — the real beginning of the " woman's rights " movement
in America, and at the time a cause of anxiety to Whittier and
others, who urged upon the sisters the prior importance of the
anti-slavery cause. In 1838 Angelina married Theodore D wight
Weld (18031-1895), a reformer and abolition orator and pam-
phleteer, who had taken part in the famous Lane Seminary
debates in 1834, had left the Seminary for the lecture platform
when the anti-slavery society was broken up by the Lane trustees,
but had lost his voice in 1836 and had become editor of the
publications of the American Anti-Slavery Society. 1 They
lived, with Sarah, at Fort Lee, New Jersey, in 1 838-1840, then
on a farm at Belleville, New Jersey, and then conducted a school
for black and white alike at Eagleswood, near Perth Amboy,
New Jersey, from 1854 to 1864. Removing to Hyde Park,
Massachusetts, the three were employed in Dr Lewis's school.
There Sarah died on the 23rd of December 1873, and Angelina
on the 26th of October 1879. Both sisters indulged in various
" fads " — Graham's diet, bloomer-wearing, absolute non-resist-
ance. Angelina did no public speaking after her marriage,
save at Pennsylvania Hall (Philadelphia), destroyed by a mob
immediately after her. address there; but besides her domestic
and school duties she was full of tender charity. Sarah at the
age of 62 was still eager to study law or medicine, or to do some-
thing to aid her sex; at 75 she translated and abridged Lamar*
tine's life of Joan of Arc. .
See Catherine H. Birney.Tfe Grimte Sisters (Boston, 1885).
GRIMM, FRIEDRICH MELCHIOR, Laron von (1723-1807),
French author, the son of a German pastor, was born at Ratisbon
on the 26th of December 1723. He studied at the University
of Leipzig, where he came under the influence of Gottsched and
of J. A. Ernesti, to whom he was largely indebted for his critical
appreciation of classical literature. When nineteen he produced
a tragedy, Banise, which met with some success. After two years
of study he returned to Ratisbon, where he was attached to the
household of Count Schonberg. In 1748 he accompanied August
Heinrich, Count Friesen, to Paris as secretary, and he is said
by Rousseau to have acted for some time as reader to Frederick,
the young hereditary prince of Sale-Gotha. His acquaintance
with Rousseau, through a mutual sympathy in regard to musical
matters, soon ripened into intimate friendship, and led to a close
association with the encyclopaedists. He rapidly obtained a
thorough knowledge of the French language, and acquired so
perfectly the tone and sentiments of the society in which he
moved that all marks of his foreign origin and training seemed
effaced. A witty pamphlet entitled Le Petit Prophete de Boeh-
mischbroda (1753), written by him in defence of Italian as against
French opera, established his literary reputation. It is possible
that the origin of the pamphlet is partly to be accounted for by
his vehement passion, 2 for Mile Fel, the prima donna of the
Italian company. In 1753 Grimm, following the example of the
abbe" Raynal, began a literary correspondence with various
German sovereigns. Raynal's letters, NouveUes litliraires, ceased
early in 1755. With the aid of friends, especially of Diderot
and Mme d'Epinay, during his temporary absences from France,
Grimm himself carried on the correspondence, which consisted
of two letters a month, until 1773, and eventually counted among
his subscribers Catherine II. of Russia, Stanislas Poniatowski,
king of Poland, and many princes of the smaller German States.
1 Weld was the author of several anti-slavery books which had
considerable influence at the time. Among them are The Bible
against Slavery (1837), American Slavery as It Is (1839), a collection
of extracts from Southern papers, and Slavery and the Internal Slave
Trade in the U,S. (1841).
1 Rousseau's account of this affair (Confessions, 2nd part, 8th
book) must be received with caution.
It was probably in 1754 that Grimmwasintroduced by Rousseau
to Madame d'fipinay, with whom he soon formed a liaison
which led to an irreconcilable rupture between him and Rousseau.
Rousseau was induced by his resentment to give in his Confessions
a wholly mendacious portrait of Grimm's character. In 1755,
after the death of Count Friesen, who was a nephew of Marshal
Saxe and an officer in the French army, Grimm became secretaire
des commandements to the duke of Orleans, and in this capacity
he accompanied Marshal d'EstreWon the campaign of Westphalia
in 1756-57. He was named envoy of the town of Frankfort
at the court of France in 1759, but was deprived of his office for
criticizing the comte de Broglie in a despatch intercepted by
Louis XV. He was made a baron of the Holy Roman Empire
in 1775. His introduction to Catherine II. of Russia took place
at St Petersburg in 1773, when he was in the suite of Wilhelmine
of Hesse-Darmstadt on the occasion of her marriage to the
czarevitch Paul. He became minister of Saxe-Gotha at the
court of France in 1776, but in 1777 he again left Paris on a visit
to St Petersburg, where he remained for nearly a year in daily
intercourse with Catherine. He acted as Paris agent for the
empress in the purchase of works of art, and executed many
confidential commissions for her. In 1783 and the following
years he lost his two most intimate friends, Mme d'fipinay and
Diderot. In 1792 he emigrated, and in the next year settled
in Gotha, where his poverty was relieved by Catherine, who in
1796 appointed him minister of Russia at Hamburg. On the
death of the empress Catherine he took refuge with Mme
d'fipinay's granddaughter, fimilie de Belsunce, comtesse de
Bueil. Grimm had always interested himself in her, and had
procured her dowry from the empress Catherine. She now
received him with the utmost kindness. He died at Gotha on
the 19th of December 1807.
The correspondence of Grimm was strictly confidential, arid
was not divulged during his lifetime. It embraces nearly the
whole period from 1750 to 1700, but the later volumes, 1773 to
r79o, were chiefly the work of his secretary, Jakob Heinrich
Meister. At first he contented himself with enumerating the
chief current views in literature and art and indicating very
slightly the contents of the principal new books, but gradually
his criticisms became more extended and trenchant, and he
touched on nearly every subject — political, literary, artistic,
social and religious — which interested the Parisian society of
the time. Hk notices of contemporaries are somewhat severe,
and he exhibits the foibles and selfishness of the society in which
he moved; but he was unbiassed in his literary judgments, and
time has only served to confirm his criticisms. In style and
manner of expression he is thoroughly French. He is generally
somewhat cold in his appreciation, but his literary taste is delicate
and subtle; and it was the opinion of Sainte-Beuve that the
quality of his thought in his best moments will compare not
unfavourably even with that of Voltaire. His religious and
philosophical opinions were entirely negative.
Grimm '& Correspondence HttSraire, philosophique et critique . . n
depuis 17 $3 jusqu'en 1760 1 was edited, with many excisions, by
J. B. A. Suard and published at Paris in 1812, in 6 vols. 8vo;
deuxihtne partie, de 177 1 a 1782, in 18 12 in 5 vols. 8vo; and troisieme
par tie, pendant une partie des annies 1775 et 1776, et pendant les annies
1782 & 1790 industvement, in 1813 in 5 vols. 8vo. A supplementary
volume appeared in 18 14; the whole correspondence was collected
and published by M. Jules Taschereau, with the assistance of A.
Chaude' , in a Nouvelle Edition, revue et mise dans un meilleur ordre, avec
des notes et des telaircissements, et ou se trouvent Htablies pour la
premiere fois les phrases supfrimteS par la censure imperials (Paris,
1829, 15 vols. 8vo); and the Correspondence inidite, et recueil de
lettres, poesies, morceaux, et fragments retranchis par la censure
impiriale en 1812 et 18 13 was published in 1829. The standard
edition is that of M. Tourneux (16 vols., 1877-1882). Grimm's
Memoire historique sur Vorigvne et les suites de mon aUachement pour
rimpiratrice Catherine II iusqu' au dices de sa majesU impfoiaU,
and Catherine's correspondence with Grimm (1 774-1 796) were pub-
lished by J. Grot in 1880, in the Collection of the Russian Imperial
Historical Society. She'^ treats him very familiarly, and calls him
Hlraclite, Georges Daodin, &c. At the time of the Revolution she
begged him to destroy her letters, but he refused, and after his death
they were returned to St Petersburg. Grimm's side of the corre-
spondence, however, is only partially preserved. He signs himself
6oo
GRIMM, J. L. C;
" Pleureur." Some of Grimm's letters, besides the official corre-
spondence, are included in the edition of M. Toumeux; others are
contained in the Erinnerungen einer Urerossmullerol K. von Bechtols-
heun, edited {Berlin, 1902) by Count C. Oberndorff. See also Mme
d'£piaay's Mtmoires; Rousseau's Confessions; the notices con-
tained in the editions quoted; £. Scherear, Mekkior Grimm (1887);
Sainte-Beu ve, Causeries du lundi, vol. vii. For further works bearing
on the subject, see K. A. Georges, Friedrich Melchior Grimm (Hanover
and Leipzig, 1904).
, GRIMM, JACOB LUDWIG CARL (1785-1865), German
philologist and mythologist, was born on the 4th of January
1785 at Hanau, in Hesse-Cassel. His father, who was a lawyer,
died while he was a child, and the mother was left with very
small means; but her sister, who was lady of the chamber to
the landgravine of Hesse, helped to support and educate her
.numerous family. Jacob, with his younger brother Wilhelm
(born on the 24th of February 1786), was sent in 1798 to the
public school at Cassel. . In 1802 he proceeded to the university
of Marburg, where he studied law, a profession for which he had
been destined by his father. His brother joined him at Marburg
-a year later, having just recovered from a long and severe illness,
and likewise began the study of law. Up to this time Jacob
Grimm had been actuated only 'by a general thirst for knowledge
and his energies had not found any aim beyond the practical one
of making himself a position m life. The first definite impulse
came from the lectures of Savigny, the celebrated investigator
of Roman law, who, as Grimm himself says (in the preface to
the Deutsche Grammafik), first taught him to realize what it
meant to study any science. Savigny's lectures also. awakened
in him that love for historical and antiquarian, investigation
which forms the basis of all his work. Then followed personal
acquaintance, and it was h* Savigny 's wellrprovided library that
Grimm first turned over the leaves of Bodmer's 'edition of the
Old German minnesingers an4 other early texts, and felt an eager
desire to penetrate further into the obscurities and half-revealed
mysteries of their language. In the beginning of 2805 he re-
ceived an invitation from Savigny, who had removed to Paris,
to help him in his literary work. Grimm passed a very, happy
time in Paris, strengthening his -taste for the literatures of the
middle ages by his studies in the Paris libraries. Towards the
close of the year. he returned to Ca&sel, where his mother and
Wilhelm had settled, the latter having finished his studies.
The next yea? he 'Obtained a situation in the war office with
the very small salary of 100 thalers. One. of lus grievances was
that he had to exchange his stylish Paris suit for a stiff uniform
and pigtail. But he had full leisure for the prosecution of his
studies.. In 1808, soon after the death of hi mother, .he was
appointed superintendent of the private library qf Jerome
Buonaparte, king of Westphalia, into which Hesse-Cassel had
been incorporated by Napoleon. Jerome appointed him an
auditor to the state council, while he retained his other poet.
His salary was increased in a short interval from 2000 to 4000
francs, and his official duties were hardly more than nominal.
After the expulsidn of Jerome and the reinstalment of an elector,
Grimm was appointed in 18 13 secretary of legation, to accompany
the Hessian minister to the headquarters of the allied army.
In 1814 he was sent to Paris to demand restitution of the books
carried off by the French, and in 1-814-18*5 he attended the
congress of Vienna as secretary of legation. On his return he
was again sent to Paris on the same errand as before. Meanwhile
Wilhelm had received an appointment in the Cassel library, and
in 1816 Jacob was made second librarian under Volkel. On the
death of VoJkel in 1828 the brothers expected to be advanced
to the first and second librarianships respectively, and were
much dissatisfied when the first place was given to Rommel,
keeper of the archives. So they removed next year to Gottingen,
where Jacob received the appointment of professor and librarian,
Wilhelm that of Tinder-librarian. Jacob Grimm lectured on
legal antiquities, historical grammar, literary history, and
diplomatics, explained Old German poems, and commented on
the Ger mania of Tacitus.. Ait this period he is described as small
•and lively in- figure, with a harsh voice, speaking a broad Hessian
.dialect. His powerful memory enabled him tp dispense witji the
manuscript which most German professors rely on, and he spoke
extempore, referring only occasionally to a few names and dates
written on a slip of paper. He himself regretted that hehad begun
the work of teaching so late in life; and as a lecturer he was not
successful: he had no idea of digesting his facts and suiting
them to the comprehension of his hearers; and even the brilliant,
terse and eloquent passages which abound in his writings lost much
of their effect when jerked out in the midst of a long array of dry
facts. In 1837, being one of the seven professors who signed a
protest against the king of Hanover's abrogation of the con-
stitution established some years before, he was dismissed from his
professorship, and banished from the kingdom of Hanover.
He returned to Cassel together, with his brother, who had also
signed the protest, and remained there till, in 1840, they accepted
an invitation from the king of Prussia to remove to Berlin,
where they both received professorships, and were elected
members of the Academy of Sciences. Not being under any
obligation to lecture, Jacob seldom did so, but together with his
brother worked at the great dictionary. During their stay at
Cassel Jacob regularly attended the meetings of the academy,
where he read papers on the most varied subjects. The best
known of these are those on Lachmann, Schiller, and his brother
Wilhelm (who died in 1859), on old age, and on the origin of
language. He also described his impressions of Italian and
Scandinavian travel, interspersing his more general observations
with linguistic details, as is the case in all his works,
Grimm died in 1863, working up to the last. He was never ill,
and worked on all day, without haste and without pause. < He was
not at all impatient of interruption, bnt seemed, rather to be
refreshed by it, returning to his work without effort Hie wrote
fox the press with great rapidity, and hardly ever made correc-
tions. He never revised what he had written, remarking with
a certain wonder of his brother, " Wilhelm reads his manuscripts
over .again before sending them to press 1 " His temperament
was uniformly cheerful, and he was easily amused* -■ Outside his
own special work he had a marked taste for botany; The
spirit which animated his work is best described by hiniseif at the
end of his autobiography. " Nearly ail my labours have been
devoted, either directly or indirectly, to the investigation of our
earlier language, poetry and laws- . These studies may have
appeared to many, .and may atfll appear., useless; to me they
have always seemed a nobfe and earnest task, definitely and
inseparably connected with .our common fatherland, and oat*
culated to foster the love of it. My primripJe has always been in
these investigations to undervalue nothing, but to utilize the
small lor the illustration of the great* the popular tradition lor
the elucidation of the written monuments." ;
The purely scientific side of Grimm's character developed
slowly. He seems to have felt the want of dtf ate principles of
etymology without being able to discover them, and indeed even
in the first edition of his grammar (iSro) he seems to be often
groping in the dark. As early as 18 r 5 we find A. W. ScMegel
reviewing the AUdetOsthe WiUder <a periodical published, by the
two brothers) very severely, condemning the lawless etymological
combinations it contained, and insisting on the necessity of strict
philological method and a fundamental investigation of the laws
of language, especially in the correspondence of sounds. This
criticism is said to have had a considerable influence on the direc*
tion of Grimm's studies.
The first work he published, ifber den altdeutschcn Meister-
gesang (181 1), was of a purely literary character. Yet even in
this essay Grimm showed that Minmfang and Mti&tersang
were really one form of poetry, of which they merely represented
different stages of development, and also announced his import ant
discovery of the invariable division of the Lied into three atrophic
parts.
His text-editions were mostly prepared in common with
his brother. In ,1812 they published the two ancient fragments
of the HUdebrandslied and the Wciss&nbrunner Gebet, Jacob
having discovered what tfll then had never been suspected — the
alliteration in these poems. . However, Jacob had little taste for
text-editing, and, as he himself confessed, the evolving of a
GRIMM, J. L. C.
6a i
critical text gave him lktle pleasure. He therefore left this
department to others, especially Lachmann, who soon turned
his brilliant critical genius, trained in the severe school of classical
philology, to Old and Middle High German poetry and metre.
Both brothers were attracted from the beginning by all national
poetry, whether m the form of epics, ballads or popular tales.
They published in 1816-1818 an analysis and critical sifting of
the oldest epic traditions of the Germanic races under the title of
Deutsche Sagen. At the same time they collected all the popular
tales they could find, partly from the mouths of the people,
partly from manuscripts and books, and published in 181 2-1 81 5
the first edition of those Kinder-und Hau&miirclicn which have
carried the name of the brothers Grimm into every household
of the civilized world, and founded the science of folk-lore. The
closely allied subject of the satirical beast epic of the middle ages
also had a great charm for Jacob Grimm, and he published an
edition of the Reinhart Fucks in 1834. His first contribution to
mythology was the first volume of an edition of the Eddaic songs,
undertaken conjointly with his brother, published in 1815, which,
however, was not followed by any more. The first edition of his
Deutsche Mythologie appeared in 1835. This great work covers
the whole range of the subject, tracing the mythology and
superstitions of the old Teutons back to the very dawn of direct
evidence, and following their decay and loss down to the popular
traditions, tales and expressions in which they still Khgen
Although by the introduction of the Code Napoleon into
Westphalia Grimm's legal studies were made practically barren,
he never lost his interest in the scientific study of law and
national institutions, as the truest exponents of the life and
character of a people. By the publication (in 1828) of his
RccktsaUerthOmer he laid the foundations of that historical study
of the old Teutonic laws and constitutions which was continued
with brilliant success by Georg L. Maurer and others. In this
work Grimm showed the importance of a linguistic study of the
old laws, and the light that can be thrown on many a dark
passage in them by a comparison of the corresponding words and
expressions in the other old cognate dialects. He also knew
how — and this is perhaps the most original and valuable part of
his work — to trace the spirit of the laws in countless allusions
and sayings which occur in the old poems and sagas, or even
survive in modern colloquialisms.
Of all his more general works the boldest and most far-reaching
is his Geschichtc der deutschen Sprache, where at the same time
the linguistic element is most distinctly brought forward. The
subject of the work is, indeed, nothing less than the history which
Kes hidden in the words of the German language — the oldest
national history of the Teutonic tribes determined by means of
language. For this purpose he laboriously collects the scattered
words and allusions to be found in classical writers, and endeavours
to determine the relations in which the German language stood
to those of the Getae, Thraciana, Scythians, and many other
nations whose languages are known only by doubtfully identified,
often extremely corrupted remains preserved by Greek and
Latin authors. Grimm's results have been greatly modified
by the wider range of comparison and improved methods of
investigation which now characterise linguistic science, and
many of the questions raised by him, will probably for eper
remain obscure;, but his book will .always be one of the most
fruitful and suggestive that have ever been written,
Grimm's famous Deutsche GrammaUk was the outcome of his
purely philological work. The labours of past generations—
from the humanists onwards— had collected an enormous
mass of materials in the shape of text-editions, dictionaries:
and grammars, although most of it was uncritical and often
untrustworthy. Something had even been done in the way
of cdmparison and the determination of general laws, and the
conception of a comparative Teutonic grammar had been clearly
grasped by the illustrious Englishman. George flk&ea* at the
beginning of the 18th., century, and partly carrieoV.out *W hi***
in his JTtqsaurus^ Ten £a£e in Holland had afterwards made
valuable, contributions to the history and comparison of the
Teutonic languages. Even Grimm hinpetf did not at f^t intend
to include all the languages in his grammar; hot be soon found
that Old High German postulated Gothic, that the later stages
of German could not be understood without the help of the Low
German dialects, including English, and that the rich literature
of Scandinavia could as little be ignored. The first edition of the
first part of the Grammar, which appeared in i&io, and is now
extremely rare, treated of the inflections of all these languages,
together with a general introduction, in which he vindicated the
importance of art historical study of the German language against
the a priori, quasi-ptotbsophieal methods then in vogue.
In 18*2 this volume appeared in. a second edition — really a
new work, for, as Grimm himself says in the preface,, it cost horn
little reflection to mow down the first crap to the ground. The
wide distance between the two stages of Grimm's development
in these two editions is significantly shown by the fact that while
the first edition gives only the inflections, in the second volume
phonology takes up no fewer than 600 pages, more than half of the
whole volume. Grimm had, at last, awakened to the fun
Conviction, that all sound philology must be based on rigorous
adhesion to the laws of sound-change, and he never afterwards
swerved from this principle^ which gave to aE his investigations,
even in their boldest flights, that iron-bound consistency, and
that force of conviction which distinguish science from dilettante-
ism; up to Grimm's time philology was nothing but a more or
less laborious and conscientious, dilefctanteisnv with occasional
flashes of scientific inspiration} he made it into a science. His
advance must be attributed mainly to the influence of his
contemporary R. Rask. Raak was born two years later than
Grimms but his remarkable prec o city gave him somewhat the
start. Even in Grimm's first edkutns hw Icelandic paradigms are
based entirely on Rask's grammar, and in Us second edition he
relied almost entirely on Rask for Old Engfa'sh. His debt to
Rask can only be estimated at its true value by comparing his
treatment of Old English in the two editions; the difference
is very great* Thus in the first edition he declines dceg, deges,
plural d(g§as t not having observed the law of vowel-change
pointdd out by Rask. There can be little doubt that the appear*
ance of Rask's Old English grammar was a main inducement
for him to recast his work from the beginning. To Rask also
belongs the merit of having first distinctly formulated the laws
of sound-correspondence in the different languages, especially
in the vowels, those more fleeting elements of speech which had
hitherto been ignored by etymologists.
This leads to a question which has been the subject of much
controversy, — Who discovered what is known as Grimm's tew?
This law of the correspondence of consonants m the older Indo-
germanic, Low and High German languages respectively was
first fully stated by Grimm in the second edition of the first
part of his grammar. The c orr e sp ondence of single consonants
had been more or less dearly recognized by several of his pre*
decessors; but the one who came nearest to the discovery of the
complete law was the Swede J. Ihre, who established a consider*
able number of " fiterarum permutationes,'' such as b for /,
with the examples b€er+=*ferrc> befwer** fiber* Rask, in bis essay
on the origin of the Icelandic language, gives the same com-
parisons, with a few additions and corrections, and even the very
saxne examples in moat cases. As Grimm in the preface to hi
first edition expressly mentions this essay of Rask, there is every
probability that it save the first impulse tenia own investigations.
But there is a wide difference between the isolated permutations
of his predecessors and the comprehensive generalizations under
which he himself ranged them. The extension of the law to
High German is also entirely his own. The only fact that
can he adduced in support of the assertion that Grimm wished
to deprive Rask of bis claims to priority is #t*l he does not
expressly mention Rask's results' fn his secdnd edition. But
this is part of the plan of his work, via. to refrain from all
controversy or reference to the works of others. In his first
edition he expressly cafis attention to Rask's essay, and praises
ft most ungrudgingly. Rask himself refers as Kttle to Ihre',
merely alluding in a general way to Ihre's permutations, although
his own debt, to Ihre is infinitely greater than that of Grimm to
6o2
GRIMM, W. C.— GRIMMA
Rask or any one else. It is true that a certain bitterness of
feeling afterwards sprang up between Grimm and Rask, but this
was the fault of the latter, who, impatient of contradiction and
irritable in controversy, refused to acknowledge the value of
Grimm's views when they involved modification of his own.
The importance of Grimm's generalization in the history of
philology cannot be overestimated, and even the mystic com-
pleteness and symmetry of its formulation, although it has proved
a hindrance to the correct explanation of the causes of the
changes, was well calculated to strike the popular mind, and
give it a vivid idea of the paramount importance of law, and the
necessity of disregarding mere superficial resemblance. The
most lawless etymologist bows down to the authority of Grimm's
law, even if he honours it almost as much in the breach as in the
Observance.
The grammar was continued in three volumes, treating
principally of derivation, composition and syntax, which last
was left unfinished. Grimm then began a third edition, of which
only one part, comprising the vowels, appeared in 1840, his
time being afterwards taken up mainly by the dictionary. The
grammar stands alone in the annals of science for comprehensive-
ness, method and fullness of detail. Every law, every letter,
every syllable of inflection in the different languages is illustrated
by an almost exhaustive mass of material. It has served as a
model for all succeeding investigators. Diez's grammar of the
Romance languages is founded entirely on its methods, which
have also exerted a profound influence on the wider study of the
Indo-Germanic languages in general.
In the great German dictionary Grimm undertook a task for
which he was hardly suited. His exclusively historical tendencies
made it impossible for him to do justice to the individuality of a
living language; and the disconnected statement of the facts
of language in an ordinary alphabetical dictionary fatally
mars its scientific character. It was also undertaken on so large
a scale as to make it impossible for him and his brother to com-
plete it themselves. The dictionary, as far as it was worked out
by Grimm himself, may be described as a collection of discon-
nected antiquarian essays of high value.
Grimm's scientific character is notable for its combination
of breadth and unity. . He was as far removed from the narrow-
ness of the specialist who has no ideas, no sympathies beyond
some one author, period or corner of science, as from the shallow
dabbler who feverishly attempts to master the details of half-a-
dozen discordant pursuits. Even within his own special studies
there is the same wise concentration; no Mezzofanti-like parrot
display of useless poryglottism. The very foundations of his
nature were harmonious; his patriotism and love of historical
investigation received their fullest satisfaction in the study of the
language, traditions, mythology, laws and literature of his own
countrymen and their nearest kindred. But from this centre
his investigations were pursued in every direction as far as his
unerring instinct of healthy limitation would allow. He was
equally fortunate in the harmony that subsisted between his
intellectual and moral nature. He made cheerfully the heavy
sacrifices that science demands from its disciples, without feeling
any of that envy and bitterness which often torment weaker
natures; and although he lived apart from his fellow men, he
was full of human sympathies, and no man has ever exercised
a profounder influence on the destinies of mankind. His was
the very ideal of the noblest type of German character.
The following is a complete list of his separately published works,
those which he published in common with his brother being marked
with a star. For a list of his essays in periodicals, &c, see vol. v. of
his Kleiner e Schriften, from which the present list is taken. H is life is
best studied in htsown " Selbstbiographie," in vol. i. of the Kleinere
Schriften. There is also a brief memoir by K. Godeke in Gottinger
Professor en (Got ha (Perthes), 1872): tiler den altdeulscken Meister-
gesang (Gottingen, 181 1); *Ktnder- und Hausnt&rchen (Berlin,
1 812-18 1 5). (many editions); *Das Lied von Hildebrand und das
Weissenbrunner Gebet (Cassel, 1812); Altdeulsche Walder (Cassel,
Frankfort, 1813-1816, 3 vols.); *Der arme Heinrich von Hartmann
von der Aue (Berlin, 18 15); Irmenstrasse und Irmens&vle (Vienna,
181 5); *Die Lieder der alten Edda (Berlin, 1815), Silva de romances
viejos (Vienna, 1815); ^Deutsche Sagen (Berlin, 1816*1818, 2nd ed.,
Berlin, 1 865-1866); Deutsche Grammatik (Gottingen, 1810, 2nd ed.,
Gottingen, 1822-1840) (reprinted 1870 by W. Scherer, Berlin) ; Wuk
StephanovitscK s kletne serbische Grammatik, verdeutscht mit einer
Vorrede (Leipzig and Berlin, 1 824); Zur Recension der deutschen
Grammatik (Cassel, 1826) ; *Irische Elfenmarchen, aus dem Englischen
(Leipzig, 1826); Deutsche Rechtsaltertumer (Gottingen, 1828, 2nd
ed., 1854); Hymnorum veteris ecclesiae XXVI. inter pretatio theodisca
(Gottingen, 1830); Reinhart Fuchs (Berlin, 1834); Deutsche
Mythologie (Gottingen, 1835, 3rd ed., 1854, 2 vols.]
I Germania
edtdit (Gottingen, 183O; Ober meine EnUassung (Basel, 1838);
(together with SchmelTer) Lateinische Gedichte aes X. und XI.
Jahrhunderts (Gottingen, 1838); Sendschreiben an Karl Lachmann
iiber Reinhart Fuchs (Berlin, 1840); Weistiimer, Th. i. (Gottingen,
1840) (continued, partly by others, in 5 parts, 1840-1869); Andreas
una Blent (Cassel, 1840); Frau Aventure (Berlin, 1842); Geschichte
der deutschen Sprache (Leipzig, 1848, 3rd ed., 1868, 2 vols.); Das
Wort des Besitzes (Berlin, 1850); *Deutsches Worterbuch, Bd. i.
(Leipzig, 1854) ; Rede auf Wilhelm Grimm und Rede Ober das Alter
(Berlin, 1868, 3rd ed., 1865); KUinere Schriften (Berlin, 1 864-1 870,
5 vols.). (H. Sw.)
GRIMM, WILHELM CARL (1786-1859). For the chief events
in the life of Wilhelm Grimm see article on Jacob Grimm above.
As Jacob himself said in his celebrated address to the Berlin
Academy on the death of his brother, the whole of their lives
were passed together. In their schooldays they had one bed
and one table in common, as students they had two beds and
two tables in the same room, and they always lived under one
roof, and had their books and property in common. Nor did
Wilhelm's marriage in any way disturb their harmony. As
Cleasby said (" Life of Cleasby," prefixed to his Icelandic
Dictionary, p. lxix.), " they both live in the same house, and in
such harmony and community that one might almost imagine
the children were common property." Wilhelm's character
was a complete contrast to that of his brother. As a boy he was
strong and healthy, but as he grew up he was attacked by a long
and severe illness, which left him weak all his life. His was a less
comprehensive and energetic mind than that of his brother, and
he had less of the spirit of investigation, preferring to confine
himself to some limited and definitely bounded field of work;
he utilized everything that bore directly on his own studies, and
ignored the rest. These studies were almost always of a literary
nature. It is characteristic of his more aesthetic nature that he ^
took great delight in music, for which his brother had but a\
moderate liking, and had a remarkable gift of story-telling. /
Cleasby, in the account of his visit to the brothers, quoted above, I
tells that " Wilhelm read a sort of farce written in the Frankfort
dialect, depicting the ' malheurs * of a rich Frankfort tradesman
on a holiday jaunt on Sunday. It was very droll, and he read
it admirably." Cleasby describes him as " an uncommonly
animated, jovial fellow." He was, accordingly, much sought in
society, which he frequented much more than his brother.
His first work was a spirited translation of the Danish Kempeviser,
Altddnische Heldenlieder \ published in 1811-1813, which made his
name at first more widely known than that of his brother. The
most important of his text editions are — Ruolandslied (GGttingen,
1838); Konrad von Wurzburg's Goldene Schmiede (Berlin, 1840);
Grave Ruodolf (Gottingen, 1844, 2nd ed.) ; A this und Prophiiias
(Berlin, 1846); Altdeulsche Gesprdche (Berlin, 1851); Freidanh
(Gottingen, i860, 2nd ed.). Of his other works the most important is
Deutsche Heldensage (Berlin, 1868, 2nd ed.). His Deutsche Runen
(Gottingen, 182 1) has now only an historical interest. (H. Sw.)
GRIMMA, a town in the kingdom of Saxony, on the left bank
of the Mulde, 19 m. S.E. of Leipzig on the railway DSbeln-
Dresden. Pop. (1905) 11,182. It has a Roman Catholic and
three Evangelical churches, and among other principal buildings
are the Schloss built in the 12th century , and long a residence of
the margraves of Meissen and the electors of Saxony; the town-
hall, dating from 1442, and the famous school Fiirstenschule
(Illustre Moldanum), erected by the elector Maurice on the site
of the former Augustinian monastery in 1550, having provision
for 104 free scholars and a library numbering 10,000 volumes.
There are also a modern school, a teachers' seminary, a com-
mercial school and a school of brewing: Among the industries of
the town are (ironfouhding, machine building 'and dyeworks,
while paper and gloves are manufactured there. Gardening
and agriculture generally are also important branches of industry.
In the immediate neighbourhood are the ruins of the Cistercian
GRIMMELSHAUSEN-tGRIMSTON
603
nunnery from which Catherine von Bora, fled in 1523, and the
village of Doben, with an old castle. Grimma is of Sorbian
origin, and is first mentioned in 1203. It passed then into
possession of Saxony and has remained since part of that
country.
See Lorenz, Die Stadt Grimma, historisch beschrieben (Leipzig, 187 1) ;
R6ssler, Geschichte der kdniglich sacJisischen Fursten- und Landes-
schule Grimma (Leipzig, 1891); L. Schmidt, Urkundenbuch der
Stadt Grimma (Leipzig, 1895) ; and Fraustadt, Grimmenser Stamm-
buch (Grimma, 1900).
GRIMMELSHAUSEN, HANS JAKOB CHRISTOFFEL VON
(c. 1625-1676), German author, was born at Gelnhausen in or
about 1625. At the age of ten he was kidnapped by Hessian
soldiery, and in their midst tasted the adventures of military
life in the Thirty Years' War. At its close, Grimmelshausen
entered the service of Franz Egon von Ftirstenberg, bishop
of Strassburg and in 1665 was made Schultheiss (magistrate)
at Renchen in Baden. On obtaining this appointment, be
devoted himself to literary pursuits, and in 1669 published
Der abenteuerHche Simplicissimus, Teutsch, d.h. die Beschreibung
des Lebens ernes seUsamen Vagattten, genannt Melcbiar Sternfeh
von Fuchsheim, the greatest German novel of the 17th century.
For this work he took as his model the picaresque romances of
Spain, already to some extent known in Germany. Simplicissi-
mus is in great measure its author's autobiography; he begins
with the childhood of his hero, and describes the latter's adven-
tures amid the stirring scenes of the Thirty Years' War. The
realistic detail with which these pictures are presented makes the
book one of the most valuable documents of its time. In the
later parts Grimmelshausen, however, over-indulges in allegory,
and finally loses himself in a Robinson Crusoe story. Among
his other works the most important are the so-called SimpUcia-
nische Sdiriften: Die Enbetr&germ und Landst&rtzerin Courasche
(c. 1669); Der seltsame Springinsfeld (1670) and Das wunderbar-
licke Vogefowst (1672). His satires, such as Der teutsche Michel
(1670), and " gallant " novels, like Dietwald und Amelmde
(1670) are of inferior interest. He died at Renchen on the
17th of August 1676, where a monument was erected to him in
1879.
Editions of Simplicissimus and the SimpHeianische Schriften have
been published by A. von Keller (1854), H. Kurz (1863-1864),
J. Tittmann (1877) and F. Bobertag (1882). A reprint of the first
edition of the novel was edited by R. K5gel for the series of Neudrucke
des 16. und 17. Jahrkunderts (1880). See the introductions to these
editions; also F. Antoine, Htude sur le Simplicissimus de Grimmels-
hausen (1882) and E. Schmidt in hip Gharakteristiken, vol. i. (1886).
GRIMOARD, PHILIPPE HENRI, Cgmte de (1753-1&15),
French soldier and military writer, entered the royal army at
the age of sixteen, and in 1775 published his'Essai thiorique et
practique sur les batailles. Shortly afterwards Louis XVI.
placed him in his own military cabinet and employed him
especially in connexion with schemes of army reform. By the
year of the Revolution he had become one of Louis's most
valued counsellors, in political as well as military matters, and
was marked out, though only a colonel, as the next Minister of
War. In 1791 Grimoard was entrusted with the preparation
of the scheme of defence for France, which proved two years
later of great assistance to the Committee of Public Safety.
The events of 17012 put an end to his military career, and the
remainder of his life was. spent in writing military books.
The following works by him, besides his first essay, have retained
some importance : Histoire des dernikres campagnes de Turenne
(Paris, 1780), Letlres et mimoires de Turenne (Pans, 1780), Troupes
Ugeres et leur emploi (Paris, 1782), Conqu&tes de Gustave-Adolphe
(Stockholm and Neufchatel, 1 782-1 791)? Memoires de Gustave
Adolphe (Paris, 1790), Correspondence of Marshal RicheKeu (Paris,
1789), St Germain (1789), and Bernis (1790), Vie et rhgne de Frtderic
le Grand (London, 1788), Lettres et mimoires du marichal de Saxe
(Paris, 1794), U Expedition de Minor que en i?$6 (Paris, 1798),
Recherckes sur la force de Varmee frangaise depuis Henri IVjusqu'en
180s (Paris, 1806), Memoires du marechal de Tessi (Paris, 1806),
Lettres de BoHngbroke (Paris, 1808), TroM sur le service d'^tapmajor
(Paris, 1809), and (with Servan) Tableau historique de la guerre de
la Revolution 1792-1794 (Paris, 1808).
GRIMSBY, or Great Grimsby, a municipal, county and
parliamentary borough of Lincolnshire, England; an important
seaport near the mouth of the Humber. on thfe south shore.
Pop. (jcooi) 63,138, It is 155 m. N. by E, from London by the
Great Northernrailway, a.nd is also served by the Great Central
railway. The church of St James, situated in the older part of the
town, is a cruciform Early English building, retaining, in spite
of injudicious restoration, many beautiful details. The chief
buildings are that containing the town hall and the grammar
school (a foundation of 1547), the exchange, a theatre, and the
customs house and dock offices. A sailors' and fishermen's
Harbour of Refuge, free library, constitutional club and technical
school are maintained. The duke of York public gardens were
opened in 1894. Adjacent to Grimsby on the east is the coastal
watering-place of Cleethorpes.
The dock railway station lies a mile from the town station*
In 1849 the Great Central (then the Manchester, Sheffield
and Lincolnshire) railway initiated a scheme of reclamation
and dock-construction. This was completed in 1854, and sub-
sequent extensions were made. There are two large fish-docks,
and, for general traffic, the Royal dock, communicating with the
Humber through a tidal basin, the small Union dock, and the
extensive Alexandra dock, together with graving docks, timber
yards, a patent slip, &c. These docks have an area of about
104 acres, but were found insufficient for the growing traffic of
the port, and in 1906 the construction of a large new dock, of
about 40 acres' area and 30 to 35 ft. depth, was undertaken by
the Great Central Company at Immingham, 5 m. above Grimsby
on the Humber. The principal imports are butter, woollens,
timber, cereals, eggs, glass, cottons, preserved, meat, wool,
sugar and bacon. The exports consist chiefly of woollen yarn,
woollens, cotton goods, cotton yarn, machinery, &c. and coal.
It is as a Ashing port, however, that Grimsby is chiefly famous.
Two of the docks are for the accommodation of the Ashing fleet,
which, consisting principally of steam trawlers, numbers up-
wards of 500 vessels. Regular passenger steamers run from
Grimsby to Dutch and south Swedish ports, and to Esbjerg
(Denmark), chiefly those of the Wilson line and the Great Central
railway. The chief industries of Grimsby are shipbuilding,
brewing, tanning, manufactures of ship tackle, ropes, ice for
preserving fish, turnery, flour, linseed cake, artificial manure;
and there are saw mills, bone and corn mills, and creosote works.
The municipal borough is under a mayor, 12 aldermen and 36
councillors. Area, 2852 acres.
Grimsby (Grimesbi) is supposed to have been the landing-place
of the Danes on their first invasion of Britain tpwards the close
of the 8th century. It was a borough by prescription as early
as 1 201, in which year King John granted the burgesses a charter
of liberties according to the custom of the burgesses of North-
ampton. Henry III. in 1227 granted to " the mayor and good
men " of. Grimsby, that they should hold the town for a yearly
rent of £111, and confirmed the same in 1271. These charters
were confirmed by later sovereigns. A ■ governing charter,
under the title of mayor and burgesses, was given by James II.
in 1688, and under this the, appointment of officers and other of
the corporation, arrangements are to a great extent regulated.
In 1 201 King John granted the burgesses an annual fair for
fifteen days, beginning on the 25th of May. Two annual fairs
are now held, namely on the first Monday in April and the second
Monday in October. No early grant of a market can be found,
but in 1792 the market-day was Wednesday. In 1888 it had
ceased to exist. Grimsby returned two members to the parlia-
ment of 1298, but in 1833 the number was reduced to one.
In the time of Edward III. Grimsby was an important seaport,
but the haven became obstructed by sand and mud deposited
by the Humber, and so the access of large vessels was prevented.
At the beginning of the 19th century a subscription was raised
by the proprietors of land in the neighbourhood for improving
the harbour, and an act was obtained by which they were
incorporated under the title " The Grimsby Haven Co." The
fishing trade had become so important by 1800 that it was
necessary to construct a new dock.
GRIMSTON, SIR HARBOTTLE (1603- 168 5), English politician,
second son of Sir Harbottle Grimston, Bart. (d. 1648), was born
604
GRIMTHORPE, BARON— GRIND AL
at Bradfield Hall, near Manningtree, on the 27th of January
1603. Educated at Emmanuel College, Cambridge, he became
a barrister of Lincoln's Inn, then recorder of Harwich and
recorder of Colchester. As member for Colchester, Grimston
sat in the Short Parliament of 1640, and he represented the same
borough during the Long Parliament, speedily becoming a
leading member of the popular party. He attacked Archbishop
Laud with great vigour; was a member of the important
committees of the parliament, including the one appointed
in consequence of the attempted seizure of the five members;
and became deputy-lieutenant of Essex after the passing of the
militia ordinance in January 1642. He disliked taking up arms
against the king, but remained nominally an adherent of the
parliamentary party during the Civil War. In the words of
Clarendon, he " continued rather than concurred with them."
Grimston does not appear to have taken the Solemn League
and Covenant, but after the conclusion of the first period of the
war he again became more active. He was president of the
committee which investigated the escape of the king from
Hampton Court in 1647, an d was one of those who negotiated
with Charles at Newport in 1648, when, according to Burnet,
he fell upon his knees and urged the king to come to terms.
From this time Grimston's sympathies appear to have been with
the Royalists. Turned out of the House of Commons when the
assembly was " purged " by colonel Pride, he was imprisoned;
but was released after promising to do nothing detrimental to
the parliament or the army, and spent the next few years in
retirement. Before this time, his elder brother having already
died, he had succeeded his father as 2nd baronet. In 1656
Sir Harbottle was returned to Cromwell's second parliament
as member for Essex; but be was not allowed to take his seat;
and with 97 others who were similarly treated he issued a
remonstrance to the public. He was among the secluded members
who re-entered the Long Parliament in February 1660, was then
a member of the council of' state, and was chosen Speaker of
the House of Commons in the Convention Parliament of 1660.
As Speaker he visited Charles II. at Breda, and addressed him
in very flattering terms on his return to London; but he refused
to accede to the king's demand that he should dismiss Burnet
from his position as chaplain to the Master of the Rolls, and in
parliament he strongly denounced any relaxation of the laws
against papists. Grimston did not retain the office of Speaker
after the -dissolution of the Convention Parliament, but he was
a member -of tbe commission which tried the regicides, and in
November 1660 he was appointed Master of the Rolls. Report
says he paid Clarendon £8000 for the office, while Burnet declares
be obtained it *' without any application 1 of his own." He died
on the 2nd of January 1685. His friend and chaplain, Burnet,
speaks irery highly of his piety and impartiality, while not
emitting the undoubted fact that he was *' much sharpened
against popery.** He translated the law reports of his father-in-
law, the judge, Sir George Croke (1 560-1642), which were written
in Norman-French, and five editions of tbis work have appeared.
Seven of his parliamentary speeches were published, and he
also wrote Sfrena Christiana (London, 1644, and other editions).
Grimston's first wife, Croke's daughter Mary, bore him six sons
and two daughters; and by his second wife, Anne, daughter
and heiress of Sir Nathaniel Bacon, K.B., a grandson of Sir
Nicholas Bacon, he had one daughter.
Of his sons one only, Samuel (1643-1700), survived his father,
and when he died in October 1700 the baronetcy became extinct.
Sir Harbottle's eldest daughter, Mary, married Sir Capel Luckyn,
Bart., and their grandson, William Luckyn, succeeded to the
estates of his great-uncle, Sir Samuel Grimston, and took the
name of Grimston in 1700. This William Luckyn Grimston
(1683-1750) wascreatedBaron Dunboyne and Viscount Grimston
in the peerage of Ireland in 17 19. He was succeeded as 2nd
viscount by his son James (17 11-1 773) , whose son James Bucknafl
(1 747-1808) was made an English peer as baron Verulam of
Gorhambury in 1790. Thenin 181 5 his son James Walter (1775-
1845), 2nd baron Verulam, was created earl of Verulam, and the
present peer is his direct descendant. Sir Harbottle Grimston
bought Sir Nicholas Bacon's estate at Gorhambury, which is
still the residence of his descendants.
See G. Burnet, History of My Own Time, edited by O. Airy (Oxford,
1900).
GRIMTHORPE, EDMUND BECKETT, ist Baron (1816-1005),
son of Sir Edmund Beckett Denison, was born on the 12th of
May 18 16. He was educated at Doncaster and Eton, whence he
proceeded to Trinity College, Cambridge, and graduated thirtieth
wrangler in 1838. He was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn
in 1841, Upon succeeding to the baronetcy in 1874 he dropped
the name of Denison, which his father had assumed in 18 16.
From 1877 to 1900 he was chancellor and vicar-general of York,
and he was raised to the peerage in 1886. He was made a Q.C
in 1854, and was for many years a leader of the Parliamentary
Bar. He devoted himself to the study of astronomy, horology
and architecture, more especially Gothic ecclesiastical architec-
ture. As early as 1850 he had become a recognized authority
on docks, watches and bells, and in particular on the construction
of turret clocks, for he had designed Dent's Great Exhibition
clock, and his Rudimentary Treatise had gone through many
editions. In 1851 he was called upon, in conjunction with the
astronomer royal (Mr, afterwards Sir, G. R. Airy) and Mr Dent,
to design a suitable clock for the new Houses of Parliament.
The present tower clock, popularly known as" Big Ben/' was
constructed after Lord Grimthorpe's designs. In a number
of burning questions during his time Lord Grimthorpe took
a prominent part. It is, however, in connexion with the restora-
tion of St Albans Abbey that he is most widely known. The
St Albans Abbey Reparation Committee, which had been in
existence since 1871, and for which Sir Gilbert Scott had carried
out some admirable repairs, obtained a faculty from the Diocesan
Court in 1877 to repair and restore the church and nt it for
cathedral and parochial services, Vtry soon, however, the
committee found itself unable to raise the necessary funds,
and it was at this juncture that a new faculty was granted to
Lord Grimthorpe (then Sir Edmund Beckett) to " restore, repair
and rent. " the abbey at his own expense. Lord Grimthorpe
made it an express stipulation that the work should be done
according to his own designs and under his own supervision.
His public spirit in undertaking the task was undeniable, but
his treatment of the roof, the new west front, and the windows
inserted in the terminations of the transepts, excited a storm of
adverse criticism, and was the subject of vigorous protests from
the professional world of architecture. He cfied on the 29th
of April 1905, being succeeded as 2nd baron by his nephew,
. K W. Beckett (b. 1856), who had sat in parliament as conserva-
tive member for the Whitby division of Yorkshire from 1885.
GRINDAL, EDMUND (c. 1510-1583), successively bishop of
London, archbishop oi York and archbishop oi Canterbury,
born about 1 519, was son of William Grindal, a farmer of Hensing-
ham, in the parish of St Bees, Cumberland. He was educated at
Magdalene and Christ's Colleges and then at Pembroke Hall,
Cambridge, where he graduated B.A. and was elected fellow in
1 538. He proceeded MA in 1 541, was ordained deacon in 1 544
and was proctor and Lady Margaret preacher in 1 548-1 549.
Probably through the influence of Ridley, who had been master
of Pembroke Hall, Grindal was selected as one of the Protestant
disputants during the visitation of 1549. He had a considerable
talent for this work and was often employed on similar occasions.
When Ridley became bishop of London, he made Grindal one
of his chaplains and gave him the precentorship of St Paul's.
He was soon promoted to be one of Edward VL's chaplains
and prebendary of Westminster, and in October 1552 was one
of the six divines to whom the Forty-two articles were submitted
for examination before being sanctioned by the Privy Council.
According to Knox, Grindal distinguished himself from most of
the court preachers in 1553 by denouncing the worldliness of
the courtiers and foretelling the evils to follow on the king's
death.
That event frustrated GrindaTs proposed elevation to the*
episcopal bench and he did not consider himself bound to await
the evils which he had foretold. He abandoned his preferments
GRINDELWALD— GKINGOIRE
605
ob Mary's accession and made his way to Straasbur g* Thence,
like so many of the Marian exiles, he proceeded to Frankfurt,
where he endeavoured to compose the disputes between the
" Coirians " <see Cox, Richard), who regarded the 1553 Prayer
Book as the perfection of reform, and the Knoxi&ns, who wanted
further simplification. He returned to England in January x 559,
was appointed one of the committee to revise the liturgy, and
one of the Protestant representatives at the Westminster con-
ference. In July he was also elected Master of Pembroke Hall
in succession to the recusant Dr Thomas Young (15147-1580)
and Bishop of London in succession to Bonner.
Grindal himself was, however, inclined to be recalcitrant from
different motives. He had qualms about vestments and other
traces of " popery " as well as about the Erastianism of Eliza-
beth's ecclesiastical government. His Protestantism was robust
enough; he did not mind recommending that a priest " might
be put to some torment " (Hatfield MSS. i. 269) ; and in October
1562 he wrote to Cecil begging to know " if that second Julian,
the king of Navarre, is killed; as he intended to preach at St
Paul's Cross, and might take occasion to mention God*s judge-
ments on him" (Domestic Cat., 1547-1580, p. 209). But he was
loth to execute judgments upon English Puritans, and modern
high churchmen complain of his infirmity of purpose, his oppoiv
tunism and his failure to give Parker adequate assistance in
rebuilding the shattered fabric of the English Church. Gtindal
lacked that firm faith in the supreme importance of uniformity
and autocracy which enabled Whitgift to persecute with a clear
conscience nonconformists whose theology was indistinguishable
from his own. Perhaps he was as wise as his critics; at any
rate the rigour which he repudiated hardly brought peace or
strength to the Church when practised by his successors, and
London, which was always a difficult See; involved Bishop Sandys
in similar tronbles when Grindal had gone to York. As it was,
although Packer said that Grindal * % was not resohite and severe
enough for the government of/London," his attempts to errforce
the use of the surplice evoked angry protests, especially in r$65,
when considerable numbers of the nonconformists were sus-
pended; and Grindal of bis own motion denounced Cartwright
to the Council in 1 570. Other anxieties were brought uipon him
by the burning of his cathedral in 1561, for although Grindal
himself is said to have contributed £t 200 towards its "rebuilding,
the laity of his diocese were niggardly wRh their subscriptions
and even his clergy were not liberal.
In 1570 Grindal was translated to the archbishopric of York,
where Puritans were few and coercion would be required mainly
for Roman Catholics. His first letter from Cawood to Cecil
told that he had not been well received, that the gentry were not
" weil-affected to godly religion and arnong the common people
many superstitious practices remained." It is admitted by his
Anglican critics that he did the work of enforcing uniformity
against the Roman Catholics with good-will and considerable
tact. He must have given general satisfaction, for even before
Parker's death two persons so different as Buifchley and Dean
Nowell independently recommended Grindal's appointment as
his successor, and Spenser speaks warmly of him in the ShefkenPs
Calendar as the " gentle shepherd Algrind ." Burghley wished
to conciliate the moderate Puritans and advised Grindal to
mitigate the severity which had characterized Parker's treatment
of the nonconformists. Grindal indeed attempted a reform of
the ecclesiastical courts, but his metropolitical activity was cut
short by a conflict with the arbitrary temper of the queen.
Elizabeth required Grindal to suppress the " prophesyings n
or meetings for discussion which had come into vogue among the
Puritan clergy, and she even wanted him to discourage preaching;
she would have no doctrine that was not inspired by her authority.
Grindal remonstrated, claiming some voice for the Church, and
in June 1577 was suspended from his jurisdictional, though not
his spiritual, functions for disobedience. He stood firm, and
in January 1578 Secretary Wilson informed Burghley that the
queen wished to have the archbishop deprived. She was dis-
suaded from this extreme course, but Grindal's sequestration
was continued in spite of a petition from Convocation in 15B1
to hisiwanstafcement . .Elizabeth then suggested that ha should
nsagn; this he declined to do, and after making an apology to the
queen he was reinstated towards the end of 1582. But Ms
infirmities were increasing, and while making preparations for
his resignation, he died on the 6th of July 1 583 and was buried in
Croydon parish church. He left considerable benefactions to
Pembroke Hall, Cambridge, Queen's College, Oxford, and
Christ's College, Cambridge; he alio endowed a free school at
St Bees, and left money for the poor of St Bees, Canterbury,
Lambeth and Croydon.
Stiype's Life of Gtindal is the principal authority; see also Diet.
Not. Bwgr. and, besides the authorities there eked, Gough's General
Index to Parker Soc Publ.; Acts of the Privy Council; Cal. of
Hatfield MSS.; Dixon's Hist, of the Church of England; Frere's
volume in Stephens' and Hunt's series; Cambridge Mod. Hist.
vol. iii.; Gee's Ektabethan Clergy; But'* Elizabethan Religious
Settlement; and Pierce's Introduction to the Marprelate Tracts (1909).
(A. F. fj
GRINDELWALD, a valley in the Bernese Oberknd, and one
of the chief resorts of tourists in Switzerland, It is shut in on
the south by the precipices of the Wetterhorn, Mettenberg
and Eiger, between which two famous glaciers flow down- On
the north it is sheltered by the Faulhorn range, while on the
east the Great Scheidegg Pass leads over to Meixingen; and on
the south-west the Little Scheidegg or Wengern Alp (railway
1 1 J m. across) divides it from Lauterbrunnen, The main village
is connected with Interlaken by a rack railway {13 m.). The
valley is very green, and possesses excellent pastures, as well as
fruit trees, though little corn is grown. It is watered by the
Black JLiitschine, a tributary of the Aar. The height of the
parish church above the sea-level is 3468 flL The population
m j 900 was 3346,pracl r ically all Protestant and German-speaking,
and living in 5 58 houses. The glacier guides are among the best
in the ^\Jps. The valley, was or iginaUy inhabited by the serfs
oi various great lords in summer for the sake of pasturage. A
chapel in a cave was superseded about 1146 by a wooden church,
replaced about 1 180 by a stone churchy which was pulled down
in 17913 to erect tlje present building. Gradually the Justin
canoes of Interlaken bought out all the other owners in the
valley, but when that house was suppressed in i«8 by the town
of Bern the inhabitants gained their freedom. The houses near
the hotel Adler bear the name of Gydisdorf, but there is no
village of Grindelwald properly speaking, though that name is
usually given to the assemblage of hotels and shops between
Gydisdorf and the railway station: Grindelwald is now very
much frequented by visitors in winter.
See W- A. B- Coolidge, Walks and Excursions in the Valley of
Grindelwald (also in French and German} (Grindelwald, 1900);
Emmanuel FriecBi, Barndutsch als Spiegel bernischen Volkstums,
voL iL (Grindelwald, Bern, 1908) ;'E. r. von Millinen, Beitrage zur
Hehnafkunde des Kantons Bern, aeutschen Texts, vol. L (Bern, 1879},
pp. 54-26; G. Strasser, Der Gletsckermann (Grindelwald, 1 888-1890),
Scattered notices may be found in the edition (London, 1899) of the
u General Introduction " (entitled " Hints and Notes for Travellers
in the Alps M ) to John Ball's Alpine Guide. JCW. A. B. C.)
GRINOOIRE <or Gungorx), PIERRE (c. 1480-1539), French
poet and dramatist, was born about the year 1480, probably at
Caen. In his first work, Le Chasieau de labour (1499), a didactic
poem in praise of diligence, he narrates the troubles following
on marriage. A young couple are visited by Care, Need, Dis-
comfort, &c.; and other personages common to medieval alle-
gories take part in the action. In November 1501 Gringoire
was in Paris directing the production of a mystery play in honour
of the archduke Philip of Austria, and in subsequent years
he received many similar commissions. The fraternity of the
Enfans sans Souci advanced him to the dignity of Mere Sotte
and afterwards to the highest honour of the gild, that of
Prince des Sots. For twenty years Gringoire seems to have been
at the head of this illustrious conf r§rie. As Prince des Sots he
exercised an extraordinary influence. At no time Was the stage,
rude and coarse as it was, more popular as a true exponent of
the popular mind. Gringoire^s success lay te the fact that he
followed, but did not attempt to lead; on his stage the people
saw exhibited their passions, their judgments of the moment,
their jealousies, their hatreds and their ambitions. Brotherhoods
6o6
GRINNELL— GRIQU ALAND
of the kind existed all over France. In Paris there were the
Enfans sans Souci, the Basochiens, the Confrlrie de la Passion
and the Souverain Empire de GalilSe; at Dijon there were the
Mbre FolleBikd her family; in Flanders the Soctitt des ArbaUtriers
played comedies; at Rouen the Cornards or Conards yielded
to none in vigour and fearlessness of satire. On Shrove Tuesday
1512 Gringoire, who was the accredited defender of the policy
of Louis XII., and had already written many political poems,
represented the Jeu du Prince des Sots el Mere Sotle. It was at
the moment when the French dispute with Julius II. was at its
height Mere Sotte was disguised as the Church, and disputed
the question of the temporal power with the prince. The political
meaning was even more thinly veiled in the second part of the
entertainment, a morality named L 1 Homme obstine", the principal
personage representing the pope. The performance concluded
with a farce. Gringoire adopted for his device on the frontis-
piece of this trilogy, Tout par Raison, Raison par Tout, Par tout
Raison. He has been called the Aristophane des Holies. In one
respect at least he resembles Aristophanes. He is serious in his
merriment; there is purpose behind his extravagances. The
Church was further attacked in a poem printed about 1510,
La Chasse du cerf des cerfs (serf des serfs, i.e. serous seroorum),
under which title that of the pope is thinly veiled. About 1514
he wrote his mystery of the Vie de Monseigneur Saint-Louis
par personnages in nine books for the confrerie of the masons and
carpenters. He became in 151 8 herald at the court of Lorraine,
with the title of Vaudemont, and married Catherine Roger,
a lady of gentle birth. During the last twenty years of a long
life he became orthodox, and dedicated a Blason des heritiques
to the duke of Lorraine. There is no record of the payment
of his salary as a herald after Christmas 1538, so that he died
probably in 1539.
His works were edited by C. d'Hencault and A. de Montaiglon
for the Bibliotheque dsevirienne in 1858. This edition was incom-
plete, and was supplemented by a second volume in 1877 *>y Mon-
taiglon and M. James de Rothschild. These volumes include the
works already mentioned, except Le Chasteau de labour, and in
addition, Les Folles Entrebrises (1505), a collection of didactic and
satirical poems, chiefly ballades and rondeaux, one section of which
is devoted to the exposition of the tyranny of the nobles, and another
to the vices of the clergy; VEntreprise de Venise (c 1509), a poem
in seven-lined stanzas, giving a list of the Venetian fortresses which
belonged, according to Gringoire, to other powers ; VEspoir de paix
(1st ed. not dated; another, 1510), a verse treatise on the deeds of
" certain popes of Rome," dedicated to Louis XII.; and La Coque*
Ifltche (1510), a verse description of an epidemic, apparently influenza.
For details of his other satires, Les Abus du monde (1509), Complainte
de trop tard marte, Les Fantasies du monde qui rhgne; of his religious
verse, Chants royaux (on the Passion, 1527), Heures de Notre Dame
(1525); and a collection of tales in prose and verse, taken from
the Gesta Romanorum, entitled Les Fantasies de Mere Sotte (15 16),
see G. B runet , Manuel du libraire (s.v. Gringore) . iyi ost of Gringoire's
works conclude with an acrostic giving the name of the author.
The Chasteau de labour was translated into English by Alexander
Barclay and printed by Wynkyn de Worde in 1506. Barclay's
translation was edited (1905) w *th his original for the Roxburghe
Club by Mr A. W. Pollard, who provided an account of Gringoire, and
a bibliography of the book. See also, for the Jeu du Prince des Sots,
Petit de Julleville, La Comidie et les maurs en France au moyen &ge,
p. 1$ 1- 168 (Paris, 1886); for Saint Louis, the same author's
es Mys&res, i. 331 et seq., ii. 583-597 (1880), with further biblio-
pp. 1$ 1- 168 (Paris, 1886); for Saint Louis, the same author's
Les Mys&res, i. 331 et seq., ii. 583-597 (1880), with further biblio-
graphical references; and E. Picot, Gringore et les cotnSdiens
ttaltens (1877). The real Gringoire cannot be said to have many
points of resemblance with the poet described in Victor Hugo s
Notre-Dame de Paris, nor is there more foundation in fact for the one-
act prose comedy of Theodore de Banville.
GRINNELL, a city in Poweshiek county, Iowa, U.S.A., 55 m.
E. by N. of Des Moines. Pop. (1900) 3860, of whom 274 were
toreign-bom; (1905) 4634; (1910) 5036. Grinnell is served by
the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, and the Iowa Central rail-
ways. It is the seat of Iowa College (co-educational), founded
in 1847 by the Iowa Band (Congregationalists and graduates
of New England .colleges and Andover Theological Seminary,
who had devoted themselves to home missionary educational
work in Iowa, and who came to Iowa in 1843), and by a few
earlier pioneers from New England. The college opened in 1848
at Davenport, and in 1859 removed to Grinnell, where there was
a school called Grinnell University, which it absorbed. Closely
affiliated with the college are the Grinnell Academy, and the
Grinnell School of Music. In 1907-1008 the College had 463
students, the Academy had 129 students, and the School of
Music had 141 students. Among the manufactures are carriages
and gloves. The city was named in honour of one of its founders,
Josiah BushneU Grinnell (1821-1891), a Congregational clergy-
man, friend of and sympathizer with John Brown, and from
1863 to 1867 a member of the National House of Representatives.
Grinnell was settled in 1854, was incorporated as a town in 1865,
and in 1882 was chartered as a city of the second class. In 1882
it suffered severely from a cyclone.
GRIQUALAND EAST and GRIQUALAND WEST, territorial
divisions of the Cape Province of the Union of South Africa.
Griqualand East, which lies south of Basutoland and west of
Natal, is so named from the settlement there in 1862 of Griquas
under Adam Kok. It forms part of the Transkeian Territories -
of the Cape, and is described under Kaefrabia. Griqualand
West, formerly Griqualand simply, also named after its Griqua
inhabitants, is part of the. great tableland of South Africa.
It is bounded S. by the Orange river, W. and N. by Bechuanaland,
£. by the Transvaal and Orange Free State Province, and has
an area of 15,197 sq. m. It has a general elevation of 3000 to
4000 ft. above the sea, low ranges of rocky hills, the Kaap,
Asbestos, Vansittart and Langeberg mountains, traversing its
western portion in a general N.E.-S.W. direction* The only
perennial rivers are in the eastern district, through which the
Vaal flows from a point a little above Fourteen Streams to its
junction with the Orange (160 m.). In this part of its course the
Vaal receives the Harts river from the north and the Riet from
the east. The Riet, 4 m. within the Griqualand frontier, is
joined by the Modder. The banks of the rivers are shaded by
willows; elsewhere the only tree is the mimosa. The greater
part of the country is barren, merging N.W, into absolute
desert. The soil is, however, wherever irrigated, extremely
fertile. The day climate is hot and dry, but the nights are fre-
quently cold. Rain rarely falls, though thunderstorms of great
severity occasionally sweep over the land, and sandstorms are
prevalent in the summer. A portion of the country is adapted
for sheep-farming and the growing of crops, horse-breeding is
carried on at Kimberley, and asbestos is worked in the south-
western districts, but the wealth of Griqualand West lies in its
diamonds, which are found along the banks of the Vaal and in the
district between that river and the Riet. From the first dis-
covery of diamonds in 1867 up to the end of 1905 the total
yield of diamonds was estimated at 13 J tons, worth £95,000,000.
The chief town is Kimberley ($.v.), the centre of the diamond
mining industry. It is situated on the railway from Cape Town
to the Zambezi, which crosses the country near its eastern
border. Three miles south of Kimberley is Beaconsfield (q.v.).
On the banks of the Vaal are Barkly West (q. v.), Windsor ton
(pop. 800) and Warrenton (pop. 1500); at all these places are
river diggings, diamonds being found along the river from
Fourteen Streams to the Harts confluence. Warrenton is 44 m.
N. by rail from Kimberley. Douglas (pop. 300), on the south
bank of the Vaal, 12 m. above its confluence with the Orange,
is the centre of an agricultural district, a canal 9} m. long serving
to irrigate a considerable area. < Thirty-five miles N.W. of
Douglas is Griquatown (pop. 401), the headquarters of the
first Griqua settlers. Campbell (pop. 250) is 30 m. E. of Griqua*
town, and Postmasburg 42 m. N. by W. A census taken in 1877
showed the population of Griqualand West to be 45,277, of whom
12,347 were whites. At the census of 1891 the population was
83,215, of whom 29,602 were whites, and in 1904 the population
was 108,498, of whom 32,570 were whites.
History. — Before the settlement in it of Griqua clans the
district was thinly inhabited by Bushmen and Hottentots.
At the end of the 18th century a horde known as Bastaards,
descendants of Dutch farmers and Hottentot women, led a
nomadic life on the plains south of the Orange river. In 1803
a missionary named Anderson induced a number of the Bastaards
with their chief Barend Barends to settle north of the river, and
a mission station was formed at a place where there was a strong
GRISAILLE— GRISELDA
607
flowing fountain, which has now disappeared, which gave the
name of Klaarwater to what is now known as Griquatown or
Griquastad. Klaarwater became a retreat for other Bastaards,
Hottentot refugees, Kaffirs and Bechuanas. From Little
Namaqualand came a few half-breeds and others under the
leadership of Adam Kok, son of Cornelius Kok and grandson
of Adam Kok (c, 1 7 10-1 795) , a man of mixed white and Hottentot
blood who is regarded as the founder of the modern Griquas.
The settlement prospered, and in 181 3, at the instance of the
Rev. John Campbell, who had been sent by the London Mission-
ary Society to inspect the country, the tribesmen abandoned
the name of Bastaards in favour of that of Griquas, 1 some
of them professing descent from a Hottentot tribe, originally
settled near Saldanha Bay, called by the early Dutch settlers
at the Cape Chariguriqua or Grigriqua. Under the guidance
of missionaries the Griquas made some progress in civilization,
and many professed Christianity. Adam Kok and Barends
having moved eastward in 1820, those who remained behind
elected as their head man a teacher in the mission school named
Andries Waterboer, who successfully administered the settle-
ment, and by defeating the Makololo raiders greatly increased
the prestige of the tribe. Meanwhile Adam Kok and his com-
panions had occupied part of the country between the Modder
and Orange rivers. In 1825 Kok settled at the mission station
of Philippolis (founded two years previously), and in a short time
had exterminated the Bushmen inhabiting that region. He
died about 1835, and after a period of civil strife was succeeded
by his younger son, Adam Kok IH. This chief in November
1843 signed a treaty placing himself under British protection.
Many Dutch farmers were settled on the land he claimed. In
1845 he received British military aid in a contest with the white
settlers, and in 1848 helped the British under Sir Harry Smith
against the Boers (see Orange Free State: History), Eventu-
ally finding himself straitened by the Boers of the newly estab-
lished Orange Free State, he removed in 1861-1863 with his
people, some 3000 in number, to the region (then depopulated
by Kaffir wars) now known as Griqualand East. His sovereign
rights to all territory north of the Orange he sold to the Free
State for £4000. He founded Kokstad (q. v.) and died in 1876.
Waterboer, the principal Griqua chief, had entered into treaty
relations with the British government as early as 1834, and he
received a subsidy of £150 a year. He proved a stanch ally of
the British, and kept the peace on the Cape frontier to the day
of his death in 1852. He was succeeded by his son Nicholas
Waterboer, under whom the condition of the Griquas declined —
a decline induced by the indolence of the people and intensified
by the drying up of the water supplies, cattle plague and brandy
drinking. During this period white settlers acquired farms in
the country, and the loss of their independence by the Griquas
became inevitable. The discovery of diamonds along the banks
of the Vaal in 1867 entirely altered the fortunes of the country,
and by the end of 1869 the rush to the alluvial diggings had begun.
At the diggers' camps the Griquas exercised no authority, but
over part of the district the South African Republic and the
Orange Free State claimed sovereignty. At Klip Drift (now
Barkly West) the diggers formed a regular government and
elected Theodore Parker as their president. Most of the diggers
being British subjects, the high commissioner of South Africa
interfered, and a Cape official was appointed magistrate at
Klip Drift, President Parker resigning office in February 187 i«
At this time the " dry diggings," of which Kimberley is the
centre, had been discovered,' and over the miners there the
Orange Free State asserted jurisdiction. The land was, however,
claimed by Nicholas Waterboer, who, on the advice of his agent,
David Arnot, petitioned the British to take over his country.
This Great Britain consented to do, and on the 27th of October
1871 proclamations were issued by the high commissioner
1 The Griquas, as a distinct tribe, numbered at the Cape census of
1904 but 6289. They have largely intermarried with Kaffir and
Becnuana tribes.
•The order of discovery of the chief mines was: — Dutoitspan,
Sept. 1870; Bultfontein, Nov. 1870; De Beers, May 1871; Coles-
berg Kop (Kimberley), July 1871.
receiving Waterboer and his Griquas as British subjects and
defining the limits of his territory. In addition to the Kimberley
district this territory included that part of the diamondiferous
area which had been claimed by the Transvaal, but which had
been 'declared, as the result of the arbitration of R. W. Keate,
lieutenant-governor of Natal, part of Waterboer's land. On the
4th of November a small party of Cape Mounted Police took
possession of the dry diggings and hoisted the British fag.
Shortly afterwards the representative of the Orange Free State
withdrew. The Free State was greatly incensed by the action
of the British government, but the dispute as to the sovereignty
was settled in 1876 by the payment of £90,000 by the British
to the Free State as compensation for any injury inflicted on the
state.
The diggers, who under the nominal rule of the Transvaal and
Free State had enjoyed practical independence, found the
new government did little for their benefit, and a period of dis-
order ensued, which was not put an end to by the appointment
in January 1873 of Mr (afterwards Sir) Richard Southey* as
sole administrator, in place of the three commissioners who
had previously exercised authority. In the July following the
territory was made a crown colony and Southey's title changed
to that of lieutenant-governor. The government remained
unpopular, the diggers complaining of its unrepresentative
character, the heavy taxation exacted, and the inadequate
protection of property. They formed a society for mutual
protection, and the discontent was so great that an armed force
was sent (early in 1875) from the Cape to overawe the agitators.
At the same time measures were taken to render the government
more popular. The settlement of the dispute with the Free
State paved the way for the annexation of Griqualand to the Cape
Colony on the 15 th of October 1880.
See Kimberley, Cape Colony, Transvaal and Orange Free
State. For the early history of the country and an account of life
at the diggings, 1 871-1875, consult G. M'Call Theal's Compendium
of the History and Geography of South Africa (London, 1878), chapters
xl. and xli. ; Gardner F. Williams, The Diamond Mines of South
Africa (New York and London, 1902) ; and the works bearing on the
subject quoted in that book. See also Theal's History of South
Africa . . . 1834-1854 (London, 1893); J. Campbell, Travels in
South Africa (London, 1815), Travels . . . A Second Journey . . .
(2 vols., London, 1822); the Blue Books C 459 of 187 1 and C. 508 of
1872 (the last-named containing the Keate award, &c.) ; the Griqua-
land West report in Papers relating to Her Majesty's Colonial
Possessions, part ii. (1875), and the Life of Sir Richard Southey,
K.C.M.G., by A. Wilmot (London, 1904). For the Griqua people
consult G. W. Stow, The Native Races of South Africa, chapters xvii.-
xx. (London, 1905).
GRISAILLE, a French term, derived from gris f grey, for
painting in monochrome in various shades of grey, particularly
used in decoration to represent objects in relief. The frescoes
of the roof of the Sistine chapel have portions of the design in
grisaille. At Hampton Court the lower part of the decoration
of the great staircase by Verrio is in grisaille. The term is also
applied to monochrome painting in enamels, and also to stained
glass; a fine example of grisaille glass is in the window known
as the Five Sisters, at the end of the north transept in York
cathedral.
GRISELDA, a heroine of romance. She is said to have been
the wife of Walter, marquis of Saluces or Saluzzo, in the nth
century, and her misfortunes were considered to belong to
history when they were handled by Boccaccio and Petrarch,
although the probability is that Boccaccio borrowed his narrative
from a Provencal fabliau. He included it in the recitations
of the tenth day (Decamerone), and must have written it about
1350. Petrarch related it in a Latin letter in 1373, and his
translation formed the basis of much of the later literature.
The letter was printed by Ulrich Zel about 1470, and often
subsequently. It was translated into French as La Patience de
•Sir Richard Southey (1809-V901) was the son of one of the
emigrants from the west of England to Cape Colony (1820). He
organized and commanded a corps of Guides in the Kaffir war of
1 834-35, and was with Sir Harry Smith at Boomplaats ( 1 848) . From
1864 to 1872 he was colonial secretary at the Care. He gave up his
appointment in Griqualand West in 1875, and lived thereafter in
retirement. In 1891 he was created a K.C.M.G.
6o8
GRISI— GRISONS
Grisdidis and printed at BrehaoXoudeac in 1484, and its
popularity is shown by the- number of early editions quoted by
Brunet (Manuel du libraire, s.t. Petrarca). The story was
dramatized in 1595, and & MyStkre de Grisdidis, marquise de
Saiuses per ptrsonnaiges was printed by Jehan Bonlons (no date).
Chaucer followed Petrarch's version in the Canterbury Tales.
Ralph Radchife, who flourished under Henry VIII., is said to
have written a play on the subject, and the story was dramatised
by Thomas Dekker, Henry Chettle and W. Haughton in 1603.
An example of the many ballads of Griselda is given in T. DeJoney*s
Garland of Good Will (1685), and the 17th-century chap-book, The
History of Patient Grisel (1619), was edited by H. B. Wheatley (1885)
for the Villon Society with a bibliographical and literary introduction.
GRISI, GIULIA (1811-1869), Italian opera-singer, daughter
of one of Napoleon's Italian officers; was born in Milan, She
came of a family of musical gifts, her maternal aunt Josephma
Grassini (1773-1850) being a favourite opera-singer both on the
continent and in London; her mother had also been a. singer,
and her elder sister Giudetta and her cousin Caribtta were both
exceedingly talented. Giulia was trained to a musical career,
and made her stage debut in 1848* Rossini and Bellini both
took an interest in her, and at hf flan she- was the first Adalgna
in Bellini's Normo f in which Pasta took the title-part* Gito
appeared in Paris m 1832, as Semir amide in Rossini's opera,
and had a great success; and in 1834 she appeared in London.
Her voice was a- brilliant cfcramatje: soprano r and her established
position as- a prima donna continued for thirty years. She
was a particularly fine actress, and in London opera her associa-
tion with soch singers as Lablache, Rubin*, Tamburini and Mario
was long remembered as the palmy day* of Italian opera. In
1854 she toured with Mario in America. She had married Count
de Melcy in 1836, but this ended in a- divorce; and in 1856 she
married Mario (q.vj. She died in Berlin on the 29th of November
1869.
GRISOV (Galiclu vittafa)^ a carnivorous mammal, of the
family MuUeHdae, common in Central and South America and
Mexico. It is about the- size of a noarteriy and has the upper
surface of a bluish-grey tint, and the under surface is dark
brown. The grison lives on small mammals and birds,, and in
settled districts is destructive to poultry. AHamand's grison
(G. aUamandi), with the same range, is somewhat larger. Another
member of the genus is the tayra or taira (G. barbara), about as
large as an otter, with a range from Mexico to Argentina. This
species hunts in companies (see Cahnttora).
GRISONS (Ger. Graubiinden), the most easterly of the Swiss
cantons and also the largest in extent, though relatively the
most sparsely populated. Its total area is 2753-0 SQ> rn., of
which 1634*4 sq. m. are classed as " productive " (forests
covering 503-1 sq. m. and vineyards 1*3 sq. m.)', but it has also
138-6 sq. m. of glaciers, ranking in this respect next after the
Valais and before Bern. The whole canton is mountainous, the
principal glacier groups being those of the Todi, N. (11*887 ft-)*
of Medek, S.W. (Piz Medd, 10,509 it.), of the Rheinwald or the
Adula Alps, S.W. (Rheinwaldhorr*, 11,149 ft-), with the chief
source of the Rhine, of the Bernina, S.E. (Piz Bernina, 13,304 ft.},
the moat extensive, of the Albula, E. (Pia Kesch, 11,228 ft.),
and of the Siivretta, NJE. (PifcLinard^ 11,201 ft.). The principal
valleys are those of the upper Rhine and of the upper Inn (or
Engadine, ?.tr.). The three main sources of the Rhine are in
the canton. The vaUey of the Vorder Rhine ia catted the Rundner
Oberiand, that of the Mittel Rhine the- Val Medels, and that of
the Hinter Rhine (the principal) , in different parts of ha course,
the Rheinwakl,. the Schams valley and the Domtechg valley,
while the upper valley of the Juha is named the Oberhalbstein.
The chief affluents of the Rhine in the canto* are the Gleaner
(flowing through the Lugnetz valley), the Avers Rhine, the
Albula (swollen by the Julia and the Landwasser), the Plessur
(Schanngg valley) and the Landquart (coming from the Prat*
tigau). The Rhine and the Inn flow respectively into the North
and the Black Sieas. Of other streams that of Va! Mesocco joins
the Tlcinb and so the Po, while the Maira or Mera (Val BregagUa)
and the Poschiavino join the Adda, and the Rambach (Munatef
valley) the AJdrge, all four than ultimately reaching the Adriatic
Sea. The inner valleys are the highest in Central Europe, and
among the loftiest villages are Juf , 6008 ft. (the highest per-
manently inhabited village in the Alps), at the head of the Avers
glen, and St Merita, 6037 ft. T in the Upper Engadine. The
lower courses of the various streams are rent by remarkable
gorges, such as the Via Mala, the Rofna, the Schyn, and those
in the Avers, Medeb and Lngnets glens, as well as4hat of the
Ziige in the Landwasser glen. Below Coire, near Makns, good
wine is produced, while in the Val Mesocco,. &c., maiaeand chest-
nuts flourish. But the forests and the mountain pasturages are
the chief source of wealth. The lower pastures maintain a fine
breed of cows, while the upper are let out in summer to Berga-
masque shepherds. There are many mineral springs, such as
those of St Moritz, Schnls, Arvaneu, Fjderia, Le Prese and San
Bernardino. The donate and vegetation, save an the southern
slope of the Alps, are alpine and severe. Butyeavlyvast numbers
of strangers visit different spots in the canton, especially Davos
(9.0.), Arosa and the Engadine. As yet there are comparatively
few railways. There is one from Maierrfeld (continued north
to Constance and northvwest to Zurich) to Coire (n nu), which
sends off a branch line from Landquart, E n past Klostera to
Daws (31 m.). From Coire the lane bears west to Rekhenau
(6 mjr, whence one branch runs S.SJB- beneath the Albula Pass
to St Merits (50 m.), and another S.W. up the Hinter Rhine
valley to Hans (aoj m.). There arte, however, a number of fine
carriage reads across the passes leading to or towards Italy.
Besides those leading to the Engadine may be noted the roads
from Hang past Disentis over the Oberalp Pass (6719 ft.) to
Andermatt, from DisenCisover theLukmanier Pass (6389 ft.) to
Biasca, on the St Gotthard railway, from Rekhenau past
Tbnsis and Splngen ever the San Bernardino Pass (6760 ft.) to
Beilitizona on the same railway line, and from SpHigen over the
Spltig^HPass(6o46ft.)toCbiavewna. TheSeptimerPass(75«2ft.)
from the Juher route to the Maloja route has now only a mule
path, but was probably known in Roman times (as waa possibly
the Splugen), and was much frequented in the middle ages*
The population of the canton in 1000 was 104,520. Of this
number 55,155 (mainly near Coire and Davos, in the Prftttigau
and in the Schanhgg valley) were Protestants, while 49,142
(mainly in the BOndner Oberiand, the Vail Mesocco and the
Oberhalbstein) were Romanists, while there were aba 1x4 Jews
(Si of whom lived in Davos). In point of language 48,762
(mainly near Coire and Davos, in the Prattigau and in the
Schanngg valley) were German-speaking, while 17,539 (Mostly
in the Val Mesocco, the Val Bregaglia and the valley of Poschiave,
but including a number of Italian labourers engaged on the
construction of the Albula railway) were Italian-speaking.
But the characteristic tongue of the Grisons is a survival of an
ancient Romance language (the lingu* rustiea of the Roman
Empire), which has lagged behind its sisters. It has a scanty
printed literature, but is still widely spoken, so that, of the
38,651 persons in the Swiss Confederation who speak it, no fewer
than 36,472 are in the Grisons. It is distinguished into two
dialects: the Romonsch (sometimes wrongly called Romansch),
which prevails hi the BQndner Oberiand and in the Hinter Rhine
valley (Schams and Domleschg), and the Ladin (closely related
to the tongue spoken hi parts of the South Tyrol), that survives
m the Engadine and in the neighbouring valleys of BergGn,
OberhalbsteiH 'and Minister. (See F. Rausch's Gesckickte- der
Literati* its rhaeie~romoni$cken Voltes, Frankfort, 1870,
and Mr Cooiidge's bibliography of this language, given on
pp. 22-23 <rf Irorria and Marcel's Ls Massif de la Bernina, Zurich,
i&94t) Yet in the midst of this Romanee-speaking population
are islets (mostly, If not entirely, dufr to immigration m the
13th century from the German-speaking Upper Valais) of
German-speaking inhabitants; so in the Vate a**d Sanen glens,
and at Otaersfcxen (all in thenRundner Gberlan4>, m the Rhein-
wald'{the highest part of the Hinder Rhine Valley), and in the
Avers glen (middle reach of the JJinter Rhine valley), as wcH as
in and around Davos itself. ,
There is not much industrial activity in the Grisons. A
GRISONS
609
considerable portion of the population is engaged in attending
to the wants of the foreign visitors, but there is a considerable
trade with Italy, particularly in the wines of the Valtellina,
while many young men seek their fortunes abroad (returning
home after having accumulated a small stock of money) as
confectioners, pastry-cooks and coffee-house keepers. A certain
number of lead and silver mines were formerly worked, but are
now abandoned. The capital of the canton is Coire (q.v.).
The canton is divided into 14 administrative districts, and
includes 224 communes. It sends 2 members (elected by a
popular vote) to the Federal St&nderatk, and 5 members (also
elected by a popular vote) to the Federal Natumalrath. The
existing cantonal constitution was accepted by the people in 1892,
and came into force on 1st January 1804. The legislature
(Grossratk — no numbers fixed by the constitution) is elected
for 2 years by a popular vote, as are the 5 members of the
executive (Kleinrath) for 3 years. The " obligatory referendum "
obtains in the case of all laws and important matters of expendi-
ture, while 3000 citizens can demand (" facultative referendum ,, )
a popular vote as to resolutions and ordinances made by the
legislature. Three thousand citizens also have the right of
" initiative " as to legislative projects, but 5000 signatures are
required for a proposed revision of the cantonal constitution.
In the revenue and expenditure of the canton the taxes are never
counted. This causes an apparent deficit which is carried to
the capital account, and is met by the land tax (art. 19 of the
constitution), so that there is never a real deficit, as the amount
of the land tax varies annually according to the amount that
must be provided. In the pre- 1709 constitution of the three
Raetian Leagues the system of the " referendum " was in
working as early as the 16th century, not merely as between
the three Leagues themselves, but as between the bailiwicks
(Hockgerickte), the sovereign units within each League, and
sometimes (as in the Upper Engadine) between the villages
composing each bailiwick.
The greater part (excluding the three valleys where the
inhabitants speak Italian) of the modern canton of the Grisons
formed the southern part of the province of Raetia (probably the
aboriginal inhabitants, the Raeti, were Celts rather than, as
was formerly believed, Etruscans), set up by the Romans after
their conquest of the region in 15 B.C. The Romanized inhabi-
tants were to a certain extent (The Romonsch or Ladin tongue
is a survival of the Roman dominion) Teutonized under the
Ostrogoths (a.d. 493-537) and under the Franks (from 537
onwards). Governors called Praesidcs are mentioned in the
7th and 8th centuries, while members of the same family occupied
the episcopal see of Coire (founded 4th-5th centuries). About
806 Charles the Great made this region into a county, but in
831 the bishop procured for his dominions exemption (" im-
munity ") from the jurisdiction of the counts, while before 847
his see was transferred from the Italian province of Milan to the
German province of Mainz (Mayence) and was thus cut off from
Italy to be joined to Germany. In 916 the region was united
with the duchy of Alamannia, but the bishop still retained
practical independence, and his wide-spread dominions placed
him even above the abbots of Disentis and Pfafers, who likewise
enjoyed " immunity." In the 10th century the bishop obtained
fresh privileges from the emperors (besides the Val Bregaglia in
960), and so became the chief of the many feudal nobles who
struggled for power in the region. He became a prince of the
empire in n 70 and later allied himself with the rising power
(in the region) of the Habsburgers. This led in 1367 to the
foundation of the League of God's House or the Gotteskausbund
(composed of the city and chapter of Coire, and of the bishop's
subjects, especially in the Engadine, Val Bregaglia, Domleschg
and Oberhalbstein) in order to stem his rising power, the bishop
entering it in 1392. In 1395 the abbot of Disentis, the men of
the Lugnetz valley, and the great feudal lords of Rfizuns and
Sax (in 1399 the counts of Werdenberg came in) formed another
League, called the Ober Bund (as comprising the highlands in
the Vorder Rhine valley) and also wrongly the " Grey League "
(as the word interpreted " grey " is simply a misreading of
graven or counts, though the false view has given rise to the name
of Grisons or Graubunden for the whole canton), their alliance
being strengthened in 1424 when, too, the free men of the
Rheinwald and Schams came in, and in 1480 the Val Mesocco
also. Finally, in 1436, the third Raetian League was founded,
that of the Zehngerichtenbund or League of the Ten Jurisdictions,
by the former subjects of the count of Toggenburg, whose
dynasty then became extinct; they include the inhabitants of
the Prattigau, Davos, Maienfeld, the Schanfigg valley, Chur-
walden, and the lordship of Belf ort {i.e. the region round Alvaneu) ,
and formed ten bailiwicks, whence the name of the League. In
1450 the Zehngerichtenbund concluded an alliance with the
Gotteskausbund and in 1471 with the Ober Bund; but of the
so-called perpetual alliance at Vazerol, near Tiefenkastels,
there exists no authentic evidence in the oldest chronicles, though
diets were held there. By a succession of purchases (1477-1496)
nearly all the possessions of the extinct dynasty of the counts of
Toggenburg in the Prattigau had come to the junior or Tyrolese
line of the Habsburgers. On its extinction (1496) in turn they
passed to the elder line, the head of which, Maximilian, was
already emperor-elect and desired to maintain the rights of his
family there and in the Lower Engadine. Hence in 1497 the
Ober Bund and in 1498 the Gotteskausbund became allies of the
Swiss Confederation. War broke out in 1499, Dut was ended by
the great Swiss victory (22nd May 1499) at the battle of the
Calven gorge (above Mais) which, added to another Swiss victory
at Dornach (near Basel), compelled the emperor to recognize
the practical independence of the Swiss and their allies of the
Empire. The religious Reformation brought disunion into the
three Leagues, as the Ober Bund clung in the main to the old
faith, and for this reason their connexion with the Swiss Con-
federation was much weakened. In 1526, by the Articles of
Ilanz, the last remaining traces of the temporal jurisdiction
of the bishop of Coire was abolished. In i486 Poschiavo had at
last been secured from Milan, and Maienfeld with Malans was
bought in 1509, while in 1549 the Val Mesocco (included in the
Ober Bund since 1480) purchased its freedom of its lords, the
Trivulzi6 family of Milan. In 1 5 1 2 the three Leagues conquered
from Milan the rich and fertile Valtellina, with Bormioand
Chiavenna, and held these districts as subject lands till in 1797
they were annexed to the Cisalpine Republic. The struggle
for lucrative offices in these lands further sharpened the long
rivalry between the families of Planta (Engadine) and Salis
(Val Bregaglia), while in the 17th century this rivalry was
complicated by political enmities, as the Plantas favoured the
Spanish side and the Salis that of France during the long struggle
(1620-1639) for the Valtellina (see Jenatsch and Valtellina).
Troubles arose (1622) also in the Prattigau through the attempts
of the Habsburgers to force the inhabitants to give up Pro-
testantism. Finally, after the emperor had formally recognized,
by the treaty of Westphalia (1648), the independence of the
Swiss Confederation, the rights of the Habsburgers in the
Prattigau and the Lower Engadine were bought up (1649 and
1652). But the Austrian enclaves of Tarasp (Lower Engadine)
and of Razuns (near Reichenau) were only annexed to the Grisons
in 1809 and 1815 respectively, in each case France holding the
lordship for a short time after its cession by Austria. In 1748
(finally in 1762) the three Leagues secured the upper portion
of the valley of Minister. In 1799 the French invaded the
canton, which became the scene of a fierce conflict (1 790-1800)
between them and the united Russian and Austrian army, in the
course of which the French burnt (May 1799) the ancient convent
of Disentis with all its literary treasures. In April 1799 the
provisional government agreed to the incorporation of the three
Leagues in the Helvetic Republic, though it was not till June
1 801 that the canton of Raetia became formally part of the
Helvetic Republic. In 1803, by Napoleon's Act of Mediation,
it entered, under the name of Canton of the Grisons or Grau-
bunden, the reconstituted Swiss Confederation, of which it
then first became a full member.
Authorities.— A. Andrea, Das Bergell (Frauenfeld, 1901);
Bundnergeschichte in 11 Vortr&gen, by various writers (Coire, 1902) ;
xn. 20
6io
GRISWOLD— GROCYN
Codex diplomatics Raetiae (5 vols., Coire, 1848-1886); W. Coxe,
Travels in Switzerland, vol. ii. of the 1789 London edition ; E. Dunant,
La Reunion des Grisons a la Suisse (1798-1799) (Basel, 1899);
G. Fient, Das Prattigau (2nd ed., Davos, 1897); P. Foffa, Das
bundnerische Munsterthal (Coire, 1864); F. Fossati, Codice diplo-
matic della Rezia (originally published in the Periodico of the
Society storica a Comense at Como; separate reprint, Como, 1901);
R. A. Ganzoni, Beitrage zur Kenntnis d. bundnerischen Referendums
(Zurich, 1890); Mrs Henry Freshfield, A Summer Tour in the
Grisons (London, 1862) ; C. and F. Jeckiin, Der Anteil GraubUndens
am Schwabenkrieg (1499) (Davos, 1899); C. von Moor, Geschichte
von Curraetien (2 vols., Coire, 1 870-1 874), and Wegweiser (Coire,
1873); E. Lechner, Das Thai Bereell (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1874);
G. Leonhardi, Das Poschiavinothal (Leipzig, 1859); A. Lorria and
E. A. Martel, Le Massif de la Bernina (Upper Engadine and Val
Bregaglia) (Zurich, 1894) ; P. C. von Planta, Das alteRaetien (Berlin,
1872); Die curraetischen Herrschaften in d. Feudalzeit (Bern, 1881);
Geschichte von Graubunden (Bern, 1892) ; and Chronik d. Familie von
Planta (Zurich, 1892); W. Plattner, Die Entstehung d. Freistaates
der 3 Bunde (Davos, 1895), R. von Reding-Biberegg, Der Zug
Suworoffs durch die Schweiz in 1799 (Stans, 1895); N. Salis-Soglio,
Die Familie von Salts (Lindau, 1891); G. Theobald, Das Bundner
Oberland (Coire, 1861), and Naturbilder aus den rhatischen Alpen
(3rd ed., Coire, 1893); N. Valaer, Johannes von Planta (d. 1572)
(Zurich, 1888); R. Wagner and L. R. von Salis, Rechtsquellen d.
Cant. Graubunden (Basel, 1 877-1 892); F. Jeckiin, Materialen zur
Standes- und Landes geschichte Gem. Hi. .Bunde (Graubunden),
1464-1803 (pt. i., Rceesten, was published at Basel in 1907). See also
Coire, Engadine, Jenatsch and Valtellina. (W. A. B. C.)
GRISWOLD, RUFUS WILMOT (1815-1857), American editor
and compiler, was born in Benson, Vermont, on the 15th of
February 181 5. He travelled extensively, worked in newspaper
offices, was a Baptist clergyman for a time, and finally became
a journalist in New York City, where he was successively a
member of the staffs of The Brother Jonathan, The New World
(1830-1840) and The New Yorker (1840). From 1841 to 1843
he edited Graham 1 s Magazine (Philadelphia), and added to
its list of contributors many leading American writers. From
1850 to 1852 he edited the International Magazine (New York),
which in 1852 was merged into Harper's Magazine. He died in
New York City on the 27th of August 1857. He is best known
as the compiler and editor of various anthologies (with brief
biographies and critiques), such as Poets and Poetry of America
(1842), his most popular and valuable book; Prose Writers of
America (1846); Female Poets of America (1848); and Sacred
Poets of England and America (1849). Of his own writings his
Republican Court: or American Society in the Days of Washington
(1854) is the only one of permanent value. He edited the first
American edition of Milton's prose works (1845), and, as literary
executor, edited, with James R. Lowell and N. P. Willis, the
works (1850) of Edgar Allan Poe. Griswold 's great contemporary
reputation as a critic has not stood the test of time; but he
rendered a valuable service in making Americans better ac-
quainted with the poetry and prose of their own countrymen.
See Passages from the Correspondence and Other Papers of Rufus
W. Griswold (Cambridge, Mass., 1898), edited by his son William
McCrillis Griswold (1853-1899).
GRIVET, a monkey, Cercopithecus sabaeus, of the guenon
group, nearly allied to the green monkey. It is common through-
out equatorial Africa. The chin, whiskers and a broad band
across the forehead, as well as the under-parts, are white, and
the head and back olive-green. These monkeys are very
commonly seen in menageries.
GROAT (adapted from the Dutch groot, great, thick; cf.
Ger. Groschen; the Med. Lat. grossus gives Ital. grosso,
Fr. gros, as names for the coin), a name applied as early as the
13th century on the continent of Europe to any large or thick
coin. The groat was almost universally a silver coin, but its
value varied considerably, as well at different times as in different
countries. The English groat was first coined in 13 51, of a value
somewhat higher than a penny. The continuous debasement
of both the penny and the groat left the latter finally worth four
pennies. The issue of the groat was discontinued after 1662,
but a coin worth fourpence was again struck in 1836. Although
frequently referred to as a groat, it had no other official designa-
tion than a " fourpenny piece." Its issue was again discontinued
in 1856. The groat was imitated in Scotland by a coin struck
by David II. in 1358. In Ireland it was first struck by Edward
IV. in 1460.
GROCER, literally one who sells by the gross, a wholesale
dealer; the word is derived through the O. Fr. form, grossia,
from the Med. Lat. grossarius, defined by du Cange,
Glossarium, s.v. Grossares, as solidae mercis propola. The name,
as a general one for dealers by wholesale, " engrossers " as
opposed to " regrators," the retail dealers, is found with the
commodity attached; thus in the Munimenta Gildhallae (" Rolls "
series) ii. 1.304 (quoted in the New English Dictionary) is found
an allusion to grossours de vin, cf. groser of fysshe, Surtees Misc.
(1888) 63, for the customs of Malton (quoted ib.). The specific
application of the word to one who deals either by wholesale
or retail in tea, coffee, cocoa, dried fruits, spices, sugar and all
kinds of articles of use or consumption in a household is connected
with the history of the Grocers' Company of London, one of the
twelve " great " livery companies. In 1345 the pepperers and
the spicers amalgamated and were known as the Fraternity
of St Anthony. The name " grocers " first appears in 1373 in
the records of the company. In 1386 the association was
granted a right of search over all " spicers " in London, and in
1394 they obtained the right to inspect or " garble " spices and
other " subtil wares." Their first charter was obtained in 1428;
letters patent in 1447 granted an extension of the right of search
over the whole county, but removed the " liberties " of the
city of London. They sold all kinds of drugs, medicines, oint-
ments, plasters, and medicated and other waters. For the
separation of the apothecaries from the grocers in 16 17 see
Apothecary. (See further Livery Companies.)
See The Grocery Trade t by J. Aubrey Rees (1910).
GROCYN, WILLIAM (i446?-i5ig), English scholar, was born
at Colerne, Wiltshire, about 1446. Intended by his parents
for the church, he was sent to Winchester College, and in 1465
was elected to a scholarship at New College, Oxford. In 1467
he became a fellow, and had among his pupils William Warham,
afterwards archbishop of Canterbury. In 1479 ^ accepted the
rectory of Newton Longville, in Buckinghamshire, but continued
to reside at Oxford. As reader in divinity in Magdalen College
in 1481, he held a disputation with John Taylor, professor of
divinity, in presence of King Richard III., and the king acknow-
ledged his skill as a debater by the present of a buck and five
marks. In 1485 he became prebendary of Lincoln cathedral.
About 1488 Grocyn left England for Italy, and before his return
in 1491 he had visited Florence, Rome and Padua, and studied
Greek and Latin under Demetrius Chalchondyles and Politian.
As lecturer in Exeter College he found an opportunity of in-
doctrinating his countrymen in the new Greek learning.
Erasmus says in one of his letters that Grocyn taught Greek
at Oxford before his visit to Italy. The Warden of New College,
Thomas Chaundler, invited Cornelius Vitelli, then on a visit to
Oxford, to act as praelector. This was about 1475, and as
Vitelli was certainly familiar with Greek literature, Grocyn
may have learnt Greek from him. He seems to have lived in
Oxford until 1499, but when his friend Colet became dean of
St Paul's in 1 504 he was settled in London. He was chosen by
his friend to deliver lectures in St Paul's; and in this connexion
he gave a singular proof of his honesty. He had at first denounced
all who impugned the authenticity of the Hierarchia ecclesiastica
ascribed to Dionysius the Areopagite, but, being led to modify
his views by further investigation, he openly declared that he
had been completely mistaken. He also counted Linacre,
William Lily, William Latimer and More among his friends,
and Erasmus writing in 1514 says that he was supported by
Grocyn in London, and calls him " the friend and preceptor of
us all." He held several preferments, but his generosity to his
friends involved him in continual difficulties, and though in
1506 he was appointed on Archbishop Warham's recommenda-
tion master or warden of All Hallows College at Maidstone
in Kent, he was still obliged to borrow from his friends, and
even to pledge his plate as a security. He died in 1519, and was
buried in the collegiate church at Maidstone. Linacre acted
as his executor, and expended the money he received in gifts
GRODNO— GROLMANN
611
to the poor and the purchase of books for poor scholars. With
the exception of a few lines of Latin verse on a lady who snow-
balled him, and a letter to Aldus Manutius at the head of Linacre's
translation of Proclus's Sphaera (Venice, 1499), Grocyn has
left no literary proof of his scholarship or abilities. His proposal
to execute a translation of Aristotle in company with Linacre
and Latimer was never carried out. Wood assigns some Latin
works to Grocyn, but on insufficient authority. By Erasmus
he has been described as " vir severissimae castissimae vitae,
ecclesiasticarum constitutionum observantissimus pene usque
ad superstitionem, scholasticae theologiae ad unguem doctus
ac natura etiam acerrimi judicii, demum in omni disciplinarum
genere exacte versatus " (Declarationes ad censuras facultatis
theologiae Parisianae, 1522).
An account of Grocyn by Professor Burrows appeared in the
Oxford Historical Society's Collectanea (1890).
GRODNO, one of the Lithuanian governments of western
Russia, lying between 51 40' and 52 N. and between 22 12' and
26 E., and bounded N. by the government of Vilna, E. by Minsk,
S. by Volhynia, and W. by the Polish governments of Lomza
and Siedlce. Area, 14,926 sq. m. Except for some hills (not
exceeding 925 ft.) in the N., it is a uniform plain, and is drained
chiefly by the Bug, Niemen, Narev and Bobr, all navigable.
There are also several canals, the most important being the
Augustowo and Oginsky. Granites and gneisses crop out along
the Bug, Cretaceous, and especially Tertiary, deposits elsewhere.
The soil is mostly sandy, and in the district of Grodno and along
the rivers is often drift-sand. Forests, principally of Coniferae,
cover more than one-fourth of the area. Amongst them are some
of vast extent, e.g. those of Grodno (410 sq. m.) and Byelovitsa
(Bialowice) (376 sq. m.), embracing wide areas of marshy ground.
In the last mentioned forest the wild ox survives, having been
jealously preserved since 1803. Peat bogs, sometimes as much
as 4 to 7 ft . thick, cover extensive districts. The climate is wet and
cold; the annual mean temperature being 44*5° F., the January
mean 22-5° and the July mean 64-5°. The rainfall amounts to
21} in.; hail is frequent. Agriculture is the predominant
industry. The peasants own 42} % of the land, that is, about
4,000,000 acres, and of these over 2} million acres are arable.
The crops principally grown are potatoes, rye, oats, wheat, flax,
hemp and some tobacco. Horses, cattle and sheep are bred in
fairly large numbers. There is, however, a certain amount of
manufacturing industry, especially in woollens, distilling and
tobacco. In woollens this government ranks second (after
Moscow) in the empire, the centre of the industry being Byelostok.
Other factories produce silk, shoddy and leather. The govern-
ment is crossed by the main lines of railway from Warsaw to
St Petersburg and from Warsaw to Moscow. The population
numbered 1,008,521 in 1870 and 1,616,630 in 1897; of these
last 789,801 were women and 255,946 were urban. In 1906
it was estimated at 1,826,600. White Russians predominate
(54 %)> then follow Jews (17-4 %), Poles (10 %), Lithuanians
and Germans. The government is divided into nine districts,
the chief towns, with their populations in 1897, being Grodno
(q.v.), Brest-Litovsk (pop. 42,812 in 1001), Byelsk (7461),
Byelostok or Bialystok (65,781 in 1001), Kobrin (10,365),
Pruzhany (7634), Slonim (15,893), Sokolsk (7595) and Volkovysk
(10,584). In 1795 Grodno, which had been Polish for ages, was
annexed by Russia.
GRODNO, a town of Russia, capital of the government of the
same name in 53 40' N. and 23 50' E., on the right bank of the
Niemen, 160 m. by rail N.E. of Warsaw and 98 m. S.W. of Vilna
on the main line to St Petersburg. Pop. (1901) 41,736, nearly
two-thirds Jews. It is an episcopal see of the Orthodox Greek
church and the headquarters of the II. Army Corps. It has two
old castles, now converted to other uses, and two churches
(16th and 17th centuries). Tobacco factories and distilleries
are important; machinery, soap, candles, vehicles and firearms
are also made. Built in the 12th century, Grodno was almost
entirely destroyed by the Mongols (1241) and Teutonic knights
(1284 and 1391). Stephen Bathory, king of Poland, made it his
capital, and died there in 1586. The Polish Estates frequently
met at Grodno after 1673, and there in 1793 they signed the
second partition of Poland. It was at Grodno that Stanislaus
Poniatowski resigned the Polish crown in 1795.
GROEN VAN PRINSTERER, GUILLAUME (1801-1876),
Dutch politician and historian, was born at Voorburg, near
the Hague, on the 21st of August 1801. He studied at Leiden
university, and graduated in 1823 both as doctor of literature
and LL.D. From 1829 to 1833 he acted as secretary to King
William I. of Holland, afterwards took a prominent part in
Dutch home politics, and gradually became the leader of the
so-called anti-revolutionary party, both in the Second Chamber,
of which he was for many years a member, and outside. In Groen
the doctrines of Guizot and Stahl found an eloquent exponent.
They permeate his controversial and political writings and
historical studies, of which his Handbook of Dutch History (in
Dutch) and Maurice et Barnevelt (in French, 1875, a criticism
of Motley's Life of Van Olden- Barnevelt) are the principal.
Groen was violently opposed to Thorbecke, whose principles
he denounced as ungodly and revolutionary. Although he lived
to see these principles triumph, he never ceased to oppose them
until his death, which occurred at the Hague on the 19th of May
1876. He is best known as the editor of the Archives et corre*
spondance de la maison d f Orange (12 vols., 1835-1845), a great
work of patient erudition, which procured for him the title of
the " Dutch Gachard." J. L. Motley acknowledges his indebted-
ness to Groen's Archives in the preface to his Rise of the Dutch
Republic, at a time when the American historian had not yet
made the acquaintance of King William's archivist, and also
bore emphatic testimony to Groen's worth as a writer of history
in the correspondence published after his death. At the first
reception, in 1858, of Motley at the royal palace at the Hague,
the king presented him with a copy of Groen's Archives as a token
of appreciation and admiration of the work done by the " worthy
vindicator of William I., prince of Orange." This copy, bearing
the king's autograph inscription, afterwards came into the posses-
sion of Sir William Vernon Harcourt, Motley's son-in-law.
GROIN. (1) An obsolete word for the grunting of swine,
from Lat. grunnire f and so applied to the snout of a pig; it
is probably the origin of the word, more commonly spelled
" groyne," for a small timber framework or wall of masonry used
on sea coasts as a breakwater to prevent the encroachment of
sand and shingle. (2) (Of uncertain origin; from an older form
grynde or grinde; the derivation from " grain," an obsolete word
meaning " fork," cannot, according to the New English Dictionary,
be accepted), in anatomy the folds or grooves formed between
the lower part of the abdomen and the thighs, covering the
inguinal glands, and so applied in architecture to the angle
or " arris " formed by the intersection of two vaults crossing one
another, occasionally called by workmen " groin point." If the
vaults are both of the same radius and height, their intersections
lie in a vertical plane, in other cases they form winding curves
for which it is difficult to provide centering. In early medieval
vaulting this was sometimes arranged by a slight alteration in the
geometrical curve of the vault, but the problem was not satis-
factorily solved until the introduction of the rib which hence-
forth ruled the vaulting surface of the web or cell (see Vault).
The name " Welsh groin " or " underpitch " is generally given
to the vaulting surface or web where the main longitudinal
vault is higher than the cross or transverse vaults; as the trans-
verse rib (of much greater radius than that of the wall rib),
projected diagonally in front of the latter, the filling-in or web
has to be carried back from the transverse to the wall rib.
The term " groin centering " is used where, in groining without
ribs, the whole surface is supported by centering during the erec-
tion of the vaulting. In ribbed work the stone ribs only are
supported by timber ribs during the progress of the work, any
light stuff being used while filling in the spandrils. (See Vault.)
GROLMANN, KARL WILHELM GEORG VON (1 777-1843),
Prussian soldier, was born in Berlin on the 30th of July 17 77.
He entered an infantry regiment when scarcely thirteen, became
an ensign in 1795, second lieutenant 1797, first lieutenant 1804
and staff-captain in 1805. As a subaltern he had become one of
6l2
GROMATICI— GRONINGEN
Scharnhorst's intimates, and he was distinguished for his
energetic and fearless character before the war of 1806, in which
he served throughout, from Jena to the peace of Tilsit, as a
staff officer, and won the rank of major for distinguished service
in action. After the peace, and the downfall of Prussia, he was
one of the most active of Scharnhorst's assistants in the work
of reorganization (1809), joined the Tugendbundand endeavoured
to take part in SchilTs abortive expedition, after which he
entered the Austrian service as a major on the general staff.
Thereafter he journeyed to Cadiz to assist the Spaniards against
Napoleon, and he led a corps of volunteers in the defence of that
port against Marshal Victor in 18 10. He was present at the
battle of Albuera, at Saguntum, and at Valencia, becoming a
prisoner of war at the surrender of the last-named place. Soon,
however, he escaped to Switzerland, whence early in 1813 he
returned to Prussia as a major on the general staff. He served suc-
cessively under Colonel von Dolffs and General von Kleist, and as
commissioner at the headquarters of the Russian general Barclay
de Tolly. He took part with Kleist in the victory of Kulm, and
recovered from a severe wound received at that action in time
to be present at the battle of Leipzig. He played a conspicuous
part in the campaign of 18 14 in France, after which he was made
a major-general. In this rank he was appointed quartermaster-
general to Field Marshal Prince Bliicher, and, after his chief and
Gneisenau, Grolmann had the greatest share in directing the
Prussian operations of 1815. In the decision, on the 18th of
June 1815, to press forward to Wellington's assistance (see
Waterloo Campaign), Grolmann actively concurred, and as
the troops approached the battle-field, he is said to have over-
come the momentary hesitation of the commander-in-chief and
the chief of staff by himself giving the order to advance. After
the peace of 181 5, Grolmann occupied important positions in
the ministry of war and the general staff. His last public
services were rendered in Poland as commander-in-chief, and
practically as civil administrator of the province of Posen. He
was promoted general of infantry in 1837 and died on the 1st of
June 1843, at Posen. His two sons became generals in the
Prussian army. The Prussian 18th infantry regiment bears his
name.
General von Grolmann supervised and provided much of the
material for von Damitz's Gesch. des Feldzugs 1815 (Berlin,
1837-1838), and Gesch. des Feldzugs 1814 in Frankrekh (Berlin,
1842-1843).
See v. Conrady, Leben und Wirken des Generals Karl von Grolmann
(Berlin, 1894-18956).
GROMATICI (from groma or gruma, a surveyor's pole), or
Agrimensores, the name for land-surveyors amongst the Romans.
The art of surveying was probably at first in the hands of the
augurs, by whom it was exercised in all cases where the demarca-
tion of a templum (any consecrated space) was necessary. Thus,
the boundaries of Rome itself, of colonies and camps, were all
marked out in accordance with the rules of augural procedure.
The first professional surveyor mentioned is L. Decidius Saxa,
who was employed by Antony in the measurement of camps
(Cicero, Philippics, xi. 12, xiv. 10). During the empire their
number and reputation increased. The distribution of land
amongst the veterans, the increase in the number of military
colonies, the settlement of Italian peasants in the provinces,
the general survey of the empire under Augustus, the separation
of private and state domains, led to the establishment of a
recognized professional corporation of surveyors. During later
times they were in receipt of large salaries, and in some cases
were even honoured with the title clarissimus. Their duties
were not merely geometrical or mathematical, but required legal
knowledge for consultations or the settlement of disputes. This
led to the institution of special schools for the training of sur-
veyors and a special literature, which lasted from the 1st to
the 6th century a.d. The earliest of the gromatic writers was
Frontinus (q.v.), whose De agrorum qualitate, dealing with the
legal aspect of the art, was the subject of a commentary by
Aggenus Urbicus, a Christian schoolmaster. Under Trajan
a certain Balbus, who had accompanied the emperor on his
Dacian campaign, wrote a still extant manual of geometry for
land surveyors (Expositio el ratio omnium formarum or men-
surarum, probably after a Greek original by Hero), dedicated
to a certain Celsus who had invented an improvement in a
gromatic instrument (perhaps the dioptra, resembling the
modern theodolite) ; for the treatises of Hyginus see that name.
Somewhat later than Trajan was Siculus Flaccus {De con-
dicionibus agrorum , extant), while the most curious treatise on
the subject, written in barbarous Latin and entitled Casae
lillerarum (long a school textbook) is the work of a certain
Innocentius (4th-5th century). It is doubtful whether Boetius
is the author of the treatises attributed to him. The Gromatici
veleres also contains extracts from official registers (probably
belonging to the 5th century) of colonial and other land surveys,
lists and descriptions of boundary stones, and extracts from the
Theodosian Codex. According to Mommsen, the collection had
its origin during the 5th century in the office of a vicarius (dio-
cesan governor) of Rome, who had a number of surveyors under
him. The surveyors were known by various names: decern-
pedator (with reference to the instrument used) ; finilor, melolor
or mensor caslrorum in republican times; togati Augustorum
as imperial civil officials; professor, auctor as professional
instructors.
The best edition of the Gromatici is by C. Lachmann and others
(i8a8) with supplementary volume, Die Schriften der romischen
Felamesser (1852); see also B. G. Niebuhr, Roman History, ii.,
appendix (Eng. trans.), who first revived interest in the subject; M.
Cantor, Die romischen Agrimensoren (Leipzig, 1875); P. de Tissot,
La Condition des Agrimensores dans Vancienne Rome (1879); G.
Rossi, Groma e squadro (Turin, 1877); articles by F. Hultsch in
Ersch and Gruber's Attgem. Encyklopadie, and by G. Humbert in
Daremberg and Saglio's Dictionnaire aes antiquitis ; Teuffel-Schwabe,
Hist, of Roman Literature, 58.
GRONINGEN, the most northerly province of Holland,
bounded S. by Drente, W. by Friesland and the Lauwers Zee,
N. and N.E. by the North Sea and the mouth of the Ems with
the Dollart, and on the S.E. by the Prussian province of Hanover.
It includes the islands of Boschplaat and Rottumeroog, belonging
to the group of Frisian islands (q.v.). Area, 887 sq. m.; pop.
( 1 900) 299,602 . Groningen is connected with the Drente plateau
by the sandy tongue of the Hondsrug which extends almost up to
the capital. West, north and north-east of this the province is
flat and consists of sea-clay or sand and clay mixed, except
where patches of low and high fen occur on the Frisian borders.
Low fen predominates to the east of the capital, between the
Zuidlardermeer and the Schildmeer or lakes. The south-eastern
portion of the province consists of high fen resting on diluvial
sand. A large part of this has been reclaimed and the sandy soil
laid bare, but on the Drente and Prussian borders areas of fen
still remain. The so-called Boertanger Morass on the Prussian
border was long considered as the natural protection of the
eastern frontier, and with the view of preserving its impassable
condition neither agriculture nor cattle-rearing might be practised
here until 1824, and it was only in 1868 that the building of
houses was sanctioned and the work of reclamation begun. The
gradual extension of the seaward boundaries of the province
owing to the process of littoral deposits may be easily traced, a
triple line of sea-dikes in places marking the successive stages
in this advance. The rivers of Groningen descending from the
Drente plateau meet at the capital, whence they are continued
by the Reitdiep to the Lauwers Zee (being discharged through
a lock), and by the Ems canal (1876) to Delfzyl. The south-
eastern corner of the province is traversed by the Westerwolde
Aa, which discharges into the Dollart. The railway system
belongs to the northern section of the State railways, and affords
communication with Germany via Winschoten. Steam-tram-
ways also serve many parts of the province. Agriculture is the
main industry . The proportion of landowners is a very large one,
and the prosperous condition of the Groningen farmer is attested
by the style of his home, his dress and his gig. As a result,
however, partly of the usual want of work on the grass-
lands in certain seasons, there has been a considerable emigration
to America. The ancient custom called the beklem-recht, or
GRONINGEN
613
lease-right, doubtless accounts for the extended ownership of the
land. By this law a tenant-farmer is able to bequeath his
farm, that is to say, he holds his lease in perpetuity.
The chief agricultural products are barley, oats, wheat, and
in the north-east flax is also grown, and exported to South
Holland and Belgium. On the higher clay grounds cattle-rearing
and horse-breeding are also practised, together with butter and
cheese making. The cultivation of potatoes on the sandgrounds
in the south and the fen colonies along the Stads-Canal invite
general comparison with the industries of Drente (q.v.). Hooge-
zand and Sappemeer, Veendam and Wildervank, New and Old
Pekela, New and Old Stads-Canal are instances of villages which
have extended until they overlap one another and are similar
in this respect to the industrial villages of the Zaan Streek in
North Holland. The coast fisheries are considerable. Groningen
{q.v.) is the chief and only large town of the province. Delfzyl,
which was formerly an important fortress for the protection of
the ancient sluices on the little river Delf (hence its name), has
greatly benefited by the construction of the Ems (Eems) ship-
canal connecting it with Groningen, and has a good harbour
with a considerable import trade in wood. Appingedam and
Winschoten are very old towns, having important cattle and
horse markets. The pretty wood at Winschoten was laid out
by the Society for Public Welfare (Tot Nut van hei Algemeen)
in 1826.
GRONINGEN, a town of Holland, capital of the province of
the same name, at the confluence of the two canalized rivers
the Drentsche Aa and the Hunse (which are continued to the
Lauwers Zee as the Reit Diep), 16 m. N. of Assen and 33 m. £.
of Leeuwarden by rail. Pop. (1000) 67,563. Groningen is the
centre from which several important canals radiate. Besides
the Reit Diep, there are the Ems Canal and the Damster Diep,
connecting it with Delfzyl and the Dollart, the KoloneTs Diep
with Leeuwarden, the Nord Willem's Canal with Assen and the
south and the Stads-Canal south-east with the Ems. Hence
steamers ply in all directions, and there is a regular service to
Emden and the island of Borkum via Delfzyl, and via the
Lauwers Zee to the island of Schiermonnikoog. Groningen is
the most important town in the north of Holland, with its fine
shops and houses and wide clean streets, while brick houses of
the 1 6th and 17th centuries help it to retain a certain old-world
air. The ancient part of the town is still surrounded by the
former moat, and in the centre lies a group of open places, of
which the Groote Markt is one of the largest market-squares
in Holland. Pleasant gardens and promenades extend on the
north side of the town, together with a botanical garden. The
chief church is the Martini-kerk, with a high tower (43a ft.)
dating from 1477, and an organ constructed by the famous
scholar and musician Rudolph Agricolo, who was born near
Groningen in 1443. The Aa church dates from 1465, but was
founded in 1253. The Roman Catholic Broederkerk (rebuilt
at the end of the 19th century) contains some remarkable
pictures of the Passion by L. Hendricx (1865). There is also a
Jewish synagogue. The large town hall (in classical style),
one of the finest public buildings, was built at the beginning of the
19th century and enlarged in 1873. The provincial government
offices also occupy a fine building which received a splendid
front in 187 1. Other noteworthy buildings are the provincial
museum of antiquities, containing interesting Germanic anti-
quities, as well as medieval and modern collections of porcelain,
pictures, &c; the courts of justice (transformed in the middle
of the 1 8th century); the old Ommelanderhuis, formerly devoted
to the administration of the surrounding district, built in 1509
and restored in 1899; the weigh-house (1874); the civil and
military prison; the arsenal; the military hospital; and the
concert hall.
The university of Groningen, founded in 1614, received its
present fine buildings in classical style in 1850. Among its
auxiliary establishments are a good natural history museum,
an observatory, a laboratory, and a library which contains a
copy of Erasmus' New Testament with marginal annotations
by Luther. Other educational institutions are the deaf and
dumb institution founded by Henri Daniel Guyot (d. 1828) in
1790, a gymnasium, and schools of navigation, art and music.
There are learned societies for the study of law (1761) and
natural science (1830); an academy of fine arts (1830); an
archaeological society; and a central bureau for collecting
information concerning the province.
As capital of the province, and on account of the advan-
tages of its natural position, Groningen maintains a very con-
siderable trade, chiefly in oil-seed, grain, wood, turf and cattle,
with Great Britain, Germany, Scandinavia and Russia. The
chief industries are flax-spinning, rope-making, sugar refining,
book printing, wool combing and dyeing, and it also manufactures
beer, tobacco and cigars, cotton and woollen stuffs, furniture,
organs and pianos; besides which there are saw, oil and grain
mills, machine works, and numerous goldsmiths and silversmiths.
History. — The town of Groningen belonged originally to the
paguSy or gouw y of Triantha (Drente), the countship of which
was bestowed by the emperor Henry II. on the bishop and
chapter of Utrecht in 1024. In 1040 Henry III. gave the church
of Utrecht the royal domain of Groningen, and in the deed of
gift the " villa Cruoninga " is mentioned. Upon this charter
the bishops of Utrecht based their claim to the overlordship of
the town, a claim which the citizens hotly disputed. At the
time of the donation, indeed, the town can hardly be said to
have existed, but the royal " villa " rapidly developed into a
community which strove to assert the rights of a free imperial
city. At first the bishops were too strong for the townsmen;
the defences built in 11 10 were pulled down by the bishop's
order two years later; and during the 12th and 13th centuries
the see of Utrecht, in spite of frequent revolts, succeeded in
maintaining its authority. Down to the 1 5th century an episcopal
prefect, or burgrave, had his seat in the city, his authority
extending over the neighbouring districts known as the Gorecht.
In 1 143 Heribert of Bierum, bishop of Utrecht, converted the
office into an hereditary fief in favour of his brother Liffert,
on the extinction of whose male line it was partitioned between
the families of Koevorden (or Coevorden) and van den Hove.
Gradually, however, the burghers, aided by the neighbouring
Frisians, succeeded in freeing themselves from the episcopal
yoke. The city was again walled in 1255; before 1284 it had
become a member of the Hanseatic league; and by the end of
the 14th century it was practically a powerful independent
republic, which exercised an effective control over the Frisian
Ommelande between the Ems and the Lauwers Zee. At the
close of the 14th century the heirs of the Koevorden and van den
Hove families sold their rights, first to the town, and then to the
bishop. A struggle followed, in which the city was temporarily
worsted; but in 1440 Bishop Dirk II. finally sold to the city
the rights of the see of Utrecht over the Gorecht.
The medieval constitution of Groningen, unlike that of
Utrecht, was aristocratic. Merchant gild there was none;
and the craft gilds were without direct influence on the city
government, which held them in subjection. Membership
of the governing council, which selected from its own body the
four rationales or burgomasters, was confined to men of approved
" wisdom," and wisdom was measured in terms of money. This
Road of wealthy burghers gradually monopolized all power.
The bishop's bailiff (sckout), with his nominated assessors
(scabini), continued to exercise jurisdiction, but members of the
Raad sat on the bench with him, and an appeal lay from his
court to the Raad itself. The council was, in fact, supreme
in the city, and not in the city only. In 1439 ft decreed that no
one might trade in all the district between the Ems and the
Lauwers Zee except burghers, and those who had purchased the
burwal (right of residence in the city) and the freedom of the
gilds. Maximilian I. assigned Groningen to Albert of Saxony,
hereditary podestat of Friesland, but the citizens preferred
to accept the protection of the bishop of Utrecht; and when
Albert's son George attempted in 1505 to seize the town, they
recognized the lordship of Edzart of East Frisia. On George's
renewal of hostilities they transferred their allegiance to Duke
Charles of Gelderland, in 1515. In 1536 the city passed into the
614
GRONLUND— GROOT
hands of Charles V., and in the great wars of the 16th century
suffered all the miseries of siege and military occupation. From
1581 onwards, Groningen still held by the Spaniards, was con-
stantly at war with the " Ommelanden " which had declared
against the king of Spain. This feud continued, in spite of the
capture of the city in 1594 by Maurice of Nassau, and of a decree
of the States in 1597 which was intended to set them at rest.
In 1672 the town was besieged by the bishop of Minister, but
it was successfully defended, and in 1698 its fortifications were
improved under Cochoorn's direction. The French Republicans
planted their tree of liberty in the Great Market on the 14th of
February 1795, and they continued in authority till the 16th
of November 18 14. The fortifications of the city were doomed
to destruction by the law of the 18th of April 1874.
See G Hegel, Stddte und Gilden (Leipzig, 1891); Stokvis, Manuel
d'histoire, iii. 496 (Leiden, 1890-1893); also s.v. in Chevalier,
Repertoire des sources hist, du moyen dge {Topo-bibliographie).
GRONLUND, LAURENCE (1846-1899)1 American socialist,
was born in Copenhagen, Denmark, on the 13th of July 1846.
He graduated from the university of Copenhagen in 1865, began
the study of law, removed to the United States in 1867, taught
German in Milwaukee, was admitted to the bar in 1869, and
practised in Chicago. He became a writer and lecturer on
socialism and was closely connected with the work of the Socialist
Labor party from 1874 to 1884, then devoted himself almost ex-
clusively to lecturing until his appointment to a post in the
bureau of labour statistics. He again returned to the lecture
field, and was an editorial writer for the New York and Chicago
American from 1898 until his death in New York City on the
15th of October 1899. His principal works are: The Coming
Revolution (1880) ; The Co-operative Commonwealth in its Outlines,
An Exposition of Modern Socialism (1884); Qa Ira, or Danton
in the French Revolution (1888), a rehabilitation of Danton;
Our Destiny, The Influence of Socialism on Morals and Religion
(i8qo); and The New Economy (1898).
QRONOVIUS (the latinized form of Gronov), JOHANN
FRIEDRICH (16x1-1671), German classical scholar and critic,
was born at Hamburg on the 8th of September 161 1. Having
studied at several universities, he travelled in England, France
and Italy. In 1643 he was appointed professor of rhetoric and
history at Dcventer, and in 1658 to the Greek chair at Leiden,
where he died on the 28th of December 1671. (See also Fabretti,
Raphael.) Besides editing, with notes, Statius, Plautus, Livy,
Tacitus, Aulus Gellius and Seneca's tragedies, Gronovius was
the author, amongst numerous other works, of Commentarius
de sestertiis (1643) and of an edition of Hugo Grotius' De jure
belli ct pacis (1660). His Observationes contain a number of
brilliant emendations. His son, Jakob Gronovius (1645-1716),
is chiefly known as the editor of the Thesaurus antiquitatum
Graecarum (1697-1702, in 13 volumes).
See J. E. Sandys, Hist, of Class. SchoL ii. (1908) ; F. A. Eckstein in
Ersch and G ruber's AUgemeine Encyklopadie*
GROOM, in modem usage a male servant attached to the
stables, whose duties are to attend to the cleaning, feeding,
currying and care generally of horses. The earliest meaning
of the word appears to be that of a boy, and in 16th and :7th
century literature it frequently occurs, in pastorals, for a shepherd
lover. Later it is used for any male attendant, and thus survives
in the name for several officials in the royal household, such as the
grooms-in-waiting, and the grooms of the great chamber. The
groom-porter, whose office was abolished by George III., saw
to the preparation of the sovereign's apartment, and, during the
1 6th and 17th centuries, provided cards and dice for playing, and
was the authority to whom were submitted all questions of
gaming within the court. The origin of the word is obscure. The
O. Fr* gr#met % shop boy, is taken by French etymologists to
be derived from the English. From the application of this
word to a wine-taster in a wine merchant's shop, is derived
gourmet, an epicure. According to the New English Dictionary,
though there are no instances of groom in other Teutonic
languages* the word may be ultimately connected with the
root of " to grow," In " bridegroom/ 1 a newly married man,
" grom " in the 16th century took the place of an older gome,
a common old Teutonic word meaning " man," and connected
with the Latin homo. The Old English word was brydguma,
later bridegome. The word survives in the German Br&utigam.
GROOT, GERHARD (1340-1384), otherwise Gerrit or Geert
Groet, in Latin Gerardus Magnus, a preacher and founder of
the society of Brothers of Common Life (q.v.), was born in 1340
at Deventer in the diocese of Utrecht, where his father held a
good civic position. He went to the university of Paris when
only fifteen. Here he studied scholastic philosophy and theology
under a pupil of Occam's, from whom he imbibed the nominalist
conception of philosophy; in addition he studied canon law,
medicine, astronomy and even magic, and apparently some
Hebrew. After a brilliant course he graduated in 1358, and
possibly became master in 1363. He pursued his studies still
further in Cologne, and perhaps in Prague. In 1366 he visited
the papal court at Avignon. About this time he was appointed
to a canonry in Utrecht and to another in Aix-la-Chapelle, and
the life of the brilliant young scholar was rapidly becoming
luxurious, secular and selfish, when a great spiritual change
passed over him which resulted in a final renunciation of every
worldly enjoyment. This conversion, which took place in 1374,
appears to have been due partly to the effects of a dangerqus
illness and partly to the influence of Henry de Calcar, the learned
and pious prior of the Carthusian monastery at Munnikhuizen
near Arnhem, who had remonstrated with him on the vanity
of his life. About 1376 Gerhard retired to this monastery and
there spent three years in meditation, prayer and study, without,
however, becoming a Carthusian. In 1379, having received
ordination as a deacon, he became missionary preacher through-
out the diocese of Utrecht. The success which followed his
labours not only in the town of Utrecht, but also in Zwolle,
Deventer, Kampen, Amsterdam, Haarlem, Gouda, Leiden,
Delft, Ztitphen and elsewhere, was immense; according to
Thomas a Kempis the people left their business and their meals
to hear his sermons, so that the churches could not hold the
crowds that flocked together wherever he came. The bishop
of Utrecht supported him warmly, and got him to preach against
concubinage in the presence of the clergy assembled in synod.
The impartiality of his censures, which he directed not only
against the prevailing sins of the laity, but also against heresy,
simony, avarice, and impurity among the secular and regular
clergy, provoked the hostility of the clergy, and accusations of
heterodoxy were brought against him. It was in vain that
Groot emitted a Publica Protestaiio, in which he declared that
Jesus Christ was the great subject of his discourses, that in all
of them he believed himself to be in harmony with Catholic
doctrine, and that he willingly subjected them to the candid
judgment of the Roman Church. The bishop was induced to
issue an edict which prohibited from preaching all who were not
in priest's orders, and an appeal to Urban VI. was without effect.
There is a difficulty as to the date of this prohibition; either it
was only a few months before Groot's death, or else it must have
been removed by the bishop, for Groot seems to have preached
in public in the last year of his life. At some period (perhaps
138 1, perhaps earlier) he paid a visit of some days' duration
to the famous mystic Johann Ruysbroeck, prior of the
Augustinian canons at Groenendael near Brussels; at this visit
was formed Groot's attraction for the rule and life of the August-
inian canons which was destined to bear such notable fruit.
At the close of his life he was asked by some of the clerics who
attached themselves to him to form them into a religious order,
and Groot resolved that they should be canons regular of St
Augustine. No time was lost in the effort to carry out the project,
but Groot died before a foundation could be made. In 1387,
however, a site was secured at Windesheim, some 20 m. north of
Deventer, and here was established the monastery that became
the cradle of the Windesheim congregation of canons regular,
embracing in course of time nearly one hundred houses, and
leading the way in the series of reforms undertaken during the
15th century by all the religious orders in Germany. Hie
initiation of this movement was the great achievement of Groot's
GROOVE-TOOTHED SQUIRREI^-GROSART
615
life; he lived to preside over the birth and first days of his
other creation, the society of Brothers of Common Life. He
died of the plague at Deventer in 1384, at the age of 44.
The chief authority for Groot's life is Thomas a Kempis, Vita
Gerardi Magni (translated into English by J . P. Arthur, The rounders
of the New Devotion, 1905); also the Chronicon Windeshemense
of Johann Busch (ed. K. Grube, 1886). An account, based on these
sources, will be found in S. Kettlewell, Thomas a Kempis and the
Brothers of Common Life (1882), i. c. 5; and a shorter account in
F. R. Cruise, Thomas a Kempis, 1887, pt. ii. An excellent sketch,
with an account of Groot's wn tings, is given by L. Schulze in Herzoe-
Hauck, Realencyklopadie (ed. 3); he insists on the fact that Groot s
theological and ecclesiastical ideas were those commonly current in
his day, and that the attempts to make him " a reformer before the
Reformation " are unhistoncal. (E. C. B.)
GROOVE-TOOTHED SQUIRREL, a large and brilliantly
coloured Bornean squirrel, Rhithrosciurus macrotis, representing
a genus by itself distinguished from all other members of the
family Sciuridae by having numerous longitudinal grooves on
the front surface of the incisor teeth; the molars being of a
simpler type than in other members of the family. The tail is
large and fox-like, and the ears are tufted and the flanks marked
by black and white bands.
GROS, ANTOINE JEAN, Baron (1771-1835), French painter,
was born at Paris in 1771. His father, who was a miniature
painter, began to teach him to draw at the age of six, and showed
himself from the first an exacting master. Towards the close
of 1785 Gros, by his own choice, entered the studio of David,
which he frequented assiduously, continuing at the same time
to follow the classes of the College Mazarin. The death of his
father, whose circumstances had been embarrassed by the Revolu-
tion, threw Gros, in 1791, upon his own resources. He now
devoted himself wholly to his profession, and competed in 1792
for the grand prix, but unsuccessfully. About this time, how-
ever, on the recommendation of the £cole des Beaux Arts, he
was employed on the execution of portraits of the members of
the Convention, and when — disturbed by the development of
the Revolution — Gros in 1793 left France for Italy, he supported
himself at Genoa by the same means, producing a great quantity
of miniatures and fire's. He visited Florence, but returning to
Genoa made the acquaintance of Josephine, and followed her to
Milan, where he was well received by her husband. On November
15, 1706, Gros was present with the army near Areola when
Bonaparte planted the tricolor on the bridge. Gros seized on
this incident, and showed by his treatment of it that he had found
his vocation. Bonaparte at once gave him the post of " in-
specteur aux revues," which enabled him to follow the army,
and in 1797 nominated him on the commission charged to select
the spoils which should enrich the Louvre. In 1799, having
escaped from the besieged city of Genoa, Gros made his way to
Paris, and in the beginning of 1801 took up his quarters in the
Capucins. His " esquisse " (MusSe de Nantes) of the " Battle of
Nazareth" gained the prize offered in 1802 by the consuls, but
was not carried out, owing it is said to the jealousy of Junot felt
by Napoleon; but he indemnified Gros by commissioning him
to paint his own visit to the pest-house of Jaffa. " Les Pestif6res
de Jaffa " (Louvre) was Mowed by the " Battle of Aboukir "
1806 (Versailles), and the " Battle of Eylau," 1808 (Louvre).
These three subjects — the popular leader facing the pestilence
unmoved, challenging the splendid instant of victory, heart-sick
with the bitter cost of a hard-won field — gave to Gros his chief
title to fame. As long as the military element remained bound
up with French national life, Gros received from it a fresh and
energetic inspiration which carried him to the very heart of the
events which he depicted; but as the army and its general
separated from the people, Gros, called on to illustrate episodes
representative only of the fulfilment of personal ambition, ceased
to find the nourishment necessary to his genius, and the defect
of his artistic position became evident. Trained in the sect of
the Classicists, he was shackled by their rules, even when — by his
naturalistic treatment of types, and appeal to picturesque effect
in colour and tone — he seemed to run counter to them. In 18 10
his " Madrid " and " Napoleon at the Pyramids "(Versailles) show
that his star had deserted him. His " Francis I." and " Charles
V.," i8ia (Louvre), had considerable success; but the decoration
of the dome of St Genevieve (begun in 181 1 and completed in
1824) is the only work of Gros's later years which shows his
early force and vigour, as well as his skill. The " Departure of
Louis XVHL" (Versailles), the " Embarkation of Madame
d'Angouleme " (Bordeaux), the plafond of the Egyptian room in
the Louvre, and finally his " Hercules and Diomedes," exhibited
in 1835, testify only that Gros's efforts — in accordance with the
frequent counsels of his old master David — to stem the rising tide
of Romanticism, served but to damage his once brilliant reputa-
tion. Exasperated by criticism and the consciousness of failure,
Gros sought refuge in the grosser pleasures of life. On the 2 5 th of
June 1835 he was found drowned on the shores of the Seine near
Sevres. From a paper which he had placed in his hat it became
known that " las de la vie, et trahi par les dernieres facultes qui
la lui rendaient supportable, il avait resolu de s'en d6faire."
The number of Gros's pupils was very great, and was considerably
augmented when, in 1815, David quitted Paris and made over
his own classes to him. Gros was decorated and named baron
of the empire by Napoleon, after the Salon of 1808, at which
he had exhibited the " Battle of Eylau." Under the Restora-
tion he became a member of the Institute, professor at the
ficole des Beaux Arts, and was named chevalier of the order
of St Michel.
M. Delecluze gives a brief notice of his life in Louis David et son
temps, and Julius Meyer's Geschichte der modernen franzosischen
Maierei contains an excellent criticism on his works.
GROSART, ALEXANDER BALLOCH (1 827-1899), Scottish
divine and literary editor, the son of a building contractor, was
born at Stirling on the 18th of June 1827. He was educated
at Edinburgh University, and in 1856 became a Presbyterian
minister at Kinross. In 1865 he went to Liverpool, and three
years later to Blackburn. He resigned from the ministry in
1892, and died at Dublin on the 16th of March 1899. Dr Grosart
is chiefly remembered for his exertions in reprinting much rare
Elizabethan literature, a work which he undertook in the first
instance from his strong interest in Puritan theology. Among
the first writers whose works he edited were the Puritan divines,
Richard Sibbes, Thomas Brooks and Herbert Palmer. Editions
of Michael Bruce's Poems (1865) and Richard Gilpin's Demono-
logia sacra (1867) followed. In 1868 he brought out a biblio-
graphy of the writings of Richard Baxter, and from that year
until 1876 he was occupied in reproducing for private subscribers
the " Fuller Worthies Library," a series of thirty-nine volumes
which included the works of Thomas Fuller, Sir John Davies,
Fulke Greville, Henry Vaughan, Andrew Marvell, George Herbert,
Richard Crashaw, John Donne and Sir Philip Sidney. The last
four volumes of the series were devoted to the works of many
little known and otherwise inaccessible authors. His Occasional
Issues of Unique and Very Rare Books (187 5-1 881) is of the
utmost interest to the book-lover. It included among other
things the Annalia Dubrensia of Robert Dover. In 1876 still
another series, known as the " Chertsey Worthies Library," was
begun. It included editions of the works of Nicholas Breton,
Francis Quarles, Dr Joseph Beaumont, Abraham Cowley,
Henry More and John Davies of Hereford. Grosart was untiring
in his enthusiasm and energy for this kind of work. The two
last-named series were being produced simultaneously until 1881,
and no sooner had they been completed than Grosart began
the " Huth Library," so called from the bibliophile Henry Huth,
who possessed the originals of many of the reprints. It included
the works of Robert Greene, Thomas Nash, Gabriel Harvey,
and the prose tracts of Thomas Dekker. He also edited the
complete works of Edmund Spenser and Samuel Daniel. From
the Townley Hall collection he reprinted several MSS. and
edited Sir John Eliot's works, Sir Richard Boyle's Lismore
Papers, and various publications for the Chetham Society, the
Camden Society and the Roxburghe Club. Dr Grosart's faults
of style and occasional inaccuracy do not seriously detract from
the immense value of his work. He was unwearied in searching
for rare books, and he brought to light much interesting literature,
formerly almost inaccessible.
6i6
GROSBEAK— GROSS
GROSBEAK (Fr. Grosbec), a name very indefinitely applied
to many birds belonging to the families Fringillidae and Ploceidae
of modern ornithologists, and perhaps to some members of the
Emberizidae and Tanagridae, but always to birds distinguished
by the great size of their bill. Taken alone it is commonly a
synonym of hawfinch (q.v.), but a prefix is usually added to
indicate the species, as pine-grosbeak, cardinal-grosbeak and
the like. By early writers the word was generally given as an
equivalent of the Linnaean Loxia, but that genus has been
found to include many forms not now placed in the same family.
The Pine-grosbeak (Pinicola enucleator) inhabits the conifer-
zone of both the Old and the New Worlds, seeking, in Europe
and probably elsewhere, a lower latitude as winter approaches —
often journeying in large flocks; stragglers have occasionally
reached the British Islands (Yarrell, Br. Birds, ed. 4, ii. 177-
179). In structure and some of its habits much resembling
a bullfinch, but much exceeding that bird in size, it has the
plumage of a crossbill and appears to undergo the same changes
as do the members of the restricted genus Loxia — the young
being of a dull greenish-grey streaked with brownish-black,
the adult hens tinged with golden-green, and the cocks glowing
with crimson-red on nearly all the body-feathers, this last
colour being replaced after moulting in confinement by bright
yellow. Nests of this species were found in 1821 by Johana
Wilhelm Zetterstedt near Juckasjarwi in Swedish Lapland,
but little was known concerning its nidification until 1855, when
John Wolley, after two years' ineffectual search, succeeded in
obtaining near the Finnish village Muonioniska, on the Swedish
frontier, well-authenticated specimens with the eggs, both of
which are like exaggerated bullfinches'. The food of this species
seems to consist of the seeds and buds of many sorts of trees,
though the staple may very possibly be those of some kind of
pine.
Allied to the pine-grosbeak are a number of species of smaller
size, but its equals in beauty of plumage. 1 They have been
referred to several genera, such as Carpodacus, Propasser,
Bycanetes, Uragus and others; but possibly Carpodacus is
sufficient to contain all. Most of them are natives of the Old
World, and chiefly of its eastern division, but several inhabit
the western portion of North America, and one, C. githagineus
(of which there seem to be at least two local races), is an especial
native of the deserts, or their borders, of Arabia and North
Africa, extending even to some of the Canary Islands — a singular
modification in the habitat of a form which one would be apt to
associate exclusively with forest trees, and especially conifers.
The cardinal grosbeak, or Virginian nightingale, Cardinalis
virginianus, claims notice here, though doubts may be entertained
as to the family to which it really belongs. It is no less remarkable
for its bright carmine attire, and an elongated crest of the same
colour, than for its fine song. Its ready adaptation to confine-
ment has made it a popular cage-bird on both sides of the
Atlantic. The hen is not so good a songster as the cock bird.
Her plumage, with exception of the wings and tail, which are
of a dull red, is light-olive above and brownish-yellow beneath.
This species inhabits the eastern parts of the United States
southward of 40 N. lat., and also occurs in the Bermudas.
It is represented in the south-west of North America by other
forms that by some writers are deemed species, and in the northern
parts of South America by the C. phoeniccus, which would
really seem entitled to distinction. Another kindred bird
placed from its short and broad bill in a different genus, and
known as Pyrrkuloxia sinuata or the Texan cardinal, is found on
the southern borders of the United States and in Mexico; while
among North American " grosbeaks " must also be named the
birds belonging to the genera Guiraca and Hedymeles — the
former especially exemplified by the beautiful blue G. caerulea,
and the latter by the brilliant rose-breasted if. ludovkianus,
which last extendi its range into Canada.
1 Many of them are described and illustrated in the Monographic
des toxiens of Prince C. L. Bonaparte and Professor Schlegel (1850),
though it excludes many birds which an English writer would call
" grosbeaks."
The species of the Old World which, though commonly called
"grosbeaks," certainly belong to the family Ploceidae, are
treated under Weaver-bold. (A. N.)
GROSE, FRANCIS (c. 1 730-1791), English antiquary, was
born at Greenford in Middlesex, about the year 1730. His
father was a wealthy Swiss jeweller, settled at Richmond, Surrey.
Grose early showed an interest in heraldry and antiquities, and
his father procured him a position in the Heralds' College. In
1763, being then Richmond Herald, he sold his tabard, and
shortly afterwards became adjutant and paymaster of the
Hampshire militia, where, as he himself humorously observed,
the only account-books he kept were his right and left pockets,
into the one of which he received, and from the other of which
he paid. This carelessness exposed him to serious financial
difficulties; and after a vain attempt to repair them by accepting
a captaincy in the Surrey militia, the fortune left him by his
father being squandered, he began to turn to account his excellent
education and his powers as a draughtsman. In 1757 he had
been elected fellow of the Society of Antiquaries. In 1773 he
began to publish his Antiquities of England and Wales, a work
which brought him money as well as fame. This, with its
supplementary parts relating to the Channel Islands, was not
completed till 1787. In 1789 he set out on an antiquarian tour
through Scotland, and in the course of this journey met Burns,
who composed in his honour the famous song beginning " Ken
ye aught o' Captain Grose," and in that other poem, still more
famous, " Hear, land o' cakes, and brither Scots," warned all
Scotsmen of this " chield amang them taking notes." In 1790
he began to publish the results of what Burns called " his
peregrinations through Scotland;" but he had not finished
the work when he bethought himself of going over to Ireland
and doing for that country what he had already done for Great
Britain. About a month after his arrival, while in Dublin,
he died in an apoplectic fit at the dinner-table of a friend, on the
1 2th of June 1791.
Grose was a sort of antiquarian Faktaff — at least he possessed
in a striking degree the knight's physical peculiarities; but
he was a man of true honour and charity, a valuable friend,
" overlooking little faults and seeking out greater virtues,"
and an inimitable boon companion. His humour, his varied
knowledge and his good nature were all eminently calculated
to make him a favourite in society. As Burns says of him —
" But wad ye see him in his glee,
For meikle glee and fun has he,
Then set him down, and twa or three
Gude fellows wi* him ;
And port, port/ shine thou a wee,
And then ye'll see him! "
Grose's works include The Antiquities of England and Wales
(6 vols., 1 773-1 787) ; Advice to the Officers of the British Army (1782),
a satire in the manner of Swift's Directions to Servants; A Guide
to Health, Beauty, Riches and Honour (1783), a collection of advertise-
ments of the period, with characteristic satiric preface;^ Classical
Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue (1785); A Treatise on Ancient
Armour and Weapons (1 785-1 789) ; DarreH's History of Dover (1786) ;
Military Antiquities (2 vols., 1786- 1788); A Provincial Glossary
(1787); Rules for Drawing Caricatures (1788); The Antiquities
of Scotland (2 vols., 1789-1791) ; Antiquities of Ireland (2 vols., 179O.
edited and partly written by Ledwich. The Grumbler, sixteen
humerous essays, appeared in 1791 after his death; and in 1793
The Olio, a collection of essays, iests and small pieces of poetry,
highly characteristic of Grose, though certainly not all by him,
was put together from his papers by his publisher, who was also his
executor.
A capital full-length portrait of Grose by N. Dance is in the first
volume of the Antiquities of England and Wales, and another is among
Kay's Portraits. A versified sketch of him appeared in the Gentleman's
Magazine, lxi. 660. See Gentleman's Magazine, bd. 498, 582 ; Noble's
Hist, of the College of Arms, p. 434; Notes and Queries, 1st sen, ix.
350; 3rd sen, i. 64, x. 280-281; 5th ser., xii. 148; 6th ser. t ii. 47,
257, 291 ; Hone, Everyday Book, i. 655.
GROSS, properly thick, bulky, the meaning of the Late Lat
grossus. The Latin word has usually been taken as cognate
with crassus, thick, but this is now doubted. It also appears
not to be connected with the Ger. gross, a Teutonic word repre-
sented in English by " great" Apart from its direct meaning,
GROSSE— GROSSETESTE
617
and such figurative senses as coarse, vulgar or flagrant, the chief
uses are whole, entire, without deduction, as opposed to " net/'
or as applied to that which is sold in bulk as opposed to " retail "
(cf. " grocer " and " engrossing "). As a unit of tale, "gross"
equals 12 dozen, 144, sometimes known as "small gross," in
contrast with "great gross," i.e. 12 gross, 144 dozen. As a
technical expression in English common law, " in gross " is
applied to an incorporeal hereditament attached to the person
of an owner, in contradistinction to one which is appendant
or appurtenant, that is, attached to the ownership of land (see
Commons).
GROSSE, JULIUS WALDEMAR (1 828-1 902), German poet,
the son of a military chaplain, was born at Erfurt on the 25th of
April 1828. He received his early education at the gymnasium
in Magdeburg, and on leaving school and showing disinclination
for the ministry, entered an architect's office. But his mind was
bent upon literature, and in 1849 ne entered the university
of Halle, where, although inscribed as a student of law, he devoted
himself almost exclusively to letters. His first poetical essay
was with the tragedy Cola di Rienzi (1851), followed in the same
year by a comedy, Eine Nachtpartie Shakespeares, which was
at once produced on the stage. The success of these first two
pieces encouraged him to follow literature as a profession,
and proceeding in 1852 to Munich, he joined the circle of young
poets of whom Paul Heyse (q.v.) and Hermann Lingg (1820-
1905) were the chief. For six years (1855-1861) he was dramatic
critic of the Neue Miinchener Zeitung, and was then for a while
on the staff of the Leiptiger Illustrierte Zeitung, but in 1862 he
returned to Munich as editor of the Bayrische Zeitung, a post he
retained until the paper ceased to exist in 1867. In 1869 Grosse
was appointed secretary of the Schiller-Stiftung, and lived for
the next few years alternately in Weimar, Dresden and Munich,
until, in 1890, he took up his permanent residence in Weimar.
He was made grand-ducal H of rat and had the title of " professor."
He died at Torbole on the Lago di Garda on the 9th of May 1902.
Grosse was a most prolific writer of novels, dramas and poems.
As a lyric poet, especially in Gedichte (1857) and Aus bewegten
Tagen, a volume of poems (1869), he showed himself more to
advantage than in his novels, of which latter, however, Untreu
aus Mitleid (2 vols., 1868); Vox populi, vox dei (1869); Maria
Mancini (1871); Neue Erz&hlungen (1875); Sophie Monnier
(1876), and Bin Frauenlos (1888) are remarkable for a certain
elegance of style. His tragedies, Die Ynglinger (1858); Tiberius
(1876); Johann von Schwaben; and the comedy Die steinerne
Braut, had considerable success on the stage.
Grosse's Gesammelte dramatische Werke appeared in 7 vols, in
Leipzig (1870), while his Erzahlende Dichtungen were published at
Berlin (6 vols., 1 871-1873). An edition of his selected works by
A. Bartels is in preparation. See also his autobiography, Literarische
Ursachen und Wtrkungen (1896); R. Prutz, Dte Literatur der
Gegenwart (1859) ; J. Ethe\ /. Grosse als epischer Dichter (1872).
GROSSENHAIN, a town in the kingdom of Saxony, 20 m. N.
from Dresden, on the main line of railway (via Elsterwerda)
to Berlin and at the junction of lines to Priestewitz and Frankfort-
on-Oder. Pop. (1905) 12,015. It nas an Evangelical church,
a modern and a commercial school, a library and an extensive
public park. The industries are very important, and embrace
manufactures of woollen and cotton stuffs, buckskin, leather,
glass and machinery. Grossenhain was originally a Sorb settle-
ment. It was for a time occupied by the Bohemians, by whom
it was strongly fortified. It afterwards came into the possession
of the margraves of Meissen, from whom it was taken in 13 12
by the margraves of Brandenburg. It suffered considerably in
all the great German wars, and in 1744 was nearly destroyed
by fire. On the 16th of May 18 13, a battle took place here
between the French and the Russians.
See G. W. Schuberth, Chronik der Stadt Grossenhain (Grossenhain,
1887-1892).
GROSSETESTE, ROBERT (c. n 75-1 253), English statesman,
theologian and bishop of Lincoln, was born of humble parents
at Stradbrook in Suffolk. He received his education at Oxford
where he became proficient in law, medicine and the natural
sciences. Giraldus Cambrensis, whose acquaintance he had
made, introduced him, before 1199, to William de Vere, bishop
of Hereford. Grosseteste aspired to a post in the bishop's house-
hold, but being deprived by death of this patron betook himself
to the study of theology. It is possible that he visited Paris
for this purpose, but he finally settled in Oxford as a teacher.
His first preferment of importance was the chancellorship of
the university. He gained considerable distinction as a lecturer,
and was the first rector of the school which the Franciscans
established in Oxford about 1224. Grosseteste's learning is
highly praised by Roger Bacon, who was a severe critic. Accord-
ing to Bacon, Grosseteste knew little Greek or Hebrew and paid
slight attention to the works of Aristotle, but was pre-eminent
among his contemporaries for his knowledge of the natural
sciences. Between 12 14 and 1231 Grosseteste held in succession
the archdeaconries of Chester, Northampton and Leicester.
In 1232, after a severe illness, he resigned all his benefices and
preferments except one prebend which he held at Lincoln.
His intention was to spend the rest of his life in contemplative
piety. But he retained the office of chancellor, and in 1235
accepted the bishopric of Lincoln. He undertook without delay
the reformation of morals and clerical discipline throughout
his vast diocese. This scheme brought him into conflict with
more than one privileged corporation, but in particular with his
own chapter, who vigorously disputed his claim to exercise the
right of visitation over their community. The dispute raged
hotly from 1239 to 1245. It was conducted on both sides with
unseemly violence, and those who most approved of Grosseteste's
main purpose thought it needful to warn him against the mistake
of over-zeal. But in 1245, by a personal visit to the papal court
at Lyons, he secured a favourable verdict. In ecclesiastical
politics the bishop belonged to the school of Becket. His zeal
for reform led him to advance, on behalf of the courts-Christian,
pretensions which it was impossible that the secular power should
admit. He twice incurred a well-merited rebuke from Henry ill.
upon this subject; although it was left for Edward I. to settle
the question of principle in favour of the state. The devotion of
Grosseteste to the hierarchical theories of his age is attested by
his correspondence with his chapter and the king. Against the
former he upheld the prerogative of the bishops; against the
latter he asserted that it was impossible for a bishop to disregard
the commands of the Holy See. Where the liberties of the
national church came into conflict with the pretensions of Rome
he stood by his own countrymen. Thus in 1238 he demanded
that the king should release certain Oxford scholars who had
assaulted the legate Otho. But at least up to the year 1 247 he
submitted patiently to papal encroachments, contenting himself
with the protection (by a special papal privilege) of his own
diocese from alien clerks. Of royal exactions he was more
impatient; and after the retirement of Archbishop Saint
Edmund (q.v.) constituted himself the spokesman of the clerical
estate in the Great Council. In 1244 he sat on a committee
which was empanelled to consider a demand for a subsidy.
The committee rejected the demand, and Grosseteste foiled an
attempt on the king's part to separate the clergy from the
baronage. " It is written," the bishop said, " that united we
stand and divided we fall."
It was, however, soon made clear that the king and pope
were in alliance to crush the independence of the English clergy;
and from 1250 onwards Grosseteste openly criticized the new
financial expedients to which Innocent IV. had been driven by
his desperate conflict with the Empire. In the course of a visit
which he made to Innocent in this year, the bishop laid before
the pope and cardinals a written memorial in which he ascribed
all the evils of the Church to the malignant influence of the Curia.
It produced no effect, although the cardinals felt that Grosseteste
was too influential to be punished for his audacity. Much
discouraged by his failure the bishop thought of resigning. In
the end, however, he decided to continue the unequal struggle.
In 1 251 he protested against a papal mandate enjoining the
English clergy to pay Henry III. one-tenth of their revenues for
a crusade; and called attention to the fact that, under the
system of provisions, a sum of 70,000 marks was annually drawn
xn. 20 a
6i8
GROSSETO— GROSSI, T.
from England by the alien nominees of Rome. In 1253, upon
being commanded to provide in his own diocese for a papal
nephew, he wrote a letter of expostulation and refusal, not to
the pope himself but to the commissioner, Master Innocent,
through whom he received the mandate. The text of the
remonstrance, as given in the Burton Annals and in Matthew
Paris, has possibly been altered by a forger who had less respect
than Grosseteste for the papacy. The language is more violent
than that which the bishop elsewhere employs. But the general
argument, that the papacy may command obedience only so far
as its commands are consonant with the teaching of Christ and
the apostles, is only what should be expected from an ecclesi-
astical reformer of Grosseteste's time. There is much more
reason for suspecting the letter addressed " to the nobles of
England, the citizens of London, and the community of the
whole realm," in which Grosseteste is represented as denouncing
in unmeasured terms papal finance in all its branches. But even
in this case allowance must be made for the difference between
modern and medieval standards of decorum.
Grosseteste numbered among his most intimate friends the
Franciscan teacher, Adam Marsh (q.v.). Through Adam he
came into close relations with Simon de Montfort. From the
Franciscan's letters it appears that the earl had studied a political
tract by Grosseteste on the difference between a monarchy and
a tyranny; and that he embraced with enthusiasm the bishop's
projects of ecclesiastical reform. Their alliance began as early
as 1239, when Grosseteste exerted himself to bring about a
reconciliation between the king and the earl. But there is no
reason to suppose that the political ideas of Montfort had matured
before the death of Grosseteste; nor did Grosseteste busy him-
self overmuch with secular politics, except in so far as they
touched the interest of the Church. Grosseteste realized that
the misrule of Henry III. and his unprincipled compact with the
papacy largely accounted for the degeneracy of the English
hierarchy and the laxity of ecclesiastical discipline. But he can
hardly be termed a constitutionalist.
Grosseteste died on the 9th of October 1253. He must then
have been between seventy and eighty years of age. He was
already an elderly man, with a firmly established reputation,
when he became a bishop. As an ecclesiastical statesman he
showed the same fiery zeal and versatility of which he had given
proof in his academical career; but the general tendency of
modern writers has been to exaggerate his political and ecclesi-
astical services, and to neglect his performances as a scientist and
scholar. The opinion of his own age, as expressed by Matthew
Paris and Roger Bacon, was very different. His contemporaries,
while admitting the excellence of his intentions as a statesman,
lay stress upon his defects of temper and discretion. But they
see in him the pioneer of a literary and scientific movement;
not merely a great ecclesiastic who patronized learning in his
leisure hours, but the first mathematician and physicist of his
age. It is certainly true that he anticipated, in these fields of
thought, some of the most striking ideas to which Roger Bacon
subsequently gave a wider currency.
See the Epistolae Roberti Grosseteste (Rolls Series, 1861) edited with
a valuable introduction by H. R. Luard. Grosseteste's famous
memorial to the pope is printed in the appendix to E. Brown's
Fasciculus rerutn expetenaarum et fugiendarum (1600). A tract
De phisicis, lineis, angulis etfiguris was printed at Nuremberg in
1503. A French poem, Le Chastel d 1 amour, sometimes attributed
to him, has been printed by the Caxton Society. Two curious tracts,
the " De moribus pueri ad mensam " (printed by Wynkyn de Worde)
and the " Statuta familiae Roberti Grosseteste " (printed by J. S.
Brewer in Monumenta Franciscana, i. 582), may be from his pen;
but the editor of the latter work ascribes it to Adam de Marsh.
There is less doubt respecting the Reules Seynt Robert, a tract giving
advice for the management of the household of the countess of
Lincoln. For Grosseteste's life and work see Roger Bacon's Opus
majus (ed. J. H. Bridges, 1897, 2 vols.) and Opera quaedam inedita
(edf. J. S. Brewer, Rolls Series, 1859); M. Paris's Chronica major a
(ed. H. R. Luard, Rolls Series, 1872-1883, 5 vols.); and the Lives
by S. Pegge (1793) and F. S. Stevenson (1899). (H. W. C. D.)
GROSSETO, a town and episcopal see of Tuscany, capital of
the province of Grosseto, 90 m. S.S.E. of Pisa by rail. Pop.
(1901) 5856 (town), 8843 (commune). It is 38 ft. above sea-level,
and is almost circular in shape; it is surrounded by fortifications,
constructed by Francis I. (1574-1587) and Ferdinand I. (1587-
1609), which form a hexagonal enceinte with projecting bastions,
with two gates only. The small cathedral, begun in 1294, is
built of red and white marble alternating, in the Italian Gothic
style; it was restored in 1855. The citadel was built in 1311 by
the Sienese. Grosseto is on the main line from Pisa to Rome,
and is also the starting-point (Montepescali, 8 m. to the N., is the
exact point of divergence) of a branch line to Asciano and
Siena.
The town dates from the middle ages. In 1138 the episcopal
see was transferred thither from Rusellae. In 1230 it, with the
rest of the Maremma, of which it is the capital, came under the
dominion of Siena. By the peace of 1559, however, it passed
to Cosimo I. of Tuscany. In 1 745 the malaria had grown to such
an extent, owing to the neglect of the drainage works, that
Grosseto had only 648 inhabitants, though in 1224 it had 3000
men who bore arms. Leopold I. renewed drainage operations,
and by 1836 the population had risen to 2392. The malaria is
not yet entirely conquered, however, and the official headquarters
of the province are in summer transferred to Scansano (1837 ft.),
20 m. to the S.E. by road.
GROSSI, GIOVANNI FRANCESCO (?-i69 9 ), one of the
greatest Italian singers of the age of bel canto, better known as
Siface, was born at Pescia in Tuscany about the middle of the
17th century. He entered the papal chapel in 1675, and later
sang at Venice. He derived his nickname of Siface from his
impersonation of that character in an opera of Cavalli. It has
generally been said that he appeared as Siface in Alessandro
Scarlatti's Mitridate, but the confusion is due to his having sung
the part of Mitridate in Scarlatti's Pompeo at Naples in 1683.
In 1687 he was sent to London by the duke of Modena, to become
a member of the chapel of James II. He probably did much
for the introduction of Italian music into England, but soon
left the country on account of the climate. Among PurcelFs
harpsichord music is an air entitled " Sefauchi's Farewell. "
He was murdered in 1699 on the road between Bologna and
Ferrara, probably by the agents of a nobleman with whose wife
he had a liaison.
See Corrado Ricci's Vita Barocca (Milan, 1904).
GROSSI, TOMMASO (1791-1853), Lombard poet and novelist,
was born at Bellano,on the Lake of Como,on the 20th of January
1 791. He took his degree in law at Pavia in 1810, and proceeded
thence to Milan to exercise his profession; but the Austrian
government, suspecting his loyalty, interfered with his prospects,
and in consequence Grossi was a simple notary all his life. That
the suspicion was well grounded he soon showed by writing in the
Milanese dialect the battle poem La Prineide, in which he
described with vivid colours the tragical death of Prina, chief
treasurer during the empire, whom the people of Milan, instigated
by Austrian agitators, had torn to pieces and dragged through
the streets of the town (1814). The poem, being anonymous,
was first attributed to the celebrated Porta, but Grossi of
his own accord acknowledged himself the author. In 181 6 he
published other two poems, written likewise in Milanese — The
Golden Rain (La Pioggia d' oro) and The Fugitive (La Fuggitiva),
These compositions secured him the friendship of Porta and
Manzoni, and the three poets came to form a sort of romantic
literary triumvirate. Grossi took advantage of the popularity
of his Milanese poems to try Italian verse, into which he sought
to introduce the moving realism which had given such satisfaction
in his earliest compositions; and in this he was entirely successful
with his poem Ildegonda (18 14). He next wrote an epic poem,
entitled The Lombards in the First Crusade t a work of which
Manzoni makes honourable mention in / Promessi Sposi. This
composition, which was published by subscription (1826), at-
tained a success unequalled by that of any other Italian poem
within the century. The example of Manzoni induced Grossi
to write an historical novel entitled Marco Visconti (1834) —
a work which contains passages of fine description and deep
pathos. A little later Grossi published a tale in verse, Ulrico and
Lida, but with this publication his poetical activity ceased.
GROSSMITH— GROTE
619
After his marriage in 1838 he continued to employ himself as
a notary in Milan till his death on the 10th of December 1853.
His Life by Cantu appeared at Milan in 1854.
GROSSMITH, GEORGE (1847- ), English comedian, was
born on the 9th of December 1847, the son of a law reporter and
entertainer of the same name. After some years of journalistic
work he started about 1870 as a public entertainer, with songs
and recitations; but in 1877 he began a long connexion with the
Gilbert and Sullivan operas at the Savoy Theatre, London, in
The Sorcerer. For twelve years he had the leading part, his
capacity for " patter-songs," and his humorous acting, dancing
and singing marking his creations of the chief characters in the
Gilbert and Sullivan operas as the expression of a highly original
individuality. In 1889 he left the Savoy, and again set up as an
entertainer, visiting all the cities of Great Britain and the United
States, but retiring in 1901. Among other books he wrote The
Reminiscences of a Society Clown (1888); and, with his brother
Weedon, The Diary of a Nobody (1894). His humorous songs
and sketches numbered over six hundred. His younger brother,
Weedon Grossmith, who was educated as a painter and exhibited
at the Academy, also took to the stage, his first notable success
being in the Pantomime Rehearsal', in 1894 he went into manage-
ment on his own account, and had much success as a comedian.
George Grossmith's two sons, Laurence Grossmith and George
Grossmith, jun., were both actors, the latter becoming a well-
known figure in the musical comedies at the Gaiety Theatre,
London.
GROS VENTRES (Fr. for " Great Bellies "), or Atsina, a
tribe of North American Indians of Algonquian stock. The
name is said to have reference to the greediness of the people,
but more probably originated from their prominent tattooing.
They are settled at Fort Belknap agency, Montana. The name
has also been given to other tribes, e.g. the Hidatsa or Minitari,
now at Fort Berthold, North Dakota.
GROTE, GEORGE (1 794-1871), English historian of Greece,
was born on the 17th of November 1794, at Clay Hill near
Beckenham in Kent. His grandfather, Andreas, originally a
Bremen merchant, was one of the founders (1st of January 1766)
of the banking-house of Grote, Prescott & Company in Thread-
needle Street, London (the name of Grote did not disappear
from the firm till 1879). His father, also George, married (1 793)
Selina, daughter of Henry Peckwell (1 747-1 787), minister of the
countess of Huntingdon's chapel in Westminster (descended
from a Huguenot family, the de Blossets, who had left Touraine
on the revocation of the Edict of Nantes), and had one daughter
and ten sons, of whom the historian was the eldest. Educated
at first by his mother, George Grote was sent to the Sevenoaks
grammar school (1800-1804) and afterwards to Charterhouse
(1804-1810), where he studied under Dr Raine in company
with Connop Thirlwall, George and Horace Waddington and
Henry Havelock. In spite of Grote's school successes, his
father refused to send him to the university and put him in the
bank in 1810. He spent all his spare time in the study of classics,
history, metaphysics and political economy, and in learning
German, French and Italian. Driven by his mother's Puritanism
and his father's contempt for academic learning to outside
society, he became intimate with Charles Hay Cameron, who
strengthened him in his love of philosophy, and George W.
Norman, through whom he met his wife, Miss Harriet Lewin
(see below). After various difficulties the marriage took place
on the 5th of March 1820, and was in all respects a happy union.
In the meanwhile Grote had finally decided his philosophic
and political attitude. In 181 7 he came under the influence
of David Ricardo, and through him of James Mill and Jeremy
Bentham. He settled in 1820 in a house attached to the bank
in Threadneedle Street, where his only child died a week after
its birth. During Mrs Grote's slow convalescence at Hampstead,
he wrote his first published work, the Statement of the Question
of Parliamentary Reform (182 1), in reply to Sir James
Mackintosh's article in the Edinburgh Review, advocating
popular representation, vote by ballot and short parliaments.
In 1822 he published in the Morning Chronicle (April) a letter
against Canning's attack on Lord John Russell, and edited, or
rather re-wrote, some discursive papers of Bentham, which he
published under the title Analysis of the Influence of Natural
Religion on the Temporal Happiness of Mankind by Philip
Beauchamp (1822). The book was published in the name of
Richard Carlile, then in gaol at Dorchester. Though not a
member of J. S. Mill's Utilitarian Society (182 2-1 823), he took
a great interest in a society for reading and discussion, which
met (from 1823) in a room at the bank before business hours
twice a week. From the Posthumous Papers (pp. 22, 24) it is
clear that Mrs Grote was wrong in asserting that she first in
1823 (autumn) suggested the History of Greece; the book was
already in preparation in 1822, though what was then written
was subsequently reconstructed. In 1826 Grote published in
the Westminster Review (April) a criticism of Mitford's History
of Greece, which shows that his ideas were already in order.
From 1826 to 1830 he was hard at work with J. S. Mill and
Henry Brougham in the organization of the new " university "
in Gower Street. He was a member of the council which organ-
ized the faculties and the curriculum; but in 1830, owing to a
difference with Mill as to an appointment to one of the philo-
sophical chairs, he resigned his position.
In 1830 he went abroad, and, attracted by the political crisis,
spent some months in Paris in the society of the Liberal leaders.
Recalled by his father's death (6th of July), he not only became
manager of the bank, but took a leading position among the city
Radicals. In 1831 he published his important Essentials of
Parliamentary Reform (an elaboration of his previous Statement),
and, after refusing to stand as parliamentary candidate for the
city in 183 1, changed his mind and was elected head of the poll,
with three other Liberals, in December 1832. After serving in
three parliaments, he resigned in 1841, by which time his party
(" the philosophic Radicals ") had dwindled away. During these
years of active public life, his interest in Greek history and
philosophy had increased, and after a trip to Italy in 1842, he
severed his connexion with the bank and devoted himself to
literature. In 1846 the first two volumes of the History appeared,
and the remaining ten between 1847 and the spring of 1856.
In 1845 with Molesworth and Raikes Currie he gave monetary
assistance to Auguste Comte (q.v.), then in financial difficulties.
The formation of the Sonderbund (20th of July 1847) led him to
visit Switzerland and study for himself a condition of things
in some sense analogous to that of the ancient Greek states.
This visit resulted in the publication in the Spectator of seven
weekly letters, collected in book form at the end of 1847 (see a
letter to de Tocqueville in Mrs Grote's reprint of the Seven
Letters, 1876).
In 1856 Grote began to prepare his works on Plato and
Aristotle. Plato and the Other Companions of Sokrates (3 vols.)
appeared in 1865, but the work on Aristotle he was not destined
to complete. He had finished the Organon and was about to
deal with the metaphysical and physical treatises when he died
on the 1 8th of June 1871, and was buried in Westminster Abbey.
He was a man of strong character and self-control, unfailing
courtesy and unswerving devotion to what he considered the
best interests of the nation. To colleagues and subordinates
alike, he was considerate and tolerant; he was unassuming,
trustworthy in the smallest detail, accurate and comprehensive
in thought, energetic and conscientious in action. Yet, hidden
under his calm exterior there was a burning enthusiasm and a
depth of passion of which only his intimate friends were aware.
His work may best be considered under the following heads:
1. Grote's Services to Education. — He took, as already stated,
an important part in the foundation and organization of the
original university of London, which began its public work in
Gower Street on the 28th of October 1828, and in 1836, on the
incorporation of the university of London proper, became known
as University College. In 1849 he was re-elected to the council,
in i860 he became treasurer, and on the death of Brougham
(1868) president. He took a keen interest in all the work of the
coDege, presented to it the M armor Homericum, and finally
bequeathed the reversion of £6000 for the endowment of a chair
620
GROTEFEND
of philosophy of mind and logic. The emoluments of this sum
were, however, to be held over and added to the principal if at
any time the holder of the chair should be " a minister of the
Church of England or of any other religious persuasion." In
1850 the senate of the university was reconstituted, and Grote
was one of seven eminent men who were added to it. Eventually
he became the strongest advocate for open examinations, for the
claims not only of philosophy and classics but also of natural
science, and, as vice-chancellor in 1862, for the admission of
women to examinations. This latter reform was carried in 1868.
He succeeded his friend Henry Hallam as a trustee of the British
Museum in 1859, and took part in the reorganization of the
departments of antiquities and natural science.
The honours which he received in recognition of these services
were as follows: D.C.L. of Oxford (1853); LL.D. Cambridge
(1861); F.R.S. (1857); honorary professor of ancient history
in the Royal Academy (1859). By the French Academy of
Moral and Political Sciences he was made correspondent (1857)
and foreign associate (the first Englishman since Macaulay)
(1864). In 1869 he refused Gladstone's offer of a peerage.
2. Political Career. — In politics Grote belonged to the " philo-
sophic Radicals " of the school of J. S. Mill and Bentham, whose
chief principles were representative government, vote by ballot,
the abolition of a state church, frequent elections. He adhered
to these principles throughout, and refused to countenance any
reforms which were incompatible with them. By this uncom-
promising attitude, he gradually lost all his supporters save a
few men of like rigidity. As a speaker, he was clear, logical
and impressive, and on select committees his common sense
was most valuable. For his speeches see A. Bain in the Minor
Works; see also Ballot.
3. The History of Greece. — It is on this work that Grote's
reputation mainly rests. Though half a century has passed
since its production, it is still in some sense the text-book.
It consists of two parts, the " Legendary " and the " Historical "
Greece. The former, owing to the development of comparative
mythology, is now of little authority, and portions of part ii.
are obsolete owing partly to the immense accumulations of epi-
graphic and archaeological research, partly to the subsequent
discovery of the Aristotelian Constitution of Athens, and partly
also to the more careful weighing of evidence which Grote himself
misinterpreted. The interest of the work is twofold. In the
first place it contains a wonderful mass of information carefully
collected from all sources, arranged on a simple plan, and ex-
pressed in direct forcible language. It is in this respect one of
the few great comprehensive histories in our possession, great in
scope, conception and accomplishment. But more than this it is
interesting as among the first works in which Greek history
became a separate study, based on real evidence and governed
by the criteria of modern historical science. Further Grote,
a practical man, a rationalist and an enthusiast for democracy,
was the first to consider Greek political development with a
sympathetic interest (see Greece: History, Ancient, section
" Authorities "), in opposition to the Tory attitude of John
Gillies and Mi t ford, who had written under the influence of horror
at the French Revolution. On the whole his work was done with
impartiality, and more recent study has only confirmed his
general conclusions. Much has been made of his defective
accounts of the tyrants and the Macedonian empire, and his
opinion that Greek history ceased to be interesting or instructive
after Chaeronea. It is true that he confined his interest to the
fortunes of the city state and neglected the wider diffusion of the
Greek culture, but this is after all merely a criticism of the title
of the book. The value of the History consists to-day primarily
in its examination of the Athenian democracy, its growth and
decline, an examination which is still the most inspiring, and in
general the most instructive, in any language. In the descrip-
tion of battles and military operations generally Grote was handi-
capped by the lack of personal knowledge of the country. In this
respect he is inferior to men like Ernst Curtius and G. B. Grundy.
4. In Philosophy Grote was a follower of the Mills and
Bentham. J. S. Mill paid a tribute to him in the preface to the
third edition of his Examination of Sir Wm. Hamilton's Philosophy,
and there is no doubt that the empirical school owed a great deal
to his sound, accurate thinking, untrammelled by any reverence
for authority, technique and convention. In dealing with Plato
he was handicapped by this very common sense, which prevented
him from appreciating the theory of ideas in its widest relations.
His Plato is important in that it emphasizes the generally
neglected passages of Plato in which he seems to indulge in mere
Socratic dialectic rather than to seek knowledge; it is, therefore,
to be read as a corrective to the ordinary criticism of Plato.
The more congenial study of Aristotle, though incomplete, is
more valuable in the positive sense, and has not received the
attention it deserves. Perhaps Grote's most distinctive contribu-
tion to the study of Greek philosophy is his chapter in the
History of Greece on the Sophists, of whom he took a view some-
what more favourable than has been accepted before or since.
His wife, Harriet Lewin (1 792-1878), was the daughter of
Thomas Lewin, a retired Indian civilian, settled in Southampton.
After her marriage with Grote in 1820 she devoted herself to the
subjects in which he was interested and was a prominent figure in
the literary, political and philosophical circle in which he lived.
She carefully read the proofs of his work and relieved him of
anxiety in connexion with his property. Among her writings are:
Memoir of Ary Schejfer (i860); Collected Papers (1862); and
her biography of her husband (1873). Another publication,
The Philosophical Radicals of 1832 (privately circulated in 1866),
is interesting for the light it throws on the Reform movement of
1832 to 1842, especially on Molesworth.
Bibliogra phy. — The History of Greece passed through five editions
the fifth (10 vols., 1888) being final. An edition covering the period
from Solon to 403, with new notes and excursuses, was published by
J. M. Mitchell and M. O. B. Caspari in 1907. The Plato was finally
edited by Alexander Bain in 4 vols. See Mrs Grote's Personal
Life of George Grote, and article in Diet. Nat. Biog. by G. Croom
Robertson. (J. M. M.)
GROTEFEND, GEORG FRIEDRICH (1775-1853), German
epigraphist, was born at Miinden in Hanover on the 9th of June
1775. He was educated partly in his native town, partly at
Ilfeld, where he remained till 1795, when he entered the university
of Gottingen, and there became the friend of Heyne, Tychsen
and Heeren. Heyne's recommendation procured for him an
assistant mastership in the Gottingen gymnasium in 1797.
While there he published his work De pasigraphia sive scriptura
universali (1799), which led to his appointment in 1803 as
prorector of the gymnasium of Frankfort-on-Main, and shortly
afterwards as conrector. Grotefend was best known during his
lifetime as a Latin and Italian philologist, though the attention
he paid to his own language is shown by his Anfangsgriinde der
deutschen Poesie, published in 181 5, and his foundation of a
society for investigating the German tongue in 181 7. In 182 1
he became director of the gymnasium at Hanover, a post which
he retained till his retirement in 1849. In 18 23- 18 24 appeared
his revised edition of Wenck's Latin grammar, in two volumes,
followed by a smaller grammar for the use of schools in 1826;
in 1835-1838 a systematic attempt to explain the fragmentary
remains of the Umbrian dialect, entitled Rudimenta linguae
Umbricae ex inscriptionibus antiquis enodata (in eight parts) ; and
in 1839 a work of similar character upon Oscan (Rudimenta
linguae Oscae). In the same year he published an important
memoir on the coins of Bactria, under the name of Die MUnzen der
griechischen, par this chen, und indoskythischen Kdnige von Bactrien
und den L&ndern am Indus. He soon, however, returned to his
favourite subject, and brought out a work in five parts, Zur
Geographic und Geschichte vonAltitalien (1840-1842). Previously,
in 1836, he had written a preface to Wagenf eld's translation of the
spurious Sanchoniathon of Philo Byblius, which was alleged to
have been discovered in the preceding year in the Portuguese
convent of Santa Maria de Merinhao. But it was in the East
rather than in the West that Grotefend did his greatest work.
The cuneiform inscriptions of Persia had for some time been
attracting attention in Europe; exact copies of them had been
published by the elder Niebuhr, who lost his eyesight over the
work; and Grotef end's friend, Tychsen of Rostock, believed
GROTESQUE— GROTIUS
621
that he had ascertained the characters in the column, now known
to be Persian, to be alphabetic. At this point Grotefend took
the matter up. His first discovery was communicated to the
Royal Society of Gottingen in 1800, and reviewed by Tychsen
two years afterwards. In 181 5 be gave an account of it in
Heeren's great work on ancient history, and in 1837 published
his Neue Beitrage zur Erlauterung der persepalitanischen Keil-
schrift. Three years later appeared his Neue Beitr&ge zur
Erlauterung der babylonischen KeUschrift. His discovery may
be summed up as follows: (1) that the Persian inscriptions
contain three different forms of cuneiform writing, so that the
decipherment of the one would give the key to the decipherment
of the others; (2) that the characters of the Persian column are
alphabetic and not syllabic; (3) that they must be read from
left to right; (4) that the alphabet consists of forty letters,
including signs for long and short vowels; and (5) that the
Persepolitan inscriptions are written in Zend (which, however,
is not the case), and must be ascribed to the age of the Achae-
menian princes. The process whereby Grotefend arrived at
these conclusions is a prominent illustration of persevering
genius (see Cuneiform). A solid basis had thus been laid for
the interpretation of the Persian inscriptions, and all that
remained was to work out the results of Grotefend 's brilliant
discovery, a task ably performed by Burnouf, Lassen and
Rawlinson. Grotefend died on the 15th of December 1853.
GROTESQUE, strictly a form of decorative art, in painting
or sculpture, consisting of fantastic shapes of human beings,
animals and the like, joined together by wreaths of flowers,
garlands or arabesques. The word is also applied to any whim-
sical design or decorative style, if characterized by unnatural
distortion, and, generally, to anything ludicrous or extravagantly
fanciful. " Grotesque " comes through the French from the
Ital. grottesco, an adjective formed from grotta, which has been
corrupted in English to " grotto." The commonly accepted
explanation of the special use of the term " grotesque " is that
this particular form of decorative art was most frequently found
in the excavated ancient Roman and Greek dwellings found in
Italy, to which was applied the name grotte. The derivation of
grotta is through popular Lat. crupta or grupta (cf. " crypt "),
from Gr. Kpimrri, a vault, Kpfarrw, to hide. Such a term would
be applicable both to the buried dwellings of ancient Italy, and
to a cavern, artificial or natural, the ordinary sense of the word.
An interesting parallel with this origin of the word is found in
that of " antic," now meaning a freak, a jest, absurd fancy, &c.
This word is the same as " antique," and was, like " grotesque,"
first applied to the fanciful decorations of ancient art.
GROTH, KLAUS (1819-1899), Low German poet, was born
at Heide in Schleswig-Holstein, on the 24th of April 1819. After
studying at the seminary in Tondern (1 838-1841), he became a
teacher at the girls' school in his native village, but in 1847 went
to Kiel to qualify for a higher educational post. Ill-health
interrupted his studies and it was not until 1853 that he was able
to resume them at Kiel. In 1856 he took the degree of doctor
of philosophy at Bonn, and in 1858 settled as privatdocent in
German literature and languages at Kiel, where, in 1866, he was
made professor, and where he lived until his death on the 1st
of June 1809. In his Low German (Plattdeutsch) lyric and epic
poems, which reflect the influence of Johann Peter Hebel (q.v.),
Groth gives poetic expression to the country life of his northern
home; and though his descriptions may not always reflect the
peculiar characteristics of the peasantry of Holstein as faithfully
as those of F. Reuter (q.v.) t yet Groth is a lyric poet of genuine
inspiration. His chief works are Quickborn, Volksleben in
plaUdeutschen Gedichten Ditmarscher Mundart (1852; 25th ed.
1900; and in High German translations, notably by M. J.
Berchem, Krefeld, 1896); and two volumes of stories, Vertelln
(1855-1859, 3rd ed. 1881); also Voer de Goern (1858) and Ut
min Jungsparadies (1875).
Groth's Gesammelte Werke appeared in 4 vols. (1 893). His Lebens-
erinnerungen were edited by E. Wolff in 1891; see also K. Eggers,
K. Groth und die platideuiscke Dichtung (1885); and biographies by
A. Bartels (1899) and H. Siercks (1899).
GROTH, PAUL HEINRICH VON (1843- ), German
mineralogist, was born at Magdeburg on the 23rd of June 1843.
He was educated at Freiberg, Dresden and Berlin, and took
the degree of Ph.D. in 1868. After holding from 1872 the chair
of mineralogy at Strasburg, he was in 1883 appointed professor
of mineralogy and curator of minerals in the state museum
at Munich. He carried on extensive researches on crystals and
minerals, and also on rocks; and published Tabellarische
Obersicht der einfachen Miner alien (1874-1898), and Physi-
kalische Krystallographie (1876-1895, ed. 4, 1005). He edited for
some years the Zeitschriftfur Krystallographie und Miner alogie.
GROTIUS, HUGO (1 583-1645), in his native country Huig van
Groot, but known to the rest of Europe by the latinized form
of the name, Dutch publicist and statesman, was born at Delft
on Easter day, the 10th of April 1583. The Groots were a branch
of a family of distinction, which had been noble in France, but
had removed to the Low Countries more than a century before.
Their French name was de Cornets, and this cadet branch had
taken the name of Groot on the marriage of Hugo's great-grand-
father with a Dutch heiress. The father of Hugo was a lawyer
in considerable practice, who had four times served the office
of burgomaster of Leiden, and was one of the three curators
of the university of that place.
In the annals of precocious genius there is no greater prodigy
on record than Hugo Grotius, who was able to make good Latin
verses at nine, was ripe for the university at twelve, and at
fifteen edited the encyclopaedic work of Martianus Capella.
At Leiden he was much noticed by J. J. Scaliger, whose habit
it was to engage his young friends in the editing of some classical
text. At fifteen Grotius accompanied Count Justin of Nassau,
and the grand pensionary J. van Olden Barneveldt on their
special embassy to the court of France. After a year spent in
acquiring the language and making acquaintance with the
leading men of France, Grotius returned home. He took the
degree of doctor of law at Leiden, and entered on practice as an
advocate.
Notwithstanding his successes in his profession, his inclination
was to literature. In 1600 he edited the remains of Aratus,
with the versions of Cicero, Germanicus and Avienus. Of the
Germanicus Scaliger says — "A better text than that which
Grotius has given, it is impossible to give "; but it is probable
that Scaliger had himself been the reviser. Grotius vied with
the Latinists of his day in the composition of Latin verses.
Some lines on the siege of Ostend spread his fame beyond the
circle of the learned. He wrote three dramas in Latin: —
Chris tus patiens; Sopkomphaneas, on the story of Joseph and
his brethren; and Adamus exul, a production still remembered
as having given hints to Milton. The Sopkomphaneas was
translated into Dutch by Vondel, and into English by Francis
Goldsmith (1652); the Christus patiens into English by George
Sandys (1640).
In 1603 the United Provinces, desiring to transmit to posterity
some account of their struggle with Spain, determined to appoint
a historiographer. The choice of the states fell upon Grotius,
though he was but twenty years of age, and had not offered
himself for the post. There was some talk at this time in Paris
of calling Grotius to be librarian of the royal library. But it was
a ruse of the Jesuit party, who wished to persuade the public
that the opposition to the appointment of Isaac Casaubon did
not proceed from theological motives, since they were ready
to appoint a Protestant in the person of Grotius.
His next preferment was that of advocate-general of the
fisc for the provinces of Holland and Zeeland. This was followed
by his marriage, in 1608, to Marie Reigersberg, a lady of family
in Zeeland, a woman of great capacity and noble disposition.
Grotius had already passed from occupation with the classics
to studies more immediately connected with his profession.
In the winter of 1604 he composed (but did not publish) a treatise
entitled Dejure praedae. The MS. remained unknown till 1868,
when it was brought to light, and printed at the Hague under the
auspices of Professor Fruin. It shows that the principles and the
plan of the celebrated De jure belli, which was not composed
622
GROTIUS
till 1 62 5, more than twenty years after,had already been conceived
by a youth of twenty-one. It has always been a question
what it was that determined Grotius, when an exile in Paris in
1625, to that particular subject, and various explanations have
been offered; among others a casual suggestion of Peiresc in a
letter of early date. The discovery of the MS. of the De jure
praedae discloses the whole history of Grotius's ideas, and shows
that from youth upwards he had steadily read and meditated
in one direction, that, namely, of which the famous Dejure belli
was the mature product. In the Dejure praedae of 1604 there is
much more than the germ of the later treatise De jure belli.
Its main principles, and the whole system of thought implied
in the later, are anticipated in the earlier work. The arrangement
even is the same. The chief difference between the two treatises
is one which twenty years' experience in affairs could not but
bring — the substitution of more cautious and guarded language,
less dogmatic affirmation, more allowance for exceptions and
deviations. The Jus pads was an addition introduced first
in the later work, an insertion which is the cause of not a little
of the confused arrangement which has been found fault with
in the De jure belli.
The De jure praedae further demonstrates that Grotius was
originally determined to this subject, not by any speculative
intellectual interest, but by a special occasion presented by his
professional engagements. He was retained by the Dutch
East India Company as their advocate. One of their captains,
Heemskirk, had captured a rich Portuguese galleon in the Straits
of Malacca. The right of a private company to make prizes
was hotly contested in Holland, and denied by the stricter
religionists, especially the Mennonites, who considered all war
unlawful. Grotius undertook to prove that Heemskirk's prize
had been lawfully captured. In doing this he was led to in-
vestigate the grounds of the lawfulness of war in general. Such
was the casual origin of a book which long enjoyed such celebrity
that it used to be said, with some exaggeration indeed, that it
had founded a new science.
A short treatise which was printed in 1609, Grotius says
without his permission, under the title of Mare liberum t is
nothing more than a chapter — the 12th — of the Dejure praedae.
It was necessary to Grotius's defence of Heemskirk that he
should show that the Portuguese pretence that Eastern waters
were their private property was untenable. Grotius maintains
that the ocean is free to all nations. The occasional character
of this piece explains the fact that at the time of its appearance
it made no sensation. It was not till many years afterwards
that the jealousies between England and Holland gave import-
ance to the novel doctrine broached in the tract by Grotius,
a doctrine which Selden set himself to refute in his Mare clausum
(1632).
Equally due to the circumstances of the time was his small
contribution to constitutional history entitled De antiquitate
reipublicae Batavae (1610). In this he vindicates, on grounds
of right, prescriptive and natural, the revolt of the United
Provinces against the sovereignty of Spain.
Grotius, when he was only thirty, was made pensionary of the
city of Rotterdam. In 1613 he formed one of a deputation
to England, in an attempt to adjust those differences which
gave rise afterwards to a naval struggle disastrous to Holland.
He was received by James with every mark of distinction.
He also cultivated the acquaintance of the Anglican ecclesiastics
John Overall and L. Andrewes, and was much in the society
of the celebrated scholar Isaac Casaubon, with whom he had
been in correspondence by letter for many years. Though the
mediating views in the great religious conflict between Catholic
and Protestant, by which Grotius was afterwards known, had
been arrived at by him by independent reflection, yet it could
not but be that he would be confirmed in them by finding in
Engtand a developed school of thought of the same character
already in existence. How highly Casaubon esteemed Grotius
appears from a letter of his to Daniel Heinsius, dated London,
13th of April 1613. " I cannot say how happy I esteem myself
in having seen so much of one so truly great as Grotius. A
wonderful man! This I knew him to be before I had seen him;
but the rare excellence of that divine genius no one can sufficiently
feel who does not see his face, and hear him speak. Probity
is stamped on his features; his conversation savours of true
piety and profound learning. It is not only upon me that he
has made this impression; all the pious and learned to whom
he has been here introduced have felt the same towards him;
the king especially sol"
After Grotius's return from England the exasperation of
theological parties in Holland rose to such a pitch that it became
clear that an appeal to force would be made. Grotius sought
to find some mean term in which the two hostile parties of
Remonstrants and Anti-remonstrants, or as they were subse-
quently called Arminians and Gomarists (see Remonstrants),
might agree. A form of edict drawn by Grotius was published
by the states, recommending mutual toleration, and forbidding
ministers in the pulpit from handling the disputed dogmas.
To the orthodox Calvinists the word toleration was insupportable.
They had the populace on their side. This fact determined the
stadtholder, Maurice of Nassau, to support the orthodox party
— a party to which he inclined the more readily that Olden
Barneveldt, the grand pensionary, the man whose uprightness
and abilities he most dreaded, sided with the Remonstrants.
In 1 61 8 Prince Maurice set out on a sort of pacific campaign,
disbanding the civic guards in the various cities of Guelders,
Holland and Zeeland, and occupying the places with troops
on whom he could rely. The states of Holland sent a commission,
of which Grotius was chairman, to Utrecht, with the view of
strengthening the hands of their friends, the Remonstrant
party, in that city. Feeble plans were formed, but not carried
into effect, for shutting the gates upon the stadtholder, who
entered the city with troops on the night of the 26th of July
1 618. There were conferences in which Grotius met Prince
Maurice, and taught him that Olden Barneveldt was not the only
man of capacity in the ranks of the Remonstrants whom he had
to -fear. On the early morning of the 31st of July the prince's
coup d } itat against the liberties of Utrecht and of Holland was
carried out; the civic guard was disarmed — Grotius and his
colleagues saving themselves by a precipitate flight. But it
was only a reprieve. The grand pensionary, Olden Barneveldt,
the leader of the Remonstrant party, Grotius and Hoogerbeets
were arrested, brought to trial, and condemned — Olden
Barneveldt to death, and Grotius to imprisonment for life and
confiscation of his property. In June 1610 he was immured
in the fortress of Louvestein near Gorcum. His confinement
was rigorous, but after a time his wife obtained permission to
share his captivity, on the condition that if she came out, she
should not be suffered to return.
Grotius had now before him, at thirty-six, no prospect but
that of a lifelong captivity. He did not abandon himself to
despair, but sought refuge in returning to the classical pursuits
of his youth. Several of his translations (into Latin) from the
Greek tragedians and other writers, made at this time, have
been printed. " The Muses," he writes to Voss, " were now his
consolation, and appeared more amiable than ever."
The ingenuity of Madame Grotius at length devised a mode of
escape. It had grown into a custom to send the books which
he had done with in a chest along with his linen to be washed at
Gorcum. After a time the warders began to let the chest pass
without opening it. Madame Grotius, perceiving this, prevailed
on her husband to allow himself to be shut up in it at the usual
time. The two soldiers who carried the chest out complained
that it was so heavy " there must be an Arminian in it." " There
are indeed," said Madame Grotius, " Arminian books in it."
The chest was carried to the house of a friend, where Grotius was
released. He was then dressed like a mason with hod and trowel,
and so conveyed over the frontier. His first place of refuge was
Antwerp, from which he proceeded to Paris, where he arrived
in April 1621. In October he was joined by his wife. There
he was presented to the king, Louis XIII., and a pension of 3000
livres conferred upon him. French pensions were easily granted,
all the more so as they were never paid. Grotius was now
GROTIUS
623
reduced to great straits. He looked about for any opening
through which he might earn a living. There was talk of some-
thing in Denmark; or he would settle in Spires, and practise
in the court there. Some little relief he got through the interven-
tion of fitienne d'Aligre, the chancellor, who procured a royal
mandate which enabled Grotius to draw, not all, but a large
part of his pension. In 1623 the president Henri de M&me lent
him his chateau of Balagni near Senlis (dep. Oise), and there
Grotius passed the spring and summer of that year. De Thou
gave him facilities to borrow books from the superb library
formed by his father.
In these circumstances the Dejure belli et pacts was composed.
That a work of such immense reading, consisting in great part of
quotation, should have been written in little more than a year
was a source of astonishment to his biographers. The achieve-
ment would have been impossible, but for the fact that Grotius
had with him the first draft of the work made in 1604. He had
also got his brother William, when reading his classics, to mark
down all the passages which touched upon law, public or private.
In March 1625 the printing of the De jure belli, which had
taken four months, was completed, and the edition despatched to
the fair at Frankfort. His own honorarium as author consisted
of 200 copies, of which, however, he had to give away many to
friends, to the king, the principal courtiers, the papal nuncio, &c.
What remained he sold for his own profit at the price of a crown
each, but the sale did not recoup him his outlay. But though
his book brought him no profit it brought him reputation, so
widely spread, and of such long endurance, as no other legal
treatise has ever enjoyed.
Grotius hoped that his fame would soften the hostility of his
foes, and that his country would recall him to her service. Theo-
logical rancour, however, prevailed over all other sentiments,
and, after fruitless attempts to re-establish himself in Holland,
Grotius accepted service under Sweden, in the capacity of
ambassador to France. He was not very successful in negotiating
the treaty on behalf of the Protestant interest in Germany,
Richelieu having a special dislike to him. He never enjoyed the
confidence of the court to which he was accredited, and frittered
away his influence in disputes about precedence. In 1645 he
demanded and obtained his recall. He was honourably received
at Stockholm, but neither the climate nor the tone of the court
suited him, and he asked permission to leave. He was driven
by a storm on the coast near Dantzig. He got as far as Rostock,
where he found himself very ill. Stockman, a Scottish physician
who was sent for, thought it was only weakness, and that rest
would restore the patient. But Grotius sank rapidly, and died
on the 29th of August 1645.
Grotius combined a wide circle of general knowledge with a
profound study of one branch of law. History, theology,
jurisprudence, politics, classics, poetry, — all these fields he
cultivated. His commentaries on the Scriptures were the first
application on an extensive scale of the principle affirmed by
Scaliger, that, namely, of interpretation by the rules of grammar
without dogmatic assumptions. Grotius's philological skill,
however, was not sufficient to enable him to work up to this ideal.
As in many other points Grotius inevitably recalls Erasmus,
so he does in his attitude towards the great schism. Grotius
was, however, animated by an ardent desire for peace and con-
cord. He thought that a basis for reconciliation of Protestant
and Catholic might be found in a common piety, combined with
reticence upon discrepancies of doctrinal statement. His De
veritaie religionis Christianae (1627), a presentment of the
evidences, is so written as to form a code of common Christianity,
irrespective of sect. The little treatise became widely popular,
gaining rather than losing popularity in the 18th century. It
became the classical manual of apologetics in Protestant colleges,
and was translated for missionary purposes into Arabic (by
Pococke, 1660), Persian, Chinese, &c. His Via et votum ad
pacem ecclesiasticam (1642) was a detailed proposal of a scheme
of accommodation. Like all men of moderate and mediating
views, he was charged by both sides with vacillation. An
Amsterdam minister, James Laurent, published his Grotius
papizans (1642), and it was continually being announced from
Paris that Grotius had " gone over." Hallam, who has collected
all the passages from Grotius's letters in which the prejudices
and narrow tenets of the Reformed clergy are condemned, thought
he had a " bias towards popery " (Lit. of Europe, ii. 312). The
true interpretation of Grotius's mind appears to be an indifference
to dogmatic propositions, produced by a profound sentiment of
piety. He approached parties as a statesman approaches them,
as facts which have to be dealt with, and governed, not sup-
pressed in the interests of some one of their number.
His editions and translations of the classics were either juvenile
exercises prescribed by Scaliger, or " lusus poetici," the amuse-
ment of vacant hours. Grotius read the classics as a humanist,
for the sake of their contents, not as a professional scholar.
His Annals of the Low Countries was begun as an official duty
while he held the appointment of historiographer, and was being
continued and retouched by him to the last. It was not published
till 1657, by his sons Peler and Cornelius.
Grotius was a great jurist, and his Dejure belli et pacis (Paris,
1625), though not the first attempt in modern times to ascertain
the principles of jurisprudence, went far more fundamentally
into the discussion than any one had done before him. The
title of the work was so far misleading that the jus belli was a
very small part of his comprehensive scheme. In his treatment
of this narrower question he had the works of Alberico Gentili
and Ayala before him, and has acknowledged his obligations to
them. But it is in the larger questions to which he opened the
way that the merit of Grotius consists. His was the first attempt
to obtain a principle of right, and a basis for society and govern-
ment, outside the church or the Bible. The distinction between
religion on the one hand and law and morality on the other is not
indeed clearly conceived by Grotius, but he wrestles with it in
such a way as to make it easy for those who followed him to seize
it. The law of nature is unalterable; God Himself cannot alter
it any more than He can alter a mathematical axiom. This law
has its source in the nature of man as a social being; it would
be valid even were there no God, or if God did not interfere in
the government of the world. These positions, though Grotius's
religious temper did not allow him to rely unreservedly upon
them, yet, even in the partial application they find in his book,
entitle him to the honour of being held the founder of the modern
science of the law of nature and nations. The De jure exerted
little influence on the practice of belligerents, yet its publication
was an epoch in the science. De Quincey has said that the book
is equally divided between " empty truisms and time-serving
Dutch falsehoods." For a saner judgment and a brief abstract
of the contents of the Dejure, consult J. K. Bluntschli, Geschichte
des allgemeinen Staatsrechts (Munich, 1864). A fuller analysis,
and some notice of the predecessors of Grotius, will be found in
He"ly, &tude sur le droit de la guerre de Grotius (Paris, 1875).
The writer, however, had never heard of the De jure praedae,
published in 1868. Hallam, Lit. of Europe, ii. p. 543, has an
abstract done with his usual conscientious pains. Dugald
Stewart (Collected Works, i. 370) has dwelt upon the confusion
and defects of Grotius's theory. Sir James Mackintosh (Miscell.
Works, p. 166) has defended Grotius, affirming that his work
" is perhaps the most complete that the world has yet owed, at
so early a stage in the progress of any science, to the genius and
learning of one man."
The chief writings of Grotius have been named. For a complete
bibliography of his works, see Lehmann, Hugonis Grotii manes
vindicate (Delft, 1727), which also contains a full biography. Of
this Latin life De fiungny published a rechauffee in French (2 vols.,
8vo, Paris, 1752). Other lives are: Van Brandt, Historie van het
Leven H. de Groot (2 vols., 8vo, Dordrecht, 1727); Von Luden,
Hugo Grotius nach seinen Sckicksalen und Schriften dargestellt (8vo,
Berlin, 1806); Life of Hugo Grotius, by Charles Butler of Lincoln's
Inn (8vo, London, 1826). The work of the Abbe* He"ly contains a
life of Grotius. See also Hugo Grotius, by L. Neumann (Berlin, 1 884) ;
Opinions of Grotius, by D. P. de Bruyn (London, 1894).
Grotius's theological works were collected in 3 vols. fol. at Amster-
dam (1644- 1 646; reprinted London, 1660; Amsterdam, 1679;
and again Amsterdam, 1698). His letters were printed first in a
selection, Einstolae ad Gallos (i2mo, Leiden, 1648), abounding,
though an Elzevir, in errors of the press. They were collected in H,
624
GROTTAFERRATA— GROUND-ICE
Grotii epistolae quotquot reperiri potuerunt (fol., Amsterdam, 1687).
A few may be found scattered in other collections of Epistolae.
Supplements to the large collection of 1687 were published at
Haarlem, 1806; Leiden, 1809; and Haarlem, 1829. The De jure
belli was translated into English by Whewell (3 vols.,8vo, Cambridge,
1853); into French by Barbeyrac (2 vols, ito, Amsterdam, 1724);
into German in Kirchmann's Philosophische Bibliothek (3 vols. 12 mo,
Leipzig, 1879). (M. P.)
GROTTAFERRATA, a village of Italy, in the province of Rome,
from which it is 13 m, S.E. by electric tramway, and 2jm. S.
of Frascati, 1080 ft. above sea-level, in the Alban Hills. Pop.
(1001) 2645. It is noticeable for the Greek monastery of Basilians
founded by S. Nilus in 1002 under the Emperor Otho III., and
which occupies the site of a large Roman villa, possibly that of
Cicero. It was fortified at the end of the 1 5th century by Cardinal
Giuliano della Rovere (afterwards Pope Julius II.), whose arms
may be seen about it. The massive towers added by him give
it a picturesque appearance. The church belongs to the 12th
century, and the original portal, with a mosaic over it, is still
preserved; the interior was restored in 1574 and in 1754, but
there are some remains of frescoes of the 13th century. The
chapel of S. Nilus contains frescoes by Domenico Zampieri
(Domenichino) of 1610, illustrating the life of the saint, which
are among his most important works. The abbot's palace has
a fine Renaissance portico, and contains an interesting museum
of local antiquities. The library contains valuable MSS., among
them one from the hand of S. Nilus (965); and a palaeographical
school, for the copying of MSS. in the ancient style, is maintained.
An omopkorion of the nth or 12th century, with scenes from the
Gospel in needlework, and a chalice of the 15th century with
enamels, given by Cardinal Bessarion, the predecessor of Giuliano
della Rovere as commendatory of the abbey, are among its
treasures. An important exhibition of Italo-Byzantine art was
held here in 1905-1906.
See A. Rocchi, La Badia di Grottaferrata (Rome, 1884); A.
Munoz, VArt bytantin & l' exposition de Grottaferrata (Rome, 1905);
T. Ashby in Papers of the British School at Rome, iv. (1907). (T. As.;
GROUCHY, EMMANUEL, Marquis de (1 766-1847), marshal
of France, was born in Paris on the 23rd of October 1766. He
entered the French artillery in 1779, transferred to the cavalry
in 178a, and to the Gardes du corps in 1786. In spite of his
aristocratic birth and his connexions with the court, he was a
convinced supporter of the principles of the Revolution, and had
in consequence to leave the Guards. About the time of the
outbreak of war in 1792 he became colonel of a cavalry regiment,
and soon afterwards, as a marichal de camp, he was sent to serve
on the south-eastern frontier. In 1793 he distinguished himself
in La Vendee, and was promoted general of division. Grouchy
was shortly afterwards deprived of his rank as being of noble
birth, but in 1795 he was again placed on the active list. He
served on the staff of the Army of Ireland (1 796-1797), and took
a conspicuous part in the Irish expedition. In 1798 he
administered the civil and military government of Piedmont at
the time of the abdication of the king of Sardinia, and in 1 799 he
distinguished himself greatly as a divisional commander in the
campaign against the Austrians and Russians. In covering
the retreat of the French after the defeat of Novi, Grouchy re-
ceived fourteen wounds and was taken prisoner. On his release
he returned to France. In spite of his having protested against the
coup d'ttat of the 18th of Brumaire he was at once re-employed by
the First Consul, and distinguished himself again at Hohenlinden.
It was not long before he accepted the new regime in France,
and from 1801 onwards he was employed by Napoleon in military
and political positions of importance. He served in Austria in
1805, in Prussia in 1806, Poland in 1807, Spain in 1808, and com-
manded the cavalry of the Army of Italy in 1809 in the Viceroy
Eugdne's advance to Vienna. In 181 2 he was made commander
of one of the four cavalry corps of the Grand Army, and during
the retreat from Moscow Napoleon appointed him to command
the escort squadron, which was composed entirely of picked
officers. His almost continuous service with the cavalry led
Napoleon to decline in 181 3 to place Grouchy at the head of an
army corps, and Grouchy thereupon retired to France. In
1814, however, he hastened to take part in the defensive campaign
in France, and he was severely wounded at Craonne. At the
Restoration he was deprived of the post of colonel-general of
chasseurs a cheval and retired. He joined Napoleon on his
return from Elba, and was made marshal and peer of France.
In the campaign of Waterloo he commanded the reserve cavalry
of the army, and after Ligny he was appointed to command
the right wing to pursue the Prussians. The march on Wavre,
its influence on the result of the campaign, and the controversy
to which Grouchy's conduct on the day of Waterloo has given
rise, are dealt with briefly in the article Waterloo Campaign,
and at length in nearly every work on the campaign of 181 5.
Here it is only necessary to say that on the 17th Grouchy was
unable to close with the Prussians, and on the 18th, though
urged to march towards the sound of the guns of Waterloo,
he permitted himself, from whatever cause, to be held up by a
Prussian rearguard while the Prussians and English united
to crush Napoleon. On the 19th Grouchy won a smart victory
over the Prussians at Wavre, but it was then too late. So far
as resistance was possible after the great disaster, Grouchy
made it. He gathered up the wrecks of Napoleon's army and
retired, swiftly and unbroken, to Paris, where, after interposing
his reorganized forces between the enemy and the capital, he
resigned his command into the hands of Marshal Davout. The
rest of his life was spent in defending himself. An attempt to
have him condemned to death by a court-martial failed, but
he was exiled and lived in America till amnestied in 182 1. On
his return to France he was reinstated as general, but not as
marshal nor as peer of France. For many years thereafter
he was equally an object of aversion to the court party, as a
member of their own caste who had followed the Revolution
and Napoleon, and to his comrades of the Grand Army as the
supposed betrayer of Napoleon. In 1830 Louis Philippe gave
him back the marshal's baton and restored him to the Chamber
of Peers. He died at St-£tienne on the 29th of May 1847.
See Marquis de Grouchy, Memoires du marichal Marquis de
Grouchy (Paris, 1873-1874); General Marquis de Grouchy, Le
les fails . . . du 28 juin au 3 juillet, 181J (Paris, 1866); and the
literature of the Waterloo campaign. Marshal Grouchy himself
wrote the following: Observations sur la relation de la campagne de
18 is par le geniral de Gourgaud (Philadelphia and Paris, 18 18);
Refutation de quelques articles des mhnoires de M. le Due de Rovito
(Paris, 1820); Fragments historiques relaHfs & la campagne et a la
bataille de Waterloo (Paris, 1 829-1840, in reply to Barthelemy and
Me'ry, and to Marshal Gerard) ; Reclamation du marichal de Grouchy
(Pans, 1834) ; Plainte contre le geniral Baron Berthezene (Berthezene,
formerly a divisional commander under Glrard, stated in reply to
this defence that he had no intention of accusing Grouchy of ill faith).
GROUND-ICE, 1 ice formed at the bottom of streams while
the temperature of the water is above freezing-point. Every-
tjiing points to radiation as the prime cause of the formation of
ground-ice. It is formed only under a clear sky, never in cloudy
weather; it is most readily formed on dark rocks, and never
under any covering such as a bridge, and rarely under surface-
ice. Professor Howard T. Barnes of McGill University concludes
that the radiation from a river bed in cold and clear nights goes
through the water in long rays that penetrate much more easily
from below upwards than the sun's heat rays from above down-
wards, which are mostly absorbed by the first few feet of water.
On a cold clear night, therefore, the radiation from the bottom
is excessive, and loosely-grown spongy masses of anchor-ice
form on the bottom, which on the following bright sunny day
receive just sufficient heat from the sun to detach the mass of
1 The O. Eng. word ^rt<nrf,ground,is common to Teutonic languages,
cf. Du. grond, Ger. Grund, but has no cognates outside Teutonic.
The suggestion that the origin is to be found in " gfrind," to crush
small, reduce to powder, is plausible, but the primary meaning
seems to be the lowest part or bottom of anything rather than grit,
sand or gravel. The main branches in sense appear to be, first,
bottom, as of the sea or a river, cf. the use, in the plural, for dregs;
second, base or foundation, actual, as of the first or main surface of a
painting, fabric, &c, or figurative, as of a principle or reason; third
the surface of the earth, or a particular part of that surface.
GROUND NUT— GROUND RENT
625
ice, which rises to the surface with considerable force. It is prob-
able that owing to surface tension a thin film of stationary water
rests upon the boulders and sand over which a stream flows,
and that this, becoming frozen owing to radiation, forms the
foundation for the anchor-ice and produces a surface upon which
the descending frazil-ice (see below) can lodge. The theory
of radiation from the boulders is supported by the fact that as
the ice is formed upon them in response to a sudden fall in the
air temperature, it is only released under the influence of a strong
rise of temperature during the morning. It may not rise for
several days, but the advent of bright sunlight is followed by
the appearance on the surface of masses of ground-ice. This
ice has a spongy texture and frequently carries gravel with it
when it rises. It is said that the bottom of Lake Erie is strewn
with gravel that has been floated down in this way. This
" anchor-ice," as it was called by Canadian trappers, frequently
forms dams across narrow portions of the river where the
floating masses are caught. Dr H. Landor pointed out that the
Mackenzie and Mississippi rivers, which rise in the same region
and flow in opposite directions, carry ground-ice from their
head-waters for a considerable distance down stream, and
suggested that here and in Siberia many forms of vegetable and
animal life may be distributed from a centre by this agency,
since the material carried by the floating ice would contain the
seeds and eggs or larvae of many forms.
Besides ground-ice and anchor-ice this formation is called
also bottom-ice, ground-gru and lappered ice, the two last names
being Scottish. In France it is called glace du fond, in Germany
Grundeis, and in French Canada moutonne from the appearance
of sheep at rest, since the ice formed at the bottom grows in
woolly, spongy masses upon boulders or other projections.
" Frazil-ice " is a Canadian term from the French for " forge-
cinders." It is surface ice formed in spicules and carried down-
wards in water agitated by winds or rapids. The frazil-ice may
render swiftly moving water turbid with ice crystals, it may be
swirled downwards and accumulated upon the ground ice, or
it may be swept under the sheet of surface-ice, coating the under
surface of the sheet to a thickness as great as 80 ft. of loose
spicular ice.
See W. G. Thompson, in Nature, i. 555 (1870); H. Landor, in
Geological Magazine, decade II., vol. iii., p. 459 (1876); H. T.
Barnes, Ice Formation with special Reference to Anchor Ace and Frazil
(1906).
GROUND NUT (Earth Nut, Pistache de Terre, Monkey Nut,
Pea Nut, Manilla Nut), in botany, the fruit or pod of Arachis
hypogaea (nat. ord. Leguminosae). The plant is an annual of
diffuse habit, with hairy stem, and two-paired, abruptly pinnate
leaflets. The pods or legumes are stalked, oblong, cylindrical,
about 1 in. in length, the thin reticulated shell containing one or
two irregularly ovoid seeds. After the flower withers, the stalk
of the ovary has the peculiarity of elongating and bending down,
forcing the young pod underground, and thus the seeds become
matured at some distance below the surface. Hence the specific
and vernacular names of the plant. Originally a native of
South America, it is extensively cultivated in all tropical and
subtropical countries. The plant affects a light sandy soil, and
is very prolific, yielding in some instances 30 to 38 bushels of nuts
per acre. The pods when ripe are dug up and dried. The seeds
when fresh are largely eaten in tropical countries, and in taste
are almost equal to almonds; when roasted they are used as a
substitute for chocolate. In America they are consumed in
large quantities as the " pea-nut "; but are not much appreciated
in England except by the poorer children, who know them as
" monkey-nuts." By expression the seeds yield a large quantity
of oil, which is used by natives for lamps, as a fish or curry oil
and for medicinal purposes. The leaves form an excellent food
for cattle, being very like clover.
Large quantities of seeds are imported to Europe, chiefly to
Marseilles, London and Hamburg, for the sake of their contained
oil. The seeds yield from 42 to 50% of oil by cold expression,
but a larger quantity is obtained by heat, although of an inferior
quality. The seeds being soft facilitate mechanical expression,
and where bisulphide of carbon or other solvent is used, a very
pure oil is obtained.
The expressed oil is limpid, of a light yellowish or straw colour,
having a faint smell and bland taste; it forms an excellent
substitute for olive oil, although in a slight degree more prone
to rancidity than the latter. Its specific gravity is 0-916 to
0-918; it becomes turbid at 3 C, concretes at +3 to - 4 C,
and hardens at +7° C. It is a non-drying oil. Ground nut oil
consists of (1) oleic acid (Q8H34O2); (2) hypogaeic acid
(CuHaoOi), by some supposed to be identical with a fatty acid
found in whale oil; (3) palmitic acid (CmHmOj); and (4)
arachic acid (C20H40O2). The oil is used in the adulteration of
gingelly oil.
GROUND-PEARL, the glassy secretion forming the pupacase
of coccid insects of the genus Mar gar odes y belonging to the
homopterous division of the Hemiptera.
GROUND RENT. In Roman law, ground rent (solarium)
was an annual rent payable by the lessee of a superficies or
perpetual lease of building land. In English law, it appears that
the term was at one time popularly used for the houses and lands
out of which ground rents issue as well as for the rents themselves
(cf. Maundy v. Maundy, 2 Strange, 1020); and Lord Eldon
observed in 181 5 that the context in which the term occurred
may materially vary its meaning (Stewart v. Alliston, 1 Mer. 26).
But at the present time the accepted meaning of ground rent is
the rent at which land is let for the purpose of improvement by
building, *.«.arent charged in respect of the land only and not in
respect of the buildings to be placed thereon. It thus conveys
the idea of something lower than a rack rent (see Rent) ; and
accordingly if a vendor described property as property for which
he paid a " ground rent," without any further explanation of the
term, a purchaser would not be obliged to accept the property
if it turned out to be held at a rack rent. But while a rack rent
is generally higher in amount than a ground rent, the latter is
usually better secured, as it carries with it the reversionary
interest in buildings and improvements put on the ground after
the date at which the ground rent was fixed, and accordingly
ground rents have been regarded as a good investment. Trustees
empowered to invest money on the security of freehold or
copyhold hereditaments, may invest upon freehold ground rents
reserved out of house property. In estimating the amount that
may be so invested, account may be taken of the value of the
houses, as, if the ground rents are not paid, the landlord can
re-enter. Again, where a settlement authorizes trustees to
purchase lands or hereditaments in fee-simple or possession, a
purchase of freehold ground rents has been held to be proper.
A devise of " ground rent " carries not only the rent but the
reversion. Where a tenant is compelled, in order to protect
himself in the enjoyment of the land in respect of which his rent
is payable, to pay ground rent to a superior landlord (who is
of course in a position to distrain on him for it), he is considered
as having been authorized by his immediate landlord to apply
his rent, due or accruing due, in this manner, and the payment
of the ground rent will be held to be payment of the rent itself
or part of it. A lodger should make any payment of this char-
acter under the Law of Distress Amendment Act 1908 (s. 3;
and see Rent). Ground rents are apportionable (see Appor-
tionment).
In Scots law, the term " Ground rent " is not employed, but its
place is taken, for practical purposes, by the " ground-annual, "
which bears a double meaning, (i.) At the time of the Reformation
in Scotland, the lands of the Church were parcelled out by the crown
into various lordships — the grantees being called Lords of Erection.
In the 17th century these Lords of Erection resigned their superiorities
to the crown, with the exception of the feu-duties, which were to be
retained till a price agreed upon for their redemption had been paid.
This reserved power of redemption was, however, resigned by the
crown on the eve of the Union and the feu-duties became payable in
gerpetuity to the Lords of Erection as a " ground-annual." (ii.)
peculators in building ground usually grant sub-feus to builders at
a high feu-duty. But where sub-feus are prohibited — as they might
be, prior to the Conveyancing (Scotland) Act 1874 — and there is
much demand for building ground, the feuars frequently stipulate for
an annual rent from the builders rather than for a price payable at
once. This annual rent is called a " ground-annual. Interest is not
626
GROUNDSEL— GROUPS, THEORY OF
due on arrears of ground-annuals. Like other real burdens, ground-
annuals may now be freely assigned and conveyed (Conveyancing
(Scotland) Act 1874, s. 30).
The term " ground rent " in the English sense does not seem
to be generally used in the United States, but is applied in
Pennsylvania to a kind of tenure, created by a grant in fee simple,
the grantor reserving to himself and his heirs a certain rent,
which is the interest of the money value of the land. These
11 ground rents " are real estate, and, in cases of intestacy, go to
the heir. They are rent services and not rent charges — the
statute Quia Emptor es never having been in force in Pennsylvania,
and are subject to all the incidents of such rents (see Rent).
The grantee of such a " ground rent " may mortgage, sell, or
otherwise dispose of the grant as he pleases; and while the rent
is paid the land cannot be sold or the value of the improvements
lost.
A ground rent being a freehold estate, created by deed and
perpetual in duration, no presumption could, at common law,
arise from lapse of time, that it had been released. But now,
by statute (Act of 27th of April 1855, s. 7), a presumption of
release or extinguishment is created where no payment, claim
or demand has been made for the rent, nor any declaration or
acknowledgment of its existence made or given by the owner
of the premises subject to it, for the period of 21 years. Ground
rents were formerly irredeemable after a certain time. But the
creation of irredeemable ground rents is now forbidden (Pennsyl-
vania Act 7 Assembly, 22nd of April 1850).
For English Law see Foa, Landlord and Tenant (3rd ed. t London,
1901); Scots Law, Bell's Principles (10th ed., Edinburgh, 1899);
American Law, Bouvier, Law Diet. (Boston and London, 1897).
(A. W. R.)
GROUNDSEL (Ger. Kreuzkraut; Fr. seneqon), Senecio vul-
garis, an annual, glabrous, or more or less woolly plant of the
natural order Compositae, having a branched succulent stem
6 to 15 in. in height, pinnatifid irregularly and coarsely-toothed
leaves, and small cylindrical heads of yellow tubular florets
enveloped in an involucre of numerous narrow bracts; the
ribbed fruit bears a soft, feathery, hoary tuft of hairs (Pappus).
The plant is indigenous to Europe, whence it has been introduced
into all temperate climates. It is a troublesome weed, flowering
throughout the year, and propagating itself rapidly by means
of its light feathery fruits; it has its use, however, as a food
for cage-birds. Senecio Jacobaea, ragwort, is a showy plant with
heads of bright yellow flowers, common in pastures and by
roadsides. The genus Senecio is a very large one, widely distri-
buted in temperate and cold climates. The British species are
all herbs, but the genus also includes shrubs and even arborescent
forms, which are characteristic features of the vegetation of
the higher levels on the mountains of tropical Africa. Many
species of the genus are handsome florists' plants. The groundsel
tree, Baccharis halimifolia, a native of the North American
sea-coast from Massachusetts southward, is a Composite shrub,
attaining 6 to 12 ft. in height, and having angular branches,
obovate or oblong-cuneate, somewhat scurfy leaves, and flowers
larger than but similar to those of common groundsel. The
long white pappus of the female plant renders it a conspicuous
object in autumn. The groundsel tree has been cultivated in
British gardens since 1683.
The Old English word, represented by " groundsel," appears in
two forms, grundeswylige and gundaswehia; of the first form the
accepted derivation is from grand, ground, and swelgau, to swallow ;
a weed of such rapid growth would not inaptly be styled a " ground -
swallower." If the form without the r be genuine, the word might
mean " pus-absorber " (O.E. gund t filth, matter), with reference to its
use in poultices for abscesses and the like.
GROUND-SQUIRREL, one of the names for a group of (chiefly)
North American striped terrestrial squirrel-iike rodents, more
generally known as chipmunks. They are closely allied to
squirrels, from which they are distinguished by the possession
of cheek-pouches for the storage of food. The sides, or the sides
and back, are marked with light stripes bordered by dark bands;
the ears are small, and without tufts; and the tail is relatively
short. With the exception of one Siberian species (Tamias
astatic us), ground-squirrels are confined to North America,
where they are represented by a large number of species and
races, all referable to the genus Tamias. In North America
ground-squirrels are migratory, and may be abundant in a
district one year, and absent the next. They feed on nuts,
beechmast, corn and roots, and also on grubs. With the assist-
ance of their cheek-pouches they accumulate large supplies
of food for the winter, during which season they lie dormant
in holes. Although generally keeping to the ground, when
hunted they take to trees, which they climb in search of food.
One of the longest known American species is T. striatus.
GROUPS, 1 THEORY OP. The conception of an operation
to be carried out on some object or set of objects underlies all
mathematical science. Thus in elementary arithmetic there are
the fundamental operations of the addition and the multiplication
of integers; in algebra a linear transformation is an operation
which may be carried out on any set of variables; while in
geometry a translation, a rotation, or a projective transformation
are operations which may be carried out on any figure.
In speaking of an operation, an object or a set of objects to
which it may be applied is postulated; and the operation may,
and generally will, have no meaning except in regard to such a
set of objects. If two operations, which can be performed on
the same set of objects, are such that, when carried out in
succession on any possible object, the result, whichever operation
is performed first, is to produce no change in the object, then
each of the operations is spoken of as a definite operation, and
each of them is called the inverse of the other. Thus the opera-
tions which consist in replacing x by nx and by x/n respectively,
in any rational function of x, are definite inverse operations,
if n is any assigned number except zero. On the contrary, the
operation of replacing x by an assigned number in any rational
function of x is not, in the present sense, although it leads to a
unique result, a definite operation; there is in fact no unique
inverse operation corresponding to it. It is to be noticed that
the question whether an operation is a definite operation or no
may depend on the range of the objects on which it operates.
For example, the operations of squaring and extracting the
square root are definite inverse operations if the objects are
restricted to be real positive numbers, but not otherwise.
If O, O', O*,. . .is the totality of the objects on which a definite
operation S and its inverse S' may be carried out, and if the result of
carrying out S on O is represented by O.S, then O.S.S'.O.S'.S., and
O are the same object whatever object of the set O may be. This
will be represented by the equations SS' = S'S = I. Now O.S.S' has
a meaning only if O.S is an object on which S' may be performed.
Hence whatever object of the set O may be, both O.S and O.S'
belong to the set. Similarly O.S.S, O.S.S.S, . . .are objects of the
set. These will be represented by O.S*, O.S«, . . . Suppose now
that T is another definite operation with the same set of objects as
S, and that T' is its inverse operation. Then O.S.T is a definite
operation of the set, and therefore the result of carrying out S and
then T on the set of objects is some operation U with a unique result.
Represent by U' the result of carrying out T' and then S'. Then
O. UU' = O.S.T.T'.S' - O.SS' = O, and O. U'U - O.T'.S'.S.T
= O.TT=0, whatever object O may be. Hence UU' = U'U = i;
and U, U' are definite inverse operations.
If S, U, V are definite operations, and if S' is the invert of S, then
SU=SV
implies S'SU-S'SV,
or U = V.
Similarly US=VS
implies U=V.
Let S, T, U,. . .be a set of definite operations, capable of being
carried out on a common object or set of objects, and let n.**. ™ -
the set contain — ^ •»■».
(i.) the operation ST, S and T being any two operations ***^
of the set ;
(ii.) the inverse operation of S, S being any operation of the set;
the set of operations is then called a group.
The number of operations in a group may be either finite or in-
finite. When it is finite, the number is called the order of the group,
1 The word " group," which appears first in English in the sense
of an assemblage of figures in an artistic design, picture, &c, is
adapted from the Fr. group* , which is to be referred to the Teutonic
word meaning " knot," " mass," " bunch," represented in English
by " crop " (q.v.). The technical mathematical sense is not older
than 1870.
GROUPS, THEORY OF
627
and the group is spoken of as a group of finite order. If the number
of operations is infinite, there are three possible cases. When the
group is represented by a set of geometrical operations, for the speci-
fication of an individual operation a number of measurements will
be necessary. In more analytical language, each operation will be
specified by the values of a set of parameters. If no one of these
parameters is capable of continuous variation, the group is called a
discontinuous group. If all the parameters are capable of continuous
variation, the group is called a continuous group. If some of the
parameters are capable of continuous variation and some are not, the
group is called a mixed group.
If S' is the inverse operation of S, a group which contains S must
contain SS', which produces no change on any possible object.
This is called the identical operation, and will always be represented
by 1. Since S*S«=S»** when p and q are positive integers, and
S^S'^S^" 1 while no meaning at present has been attached to S«
when q is negative, S' may be consistently represented by S" 1 . The
set of operations . . ., S""*, S _1 , 1, S, S 2 , . . . obviously constitute a
group. Such a group is called a cyclical group.
It will be convenient, before giving some illustrations of the
general group idea, to add a number of further definitions and ex-
--^^ planations which apply to all groups alike. If from among
z*z?"*?r the set of operations S, T, U, . . . which constitute a group
3232- G, a smaller set S', T', IT, ... can be chosen which them-
JtomornA-' *d yes constitute a group H, the group H is called a sub-
Urn ST & rou P °f G. Thus, in particular, if S is an operation of G,
the cyclical group constituted by . . . ,S~* f S" 1 , 1, S, S f , . . .
is a subgroup of G, except in the special case when it coincides with
G itself.
If S and T are any two operations of G, the two operations S and
T^ST are called conjugate operations, and T^ST is spoken of as the
result of transforming S by T. It is to be noted that since ST =
T -1 . TS. T, ST and TS are always conjugate operations in any group
containing both S and T. If T transforms S into itself, that is, if
S-T- X ST or TS=ST, S and T are called permutable operations. A
group whose operations are all permutable with each other is called
an Abelian group. If S is transformed into itself by every operation
of G, or. in other words, if it is permutable with every operation of G,
it is called a self-conjugate operation of G.
The conception of operations being conjugate to each other is
extended to subgroups. If S', T', U , . . . are the operations of a
subgroup H, and if R is any operation of G, then the operations
R-^S'R, R- X T'R, R^U'R, . . . belong to G, and constitute a sub-
group of G. For if ST-U', then R- 1 S'R.R- 1 T'R = R- 1 S'T'R =
K^U'R. This subgroup may be identical with H. In particular,
it is necessarily the same as H if R belongs to H. If it is not identical
with H, it is said to be conjugate to H ; and it is in any case repre-
sented by the symbol R- l HR. If H^R^HR, the operation K is
said to be permutable with the subgroup H. (It is to be noticed that
this does not imply that R is permutable with each operation of H.)
If H = R _1 HR, when for R is taken in turn each of the operations
of G, then H is called a self-conjugate subgroup of G.
A group is spoken of as simple when it has no self-conjugate
subgroup other than that constituted by the identical operation
alone. A group which has a self-conjugate subgroup is called
composite.
Let G be a group constituted of the operations S, T, U, . . ., and g
a second group constituted of s, t, u, . . ., and suppose that to each
operation of G there corresponds a single operation of g in such a
way that if ST = U, then st—u t where s, t, u are the operations
corresponding to S, T, U respectively. The groups are then said to
be isomorphic , and the correspondence between their operations is
spoken of as an isomorphism between the groups. It is clear that
there may be two distinct cases of such isomorphism. To a single
operation of g there may correspond either a single operation ofG
or more than one. In the first case the isomorphism is spoken of as
simple, in the second as multiple.
Two simply isomorphic groups considered abstractly — that is to
say, in regard only to the way in which their operations combine
among themselves, and apart from any concrete representation of
the operations — are clearly indistinguishable.
If G is multiply isomorphic with g, let A, B, C, . . . be the opera-
tions of G which correspond to the identical operation of g. Then to
the operations A" 1 and AB of G there corresponds the identical
operation of g; so that A, B, C, . . constitute a subgroup H of G.
Moreover, if R is any operation of G, the identical operation of g
corresponds to every operation of R^HR, and therefore H is a self-
conjugate subgroup of G. Since S corresponds to s, and every opera-
tion of H to the identical operation of g, therefore every operation of
the set SA, SB, SC, . . ., which is represented by SH, corresponds to s.
Also these are the only operations that correspond to s. The opera-
tions of G may therefore be divided into sets, no two of which contain
a common operation, such that the correspondence between the
operations of G and g connects each of the sets H, SH, TH, UH, . . .
with the single operations 1, s, /, u, . . written below them. The sets
into which the operations of G are thus divided combine among
themselves by exactly the same laws as the operations of g. For if
$/=*, then SH.TH = UH, in the sense that any operation of the set
SH followed by any operation of the set TH gives an operation of the
set UH.
The group g, abstractly considered, is therefore completely defined
by the division of the operations of G into sets in respect of the self-
conjugate subgroup H. From this point of view it is spoken of as the
factor-group of G in respect of H, and is represented by the symbol
G/H. Any composite group in a similar way defines abstractly a
factor-group in respect of each of its self -con jugate subgroups.
It follows from the definition of a group that it must always be
possible to choose from its operations a set such that every operation
of the group can be obtained by combining the operations of the set
and their inverses. If the set is such that no one of the operations
belonging to it can be represented in terms of the others, it is called a
set of independent generating operations. Such a set of generating
operations may be either finite or infinite in number. If A, B, . . ., E
are the generating operations of a group, the group generated by
them is represented by the symbol {A, B, . . ., Ef. An obvious
extension of this symbol is used such that (A, H) represents the group
generated by combining an operation A with every operation of a
group H ; {Hi, Hj| represents the group obtained by combining in all
possible ways the operations of the groups Hi and H 8 ; and so on.
The independent generating operations of a group may be subject to
certain relations connecting them, but these must be such that it is
impossible by combining them to obtain a relation expressing one
operation in terms of the others. For instance, AB « B A is a relation
conditioning the group {A, B) ; it does not, however, enable A to be
expressed in terms of B, so that A and B are independent generating
operations.
Let O, O', O", ... be a set of objects which are interchanged among
themselves by the operations of a group G, so that if S is any opera-
tion of the group, and O any one of the objects, then O. S -. ,
is an object occurring in the set. If it is possible to find an /JXJr d
operation S of the group such that O. S is any assigned one ^jX.**^
of the set of objects, the group is called transitive in respect ^tv^y
of this set of objects. When this is not possible the group y "
is called intransitive in respect of the set. If it is possible to find S so
that any arbitrarily chosen n objects of the set, Oi, Qi, . . ., O n are
changed by S into 0'i, O'j, . . ., O'* respectively, the latter being also
arbitrarily chosen, the group is said to be »-ply transitive.
If O, O', O", ... is a set of objects in respect of which a group G is
transitive, it may be possible to divide the set into a number of
subsets, no two of which contain a common object, such that every
operation of the group either interchanges the objects of a subset
among themselves, or changes them all into the objects of some other
subset. When this is the case the group is called imprimitwe in
respect of the set ; otherwise the group is called primitive. A group
which is doubly-transitive, in respect of a set of objects, obviously
cannot be imprimitive.
The foregoing general definitions and explanations will now be
illustrated by a consideration of certain particular groups. To begin
with, as the operations involved are of the most familiar niuKtram
nature, the group of rational arithmetic may be considered, ^jm?/
The fundamental operations of elementary arithmetic the groan
consist in the addition and subtraction of integers, and us^/^
multiplication and division by integers, division by zero
alone omitted. Multiplication by zero is not a definite operation,
and it must therefore be omitted in dealing with those operations of
elementary arithmetic which form a group. The operation that
results from carrying out additions, subtractions, multiplications and
divisions, of and by integers a finite number of times, is represented
by the relation x' = ax+b, where a and b are rational numbers of which
a is not zero, x is the object of the operation, and x' is the result.
The totality of operations of this form obviously constitutes a group.
If S and T represent respectively the operations x'=ax+b and
x'=cx+d, then T^ST represents x'=ax+d-ad+ be. When o and b
are given rational numbers, c and d may be chosen in an infinite
number of ways as rational numbers, so that d-ad+bc shall be any
assigned rational number. Hence the operations given by x' =*ax-\-b,
where a is an assigned rational number and b is any rational number,
are all conjugate ; and no two such operations for which the a's are
different can be conjugate. If a is unity and b zero, S is the identical
operation which is necessarily self -con jugate. If a is unity and b
different from zero, the operation x**=x+b is an addition. The
totality of additions forms, therefore, a single conjugate set of opera-
tions. Moreover, the totality of additions with the identical opera-
tion, i.e. the totality of operations of the form x' =x-f b, where b may
be any rational number or zero, obviously constitutes a group. The
operations of this group are interchanged among themselves when
transformed by any operation of the original group. It is therefore
a self-conjugate subgroup of the original group.
The totality of multiplications, with the identical operation, i.e. all
operations of the form x' —ax, where a is any rational number other
than zero, again obviously constitutes a group. This, however, is not
a self-conjugate subgroup of the original group. In fact, if the
operations x 1 —ax are all transformed by xr =cx+d t they give rise
to the set x' =ax-\-d(i -a). When d is a given rational number, the
set constitutes a subgroup which is conjugate to the group of multi-
plications. It is to be noticed that the operations of this latter sub-
group may be written in the form x / -d=>a(x-d).
The totality of rational numbers, including zero, forms a set of
objects which are interchanged among themselves by all operations
of the group.
628
GROUPS, THEORY OF
If xi and Xs are any pair of distinct rational numbers, and y\ and y%
any other pair, there is just one operation of the group which changes
xi and xi into y\ and yi respectively. For the equations y\ =*ax\-\-b,
yi**ax2+b determine a and b uniquely. The group is therefore
doubly transitive in respect of the set of rational numbers. If H is
the subgroup that leaves unchanged a given rational number xi,
and S an operation changing X\ into xt, then every operation of
S"'HS leaves x* unchanged. The subgroups, each of which leaves a
single rational number unchanged, therefore form a single conjugate
set. The group of multiplications leaves zero unchanged; and, as
has been seen, this is conjugate with the subgroup formed of all
operations x'-d**a{x-d), where d is a given rational number.
This subgroup leaves d unchanged.
The group of multiplications is clearly generated by the operations
*'-£*, where for p negative unity and each prime is taken in turn.
Every addition is obtained on transforming x' »x-M by the different
operations of the group of multiplications. Hence x'=*+i, and
x =px, (/>— -i, 3, 5, 7, . . .), form a set of independent generating
operations of the group. It is a discontinuous group.
As a second example the group of motions in three-dimensional
space will be considered. The totality of motions, i.e. of space
displacements which leave the distance of every pair of points
unaltered, obviously constitutes a set of operations which satis-
fies the group definition. From the elements of kinematics it is
known that every motion is either (i.) a translation which leaves no
point unaltered, but changes each of a set of parallel lines into
itself ; or (ii.) a rotation which leaves every point of one line unaltered
and changes every other point and line; or (iii.) a twist which leaves
no point and only one line (its axis) unaltered, and may be regarded
as a translation along, combined with a rotation round, the axis.
Let S be any motion consisting of a translation / along and a rotation
a round a line AB, and let T be any other motion. There is some line
CD into which T changes AB; and therefore T~ l ST leaves CD un-
changed. Moreover, T" l ST clearly effects the same translation along
and rotation round CD that S effects for AB. Two motions, there-
fore, are conjugate if and only if the amplitudes of their translation
and rotation components are respectively equal. In particular, all
translations of equal amplitude are conjugate, as also are all rotations
of equal amplitude. Any two translations are permutable with each
other, and give when combined another translation. The totality
of translations constitutes, therefore, a subgroup of the general group
of motions; and this subgroup is a self-conjugate subgroup, since a
translation is always conjugate to a translation.
All the points of space constitute a set of objects which are inter-
changed among themselves by all operations of the group of motions.
So also do all the lines of space and all the planes. In respect of each
of these sets the group is simply transitive. In fact, there is an
infinite number of motions which change a point A to A', but no
motion can change A and B to A' and B' respectively unless the
distance AB is egual to the distance A'B'.
The totality of motions which leave a point A unchanged forms a
subgroup. It is clearly constituted of all possible rotations about all
possible axes through A, and is known as the group of rotations about
a point. Every motion can be represented as a rotation about some
axis through A followed by a translation. Hence if G is the group of
motions and H the group of translations, G/H is simply isomorphic
with the group of rotations about a point.
The totality of the motions which bring a given solid to congruence
with itself again constitutes a subgroup of the group of motions.
This will in general be the trivial subgroup formed of the identical
operation above, but may in the case of a symmetrical body be more
extensive. For a sphere or a right circular cylinder the subgroups
are those that leave the centre and the axis respectively unaltered.
For a solid bounded by plane faces the subgroup is clearly one
of finite order. In particular, to each of the regular solids there
corresponds such a group. That for the tetrahedron has 12 for its
order, for the cube (or octahedron) 24, and for the icosahedron (or
dodecahedron) 60.
The determination of a particular operation of the group of motions
involves six distinct measurements; namely, four to give the axis
of the twist, one for the magnitude of the translation along the axis,
and one for the magnitude of the rotation about it. Each of the six
quantities involved may have any value whatever, and the group of
motions is therefore a continuous group. On the other hand, a sub-
group of the group of motions which leaves a line or a plane unaltered
is a mixed group.
We shall now discuss (i.) continuous groups, (ii.) discontinuous
groups whose order is not finite, and (iii.) groups of finite order.
For proofs of the statements, and the general theorems, the
reader is referred to the bibliography.
Continuous Groups.
The determination of a particular operation of a given con-
tinuous group depends on assigning special values to each one
of a set of parameters which are capable of continuous variation.
The first distinction regards the number of these parameters.
If this number is finite, the group is called a finite continuous
group; if infinite, it is called an infinite continuous group.
In the latter case arbitrary functions must appear in the equations
defining the operations of the group when these are reduced to
an analytical form. The theory of infinite continuous groups
is not yet so completely developed as that of finite continuous
groups. The latter theory will mainly occupy us here.
Sophus Lie, to whom the foundation and a great part of the
development of the theory of continuous groups are due, un-
doubtedly approached the subject from a geometrical standpoint.
His conception of an operation is to regard it as a geometrical
transformation, by means of which each point of (n-dimensional)
space is changed into some other definite point.
The representation of such a transformation in analytical form
involves a system of equations,
*'»-/«(*i, *a» • - .. *n), (5 = 1, 2, . . ., n),
expressing *' lf x\, . . ., *'», the co-ordinates of the transformed point
in terms of %u *t t • • •? *m the co-ordinates of the original point.
In these equations the functions /« are analytical functions of their
arguments. Within a properly limited region they must be one-
valued, and the equations must admit a unique solution with respect
to *i, &,..., x n , since the operation would not otherwise be a
definite one.
From this point of view the operations of a continuous group,
which depends on a set of r parameters, will be defined analytically
by a system of equations of the form
*'.=>/.(xi, xt, . . ., *»; a u Of, . . ., Or), (*«i, 2, . . ., »), (i.)
where a\, a», . . ., <h represent the parameters. If this operation be
represented by A, and that in which bi, bt, — ,b r are the parameters
by B, then the operation AB is represented by the elimination
(assumed to be possible) of x\, x\ t . . ., x f n between the equations(L)
and the equations
*".=/.(*'i, *'«» • • .,*'»; fci 01 b r ), (s«i, 2, . . ., n).
Since AB belongs to the group, the result of the elimination must be
*' • sa /»(*ii Xt, . , ., x n ; ci, c%, . . ., Cr)»
where Ci, c%, . . ., Cr represent another definite set of values of the
parameters. Moreover, since A" 1 belongs to the group, the result
of solving equations (i.) with respect to *i, x%, . . ., Xn must be
*«-/t(*'if *V • • •» *'»; 4i 4. • • •» *)» (*- 1, a, . . ., «).
Conversely, if equations (i.) are such that these two conditions are
satisfied, they do in fact define a finite continuous group.
It will be assumed that the r parameters which enter in equations
(i.) are independent, i.e. that it is impossible to choose
r' (<r) quantities in terms of which a lt a*, . . ., Or can ImtinHmi*
be expressed. Where this is the case the group will mnl •pars-
be spoken of as a "group of order r." Lie uses the ttmaotm
term " r-gliedrige Gruppe" It is to be noticed that the contlnaoa*
word order is used in quite a different sense from that f*qp>
given to it in connexion with groups of finite order.
In regard to equations (i.), which define the general operation of
the group, it is to be noticed that, since the group contains the
identical operation, these equations must for some definite set of
values of the parameters reduce to x\=X\ t x't s *xt t . . ., x' m =x m .
This set of values may, without loss of generality, be assumed to be
simultaneous zero values. For if i'i, ft, . . ., t, be the values of the
parameters which give the identical operation, and if we write
a.«t.+o, (5=1,2,... ,r),
then zero values of the new parameters a it a%, . . . , a, give the identical
operation.
To infinitesimal values of the parameters, thus chosen, will corre-
spond operations which cause an infinitesimal change in each of the
variables. These are called infinitesimal operations. The most
general infinitesimal operation of the group is that given by the
system
*.-*.-te.-|j*h+|!2*+ • • • + S Jo " <*-'• 2 *)•
where, in dfjdai, zero values of the parameters are to be taken. Since
a u o», . . . , Or are independent, the ratios of fo ( , ba%, . . . , far are
arbitrary. Hence the most general infinitesimal operation of the
group may be written in the form
*■- ("S + ^ + • • • + *i) * fr - «• 2 ">•
where 4, e», . . . , «r are arbitrary constants, and St is an infinitesimal.
If F(*i, xt, . . • » Xn) is any function of the variables, and if an
infinitesimal operation of the group be carried out on the variables in
F, the resulting increment of F will be
If the differential operator
COi CXx*COi CX% ' ' COi CXn
GROUPS, THEORY OF
629
be represented by X«, (*-i, 2, . . . ,r), then the increment of F is
given by
(*X,+*X 8 +... +*X f )F«.
When the equations (i.) defining the general operation of the group
are given, the coefficients djjdai which enter in these differential
operators are functions of the variables which can be directly calcu-
lated.
The differential operator tfiXi+£iXj+ v . -r-erX, may then be
regarded as defining the most general infinitesimal operation of the
group. In fact, if it be for a moment represented by X, then
7i +MX)F is the result of carrying out the infinitesimal operation on
F ; and by putting x u *2, . . . , *» in turn for F, the actual infinitesimal
operation is reproduced. By a very convenient, though perhaps
hardly justifiable, phraseology this differential operator is itself
spoken of as the general infinitesimal operation of the group. The
sense in which this phraseology is to be understood will be made
clear by the foregoing explanations.
We suppose now that the constants e it e%, . . . , Cr have assigned
values. Then the result of repeating the particular infinitesimal
operation eiXi+fjXi-r- . . . +CrX r or X an infinite number of times
is some finite operation of the group. The effect of this finite opera-
tion on F may be directly calculated. In fact, if 6/ is the infinitesimal
already introduced, then
£=X.F,^=X.X.F,...
Hence r „ F +<§+!-<%+ . . .
»F+*X.F+^X.X.F+ . . .
It must, of course, be understood that in this analytical representa-
tion of the effect of the finite operation on F it is implied that t is
taken sufficiently small to ensure the convergence of the (in general)
infinite series.
When *i, x% 9 . . . are written in turn for F, the system of equations
*Wi +/X+^X.X+. . . )*., (,-i, 2 n) (ii.)
represent the finite operation completely. If / is here regarded as a
parameter, this set of operations must in themselves constitute a
group, since they arise by the repetition of a single infinitesimal
operation. That this is really the case results immediately from
noticing that the result of eliminating F' between
F'-F+«.F+y^X.X.F+ . . .
and
*F'-KX.F'-hy^X.X.F'+
F'=F+(/-K)X.FH-
1.2
X.X.F+ . .
The group thus generated by the repetition of an infinitesimal
operation is called a cyclical group; so that a continuous group
contains a cyclical subgroup corresponding to each of its infinitesimal
operations.
The system of equations (ii.) represents an operation of the group
whatever the constants 4, e», . . . , €r may be. Hence if e i/ t e4% . . . t trt
be replaced by ai, <h, . . . , Or the equations (ii.) represent a set of
operations, depending on r parameters and belonging to the group.
They must therefore be a form of the general equations for any
operation of the group, and are equivalent to the equations (i.).
The determination of the finite equations of a cyclical group, when
the infinitesimal operation which generates it is given, will always
depend on the integration of a set of simultaneous ordinary differential
equations. As a very simple example we may consider the case in
which the infinitesimal operation is given by X — &d/dx, so that there
is only a single variable. The relation between x J and / is given by
dx'ldt=*x*, with the condition that x' =** when *=o. This gives at
once x'=x/(i-tx), which might also be obtained by the direct use of
(ii.).
When the finite equations (i.) of a continuous group of order r are
known, it has now been seen that the differential operator which
defines the most general infinitesimal operation of the
{J*?*** ** group can be directly constructed, and that it contains r
between arbitrary constants. This is equivalent to saving that
titot'i ml tne £ r ? u P contams r linearly independent infinitesimal
™™2?"*| operations; and that the most general infinitesimal
*v operation is obtained by combining these linearly with
*J? constant coefficients. Moreover, when any r independent
^"r**"*"* infinitesimal operations of the group are known, it has
* ro< W , » been seen how the general finite operation of the group
may be calculated. This obviously suggests that it must be possible
to define the group by means of its infinitesimal operations alone;
and it is clearthat such a definition would lend itself more readily to
some applications (for instance, to the theory of differential equations)
than the definition by means of the finite equations.
On the other hand, r arbitrarily given linear differential operators
will not, in general, give rise to a finite continuous group of order r;
and the question arises as to what conditions such a set of operators
must satisfy in order that they may, in fact, be the independent
infinitesimal operations of such a group.
If X, Y are two linear differential operators, XY- YX is also a
linear differential operator. It is called the " combinant " of X and
Y (Lie uses the expression Klatnmerausdruck) and is denoted by
(XY). Jf X, Y, Z are any three linear differential operators the
identity (known as Jacobi's)
l fj l (X(YZ)) + (Y(ZX))+(Z(XY))=o
holds between them. Now it may be shown that any continuous
group of which X, Y are infinitesimal operations contains also (XY)
among its infinitesimal operations. Hence if r linearly independent
operations Xi, Xi, ...,X give rise to a finite continuous group of
order r, the combinant of each pair must be expressible linearly in
terms of the r operations themselves : that is, there must be a system
of relations
(XiX,) = y Ci,*X*,
^-**_i
where the c's are constants. Moreover, from Jacobi's identity and the
identity (XY)+(YX) =0 it follows that the c's are subject to the
relations
and
Cijl+C/ii^O,
2 (CjktCut +CkiaCj 9 1 +Cij tCktt)
-}
(Hi.)
for all values of i, j, k and /.
The fundamental theorem of the theory of finite continuous groups
is now that these conditions, which are necessary in order ^^
that Xi, Xj, . . . , Xr may generate, as infinitesimal z?r n !J!T
operations, a continuous group of order r, are also i??, !,
sufficient. J™* - "^
For the proof of this fundamental theorem see Lie's 2Km««
works (cf. Lie-Engel, i. chap, q ; iii. chap. 25). mnm*t
If two continuous groups of order r are such that, for J3JJ^
each, a set of linearly independent infinitesimal operations ** rw
Xi, X 2 , . . . , Xr and Yi, Yj, . . . , Y r can be chosen, so
that in the relations
PMM-rcJU (Y<Y|)-35*,.Y*
the constants c»y. and a,j, are the same for all values of i,j and s, the
two groups are simply isomorphic, X. and Y, being corresponding
infinitesimal operations.
Two continuous groups of order r, whose infinitesimal operations
obey the same system of equations (iii.), may be of very different
form; for instance, the number of variables for the one may be
different from that for the other. They are, however, said to be of
the same type, in the sense that the laws according to which their
operations combine are the same for both.
The problenvof determining all distinct types of groups of order r
is then contained in the purely algebraical problem of finding all the
systems of r* quantities c,y. which satisfy tne relations
Cijt+Cijt= o,
2 (Ci;flC«*< +CjktCn t + CkitCijt) =■ O,
for all values of *\ h h and /. To two distinct solutions of the alge-
braical problem, however, two distinct types of group will not
necessarily correspond. In fact, Xi, X 8 , . . , X r may be replaced by
any r independent linear functions of themselves, and the c's will
then be transformed by a linear substitution containing r 1 inde-
pendent parameters. This, however, does not alter the type of group
considered.
For a single parameter there is, of course, only one type of group,
which has been called cyclical.
For a group of order two there is a single relation
(XtXO-aXx+tfX,.
If a and are not both zero, let a be finite. The relation may then
be written (aXi+iffX,, a^Xj) -aXi+flX,. Hence if aXi+0X, = X'„
and a-OC-X'j, then (X'iX't)-X'i. There are, therefore, just two
types of group of order two, the one given by the relation last written,
and the other by (X1X2) «*o.
Lie has determined all distinct types of continuous groups of
orders three or four; and all types of non-integrable groups (a term
which will be explained immediately) of orders five and six (cf. Lie-
Engel, iii. 713744).
A problem of fundamental importance in connexion with any given
continuous group is the determination of the self-conjugate
subgroups which it contains. If X is an infinitesimal ff , B "
operation of a group, and Y any other, the general form jJJJL^.
of the infinitesimal operations which are conjugate to X is ^^mbh
X+I(XY)+^ 3 ((3CY)Y)+...
Any subgroup which contains all the operations conjugate to X must
therefore contain all infinitesimal operations (XY), ((XY)Y) , . . .,
where for Y each infinitesimal operation of the group is taken in turn.
Hence if X'i, X'a, . . . , X', are s linearly independent operations of
the group which generate a self -conjugate subgroup of order s, then
for every infinitesimal operation Y of the group relations of the form
(X f i Y)^Xa i .X f . 1 (f-i,2 s)
630
GROUPS, THEORY OF
must be satisfied. Conversely, if such a set of relations is satisfied,
X'i, X'a, . . . , X'. generate a subgroup of order $, which contains
every operation conjugate to each of the infinitesimal generating
operations, and is therefore a self-conjugate subgroup.
A specially important self -con jugate subgroup is that generated
by the combmants of the t infinitesimal generating operations. That
these generate a self -con jugate subgroup follows from the relations
(Hi.). In fact,
s
Of the Jr(r-i) combinants not more than r can be linearly inde-
pendent. When exactly r of them are linearly independent, the self-
conjugate group generated by them coincides with the original group.
If the number that are linearly independent is less than r , the self-
conjugate subgroup generated by them is actually a subgroup; i.e.
its order is less than that of the original group. This subgroup is
known as the derived group, and Lie has called a group perfect when
it coincides with its derived group. A simple group, since it contains
no self -con jugate subgroup distinct from itself, is necessarily a per-
fect group.
If G is a given continuous group, Gi the derived group of G, G%
that of Gi, and so on, the series of groups G, Gi, Gi, . . will terminate
either with the identical operation or with a perfect group ; for the
order of G»n is less than that of G. unless G, is a perfect group.
When the series terminates with the identical operation, G is said
to be an integrdble group; in the contrary case G is called non-
integrable.
If G is an integrable group of order r, the infinitesimal opera-
tions Xi, Xi, . . ., X P which generate the group may be chosen so
that Xi, Xj, . . ., Xrii (fi<r) generate the first derived group,
Xi, Xj, . . ., Xri, (r2<fi) the second derived group, and so on.
When they are so chosen the constants c,y, are clearly such that if
f p <f^r JM .i, r q <j^r q +i, P^q, then c»/, vanishes unless s**r p+l .
In particular the generating operations may be chosen so that dj$
vanishes unless s is equal to or less than the smaller of the two
numbers t, j; and conversely, if the c's satisfy these relations, the
group is integrable.
A simple group, as already defined, is one which has no self-
conjugate subgroup. It is a remarkable fact that the determination
of all distinct types of simple continuous groups has been
simple made, for in the case of discontinuous groups and groups
***"**• of finite order this is far from being the case. Lie has
demonstrated the existence of four great classes of simple groups: —
(i.) The groups simply isomorphic with the general projective
group in space of n dimensions. Such a group is defined analytically
as the totality of the transformations of the form
-t _ <*•» l*l+g«t <*»+ • • . +<*»! *Xn-\-a>», n+l /___ - „n
* '"OiH-l, 1*1+0^!, 1*2+.. . +0»+u nXm + V V~ l * 2 "'" *>'
where the a's are parameters. The order of this group is clearly
n(n+2).
(ii.) The groups simply isomorphic with the totality of the pro-
jective transformations which transform a non-special linear complex
in space of 2n-i dimensions with itself. The order of this group is
n(2«+i).
(iii.) and (iv.) The groups simply isomorphic with the totality of
the projective transformations which change a quadric of non-
vanishing discriminant into itself. These fall into two distinct
classes of types according as n is even or odd. In either case the
order is J«(n+i). The case n =3 forms an exception in which the
corresponding group is not simple. It is also to be noticed that a
cyclical group is a simple group, since it has no continuous self-
conjugate subgroup distinct from itself.
W. K. J. Killing and E. J. Cartan have separately proved that
outside these four great classes there exist only five distinct types of
simple groups, whose orders are 14, 52, 78, 133 and 248; thus
completing the enumeration of all possible types.
To prevent any misapprehension as to the bearing of these very
general results, it is well to point out explicitly that there are no
limitations on the parameters of a continuous group as it has been
defined above. They are to be regarded as taking in general complex
values. If in the finite equations of a continuous group the imaginary
symbol does not explicitly occur, the finite equations will usually
define a group (in the general sense of the original definition) when
both parameters and variables are limited to real values. Such a
group is, in a certain sense, a continuous group; and such groups
have been considered shortly by Lie (cf. Lie-Engel, iii. 360-392),
who calls them real continuous groups. To these real continuous
groups the above statement as to the totality of simple groups does
not apply; and indeed, in all probability, the number of types of
real simple continuous groups admits of no such complete enumera-
tion. Tne effect of limitation to real transformations may be illus-
trated by considering the groups of projective transformations which
change
x*+?+*-i =0 and x»-rY-sM =0
respectively into themselves. Since one of these quadrics is changed
into the other by the imaginary transformation
x'=x, ?-y, s / =sV(-0,
the general continuous groups which transform the two quadrics
respectively into themselves are simply isomorphic. This is not,
however, the case for the real continuous groups. In fact, the second
quadric has two real sets of generators; and therefore the real group
which transforms it into itself has two self -con jugate subgroups,
either of which leaves unchanged each of one set of generators. The
first quadric having imaginary generators, no such self -conjugate
subgroups can exist for the real group which transforms it into
itself; and this real group is in fact simple.
Among the groups isomorphic with a given continuous group there
is one of special importance which is known as the adjunct
group. This is a homogeneous linear group in a number of
variables equal to the order of the group, whose infinitesimal
operations are defined by the relations
The
group.
x,=
>r),
plmne, end
ot three*
where c»y, are the often-used constants, which give the combinants of
the infinitesimal operations in terms of the infinitesimal operations
themselves.
That the r infinitesimal operations thus defined actually generate a
group isomorphic with the given group is verified by forming their
combinants. It is thus found that (XpX fl ) =2c pq9 X„ The X's,
however, are not necessarily linearly independent. In fact, the
sufficient condition that 2a,X,- should be identically zero is that
2a,c»/, should vanish for all values of i and s. Hence if the equations
2a/c»/.=o for all values of i and s t have r 9 linearly independent
solutions, only r—r' of the X's are linearly independent, and the
isomorphism of the two groups is multiple. If Yi, Yj, . . ., Y r are
the infinitesimal operations of the given group, the equations
2a,c»,-,=0, (*, t~i, 2,..., r)
express the condition that the operations of the cyclical group
generated by 2a, Y* should be pennutable with every operation of
the group; in other words, that they should be self -conjugate
operations. In the case supposed, therefore, the given group
contains a subgroup of order r' each of whose operations is self-
conjugate. The adjunct group of a given group will therefore be
simply isomorphic with the group, unless the latter contains self-
conjugate operations; and when this is the case the order of the
adjunct will be less than that of the given group by the order of the
subgroup formed of the self -con jugate operations.
We have been thus far mainly concerned with the abstract theory of
continuous groups, in which no distinction is made be-
tween two simply isomorphic groups. We proceed to CoaUaao f'
discuss the classification and theory of groups when y^JJjL
their form is regarded as essential ; and this is a return ortB9
to a more geometrical point of view.
It is natural to begin with the projective groups,
which are the simplest in form and at the same time are
of supreme importance in geometry. The general pro-
jective group of the straight line is the group of order three
given by
„, ax+b
* -7x~+d>
where the parameters are the ratios of a, b t c, d. Since
X z — X 2 X — • X 1 _ Xt~— Xf X — X\
Xi — X 1' X — X 2 XfXi'X — Xt
is an operation of the above form, the group is triply transitive.
Every subgroup of order two leaves one point unchanged, and all
such subgroups are conjugate. A cyclical subgroup leaves either two
distinct points or two coincident points unchanged. A subgroup
which either leaves two points unchanged or interchanges them is
an example of a " mixed ' group.
The analysis of the general projective group # must obviously
increase very rapidly in complexity, as the dimensions of the space
to which it applies increase. This analysis has been completely
carried out for the projective group of the plane, with the result of
showing that there are thirty distinct types of subgroup. Excluding
the general group itself, every one of these leaves either a point, a
line, or a conic section unaltered. For space of three dimensions Lie
has also carried out a similar investigation, but the results are ex-
tremely complicated. One general result of great importance at
which Lie arrives in this connexion is that every projective group in
space of three dimensions, other than the general group, leaves
either a point, a curve, a surface or a linear complex unaltered.
Returning now to the case of a single variable, it can be shown that
any finite continuous group in one variable is either cyclical or of
order two or three, and that by a suitable transformation any such
group may be changed into a projective group.
The genesis of an infinite as distinguished from a finite continuous
group may be well illustrated by considering it in the case of a single
variable. The infinitesimal operations of the projective group in
one variable are t-, x-t^ x'-g. If these combined with x*-£ be
GROUPS, THEORY OF
631
taken as infinitesimal operations from which to generate a continuous
group among the infinitesimal operations of the group, there must
occur the combinant of x*-r- and **2Gg' This is *S^. The combinant
of this and x*"t- is 2xS- and so on. Hence Jf-r-, where r is any
positive integer, is an infinitesimal operation of the group. The
general infinitesimal operation of the group is therefore /(x)-r-, where
/(*) is an arbitrary integral function of x.
In the classification of the groups, projective or non-projective
of two or more variables, the distinction between primitive and
imprimitive groups immediately presents itself. For groups of the
plane the following question arises. Is there or is there not a singly-
infinite family of curves /(x, y) =*C, where C is an arbitrary constant
such that every operation of the group interchanges the curves of the
family among themselves? In accordance with the previously given
definition of imprimitivity, the group is called imprimitive or
primitive according as such a set exists or not. In space of three
dimensions there are two possibilities ; namely, there may either be
a singly infinite system of surfaces F (x, y, z) =C, which are inter-
changed among themselves by the operations of the group; or
there may be a doubly-infinite system of curves G(x, y t *)— a,
H(x, y, z) = 6, which are so interchanged.
In regard to primitive groups Lie has shown that any primitive
group of the plane can, by a suitably chosen transformation, be
transformed into one of three definite types of projective groups;
and that any primitive group of space of three dimensions can be
transformed into one of eight definite types, which, however, cannot
all be represented as projective groups in three dimensions.
The results which have been arrived at for imprimitive groups in
two and three variables do not admit of any such simple statement.
We shall now explain the conception of contact-transformations
and groups of contact-transformations. This concep-
Coatact t j on ^ ^jke that of continuous groups, owes its origin to
transform j^- •* w
mmttona. From a purely analytical point of view a contact-
transformation may be defined as a point-transformation in 2«+i
variables, s, Xi, xj, . . ., x n , pi, pt f . . ., Pn which leaves unaltered
the equation dz—Pidxi—ptAxi — . . . — p n dxn=o. Such a definition
as this, however, gives no direct clue to the geometrical properties
of the transformation, nor does it explain the name given.
In dealing with contact- transformations we shall restrict ourselves
to space of two or of three dimensions; and it will be necessary to
begin with some purely geometrical considerations. An infinitesimal
surface-element in space of three dimensions is completely specified,
apart from its size, by its position and orientation. If x, y, z are the
co-ordinates of some one point of the element, and if p, q t -1 give
the ratios of the direction-cosines of its normal, x, y, z, p, q are five
quantities which completely specify the element. There are,
therefore, 00 * surface elements in three-dimensional space. The
surface-elements of a surface form a system of 00 * elements, for there
are 00 * points on the surface, and at each a definite surface-element.
The surface-elements of a curve form, again, a system of 00 2 elements,
for there are 00 l points on the curve, and at each 00 i surface-elements
containing the tangent to the curve at the point. Similarly the
surface-elements which contain a given point clearly form a system
of 00 * elements. Now each of these systems of 00 * surface-elements has
the property that if (x, y, *, p, q) and (x+dx, y+dy, z+dz, p+dp t
q-t-dq) are consecutive elements from any one of them, then
dz—pdx—qdy=0* In fact, for a system of the first kind dx, dy, dz
are proportional to the direction-cosines of a tangent line at a point of
the surface, and p,q t — 1 are proportional to the direction-cosines of
the normal. For a system of the second kind dx f dy t dz are pro-
portional to the direction-cosines of a tangent to the curve, and
p, q,-i give the direction-cosines of the normal to a plane touching
the curve; and for a system of the third kind dx, dy, dz are zero.
Now the most general way in which a system of 00 * surface-elements
can be riven is by three independent equations between x, y, z, p
and q. If these equations do not contain p, q, they determine one
or more (a finite number in any case) points in space, and the system
of surface-elements consists of the elements containing these points;
i.e. it consists of one or more systems of the third kind.
If the equations are such that two distinct equations independent
of p and q can be derived from them, the points of the system of
surface-elements lie on a curve. For such a system the equation
dz~-pdx-qdy=o will hold for each two consecutive elements only
when the plane of each element touches the curve at its own point.
If the equations are such that only one equation independent of
p and q can be derived from them, the points of the system of surface-
elements lie on a surface. Again, for such a system the equation
dz-pdx-qdy—o will hold for each two consecutive elements only
when each element touches the surface at its own point. Hence,
when all possible systems of 00* surface-elements in space are
considered, the equation dz-pdx-qdy—o is characteristic of the
three special types in which the elements belong, in the sense ex-
plained above, to a point or a curve or a surface.
Let us consider now the geometrical bearing of any transformation
*' ^/lfo y» *. P* 2)» • • -i 9.' =/*(*, y. «» P> ff)» <" the five variables. It
will interchange the surface-elements of space among themselves,
and will change any system of 00* elements into another system of
00 * elements. A special system, i.e. a system which belongs to a
point, curve or surface, will not, however, in general be changed into
another special system. The necessary and sufficient condition that
a special system should always be changed into a special system is
that the equation dz'-p'dx'-q'dy =0 should be a consequence of
the equation dz-pdx-qay=*o; or, in other words, that tnis latter
equation should be invariant for the transformation.
When this condition is satisfied the transformation is such as to
change the surface-elements of a surface in general into surface-
elements of a surface, though in particular cases they may become
the surface-elements of a curve or point ; and similar statements
may be made with respect to a curve or point. The transformation
is therefore a veritable geometrical transformation in space of three
dimensions. Moreover, two special systems of surface-elements
which have an element in common are transformed into two new
special systems with an element in common. Hence two curves or
surfaces which touch each other are transformed into two new curves
or surfaces which touch each other. It is this property which leads
to the transformations in question being called contact-transforma-
tions. It will be noticed that an ordinary point-transformation is
always a contact-transformation, but that a contact-transformation
(in space of n dimensions) is not in general a point-transformation
(in space of n dimensions), though it may always be regarded as a
point- transformation in space of 2» + 1 dimensions. I n the analogous
theory for space of two dimensions a line-element, defined by (x, y, />),
where 1 : p gives the direction-cosines of the line, takes the place of
the surface-element ; and a transformation of x, y and p which leaves
the equation dy-pdx*=o unchanged transforms the 00 l line-elements,
which belong to a curve, into 00* line-elements which again belong
to a curve; while two curves which touch are transformed into two
other curves which touch.
One of the simplest instances of a contact-transformation that can
be given is the transformation by reciprocal polars. By this trans-
formation a point P and a plane p passing through it are changed into
a plane p' and a point P' upon it ; i.e. the surface-element defined by
P, p is changed into a definite surface-element defined by P', f> .
The totality of surface-elements which belong to a (non-developable)
surface is known from geometrical considerations to be changed into
the totality which belongs to another (non-developable) surface.
On the other hand, the totality of the surface-elements which belong
to a curve is changed into another set which belong to a developable.
The analytical formulae for this transformation, when the reciproca-
tion is effected with respect to the paraboloid x* +3^-22=0, are
x'=p, y'=q, z'=px+qy-z t £'=x, g'=y. That this is, in fact, a
contact-transformation is verified directly by noticing that
dz , —p'dx'—tfdy'=— d(z-px—qy)—xdp—ydq = —(dz-pdx-qdy).
A second simple example is that in which every surface-element is
displaced, without change of orientation, normal to itself through a
constant distance t. The analytical equations in this case are easily
found in the form
, Pt
P'*
s' =
"Vi+^+2 2 '
That this is a contact-transformation is seen geometrically by noticing
that it changes a surface into a parallel surface. Every point is
changed by it into a sphere of radius t, and when t is regarded as a
parameter the equations define a cyclical group of contact-trans-
formations.
The formal theory of continuous groups of contact-transformations,
is, of course, in no way distinct from the formal theory of continuous
groups in general. On what may be called the geometrical side, the
theory of groups of contact-transformations has been developed with
very considerable detail in the second volume of Lie-Engel.
To the manifold applications of the theory of continuous groups
in various branches of pure and applied mathematics
it is impossible here to refer in any detail. It must
suffice to indicate a few of them very briefly. In some
of the older theories a new point of view is obtained which
presents the results in a fresh light, and suggests the
natural generalization. As an example, the theory of
the invariants of a binary form may be considered.
Applica-
tions of
the theory
of coa*
tlauous
groups*
If in the form f—a4X n +na l x n - i y+ . . . +a n y n , the variables be
subjected to a homogeneous substitution
x' = ax+0y,y' = yx+Sy, (i.)
and if the coefficients in the new form be represented by accenting the
old coefficients, then
a' = aoa* -f a i na n ' 1 y+ . . . -fOnT*! ]
a\ - aoa^/J-l-ai { (» - 1) a»-*07 +a*~ l 5} + . . . +a n y"- 1 5 t I q. ,
a' n = a<0*+a l nl3»- 1 5+ . . . +a»5"; J
and this is a homogeneous linear substitution performed on the
coefficients. The totality of the substitutions, (i.), for which a4 —
0y — 1, constitutes a continuous group of order 3, which is generated
by the two infinitesimal transformations y^- and xr-. Hence with
632
GROUPS, THEORY OF
the tame limitations on *, 0, y, b the totality of the substitutions
(ii.) forms a simply isomorphic continuous group of order 3, which is
generated by the two infinitesimal transformations
and
•«£+<*-«>■£+<•-*>««&+ • • ■ +*S=?
The invariants of the binary form, i.e. those functions of the co-
efficients which are unaltered by all homogeneous substitutions on
x, y of determinant unity, are therefore identical with the functions
of the coefficients which are invariant for the continuous group
generated by the two infinitesimal operations last written. In other
words, they are given by the common solutions of the differential
equations
Both this result and the method by which it is arrived at are well
known, but the point of view by which we pass from the transforma-
tion group of the variables to the isomorphic transformation group
of the coefficients, and regard the invariants as invariants rather of
the group than of the forms, is a new and a fruitful one.
The general theory of curvature of curves and surfaces may in a
similar way be regarded as a theory of their invariants for the group
of motions. That something more than a mere change of phraseology
is here implied will be evident in dealing with minimum curves, i.e.
with curves such that at every point of them dxi+df+d&^o.
For such curves the ordinary theory of curvature has no meaning,
but they nevertheless have invariant properties in regard to the
group of motions.
The curvature and torsion of a curve, which are invariant for all
transformations by the group of motions, are special instances of
what are known as differential invariants. If Sgj+njr; lB tne
general infinitesimal transformation of a group of point-transforma-
tions in the plane, and if yi, yi, . . . represent the successive differential
coefficients of y, the infinitesimal transformation may be written in
the extended form
where mil, i*M, ... are the increments of y u yi, . . . By including
a sufficient number of these variables the group must be intransitive
in them, and must therefore have one or more invariants. Such
invariants are known as differential invariants of the original group,
being necessarily functions of the differential coefficients of the
original variables. For groups of the plane it may be shown that not
more than two of these differential invariants are independent, all
others being formed from these by algebraical processes and differ-
entiation. For groups of point-transformations in more than two
variables there will be more than one set of differential invariants.
For instance, with three variables, one may be regarded as inde-
pendent and the other two as functions of it, or two as inde-
pendent and the remaining one as a function. Corresponding to
these two points of view, tne differential invariants for a curve or
for a surface will arise.
If a differential invariant of a continuous group of the plane be
equated to zero, the resulting differential equation remains unaltered
when the variables undergo any transformation of the group. Con-
versely, if an ordinary, differential equation /(x, y, yi, y*, . . . )~o
admits the transformations of a continuous group, i.e. if the equation
is unaltered when x and y undergo any transformation of the group,
then/(x, y, yi, y*, . . . ) or some multiple of it must be a differential
invariant of the group. Hence it must be possible to find two inde-
pendent differential invariants a, of the group, such that when
these are taken as variables the differential equation takes the form
F(a, 0,^» 2^, . . . ) =»o. This equation in a, fi will be of lower order
than the original equation, and in general simpler to deal with.
Supposing it solved in the form »$(«), where for a, fi their values
in terms of x, y, yi, yi, . . . are written, this new equation, containing
arbitrary constants, is necessarily again of lower order than the
original equation. The integration of the original equation is thus
divided into two steps. This will show how, in the case of an ordinary
differential equation, the fact that the equation admits a continuous
group of transformations may be taken advantage of for its integra-
tion.
The most important of the applications of continuous groups are
to the theory 01 systems of differential equations, both ordinary and
partial: in fact, Lie states that it was with a view to systematizing
and advancing the general theory of differential equations that he
was led to the development of the theory of continuous groups. It
is quite impossible here to give any account of all that Lie and his
followers have done in this direction. An entirely new mode of
regarding the problem of the integration of a differential equation
Ingoprm-
has been opened up, and in the classification that arises from it all
those apparently isolated types of equations which in the older sense
are saidto be integrable take their proper place. It may, for instance,
be mentioned that the question as to whether Monge s method will
apply to the integration of a partial differential equation of the
second order is shown to depena on whether or not a contact-trans-
formation can be found which will reduce the equation to either
<n " ° or $xT~ as ° a ** 1S in ^^ c ^ rect ^ on tnat further advance in the
theory of partial differential equations must be looked for. Lastly,
it may be remarked that one of the most thorough discussions of the
axioms of geometry hitherto undertaken is founded entirely upon the
theory of continuous groups.
Discontinuous Groups.
We go on now to the consideration of discontinuous groups.
Although groups of finite order are necessarily contained under
this general head, it is convenient for many reasons to deal with
them separately, and it will therefore be assumed in the present
section that the number of operations in the group is not finite.
Many large classes of discontinuous groups have formed the
subject of detailed investigation, but a general formal theory
of discontinuous groups can hardly be said to exist as yet. It
will thus be obvious that in considering discontinuous groups
it is necessary to proceed on different lines from those followed
with continuous groups, and in fact to deal with the subject
almost entirely by way of example.
The consideration of a discontinuous group as arising from a set
of independent generating operations suggests a purely aostract point
of view in which any two simply isomorphic groups are
indistinguishable. The number of generating operations
may be either finite or infinite, but the former case alone
will be here considered. Suppose then that Si, St, . . ., S»
is a set of independent operations from which a group G is generated.
The general operation of the group will be represented by the symbol
SJJSj • . . SJ, or 2, where a, b, . . ., d are chosen from I, 2, . . ., «,
and a, fi f . . ., 5 are any positive or negative integers. It may be
assumed that no two successive suffixes in 2 are the same, for if b—a t
then SJSj may be replaced by SJ**. If there are no relations con-
necting the generating operations and the identical operation, every
distinct symbol 2 represents a distinct operation of the group. For if
2«2 ll orS^f...S*-S2Sfj. . .sj}. then S^. . .S^Sj^f. . .SJ
■» 1 ; and unless a «oi, b — fc, . . . , a —ai, 0« ft, . . . , this is a relation
connecting the generating operations.
Suppose now that Ti, T Sf . . . are operations of G, and that H is
that self -con jugate subgroup of G which is generated by Ti, Ti, . . .
and the operations conjugate to them. Then, of the operations that
can be formed from Si, St, . . ., S», the set 2H, and no others, reduce
to the same operation 2 when the conditions Ti = i, T* = i, . . . are
satisfied by the generating operations. Hence the group which is
generated by the given operations, when subjected to the conditions
lust written, is simply isomorphic with the factor-group G/H.
Moreover, this is obviously true even when the conditions are such
that the generating operations are no longer independent. Hence
any discontinuous group may be defined abstractly, that is, in regard
to the laws of combination of its operations apart from their actual
form, by a set of generating operations and a system of relations
connecting them. Conversely, when such a set of operations and
system of relations are given arbitrarily they define in abstract
form a single discontinuous group. It may, of course, happen that
the group so defined is a group of finite order, or that it reduces to
the identical operation only; but in regard to the general statement
these will be particular and exceptional cases.
An operation of a discontinuous group must necessarily be specified
analytically by a system of equations of the form
x'«=/.(Xi, Xf, • • -. *»; «1» <h, . . ., Or), (* — I, 2, . . ., »),
and the different operations of the group will be given by
different sets of values of the parameters a t , at, . . . , Or.
No one of these parameters is susceptible of continuous
variations, but at least one must be capable of taking a
number of values which is not finite, if the group is not one
of finite order. Among the sets of values ofthe parameters
there must be one which gives the identical transformation.
No other transformation makes each of the differences xV-*it
x't-xi, . . ., xV-x» vanish. Let d be an arbitrary assigned positive
quantity. Then if a transformation of the group can be found such
tnat the modulus of each of these differences is less than d when the
variables have arbitrary values within an assigned range of variation,
however small d may be chosen, the group is saidto be improperly
discontinuous. In the contrary case the group is called properly
discontinuous. The range within which the variables are allowed to
vary may clearly affect the question whether a given group is
properly or improperly discontinuous. For instance, the group
GROUPS, THEORY OF
633
defined by the equation x'=ox+b, where a and b are any rational
numbers, is improperly discontinuous; and the group denned by
x? **x+a % where a is an integer, is properly discontinuous, whatever
the range of the variable. On the other hand, the group, to be later
considered, defined by the equation *? m cx +j * where a, b, c, d are
integers satisfying the relation ad-bc = i, is properly discontinuous
when x may take any complex value, and improperly discontinuous
when the range of x is limited to real values.
Among the discontinuous groups that occur in analysis, a large
number may be regarded as arising by imposing limitations on the
range of variation of the parameters of continuous groups. If
x'.=Mx lt *j, . . ., Xn\ a U <h, . . ., <h), (*«I, 2, • • ., »),
are the finite equations of a continuous group, and if C with para-
meters Ci, c*, . . . , c r is the operation which results from carrying out
A and B with corresponding parameters in succession, then the c's
are determined uniquely by the c's and the b's. If the c's are rational
functions of the a's and 6's, and if the a's and 6's are arbitrary
rational numbers of a given corpus (see Number), the c's will be
rational numbers of the same corpus. If the c's are rational integral
functions of the a's and 6's, and the latter are arbitrarily chosen
integers of a corpus, then the c's are integers of the same corpus.
Hence in the first case the above equations, when the a's are limited
to be rational numbers of a given corpus, will define a discontinuous
group; and in the second case they will define such a group when
the a's are further limited to be integers of the corpus.
Ltaesr A most important class of discontinuous groups are those
tffecoa- that arise in this way from the general linear continuous
tlnuouM group in a given set of variables. For n variables the
groups. finite equations of this continuous group are
x\*a A xi+a*x%+ . . . +a M Xn, (* = i, 2, . . ., n),
where the determinant of the a's must not be zero. In this case the
c's are clearly integral lineo-linear functions of the a's and 6's.
Moreover, the determinant of the c's is the product of the determinant
of the a's and the determinant of the & s. Hence equations (ii.),
where the parameters are restricted to be integers of a given corpus,
define a discontinuous group; and if the determinant of the co-
efficients is limited to the value unity, they define a discontinuous
group which is a (self -conjugate) subgroup of the previous one.
The simplest case which thuspresents itself is that in which there
are two variables while the coefficients are rational integers. This is
the group defined by the equations
x'=ax+by t )
y'=cx+dy, )
where a, b, c, d are integers such that ad-bc = 1 . To every operation
of this group there corresponds an operation of the set defined by
, 08 + 6 ,
in such a way that to the product of two operations of the group
there corresponds the product of the two analogous operations of
the set. The operations of the set (iv.), where oa-6c=»i, therefore
constitute a group which is isomorphic with the previous group.
The isomorphism is multiple, since to a single operation of the second
set there correspond the two operations of the first for which a, b, c, d
and -a, -&, -c, -d are parameters. These two groups, which are
of fundamental importance in the theory of quadratic forms and in
the theory of modular functions, have been the object of very many
investigations.
Another large class of discontinuous groups, which have far-
reaching applications in analysis, are those which arise in the first
instance from purely geometrical considerations. By the
D/sooff- combination and repetition of a finite number of geo-
ttauous metrical operations such as displacements, projective
**?*J P * transformations, inversions, &c, a discontinuous group of
S—JLo- such operations will arise. Such a group, as regards the
mttrkml P° mts °* tne P^ne (or of space), will in general be im-
properly discontinuous; but when the generating opera-
tions are suitably chosen, the group may be properly
discontinuous. In the latter case the group may be
represented in a graphical form by the division of the plane (or space)
into regions such that no point of one region can be transformed into
another point of the same region by any operation of the group,
while any given region can be transformed into any other by a
suitable transformation. Thus, let ABC be a triangle bounded by
three circular arcs BC, CA, AB ; and consider the figure produced
from ABC by inversions in the three circles of which BC, CA, AB are
part. By inversion at BC, ABC becomes an equiangular triangle
A'BC. An inversion in AB changes ABC and A'BC into equiangular
triangles ABC and A'BC. Successive inversions at Afi and BC
then will change ABC into a series of equiangular triangles with B
for a common vertex. These will not overlap and will just fill in the
space round B if the angle ABC is a sub multiple of two right angles.
If then the angles of ABC are submultiples of two right angles (or
zero), the triangles formed by any number of inversions will never
overlap, and to each operation consisting of a definite series of
inversions at BC, CA and AB will correspond a distinct triangle into
which ABC is changed by the operation. The network of triangles so
formed gives a graphical representation of the group that arises from
the three inversions in BC, CA, AB. The triangles may be divided
into two sets, those, namely, like A'BC, which are derived from ABC
by an even number of inversions, and those like A'BC or ABC pro-
duced by an odd number. Each set are interchanged among them-
selves by any even number of inversions. Hence the operations
consisting of an even number of inversions form a group by them-
selves. For this group the quadrilateral formed by ABC andA'bC con-
stitutes a region, which is changed by every operation of the group into
a distinct region (formed of two adjacent triangles), and these regions
clearly do not overlap. Their distribution presents in a graphical
form the group that arises by pairs of inversions at BC, CA, AB ; and
this group is generated by the operation which consists of successive
inversions at AB, BC and that which consists of successive inversions
at BC, CA. The group defined thus geometrically may be presented
in many analytical forms. If *, y and *', y' are the rectangular co-
ordinates of two points which are inverse to each other with respect
to a given circle, x' and y' are rational functions of x and y f and con-
versely. Thus the group may be presented in a form in which each
operation gives a birational transformation of two variables. If
x+iy=z, x'+iy' = *', and if x\ y* is the point to which x, y is trans-
formed by any even number of inversions, then z' and z are connected
by a linear relation s'= "V? , where o, 0, 7, 6 are constants (in
general complex) depending on the circles at which the inversions are
taken. Hence the group may be presented in the form of a group
of linear transformations of a single variable generated by the two
linear transformations z , =* ai g T? » 2 ' S, ^TI» which correspond
to pairs of inversions at AB, BC and BC, CA respectively. In
particular, if the sides of the triangle are taken to be jc»o, a£+y*-
1=0, x*+y*+2x=o, the generating operations are found to be
z' =«z+i, 2' = -*" 1 ; and the group is that consisting of all trans-
formations of the form z*
''czTZ'
\, where od*-6c = i, a, b, c, d being
integers. This is the group already mentioned which underlies the
theory of the elliptic modular functions; a modular function being
a function of z which is invariant for some subgroup of finite index of
the group in question.
The triangle ABC from which the above geometrical construction
started may be replaced by a polygon whose sides are circles. If
each angle is a submultiple of two right angles or zero, the construc-
tion is still effective to give a set of non-overlapping regions, which
represent graphically the group which arises from pairs of inversions
in the sides of the polygon. In their analytical form, as groups of
linear transformations of a single variable, the groups are those on
which the theory of automorphic functions depends. A similar
construction in space, the polygons bounded by circular arcs being
replaced by polyhedra bounded by spherical faces, has been used by
F. Klein and Fricke to give a geometrical representation for groups
which are improperly discontinuous when represented as groups of
the plane.
The special classes of discontinuous groups that have been dealt with
in the previous paragraphs arise directly from geometrical
considerations. As a final example we shall refer briefly Onop of
to a class of groups whose origin is essentially analytical. * Uaemr
Let Hf—
g + P^+...+P^+P.,=.o
be a linear differential equation, the coefficients in which are
rational functions of x, and let yi, yt, . . ., y» he a linearly inde-
pendent set of integrals of the equation. In the neighbourhood of a
finite value *o of x, which is not a singularity of any of the coefficients
in the equation, these integrals are ordinary power-series in x-xt.
If the analytical continuations of yi, y 2 , . . ., ?» be formed for any
closed path starting from and returning to Xo, the final values arrived
at when xq is again reached will be another set of linearly independent
integrals. When the closed path contains no singular point of the
coefficients of the differential equation, the new set of integrals is
identical with the original set. If, however, the closed path encloses
one or more singular points, this will not in general be the case.
Let y*u /*, . . ., y'n be the new integrals arrived at. Since in the
neighbourhood of xo every integral can be represented linearly in
terms of yi t y* t . * . , y% , there must be a system of equations
y'i=auyi+ai*yi+ . . . -famy*,
y't=(hiyi+<hiyi+ . . . +<hnyn,
y'n~o»iyi+a n sy i + . . . +<w»,
where the a's are constants, expressing the new integrals in terms of
the original ones. To each closed path described by Xq there therefore
corresponds a definite linear substitution performed on the y's.
Further, if Si and S» are the substitutions that correspond to two
closed paths Li and L«, then to any closed path which can be con-
tinuously deformed, without crossing a singular point, into Li
followed by L*, there corresponds the substitution SiS». Let Li,
L», . . ., Lr be arbitrarily chosen closed paths starting from and return-
ing to the same point, and each of them enclosing a single one of the
^34
GROUPS, THEORY OF
(r ) finite singular points of the equation. Every closed path in the
plane can be formed by combinations of these r paths taken either
in the positive or in the negative direction. Also a closed path which
does not cut itself, and encloses all the r singular points within it, is
equivalent to a path enclosing the point at infinity and no finite
singular point. It Si, Sj, Sj, . . . , Sr are the linear substitutions that
correspond to these r paths, then the substitution corresponding to
every possible path can be obtained by combination and repetition
of these r substitutions, and they therefore generate a discontinuous
group each of whose operations corresponds to a definite closed path.
The group thus arrived at is called the group of the equation. For
a given equation it is unique in type. In tact, the only effect of
starting from another set of independent integrals is to transform
every operation of the group by an arbitrary substitution, while
choosing a different set of paths is equivalent to taking a new set of
generating operations. The great importance of the group of the
equation in connexion with the nature of its integrals cannot here
be dealt with, but it may be pointed out that if all the integrals of
the equation are algebraic functions, the group must be a group of
finite order, since the set of quantities y lt y% 9 . . ., y n can then only
take a finite number of distinct values.
Groups of Finite Order.
We shall now pass on to groups of finite order. It is clear
that here we must have to do with many properties which have
no direct analogues in the theory of continuous groups or in
that of discontinuous groups in general; those properties,
namely, which depend on the fact that the number of distinct
operations in the group is finite.
Let Sx, Si, St, ... , Sn denote the operations of a group Gof finite
order N, Si being the identical operation. The tableau
^li ^2i
s„ ..
• i Sn,
SiSi, SjSi,
s,s,, . .
• > ^N^S
SiSj, SjSj,
S»Sj, . .
. , S N Sj
SiSk, S«Sn» S»Sn
SmSn
when in it each compound symbol S„S, is replaced by the single
symbol Sr that is equivalent to it, is called the multiplication table
of the group. It indicates directly the result of multiplying together
in an assigned sequence any number of operations of the group.
In each line (and in each column) of the tableau every operation of
the group occurs just once. If the letters in the tableau are regarded
as mere symbols, the operation of replacing each symbol in the first
line by the symbol which stands under it in the ^th line is a permuta-
tion performed on the set of N symbols. Thus to the N lines of the
tableau there corresponds a set of N permutations performed on the
N symbols, which includes the identical permutation that leaves each
unchanged. Moreover, if SpS fl = Sr, then the result of carrying out in
succession the permutations which correspond to the f th and gth
lines gives the permutation which corresponds to the rth line.
Hence the set of permutations constitutes a group which is simply
isomorphic with the given group.
Every group of finite order N can therefore be represented in
concrete form as a transitive group of permutations on N symbols.
The order of any subgroup or operation of G is necessarily finite.
If Ti(-Si), Ti, . . ., T» are the operations of a subgroup ft of G,
and if 2 is any operation of G which is not contained in H,
Proprtie* the set Q f operations 2Ti, 2T t , . . . , 2T„, or 2H, are all
of m group distinct from each other and from the operations of H.
T***- If the sets H and 2H do not exhaust the operations of G,
i£?V!u? an( * ** 2 ' * 8 an °P erat i° n not belonging to them, then the
tf onfer. ODera tions of the set 2'H are distinct from each other and
from those of H and 2H. This process may be continued till the
operations of G are exhausted. The order n of H must therefore be a
factor of the order N of G. The ratio N/n is called the index of the
subgroup H. By taking for H the cyclical subgroup generated by
any operation S of G, it follows that the order of S must be a factor of
the order of G.
Every operation S is permutable with its own powers. Hence
there must be some subgroup H of G of greatest possible order, such
that every operation of H is permutable with S. Every operation of
H transforms S into itself, and every operation of the set H2 trans-
forms S into the same operation. Hence, when S is transformed by
every operation of G, just N/» distinct operations arise if n is the
order of H. These operations, and no others, are conjugate to S
within G; they are saidto form a set of conjugate operations.
The number of operations in every conjugate set is therefore a factor
of the order of G. In the same way it may be shown that the number
of subgroups which are conjugate to a given subgroup is a factor of
the order of G. An operation which is permutable with every opera-
tion of the group is called a self-conjugate operation. The totality
of the self-conjugate operations of a group forms a self-conjugate
Abelian subgroup, each of whose operations is permutable with every
operation of the group.
An Abelian group contains subgroups whose orders are any given
factors of the order of the group. In fact, since every subgroup H
of an Abelian group G and the corresponding factor groups G/H are
Abelian, this result follows immediately by an induction from the
case in which the order contains n prime factors to that in which it
contains n + 1 . For a group which is not Abelian no general
law can be stated as to the existence or non-existence of a Sylow's
subgroup whose order is an arbitrarily assigned factor ™* r *»»
of the order of the group. In this connexion the most important
general result, which is independent of any supposition as to the
order of the group, is known as Sylow's theorem, which states that if
P» is the highest power of a prime p which divides the order of a
group G, then G contains a single conjugate set of subgroups of
order p* t the number in the set being of the form I +kp. Sylow's
theorem may be extended to show that if p a ' is a factor of the order
of a group, the number of subgroups of order p*' is of the form I +kp.
If, however, p* f is not the highest power of b which divides the order,
these groups do not in general form a single conjugate set.
The importance of Sylow's theorem in discussing the structure of
a group of given order need hardly be insisted on. Thus, as a very
simple instance, a group whose order is the product p\p% of two
primes (pi<p?) must have a self -conjugate subgroup of order pt, since
the order of the group contains no factor, other than unity, of the
form i+kp%. The same again is true for a group of order pi*p* t
unless pi= 2, and £j = 3.
There is one other numerical property of a group connected with
its order which is quite general. If N is the order of G, and n a
factor of N, the number of operations of G, whose orders are equal to
or are factors of n, is a multiple of n.
As already defined, a composite group is a group which contains
one or more self -con jugate subgroups, whose orders are greater than
unity. If H is a self-conjugate subgroup of G, the factor-
group G/H may be either simple or composite. In the J?"^I!u
former case G can contain no self -con jugate subgroup K, "J* - ****
which itself contains H ; for if it did K/H would be a self- or*** **
conjugate subgroup of G/H. When G/H is simple, H is said to be a
maximum self -con jugate subgroup of G. Suppose now that G
being a given composite group, G, Gi, Gj, . . ., G«, I is a series of
subgroups of G, such that each is a maximum self -conjugate sub-
group of the preceding; the last term of the series consisting of the
identical operation only. Such a series is called a composition-series
of G. In general it is not unique, since a group may have two or
more maximum self -conjugate subgroups. A composition-series of
a group, however it may be chosen, nas the property that the number
of terms of which it consists is alwavs the same, while the factor-
groups G/Gi, Gi/Ga, . . . , Gn differ only in the sequence in which
they occur. It should be noticed that though a group defines uniquely
the set of factor-groups that occur in its composition-series, the set
of factor-groups do not conversely in general define a single type of
group. When the orders of all the factor-groups are primes the group
is said to be soluble.
If the series of subgroups G, H, K, . . ., L, I is chosen so that each
is the greatest self -conjugate subgroup of G contained in the previous
one, the series is called a chief composition-series of G. All such
series derived from a given group may be shown to consist of the same
number of terms, and to give rise to the same set of factor-groups,
except as regards sequence. The factor-groups of such a series will
not, however, necessarily be simple groups. From any chief com-
position-series a composition-series may be formed by interpolating
between any two terms H and K of the series for which H/K is not
a simple group, a number of terms hi, h*, . . ., K\ and it may be
shown that the factor-groups H/Ai, hi/ht, . . ., hr/K are all simply
isomorphic with each other.
A group may be represented as isomorphic with itself by trans-
forming all its operations by any one of tnem. In fact, if S>S g «=Sr,
then S^SpS.S'lSflS^S^SrS. An isomorphism of the ^^
group with itself, established in this way, is called an ^JJ? 0r " /
inner isomorphism. It may be regarded as an operation JzJJJJ'JJJLJ
carried out on the symbols of the operations, being indeed ^mcS
a permutation performed on these symbols. The totality
of these operations clearly constitutes a group isomorphic with the
given group, and this group is called the group of inner isomorphisms.
A group is simply or multiply isomorphic with its group of inner
isomorphisms according as it does not or does contain self-conjugate
operations other than identity. It may be possible to establish a
correspondence between the operations of a group other than those
given by the inner isomorphisms, such that if S' is the operation
corresponding to S, then S'pS'^SV is a consequence of S P S fl =Sr.
The substitution on the symbols of the operations of a group resulting;
from such a correspondence is called an outer isomorphism. The
totality of the isomorphisms of both kinds constitutes the group of
isomorphisms of the given group, and within this the group of inner
isomorphisms is a self -conjugate subgroup. Every set of conjugate
operations of a group is necessarily transformed into itself by an
inner isomorphism, but two or more sets may be interchanged by an
outer isomorphism.
A subgroup of a group G, which is transformed into itself by every
isomorphism of G, is called a characteristic subgroup. A series of
groups G, Gi, Gi, . . ., I, such that each is a maximum characteristic
subgroup of G contained in the preceding, may be shown to have the
same invariant properties as the subgroups of a composition series.
A group which has no characteristic subgroup must be either a simple
GROUPS, THEORY OF
&35
group or the direct product of a number of simply isomorphic
simple groups.
It has been seen that every group of finite order can be represented
as a group of permutations performed on a set of symbols whose
number is equal to the order of the group. In general such
Pttrmuta- a representation is possible with a smaller number of
uon ' symbols. Let H be a subgroup of G, and let the operations
« roiips - of G be divided, in respect of H, into the sets H, S,H,
S»H, . . . , SmH. If S is any operation of G, the sets SH, SS2H,
SS 3 H, . . . , SSmH differ from the previous sets only in the sequence
in which they occur. In fact, if SS P belong to the set SgH, then since
H is a group, the set SS P H is identical with the set S fl H. Hence, to
each operation S of the group will correspond a permutation per-
formed on the symbols of the m sets, and to the product of two
operations corresponds the product of the two analogous permuta-
tions. The set of permutations, therefore, forms a group isomorphic
with the given group. Moreover, the isomorphism is simple unless
for one or more operations, other than identity, the sets all remain
unaltered. This can only be the case for S, when every operation
conjugate to S belongs to H. In this case H would contain a self-
corn ugate subgroup, and the isomorphism is multiple.
The fact that every group of finite order can be represented,
generally in several ways, as a group of permutations, gives special
importance to such groups. The number of symbols involved in such
a representation is called the degree of the group. In accordance with
the general definitions already given, a permutation-group is called
transitive or intransitive according as it does or does not contain
permutations changing any one of the symbols into any other. It is
called imprimitive or primitive according as the symbols can or
cannot be arranged in sets, such that every permutation of the group
changes the symbols of any one set either among themselves or into
the symbols of another set. When a group is imprimitive the
number of symbols in each set must clearly be the same.
The total number of permutations that can be performed on n
symbols is n !, and these necessarily constitute a group. It is known
as the symmetric group of degree », the only rational functions of the
symbols which are unaltered by all possible permutations being the
symmetric functions. When any permutation is carried out on the
product of the «(«-i)/2, differences of the n symbols, it must either
remain unaltered or its sign must be changed. Those permutations
which leave the product unaltered constitute a group of order n !/2,
which is called the alternating group of degree n ; it is a self-conjugate
subgroup of the symmetric group. Except when n=4 the alternat-
ing group is a simple group. A group of degree », which is not con-
tained in the alternating group, must necessarily have a self-conjugate
subgroup of index 2, consisting of those of its permutations which
belong to the alternating group.
Among the various concrete forms in which a group of finite order
can be presented the most important is that of a group of linear
-^ substitutions. Such groups have already been referred
uroapsor tQ m connex i on w j t h discontinuous groups. Here the
^** number of distinct substitutions is necessarily finite ; and
itona to each operation S of a group G of finite order there will
correspond a linear substitution s, viz.
Xi'
'^^j-i 5 "**^'^ 1 ' 2 ' , * ,,m ^
on a set of m variables, such that if ST = U, then st —u. The linear
substitutions s, t, u, . . . then constitute a group g with which G is
isomorphic ; and whether the isomorphism is simple or multiple g is
said to give a " representation " of £ as a group of linear substitu-
tions. If all the substitutions of g are transformed by the same
substitution on the m variables, the (in general) new group of linear
substitutions so constituted is said to be " equivalent " with g as a
representation of G; and two representations are called non-
equivalent," or " distinct/ 1 when one is not capable of being trans-
formed into the other.
A group of linear substitutions on m variables is said to be " re-
ducible " when it is possible to choose m f (<m) linear functions of
the variables which are transformed among themselves by every
substitution of the group. When this cannot be done the group is
called " irreducible. It can be shown that a group of linear substi-
tutions, of finite order, is always either irreducible, or such that the
variables, when suitably chosen, may be divided into sets, each set
being irreducibly transformed among themselves. This being so, it
is clear that when the irreducible representations of a group of finite
order are known, all representations may be built up.
It has been seen at tne beginning of this section that every group
of finite order N can be presented as a group of permutations (i.e.
linear substitutions in a limited sense) on N symbols. This group is
obviously reducible; in fact, the sum of the symbols remain un-
altered by every substitution of the group. The fundamental
theorem in connexion with the representations, as an irreducible
p-oup of linear substitutions, of a group of finite order N is the
oiiowing.
If r is the number of different sets of conjugate operations in the
group, then, when the group of N permutations is completely
reduced,
(i.) just r distinct irreducible representations occur:
gr<
fol
(ii.) each of these occurs a number of times equal to the number
of symbols on which it operates:
(iii.) these irreducible representations exhaust all the distinct
irreducible representations of the group.
Among these representations what is called the " identical "
representation necessarily occurs, i.e. that in which each operation
of the group corresponds to leaving a single symbol unchanged. If
these representations are denoted oy Ti, Tj, . . . , r r , then any re-
presentation of the group as a group of linear substitutions, or in
particular as a group of permutations, may be uniquely represented
by a symbol 2ail\, in the sense that the representation when com-
pletely reduced will contain the representation I\ just a« times for
each suffix i.
A representation of a group of finite order as an irreducible group
of linear substitutions may be presented in an infinite a-™
number of equivalent forms. If cfcanictof*
x'i=2sijXj(i,j = i t 2 m), tstics.
is the linear substitution which, in a given irreducible repre-
sentation of a group of finite order G, corresponds to the operation
S, the determinant
Sn— X Su ... Sim
Stl 5m — X • . . Stm
Sml Sin
. . Sun-*
is invariant for all equivalent representations, when written as a
polynomial in X. Moreover, it has the same value for S and S', if
these are two conjugate operations in G. Of the various invariants
that thus arise the most important is SuH-Sm+ • • • +s mmt which is
called the " characteristic " of S. If S is an operation of order p, its
characteristic is the sum of m pth roots of unity ; and in particular, if
S is the identical operation its characteristic is m. If r is the number
of sets of conjugate operations in G, there is, for each representation
of G as an irreducible group, a set of r characteristics: Xi, Xj, . . . X r ,
one corresponding to each conjugate set ; so that for the r irreducible
representations just r such sets of characteristics arise. These are
distinct, in the sense thatif ¥1, ¥«, . . . , ¥, are the characteristics for
a distinct representation from the above, then X» and ¥• are not
equal for all values of the suffix *. It may be the case that the r
characteristics for a given representation are all real. If this is so
the representation is said to be self-inverse. In the contrary case
there is always another representation, called the " inverse " repre-
sentation, for which each characteristic is the conjugate imaginary
of the corresponding one in the original representation. The
characteristics are subject to certain remarkable relations. If h P
denotes the number of operations in the pth conjugate set, while
Xj, and x£ are the characteristics of the pth conjugate set in I\ and
r„ then
2^XiXj=oor»,
according to I\ and Ty are not or are inverse representations, n being
the order of G.
^^XjXj-oom/*,
according as the pth and qth conjugate sets are not or are inverse;
the qth set being called the inverse of the pth if it consists of the
inverses of the operations constituting the pth.
Another form in which every group of finite order can be repre-
sented is that known as a linear homogeneous group. If
in the equations uaear
X , r = a r iXi+a r iX2+ . . . +armXmt (f-I, 2, . . . , w), ~f!£l.
which define a linear homogeneous substitution, the co- VL*udm
efficients are integers, and if the equations are replaced *^ p '
by congruences to a finite modulus », the system of congruences
will give a definite operation, provided that the determinant of
the coefficients is relatively prime to n. The product of two such
operations is another operation of the same kind; and the total
number of distinct operations is finite, since there is only a
limited number of choices for the coefficients. The totality of these
operations, therefore, constitutes a group of finite order ; and such a
group is known as a linear homogeneous group. If n is a prime the
order of the group is
(n w -i) (n m -n) . . . (ft 1 *-*"- 1 ).
The totality of the operations of the linear homogeneous group for
which the determinant of the coefficients is congruent to unity forms
a subgroup. Other subgroups arise by considering those operations
which leave a function of the variables unchanged (mod. ft). All
such subgroups are known as linear homogeneous groups.
When the ratios only of the variables are considered, there arises a
linear fractional group, with which the corresponding linear homo-
geneous group is isomorphic. Thus, if p is a prime the totality of the
congruences
az+b
5 ciT3'
i, ad—bc^o, (mod. p)
636
GROUSE
constitutes a group of order p(p* — 1). This class of groups for various
values of P is almost the only one which has been as yet exhaustively
analysed. For all values of p except 3 it contains a simple sell-
conjugate subgroup of index 2.
A great extension of the theory of linear homogeneous groups has
been made in recent years by considering systems of congruences of
the form
X , r^OrlXi+O r9 Xi+ • • • +OrmXm, (f-I, 2, . . . , m),
in which the coefficients Or, are integral functions with real integral
coefficients of a root of an irreducible congruence to a prime modulus.
Such a system of congruences is obviously limited in numbers and
defines a group which contains as a subgroup the group defined by
the same congruences with ordinary integral coefficients.
The chief application of the theory of groups of finite order is to
the theory of algebraic equations. The analogy of equations of the
a Hem* second, third and fourth degrees would give rise to the
22*" expectation that a root of an equation of any finite degree
could be expressed in terms of the coefficients by a finite
number of the operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division, and the extraction of roots; in other words, that the
equation could be solved by radicals. This, however, as proved by
Abel and Galois, is not the case : an equation of a higher degree than
the fourth in general defines an algebraic irrationality which cannot
be expressed by means of radicals, and the cases in which such an
equation can be solved by radicals must be regarded as exceptional.
The theory of groups gives the means of determining whether an
equation comes under this exceptional case, and of solving the
equation when it does. When it does not, the theory provides the
means of reducing the problem presented by the equation to a
normal form. From this point of view the theory of equations of the
fifth degree has been exhaustively treated, and the problems pre-
sented by certain equations of the sixth and seventh degrees have
actually been reduced to normal form.
Galois (see Equation) showed that, corresponding to every ir-
reducible equation of the nth degree, there exists a transitive sub-
stitution-group of degree n, such that every function of the roots,
the numerical value of which is unaltered by all the substitutions of
the group can be expressed rationally in terms of the coefficients,
while conversely every function of the roots which is expressible
rationally in terms of the coefficients is unaltered by the substitutions
of the group. This group is called the group of the equation. In
general, if the equation is given arbitrarily, the group will be the
symmetric group. The necessary and sufficient conditions that the
equation may be soluble by radicals is that its group should be a
soluble group. When the coefficients in an equation are rational
integers, the determination of its group may be made by a finite
numberof processes each of which involves only rational arithmetical
operations. These processes consist in forming resolvents of the
equation corresponding to each distinct type of subgroup of the
symmetric group whose degree is that of the equation. Each of the
resolvents so formed is then examined to find whether it has rational
roots. The group corresponding to any resolvent which has a rational
root contains the group of the equation ; and the least of the groups
so found is the group of the equation. Thus, for an equation of the
fifth degree the various transitive subgroups of the symmetric group
of degree five have to be considered. These are (i.) the alternating
group; (ii.) a soluble group of order 20; (in.) a group of order io,
self -con jugate in the preceding; (iv.) a cyclical group of order 5,
self-conjugate in both the preceding. If x » *u **, **, *4 are the roots
of the equation, the corresponding resolvents may be taken to be
those which have for roots (i.) the square root of the discriminant;
(ii.) the function (.x 9 Xi+XiXi+XiXi+XtX4+X4X9)(xQX t +x&i+X4Xi +
XxXi+x&o) ; (iii.) the function x^i+*i*j+xa*»H-*iX4+*4*b; and
(i v. ) the function Xo'xi +x£x* +*t**» +Xi*Xi +*«**<>. Since the groups
for which (iii.) and (iv.) are invariant are contained in that for
which (ii.) is invariant, and since these are the only soluble groups
of the set, the equation will be soluble by radicals only when the
function (ii.) can oe expressed rationally in terms of the coefficients.
If
(*b*l +*1*J +X&1 +X$Xi +X4X0) (*o*J +X&4 +X4X1 +X& t +X1X0)
is known, then clearly *o*i+*iX2+*a*»+X|X4-f-*4X6 can be deter-
mined by the solution of a quadratic equation. Moreover, the
sum and product fo+€*i+€ , Xj4V*»+e 4 * 4 r and (xo-h« 4 *i+«**2-f-
e'xt-hexO* can be expressed rationally in terms of XbXi+XiXj+X2X»-|-
x»X4-r-*4X6i «t and the symmetric functions; e being a fifth root of
unity. Hence (so+^i+^j+e^j+e 4 ^) 6 can be determined by the
solution of a quadratic equation. The roots of the original equation
are then finally determined by the extraction of a fifth root. The
problem of reducing an equation of the fifth degree, when not
soluble by radicals, to a normal form, forms the subject of Klein's
Vorlesungen Uber das Ikosaeder. Another application of groups of
finite order is to the theory of linear differential equations whose
integrals are algebraic functions. It has been already seen, in the
discussion of discontinuous groups in general, that the groups of such
equations must be groups of finite order. To every group of finite
order which can be represented as an irreducible group of linear
substitutions on n variables will correspond a class of irreducible
linear differential equations of the nth order whose integrals are
algebraic. The complete determination of the class of linear differ-
ential equations of the second order with all their integrals algebraic,
whose group has the greatest possible order, viz. 120, has been
carried out ty Klein.
Authorities. — Continuous groups : Lie and Engel, Theorie der
Transformationsgrufpen (Leipzig, vol. i., 1888; vol. ii., 1890; vol.
iii., 1893); Lie and Scheffers, Vorlesungen uber gewdhnliche Diffe-
rential^leichungen mil bekannten infinitesimalen Transformations
(Leipzig, 1 891); Idem, Vorlesungen uber continuierliche Gruppen
(Leipzig, 1893); Idem, Geometric der Beruhrungstransformationen
(Leipzig, 1896); Klein and Schilling, Hohere Geometries vol. ii.
(lithographed) (Gottingen, 1893, for both continuous and discontinu-
ous groups). Campbell, Introductory Treatise on Lie's Theory of
Finite Continuous Transformation Groups (Oxford, 1903). Dis-
continuous groups: Klein and Fricke, Vorlesungen uber die Theorie
der eUiptischen Modulfunktionen (vol. i., Leipzig, 1890) (for a full
discussion of the modular group); Idem, Vorlesungen uber die
Theorie der automorphen Funktionen (vol. i., Leipzig, 1897; vol. ii.
pt. L, 1 901) (for the general theory of discontinuous groups);
Schoenflies, KrystaUsysteme und Krystallstruktur (Leipzig, 1891) (for
discontinuous groups of motions) ; Groups of finite order : Galois,
CEuvres math&matiques (Paris, 1897, reprint); Jordan, Traite* des
substitutions et des equations algibriques (Paris, 1870); Netto,
Substitutionentheorie und ihre Anwendung auf die Algebra (Leipzig,
1882; Eng. trans, by Cole, Ann Arbor, U.S.A., 1892); Klein,
Vorlesungen uber das Ikosaeder (Leipzig, 1884; Eng. trans, by
Morrice, London, 1888) ; H. Vogt, Lemons sur la resolution algeorique
des equations (Paris, 1895) ; Weber, Lehrbuch der Algebra (Braunsch-
weig, vol. i., 1895; vol. ii., 1896; a second edition appeared in
1898) ; Burnside, Theory of Groups of Finite Order (Cambridge, 1897) ;
Bianchi, Teoria dei gruppi di sostttuzioni e delle equazioni algebriche
(Pisa, 1899) ; Dickson, Linear Groups with an Exposition of the Galois
Field Theory (Leipzig, 1901); De Seguier, Etemcnts de la theorie des
groufes abs traits (Paris, 1904). A summary with many references
will be found in the Encyklopddie der mathematischen Wissenschaften
(Leipzig, vol. i., 1898, 1899). (W. Bu.)
GROUSE, a word of uncertain origin, 1 now used generally by
ornithologists to include all the " rough-footed " Gallinaceous
birds, but in common speech applied almost exclusively, when
used alone, to the Tetrao scoticus of Linnaeus, the La go pus
scoticus of modern systematists — more particularly called in
English the red grouse, but till the end of the 18th century
almost invariably spoken of as the Moor-fowl or Moor-game.
The effect which this species is supposed to have had on the
British legislature, and therefore on history, is well known, for
it was the common belief that parliament always rose when the
season for grouse-shooting began (August 12th) ; while according
to the Orkneyinga Saga (ed. Jonaeus, p. 356; ed. Anderson,
p. 168) events of some importance in the annals of North Britain
followed from its pursuit in Caithness in the year 11 57.
The red grouse is found on moors from Monmouthshire and
Derbyshire northward to the Orkneys, as well as in most of the
Hebrides. It inhabits similar situations throughout Wales and
Ireland, but it does not naturally occur beyond the limits of
the British Islands,* and is the only species among birds peculiar
to them. The word " species " may in this case be used advisedly
(since the red grouse invariably " breeds true," it admits of an
easy diagnosis, and it has a definite geographical range); but
scarcely any zoologist can doubt of its common origin with the
willow-grouse, La go pus albus (L, subalpinus or L. saliceti of some
authors), that inhabits a subarctic zone from Norway across the
1 It seems first to occur (O. Salusbury Brereton, Archaeologia %
iii. 157) as " grows " in an ordinance for the regulation of the royal
household dated "apud Eltham, mens. Jan. 22 Hen. VIII. ," i.e.
1531* and considering the locality must refer to black game. It is
found in an Act of Parliament 1 Jac. I. cap. 27, § 2, i.e. 1603, and,
as reprinted in the Statutes at Large, stands as now commonly spelt,
but by many writers or printers the final e was omitted in the 17th
and 1 8th centuries. In 161 1 Cotgrave had " Poule griesche. A
Moore-henne; the henne of the Grice [in ed. 1673 " Griece "] or
Mooregame " (Dictionarie of the French and English Tongues,
s.v. Poule). The most likely derivation seems to be from the old
French word griesche, greoche or griais (meaning speckled, and
cognate with griseus, grisly or grey), which was applied to some kind
of partridge, or according to Brunetto Latini {Tris. p. 211) to a
quail, " porce que ele fu premiers trovee en Grece." B The Oxford
Dictionary repudiates the possibility of " grouse " being a spurious
singular of an alleged plural " grice," and, with regard to the possi-
bility of " grows being a plural of " grow," refers to Giraldus
Cambrensis (c. 1 2 10), Topogr. Hib. opera (Rolls) v. 47: " gallinae
campestres, quas vulgariter grutas vocant."
* It was successfully, though with much trouble, introduced by
Mr Oscar Dickson on a tract of land near Gottenbure in Sweden
(Svensha Jdgarfdrbundets Nya Tidskrift, 1868, p. 64 et alibi).
GROUSE
637
continents of Europe and Asia, as well as North America from
the Aleutian Islands to Newfoundland. The red grouse indeed
is rarely or never found away from the heather on which chiefly
it subsists; while the willow-grouse in many parts of the Old
World seems to prefer the shrubby growth of berry-bearing
plants (Vaccinium and others) that, often thickly interspersed
with willows and birches, clothes the higher levels or the lower
mountain-slopes, and it flourishes in the New World where
heather scarcely exists, and a " heath " in its strict sense is
unknown. It is true that the willow-grouse always becomes
white in winter, which the red grouse never does; but in summer
there is a considerable resemblance between the two species,
the cock willow-grouse having his head, neck and breast of nearly
the same rich chestnut-brown as his British representative, and,
though his back be lighter in colour, as is also the whole plumage
of his mate, than is found in the red grouse, in other respects the
two species are precisely alike. No distinction can be discovered
Red Grouse.
in their voice, their eggs, their build, nor in their anatomical
details, so far as these have been investigated and compared. 1
Moreover, the red grouse, restricted as is its range, varies in
colour not inconsiderably according to locality.
Though the red grouse does not, after the manner of other
members of the genus Lagopus, become white in winter, Scotland
possesses a species of the genus which does. This is the ptar-
migan, L. mulus or L. alpinus, which differs far more in structure,
station and habits from the red grouse than that does from the
willow-grouse, and in Scotland is far less abundant, haunting
1 A very interesting subject for discussion would be whether
Lagopus scoticus or L. albus has varied most from the common stock
of both. Looking to the fact that the former is the only species of
the genus which does not assume white clothing in winter, an
evolutionist might at first deem the variation greatest in its case;
but then it must be borne in mind that the species of Lagopus
which turn white differ in that respect from all other groups of the
family Tetraonidae. Furthermore every species of Lagopus (even
L. leucurus, the whitest of all) has its first set of remiges coloured
brown. These are dropped when the bird is about half-grown, and
in all the species but L. scoticus white remiges are then produced.
If therefore the successive phases assumed by any animal in the
course of its progress to maturity indicate the phases through which
the species has passed, there may have been a time when all the
species of Lagopus wore a brown livery even when adult, and the
white dress donned in winter has been imposed upon the wearers
by causes that can be easily suggested. The white plumage of the
birds of this group protects them from danger during the snows of
a protracted winter. But the red grouse, instead of perpetuating
directly the more ancient properties of an original Lagopus that
underwent no great seasonal change of plumage, may derive its
ancestry from the widely-ranging willow-grouse, which in an epoch
comparatively recent (in the geological sense) may have stocked
Britain, and left descendants that, under conditions in which the
assumption of a white garb would be almost fatal to the preservation
of the species, have reverted (though doubtless with some modifica-
tions) to a comparative immutability essentially the same as that
of the primal Lagopus.
only the highest and most barren mountains. It is said to have
formerly inhabited both Wales and England, but there is no
evidence of its appearance in Ireland. On the continent of
Europe it is found most numerously in Norway, but at an
elevation far above the growth of trees, and it occurs on the
Pyrenees and on the Alps. It also inhabits northern Russia.
Ptarmigan.
In North America, Greenland and Iceland it is represented by a
very nearly allied form — so much so indeed that it is only at
certain seasons that the slight difference between them can be
detected. This form is the L. rupestris of authors, and it would
appear to be found also in Siberia {Ibis, 1879, p. 148). Spitz-
bergen is inhabited by a large form which has received recogni-
Blackcock.
tion as L. hemileucurus, and the northern end of the chain of
the Rocky Mountains is tenanted by a very distinct species, the
smallest and perhaps the most beautiful of the genus, L. leucurus,
which has all the feathers of the tail white.
The bird, however, to which the name of grouse in all strictness
belongs is probably the Tetrao tetrix of Linnaeus — the blackcock
and greyhen, as the sexes are respectively called. It is distri-
buted over most of the heath-country of England, except in
East Anglia, where attempts to introduce it have been only
partially successful. It also occurs in North Wales and very
6 3 8
GROVE, SIR G.— GRUB
generally throughout Scotland, though not in Orkney, Shetland
or the Outer Hebrides, nor in Ireland. On the continent of
Europe it has a very wide range, and it extends into Siberia.
In Georgia its place is taken by a distinct species, on which a
Polish naturalist (Proc. Zool. Society, 1875, p. 267) has conferred
the name gi T. mlokosiewicsi. Both these birds have much in
common with their larger congener the capercally and its eastern
representative.
The species of the genus Bonasa, of which the European
B. sylvestris is the type, does not inhabit the British Islands.
It is perhaps the most delicate game-bird that comes to table.
It is the gelinotte of the French, the Haselhuhn of Germans,
and Hjerpe of Scandinavians. Like its transatlantic congener
B. umbellus, the ruffed grouse or birch-partridge (of which there
are two other local forms, B. umbelloides and B. sabinii), it is
purely a forest-bird. The same may be said of the species of
Canace, of which two forms are found in America, C canadensis,
the spruce-partridge, and C. franklini, and also of the Siberian
C. falcipennis. Nearly allied to these birds is the group known
as Dendragapus, containing three large and fine forms D. obscurus,
D. fuliginosus,a.nd D. richardsoni — all peculiar to North America.
Then there are Centrocercus urophasianus, the sage-cock of the
plains of Columbia and California, and Pedioecetes, the sharp-
tailed grouse, with its two forms, P. phasianellus and P. colum-
bianusy while finally Cupidonia, the prairie-hen, also with two
local forms, C. cupido and C. pallidicincta, is a bird that in the
United States of America possesses considerable economic value,
enormous numbers being consumed there, and also exported
to Europe.
The various sorts of grouse are nearly all figured in Elliot's Mono-
graph of the Tetraoninae, and an excellent account of the American
species is given in Baird, Brewer and Ridgway's North American
Birds (iii. 414-465). See also Shooting. (A. N.)
GROVE, SIR GEORGE (1820-1900), English writer on music,
was born at Clapham on the 13th of August 1820. He was
articled to a civil engineer, and worked for two years in a factory
near Glasgow. In 1841 and 1845 he was employed in the West
Indies, erecting lighthouses in Jamaica and Bermuda. In 1849
he became secretary to the Society of Arts, and in 1852 to the
Crystal Palace. In this capacity his natural love of music and
enthusiasm for the art found a splendid opening, and he threw
all the weight of his influence into the task of promoting the best
music of all schools in connexion with the weekly and daily
concerts at Sydenham, which had a long and honourable career
under the direction of Mr (afterwards Sir) August Manns.
Without Sir George Grove that eminent conductor would hardly
have succeeded in doing what he did to encourage young com-
posers and to educate the British public in music. Grove's
analyses of the Beethoven symphonies, and the other works
presented at the concerts, set the pattern of what such things
should be; and it was as a result of these, and of the fact that
he was editor of Macmillaris Magazine from 1868 to 1883, that
the scheme of his famous Dictionary of Music and Musicians,
published from 1878 to 1889 (new edition, edited by J. A. Fuller
Maitland, 1904-1907), was conceived and executed. His own
articles in that work on Beethoven, Mendelssohn and Schubert
are monuments of a special kind of learning, and that the rest
of the book is a little thrown out of balance owing to their great
length is hardly to be regretted. Long before this he had con-
tributed to the Dictionary of the Bible, and had promoted the
foundation of the Palestine Exploration Fund. On a journey to
Vienna, undertaken in the company of his lifelong friend, Sir
Arthur Sullivan, the important discovery of a large number of
compositions by Schubert was made, including the music to
Rosatnunde. When the Royal College of Music was founded in
1882 he was appointed its first director, receiving the honour of
knighthood. He brought the new institution into line with the
most useful European conservatoriums. On the completion of
the new buildings in 1894 he resigned the directorship, but
retained an active interest in the institution to the end of his
life. He died at Sydenham on the 28th of May 1900.
His life, a most interesting one, was written by Mr Charles Graves.
(J.A.F.M.)
GROVE, SIR WILLIAM ROBERT (1811-1896), English judge
and man of science, was born on the 1 ith of July 181 1 at Swansea,
South Wales. After being educated by private tutors, he went
to Brasenose College, Oxford, where he took an ordinary degree
in 1832. Three years later he was called to the bar at Lincoln's
Inn. His health, however, did not allow him to devote himself
strenuously to practice, and he occupied his leisure with scientific
studies. About 1839 he constructed the platinum-zinc voltaic
cell that bears his name, and with the aid of a number of these
exhibited the electric arc light in the London Institution,
Finsbury Circus. The result was that in 1840 the managers
appointed him to the professorship of experimental philosophy,
an office which he held for seven years. His researches dealt very
largely with electro-chemistry and with the voltaic cell, of which
he invented several varieties. One of these, the Grove gas-
battery, which is of special interest both intrinsically and as
the forerunner of the secondary batteries now in use for the
" storage " of electricity, was based on his observation that a
current is produced by a couple of platinum plates standing
in acidulated water and immersed, the one in hydrogen, the
other in oxygen. At one of his lectures at the Institution he
anticipated the electric lighting of to-day by illuminating the
theatre with incandescent electric lamps, the filaments being of
platinum and the current supplied by a battery of his nitric acid
cells. In 1846 he published his famous book on The Correlation
of Physical Forces, the leading ideas of which he had already
put forward in his lectures: its fundamental conception was
that each of the forces of nature — light, heat, electricity, &c. — is
definitely and equivalently convertible into any other, and that
where experiment does not give the full equivalent, it is because
the initial force has been dissipated, not lost, by conversion into
other unrecognized forces. In the same year he received a Royal
medal from the Royal Society for his Bakerian lecture on
" Certain phenomena of voltaic ignition and the decomposition
of water into its constituent gases." In 1866 he presided over
the British Association at its Nottingham meeting and delivered
an address on the continuity of natural phenomena. But while he
was thus engaged in scientific research, his legal work was not
neglected, and his practice increased so greatly that in 1853 he
became a Q. C. One of the best-known cases in which he appeared
as an advocate was that of William Palmer, the Rugeley poisoner,
whom he defended. In 187 1 he was made a judge of the Common
Pleas in succession to Sir Robert Collier, and remained on the
bench till 1887. He died in London on the 1st of August 1896.
A selection of his scientific papers is given in the sixth edition of
The Correlation of Physical Forces, published in 1874.
GROVE (O.E. graf, cf. O.E. grosfa, brushwood, later " greave ";
the word does not appear in any other Teutonic language, and
the New English Dictionary finds no Indo-European root to
which it can be referred; Skeat considers it connected with
" grave," to cut, and finds the original meaning to be a glade
cut through a wood), a small group or cluster of trees, growing
naturally and forming something smaller than a wood, or planted
in particular shapes or for particular purposes, in a park, &c.
Groves have been connected with religious worship from the
earliest times, and in many parts of India every village has its
sacred group of trees. For the connexion of religion with sacred
groves see Tree- Worship.
The word " grove " was used by the authors of the Authorized
Version of the Bible to translate two Hebrew words: (1) 'eshel, as
in Gen. xxi. 35, and 1 Sam. xxii. 6 ; this is rightly given in the
Revised Version as " tamarisk " ; (2) asherah in many places
throughout the Old Testament. Here the translators followed the
Septuagint aXot* and the Vulgate lucus. The 'dsterdh was a
wooden post erected at the Canaanitish places of worship, and also
by the altars of Yahweh. It may have represented a tree.
GROZNYI, a fortress and town of Russia, North Caucasia,
in the province of Terek, on the Zunzha river, 82 m. by rail N.E.
of Vladikavkaz, on the railway to Petrovsk. There are naphtha
wells close by. The fortifications were constructed in 1819.
Pop. (1897) 15,599.
GRUB, the larva of an insect, a caterpillar, maggot. The
word is formed from the verb " to grub," to dig, break up the
GRUBER— GRUN
639
surface of the ground, and clear of stumps, roots, weeds, &c.
According to the New English Dictionary , " grub " may be
referred to an ablaut variant of the Old Teutonic grab-, to dig,
cf. " grave." Skeat (Etym. Diet. 1898) refers it rather to the root
seen in " grope," " grab," &c, the original meaning " to search
for." The earliest quotation of the slang use of the word in the
sense of food in the New English Dictionary is dated 1659 from
Ancient Poems, Ballads, &c, Percy Society Publications. " Grub-
street," as a collective term for needy hack-writers, dates from
the 1 7 th century and is due to the name of a street near Moorfields,
London, now Milton Street, which was as Johnson says " much
inhabited by writers of small histories, dictionaries and temporary
poems."
GRUBER, JOHANN GOTTFRIED (1774-1851), German critic
and literary historian, was born at Naumburg on the Saale, on
the 29th of November 1774. He received his education at the
town school of Naumburg and the university of Leipzig, after
which he resided successively at Gottingen, Leipzig, Jena and
Weimar, occupying himself partly in teaching and partly in
various literary enterprises, and enjoying in Weimar the friend-
ship of Herder, Wieland and Goethe. In 18 n he was appointed
professor at the university of Wittenberg, and after the division
of Saxony he was sent by the senate to Berlin to negotiate the
union of the university of Wittenberg with that of Halle. After
the union was effected he became in 18 15 professor of philosophy
at Halle. He was associated with Johann Samuel Ersch in the
editorship of the great work AUgemeine EncyklopUdie der Wissen-
schaften und Kiinste; and after the death of Ersch he continued
the first section from vol. xviii. to vol. liv. He also succeeded
Ersch in the editorship of the AUgemeine Liter aturzeitung. He
died on the 7th of August 185 1.
Gruber was the author of a large number of works, the principal
of which are Charakteristik Herders (Leipzig, 1805), in conjunction
with Johann T. L. Danz (1769-1851), afterwards professor of
theology at Jena ; Geschichte aes menschlichen Geschlechts (2 vols. ,
Leipzig, 1806); Wdrterbuch der altklassischen Mythologie (3 vols.,
Weimar, 1810-1815); Wielands Leben (2 parts, Weimar, 1815-1816),
and Klopstocks Leben (Weimar, 1832). He also edited Wieland's
SdmUiche Werke (Leipzig, 1818-1828).
GRUMBACH, WILHELM VON (1 503-1 567), German
adventurer, chiefly known through his connexion with the
so-called " Grumbach feuds " (Grumbachsche Hdndel), the last
attempt of the German knights to destroy the power of the
territorial princes. A member of an old Franconian family,
he was born on the 1st of June 1503, and having passed some
time at the court of Casimir, prince of Bayreuth (d. 1527), fought
against the peasants during the rising in 1524 and 1525. About
1540 Grumbach became associated with Albert Alcibiades, the
turbulent prince of Bayreuth, whom he served both in peace
and war. After the conclusion of the peace of Passau in 1552,
Grumbach assisted Albert in his career of plunder in Franconia
and was thus able to take some revenge upon his enemy, Melchior
von Zobel, bishop of Wurzburg. As a landholder Grumbach
was a vassal of the bishops of Wurzburg, and had held office
at the court of Conrad of Bibra, who was bishop from 1540
to 1544. When, however, Zobel was chosen to succeed Conrad
the harmonious relations between lord and vassal were quickly
disturbed. Unable to free himself and his associates from the
suzerainty of the bishop by appealing to the imperial courts he
decided to adopt more violent measures, and his friendship with
Albert was very serviceable in this connexion. Albert's career,
however, was checked by his defeat at Sievershausen in July
1553 and his subsequent flight into France, and the bishop took
advantage of this state of affairs to seize Grumbach's lands.
The knight obtained an order of restitution from the imperial
court of justice (Reichskammergericht), but he was unable to
carry this into effect; and in April 1558 some of his partisans
seized and killed the bishop. Grumbach declared he was
innocent of this crime, but his story was not believed, and he
fled to France. Returning to Germany he pleaded his cause in
person before the diet at Augsburg in 1559, but without success.
Meanwhile he had found a new patron in John Frederick,
duke of Saxony, whose father, John Frederick, had been obliged
to surrender the electoral dignity to the Albertine branch of his
family. Chafing under this deprivation the duke listened
readily to Grumbach's plans for recovering the lost dignity,
including a general rising of the German knights and the deposi-
tion of Frederick H., king of Denmark. Magical charms were
employed against the duke's enemies, and communications
from angels were invented which helped to stir up the zeal of
the people. In 1563 Grumbach attacked Wtirzburg, seized and
plundered the city and compelled the chapter and the bishop to
restore his lands. He was consequently placed under the
imperial ban, but John Frederick refused to obey the order of the
emperor Maximilian II. to withdraw his protection from him.
Meanwhile Grumbach sought to compass the assassination of the
Saxon elector, Augustus; proclamations were issued calling
for assistance; and alliances both without and within Germany
were concluded. In November 1566 John Frederick was placed
under the ban, which had been renewed against Grumbach
earlier in the year, and Augustus marched against Gotha.
Assistance was not forthcoming, and a mutiny led to the capitula-
tion of the town. Grumbach was delivered to his foes, and,
after being tortured, was executed at Gotha on the 18th of April
1567-
See F. Ortloff, Geschichte der Grumbachschen Handel (Jena,
1 868-1 870), and J. Voigt, Wilhelm von Grumbach und seine Handel
(Leipzig, 1 846-1 847).
GRUMENTUM, an ancient town in the centre of Lucania,
33 m. S. of Potentia by the direct road through Anxia, and 52 m.
by the Via Herculia, at the point of divergence of a road eastward
to Heraclea. It seems to have been a native Lucanian town,
not a Greek settlement. In 215 B.C. the Carthaginian general
Hanno was defeated under its walls, and in 207 B.C. Hannibal
made it his headquarters. In the Social War it appears as a
strong fortress, and seems to have been held by both sides at
different times. It became a colony, perhaps in the time of
Sulla, at latest under Augustus, and seems to have been of some
importance. Its site, identified by Holste from the description
of the martyrdom of St Laverius, is a ridge on the right bank
of the Aciris (Agri) about i960 ft. above sea-level, J m. below
the modern Saponara, which lies much higher (2533 ft.). Its
ruins (all of the Roman period) include those of a large amphi-
theatre (arena 205 by 197 ft.), the only one in Lucania, except
that at Paestum. There are also remains of a theatre. Inscrip-
tions record the repair of its town walls and the construction
of thermae (of which remains were found) in 57-51 B.C., the
construction in 43 B.C., of a portico, remains of which may be
seen along an ancient road, at right angles to the main road,
which traversed Grumentum from S. to N.
See F. P. Caputi in Notizie degli scavi (1877), 129, and G. Patroni,
ibid.(i8<)7) 180. (T. As.)
GRt)N. Hans Baldung (c. 1470-1545), commonly called
Grim, a German painter of the age of Dtirer, was born at Gmiind
in Swabia, and spent the greater part of his life at Strassburg and
Freiburg in Breisgau. The earliest pictures assigned to him are
altarpieces with the monogram H. B. interlaced, and the date
of 1496, in the monastery chapel of Lichtenthal near Baden.
Another early work is a portrait of the emperor Maximilian,
drawn in 1501 on a leaf of a sketch-book now in the print-room at
Carlsruhe. The "Martyrdom of St Sebastian ,, and the "Epiphany"
(Berlin Museum), fruits of his labour in 1507, were painted for
the market-church of Halle in Saxony. In 1509 Griin purchased
the freedom of the city of Strassburg, and resided there till 15 13,
when he moved to Freiburg in Breisgau. There he began a
series of large compositions, which he finished in 15 16, and placed
on the high altar of the Freiburg cathedral. He purchased anew
the freedom of Strassburg in 15 17, resided in that city as his
domicile, and died a member of its great town council 1545.
Though nothing is known of Grtin's youth and education,
it may be inferred from his style that he was no stranger to
the school of which Dtirer was the chief. Gmiind is but
50 m. distant on either side from Augsburg and Nuremberg.
Grain's prints were often mistaken for those of Dtirer; and
Dtirer himself was well acquainted with Grtin's woodcuts and
640
GRUNBERG— GRUNDY, S.
copper-plates in which he traded during his trip to the Nether-
lands (1520). B ut Griin's prints, though Dureresque, are far below
Durer, and his paintings are below his prints. Without absolute
correctness as a draughtsman, his conception of human form is
often very unpleasant, whilst a questionable taste is shown in
ornament equally profuse and " baroque." Nothing is more
remarkable in his pictures than the pug-like shape of the faces,
unless we except the coarseness of the extremities. No trace is
apparent of any feeling for atmosphere or light and shade.
Though Grtin has been commonly called the Correggio of the
north, his compositions are a curious medley of glaring and
heterogeneous colours, in which pure black is contrasted with pale
yellow, dirty grey, impure red and glowing green. Flesh is a
mere glaze under which the features are indicated by lines.
His works are mainly interesting because of the wild and fantastic
strength which some of them display. We may pass lightly over
the " Epiphany " of 1507, the " Crucifixion " of 1512, or the
" Stoning of Stephen " of 1522, in the Berlin Museum. There is
some force in the " Dance of Death " of 15 17, in the museum of
Basel, or the "Madonna" of 1530, in the Liechtenstein Gallery
at Vienna. Griin's best effort is the altarpiece of Freiburg,
where the " Coronation of the Virgin," and the " Twelve
Apostles," the " Annunciation, Visitation, Nativity and Flight
into Egypt," and the " Crucifixion," with portraits of donors,
are executed with some of that fanciful power which Martin
Schon bequeathed to the Swabian school. As a portrait painter
he is well known. He drew the likeness of Charles V., as well
as that of Maximilian; and his bust of Margrave Philip in the
Munich Gallery tells us that he was connected with the reigning
family of Baden as early as 15 14. At a later period he had
sittings from Margrave Christopher of Baden, Ottilia his wife,
and all their children, and the picture containing these portraits is
still in the grand-ducal gallery at Carlsruhe. Like Durer and
Cranach, Griin became a hearty supporter of the Reformation.
He was present at the diet of Augsburg in 1518, and one of his
woodcuts represents Luther under the protection of the Holy
Ghost, which hovers over him in the shape of a dove.
GRUNBERG, a town of Germany, in Prussian Silesia, beauti-
fully situated between two hills on an affluent of the Oder,
and on the railway from Breslau to Stettin via Klistrin, 36 m.
N.N.W. of Glogau. Pop. (1005) 20,987. It has a Roman Catholic
and two Evangelical churches, a modern school and a technical
(textiles) school. There are manufactures of cloth, paper,
machinery, straw hats, leather and tobacco. The prosperity
of the town depends chiefly on the vine culture in the neighbour-
hood, from which, besides the exportation of a large quantity
of grapes, about 700,000 gallons of wine are manufactured
annually.
GRUNDTVIG, NIKOLAI FREDERIK SEVERIN (1783-1872),
Danish poet, statesman and divine, was born at the parsonage
of Udby in Zealand on the 8th of September 1783. In 1791 he
was sent to live at the house of a priest in Jutland, and studied
at the free school of Aarhuus until he went up to the university
of Copenhagen in 1800. At the close of his university life he
made Icelandic his special study, until in 1805 he took the position
of tutor in a house on the island of Langeland. The next three
years were spent in the study of Shakespeare, Schiller and Fichte.
His cousin, the philosopher Henrik Steffens, had returned to
Copenhagen in 1802 full of the teaching of Schelling and his
lectures and the early poetry of Ohlenschl&ger opened the eyes
of Grundtvig to the new era in literature. His first work, On the
Songs in the Edda, attracted no attention. Returning to Copen-
hagen in 1808 he achieved greater success with his Northern
Mythology, and again in 1 800-1 811 with a long epic poem, the
Decline of the Heroic Life in the North. The boldness of the
theological views expressed in his first sermon in 18 10 offended
the ecclesiastical authorities, and he retired to a country parish
as his father's assistant for a while. From i8i2toi8i7he pub-
lished five or six works, of which the Rhyme of RoskUde is the
most remarkable. From 1816 to 1819 he was editor of a polemical
journal entitled Dannevirke, and in 181 8 to 1822 appeared his
Danish paraphrases (6 vols.) of Saxo Grammaticus and Snorri.
During these years he was preaching against rationalism to an
enthusiastic congregation in Copenhagen, but he accepted in
182 1 the country living of PraestS, only to return to the metropolis
the year after. In 1825 he published a pamphlet, The Church's
Reply, against H. N. Clausen, who was professor of theology in
the university of Copenhagen. Grundtvig was publicly prose-
cuted and fined, and for seven years he was forbidden to preach,
years which he spent in publishing a collection of his theological
works, in paying two visits to England, and in studying Anglo*
Saxon. In 1832 he obtained permission to preach again, and in
1839 he became priest of the workhouse church of Vartov
hospital, Copenhagen, a post he continued to hold until his death.
In 1 83 7- 1 841 he published Songs for the Danish Church, a rich
collection of sacred poetry; in 1838 he brought out a selection
of early Scandinavian verse; in 1840 he edited the Anglo-
Saxon poem of the Phoenix, with a Danish translation. He
visited England a third time in 1843. From 1844 until after the
first German war Grundtvig took a very prominent part in
politics. In 1 86 1 he received the titular rank of bishop, but
without a see. He went on writing occasional poems till 1866,
and preached in the Vartov every Sunday until a month before
his death. His preaching attracted large congregations, and he
soon had a following. His hymn-book effected a great change
in Danish church services, substituting the hymns of the national
poets for the slow measures of the orthodox Lutherans. The
chief characteristic of his theology was the substitution of the
authority of the " living word " for the apostolic commentaries,
and he desired to see each congregation a practically independent
community. His patriotism was almost a part of his religion,
and he established popular schools where the national poetry
and history should form an essential part of the instruction.
His followers are known as Grundtvigians. He was married three
times, the last time in his seventy-sixth year. He died on the
2nd of September 1872. Grundtvig holds a unique position in
the literature of his country; he has been styled the Danish
Carlyle. He was above all things a man of action, not an artist;
and the formless vehemence of his writings, which have had a
great influence over his own countrymen, is hardly agreeable
or intelligible to a foreigner. The best of his poetical works were
published in a selection (7 vols., 1880-1889) by his eldest son,
Svend Hersleb Grundtvig (1824-1883), who was an authority on
Scandinavian antiquities, and made an admirable collection of
old Danish poetry (Danmarks gamle Folkeviser, 1 853-1 883,
5 vols.; completed in 1891 by A. Olrik).
His correspondence with Ingemann was edited by S. Grundtvig
(1882) ; his correspondence with Christian Molbech by L. Schrdder
(1888); see also F. Winkel Horn, Grundtvigs Lvo og Gjeming (1883);
and an article by F. Nielsen in Bricka's Dansk Biografisk Lexikon.
GRUNDY, SYDNEY (1848- ), English dramatist, was born
at Manchester on the 23rd of March 1848, son of Alderman
Charles Sydney Grundy. He was educated at Owens College,
Manchester, and was called to the bar in 1869, practising in
Manchester until 1876. His farce, A Little Change, was produced
at the Haymarket Theatre in 1872. He became well known
as an adapter of plays, among his early successes in this direction
being The Snowball (Strand Theatre, 1879) from Oscar, ou le
mari qui trompe sa femme by MM. Scribe and Duvergne, and
In Honour Bound (1880) from Scribe's line Chalne. In 1887
he made a popular success with The Bells of Haslemere, written
with Mr H. Pettitt and produced at the Adelphi. In 1880- 1800
he produced two ingenious original comedies, A White Lie
(Court Theatre) and A Fool's Paradise (Gaiety Theatre), which
had been played two years earlier at Greenwich as The Mouse-
Trap, These were followed by Sowing the Wind (Comedy, 1893),
An Old Jew (Garrick, 1894), and by an adaptation of Octave
Feuillet's Montjoye as A Bunch of Violets (Haymarket, 1894). In
1894 he produced The New Woman and The Slaves of the Ring;
in 1895, The Greatest of These, played by Mr and Mrs Kendal
at the Garrick Theatre; The Degenerates (Haymarket, 1899),
and A Debt of Honour (St James's 1000). Among Mr Grundy's
most successful adaptations were the charming Pair of Spectacles
(Garrick, 1890) from Les Petits Oiseaux of MM. Labiche and
GRUNDY, MRS— GRUYERE
641
Delacour. Others were A Village Priest (Haymafket, 1890)
from Le Secret de la terreuse, a melodrama by MM. Busnach and
Cauvin; A Marriage of Convenience (Haymarket, 1897) from
Un Mortage de Louis XV, by Alex. Dumas, pere, The Silver
Key (Her Majesty's, 1897) from his Mile de Belle-isle, and The
Musqueteers (1890) from the same author's novel; Frocks and
Frills (Haymarket, 1902) from the Doigts defies of MM. Scribe
and LegouvS; The Garden of Lies (St James's Theatre, 1904)
from Mr Justus Miles For man's novel; Business is Business
(His Majesty's Theatre, 1905), a rather free adaptation from
Octave Mirbeau's Les Affaires sont les affaires; and The Diplo-
matists (Royalty Theatre, 190$) from La Poudre aux yeux,
by Labiche.
GRUNDY, MRS, the name of an imaginary English character,
who typifies the disciplinary control of the conventional " pro-
prieties " of society over conduct, the tyrannical pressure of
the opinion of neighbours on the acts of others. The name
appears in a play of Thomas Morton, Speed the Plough (1798),
in which one of the characters, Dame Ashfield, continually refers
to what her neighbour Mrs Grundy will Say as the criterion
of respectability. Mrs Grundy is not a character in the play,
but is a kind of " Mrs Harris " to Dame Ashfield.
GRUNER, GOTTLIEB SIGMUND (1717-1778), the author of
the first connected attempt to describe in detail the snowy
mountains of Switzerland. His father, Johann Rudolf Gruner
(1680-T761), was pastor of Trachselwald, in the Bernese
Emmenthal (1705), and later (1725) of Burgdorf, and a great
collector of information relating to historical and scientific
matters; his great Thesaurus topographico-historicus totius
ditionis Bernensis (4 vols, folio, 1 729-1730) still remains in MS.,
but in 1752 he published a small work entitled Deliciae urbis
Bernae, while he possessed an extensive cabinet of natural
history objects. Naturally such tastes had a great influence
on the mind of his son, who was born at Trachselwald, and
educated by his father and at the Latin school at Burgdorf, not
going to Berne much before 1736, when be published a dissertation
on the use of fire by the heathen. In 1739 he qualified as a
notary, in 1741 became the archivist of Hesse-Homburg, and in
1743 accompanied Prince Christian of Anhalt-Schaumburg to
Silesia and the university of Halle. He returned to his native
land before 1749, when he obtained a post at Thorberg, being
transferred in 1764 to Landshut and Fraubrunnen. It was in
1760 that he published in 3 vols, at Berne his chief work, Die
Eisgebirge des Schweizerlandes (bad French translation by M.
de K6ralio, Paris, 1770). The first two volumes are filled by
a detailed description of the snowy Swiss mountains, based not
so much on personal experience as on older works, and a very
large number of communications received by Gruner from
numerous friends; the third volume deals with glaciers in
general, and their various properties. Though in many respects
imperfect, Gruner 's book sums up all that was known on the
subject in his day, and forms the starting-point for later writers.
The illustrations are very curious and interesting. In 1778 he
republished (nominally in London, really at Berne) much of
the information contained in his larger work, but thrown into
the form of letters, supposed to be written in 1776 from various
spots, under the title of Reisen durch die merkwUrdigsten Gegenden
Uelvetiens (2 vols.). (W. A. B. C.)
GRONEWALD, MATHIAS. The accounts which are given of
this German painter, a native of Aschaffenburg, are curiously
contradictory. Between 1518 and 1530, according to statements
adopted by Waagen and Passavant, he was commissioned by
Albert of Brandenburg, elector and archbishop of Mainz, to
produce an altarpiece for the collegiate church of St Maurice
and Mary Magdalen at Halle on the Saale; and he acquitted
himself of this duty with such cleverness that the prelate in
after years caused the picture to be rescued from the Reformers
and brought back to Aschaffenburg. From one of the churches
of that city it was taken to thePinakothek of Munich in 1836.
It represents St Maurice and Mary Magdalen between four
saints, and displays a style so markedly characteristic, and so
like that of Lucas Cranach, that Waagen was induced to call
Grtinewald Cranach's master. He also traced the sameiiand
and technical execution in the great altarpieces of Annaberg
and Heilbronn, and in various panels exhibited in the museums
of Mainz, Darmstadt, Aschaffenburg, Vienna and Berlin. A
later race of critics, declining to accept the statements of Waagen
and Passavant, affirm that there is no documentary evidence to
connect Grtinewald with the pictures of Halle and Annaberg,
and they quote Sandrart and Bernhard Jobin of Strassburg
to show that Grtinewald is the painter of pictures of a different
class. They prove that he finished before 1516 the large altar-
piece of Issenheim, at present in the museum of Colmar, and
starting from these premises they connect the artist with Altdorfer
and Dtirer to the exclusion of Cranach. That a native of the
Palatinate should have been asked to execute pictures for a
church in Saxony can scarcely be accounted strange, since we
observe that Hans Baldung (Grtin) was entrusted with a com-
mission of this kind. But that a painter of Aschaffenburg should
display the style of Cranach is strange and indeed incredible,
unless vouched for by first-class evidence. In this case documents
are altogether wanting, whilst on the other hand it is beyond
the possibility of doubt, even according to Waagen, that the
altarpiece of Issenheim is the creation of a man whose teaching
was altogether different from that of the painter of the pictures
of Halle and Annaberg. The altarpiece of Issenheim is a fine
and powerful work, completed as local records show before
1 5 16 by a Swabian, whose distinguishing mark is that he followed
the traditions of Martin Schongauer, and came under the in-
fluence of Altdorfer and Dtirer. As a work of art the altarpiece
is important, being a poliptych of eleven panels, a carved central
shrine covered with a double set of wings, and two side pieces
containing the Temptation of St Anthony, the hermits Anthony
and Paul in converse, the Virgin adored by Angels, the Resurrec-
tion, the Annunciation, the Crucifixion, St Sebastian, St Anthony,
and the Marys wailing over the dead body of Christ. The author
of these compositions is also the painter of a series of mono-
chromes described by Sandrart in the Dominican convent, and
now in part in the Saalhof at Frankfort, and a Resurrection in
the museum of Basel, registered in Amerbach's inventory as
the work of Grtinewald.
GRUTER (or Gruyt£re), JAN (1560-1627), a critic and
scholar of Dutch parentage by his father's side and English by
his mother's, was born at Antwerp on the 3rd of December
1560, To avoid religious persecution his parents while he was
still young came to England; and for some years he prosecuted
his studies at Cambridge, after which he went to Leiden, where
he graduated M. A. In 1 586 he was appointed professor of history
at Wittenberg, but as he refused to subscribe the formula con-
cordiae he was unable to retain his office. From 1589 to 1592
he taught at Rostock, after which he went to Heidelberg, where
in 1602 he was appointed librarian to the university. He died
at Heidelberg on the 20th of September 1627.
Grater's chief works were his Inscriptions antiquae totius orbis
Romani (2 vols., Heidelberg, 1603), and Lampas, sive fax artiutn
liber alium (7 vols., Frankfort, 1602- 1 634).
GRUYERE (Ger. Greyerz), a district in the south-eastern
portion of the Swiss canton of Fribourg, famed for its cattle
and its cheese, and the original home of the " Ranz des Vaches,"
the melody by which the herdsmen call their cows home at
milking time. It is composed of the middle reach (from Mont-
bovon to beyond Bulle) of the Sarine or Saane valley, with its
tributary glens of the Hongrfn (left), the Jogne (right) and the
Tr£me (left), and is a delightful pastoral region (in 1901 it
contained 17,364 cattle). It forms an administrative district
of the canton of Fribourg, its population in 1900 being 23,111,
mainly French-speaking and Romanists. From Montbovon
(ti m. by rail from Bulle) there are mountain railways lead-
ing S.W. past Les Avants to Montreux (14 m.), and E. up the
Sarine valley past Chateau d'Oex to Saanen or Gessenay (14 m.),
and by a tunnel below a low pass to the Simme valley and Spiez
on the Lake of Thun. The modern capital of the district is the
small town of Bulle [Ger. Boll], with a 13th-century castle and in
1900 3330 inhabitants, French-speaking and Romanists. But
XII. 21
642
GRYNAEUS, J. J.— GRYPHIUS
the historical capital is the very picturesque little town of
Gruyeres (which keeps its final " s " in order to distinguish it from
the district), perched on a steep hill (S.E. of Bulk) above the
left bank of the Sarine, and at a height of 2713 ft. above the
sea-level. It is only accessible by a rough carriage road, and
boasts of a very fine old castle, at the foot of which is the solitary
street of the town, which in 1900 had 1389 inhabitants.
The castle was the seat of the counts of the Gruyere, who are
first mentioned in 1073. The name is said to come from the
word gruyer, meaning the officer of woods and forests, but the
counts bore the canting arms of a crane (grue), which are seen
all over the castle and the town. That valiant family ended
(in the legitimate line) with Count Michel (d. 1575) whose extra-
vagance and consequent indebtedness compelled him in 1555 to
sell his domains to Bern and Fribourg. Bern took the upper
Sarine valley (it still keeps Saanen at its head, but in 1798 lost
the Pays d'En-Haut to the canton du L6man, which in 1803
became the canton of Vaud). Fribourg took the rest of the
county, which it added to Bulle and Albeuve (taken in 1537 from
the bishop of Lausanne), and to the lordship of Jaun in the Jaun
or Jogne valley (bought in 1502-1504 from its lords), in order to
form the present administrative district of Gruyere, which is
not co-extensive with the historical county of that name.
See the materials collected by J. J. Hisely and published in suc-
cessive vols, of the Memoires et documents de la Suisse romande . . .
introd, a Vhist. (1851); Histoire (2 vols., 1855-1857); and Monu-
ments de V histoire (2 vols., 1 867-1 869); K. V. von Bonstetten,
Briefe uber ein schweit. Hirtenland (1781) (Eng. trans., 1784); J.
Reichlen, La Gruyere illustree (1890), seq.; H. Raemy, La Gruyere
(1867); and Les Alpes fribourgeoises f by many authors (Lausanne,
1908). (W. A. B. C.)
GRYNAEUS (or Gryner), JOHANN JAKOB (1540-1617),
Swiss Protestant divine, was born on the 1st of October 1540 at
Bern. His father, Thomas (15 12-1564), was for a time professor
of ancient languages at Basel and Bern, but afterwards became
pastor of R5teln in Baden. He was nephew of the more eminent
Simon Grynaeus (q.v.). Johann was educated at Basel, and in
1559 received an appointment as curate to his father. In 1563 he
proceeded to Tubingen for the purpose of completing his theo-
logical studies, and in 1565 he returned to R<5teln as successor
to his father. Here he felt compelled to abjure the Lutheran
doctrine of the Lord's Supper, and to renounce the formula
concordiae. Called in 1575 to the chair of Old Testament
exegesis at Basel, he became involved in unpleasant controversy
with Simon Sulzer and other champions of Lutheran orthodoxy;
and in 1584 he was glad to accept an invitation to assist in the
restoration of the university of Heidelberg. Returning to Basel
in 1586, after Simon Sulzer's death, as antistes or superintendent
of the church there and as professor of the New Testament, he
exerted for upwards of twenty-five years a considerable influence
upon both the church and the state affairs of that community,
and acquired a wide reputation as a skilful theologian of the
school of Ulrich Zwingli. Amongst other labours he helped to
reorganize the gymnasium in 1588. Five years before his death
he became totally blind, but continued to preach and lecture
till his death on the 13th of August 161 7.
His many works include commentaries on various books of the
Old and New Testament, Theologica theoremata et problemata (1588),
and a collection of patristic literature entitled Monumenta S. patrum
orthodoxographa (2 vols., fol., 1569).
GRYNAEUS, SIMON (1493-1541), German scholar and theo-
logian of the Reformation, son of Jacob Gryner, a Swabian
peasant, was born in 1493 a * Vehringen, in Hohenzollern-
Sigmaringen. He adopted the name Grynaeus from the epithet
of Apollo in Virgil. He was a schoolfellow with Melanchthon
at Pforzheim, whence he went to the university of Vienna,
distinguishing himself there as a Latinist and Grecian. His
appointment as rector of a school at Buda was of no long con-
tinuance; his views excited the zeal of the Dominicans and he
was thrown into prison. Gaining his freedom at the instance
of Hungarian magnates, he visited Melanchthon at Wittenberg,
and in 1524 became professor of Greek at the university of
Heidelberg, being in addition professor of Latin from 1526.
His Zwinglian view of the Eucharist disturbed his relations with
his Catholic colleagues. From 1526 he had corresponded with
Oecolampadius, who in 1529 invited him to Basel, which Erasmus
had just left. The university being disorganized, Grynaeus
pursued his studies, and in 1531 visited England for research
in libraries. A commendatory letter from Erasmus gained him
the good offices of Sir Thomas More. He returned to Basel
charged with the task of collecting the opinions of continental
reformers on the subject of Henry VIII. J s divorce, and was
present at the death of Oecolampadius (Nov. 24, 1 53 1) . He now,
while holding the chair of Greek, was appointed extraordinary
professor of theology, and gave exegetical lectures on the New
Testament. In 1534 Duke Ulrich called him to Wiirttemberg in
aid of the reformation there, as well as for the reconstitution of
the university of Tubingen, which he carried out in concert with
Ambrosius Blarer of Constant Two years later he had an active
hand in the so-called First Helvetic Confession (the work of
Swiss divines at Basel in January 1536); also in the conferences
which urged the Swiss acceptance of the Wittenberg Concord
(1536). At the Worms conference (1540) between Catholics
and Protestants he was the sole representative of the Swiss
churches, being deputed by the authorities of Basel. He was
carried off suddenly in his prime by the plague at Basel on the
1st of August 1 54 1. A brilliant scholar, a mediating theologian,
and personally of lovable temperament, his influence was great
and wisely exercised. Erasmus and Calvin were among his
correspondents. His chief works were Latin versions of Plutarch,
Aristotle and Chrysostom.
His son Samuel (1539-1599) was professor of jurisprudence
at BaseL His nephew Thomas (i5i2?-i564) was professor at
Basel and minister in Baden, and left four distinguished sons
of whom Johann Jakob (1540-1 617). was a leader in the religious
affairs of Basel. The last of the direct descendants of Simon
Grynaeus was his namesake Simon (17 25-1 799), translator into
German of French and English anti-deistical works, and author
of a version of the Bible in modern German (1776).
See Bavie's Dictionnaire; W. T. Streuber in Hauck's Realency-
hlopadie (1899); and for bibliography, Streuber's $. Grynaei epts-
tolae (1847). (A. Go/)
GRYPHIUS, ANDREAS (1616-1664), German lyric poet and
dramatist, was born on the nth of October 161 6, at Grossglogau
in Silesia, where his father was a clergyman. The family name
was Greif, latinized, according to the prevailing fashion, as
Gryphius. Left early an orphan and driven from his native
town by the troubles of the Thirty Years' War, he received his
schooling in various places, but notably at Fraustadt, where he
enjoyed an excellent classical education. In 1634 he became
tutor to the sons of the eminent jurist Georg von Schonborn
(1 579-1637), a man of wide culture and considerable wealth,
who, after filling various administrative posts and writing many
erudite volumes on law, had been rewarded by the emperor
Ferdinand II. with the title and office of imperial count-palatine
(Pfalzgraf). Schonborn, who recognized Gryphius 's genius,
crowned him poeta laurealus f gave him the diploma of master
of philosophy, and bestowed on him a patent of nobility, though
Gryphius never used the title. A month later, on the 23rd of
December 1637, Schonborn died; and next year Gryphius went
to continue his studies at Leiden, where he remained six years,
both hearing and delivering lectures. Here he fell under the
influence of the great Dutch dramatists, Pieter Cornelissen Hooft
(1581-1647) and Joost van den Vondel (1587-1679), who largely
determined the character of his later dramatic works. After
travelling in France, Italy and South Germany, Gryphius settled
in 1647 at Fraustadt, where he began his dramatic work, and in
1650 was appointed syndic of Glogau, a post he held until his
death on the 16th of July 1664. A short time previously he had
been admitted under the title of " The Immortal " into the
Fruchtbringende GeseUschaft, a literary society, founded in 161 7
by Ludwig, prince of Anhalt-Kothen on the model of the Italian
academies.
Gryphius was a man of morbid disposition, and his melancholy
temperament, fostered by the misfortunes of his childhood,
is largely reflected in his lyrics, of which the most famous are the
GUACHARO— GUACG
643
Kinhhofsgedanken (1656). His best works are his comedies,
one of which, Absurda Comica, oder Herr Peter Squentz (1663),
is evidently based on the comic episode of Pyramus and Thisbe
in The Midsummer Night's Dream. Die geliebte Dornrose (1660),
which is written in a Silesian dialect, contains many touches of
natural simplicity and grace, and ranks high among the compara-
tively small number of German dramas of the 17th century.
Horribilicribrifax (1663), founded on the Miles glariosus of
Plautus, is a rather laboured attack on pedantry. Besides
these three comedies, Gryphius wrote five tragedies. In all of
them his tendency is to become wild and bombastic, but he
had the merit of at least attempting to work out artistically
conceived plans, and there are occasional flashes both of passion
and of imagination. His models seem to have been Seneca and
Vondel. He had the courage, in Carolus Stuardus (1649) to deal
with events of his own day; his other tragedies are Leo Armenius
(1646); Katharina von Georgien (1657), Cardenio und Celinde
(1657) and Papinianus (1663). No German dramatic writer
before him had risen to so high a level, nor had he worthy
successors until about the middle of the 18th century.
A complete edition of Gryphius's dramas and lyric poetry has
been published by H. Palm in the series of the Stuttgart Literarische
Verein (3 vols., 1878, 1882, 1884). Volumes of selected works will
be found in W. Muller's BibHothek der deutschen Dichter' des iyten
Jahrhunderls (1822) and in J. Tittmann's Deutsche Dichter des lyten
Jahrhunderts (1870). There is also a good selection by H. Palm in
Kurschner's Deutsche Nationalliteratur.
See O. Klopp, Andreas Gryphius als Dramatiker (1851); J. Her-
mann, Ober Andreas Gryphius (1851); T. Wissowa, Beitrage zur
Kenntnis von Andreas Gryphius' Leben und Schriften (1876); J.
Wysocki, Andreas Gryphius et la trag&die allemande au XV IP
Steele ; and V. Mannheimer, Die Lyrik des Andreas Gryphius (1904).
GUACHARO (said to be an obsolete Spanish word signifying
one that cries, moans or laments loudly), the Spanish- American
name of what English writers call the oil-bird, the Steatornis
caripensis of ornithologists, a very remarkable bird, first described
by Alexander von Humboldt (Voy. am rig. iquinoxiales
i. 413, Eng. trans, iii 119; Obs. Zoologie ii. 141, pi. xliv.)
from his own observation and from examples obtained by
Aim6 J. A. Bonpland, on the visit of those two travellers, in
September 1799, to a cave near Caripe* (at that time a monastery
of Aragonese Capuchins) some forty miles S.E. of Cumana
on the northern coast of South America. A few years later it
was discovered, says Latham (Gen. Hist. Birds, 1823, vii. 365),
to inhabit Trinidad, where it appears to bear the name of Dia-
blotin; 1 but by the receipt of specimens procured aUSarayacu
in Peru, Cajamarca in the Peruvian Andes, and Antioquia
in Colombia (Proc. Zool. Society, 1878, pp. 139, 140; 1879,
P- 532), its range has been shown to be much greater than had
been supposed. The singularity of its structure, its curious
habits, and its peculiar economical value have naturally attracted
no little attention from zoologists. First referring it to the genus
Caprimulgus, its original describer soon saw that it was no true
goatsucker. It was subsequently separated as forming a sub-
family, and has at last been regarded as the type of a distinct
family, Steatornithidae — a view which, though not put forth till
1870 (Zool. Record, vi. 67), seems now to be generally deemed
correct. Its systematic position, however, can scarcely be
considered settled, for though on the whole its predominating
alliance may be with the Caprimulgidae, nearly as much affinity
may be traced to the Strigidae, while it possesses some characters
in which it differs from both (Proc. Zool. Society, 1873, pp.
526-535). About as big as a crow, its plumage exhibits the
blended tints of chocolate-colour and grey, barred and pencilled
with dark-brown or black, and spotted in places with white,
that prevail in the two families just named. The beak is hard,
strong and deeply notched, the nostrils are prominent, and the
gape is furnished With twelve long hairs on each side. The legs
and toes are comparatively feeble, but the wings are large. In
habits the guacharo is wholly nocturnal, slumbering by day
in deep and dark caverns which it frequents in vast numbers.
Towards evening it arouses itself, and, with croaking and
1 Not to be confounded with the bird so called in the French
Antilles, which is a petrel (Oestrelata).
clattering which has been likened to that of castanets, it
approaches the exit of its retreat, whence at nightfall it issues
in search of its food, which, so far as is known, consists entirely
of oily nuts or fruits, belonging especially to the genera Achras,
Aiphanas, Laurus and Psickotria, some of them sought, it would
seem, at a very great distance, for Funck (Bull. Acad. Sc. Bruxelles
xi. pt. 2, pp. 371-377) states that in the stomach of one he
obtained at Caripe' he found the seed of a tree which he believed
did not grow nearer than 80 leagues. The hard, indigestible
seed swallowed by the guacharo are found in quantities on the
floor and the ledges of the caverns it frequents, where many of
them for a time vegetate, the plants thus growing being etiolated
from want of light, and, according to travellers, forming a
singular feature of the gloomy scene which these places present.
The guacharo is said to build a bowl-like nest of clay, in which
it lays from two to four white eggs, with a smooth but lustreless
surface, resembling those of some owls. The young soon after
they are hatched become a perfect mass of fat, and while yet in
the nest are sought by the Indians, who at Carip6, and perhaps
elsewhere, make a special business of taking them and extracting
the oil they contain. This is done about midsummer, when
by the aid of torches and long poles many thousands of the
young birds are slaughtered, while their parents in alarm and
rage hover over the destroyers' heads, uttering harsh and
deafening cries. The grease is melted over fires kindled at the
cavern's mouth, run into earthen pots, and preserved for use
in cooking as well as for the lighting of lamps. It is said to be
pure and limpid, free from any disagreeable taste or smell, and
capable of being kept for a year without turning rancid. In
Trinidad the young are esteemed a great delicacy for the table
by many, though some persons object to their peculiar scent,
which resembles that of a cockroach (Blatta), and consequently
refuse to eat them. The old birds also, according to E. C.
Taylor (Ibis, 1864, p. 90), have a strong crow-like odour. But
one species of the genus Steatornis is known.
In addition to the works above quoted valuable information about
this curious bird may be found under the following references:
pp. 1-11 ; des Murs, Rev. zool. (18*3), p. 52, and Ool. Orn. pp. 260-
263; Blanchard, Ann. Mus. (1859), xi. pi. 4, fig. 30; Konig-Wart-
hausen, Journ. fur Orn. (1868), pp. 384-387; Goering, Vargasia
(1869), pp. 124-128; Murie, Ibis (1873), pp. 81-86. (A.N.)
GUACO, Huaco or Guao, also Vejuco and Bejuco, terms
applied to various Central and South American and West Indian
plants, in repute for curative virtues. The Indians and negroes
of Colombia believe the plants known to them as guaco to
have been so named after a species of kite, thus designated in
imitation of its cry, which they say attracts to it the snakes
that serve it principally for food; they further hold the tradition
that their antidotal qualities were discovered through the
observation that the bird eats of their leaves, and even spreads
the juice of the same on its wings, during contests with its
prey. The disputes that have arisen as to what is " the true
guaco " are to be attributed mainly to the fact that the names
of the American Indians for all natural objects are generic, and
their genera not always in coincidence with those of naturalists.
Thus any twining plant with a heart-shaped leaf, white and green
above and purple beneath, is called by them guaco (R. Spruce,
in Howard's Neueva Quinologia, " Cinchona succfrubra," p. 22,
note). What is most commonly recognized in Colombia as
guaco, or, Vejuco del guaco, would appear to be Mikania Guaco
(Humboldt and Bonpland, PI. Squinox. ii. 84, pi. 105, 1809),
a climbing Composite plant of the tribe Eupatoriaceae, affecting
moist and shady situations, and having a much-branched and
deep-growing root, variegated, serrate, opposite leaves and dull-
white flowers, in axillary clusters. The whole plant emits a
disagreeable odour. It is stated that the Indians of Central
America, after having " guaconized " themselves, i.e. taken
guaco, catch with impunity the most dangerous snakes, which
writhe in their hands as though touched by a hot iron (B. Seemann,
Hooker's Journ. of Pot. v. 76, 1853). The odour alone of guaco
644
GUADALAJARA— GUADALQUIVIR
has been said tp cause in snakes a state of stupor and torpidity;
and Humboldt, who observed that the near approach of a rod
steeped in guaco-juice was obnoxious to the venomous Coluber
corattinus, was of opinion that inoculation with it imparts to the
perspiration an odour which makes reptiles unwilling to bite.
The drug is not used in modern therapeutics.
GUADALAJARA, an inland city of Mexico and capital of the
state of Jalisco, 275 m. (direct) W.N.W. of the Federal capital,
in lat. 20 41' 10" N., long. 103° 21' 15" W. Pop. (1895)
^3,934; (1900) 101,208. Guadalajara is served by a short
branch of the Mexican Central railway from Irapuato.
The city is in the Antemarac valley near the Rio Grande de
Santiago, 5092 ft. above sea-level. Its climate is dry, mild and
healthy, though subject to sudden changes. The city is well
built, with straight and well-paved streets, numerous plazas,
public gardens and shady promenades. Its public services
include tramways and electric lighting, the Juanacatlan falls
of the Rio Grande near the city furnishing the electric power.
Guadalajara is an episcopal see, and its cathedral, built between
1 57 1 and 16 1 8, is one of the largest and most elaborately
decorated churches in Mexico* The government palace, which
like the cathedral faces upon the plaza mayor , is generally
considered one of the finest specimens of Spanish architecture
in Mexico. Other important edifices and institutions are the
university, with its schools of law and medicine, the mint, built
in 181 1, the modern national college and high schools, a public
library of over 28,000 volumes, an episcopal seminary, an
academy of fine arts, the Teatro Degollado, and the large modern
granite building of the penitentiary. There are many interesting
churches and eleven conventual establishments in the city.
Charitable institutions of a high character are also prominent,
among which are the Hospicio, which includes an asylum for
the aged, infirm, blind, deaf and dumb, foundlings and orphans,
a primary school for both sexes, and a girls' training school,
and the Hospital de San Miguel de Belen, which is a hospital,
an insane asylum, and a school for little children. One of the
most popular public resorts of the city is the Paseo, a beautiful
drive and promenade extending along both banks of the Rio San
Juan de Dios for ij m. and terminating in the alameda, or public
garden* The city has a good water-supply, derived from springs
and brought in through an aqueduct 8 m. long. Guadalajara
is surrounded by a fertile agricultural district and is an important
commercial town, but the city is chiefly distinguished as the
centre of the iron, steel and glass industries of Mexico. It is also
widely known for the artistic pottery manufactured by the
Indians of the city and of its suburb, San Pedro. Among other
prominent industries are the manufacture of cotton and woollen
goods, leather, furniture, hats and sweetmeats. Guadalajara
was founded in 1531 by Nufio de Guzman, and became the seat
of a bishop in 1549. The Calderon bridge near the city was the
scene of a serious defeat of the revolutionists under Hidalgo in
January 181 1. The severe earthquake of the 31st of May 1818
partially destroyed the two cathedral steeples; and that of the
nth of March 1875 damaged many of the larger buildings. The
population includes large Indian and mestizo elements.
GUADALAJARA, a province of central Spain, formed in 1833
of districts taken from New Castile; bounded on the N. by
Segovia, Soria and Saragossa, E. by Saragossa and Teruel,
S. by Cuehca and W. by Madrid. Pop. (1900) 200,186; area,
4676 sq. m. Along the northern frontier of Guadalajara rise the
lofty Guadarrama mountains, culminating in the peaks of La
Cebollera (6955 ft.) and Ocejon (6775 ft.); the rest of the
province, apart from several lower ranges in the east, belongs
to the elevated plateau of New Castile, and has a level or slightly
undulating surface, which forms the upper basin of the river
Tagus, and is watered by its tributaries the Tajufia, Henares,
Jarama and Gallo. The climate of this region, as of Castile
generally, is marked by the extreme severity of its winter cold
and summer heat; the soil varies very much in quality, but
is fertile enough in many districts, notably the cornlands of the
Alcarria, towards the south. Few of the cork and oak forests
which formerly covered the mountains have escaped destruction;
and the higher tracts of land are mainly pasture for the sheep
and goats which form the principal wealth of the peasantry.
Grain, olive oil, wine, saffron, silk and flax are produced, but
agriculture makes little progress, owing to defective com-
munications and unscientific farming. In 1903, the only
minerals worked were common salt and silver, and the total
output of the mines was valued at £25,000. Deposits of iron,
lead and gold also exist and were worked by the Romans; but
their exploitation proved unprofitable when renewed in the
19th century. Trade is stagnant and the local industries are
those common to almost all Spanish towns and villages, such as
the manufacture of coarse cloth and pottery. The Madrid-
Saragossa railway traverses the province for 70 m.; t,he roads
are ill-kept and insufficient. Guadalajara (11, 144) is the capital,
and the only town with more than 5000 inhabitants; Molina
de Aragon, a fortified town built at the foot of the Parameras
de Molina (2500-3500 ft.), and on the right bank of the Gallo.
a tributary of the Tagus, is of some importance as an agricultural
centre. Siguenza, on the railway, is an episcopal city, with a
fine Romanesque cathedral dating from the nth century. It
is probably the ancient Segontia, founded in 218 B.C. by refugees
from Saguntum. The population of the province, which numbers
only 42 per sq. m., decreased slightly between 1870 and 1900,
and extreme poverty compels many families to emigrate (see
also Castile).
GUADALAJARA, the capital of the Spanish province of
Guadalajara, on the left bank of the river Henares, and on
the Madrid-Saragossa railway, 35 m. E.N.E. of Madrid. Pop.
(1900) 11,144. Guadalajara is a picturesque town, occupying
a somewhat sterile plain, 2100 ft. above the sea. A Roman
aqueduct and the Roman foundations of the bridge built in
1758 across the Henares bear witness to its antiquity. Under
Roman and Visigothic rule it was known as Arriaca or Caraca;
its present name, which sometimes appears in medieval chronicles
as Godelfare, represents the Wad-al-kajardh, or " Valley of
Stones," of the Moors, who occupied the town from 714 until
108 1, when it was captured by Alvar Yaftez de Minaya, a comrade
of the more famous Cid. The church of Santa Maria contains
the image of the " Virgin of Battles," which accompanied
Alphonso VI. of Castile (107 2-1 109) on his campaigns against
the Moors; and there are several other ancient and interesting
churches in Guadalajara, besides two palaces, dating from the
15th century, and built with that blend of Christian and Moorish
architecture which Spaniards call the MudSjar style. The more
important of these is the palace of the ducal house del Infantado,
formerly owned by the Mendoza family, whose panteon, or
mausoleum, added between 1696 and r72o to the 13th-century
church of San Francisco, is remarkable for the rich sculpture
of its tombs. The town and provincial halls date from 1585,
and the college of engineers was originally built by Philip V.,
early in the 18th century, as a cloth factory/ Manufactures of
soap, leather, woollen fabrics and bricks have superseded the
original cloth-weaving industry for which Guadalajara was long
celebrated; there is also a considerable trade in agricultural
produce.
GUADALQUIVIR (ancient Baetis, Moorish Wadi al Kebir, "the
Great River "), a river of southern Spain. What is regarded as
the main stream rises 4475 ft. above sea-level between the
Sierra de Cazorla and Sierra del Pozo, in the province of Jaen.
It does not become a large river until it is joined by the Guadiana
Menor (Guadianamenor) on the left, and the Guadalimar on the
right. Lower down it receives many tributaries, the chief being
the Genii or Jenil, from the left. The general direction of the
river is west by south, but a few miles above Seville it changes
to south by west. Below Coria it traverses the series of broad
fens known as Las Marismas, the greatest area of swamp in the
Iberian Peninsula. Here it forms two subsidiary channels, the
western 31 M., the eastern 12 m. long, which rejoin the main
stream on the borders of tine province of Cadiz. Below Sanlucar
the river enters the Atlantic after a total course of 360 m.
It drains an area of 2 1 ,865 sq. m. Though the shortest of the great
rivers of the peninsula, it is the only one which flows at all seasons
GUADELOUPE— GUADET
with a full stream, being fed in winter by the rains, in summer by
the melted snows of the Sierra Nevada. In the time of the Moors
it was navigable up to Cordova, but owing to the accumulation
of silt in its lower reaches it is now only navigable up to Seville
by vessels of 1200 to 1500 tons.
GUADELOUPE, a French colony in the West ladies, lying
between the British islands of Montserrat on the N. , and Dominica
on the S., between 15° 59' and 16 20' N. and 6i° 31' and 6i° 50'
W. It consists of two entirely distinct islands, separated by a
narrow arm of the sea, Riviere Salee (Salt river), varying from
100 ft. to 400 ft. in width and navigable for small vessels. The
western island, a rugged mass of ridges, peaks and lofty uplands,
is called Basse-Terre, while the eastern and smaller island, the
real low-land, is known as Grande-Terre. A sinuous ridge runs
through Basse-Terre from N. to S. In the north-west rise* the
peak of Grosse Montagne ( 2 370 ft.) , from which sharp spurs radiate
in all directions; near the middle of the west coast are the twin
heights of Les Mamelles (2536 ft. and 2368 ft.). Farther south
the highest elevation is attained in La Soufridre (4000 ft.). In
1797 this volcano was active, and in 1843 its convulsions laid
several toMrns in ruins; but a few thermal springs and solfataras
emitting vapour are now its only signs of activity. The range
terminates in the extreme south in the jagged peak of Caraibe
(2300 ft), Basae-Terre is supremely beautiful, its cloud-capped
mountains being clothed with a mantle of luxuriant vegetation.
On Gjrande-Terre the highest elevation is only 450 ft., and this
island is the seat of extensive sugar plantations. It consists of
a plain composed mainly of limestone and a conglomerate of sand
and broken shells known as maconne de bon dim, much used for
building. The bay between the two sections of Guadeloupe
on the north is called Grand Cul-de-Sac Marin, that on the
south being Petit Cul-de-Sac Marin. Basse-Te*re (364 sq. m.)
is 28 m. long by 12 m. to 15 m. wide; Grande-Terre (255 sq. m.)
is 22 m. long from N. to S., of irregular shape, with a long
peninsula, Chateaux Point, stretching from the south-eastern
extremity. Basse-Terre is watered by a considerable number
of streams, most of which in the rainy season are liable to sudden
floods (locally called gallons), but Grande-Terre is practically
destitute of springs, and the water-supply is derived almost
entirely from ponds and cisterns.
The west half of the island consists of a foundation of old
eruptive rocks upon which rest the recent accumulations of the
great volcanic cones, together with mechanical deposits derived
from the denudation of the older rocks, Grande-Terre on the
other hand, consists chiefly of nearly horizontal limestones
lying conformably upon a series of fine tuffs and ashes, the whole
belonging to the early part of the Tertiary system (probably
Eocene andOligocene). Occasional deposits of marl and limestone
of late Pliocene age rest unconformably upon these older beds;
and near the coast there are raised coral reef s of modern date.
The mean annual temperature is 7 8° F., and the minimum
6i° F., and the maximum 101 F. From July to November
heavy rains fall, the annual average on the coast being 86 in.,
while in the interior it is much greater. Guadeloupe is subject
to terrible storms. In 1825 a hurricane destroyed the town of
Basse-Terre, and Grand Bourg in Marie Galante suffered a
like fate in 1865. The soil is rich and fruitful, sugar having long
been its. staple product. The other crops include cereals, cocoa,
cotton, manioc, yams and rubber; tobacco, vanilla, coffee and
bananas are grown, but in smaller quantities. Over 30% of the
total area is under cultivation, and of this more than 50% is
under sugar. The centres of this industry are St Anne,. Pointe-a*
Pitre and Le Moule, where there are well-equipped ,usines^ and
there is also a large usme at Basse-Terre* The forests, confined
to the island of Basse-Terre, are extensive and rich in valuable
woods, but, being difficult of access, are not worked. Salt and
sulphur are the only minerals extracted, and in addition to the
sugar urines, there are factories for the making of rum, liqueurs,
chocolate, besides fruit-canning works and tanneries. France
takes most of the exports; and next to France, the United
States, Great Britain and India are the countries most interested
in the import trade.
645
The inhabitants of Guadeloupe consist of a few white officials
and planters, a few East Indian immigrants from the French
possessions in India, and the rest negroes and mulattoes. These
mulattoes are famous for their grace and beauty of both form
and feature. The women greatly outnumber the men, and there
is a very large percentage of illegitimate births. Pop. (1900)
182,112.
The governor is assisted by a privy council, a director of the
interior, a procurator-general and a paymaster, and there is
also an elected legislative council of 30 members. The colony
forms a department of France and is represented in the French
parliament by a senator and two deputies. Political elections
are very eagerly contested, the mulatto element always striving
to gain the preponderance of power.
The seat of government, of the Apostolic administration and
of the court of appeal is at Basse-Terre (7762), which is situated
on the south-west coast of the island of that name. It is
a picturesque, healthy town standing on an open roadstead.
Pointe-a-Pitre (17,242), the largest town, lies in Grande-Terre
near the mouth of the Riviere Salee. Its excellent harbour has
made it the chief port and commercial capital of the colony.
Le Moule (10,378) on the east coast of Grande-Terre does a
considerable export trade in sugar, despite its poor harbour.
Of the other towns, St Anne (9497), Morne a PEau (8442), Petit
Canal (6748), St Francois (5265), Petit Bourg (5 no) and Trois
Rivieres (5016), are the most important.
Round Guadeloupe are grouped its dependencies, namely,
La Desirade, 6 m. E., a narrow rugged island 10 sq. m. in area;
Marie Galante 16 m. S.E, Les Saintes, a group of seven small
islands, 7 m. S., one of the strategic points of the Antilles,
with a magnificent and strongly fortified naval harbour; St
Martin, 142 m. N*N.W.; and St Bartholomew, 130 m, N.N.W,
History. — Guadeloupe was discovered by Columbus in 1493,
and received its name in honour of the monastery of S. Maria
de Guadalupe at Estremadura in Spain. In 1635 FOlive and
Dupiessis took possession of it in the name of the French Company
of the Islands of America, and FOlive exterminated the Caribs
with great cruelty. Four chartered companies were ruined in
their attempts to colonize the island, and in 1674 it passed
into the possession of the French crown and long remained a
dependency of Martinique. After unsuccessful attempts in 1 666,
1691 and 1703, the British captured the island in 1759, and
held it for four years. Guadeloupe was finally separated from
Martinique in 1775, but it remained under the governor of the
French Windward Islands. In 1 782 Rodney defeated the French
fleet near the island, and the British again obtained possession
in April 1794, but in the following summer they were driven out
by Victor Hugues with the assistance of the slaves whom he had
liberated for the purpose. In 1802 Bonaparte, then first consul*
sent an expedition to the island in order to re-establish slavery,
but, after a heroic defence, many of the negroes preferred suicide
to submission. During the Hundred Days in 1810, the British
once more occupied the island, but, in spite of its cession to
Sweden by the treaty of 1813 and a French invasion in 18x4,
they did not withdraw till 1816. Between 1816 and 1825 the
code of laws peculiar to the island was introduced. Municipal
institutions were established in 1837; and slavery was finally
abolished in 1848.
GUADET, MARGUERITE 6LIE (1750-1794),' French Revolu-
tionist, was born at St fimilion near Bordeaux on the 20th
of July 1758. When the Revolution broke out he had already
gained a reputation as a brilliant, advocate at Bordeaux. In
1790 he was made administrator of the Gironde and in 1791
president of the criminal tribunal. In this year he was elected
to the Legislative Assembly as one of the brilliant group of
deputies known subsequently as Girondins or Girondists. As
a supporter of the constitution of 1791 he joined the Jacobin
club, and here and in the Assembly became an eloquent advocate
of all the measures directed against real or supposed traitors to
the constitution. He bitterly attacked the ministers of Louis
XVI., and was largely instrumental in forcing the king to accept
the Girondist ministry, of the 15th of March 179a; He was
646
GUADIANA— GUAIACUM
an ardent advocate of the policy of forcing Louis XVI. into
harmony with the Revolution; moved (May 3) for the dismissal
of the king's non-juring confessor, for the banishment of all
non-juring priests (May 16), for the disbandment of the royal
guard (May 30), and the formation in Paris of a camp of fSderts
(June 4). He remained a royalist, however, and with Gensonn6
and Vergniaud even addressed a letter to the king soliciting a
private interview. Whatever negotiations may have resulted,
however, were cut short by the insurrection of the 10th of
August. Guadet, who presided over the Assembly during part
of this fateful day, put himself into vigorous opposition to the
insurrectionary Commune of Paris, and it was on his motion
that on the 30th of August the Assembly voted its dissolution —
a decision reversed on the following day. In September Guadet
was returned by a large majority as deputy to the Convention.
At the trial of Louis XVI. he voted for an appeal to the people
and for the death sentence, but with a respite pending appeal.
In March 1793 he had several conferences with Danton, who was
anxious to bring about a rapprochement between the Girondists
and the Mountain during the war in La Vendue, but he un-
conditionally refused to join hands with the man whom he held
responsible for the massacres of September. Involved in the fall
of the Girondists, and his arrest being decreed on the 2nd of
June 1793, he fled to Caen, and afterwards hid in his father's
house at St £milion. He was discovered and taken to Bordeaux,
where, after his identity had been established, he was guillotined
on the 17th of June 1794.
See J. Guadet, Les Girondins (Paris, 1889); and F. A. Aulard,
Les Oraieurs de la legislative et de la convention (Paris, 2nd ed., 1906).
GUADIANA (anc. Anas, Moorish Wadi Ana),z. river of Spain
and Portugal. The Guadiana was long believed to rise in the
lowland known as the Campo de Montiel, where a chain of small
lakes, the Lagunas de Ruidera (partly in Ciudad Real, partly
in Albacete), are linked together by the Guadiana Alto or Upper
Guadiana. This stream flows north-westward from the last
lake and vanishes underground within 3 m. of the river Zancara
or Giguela. About 22 m. S.W. of the point of disappearance,
the Guadiana Alto was believed to re-emerge in the form of
several large springs, which form numerous lakes near the
Zancara and are known as the " eyes of the Guadiana " (los
ojos de Guadiana). The stream which connects them with the
Zancara is called the Guadiana Bajo or Lower Guadiana. It is
now known that the Guadiana Alto has no such course, but
flows underground to the Zancara itself, which is the true
" Upper Guadiana." The Zancara rises near the source of the
Jucar, in the east of the tableland of La Mancha; thence it
flows westward, assuming the name of Guadiana near Ciudad
Real, and reaching the Portuguese frontier 6 m. S.W. of Badajoz.
In piercing the Sierra Morena it forms a series of foaming rapids,
and only begins to be navigable at Mertola, 42 m. from its mouth.
From the neighbourhood of Badajoz it forms the boundary
between Spain and Portugal as far as a point near Monsaraz,
where it receives the small river Priega Muftoz on the left, and
passes into Portuguese territory, with a southerly direction.
At Pomarfio it again becomes a frontier stream and forms a
broad estuary 25 m. long. It enters the Gulf of Cadiz between
the Portuguese town of Villa Real de Santo Antonio and the
Spanish Ayamonte, after a total course of 510 m. Its mouth
is divided by sandbanks into many channels. The Guadiana
drains an area of 31,940 sq- m« Its principal tributaries are
the Zujar, Jabal6n, Matachel and Ardila from the left; the
Bullaque, Ruecas, Botoa, Degebe and Cobres from the right.
The Guadiana Menor (or Guadianamenor, i.e. "Lesser
Guadiana") rises in the Sierra Nevada, receives two large
tributaries, the Fardes from the right and Barbata from the left,
and enters the Guadalquivir near Ubeda, after a course of 95 m.
GUADIX, a city of southern 8pain, in the province of Granada;
on the left bank of the river Guadix, a subtributary of the
Guadiana Menor, and on the Madrid- Valdepenas-Almeria railway.
Pop. (1900) 12,652. Guadix occupies part of an elevated plateau
among the northern foothills of the Sierra Nevada. It is sur-
rounded by ancient walls, and was formerly dominated by a
Moorish castle, now in ruins. It is an episcopal see of great
antiquity, but its cathedral, built in the 18th century on the site
of a mosque, possesses little architectural merit. The city was
once famous for its cutlery; but its modern manufactures
(chiefly earthenware, hempen goods, and hats) are inconsiderable.
It has some trade in wool, cotton, flax, corn and liqueurs. The
warm mineral springs of Graena, much frequented during the
summer, are 6 m. W. Guadix el Viejo, 5 m. N.W., was the
Roman Acci, and, according to tradition, the seat of the first
Iberian bishopric, in the 2nd century. After 711 it rose to some
importance as a Moorish fortress and trading station, and was
renamed Wad Ask y " Water of life. " It was surrendered without
a siege to the Spaniards, under Ferdinand and Isabella, in 1489.
GUADUAS, a town of the department of Cundinamarca,
Colombia, 53 m. N.W. of Bogoti on the old road between that
city and the Magdalena river port of Honda. Pop. (1900,
estimate) 9000, chiefly Indians or of mixed blood. It stands
in a narrow and picturesque valley formed by spurs of the
Eastern Cordillera, and on a small stream bearing the same name,
which is that of the South American bamboo (guaduas), found
in great abundance along its banks. Sugar-cane and coffee are
cultivated in the vicinity, and fruits of various kinds are produced
in great abundance. The elevation of the town is 3353 ft. above
the sea, and it has a remarkably uniform temperature throughout
the whole year. Guaduas has a pretty church facing upon its
plaza, and an old monastery now used for secular purposes.
The importance of the town sprang from its position on the old
camino real between Bogota and Honda, an importance that has
passed away with the completion of the railway from Girardot
to the Bogota plateau. Guaduas was founded in 1614.
GUAIACUM, a genus of trees of the natural order Zygo-
phyllaeeae. The guaiacum or lignum-vitae tree (Ger. Guajak-
baum, Franzosenbaum, Pockmholzbaum; Fr. Gayac, Gaiac),
G. officinale, is a native of the West Indies and the north coast
of South America, where it attains a height of 20 to 30 ft. Its
branches are numerous, flexuous and knotted; the leaves
opposite and pinnate, with caducous (falling early) stipules,
and entire, glabrous, obovate or oval leaflets, arranged in 2 or,
more rarely, 3 pairs; the flowers are in axillary clusters (cymes),
and have 5 oval pubescent sepals, 5 distinct pale-blue petals
three times the length of the sepals, 10 stamens, and a 2-celled
superior ovary. The fruit is about \ in. long, with a leathery
pericarp, and contains in each of its two cells a single seed
(see fig.). G. sanctum grows in the Bahamas and Cuba, and at
Key West in Florida. It is distinguished from G. officinale by
its smaller and narrow leaflets, which are in 4 to 5 pairs, by its
shorter and glabrous sepals, and 5-celled and 5-winged fruit.
G. arboreum, the guaiacum tree of Colombia, is found in the valley
of the Magdalena up to altitudes 800 metres (2625 ft.) above
sea-level, and reaches considerable dimensions. Its wood is of a
yellow colour merging into green, and has an almost pulverulent
fracture; the flowers are yellow and conspicuous; and the fruit
is dry and 4-winged.
The lignum vitae of commerce, so named on account of its high
repute as a medicinal agent in past times, when also it was known
as lignum sanctum and lignum Indicum, lignum guaycanum, or
simply guayacan, is procured from G. officinale, and in smaller
amount from G. sanctum. It is exported in large logs or blocks,
generally divested of bark, and presents in transverse section
very slightly marked concentric rings of growth, and scarcely
any traces of pith; with the aid of a magnifying glass the
medullary rays are seen to be equidistant and very numerous.
The outer wood, the sapwood or alburnum, is of a pale yellow
hue, and devoid of resin; the inner, the heartwood or duramen,
which is by far the larger proportion, is of a dark greenish-brown,
contains in its pores 26% of resin, and has a specific gravity of
*'33$i an d therefore sinks in water on which the alburnum
floats. Owing to the diagonal and oblique arrangement of the
successive layers of its fibres, the wood cannot be split; and on
account of its hardness, density and durability it is much valued
for the manufacture of ships' pulleys, rulers, skittle-balls,
mallets and other articles.
GUALDO TADINO— GUALEGUAYCHU
647
Chips or turnings of the heartwood of G. officinale (guaiaci
lignum) are employed in the preparation of the liquor sarsae
compositus concentrotus or British pharmacy. They may be
recognized by being either yellow of greenish-brown in colour,
and by turning bluish-green when treated with nitric acid, or
when heated With corrosive sublimate, and green with solution
From Bentley & Trimen's Medicinal Plants, by permission of J. & A. Churchill.
Guaiacum or Lignum ViX&.e,Guaiacum officinale shoot-bearing leaves
and flowers. 1, Fruit; 2, Vertical section of fruit, showing the
solitary pendulous seed in each chamber. All about J natural size.
of chloride of lime. They are occasionally adulterated with
boxwood shavings. Lignum vitae is imported chiefly from
St Domingo, the Bahamas and Jamaica.
The bark was formerly used in medicine ; it contains much
calcium oxalate, and yields on incineration 23 % of ash. Guaiacum
resin, the guaiaci resina of pharmacopoeias, is obtained from the
wood as an exudation from natural fissures or from incisions; by
heating billets about 3 ft. in length, bored to permit of the outflow
Of the resin; or by boiling chips and raspings in water to which
salt has been added to raise the temperature of ebullition. It
occurs in rounded or oval tears, commonly coated with a greyish-
green dust, and supposed to be the produce of G. sanctum, or in large
brownish or greenish-brown masses, translucent at the edges;
fuses at 85 ° C. ; is brittle, and has a vitreous fracture, and a slightly
balsamic odour, increased by pulverization and by heat; and is at
first tasteless when chewed, but produces subsequently a sense of
heat in the throat. It is readily soluble in alcohol, ether, chloroform,
creosote, oil of cloves and solutions of caustic alkalies; and its
solution gives a blue colour with gluten, raw potato parings and the
roots of horse-radish, carrot and various other plants. The alcoholic
tincture becomes green with sodium hypochlorite, and with nitric
acid turns in succession green, blue and brown. With glycerin it
gives a clear solution, and with nitrous ether a bluish-green gelatinous
mass. It is blued by various oxidizing agents, e.g. ozone, and, as
Schonbein discovered, by the juice of certain fungi. The chief
constituents are three distinct resins, guaiaconic acid, CuHaoO*
(70%), guaiac acid, which is closely allied to benzoic acid, and
guaiaretic acid. Like all resins, these are insoluble in water, soluble
in alkalies, but precipitated on neutralization of the alkaline solution.
Guaiacum wood was first introduced into Europe by the Spaniards
in 1508, and Nicolaus Poll, writing in 1517 (see Luisinus, De morbo
gallico, p. 210, Ven., 1566), states that some three thousand persons
in Spain had already been restored to health by it. The virtues of
the resin, however, were not known until a later period, and in
Thomas Paynel's translation {Of the Wood called Guaiacum, &c,
p. 9, ed. of 1540) of Ulrich von Hutten's treatise De morbi gallici
curationeper administrationem ligni guaiaci (15 19) we read of the
wood : " There foloweth fro it, whan it bourneth a gomme, which
we yet knowe not, for what pourpose it serueth." Fluckiger and
Hanbury (Pharmacographia, p. 95) state that the first edition of
the London Pharmacopoeia in which they find the resin mentioned
is that of 1677. The decoction of the wood was administered in gout,
the stone, palsy, leprosy, dropsy, epilepsy, and other diseases,
but principally in the " morbus gallicus, or syphilis, for which it
was reckoned a certain specific, insomuch that at first " the physi-
tions wolde not allowe it, perceyuynge that theyr profite wolde
decay therby " (Paynel, op. cit. p. 8j. Minute instructions are
given in old works as to the mode of, administering guaiacum.
The patient was confined in a closed and heated chamber, was
placed on the lowest possible diet, and, after liberal purgation, was
made twice a day to drink a milk- warm decoction of t^e wood. The
use of salt was specially to be avoided. A decoction of 1 lb of
guaiacum was held to be sufficient for the four first days of the
treatment. The earlier opinions as to the efficacy of guaiacum
came to be much modified in the course of time, and Dr Pearson
(Observations on the Effects of Various Articles of the Mai. Med. in
the Cure of Lues Venerea, c. i., 2nd ed., 1807) says:—" I never
saw one single instance in which the powers of this medicine eradi-
cated the venereal virus." He found its beneficial effects to be most
marked in cases of secondary symptoms. Guaiacum resin is given
medicinally in doses of 5-15 grains. Its important preparations in
the British Pharmacopoeia are the mistura guiaci (dose J-i oz.),
the ammonia ted tincture of guaiacum (dose i-i drachm), in which
the resin is dissolved by means of ammonia, and the trochiscus or
lozenge, containing 3 grains of the resin. This lozenge is un-
doubtedly of value when given early in case6 of sore throat, especially
of rheumatic origin. Powdered guaiacum is also used.
Guaiacum resin differs pharmacologically from other resins in
being less irritant, so that it is absorbed from the bowel and exerts
remote stimulant actions, notably upon the skin and kidneys. It
affects the bronchi but slightly, since it contains no volatile oil.
The drug is useful both in acute and chronic sore throat, the
mixture, according to Sir Lauder Brunton, being more effective
than the tincture. The aperient action, which it exerts less markedly
than other members of its class, renders it useful in the treatment
of chronic constipation. Sir Alfred Garrod has urged the claims of
this drug in the treatment of chronic gout. Both in this disease and
in other forms of chronic arthritis guaiacum may be given in com-
bination with iodides, which it often enables the patient to tolerate.
Guaiacum is not now used in the treatment of syphilis.
The tincture of guaiacum is universally used as a test for the
presence of blood, or rather of haemoglobin, the red colouring matter
of the blood, in urine or other secretions. This te^t was first sug-
gested by Dr John Day of Geelong, Australia. A stngle drop of the
tincture should be added to, say, an inch of urine in a test-tube.
The resin is at once precipitated, yielding a milky fluid. If " ozonic
ether " — an ethereal solution of hydrogen peroxide — be now poured
gently into the test-tube, a deep blue coloration is produced along
the line of contact if haemoglobin be present. The reaction is due
to the oxidation of the resin by the peroxide of hydrogen — such
oxidation occurring only if haemoglobin be present to act as an
oxygen-carrier.
GUALDO TADINO (anc. Tadinum, 1 m. to the W.), a town
and episcopal see of Umbria, Italy, 1755 ft. above sea-level, in
the province of Perugia, 22 m. N. of Foligno by rail. Pop. (1901),
town, 4440; commune, 10,756. The suffix Tadino distinguishes
it from Gualdo in the province of Macerata, and Gualdo Cattaneo,
S.W. of Foligno. The cathedral has a good rose-window and
possesses, like several of the other churches, 15th-century
paintings by Umbrian artists, especially works by Niccolo Alunno.
The town is still surrounded by walls. The ancient Tadinum
lay 1 m. to the W. of the modern town. It is mentioned in the
Eugubine tablets (see Iguvium) as a hostile city against which
imprecations are directed. In its neighbourhood Narses defeated
and slew Totila in 552. No ruins are now visible, though they
seem to have been extant in the 17th century. The new town
seems to have been founded in 1 237. It was at first independent,
but passed under Perugia in 1292, and later became dependent
on the duchy of Spoleto.
GUALEGUAY, a flourishing town and river port of the province
of Entre Rios, Argentine Republic, on the Gualeguay river,
32 m. above its confluence with the Ibicuy branch of the Parana^
and about 120 m. N.N.W. of Buenos Aires. Pop. (1895) 7810.
The Gualeguay is the largest of the Entre Rios rivers, traversing
almost the whole length of the province from N. to S., but it is
of but slight service in the transportation of produce except the
few miles below Gualeguay, whose port, known as Puerto Ruiz,
is 7 m. lower down stream. A steam tramway connects the
town and port, and a branch line connects with Entre Rios
railways at the station of Tala. The principal industry in this
region is that of stock-raising, and there is a large exportation of
cattle, jerked beef, hides, tallow, mutton, wool and sheep-skins.
Wood and charcoal are also exported to Buenos Aires. The
town was founded in 1783.
GUALEGUAYCHtJ, a prosperous commercial and industrial
town and port of the province of Entre Rios, Argentine Republic,
on the left bank of the Gualeguaychu river, 11 m. above its
confluence with the Uruguay, and 120 m. N. of Buenos Aires.
Pop. (1892, est.) 14,000. It is the chief town of a department
of the same name, the largest in the province. A bar at the
mouth of the river prevents the entrance of larger vessels and
6 4 8
GUALO— GUAN
compels the transfer of cargoes to and from lighters. The town
is surrounded by a rich grazing country, and exports cattle,
jerked beef, mutton, hides, pelts, tallow, wool and various
by-products. A branch line running N. connects with the Entre
Rios railways at Basavilbaso. The town was founded in
1783.
GUALO, CARDINAL (fl. 1216), was sent to England by Pope
Innocent III. in 1 216. He supported John with all the weight
of papal authority. After John's death he crowned the infant
Henry III. and played an active part in organizing resistance
to the rebels led by Louis of France, afterwards king Louis VHI.
As representing the pope, the suzerain of Henry, he claimed the
regency and actually divided the chief power with William
Marshal, earl of Pembroke. He proclaimed a crusade against
Louis and the French, and, after the peace of Lambeth, he forced
Louis to make a public and humiliating profession of penitence
(1217). He punished the rebellious clergy severely, and ruled
the church with an absolute hand till his departure from England
in 1 2 18. Gualo's character has been severely criticized by English
writers; but his chief offence seems to have been that of repre-
senting unpopular papal claims.
GUAM (Span. Guajan; Guahan, in the native Chamorro),
the largest and most populous of the Ladrone or Mariana Islands,
in the North Pacific, in 13 26' N. lat. and 144 39' E. long.,
about 1823 m. E. by S. of Hong Kong, and about 1450 m. E.
of Manila. Pop. (1908) about n,36o,of whom 363 wereforeigners,
140 being members of the U.S. naval force. Guam extends about
30 m. from N.N.E. to S.S.W., has an average width of about
6J m., and has an area of 207 sq. m. The N. portion is a plateau
from 300 to 600 ft. above the sea, lowest in the interior and
highest along the E. and W. coast, where it terminates abruptly
in bluffs and headlands; Mt Santa Rosa, toward the N.
extremity, has an elevation of 840 ft. A range of hills from
700 to nearly 1300 ft. in height traverses the S. portion from
N. to S. a little W. of the middle — Mt Jumullong Mangloc, the
highest peak, has an elevation of 1 2 74 ft. Between the foot of the
steep W. slope of these hills and the sea is a belt of rolling
lowlands and to the E. the surface is broken by the valleys of
five rivers with a number of tributaries, has a general slope
toward the sea, and terminates in a coast-line of bluffs. Apra
(formerly San Luis d'Apra) on the middle W. coast i9 the only good
harbour; it is about 3) m. across, has a depth of 4-27 fathoms,
and is divided into an inner and an outer harbour by a peninsula
and an island. It serves as a naval station and as a port of transit
between America and the Philippines, at which army transports
call monthly. Deer, wild hog, duck, curlew, snipe and pigeon
are abundant game, and several varieties of fish are caught.
Some of the highest points of the island are nearly bare of vegeta-
tion, and the more elevated plateau surface is covered with
sword grass, but in the valleys and on the lower portions of the
plateaus there is valuable timber. The lowlands have a rich
soil; in lower parts of the highlands raised corailiferous limestone
with a light covering of soil appears, and in the higher parts the
soil is entirely of clay and silt. The climate is agreeable and
healthy. From December to June the N.E. trade winds prevail
and the rainfall is relatively light; during the other six months
the monsoon blows and produces the rainy season. Destructive
typhoons and earthquakes sometimes visit Guam. The island
is thought to possess little if any mineral wealth, with the
possible exception of coal. Only a small part of Guam is under
cultivation, and most of this lies along the S.W. coast, its chief
products being cocoanuts, rice, sugar, coffee and cacao. A
United States Agricultural Experiment Station in Guam (at
Agana) was provided for in 1008.
The inhabitants are of the Chamorro (Indonesian) stock,
strongly intermixed with Philippine Tagals and Spaniards;
their speech is a dialect of Malay, corrupted by Tagal and
Spanish. There are very few full-blood Chamorros. The
aboriginal native was of a very dark mahogany or chocolate
colour. A majority of the total number of natives live in Agafta.
The natives are nearly all farmers, and most of them are poor, but
their condition has been improved under American rule. Public
schools have been established; in 1008 the enrolment was 1700.
On the island there is a small colony of lepers, segregated only
after American occupation. Gangrosa is a disease said to be
peculiar to Guam and the neighbouring islands; it is due to
a specific bacillus and usually destroys the nasal septum. The
victims of this disease also are segregated. There is agood general
hospital.
Agana (or San Ignacio de Agana) is the capital and principal
town; under the Spanish regime it was the capital of the
Ladrones. It is about 5 m. N.E. of Piti, the landing-place of
Apra harbour and port of entry, with which it is connected by
an excellent road. Agana has paved streets and sewer and water
systems. Other villages, all small, are Asan, Piti, Sumay,
Umata, Merizo and Inarajan. Guam is governed by a " naval
governor," an officer of the U.S. navy who is commandant of
the naval station. The island is divided into four administrative
districts, each with an executive head called a gobernadorcillo
(commissioner), and there are a court of appeals, a court of first
instance and courts of justices of the peace. Peonage was
abolished in the island by the United States in February 1000.
Telegraphic communication with the Caroline Islands was
established in 1905; in 1908 there were four cables ending at
the relay station at Sumay on the Shore of Apra harbour.
Guam was discovered by Magellan in 1521, was occupied
by Spain in 1688, was captured by the United States cruiser
" Charleston " in June 1899, and was ceded to the United States
by the Treaty of Paris on the 10th of December 1898.
See A List of Books (with References to Periodicals) on Samoa and
Guam (iqoi ; issued by the Library of Congress) ; L. M. Cox, " The
Island of Guam," in Bulletin of the American Geographical Society,
vol. 36 (New York, 1904); Gen. Joseph Wheeler, Report on the
Island of Guam, June 1900 (War Department, Document No. 123) ;
F. W. Christian, The Caroline Islands (London, 1890); an account
of the flora of Guam by W. E. Safford in the publications of the
National Herbarium (Smithsonian Institution); and the reports
of the naval governor.
GUAN, a word apparently first introduced into the ornitho-
logist's vocabulary about 1743 by Edwards, 1 who said that a
bird he figured (Nat. Hist, Uncommon Birds, pi. xiii.) was
" so called in the West Indies," and the name has hence been
generally applied to all the members of the subfamily Penelopinae,
which are distinguished from the kindred subfamily Cracinae
or curassows by the broad postacetabular area of the pelvis
as pointed out by Huxley (Proc. Z00L Society, 1868, p. 297)
as well as by their maxilla being wider than it is high, with its
culmen depressed, the crown feathered, and the nostrils bare —
the last two characters separating the Penelopinae from the
Oreophasinae, which form the third subfamily of the Cracidae, 2 a
family belonging to that taxonomer's division Peristeropodes
of the order Gallinae.
The Penelopinae have been separated into seven genera, of
which Penelope and Ortalis, containing respectively about
sixteen and nineteen species, are the largest, the others numbering
from one to three only. Into their minute differences it would be
useless to enter: nearly all have the throat bare of feathers, and
from that of many of them hangs a wattle; but, one form,
Chamaepetes, has neither of these features, and Stegnolaema,
though wattled, has the throat clothed. With few exceptions
the guans are confined to the South- American continent; one
species of Penelope is however found in Mexico (e.g. at Mazatlan),
Pipile cumanensis inhabits Trinidad as well as the mainland,
while three species of Ortalis occur in Mexico or Texas, and one,
which is also common to Venezuela, in Tobago. Like curassows,
guans are in great measure of arboreal habit. They also readily
1 Edwards also gives " quan " as an alternative spelling, and this
may be nearer the original form, since we find Dampier in 1676 writing
( Voy. ii. pt. 2, p. 66) of what was doubtless an allied if not the same
bird as the " quam." The species represented by Edwards does
not seem to have been identified.
* See the excellent Synopsis by Sclater and Salvin In the Pro-
ceedings of the Zoological Society for 1870 (pp. 504-544), while further
information on the Cracinae was given by Sclater in the Transactions
of the same society (ix. pp. 273-288, pis. xI.-Ki?.). Some additions
have since been made to the knowledge of the family, but none of
very great importance.
GUANABACOA-^GUANAJUATO
649
become tame, but all attempts to domesticate them in. the full
sense of the word have wholly failed, and the cases in which they
have even been induced to breed and the young haye been
reared in confinement are very few. Yet it would seem that
guans and curassows will interbreed with poultry (Ibis, 1866,
p. 24; Bull. Soc. Imp. d'AulimakUion, 1868, p. 559; 1869,
p. 357), and what is more extraordinary is that in Texas the
hybrids between the chiacalacca (Orialis vetula) and the domestic
fowl are asserted to be far superior to ordinary game-cocks for
fighting purposes. (A. N.)
GUANABACOA (an Indian name meaning "site of the
waters ")> a town of Cuba, in Havana province, about 6 m. E,
of Havana. Pop. (1907) 14,368. Guanabacoa is served by railway
to Havana, with which it is connected by the Regla ferry across
the bay. It is picturesquely situated amid woods, on high hills
which furnish a fine view. There are medicinal springs in the
town, and deposits of liquid bitumen in the neighbouring hills.
The town is essentially a residence suburb of the capital, and has
some rather pretty streets and squares and some, old and interest-
ing churches (including Nuestra Senora de la Asuncion, 17 14-
1721). Just outside the city is the church of Potosi with a
famous "wonder-working" shrine and image. An Indian
pueblo of the same name existed here before 1555* and a church
was established in 1576. Already at the end of the. 17th century
Guanabacoa was the fashionable. summer residence of Havana.
It enjoyed its greatest popularity in this respect from the end
of the 18th to the middle of the 19th century. It was created
a villa with an ayuntamiento (city council) in 1743* I& 1762 its
fort, the Little Monro, on the N. shore near Cojimar (a bathing
beach, where the Key West cable now lands), was taken by the
English.
GUANACO, sometimes spelt Huanaca, the larger of the two
wild representatives in South America of the camel tribe; the
other being the vicugna. The guanaco (Lama huanacus), which
stands nearly 4 ft. at the shoulder, is an elegant creature, with
gracefully curved neck and long slender legs, the hind-pair of the
latter bearing two naked patches or callosities. The head and
body are covered with long soft hair of a fawn colour above and
almost pure white
beneath. Guanaco
are found throughout
the southern half of
South America, from
Peru in the north to
Cape Horn in the
south, but occur in
greatest abundance
in Patagonia. They
live in herds usually
of from six to thirty,
although these occa-
sionally contain
several hundreds,
while solitary indi-
viduals are sometimes
met. They are ex-
ceedingly timid, and
therefore wary and
difficult of approach; like many other ruminants, however,
their curiosity sometimes overcomes their timidity, so as
to bring them within range of the hunter's rifle.. Their cry
is peculiar, being something between the belling of a deer
and the neigh of a horse. The chief enemies of the
guanaco are the Patagoman Indians and the puma, as it forms
the principal food of both. Its flesh is palatable although
wanting in fat, while its skin forms the chief ciothing material
of the Patagonians. Guanaco are readily domesticated, and in
this state become very bold and will attack man, striking him
from behind with both knees. In the wild state they never
defend themselves, and if approached from different points,
according to the Indian fashion of hunting, get completely
bewildered and fall an easy prey. They take readily to the
Head of Guanaco.
water, and have been observed swimming from one island to
another, while they have been seen drinking salt-water. They
have a habit of depositing their droppings during successive
days on the same spot — a habit appreciated by the Peruvian
Indians, who use those deposits for fueL Guanaco also have
favourite localities in which to die, as appears from the great
heaps of their bones found in particular spots.
GUANAJAY, a town of western Cuba, in Pinar del Rio province,
about 36 m. (by rail) S.W. of Havana. Pop. (1907) 6400,
Guanajay is served by the W. branch of the United railways
of Havana, of which it is the W. terminus. The town lies among
hills, has an excellent climate, and in colonial times was (like
Holgufn) an acclimatization station for troops fresh from Spain;
it now has considerable repute as a health resort. The surround-
ing country is a fertile sugar and tobacco region. Guanajay
has always been important as a distributing point in the commerce
of the western end of the island. It was an ancient pueblo,
of considerable size and importance as early as the end of the
18th century.
GUANAJUATO* or Guanaxuato, an inland state of Mexico,
bounded N. by Zacatecas and San Luis Potosi, £. by Queretaro,
S. by Michoacan and W. by Jalisco. Area, 11,370 sq. m. It
is one of the most densely populated states of the republic;
pop. (1895) 1,047,817; (1900) 1,061,724. The state lies
whplly within the limits of the great central plateau of Mexico,
and has an average elevation of about 6000 ft. The surface
of its northern half is brqken by the Sierra Gorda and Sierra
de Guanajuato, but its southern half is covered by fertile plains
largely devoted to agriculture. It is drained by the Rio Grande
de Lerma and its tributaries, which in places flow through deeply
eroded valleys. The climate is semi-tropical and healthy,
and the rainfall is sufficient to insure good results in agriculture
and stock-raising. In the warm valleys sugar-cane is grown,
and at higher elevations Indian corn, beans, barley and wheat.
The southern plains are largely devoted to stock-raising. Guana-
juato has suffered much from the destruction of its forests,
but there remain some small areas on the higher elevations of
the north. The principal industry of the state is mining, the
mineral wealth of the mountain ranges of the north being
enormous. Among its mineral products are silver, gold, tin,
lead, mercury, copper and opals. Silver has been extracted
since the early days of the Spanish conquest, over $800,000,000
having been taken from the mines during the subsequent three
and a half centuries. Some of the more productive of these
mines, or groups of mines, are the Veta Madre (mother lode),
the San Bernab6 lode, and the Rayas mines of Guanajuato, and
the La Valenciana mine, the output of which is said to have
been $226^000*000 between 1766 and 1826. The manufacturing
establishments include flour mills, tanneries |nd manufactories
of leather, cotton and woollen mills, distilleries, foundries and
potteries. The Mexican Central and the Mexican National
railway lines cross the state from N. to S., and the former
operates a short branch from Silao to the state capital and
another westward from Irapuato to Guadalajara. The capital
is Guanajuato, and other important cities and towns are Le6n,
or Le6n de las Aldamas; Celaya (pop. 25,565 in 1900), an
important railway junction 22 m. by rail W. from Quergtaro,
and known for its manufactures of broadcloth, saddlery, soap
and sweetmeats; Irapuato (18,593 in 1900), a railway junction
and commercial centre, 21 m. S. by W. of Guanajuato; Silao
(15*355), a railway junction and manufacturing town (woollens
and cottons), 14 m. S.W. of Guanajuato; Salamanca (13,583),
on the Mexican Central railway and Lerma river, 25 m. S. by E. of
Guanajuato, with manufactures of cottons and porcelain;
Allende (10,547), a commercial town 30 m. E. by S. of Guanajuato,
with mineral springs; Valle de Santiago (12,660), 50 m. W. by S.
of Quer6taro; Salvatierra (10,393), 60 m. S.E. of Guanajuato;
Cortazar (8633); La Luz (83x8), in a rich mining district;
Penjamo (8262); Santa Cruz (7239); San Francisco del Rinc6n
(10,904), 39 m. W. of Guanajuato in a rich mining district;
and Acambaro (8345), a prosperous town of the plain, 76 m.
S.S.E. of Guanajuato.
650
GUANAJUATO— GUANCHES
GUANAJUATO, or Santa F£ de Guanajuato, a city of Mexico
and capital of the above state, 155 m. (direct) N.W. of the
Federal capital, on a small tributary of the Rio Grande de Lerma
or Santiago. Pop. (1895) 39>4<>4; (1900) 41,486. The city is
built in the Canada de Marfil at the junction of three ravines
about 6500 ft. above the sea, and its narrow, tortuous streets
rise steeply as they follow the ravines upward to the mining
villages clustered about the opening of the mines in the hillsides.
Guanajuato is sometimes described as a collection of mining
villages; but in addition there is the central city with its crowded
winding streets, its substantial old Spanish buildings, its fifty
ore-crushing mills and busy factories and its bustling commercial
life. Enclosing the city are the steep, barren mountain sides
honeycombed with mines. The climate is semi-tropical and is
considered healthy. The noteworthy public buildings and
institutions are an interesting old Jesuit church with arches
of pink stone and delicate carving, eight monasteries, the
government palace, a mint dating from 181 2, a national college,
the fine Teatro Ju&rez, and the Pantheon, or public cemetery,
with catacombs below. The Alh6ndiga de Granaditas, originally
a public granary, was used as a fort during the War of Independ-
ence, and is celebrated as the scene of the first battle (1810) in
that long struggle. Among the manufactures are cottons, prints,
soaps, chemicals, pottery and silverware, but mining is the
principal interest and occupation of the population. The silver
mines of the vicinity were long considered the richest in Mexico,
the celebrated Veta Madre (mother lode) even being described
as the richest in the world; and Guanajuato has the largest
reduction works in Mexico. The railway outlet for the city
consists of a short branch of the Mexican Central, which joins
the trunk line at Silao. Guanajuato was founded in 1554. It
attained the dignity of a city in 174 1. It was celebrated for its
vigorous resistance to the invaders at the time of the Spanish
conquest, and was repeatedly sacked during that war.
GUANCHES, Guanchis or Guanchos (native Guanchinet;
Guan*= person, Chinet** Teneriffe,— " man of Teneriffe," cor-
rupted, according to Nunez de la Pefta, by Spaniards into
Guanchos), the aboriginal inhabitants of the Canary Islands.
Strictly the Guanches were the primitive inhabitants of Teneriffe,
where they seem to have preserved racial purity to the time of
the Spanish conquest, but the name came to be applied to the
indigenous populations of all the islands. The Guanches, now
extinct as a distinct people, appear, from the study of skulls
and bones discovered, to have resembled the Cro-Magnon race
of the Quaternary age, and no real doubt is now entertained that
they were an offshoot of the great race of Berbers which from
the dawn of history has occupied northern Africa from Egypt
to the Atlantic. Pliny the Elder, deriving his knowledge from
the accounts of Juba, king of Mauretania, states that when
visited by the Carthaginians under Hanno the archipelago was
found by them to be uninhabited, but that they saw ruins of
great buildings. This would suggest that the Guanches were not
the first inhabitants, and from the absence of any trace of
Mahommedanism among the peoples found in the archipelago
by the Spaniards it would seem that this extreme westerly
migration of Berbers took place between the time of which Pliny
wrote and the conquest of northern Africa by the Arabs. Many
of the Guanches fell in resisting the Spaniards, many were sold
as slaves, and many conformed to the Roman Catholic faith and
married Spaniards.
Such remains as there are of their language, a few expressions
and the proper names of ancient chieftains still borne by certain
families, connect it with the Berber dialects. In many of the
islands signs are engraved on rocks. Domingo Vandewalle,
a military governor of Las Palmas, was the first, in 1752, to
investigate these; and it is due to the perseverance of D. Aquilino
Padran, a priest of Las Palmas, that anything about the inscrip-
tion on the island Hierro has been brought to light. In 1878
Dr R. Verneau discovered in the ravines of Las Balos some
genuine Libyan inscriptions. Without exception the rock
inscriptions have proved to be Numidic. In two of the islands
(Teneriffe and Gomera) the Guanche type has been retained with
more purity than in the others. No inscriptions have been fdund
in these two islands, and therefore it would seem that the true
Guanches did not know how to write. In the other islands
numerous Semitic traces are found, and in all of them are the
rock-signs. From these facts it would seem that the Numidians,
travelling from the neighbourhood of Carthage and intermixing
with the dominant Semitic race, landed in the Canary Islands,
and that it is they who have written the inscriptions at Hierro
and Grand Canary.
The political and social institutions of the Guanches varied.
In some islands hereditary autocracy prevailed; in others the
government was elective. In Teneriffe all the land belonged to
the chiefs who leased it to their subjects. In Grand Canary
suicide was regarded as honourable, and on a chief inheriting,
one of his subjects willingly honoured the occasion by throw-
ing himself over a precipice. In some islands polyandry was
practised; in others the natives were monogamous. But every-
where the women appear to have been respected, an insult
offered any woman by an armed man being a capital offence.
Almost all the Guanches used to wear garments of goat-skins,
and others of vegetable fibres, which have been found in the
tombs of Grand Canary. They had a taste for ornaments,
necklaces of wood, bone and shells, worked in different designs.
Beads of baked earth, cylindrical and of all shapes, with smooth
or polished surfaces, mostly black and red in colour, were chiefly
in use. They painted their bodies; the piittaderas 7 baked clay
objects like seals in shape, have been explained by Dr Verneau
as having been used solely for painting the body in various colours.
They manufactured rough pottery, mostly without decorations,
or ornamented by means of the finger-nail. The Guanches'
weapons were those of the ancient races of south Europe. The
polished battle-axe was more used in Grand Canary, while stone
and obsidian, roughly cut, were commoner in Teneriffe. They
had, besides, the lance, the club, sometimes studded with pebbles,
and the javelin, and they seem to have known the shield. They
lived in natural or artificial caves in their mountains. In
districts where cave-dwellings were impossible, they built small
round houses and, according to the Spaniards, they even practised
rude fortification. In Palma the old people were at their own
wish left to die alone. After bidding their family farewell they
were carried to the sepulchral cave, nothing but a bowl of milk
being left them. The Guanches embalmed their dead; many
mummies have been found in an extreme state of desiccation,
each weighing not more than 6 or 7 ft). Two almost inaccessible
caves in a vertical rock by the shore 3 m. from Santa Cruz
(Teneriffe) are said still to contain bones. The process of embalm-
ing seems to have varied. In Teneriffe and Grand Canary the
corpse was simply wrapped up in goat and sheep skins, while
in other islands a resinous substance was used to preserve the
body, which was then placed in a cave difficult of access, or buried
under a tumulus. The work of embalming was reserved for a
special class, women for female corpses, men for male. Em-
balming seems not to have been universal, and bodies were often
simply hidden in caves or buried.
Little is known of the religion of the Guanches. They appear
to have been a distinctly religious race. There was a general
belief in a supreme being, called Acoran, in Grand Canary,
Achihuran in Teneriffe, Eraoranhan in Hierro, and Abora in
Palma. The women of Hierro worshipped a goddess called
Moneiba. According to tradition the male and female gods lived
in mountains whence they descended to hear the prayers of the
people. In other islands the natives venerated the sun, moon,
earth and stars. A belief in an evil spirit was general. The
demon of Teneriffe was called Guayota and lived in the peak of
Teyde, which was the hell called Echeyde. In times of drought
the Guanches drove their flocks to consecrated grounds, where
the lambs were separated from their mothers in the belief that
their plaintive bleatings would melt the heart of the Great
Spirit. During the religious feasts all war and even personal
quarrels were stayed.
Bibliography. — S. Berthelot, Antiquitts canariennes (Pfems,
1839); Baker Webb and S. Berthelot, Histoire naturtUc <Us Ues
GUANIDINE— GUARANIS
-651
Canaries (Paris, 1839) » ^ au ^ Broca, Revue, d'qntbropologie, jv. (1874) ;
General L. L. C. Faidherbe, Quelque mots sur Velhnologie de Varchipel
canarien (Paris, 1875) ; Chil y Naraajo, Estudios historidos, climato-
loficos y Patolagicos de las Isms Canarias (Las Palmas, 1 876-1 889);
" De la plurality dee races huraaines de Tarchipel canarien/' Bull.
Soc. Anthrop. Parts, 1878; " Habitations et sepultures des anciens
habitants des lies Canaries," Revue d* anthrop., 1879; R. Verneau,
'•' Sur les Semites aux ties Canaries," and " Sur les anciens habitants
de la Isleta, Grande Canarie," Bull. Soc. Anthrop. Paris, 1881;
Rapport sur une mission scientifique dans Varchipel canarien (Paris,
1887); Cinq annies de sejour aux ties Canaries (Paris, 1891); H.
Meyer, Die Insel Tenerife (Leipzig, 1896), " Cber die Urbewohner
der canarischen Inseln'," in Adolf Bastian Festschrift (Berlin, 1896);
F; von Luschan, Ankang Hber eine SchddMsammlungvon dencanari-
schen Inseln; R. Virehow, " SchadeJ mit Carioaecrosis der Sagittal-
gegend," Verhandlungen der Berliner Anthrop. Gesellschaft (1896) ;
G. Sergi, The Mediterranean Race (London, 1901); The Guanches
of Tenerife . . . , by Alonso de Espinosa, translated by Sir Clements
Markham, with bibliography (Hakluyt Society, 1907).
GUANIDIFB, CNsHj or HN: C(NH 2 ) 2 , the amidine of amido-
carbonk add. It occurs in beet juice. It was first prepared
in 1861 by A. Strecker, who oxidized guanine with hydrochloric
acid and potassium chlorate. It may be obtained synthetically
by the* action 6f ammonium iodide on cyanamide, GN*NH 2 +
NHJ-CNsHb^HIs by heating ortho-carbonic esters with
ammonia to 1 50 C. ; but best by heating ammonium thidcyanate
to r8o°-ioo° C, when the thiourea first formed is converted into
fcuanidine thiocyanate, 2CS(NHj)a= HN: C(NH*) r HCNS+H 2 S.
It is a colourless crystalline solid, readily soluble in water and
alcohol; it deliquesces on exposure to air. It has strong basic
properties, absorbs carbon dioxide readily, and forms well-
defined crystalline salts. Baryta water hydrolyses it to urea.
By direct union with glycbcoll acid, it yields glycocyamine,
NH 2 -(HN): C-NH-CHs-COjH, whilst With methyl glycocoll
(sarcosine) it forms creatine, NHr (NH): CN(CH 8 )CH 2 C02H.
Many derivatives of gtianidine were obtained by J. Thiele {Ann.,
1892, 270, p. i;i893» 273, p. t$$\ Ber., 1893, 26, pp. 2598, 2645).
By the action of nitric acid on guanidine in the presence of sul-
phuric acid, nitroguanidine, HN:C(NHi)»NH-NOs (a substance
possessing acid properties) is obtained; from which, by reduction
with zinc dust, amidoguanidine, HN:C(NH 8 )»NH-NH2, is formed.
This amidoguanidine decomposes on hydrolysis with the formation
of semicarbaztde, NHrCO*NH»NHs, which* in its turn, breaks
down into carbon dioxide, ammonia and hydrazine. Amidoguani-
dine is a body of hydrazine type, for it reduces gold and silver salts
and yields a benzylidme derivative. On oxidation with potassium
permanganate, it gives azodicarbondiamidine nitrate, NH*'(HN):
C N : N*C:(NH>NH»*2HNOa, which, when reduced by sulphuretted
hydrogen, is converted into the corresponding hydrazodicarbondi-
amidine, ^-(HW:C..NH-NH.C:(NH)-NH fc By the action of
nitrous acid on a nitric acid solution of amidoguanidine, diazoguani-
dine nitrate, NH 2 -(HN):C-NH-NrN03> is obtained. This diazo
compound is decomposed by caustic alkalis with the formation
of cyanamide and hydrazoic acid, CH4NjrNOa = N,HH-CNNH,+
HNOi, whilst acetates and carbonates convert it into amidotetra-
j, N-N.
aotic acid, HjN-C^ H . Amidotetrazotic acid yields addition
X NH-N / i 3 »'.
compounds with amines, and by the further action of .nitrous acid
yields a very explosive derivative, diazotetrazol, CN 8 . By fusing
guanidine with urea, dicyandiamfdineHiN-(HN):C-NH-CO-NH 2 ,is
formed.
GUANO (a Spanish word from the Peruvian huanu, dung),
the excrement of birds, found as large deposits on certain islands
off the coast of Peru, and on others situated in the Southern
ocean and off the west coast of Africa. The large proportions
of phosphorus in the form of phosphates and of nitrogen as
ammonium oxalate and urate renders it a valuable fertilizer.
Bat's guano, composed of the excrement of bats, is found in
certain caves in New Zealand and elsewhere; it is similar m
composition to Peruvian guano. (See Manures and Manuring.)
GUANTA, a port on the Caribbean coast of the state of Ber-
mudez, Venezuela, 12 m. N.E. of Barcelona, with which it is
connected by rail. It dates from the .completion of the railway
to the coal mines of Naricual and Capiricual nearly 12 m. beyond
Barcelona, and was created for the shipment of coal. The
harbour is horseshoe-shaped, with its entrance, 1998 ft. wide,
protected by an island less than 1 m. pff the shore. The entrance
is easy and safe, and the harbour affords secure anchorage for
large vessels, with deep water alongside the iron railway wharf.
These advantages have made Guanta the best port on this part of
the coast, and the trade of Barcelona and that of a large inland
district have been transferred to it. A prominent feature in its
trade is the shipment of live cattle. Among its exports are sugar,
coffee, cacao, tobacco and fruit.
GUANTAnAMO, the easternmost important town of the S.
coast of Cuba, in the province of Santiago, about 40 m. E. of
Santiago. Pop. (1907) 14,559. It is situated by the Guazo
(or Guaso) river, on a little open plain between the mountains.
The beautiful, land4ocked harbour, 10 m. long from N. to S.
and 4 m. wide in places, has an outer and an inner basin. The
latter has a very narrow entrance, and a. to 2-5 fathoms depth
of water. From the port of Caimanera to the city of
Guantanamo, 13 m. N., there is a railway, and the city has
railway connexion with Santiago. Guantanamo is one of the
two ports leased by Cuba to the United States for a naval
station. It is the shipping-port and centre of a surrounding
coffee-, sugar- and lime-growing district- In 1741 an Engb'sh
force under Admiral Edward Vernon and General,. Thomas
Wentworth landed here to attack Santiago. They named the
harbour^ Cumberland bay. After their retreat fortifications
were begun. The history of the region practically dates, bow-
ever,,from the end of the 18th century, when it gained prosperity
from the settlement of French refugees from Santo Domingo;
the town, as such, dates only from 1822. Almost all the old
families are of French descent, and French was the language
locally most used as late as the last third of the 19th century.
In recent years, especially since the Spanish-American War of
1898, the region has greatly changed socially and economically.
Guantanamo was once a fashionable summer residence resort
for wealthy Cubans.
GUARANA (so called from the Guaranis*, an aboriginal American
tribe), the plant Paullinia Cupana (or P> sorbUis) of the natural
order Sapin4aceae } indigenous to the north and west of Brazil. It
has a smooth erect stem; large pinnate alternate leaves, com-
posed of 5 oblong-oval leaflets; narrow panicles of short-stalked
flowers; and ovoid or pyriform fruit about as large as a grape,
and containing usually one seed only, which is shaped like a
minute horse-chestnut. What is commonly known as guarana,
guarana bread or Brazilian cocoa, is prepared from the seeds
as follows. In October and November, at which time they
become ripe, the seeds are removed from their capsules and
sun-dried, so as to admit of the ready removal by hand of the
white aril; they are next ground in a stone mortar or deep dish
of hard sandstone; the powder, moistened by the addition of a
small quantity of water, or by exposure to the dews, is then
made into a paste with a certain proportion of whole or broken
seeds, and worked up sometimes into balls, but usually into rolls
not unlike German sausages, 5 to 8 in. in length, and 1 2 to 16 oz.
in weight. After drying by artificial or solar heat, the guarana
is packed between broad leaves in sacks or baskets. Thus pre-
pared, it is of extreme hardness, and has a brown hue, a bitter
astringent taste, and an odour faintly resembling that of roasted
coffee. An inferior kind, softer and of a lighter colour, is manu-
factured by admixture of cocoa or cassava. Rasped or grated
into sugar and water, guarana forms a beverage largely consumed
in S< America. Its manufacture, originally confined to the
Mauh6s Indians, has spread into various parts of Brazil.
The properties of guarana as a nervous stimulant and restorative
are due to the presence of what was originally described as a new
principle and termed guaranine, but is now known to be identical
with caffeine or theine. Besides this substance, which is stated to
exist in it in the form of tannate, guarana yields on analysis the
gjucoside saponin, with tannin, starch, gum, three volatile oils, and
an acrid green fixed oil (Fournier, Journ. de Pharm. vol. xxxix.,
186I, p. 291).
GUARANIS, a tribe and stock of South American Indians,
having their home in Paraguay, Uruguay and on the Brazilian
coast. The Guaranis had developed some civilization before
the arrival of the Spaniards, and being a peaceable people
quickly submitted. They form to-day the chief element in the
populations of Paraguay and Uruguay. Owing to its patronage
by the Jesuit missionaries the Guarani language became a
652
GUARANTEE
widespread medium of communication, and in a corrupted form
is still the common language in Paraguay.
GUARANTEE (sometimes spelt " guarantie " or " guaranty ";
an O. Fr. form of " warrant," from the Teutonic word which
appears in German as wahren, to defend or make safe and binding),
a term more comprehensive and of higher import than either
" warrant " or " security," and designating either soma inter-
national treaty whereby claims, rights or possessions are secured,
or more commonly a mere private transaction, by means of which
one person, to obtain some trust, confidence or credit for another,
engages to be answerable for him.
In English law, a guarantee is a contract to answer for the
payment of some debt, or the performance of some duty, by
a third person who is primarily Viable to such payment or per-
formance. It is a collateral contract, which does not extinguish
the original liability or obligation to which it is accessory, but
on the contrary is itself rendered null and void should the latter
fail, as without a principal there can be no accessory. The
liabilities of a surety are in law dependent upon those of the
principal debtor, and when the latter cease the former do so
likewise {per Collins, L.J., in Stacey v. Hill, 1901, 1 K.B., at
p. 666;see#«fWilles, J., in Batesonv. Gosling, i87i,L.R. 7 C.P.,
at p. 14), except in certain cases where the discharge of the
principal debtor is by operation of law (see In re Filzgeorge—
ex parte Robson, 1005, 1 K.B. p. 462). If, therefore, persons
wrongly suppose that a third person is liable to one of them,
and a guarantee is given on that erroneous supposition, it is
invalid ab initio, by virtue of the lex contractus, because its
foundation (which was that another was taken to be liable)
has failed {per Willes, J., in Mountstephen v. Lakeman, L.R.
7 Q.B. p. 202). According to various existing codes civil,
a suretyship, in respect of an obligation " non-valable,"
is null and void save where the invalidity is the result
of personal incapacity of the principal debtor (Codes Civil,
France and Belgium, 2612; Spain, 1824; Portugal, 822; Italy,
1899; Holland, 1858; Lower Canada, 1932). In some countries,
however, the mere personal incapacity of a son under age to
borrow suffices to vitiate the guarantee of a loan made to him
<Spain, 1824; Portugal, 822,8.2, 1535, 1536). The Egyptian codes
sanction guarantees expressly entered into " in view of debtor's
want of legal capacity " to contract a valid principal obligation
<Egyptain Codes, Mixed Suits, 605; Native Tribunals, 496).
The Portuguese code (art. 822, s. 1) retains the surety's liability,
in respect of an invalid principal obligation, until the latter has
been legally rescinded.
The giver of a guarantee is called " the surety," or " the
guarantor "; the person to whom it is given * l the creditor,"
or " the guarantee "; while the person whose payment or
performance is secured thereby is termed " the principal debtor,"
or simply " the principal." In America, but not apparently
elsewhere, there is a recognized distinction between " a surety "
and " a guarantor "; the former being usually bound with the
principal, at the same time and on the same consideration, while
the contract of the latter is his own separate undertaking, in
which the principal does not join, and in respect of which he is
not to be held liable, until due diligence has been exerted to
compel the principal debtor to make good his default. There
is no privity of contract between the surety and the principal
debtor, for the surety contracts with the creditor, and they do
not constitute in law one person, and are not jointly liable to
the creditor {per Baron Parke in Bam v. Cooper, 1 Dowl. R.
(N.S.) 11, 14).
No special phraseology is necessary to the formation of a
guarantee; and what really distinguishes such a contract from
one of insurance is not any essential difference between the two
forms of words insurance and guarantee, but the substance of
the contract entered into by the parties in each particular case
{per Romer, L.J., in Seaton v. Heath — Seaton v. Burnand, 1899,
1 Q.B. 782, 792, C.A.; per Vaughan Williams, L.J., in In re
Denton's Estate Licenses Insurance Corporation and Guarantee
Fund Ltd, v. Denton, 1904, 2 Ch., at p. 188; and see Dane v.
Mortgage Insurance Corporation, 1894, 1 Q.B. 54 C.A.) In this
connexion it may be mentioned that the different kinds of
suretyships have been classified as follows: (1). Those in which
there is an agreement to constitute, for a particular purpose,
the relation of principal and surety, to which agreement the
creditor thereby secured is a party; (2) those in which there
is a similar agreement between the principal and surety only, to
which the creditor is a stranger; and (3) those in which, without
any such contract of suretyship, there is a primary and a
secondary liability of two persons for one and the same debt,
the debt being, as between the two, that of one of those persons
only, and not equally of both, so that the other, if he should be
compelled to pay it, would be entitled to reimbursement from
the person by whom (as between the two) it ought to have been
paid {per Earl of Selborne,L.C.,in Duncan Fox and Co. v. North and
South Wales Bank, 6 App. Cas., at p. 11). According, to several
codes civil sureties are made divisible into copvp^^pnai, legal
and judicial (Fr, and Bel, 2015, 4040 et se,q.; Spain, 1823;
Lower Canada, 1930), while the Spanish code further 4* v *des
them into gratuitous and for valuable consideration (ajt. 1, 823).
In England the common-law .requisites of a guarantee, in no
way differ from those essential to the formation of any pther
contract. That is to say, they comprise the mutual assent
of two or more parties, competency to. contract, and, unless
the guarantee be under seal, valuable consideration. An offer
to guarantee is not binding until it has been accepted, being
revocable till then by the party making it. Unless, however,
as sometimes happens, the offer contemplates an express accept-
ance, one may be implied, and it may be a question for a jury
whether an offer of guarantee has in fact been accepted Where
the surety's assent to a guarantee has been procured by fraud
of the person to whom it is given, there is no binding .contract*
Such fraud may consist ol suppression or concealment or mis-
representation. There is some conflict of authorities as to what
facts must be spontaneously disclosed to the surety by the
creditor, but it may be taken that the rule on the subject is
less stringent than that governing insurances upon marine,
life and other risks {The North British Insurance Co. v. Lloyd,
10 Exch. 523), though formerly this was denied (Owen v. Homan,
3 Mac. & G. 378, 397). Moreover, even where the contract
relied upon is in the form of a policy guaranteeing the solvency
of a surety for another's debt, .and is therefore governed by the
doctrine of uberrima fides, only such facts as ate really material
to the risk undertaken need be spontaneously disclosed {Seaton v.
Burnand — Burnand v. Seaton, 1900, A.C. 135). As regards
the competency of the parties to enter into a contract of
guarantee, this may be affected by insanity or intoxication of
the surety, if known to the creditor, or by disability of any kind.
The ordinary disabilities are those of infants and married women
•—now in England greatly mitigated as regards the latter by the
Married Women's Property Acts, 1870 to 1S93, which enable a
married woman to contract, as a feme sole, to the extent of her
separate property. Every guarantee not under seal must
according to English law have a consideration to support it,
though the least spark of one suffices (per Wilmot, J., in Pillan v.
van Mierop and Hopkins, 3 Burr., at p. 1666; Haigh v. Brooks^
10 A. & E. 309; Barrell v. Trusscll, 4 Taunt. 117), which, as
in other cases, may consist either of some right, interest, profit
or benefit accruing to the one party, or some forbearance, detri-
ment, loss or responsibility given, suffered or undertaken by the
other. In some guarantees the consideration is entire — as where,
in consideration of a lease being granted, the surety becomes
answerable for the performance of the covenants; in other
cases it is fragmentary, i.e. supplied from time to time— as
where a guarantee is given to secure the balance of a running
account at a banker's, or a balance of a running account for
goods supplied (per Lush, L.J., in Lloyd 1 s v. Harper, 16 Ch. Div.,
at p. 319). In the former case, the moment the lease is granted
there is nothing more for the lessor to do, and such a guarantee
as that of necessity runs on throughout the duration of the
lease and is irrevocable. In the latter case, however, unless
the guarantee stipulates to the contrary, the surety may at any
time terminate his liability under the guarantee as to future
GUARANTEE
653
advances, &c. The consideration for a guarantee must not be
past or executed, but on the other hand it need not comprise a
direct benefit or advantage to either the surety or the creditor,
but may solely consist of anything done, or any promise made,
for the benefit of the principal debtor. It is more frequently
executory than concurrent, taking the form either of forbearance
to sue the principal debtor, or of a future advance of money or
supply of goods to him.
By the Indian Contract Act 1872, sect. 127, it is provided that
the consideration for a guarantee may consist of anything done
or any promise made for the benefit of the principal debtor by
the creditor. Total failure of the consideration stipulated for
by the party giving a guarantee will prevent its being enforced,
as will also the existence of an illegal consideration. Though in
all countries the mutual assent of two or more parties is essential
to the formation of any contract (see e.g. Codes Civil, Fr. and Bel.
1 108; Port. 643, 647 et seq.; Spain, 1258, 1261; Italy, 1104;
Holl. 1356; Lower Canada, 984), a consideration is not every-
where regarded as a necessary element (see Pothier's Law of
Obligations, Evans's edition, vol. ii. p. 19). Thus in Scotland
a contract may be binding without a consideration to support it
(Stair i. 10. 7).
The statutory requisites of a guarantee are, in England,
prescribed by (1) the Statute of Frauds, which, with reference
to guarantees, provides that " no action shall be brought whereby
to charge the defendant upon any special promise to answer
for the debt, default or miscarriages of another person, unless the
agreement upon which such action shall be brought, or some
memorandum or note thereof, shall be in writing and signed by
the party to be charged therewith, or some other person thereunto
by him lawfully authorized," and (2) Lord Tenterden's Act
(9 Geo. IV. c. 14), which by § 6 enacts that " no action shall be
brought whereby to charge any person upon or by reason of any
representation or assurance made or given concerning or relating
to the character, conduct, credit, ability, trade or dealings of
any other person, to the intent or purpose that such other person
may obtain credit, money or goods upon" (i.e. " upon credit,"
see per Parke, B., in Lyde v. Barnard, 1 M. & W., at p. 104),
"■ unless such representation or assurance be made in writing
signed by the party to be charged therewith." This latter
enactment, which applies to incorporated companies as well as
to individual persons (Hirst v. West Riding Union Banking Co.,
1001, 2 K.B. 560 C.A.), was rendered necessary by an evasion
of the 4th section of the Statute of Frauds, accomplished by
treating the special promise to answer for another's debt, default
or miscarriage, when not in writing, as required by that section,
as a false and fraudulent representation concerning another's
credit, solvency or honesty, in respect of which damages, as for
a tort, were held to be recoverable (Pasley v. Freeman, 3 T.R. 51).
In Scotland, where, it should be stated, a guarantee is called
a " cautionary obligation," similar enactments to those just
specified are contained in § 6 of the Mercantile Law Amendment
Act (Scotland) 1856, while in the Irish Statute of Frauds (7 WiD.
III. c. 12) there is a provision (§2) identical with that found in
the English Statute of Frauds. In India a guarantee may be
either oral or written (Indian Contract Act, § 126), while in the
Australian colonies, Jamaica and Ceylon it must be in writing.
The German code civil requires the surety's promise to be verified
by writing where he has not executed the principal obligation
(art. 766), and the Portuguese code renders a guarantee provable
by all the modes established by law for the proof of the principal
contract (art. 826). According to most codes civil now in force
a guarantee like any other contract can usually be made verbally
in the presence of witnesses and in certain cases (where for in-
stance considerable sums of money are involved) sous 1 signature
privie or else by judicial or notarial instrument (see Codes Civil,
Fr. and Bel. 134x5 Spain, 1244; Port. 2506, 2513; Italy,
1341 et seq.; Pothier's Law of Obligations, Evans's ed. i. 257;
Burge on Suretyship, p. 19; van der Linden's Institutes of
Holland, p. 120); the French and Belgian Codes, moreover,
provide that suretyship is not to be presumed but must always
be expressed (art. 2015).
The Statute of Frauds does not invalidate a verbal guarantee,
but renders it unenforceable by action. It may therefore be
available in support of a defence to an action, and money paid
under it cannot be recovered. An indemnity is not a guarantee
within the statute, unless it contemplates the primary liability
of a third person. It need not, therefore, be in writing when it is
a mere promise to become liable for a debt, whenever the person
to whom the promise is made should become liable (Wildes v.
Dudlow, L.R. 19 Eq. 198; per Vaughan Williams, LJ. in Harburg
India-Rubber Co. v. Martin, 1002, 1 K.B. p. 786; Guild v.
Conrad, 1894, 2 Q.B. 885 C.A.). Neither does the statute apply
to the promise of a del credere agent, which binds him, in con-
sideration of the higher commission he receives, to make no
sales on behalf of his principal except to persons who are
absolutely solvent, and renders him liable for any loss that may
result from the non-fulfilment of his promise. A promise to
give a guarantee is, however, within the statute, though not one
to procure a guarantee.
The general principles which determine what are guarantees
within the Statute of Frauds, as deduced from a multitude of
decided cases, are briefly as follows: (1) the primary liability
of a third person must exist or be contemplated as the foundation
of the contract (Birkmyrv. Darnell, 1 Sm. L.C. nth ed. p. 299;
Mountstephen v. Lakeman, L.R. 7 Q.B. 196; L.R. 7 H.L. 17);
(2) the promise must be made to the creditor; (3) there must be
an absence of all liability on the part of the surety independently
of his express promise of guarantee; (4) the main object of the
transaction between the parties to the guarantee must be the
fulfilment of a third party's obligation (see Harburg India-
rubber Comb Co. v. MarHh, 1902, 1 K.B. 778, 786); and (5)
the contract entered into must not amount to a sale by the
creditor to the promiser of a security for a debt or of the debt
itself (see de Colyar's Law of Guarantees and of Principal and
Surety, 3rd ed. pp. 65-161, where these principles are discussed
in detail by the light of decided cases there cited).
As regards the kind of note or memorandum of the guarantee
that will satisfy the Statute of Frauds, it is now provided by § 3
of the Mercantile Law Amendment Act 1856, that " no special
promise to be made, by any person after the passing of this act,
to answer for the debt, default or miscarriage of another person,
being in writing and signed by the party to be charged therewith,
or some other person by him thereunto lawfully authorized,
shall be deemed invalid to support an action, suit or other pro-
ceeding, to charge the person by whom such promise shall have
been made, by reason only that the consideration for such
promise does not appear in writing or by necessary inference from
a written document." Prior to this enactment, which is not
retrospective in its operation, it was held in many cases that as
the Statute of Frauds requires " the agreement " to be in writing,
all parts thereof were required so to be, including the considera-
tion moving to, as well as the promise by, the party to be charged
(Wain v. Walters, 5 East, 10; Saunders v. Wakefield, 4 B. &
Aid. 595). These decisions, however, proved to be burdensome
to the mercantile community, especially in Scotland and the
north of England, and ultimately led to the alteration of the law,
so far as guarantees are concerned, by means of the enactment
already specified. Any writing embodying the terms of the agree-
ment between the parties, and signed by the party to be charged,
is sufficient; and the idea of agreement need not be present to
the mind of the person signing (per Lindley, L.J., in In re Hoyle*—
Hoyle v. Hoyle, 1893, 1 Ch., at p. 98). It is, however, necessary
that the names of the contracting parties should appear some-
where in writing; that the party to be charged, or his agent,
should sign the memorandum or note of agreement, or else
should sign another paper referring thereto; and that, when the
note or memorandum is made, a complete agreement shall exist.
Moreover, the memorandum must have been made before action
brought, though it need not be contemporaneous with the
agreement itself. As regards the stamping of the memorandum
or note of agreement, a guarantee cannot, in England, be given in
evidence unless properly stamped (Stamp Act 1 891 ) . A guarantee
for the payment of goods, however, requires no stamp, being
^54
GUARANTEE
within the exception contained in the first schedule of the act.
Nor is it necessary to stamp a written representation or assurance
as to character within 9 Geo. IV. c. 14, supra. If under seal, a
guarantee requires sometimes an ad valorem stamp and some-
times a ten-shilling stamp; in other cases a sixpenny stamp
generally suffices; and, on certain prescribed terms, the stamps
can be affixed any time after execution (Stamp Act 1891, § 15,
amended by § 15 of the Finance Act 1895).
The liability incurred by a surety under his guarantee depends
upon its terms, and is not necessarily coextensive with that of
the principal debtor. It is, however, obvious that as
Extent of t jj e surety's obligation is merely accessory to that of
*ii*bWty. th e principal it cannot as such exceed it (de Colyar,
Law of Guarantees, 3rd ed. p. 233 ; Burge, Suretyship,
p. 5). By the Roman law, if there were any such excess the
surety's obligation was rendered wholly void and not merely
void pro tantp. By many existing codes civil, however, a
guarantee which imposes on the surety a greater liability than
that of the principal is not thereby invalidated, but the liability
is merely reducible to that of the principal (Fr. and Bel. 2013;
Port. 823; Spain, 1826; Italy, 1900; Holland, 1859; Lower
Canada, 1933). By sec. 128 of the Indian Contract Act 1872
the liability of the surety is, unless otherwise provided by
contract, coextensive with that of the principal. Where the
liability of the surety is less extensive in amount than that of the
principal debtor, difficult questions have arisen in England and
America as to whether the surety is liable only for part of the
debt equal to the limit of his liability, or, up to such limit, for
the whole debt (EUis v. Emmanuel, 1 Ex. Div. 157; Hobson v.
Bass, 6 Ch. App. 792; Brandt, Suretyship, sec. 219). The
surety cannot be made liable. except for a loss sustained by reason
of the default guaranteed against. Moreover, in the case of a
joint and several guarantee by several sureties, unless all sign
it none are liable thereunder (National Pro. Bk. of England v.
Brackenbury, 1006, 22 Times L.R. 797). It was formerly
considered in England to be the duty of the party taking a
guarantee to see that it was couched in language enabling the
party giving it to understand clearly to what extent he was
binding himself (Nicholson v. Paget, 1 C. & M. 48, 52), This
view, however, can no longer be sustained > it being now recog-
nized that a guarantee, like any other contract, must, in cases
of ambiguity, be construed against the party bound thereby
and in favour of the party receiving it (Mayer v. Isaac, 6 M. &
W. 605, 612; Wood v. Priestner, L.R. 2 Exch. 66, 71). The
surety is not to be changed beyond the limits prescribed by his
contract, which must be construed so as to give effect to what
may fairly be inferred to have been the intention of the parties,
from what they themselves have expressed in writing. In cases
of doubtful import, recourse to parol evidence is permissible,
to explain, but not to contradict, the written evidence of the
guarantee. As a general rule, the surety is not liable if the
principal debt cannot be enforced, because, as already explained,
the obligation of the surety is merely accessory to that of the
principal debtor. It has never been actually decided in England
whether this rule holds good in cases where the principal debtor
is an infant, and on that account is not liable to the creditor.
Probably in such a case the surety might be held liable by
estoppel (see Kimball v. Newell, 7 Hill (N.Y.) 116). When
directors guarantee the performance by their company of a
contract which is ultra vires, and therefore not binding on the
latter, the directors' suretyship liability is, nevertheless, enforce-
able against them (Yorkshire Railway Waggon Co. v. Maclure,
21 Ch. D. 309 C.A.).
It is not always easy to determine for how long a time liability
under a guarantee endures. Sometimes a guarantee is limited
to a single transaction, and is obviously intended to be security
against one specific default only. On the other hand, it as often
happens that it is not exhausted by one transaction on the faith
of it, but extends to a series of transactions, and remains a
standing security until it is revoked, either by the act of the
parties or else by the death of the surety. It is then termed a
continuing guarantee. No fixed rules of interpretation determine
whether a guarantee is a continuing one or, not, but each case
must be judged on its individual merits; and frequently, in order
to achieve a correct construction, it becomes necessary to
examine the surrounding circumstances, which often reveal what
was the subject-matter which the parties contemplated when
the guarantee was given, and likewise what was the scope and
object of the transaction between them. Most continuing
guarantees are either ordinary mercantile securities, in respect
of advances made or goods supplied to the principal debtor or
else bonds for the good behaviour of persons in public or private
offices or employments. With regard to the latter class of
continuing guarantees, the surety's liability is, generally speak-
ing, revoked by any change in the constitution of the persons
to or for whom the guarantee is given. On this subject it is
now provided by section 18 of the Partnership Act 1800, which
applies to Scotland as well as England, that "a continuing
guarantee or cautionary obligation given either to a firm or to
a third person in respect of the transactions of a firm, is, in the
absence of agreement to the contrary, revoked as to future
transactions by any change in the constitution of the firm to
which, or of the firm in respect of the transactions of which the
guaranty or obligation was given." This section, like the
enactment it replaces, namely, sec. 4 of the Mercantile Law
Amendment Act 1856, is mainly declaratory of the English
common law, as embodied in decided cases, which indicate that
the changes in the persons to or for whom a guarantee is given
may consist either of an increase in their number, of a diminution
thereof caused by death or retirement from business, or of the
incorporation or consolidation of the persons to whom the
guarantee is given. In this connexion it may be stated that the
Government Offices (Security) Act 1875, which has been amended
by the Statute Law Revision Act 1883, contains certain provisions
with regard to the acceptance by the heads of public departments
of guarantees given by companies for the due performance of
the duties of an office or employment in the public service, and
enables the Commissioners of His Majesty's Treasury to vary the
character of any security, for good behaviour by public servants,
given after the passing of the act.
Before the surety can be rendered liable on his guarantee,
the principal debtor must have made default. When, however,
this has occurred, the creditor, in the absence of express agree-
ment to the contrary, may sue the surety, without even informing
him of such default having taken place, or requiring him to pay,
and before proceeding against the principal debtor or resorting
to securities for the debt received from the latter. In those
countries where the municipal law is based on the Roman civil
law, sureties usually possess the right (which may, however,
be renounced by them) originally conferred by the Roman
law, of compelling the creditor to insist on the goods, &c. (if any)
of the principal debtor being first " discussed/' i.e. appraised
and sold, and appropriated to the liquidation of the debt
guaranteed (see Codes Civil, Fr. and Bel. 2021 et seq.; Spain,
1830, 1831; Port. 830; Germany, 771, 772, 773; Holland,
1868; Italy, 1907; Lower Canada, 1941-1942; Egypt [mixed
suits] 612; ibid, [native tribunals] 502), before having recourse
to the sureties. This right, according to a great American
jurist (Chancellor Kent in Hayes v. Ward, 4 Johns. New York,
Ch. Cas. p. 132), " accords with a common sense of justice and
the natural equity of mankind." In England this right has
never been fully recognized. Neither does it prevail in America
nor, since the passing of the Mercantile Law Amendment Act
(Scotland) 1856, s. 8, is it any longer available in Scotland where,
prior to the last-named enactment, the benefit of discussion, as
it is termed, existed. In England, however, before any demand
for payment has been made by the creditor on the surety, the
latter can, as soon as the principal debtor has made default,
compel the creditor, on giving him an indemnity against costs
and expenses, to sue the principal debtor if the latter be solvent
and able to pay (per A. L. Smith, L.J., in Rouse v. Bradford
Banking Company, 1894, 2 Ch. 75; per Lord Eldon in Wright v.
Simpson, 6 Ves., at p. 733), and a similar remedy is also open
to the surety in America (see Brandt on Suretyship, par. 205,
GUARANTEE
655
p. 290) though in neither of these cbuntries nor in Scotland can
one of several, sureties, when sued for the whole guaranteed
debt by the creditor, compel the latter to divide his claim
amongst all the solvent sureties, and reduce it to the share and
proportion of each surety. However, this bemficivm- dfoi&ioms,
as it is called in Roman law, is recognized by many existing
codes (Fr. and Bel. 2025-2027; Spain, 1837; Portugal, 835-
836; Germany, 426; Holland, 1873-1874; Italy, 1911-1912;
Lower Canada, 1946; Egypt [mixed suits], 615,616).
The usual mode in England of enforcing liability under a
guarantee is by action in the High Court or in the county
court. It is also permissible fox the creditor to obtain redress
by means of a set-off or counter-claim, in an action brought
against him by the surety. On the other hand, the surety
may now, in any court in which the action on the guarantee is
pending, avail himself of any set-off which may exist between
the principal debtor and the creditor. Moreover, if one of
several sureties for the same debt is sued by the creditor or his
guarantee, he can, by means of a proceeding termed a third-party
notice, claim contribution from his co-surety towards the
common liability. Independent proof of the surety's liability
under his guarantee must always be given at the trial; as the
creditor cannot rely either on admissions made by the principal
debtor, or on a judgment or award obtained against him (Ex
parte Young In re Ktiehin, 17 Ch. Div. 668). Should the surety
become bankrupt either before or after default has been made
by the principal debtor, the creditor will have to prove against
his estate. This right of proof is now in England regulated by
the 37th section of the Bankruptcy Act, 1883, which is most
comprehensive in its terms.
A person liable as a surety lor another under a guarantee
possesses various rights against him, against the person to
whom the guarantee is given, and also against those
smiles.* w ^° mav nave Decome cd-suceties in respect of the
same debt, default or miscarriage. As regards the.
surety's rights against the principal debtor, the latter may,
where the guarantee was made with his consent but not otherwise
(see Hodgson, v. Shaw, 3 Myl. & K. at p. 190), after he has
made default, be compelled by the surety to exonerate him from
liability by payment of the guaranteed debt {per Sir W. Grant,
M.R., in Antrobus v. Davidson, 3 Meriv. 569, 579; per Lindley,
L.J., in Johnston v. Salvage Association, 19 Q.B.D. 460, 461; and
see Wolmerskausen v. Gullick, 1893, 2 Ch. 514). The moment,
moreover, the surety has himself paid any portion of the
guaranteed debt, he is entitled to rank as a creditor for the
amount so paid, and to compel repayment thereof. In the
event of the principal debtor's bankruptcy, the surety can
in England, if the creditor has not already proved in respect
of the guaranteed debt, prove against the bankrupt's estate,
not only in respect of payments made before the bankruptcy
of the principal debtor, but also, it seems, in respect of the
contingent liability to pay under the guarantee (see Ex parte
Delmar re Herepath, 1889, 38 W.R. 752), while if the creditor
has already proved, the surety who has paid the guaranteed
debt has a right to all dividends received by the creditor from
the bankrupt in respect thereof, and to stand in the creditor's
place as to future dividends. This right is, however, often
waived by the guarantee stipulating that, until the creditor
has received full payment of all sums over and above the
guaranteed debt, due to him from the principal debtor, the
surety shall not participate in any dividends distributed from
the bankrupt's estate amongst his creditors. As regards the
rights of the surety against the creditor, they are in England
exercisable even by one who in the first instance was a principal
debtor, but has since become a surety, by arrangement with
his creditor, duly notified to the creditor, though not even
sanctioned by him. This was decided by the House of Lords in
the case of Rouse v. The Bradford Banking Co., 1894, A.C. 586,
removing a doubt created by the previous case of Swire v.
Redman, 1 Q.B.D. 536, which must now be treated as overruled.
The surety's principal right against the creditor entitles him,
after payment of the guaranteed debt, to the benefit of all
securities, whether known to him (the surety) or not, which
the creditor held against the principal debtor; and where, by
default or laches of the creditor, such securities have been lost,
or rendered otherwise unavailable, the surety is discharged
pro tanto. This right, which is not in abeyance till the surety
is called on to pay (Dixon v. Steel, 1901, 2 Ch. 602), extends to
all securities, whether satisfied or not, given before or after the
contract of suretyship was entered into. On this subject the
Mercantile Law Amendment Act> 1856, § 5, provides that " every
person who being surety for the debt or duty of another, or being
liable with another for any debt or duty, shall pay such debt or
perform such duty, shall be entitled to have assigned to him,
or to a trustee for him, every judgment, specialty, or other
security, which shall be held by the creditor in respect of such
debt or duty, whether such judgment, specialty, or other security
shall or shall not be deemed at law to have been satisfied by the
payment of the debt or performance of the duty, and such person
shall be entitled to stand in the place of the creditor, and to use
all the remedies, and, if need be, and upon a proper indemnity,
to use the name of the creditor, in any action or other proceeding
at law or in equity, in order to obtain from the principal debtor,
or any co-surety, co-contractor, or co-debtor, as the case may be,
indemnification for the advances made and loss sustained by
the person who shall have so paid such debt or performed such
duty; and such payment or performance so made by such
surety shall not be pleadable in bar of any such action or other
proceeding by him, provided always that no co-surety, co-
contractor, or co-debtor shall be entitled to recover from any
other co-surety, co-contractor, or co-debtor, by the means
aforesaid, more than the just proportion to which, as between
those parties themselves, such last-mentioned person shall be
justly liable." This enactment is so far retrospective that it
applies to a contract made before the act, where the breach
thereof, and the payment by the surety, have taken place
subsequently. The right of the surety to be subrogated, on
payment by him of the guaranteed debt, to all the rights of the
creditor against the principal debtor is recognized in America
(Tobin v. Kirk f 80 New York S.C.R. 229), and many other
countries (Codes Civil, Fr. and Bel. 2029; Spain, 1839; Port.
839; Germany, 774; Holland, 1877 ; Italy, 1916; Lower
Canada, 2959; Egypt [mixed suits], 617; ibid, [native tribunals],
5<>5).
As regards the rights of the surety against a co-surety, he is
entitled to contribution from him in respect of their common
liability. This particular right is not the result of any contract,
but is derived from a general equity, on the ground of equality
of burden and benefit, and exists whether the sureties be bound
jointly, or jointly and severally, and by the same, or different,
instruments. There is, however, no right of contribution where
each surety is severally bound for a given portion only of the
guaranteed debt ; nor in the case of a surety for a surety;
(see In re Denton's Estate, 1904, 2 Ch. 178 C.A.); nor where a
person becomes a surety jointly with another and at the latter's
request. Contribution may be enforced, either before payment,
or as soon as the surety has paid more than his share of the
common debt (Woltnershausen v. Gullick, 1893, 2 Ch. 514);
and the amount recoverable is now always regulated by the
number of solvent sureties, though formerly this rule only
prevailed in equity. In the event of the bankruptcy of a surety,
proof can be made against his estate by a co-surety for any
excess over the latter's contributive share. The right of con-
tribution is not the only right possessed by co-sureties against
each other, but they are also entitled to the benefit of all securities
which have been taken by any one of them as an indemnity
against the liability incurred for the principal debtor. The
Roman law did not recognize the right of contribution amongst
sureties. It is, however, sanctioned by many existing codes
(Fr. and Bel. 2033; Germany, 426,474; Italy, 1920; Holland,
1881; Spain, 1844; Port. 845; Lower Canada, 1955; Egypt
[mixed suits], 618, ibid, [native tribunals], 506), and also by the
Indian Contract Act 1872, ss. 146-147.
The discharge of a surety from liability under his guarantee
6 5 6
GUARATINGUETA— GUARDS
may be accomplished in various ways, he being regarded,
especially in England and America, as a " favoured debtor "
(per Turner, L.J., in WheaUey v. Bastow, 7 De G. M. & G. 279,
280; per Earl of Selborne, L.C., in In re Sherry — London and
County Banking Co. v. Terry, 25 Ch. D., at p. 703; and see
Brandt on Suretyship, sees. 79, 80). Thus, fraud subsequent
to the execution of the guarantee (as where, for example, the
creditor connives at the principal debtor's default) will certainly
discharge the surety. Again, a material alteration made by the
creditor in the instrument of guarantee after its execution may
also have this effect. The most proline ground of discharge,
however, is usually traceable to causes originating in the creditor's
laches or conduct, the governing principle being that if the
creditor violates any rights which the surety possessed when he
entered into the suretyship, even though the damage be nominal
only, the guarantee cannot be enforced. On this subject it
suffices to state that the surety's discharge may be accomplished
(1) by a variation of the terms of the contract between the
creditor and the principal debtor, or of that subsisting between
the creditor and the surety (see Rickaby v. Lewis, 22 T.L.R. 130) ;
(2) by the creditor taking a new security from the principal
debtor in lieu of the original one; (3) by the creditor discharging
the principal debtor from liability; (4) by the creditor binding
himself to give time to the principal debtor for payment of
the guaranteed debt*, or (5) by loss of securities received by
the creditor in respect of the guaranteed debt.
In this connexion it may be stated in general terms that
whatever extinguishes the principal obligation necessarily deter-
mines that of the surety (which is accessory thereto), not
only in England but elsewhere also (Codes Civil, Ft. and Bel.
2034, 2038; Spain, 1847; Port. 848; Lower Canada, 1956;
i960; Egypt (mixed suits], 622, ibid, (native tribunals], 509;
Indian Contract Act 1872, sec. 134), and that, by most of the
codes civil now in force, the surety is discharged by laches or
conduct of the creditor inconsistent with the surety's rights
(see Fr. and Bel. 2037; Spain, 1852; Port. 853; Germany,
776; Italy, 1928; Egypt [mixed suits], 623), though it may be
mentioned that the rule prevailing in England, Scotland,
America and India which releases the surety from liability
where the creditor, by binding contract with the principal,
extends without the surety's consent the time for fulfilling the
principal obligation, while recognized by two existing codes
civil (Spain, 1851; Port. 852), is rejected by the majority of
them (Fr. and Bel. 2039; Holland, 1887; Italy, 1930; Lower
Canada, 1961; Egypt [mixed suits], 613; ib. [native tribunals],
503)'; and see Morice, English and Dutch Law, p. 06; van der
Linden, Institutes of Holland, pp. 1 20-1 21). A revocation of
the contract of suretyship by act of the parties, or in certain
cases by the death of the surety, may also operate to discharge
the surety. The death of a surety does not per se determine the
guarantee, but, save where from its nature the guarantee is
irrevocable by the surety himself, it can be revoked by express
notice after his death, or, it would appear, by the creditor
becoming affected with constructive notice thereof; except
where, under the testator's will, the executor has the option of
continuing the guarantee, in which case the executor should,
it seems, specifically withdraw the guarantee in order to determine
it. Where one of a number of joint and several sureties dies,
the future liability of the survivors under the guarantee continues,
at all events until it has been determined by express notice.
Moreover, when three persons joined in a guarantee to a bank,
and their liability thereunder was not expressed to be several,
it was held that the death of one surety did not determine the
liability of the survivors. In such a case, however, the estate of
the deceased surety would be relieved from liability.
The Statutes of Limitation bar the right of action on guarantees
under seal after twenty years, and on other guarantees after
six years, from the date when the creditor might have sued the
surety.
Authorities. — De Colyar, Law of Guarantees and of Principal
and Surety (3rd ed., 1897); American edition, by J. A. Morgan
(1875); Throop, Validity of Verbal Agreements; Fell, Guarantees
(2nd ed.); Theobald, Law of Principal and Surety*, Brandt, Law 0}
Suretyships and Guarantee; article by de Colyar in Journal of
Comparative Legislation (1905), on " Suretyship from the Standpoint
of Comparative Jurisprudence." (H. A. de C.)
GUARATINGUETA, a city of Brazil in the eastern part of
the state of Sao Paulo, 124 m. N.E. of the city of Sao Paulo.
Pop. (1890) of the municipality, which includes a large rural
district and the villages of Apparecida and Roseira, 30,690.
The city, which was founded in 1651, stands on a fertile plain
3 m. from the Parahyba river, and is the commercial centre of
one of the oldest agricultural districts of the state. The district
produces large quantities of coffee, and some sugar, Indian corn
and beans. Cattle and pigs are raised. The city dwellings are
for the most part constructed of rough wooden frames covered
with mud, called taipa by the natives, and roofed with curved
tiles. The Sao Paulo branch of the Brazilian Central railway
passes through the city, by which it is connected with Rio de
Janeiro on one side and Sao Paulo and Santos on the other.
GUARDA, an episcopal city and the capital of an administra-
tive district bearing the same name, and formerly in the province
of Beira, Portugal; on the Guarda-Abf antes and Lisbon-
Villar Formoso railways. Pop. (1900) 6124. Guarda is situated
3370 ft. above sea*level, at the north-eastern extremity of the
Sena da Estrella, overlooking the fertile valley of the river Cda.
It is surrounded by ancient walls, and contains a ruined
castle, a fine 16th-century cathedral and a sanatorium for
consumptives. Its industries comprise the manufacture of
coarse cloth and the sale of grain, wine and live stock. In n 99
Guarda was founded, on the site of the Roman Lencia Oppidana,
by Sancho I. of Portugal, who intended it, as its name implies,
to be a " guard " against Moorish invasion. The administrative
district of Guarda coincides with north-eastern Beira; pop.
(1900), 261,630; area, 1065 sq. m.
GUARDI, FRANCESCO (17 12-1793), Venetian painter, was
a pupil of Canaletto, and followed his style so closely that his
pictures are very frequently attributed to his more celebrated
master. Nevertheless, the diversity, when once perceived, is
sufficiently marked — Canaletto being more firm, solid, distinct,
well-grounded, and on the whole the higher master, while
Guardi is noticeable for spirited touch, sparkling colour and
picturesquely sketched figures — in these respects being fully
equal to Canaletto. Guardi sometimes coloured Canaletto's
designs. He had extraordinary facility, three or four days being
enough for producing an entire work. The number of his
performances is large in proportion to this facility and to the
love of gain which characterized him. Many of his works are to
be found in England and seven in the Louvre.
GUARDIAN, one who guards or defends another, a protector.
The O. Fr. guarden, garden, mod. gardien, from guar der r gar der y
is of Teutonic origin, from the base war-, to protect, cf . O.H. Ger.
war ten, and Eng. "ward"; thus "guardian" and "warden"
are etymoiogically identical, as are "guard" and "ward";
cf. the use of the correlatives " guardian " and " ward," i.e. a
minor, or person incapable of managing his affairs, under the
protection or in the custody of a guardian. For the position
of guardians of the poor see Poos Law, and for the legal relations
between a guardian and his ward see Infant, Marriage and
Roman Law.
GUARDS, and HOUSEHOLD TROOPS. The word guard is
an adaptation of the Fr. gnarde, mod. garde, O. Ger. ward; see
Guardian. The practice of maintaining bodyguards is of
great antiquity, and may indeed be considered the beginning of
organized armies. Thus there is often no clear distinction
between the inner ring of personal defenders and the select corps
of trained combatants who are at the chief's entire disposal.
Famous examples of corps that fell under one or both these
headings are the " Immortals " of Xerxes, the Mamelukes,
Janissaries, the Huscarles of the Anglo-Saxon kings, and the
Russian Strelitz (Stryeltsi). In modern times the distinction
of function is better marked, and the fighting men who are
more intimately connected with the sovereign than the bulk of
the army can be classified as to duties into " Household Troops,"
GUARDS
657
who are in a sense personal retainers, and " Guards," who are
a corps d'tlite of combatants. But the dividing line is not so
dear as to any given body of troops. Thus the British Household
Cavalry is part of the combatant army as well as the sovereign's
escort.
The oldest of the household or bodyguard corps in the United
Kingdom is the King's Bodyguard of the Yeomen of the Guard
(q.v.), formed at his accession by Henry VII. The " nearest
guard," the personal escort of the sovereign, is the " King's
Bodyguard of the Honourable Corps of Gentlemen-at-Arms"
created by Henry VIII. at his accession in 1509. Formed
possibly on the pattern of the " Pensionnaires " of the French
kings— retainers of noble birth who were the predecessors of
the Mflison du Rot (see below) — the new corps was originally
called "the Pensioners." The importance of such guards
regiments in the general development of organized armies is
illustrated by a declaration of the House of Commons, made in
1674, that the militia, the pensioners and the Yeomen of the
Guard were the only lawful armed forces in the realm. But
with the rise of the professional soldier and the corresponding
disuse of arms by the nobles and gentry, the Gentlemen-at-Anns
(a title which came into use in James II.'s time, though it did not
become that of the corps until William IV.'s) retaining their
noble character, became less and less military. Burke attempted
without success in 1782 to restrict membership to officers of the
army and navy, but the necessity of giving the corps an effective
military character became obvious when, on the occasion of
a threatened Chartist riot, it was called upon to do duty as an
armed body at St James'* Palace. The corpa was reconstituted
on a purely military basis in 1862, and from that date only
military officers of the regular services who have received a war
decoration are eligible for appointment. The office of captain,
however, is. political, the holder (who is always a peer) vacating
it on the resignation of the government of which he is a member.
The corps consists at present of captain, lieutenant, standard
bearer, clerk of the cheque (adjutant), sub-officer and 39
gentlemen-at-arms. The uniform consists of a scarlet swallow*
tailed coat and blue overalls, with gold epaulettes, brass dragoon
helmet with drooping white plume and brass box-spurs, these
last contrasting rather forcibly with the partizan, an essentially
infantry weapon, that they carry.
The Roydl Company of Archers. — The king's bodyguard for Scot^
land was constituted in its present form in the year 1670, by an act of
the privy council of Scotland. An earlier origin has been claimed
for the company, some connecting it with a supposed archer guard
of the kings of Scotland. In the above-mentioned year, 1676, the
minutes of the Royal Company begin by stating, that owing to
" the noble and usefull recreation of archery being for many years
much neglected, several noblemen and gentlemen did associate
themselves in a company for encouragement thereof . . . and did
apply to the privy council for their approbation . . . which was
granted." For about twenty y^ars at the end of the 17th century,
perhaps owing to the adhesion of the majority to the Stuart cause,
its existence seems to have been suspended. But in 1703 a new
captain-general, Sir George Mackenzie, Viscount Tarbat, afterwards
earl of Cromarty (1630-1714), was elected, and he procured for the
company a new charter from Queen Anne. The rights and privileges
renewed or conferred by this charter were to be held of the crown
for the reddendo of a pair of barbed arrows. This reddendo was paid
to George IV. at Holyrood in 1822, to Queen Victoria in 1842 and
to King Edward VII. in 1903. The history of the Royal Company
since 1703 has been one of great prosperity. Large parades were
frequently held, and many distinguished men marched in the ranks.
Several of the leading insurgents in 1745 were members, but the
company was not at that time suspended in any way.
In 1822 when King George IV. visited Scotland, it was thought
appropriate that the Royal Company should act as his majesty's
bodyguard during his stay, especially as there was a tradition of
a former archer bodyguard. They therefore performed the duties
usually assigned to the gentlemen-at-arms. When Queen Victoria
visited the Scottish capital in 1842, the Royal Company again did
duty ; the last time they were called out in her reign in their capacity
of royal bodyguard was in i860 on the occasion of the great volunteer
review in the Queen's Park, Edinburgh. . They acted in the same
capacity when King Edward VII. reviewed the Scottish Volunteers
there on the 18th of September 1905.
King George IV. authorized the company to take, in addition
to their former name, that of " The King's Body Guard for Scot-
land," and presented to the captain-general a gold stick, thus
constituting the company part of the royal household. In virtue
of this stick the captain-general of the Royal Company takes his
place at a coronation or similar pageant immediately behind the
gold stick of England. The lieutenants-general of the company
have silver sticks; and the council, which is the executive body of
the company, possess seven ebony ones. George IV. further ap-
pointed a full dress uniform to be worn by members of the company
at court, when not on duty as guards, in which latter case the
ordinary field dress is used. • The court dress is green with green
velvet facings, gold epaulettes and lace, crimson silk sash, and
cocked hat with green plume. The officers wear a gold sash in
place of a crimson one, and an aiguilletti on the left shoulder. All
ranks wear swords. The field dress at present consists of a dark-
green tunic, shoulder- wings and eauntleted cuffs and trousers
trimmed with black and crimson ; a bow-case worn as a sash, of the
same colour as the coat, black waistbelt with sword, and Balmoral
bonnet with thistle ornament and eagle's feather. The officers of
the company are the captain-general, 4 captains, 4 lieutenants,
4 ensigns, 12 brigadiers and adjutant.
Corps of the gentlemen-at-arms or yeoman type do not of
course count as combatant troops — if for no other reason at
least because they are armed with the weapons of bygone times.
Colonel Clifford Walton states in his History of the British
Standing Army that neither the Yeomen of the Guard nor the
Pensioners were ever subject to martial law. The British guards
and household troops that are armed, trained and organteed
as part of the army are the Household Cavalry and the Foot
Guards,
The Household Cavalry consists at the present day of three
regiments, and has its origin, as have certain of the Footguard
regiments, in the ashes of the " New Model " army disbanded
at the restoration of Charles II. in 1660. In that year the
" 1st or His Majesty's Own Troop of Guaxds " formed during
the king's exile of his cavalier followers, was taken on the strength
of the army. The 2nd troop was formerly in the Spanish service
as the " Duke of York's Guards," and was also a cavalier unit.
In 1670, on Monk's death, the original 3rd troop (Monk's Life
Guards, renamed in 1660 the " Lord General's Troop of Guards ")
became the 2nd (the queen's) troop, and the duke of York's
troop the 3rd. In 1685 the 1st and 2nd troops were styled Life
Guards of Horse, and two years later the blue-uniformed " Royal
Regiment of Horse," a New Model regiment that had been
disbanded and at once re-raised in 1660, was made a household
cavalry corps. Later under the colonelcy of the earl of Oxford
it was popularly called " The Oxford Blues." T^ere were also
from time to time other troops (e.g. Scots troops 1 700-1746)
that have now disappeared. In 1746 the 2nd troop was dis-
banded, but it was revived in 1788, when the two senior corps
were given their present title of 1st and 2nd Life Guards. From
1750 to 1 81 9 the Blues bore the name of " Royal Horse Guards
Blue," Which in 1819 was changed to " Royal Horse Guards
(The Blues)." The general distinction between the uniforms
of the red Life Guard and the blue Horse Guard still exists.
The 1 st and the 2nd regiments of Life Guards wear scarlet tunics
with blue collars and cuffs, and the Royal Horse Guards blue
tunics with scarlet collars and cuffs. All three wear steel
cuirasses on state occasions and on guard duty. The head-dress
is a steel helmet with drooping horse-hair plume (white for Life
Guards, red for Horse Guards). In full dress white buckskin
pantaloons and long- knee boots are worn. Amongst the
peculiarities of these corps <F4lite is the survival of the old custom
of calling non-commissioned officers " corporal of horse"
instead of sergeant, and corporal-major instead of sergeant-major,
the wearing by trumpeters and bandsmen in full dress of a black
velvet cap, a richly laced coat with a full skirt extending to the
wearer's knees and long white gaiters. There is little distinction
between the two Life Guards regiments' uniforms, the most
obvious point being that the cord running through the white
leather pouch belt is red for the 1st and blue for the 2nd.
The Foot Guards comprise the Grenadier Guards, the Cold-
stream Guards, the Scots Guards, and the Irish Guards, each
(except the last) of three battalions.- The Grenadiers, originally
the First Foot Guards, represent a royalist infantry regiment
which served with the exiled princes in the Spanish army and
returned at the Restoration in 1660. The Coldstream Guards
6 5 8
GUARDS
are a New Model regiment, and were originally called the Lord
GeneraPs (Monk's) regiment of Foot Guards. Their popular
title, which became their official designation in 1670, is derived
from the fact that the army with which Monk restored the
monarchy crossed the Tweed into England at the village of
Coldstream, and that his troops (which were afterwards, except
the two units of horse and foot of which Monk himself was
colonel, disbanded) were called the Coldstreamers. The two
battalions of Scots Foot Guards, which regiment was separately
raised and maintained in Scotland after the Restoration, marched
to London in 1686 and 1688 and were brought on to the English
Establishment in 1707. In George III.'s reign they were known
as the Third Guards, and from 1831 to 1877 (when the present
title was adopted) as the Scots Fusilier Guards.
The Irish Guards (one battalion) were formed in 1002, after
the South African War, as a mark of Queen Victoria's apprecia-
tion of the services rendered by the various Irish regiments of
the line. 1 The dress of the Foot Guards is generally similar
in all four regiments, scarlet tunic with blue collars, cuffs and
shoulder-straps, blue trousers and high, rounded bearskin cap.
The regimental distinctions most easily noticed are these. The
Grenadiers wear a small white plume in the bearskin, the Cold-
streams a similar red one, the Scots none, the Irish a blue-green
one. The buttons on the tunic are spaced evenly for the
Grenadiers, by twos for the Coldstreams, by threes for the Scots
and by fours for the Irish. The band of the modern cap is red
for the Grenadiers, white for the Coldstreams, "diced" red and
white (chequers) for the Scots and green for the Irish. Former
privileges of foot guard regiments, such as higher brevet rank
in the army for their regimental officers, are now abolished, but
Guards are still subject exclusively to the command of their
own officers, and the officers of the Foot Guards, like those of the
Household Cavalry, have special duties at court. Neither the
cavalry nor the infantry guards serve abroad in peace time as
a rule, but in 1907 a battalion of the Guards, which it was at
that time proposed to disband, was sent to Egypt. " Guards'
Brigades" served in the Napoleonic Wars, in the Crimea, in
Egypt at various times from 1887 to 1898 and in South Africa
1890-1902. The last employment of the Household Cavalry
as a brigade in war was at Waterloo, but composite regiments
made up from officers and men of the Life Guards and Blues were
employed in Egypt and in S. Africa.
The sovereigns of France had guards in their service in Mero-
vingian times, and their household forces appear from time to time
in the history of medieval wars. Louis XL was, however, the first
to regularize their somewhat loose organization, and he did so to
such good purpose that Francis I. had no less than 8000 guardsmen
organized, subdivided and permanently- under arms. The senior
unit of the Gardes du Corps was the famous company of Scottish
archers (Compaenie ecossaise de la Garde du Corps du Rot), which
was originally formed (141 8) from the Scottish contingents that
assisted the French in the Hundred Years' War. Scotrs Quentin
Durward gives a picture of life in the corps as it was under Louis XI.
In the following century, however, its regimental history becomes
somewhat confused. Two French companies were added by Louis
XL and Francis I. and the Gardes du Corps came to consist ex-
clusively of cavalry. About 1634 nearly all the Scots then serving
went into the " regiment d'Hebron " and thence later into the
British regular army (see Hepburn, Sir John). Thereafter, though
the titles, distinctions and privileges of the original Archer Guard
were continued, it was recruited from native Frenchmen, preference
being (at any rate at first) given to those of Scottish descent. At
its disbandment in 1791 along with the rest of the Gardes du Corps,
it contained few, if any, native Scots. There was also, for a short
time (1643-1660), an infantry regiment oi Gardes ecossaises.
In 1 67 1 the title of Maison MUitaire du Rot was applied to that
portion of the household that was distinctively military. It came
to consist of 4 companies of the Gardes du Corps, 2 companies
of Mousquetaires (cavalry) (formed 1622 and 1660), I company of
ChevauxUgers (1570), 1 of Gendarmes de la Maison Rauee, and 1 of
Grenadiers a Cheval (1676), with 1 company of Gardes de la Porte and
one called the Cent-Sutsses, the last two being semi-military. This
large establishment, which did not include all the guard regiments,
was considerably reduced by the Count of St Germain's reforms in
1 The " Irish Guards " of the Stuarts took the side of James II.,
fought against William III. in Ireland and lost their regimental
identity in the French service to which the officers and soldiers
transferred themselves on the abandonment of the struggle.
1775, all except the Gardes du Corps and the Cent-Suisses being
disbanded. The whole of the Maison du Roi t with the exception
of the semi-military bodies referred to, was cavalry.
The Gardes fran$aises, formed in 1563, did not form part of the
Maison. They were an infantry regiment, as were the famous
Gardes suisses, originally a Swiss mercenary regiment in the Wars
of Religion, which was, for good conduct at the combat of Arques,
incorporated in the permanent establishment by Henry IV. in
1589 and in the' guards in 161 5. At the Revolution, contrary to
expectation, the French Guards sided openly with the Constitutional
movement and were disbanded. The Swiss Guards, however,
being foreigners, and therefore unaffected by civil troubles, retained
their exact discipline and devotion to the court to the day on which
they were sacrificed by their master to the bullets of the Marseillais
and the pikes of the mob (August 10, 1792). Their tragic fate is
commemorated by the well-known monument called' the " Lion of
Lucerne," the work of Thorvaldsen, erected near Lucerne in 182 1.
The " Constitutional," " Revolutionary " and other guards that
were created after the abolition of the Maison and the slaughter of
the Swiss are unimportant, but through the " Directory Guards "
they form a nominal link between the household troops of the
monarchy and the corps which is perhaps the most famous Guard "
in history. The Imperial Guard of Napoleon had its beginnings in
an escort squadron called the Corps of Guides, which accompanied
him in the Italian campaign of 1796-1797 and in Egypt. On
becoming First Consul in 1790 he built up out of this and of the
guard of the Directory a small corps of horse and foot, called the
Consular Guard, and this, which was more of a fighting unit than
a personal bodyguard, took part in the battle of Marengo. The
Imperial Guard, into which it was converted on the establishment
of the Empire, was at first of about the strength of a division.
As such it took part in the Austerlitz and Jena campaigns, but after
the conquest of Prussia Napoleon augmented it, and divided it into
the "Old Guard" and the "Young Guard." Subsequently the
" Middle Guard " was created, and by successive augmentations
the corps of the guard had grown to be 57,000 strong in 1811-1812
and 81,000 in 1813. It preserved its general character as a corps
d'ilite of veterans to the last, but from about 1813 the "Young
Guard " was recruited directly from the best of the annual conscript
contingent. The officers held a higher rank in the army than their
regimental rank in the Guards. At the first Restoration an attempt
was made to revive the Maison du Roi, but in the constitutional
regime of the second Restoration this semi-medieval form of body-
guard was given urj and replaced by the Garde Royale, a selected
fighting corps. This took part in the short war with Spain and a
portion of it fought in Algeria, but it was disbanded at the July
Revolution. Louis Philippe had no real, guard troops, but the
memories of the Imperial Guard were revived by Napoleon III.,
who formed a large guard corps in 1 851-1 854. This, however,
was open to an even greater degree than Napoleon I.'s guard to the
objection that it took away the best soldiers from the tine, Since
the fall of the Empire in 1870 there have been no guard troops in
France. The duty of watching over the safety of the president is
taken in the ordinary roster of duty by the troops stationed in the
capital. The " Republican Guard " is the Paris gendarmerie,
recruited from old soldiers and armed and trained as a military body.
In Austria-Hungary there are only small bodies of household
troops (Archer Body Guard, Trabant Guard, Hungarian Crown
Guards, &c.) analogous to the British Gentlemen at Arms or Yeomen
of the Guard. Similar forces, the " Noble Guard " and the " Swiss
Guard," are maintained in the Vatican. The court troops of Spain
are called " halberdiers " and armed with the halbert.
In Russia the Guard is organized as an army corps. It possesses
special privileges, particularly as regards officers' advancement.
In Germany the distinction between armed retainers and " Guards "
is well marked. The army is for practical purposes a unit under
imperial control, while household troops (" castle-guards " as they
are usually called) belong individually to the various sovereigns
within the empire. The "Guards," as a combatant force in the
army are those of the king of Prussia and constitute a strong army
corps. This has grown gradually from a bodyguard of archers,
ana, as in Great Britain, the functions of the heavy cavalry regiments
of the Guard preserve to some extent the name and character of a
body guard (Gardes du Corps). The senior foot guard regiment is
also personally connected with the royal family. The conversion
of a palace-guard to a combatant force is due chiefly to Frederick
William I., to whom drill was a ruling passion, and who substituted
effective regiments for the ornamental " Trabant Guards " of his
father. A further move was made by Frederick the Great in sub-
stituting for Frederick William's expensive " giant " regiment of
guards a larger number of ordinary soldiers, whom he subjected
to the same rigorous training and made a corps d'Slite. Frederick
the Great also formed the Body Guard alluded to above. Neverthe-
less in 1806 the Guard still consisted only of two cavalry regiments
and four infantry regiments, and it was the example of Napoleon's
imperial guard which converted this force into a Corps of all arms.
In 1813 its strength was that of a weak division, but in i860 by
slight but frequent augmentations it had come to consist of an
army corps, complete with all auxiliary services. A few guard
GUARD-SHIP— GUARINI
659
regiments belonging to the minor sovereigns are counted in the
line of the German army. In war the Guard is employed as a unit,
like other army corps. It is recruited by the assignment of selected
young men of each annual contingent, and is thus free from the
reproach of the French Imperial Guard, which took the best-trained
soldiers from the regiments of the line. ;
GUARD-SHIP, a warship stationed at some port or harbour
to act as a guard, and in former times in the British navy to
.receive the men impressed for service. She usually was the
flagship of the admiral commanding on the coast. A guard-boat
is a boat which goes the round of a fleet at anchor to see that
due watch is kept at night.
GUARICO, a large inland state of Venezuela created by the
territorial redivision of 1004, bounded by Aragua and Miranda
on the N., Bermudez on the E., Bolivar on the S., and Zamora on
the W. Fop. (1905 estimate), 78^17. It extends across the
northern llanos to the Orinoco and Apure rivers and is devoted
almost wholly to pastoral pursuits, exporting cattle, horses and
mules, hides and skins, cheese and some other products. The
capital is Calaboso, and the other principal towns axe Camaguan
(pop. 3648) on the Portugueza river, Guayabal (pop. 3146),
on a small tributary of the Guarico river, and Zaraza (pop.
14,546) on the Unare river, nearly 150 m. S.E. of Caracas.
GUARIENTO, sometimes incorrectly named Guerrtero, the
first Paduan painter who distinguished himself. The only date
distinctly known in his career is 1365, when, having already
acquired high renown in his native city, he was invited by the
Venetian authorities to paint a Paradise, and some incidents
of the war of Spoleto, in the great council-hall of Venice. These
works were greatly admired at the time, but have long ago
disappeared under repaintings. His works in Padua have
suffered much. In the church of the Eremitani are allegories
of "the Planets, and, in its choir, some small sacred histories in
dead colour, such as an Ecce Homo; also, on the upper walls,
the life of St Augustine, with some other subjects. A few
fragments of other paintings by Guariento are still extant in
Padua. In the gallery of Bassano is a Crucifixion, carefully
executed, and somewhat superior ,to a merely traditional method
of handling, although on the whole Guariento must rather be
classed in that school of art which preceded Cimabue than as
having advanced in his vestiges; likewise two other works in
Bassano, ascribed to the same hand. The painter is buried in
the church of S. Bernardino, Padua.
GUARINI, CAMILLO-GUARINO (1624-1683), Italian monk,
writer and architect, was born at Modena in 1624. He was at
once a learned mathematician, professor of literature and
philosophy at Messina, and, from the age of seventeen, was
architect to Duke Philibert of Savoy, He. designed a very large
number of public and private buildings at Turin, including the
palaces of the duke of Savoy and the prince of Cacignan, and
many public buildings at Modena, Verona, Vienna, Prague,
Lisbon and Paris. He died at Milan in 1683.
GUARINI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1537-1612), Italian poet,
author of the Pastor fido, was born at Ferrara on the 10th of
December 1537, just seven years before the birth of Tasso. He
was descended from Guarino da Verona. The young Battista
studied both at Pisa and Padua, whence he was called, when not
yet twenty, to profess , moral philosophy in the schools of his
native city , He inherited considerable wealth, and was able early
in life to marry Taddea de* Bendedei, a lady of good birth. In
1567 he entered the service of Alphonso II., duke of Ferrara,
thus beginning the court career which was destined to prove a
constant source of disappointment and annoyance to him.
Though he cultivated poetry for pastime, Guarini aimed at
state employment as the serious business of his life, and managed
to be sent on various embassies and missions by his ducal master.
There was, however, at the end of the 16th century no oppor-
tunity for a man of energy and intellectual ability to distinguish
himself in the petty sphere of Italian diplomacy. The time too
had passed when the profession of a courtier, painted in such
glowing terms by Castiglione, could confer either profit or
honour. It is true that the court of Alphonso presented a
brilliant spectacle to Europe, with Tasso for titular poet, and
an attractive circle of accomplished ladies. But the last duke
of Ferrara was an illiberal patron, feeding his servants with
promises, and ever ready to treat them with the brutality that
condemned the author of the GerusaUmme liber ata to a mad-
house. Guarini spent his time and money to little purpose,
suffered from the spite and ill-will of two successive secretaries, —
Pigna and Montecatini, — quarrelled with his old friend Tasso,
and at the end of fourteen years of service found himself half-
ruined, with a large family and no prospects. When Tasso was
condemned to S. Anna, the duke promoted Guarini to the vacant
post of court poet. There is an interesting letter extant from
the latter to his friend Corneho Bentivoglio, describing the efforts
he made to fill this place appropriately. " I strove to transform
myself into another person, and, like a player, reassumed the
character, costume and feelings of my youth. Advanced in
manhood, I forced myself to look young; I turned my natural
melancholy into artificial gaiety, affected loves I did not fed,
exchanged wisdom for folly, and, in a word, passed from a
philosopher into a poet/' How ill-adapted he felt himself to
this masquerade life may be gathered from the following sentence :
"I am already in my forty*fourth year, the father of eight
children, two of whom are old enough to be my censors, while
my daughters are of an age to marry." Abandoning so un-
congenial a strain upon his faculties, Guarini retired in 1582 to
his ancestral farm, the Villa Guarina, in the lovely country that lies
between the Adige and Po, where he gave himself up to the cares
of his family, the nursing of his dilapidated fortunes and the
composition of the Pastor fido. He was not happy in his
domestic lot; for he had lost his wife youngs and quarrelled
with his elder sons about the division of his estate. Litigation
seems to have been an inveterate vice with Guarini; nor was
he ever free from legal troubles. After studying his biography,
the conclusion is forced upon our minds that he was originally
a man of robust and virile intellect, ambitious of greatness,
confident in his own powers, and well qualified for serious affairs,
whose energies found no proper scope for their exercise. Literary
work offered but a poor sphere for such a character, while the
enforced inactivity of court life soured a naturally capricious
and choleric temper. Of poetry he spoke with a certain tone of
condescension, professing to practise it only in his leisure
moments; nor are his miscellaneous verses of a quality to secure
for their author a very lasting reputation. It is therefore not a
little remarkable that the fruit of his retirement — a disappointed
courtier past the prime of early manhood — should have been a
dramatic masterpiece worthy to be ranked with the classics of
Italian literature. Deferring a further account of the Pastor
fido for the present, the remaining incidents of Guarini 's restless
life may be briefly told. In 1585 he was at Turin superintending
the first public performance of his drama, whence Alphonso
recalled him to Ferrara, and gave him the office of secretary of
state. This reconciliation between the poet and his patron did
not last long. Guarini moved to Florence, then to Rome, and
back again to Florence, where he established himself as the
courtier of Ferdinand de* Medici. A dishonourable marriage,
pressed upon his son Guarino by the grand-duke, roused the
natural resentment of Guarini, always scrupulous upon the point
of honour. He abandoned the Medicean court, and took refuge
with Francesco Maria of Urbino, the last scion of the Montefeltro-
della-Rovere house. Yet he found no satisfaction at Urbino.
"The old court is a dead institution," he writes to a friend;
" one may see a shadow of it, but not the substance in Italy of
to-day. Ours is an age of appearances, and • one goes
a-masquerading all the year." This was true enough. Those
dwindling deadly-lively little residence towns of Italian ducal
families, whose day of glory was over, and who were waiting
to be slowly absorbed by the capacious appetite of Austria,
were no fit places for a man of energy and independence. Guarini
finally took refuge in his native Ferrara, which, since the death
of Alphonso, had now devolved to the papal see. Here, and at
the Villa Guarina, his last years were passed in study, lawsuits,
and polemical disputes with his contemporary critics, until
161 2, when he died at Venice in his seventy-fifth year.
66o
'GUARINO— GUASTALLA
The Pastor fido (first published in 1590) is a pastoral drama
composed not without reminiscences of Tasso's Aminta. The
scene is- laid in Arcadia, where Guarini supposes it to have been
the custom to sacrifice a maiden yearly to Diana. But an
oracle has declared that when two scions of divine lineage are
united in marriage, and a faithful shepherd has atoned for the
ancient error of a faithless woman, this inhuman rite shall cease.
The plot turns upon the unexpected fulfilment of this prophecy,
contrary to all the schemes which had been devised for bringing
it to accomplishment, and in despite of apparent improbabilities
of divers kinds. It is extremely elaborate, and, regarded as a
piece of cunning mechanism, leaves nothing to be desired. Each
motive has been carefully prepared, each situation amply
•developed. Yet, considered as a play, the Pastor fido disap-
points a reader trained in the school of Sophocles or Shakespeare.
The action itself seems to take place off the stage, and only the
results of action, stationary tableaux representing the movement
of the drama, are put before us in the scenes* The art is lyrical,
not merely in form but in spirit, and in adaptation to the re-
quirements of music which demands stationary expressions of
emotion for development. The characters have been well
considered, and are exhibited with great truth and vividness;
the cold and eager hunter Silvio contrasting with the tender
and romantic Mirtillo, and Corisca's meretricious arts enhancing
the pure affection of AmariUi. Dorinda presents another type
of love so impulsive that it prevails over a maiden's sense of
shame, while the courtier Carino brings the corruption of towns
into comparison with the innocence of the country. In Carino
the poet painted his own experience, and here his satire upon the
court of Ferrara is none the less biting because it is gravely
measured. In Corisca he delineated a woman vitiated by the
same town life, and a very hideous portrait has he drawn.
Though a satirical element was thus introduced into the Pastor
fido in order to relieve its ideal picture of Arcadia, the whole
play is but a study of contemporary feeling in Italian society.
There is no true rusticity whatever in the drama. This corre-
spondence with the spirit of the age secured its success during
Guarini's lifetime; this made it so dangerously seductive that
Cardinal fiellarmine told the poet he had done more harm to
Christendom by his blandishments than Luther by his heresy*
Without anywhere transgressing the limits of decorum, the
Pastor fido is steeped in sensuousness; and the immodesty
of its pictures is enhanced by rhetorical concealments more
provocative than nudity. Moreover, the love described is
effeminate and wanton, felt less as passion than as lust en-
veloped in a veil of sentiment. We divine the coming age of
cicisbei and castrati. Of Guarini's style it would be difficult to
speak in terms of too high praise. The thought and experience
of a lifetime have been condensed in these five acts, and have
found expression in language brilliant, classical, chiselled to
perfection. Here and there the taste of the 17th century makes
itself felt in frigid conceits and forced antitheses; nor does
Guarini abstain from sententious maxims which reveal the
moralist rather than the poet. Yet these are but minor blemishes
in a masterpiece of diction, glittering and faultless like a polished
bas-relief of hard Corinthian bronze. That a single pastoral
should occupy so prominent a place in the history of literature
seems astonishing, until we reflect that Italy, upon the close of
the 16th century, expressed itself in the Pastor fido, and that
the influence of this drama was felt through all the art of Europe
till the epoch of the Revolution. It is not a mere play. The
sensual refinement proper to an age of social decadence found
in it the most exact embodiment, and made it the code of
gallantry for the next two centuries.
The best edition of the Pastor fido is the 20th, published at Venice
(Ciotti) in 1602. The most convenient is that of Barbara (Florence,
1866). For Guarini's miscellaneous Rime, the Ferrara edition, in
4 vols., 1737, may be consulted. His polemical writings, Verato
primo and secondo, and his prose comedy called Idropica, were
published at Venice, Florence and Rome, between 1588 and 1614.
(J.A.S.)
GUARINO, also known as Vakinus, and surnamed from
his birthplace Favorintjs, Phavownus or Camers (c. 1450-
1 5S7)) Italian lexicographer and scholar, was born at Favera
near Camerino, studied Greek and Latin at Florence under
Politian, and afterwards became for a time the pupil of Lascaris.
Having entered the Benedictine order, he now gave himself
with great zeal to Greek lexicography; and in 1496 published
his Thesaurus cornucopias et korti Adomdis, a collection of
thirty-four grammatical tracts in Greek. He for some time
acted as tutor to Giovanni dei Medici (afterwards Leo X.), and
also held the appointment of keeper of the Medicean horary at
Florence. In 15 14 Leo appointed mm bishop of Nocera. In
1 5 17 he published a translation of the Apophthegmata of Joannes
Stobaeus, and in 1523 appeared his Etymolagicum magnum, sive
thesaurus universae linguae Graecae eotnudt&s variisque autoribus
collectus, a compilation which has been frequently reprinted,
and which has laid subsequent scholars under great though not
always acknowledged obligations.
GUARINO [GUARINUS] DA VERONA (1570-1460), one
of the Italian restorers of classical learning, was born in 1370
at Verona, and studied Greek at Constantinople, where for five
years he was the pupil of Manuel Chrysoloras. When he set
out on his return to Italy he was the happy possessor of two
cases of precious Greek MSS. -which he had been at great pains
to collect; it is said that the loss of one of thes£ by shipwreck
caused him such distress that his hair turned grey in a single
night. He supported himself as a teacher of Greek, first at
Verona and afterwards in Venice and Florence; in 1436 he
became, through the patronage of Lionel, marquis of £ste,
professor of Greek at Ferrara; and in 1438 and following years
he acted as interpreter for the Greeks at the councils of Ferrara
and Florence. He died at Ferrara on the 14th of December 1460*
His principal works are translations of Strabo and of some of the
Lives of Plutarch, a compendium of the Greek grammar of Chry-
soloras, and a series of commentaries on Persius, Juvenal, Martial
and on some of the writings of Aristotle and Cicero. See Rosmini,
Vita e disciplina di Guarino (1 805-1 806); Sabbadini, Guarino
Veronese (1885); Sandys, Hist. Class. SchoL ii. (1908).
GUARNIERI, or Guarneritjs, a celebrated family of violin-
makers of Cremona. The first was Andreas (c. 1626-1698),
who worked with Antonio Stradivari in the workshop of Nicolo
Amati (son of Geronimo). Violins of a model original to him
are dated from the sign of " St Theresa " in Cremona. His son
Joseph (1666-e. 1739) made instruments at first like iiis father's,
but later in a style of his own with a narrow waist; his son,
Peter of Venice (b. 1695), was also a fine maker. Another son
of Andreas, Peter (Pietro Giovanni), commonly known "as
" Peter of Cremona " (b. 1655), moved from Cremona and
settled at Mantua, where he too worked " sub signo Sanctae
Teresae." Peter's violins again showed considerable variations
from those of the other Guarnieri. Hart, in his work on the
violin, says, " There is increased breadth between the sound-
holes; the sound-hole is rounder and more perpendicular;
the middle bouts are more contracted, and the model is more
raised." * h • •
The greatest of all the Guarnieri, however, was a nephew of
Andreas, Joseph del Gesu (1687-1745), whose title originates
in the I.H.S. inscribed on his tickets. His master was Gaspar
di Salo. His conception follows that of the early Brescian
makers in the boldness of outline and the massive construction
which aim at the production of tone rather than visual perfection
of form. The great variety of his work in size, model, &c,
represents his various experiments in the direction of discovering
this tone. A stain or sap-mark, parallel with the finger-board
on both sides, appears on the bellies of most of his instruments.
Since the middle of the 18th century a great many spurious
instruments ascribed to this master have poured over Europe.
It was not until Paganini played on a "Joseph" that the taste
of amateurs turned from the sweetness of the Amati and the
Stradivarius violins in favour of the robuster tone of the Joseph
Guarnerius. See Violin.
GUASTALLA, a town and episcopal see of Emilia, Italy,
in the province of Reggio, from which it is 18 m. N. by road,
on the S. bank of the Po, 79 ft. above : sea-!evel. It is also
connected by rail with Parma and Mantua (via Suzzara). Pop.
GUATEMALA
66 1
(1901), 2658 (town); 11,091 (commune). It has 16th-century
fortifications. The cathedral, dating from the 10th century,
has been frequently restored. Guastalla was founded by the
Lombards in the 7th century; in the church of the Pieve Pope
Paschal II. held a council in 1106. In 1307 it was seized by
Giberto da Correggio of Parma. In 1403 it passed to Guido
Torello, cousin of Filippo Maria Visconti of Milan. In 1539 it
was sold by the last female descendant of the Torelli to Ferrante
Gohzaga. In 162 1 it was made the seat of a duchy, but in 1748
it was added to those of Parma and Piacenza, whose history it
subsequently followed.
GUATEMALA (sometimes incorrectly written Guatimala),
a name now restricted to the republic of Guatemala and to its
chief dty, but formerly given to a captaincy-general of Spanish
America, which included the fifteen provinces of Chiapas,
Suchitepeques, Escuintla, Sonsonate, San Salvador, Vera Paz
and Peten, Chiquimula, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica,
Totonicapam, Quezaltenango, Solola, Chimaltenango and
Sacatepeques, — or, in other words, the whole of Central America
(except Panama) and part of Mexico. The name is probably
of Aztec origin, and is said by some authorities to mean in its
native form Quauhtematlan, " Land of the Eagle," or " Land
of Forest "; others, writing it U-ha-tez-ma-la, connect it with
the volcano of Agua (i.e. " water ") ; and interpret it as " mountain
vomiting water."
The republic of Guatemala is situated between 13° 42' and
1 7 49/ N., and 88° io' and 92* 30' W. (For map, see Central
America.) Pop. (1903), 1,842,134; area about 48,250 sq. m.
Guatemala is bounded on the W. and N. by Mexico, N.E. by
British Honduras, E. by the Gulf of Honduras, and the republic
of Honduras, S.E. by Salvador and S.. by the Pacific Ocean.
The frontier towards Mexico was determined by conventions
of the 27th of September 1882, the 17th of October 1883, the
1st of April 1895, and the 8th of May 1899. Starting from the
Pacific, it ascends the river Stichiate, then follows an irregular line
towards the north-east, till it reaches the parallel of if 49' N.,
along which it runs to the frontier of British Honduras. This
frontier, by the convention of the 9th of July 1893, coincides with
the meridian of 89 20' W., till it meets the river Sarstoon or
Sarstun, which it follows eastwards to the Gulf of Honduras.
Physical Description. — Guatemala is naturally divided into five
regions— the lowlands of the Pacific coast, the volcanic mountains
of the Sierra Madre, the so-called plateaus immediately north of
these, the mountains of the Atlantic versant and the plain of Peten.
(1) The coastal plains extend along the entire southern seaboard,
with a mean breadth of 50 m. f and fink together the belts of similar
territory in Salvador and the district of Soconusco in Chiapas.
Owing to their tropical heat, low elevation above sea-level, and
marshy soil, they are thinly peopled, and contain few important
towns except the seaports. (2) The precipitous barrier of the
Sierra Madre, which closes in the coastal plains on the north, is
similarly prolonged into Salvador and Mexico. It is known near
Guatemala city as the Sierra de las Nubes, and enters Mexico as the
Sierra de Istatan. It forms the main watershed between the
Pacific and Atlantic river systems. Its summit is not a well-defined
crest, but is often rounded or flattened into a table-land. The
direction of the great volcanic cones, which rise in an irregular line
above it, is not identical with the main axis of the Sierra itself,
except near the Mexican frontier, but has a more southerly trend,
especially towards Salvador ; here the base of many of the igneous
peaks rests among the southern foothills of the range. It is, however,
impossible to subdivide the Sierra Madre into a northern and a
volcanic chain; for the volcanoes are isolated by stretches of com-
paratively low country; at least thirteen considerable streams
flow down between them, from the main watershed to the sea.
Viewed from the coast, the volcanic cones seem to rise directly
from the central heights of the Sierra Madre, above which they
tower; but in reality their bases are, as a rule, farther south.
East of Tacana, which marks the Mexican frontier, and is variously
estimated at 13,976 ft. and 13,090 ft., and if the higher estimate
be correct is the loftiest peak in Central America, the principal
volcanoes are — Tajamulco or Tajumulco (13,517 ft-); Santa Maria
(12,467 ft.), which was in eruption during 1902, after centuries of
quiescence, in which its slopes had been overgrown by dense forests ;
Atitlan (11,719), overlooking the lake of that name; Acatenanjp
(13,615), which shares the claim of Tacana to be the highest mountain
of Central America; Fuego (i.e. "fire," variously estimated at
12,795 ft. and 12,582 ft.), which received its name from its activity
at the time of the Spanish conquest ; Agua {i.e. " water," 12,139 ft.),
so named in 1541 because it destroyed the former capital of Guate-
mala with a deluge of water from its flooded crater; and racaya
(8390), a group of igneous peaks which were in eruption in 187a
(3) The so-called plateaus which extend north of the Sierra Madre
are in fact high valleys, rather than table-lands, enclosed by moun-
tains. A better idea of this region is conveyed by the native name
Altos, or highlands, although that term, includes the northern
declivity of the Sierra Madre. The mean elevation is greatest in
the west (Altos of Quezaltenango) and least in the east (Altos of
Guatemala). A few of the streams of the Pacific slope actually
rise in the Altos, and force a way through-the- Sierra Madre at the
bottom of deep ravines. One large river, the Chixoy , escapes north-
wards towards the Atlantic. (4) The relief of the mountainous
country which lies north of the Altos and drains into the Atlantic
is varied by innumerable terraces, ridges and underfallsj but its
general configuration is admirably compared by E. Rectus with the
appearance of ' a stormy sea breaking into parallel billows " {Uni-
versal Geography, ed. E. G. Ravenstein, div. xxxiii., p. 212). The
parallel ranges extend east and west with a slight southerly, curve
towards their centres. A range called the Sierra de Chama x which,
however, changes its name frequently from place to place, strikes
eastward towards British Honduras, and is connected by low hills
with the Cockscomb Mountains ; another similar range, the Sierra
de Santa Cruz, continues east to Cape Coooli between the polochic
and the Sarstoon; and a third, the Sierra.de las Minas,or, in its
eastern portion, Sierra del Mico, stretches between the Polochic
and the Motagua. Between Honduras and Guatemala the frontier
is formed by the Sierra de Merendon. (5) The great plain of Peten,
which comprises about one-third of the whole area of Guatemala,
belongs geographically to the Yucatan Peninsula, and .consists of
level or undulating country, covered with grass or forest* Its
population numbers less than two per sq. m., although many districts
have a wonderfully fertile soil and abundance of water. The greater
part of this region is uncultivated, and only utilized as pasture by
the Indians, who form the majority of its inhabitants..
Guatemala is richly, watered. On the western side of the sierras
the versant is short, and the streams, while very numerous, are
consequently small and rapid; but on the eastern side a nurriber
of the rivers attain a very considerable development. The Motagua,
whose principal head, stream is called. fche Rio Grande, haaaicdurse
of about 250 m., and is navigable to within 90 m. of the capital,
which is situated on one of its confluents, the Rio de las Vacas. It
forms a delta on the south of the Gulf of Honduras. Of similar
importance is the Polochic, which is about 180 m. in length, and
navigable about 20 m. above the river-port of Teleman. Before
reaching the Golfo Amatique it passes through the Golfo Dulce,
or Izabal Lake, and the Golfete Dulce. A vast number of streams,
among which are the Chixoy, the Guadalupe, and the Rio de la
Pasion, unite to form the Usumacinta, whose noble current passes
along the Mexican frontier, and flowing on through Chiapas and
Tabasco, falls into the Bay of Campeche* The Chiapas follows a
similar course.
There are several extensive lakes in Guatemala. The Lake of
Peten or Laguna de Flores, in the centre of the department of
Peten, is an irregular basin about 27 m. long, with an extreme
breadth of 13 m. In an island in the western, portion stands Flores,
a town well known to American antiquaries for. the number of ancient
idols which have been recovered from its soil. On the shore of the
lake is the stalactite cave of Jobitsinal, of great local celebrity;
and in its depths, according to the popular legend, may still be dis-
cerned the stone image of a horse that belonged to Cortes. The
Golfo Dulce is, as its name implies, a fresh-water lake, although so
near the Atlantic. It is about 36 m. long, and would be of con-
siderable value as a harbour if the bar at the mouth of the Rio
Dulce did not prevent the upward passage of seafaring vessels.
As a contrast the Lake of Atiilaa (am,) is a landlocked basin en-
compassed with lofty mountains. About 9 m. S. of the capital lies
the Lake of Amatitlan (q.v .) with the town of the same name. On
the borders of Salvador and Guatemala there is the Lake of Guija,
about 20 m. long and 12 broad, at a height of 2100 ft. above the
6ca. It is connected by the river Ostuma with the Lake of. Ayarza
which .lies about 1000 ft. higher at the foot of the Sierra Madre.
The geology, fauna and flora of Guatemala are discussed under
Central America. The bird-life of the country, is remarkably
rich ; one bird of magnificent plumage, the quetzal, quijal or quesal
(Trogon respkndens), has been chosen as the national emblem.
Climate. — The climate is healthy, except on the coasts, where
malarial fever is -prevalent. The rainy season in the interior lasts
from May to October, but on the coast sometimes continues till
December. The coldest month is January, and the warmest is
May. The average temperatures for these months at places of different
altitudes, as given by Dr Kail Sapper, are shown on the following page.
The average rainfall is very heavy, especially on the Atlantic slope,
where the prevailing winds are charged with moisture from the Gulf
of Mexico or the Caribbean Sea; at Tual, a high station on the
Atlantic slope, it reaches 195 in.; in central Guatemala it is onry
27 in. Towards the Atlantic rain often occurs in the dry season,
and there is a local saying- near the Golfo Dulce that it rain6
thirteen months in the year." Fogs are not rare. In Guatemala,
66*
GUATEMALA
Locality.
Puerto Barrios
Salama .
Carapur
Chimax
Guatemala
Quezaltenango
Altitude
(Feet).
6
3020
3050
4280
4870
7710
Fahrenheit Degrees.
January. May.
74
68
64
61
60
50
81
77
73
68
67
62
as in other parts of Central America (q.i.), each' of the three climatic
zones, cold, temperate and hot (tierra fria, tierra templada, tierra
caliente) has its special characteristics, and it is not easy to generalize
about the climate of the country as a whole.
Natural Products. — The minerals discovered in Guatemala include
gold, silver, lead, tin, copper, mercury, antimony, coal, salt and
sulphur; but it is uncertain if many of these exist in quantities
sufficient to repay exploitation. Gola is obtained at Las Quebradas
near Izabal, silver in the departments of Santa Rosa and Chiqiiimula,
salt in those of Santa Rosa and Alta Vera Paz. During the 17th
century gold-washing was carried on by English miners in the
Motagua valley, and is said to have yielded rich profits; hence the
name of " Gold Coast " was not infrequently given to the Atlantic
littoral near the mouth of the Motagua.
The area of forest has only been seriously diminished in the
west, and amounted to 2030 sq. m. in 1904. Besides rubber, it
yields many valuable dye-woods and cabinet-woods, such as cedar,
mahogany and logwood. Fruits, grain and medicinal plants are
obtained in great abundance, especially where the soil is largely of
volcanic origin, as in the Altos and Sierra Madre. Parts of the
Peten district are equally fertile, maize in this region yielding two
liundredfold from unmanured soil. The vegetable products of
Guatemala include coffee, cocoa, sugar-cane, bananas, oranges,
vanilla, aloes, agave, ipecacuanha, castor-oil, sarsaparilla, cinchona,
tobacco, indigo and the wax-plant (Myrica cerifera).
Inhabitants. — The inhabitants of Guatemala, who tend to
increase rapidly owing to the high birth-rate, low mortality,
and low rate of emigration, numbered in 1903 1,842,134, or
more than one-third of the entire population of Central America.
Fully 60% are pure Indians, and the remainder, classed as
Ladinos of " Latins " {i.e. Spaniards in speech and mode of life),
comprise a large majority of half-castes (mestizos) and civilized
Indians and a smaller proportion of whites. It includes a
foreign population of about 12,000 Europeans and North
Americans, among them being many Jews from the west of the
United States. There are important German agricultural
settlements, and many colonists from north Italy who are locally
called Tiroleses, and despised by the Indians for their industry
and thrift. About half the births among the Indians and one-
third among the whites are illegitimate.
No part of Central America contains a greater diversity of
tribes, and in 1883 Otto Stoll estimated the number of spoken
languages as eighteen, although east of the meridian of Lake
Amatitl&n the native speech has almost entirely disappeared
and been replaced by Spanish, The Indians belong chiefly
to the Maya stock, which predominates throughout Peten, or
to the allied Quich6 race which is well represented in the Altos
and central districts. The Itzas, Mopans, Lacandons, Chols,
Pokonchi and the Pokomans who inhabit the large settlement
of Mixco near the capital, all belong to the Maya family; but
parts of central and eastern Guatemala are peopled by tribes
distinct from the Mayas and not found in Mexico. In the 16th
century the Mayas and Quich6s had attained a high level of
civilization (see Central America, Archaeology), and at least
two of the Guatemalan languages, Quiche" and Cakchiquel,
possess the rudiments or the relics of a literature. The Quiche"
Popol Vuh, or " Book of History," which was translated into
Spanish by the Dominican friar Ximenes, and edited with a
French version by Brasseur de Bourbourg, is an important
document for students of the local myths. In appearance the
various Guatemalan tribes differ very little; in almost all the
characteristic type of Indian is short but muscular, with low
forehead, prominent cheek-bones and straight black hair. In
character the Indians are, as a rule, peaceable, though conscious
of their numerical superiority and at times driven to join in the
revolutions which so often disturb the course of local politics;
they are often intensely religious, but with a few exceptions
are thriftless, indolent and. inveterate gamblers. Their con-
fradias, or brotherhoods, each with its patron saint and male
and female chiefs, exist largely to organize public festivals, and
to purchase wooden masks, costumes and decorations for the
dances and dramas in which the Indians delight. These dramas,
which deal with, religious and historical subjects, are of Indian
origin, and somewhat resemble the mystery-plays of medieval
Europe, a resemblance heightened by the introduction, due to
Spanish missionaries,' of Christian saints and heroes such as
Charlemagne. The Indians are devoted to bull-fighting and
cock-fighting. Choral singing is a popular amusement, and is
accompanied by the Spanish guitar and native wind-instruments.
The Indians have a habit of consuming a yellowish edible earth
containing sulphur; on pilgrimages they obtain images moulded
of this earth at the shrines they visit, and eat the images as a
prophylactic against disease. Maize, beans and bananas, varied
occasionally with dried meat and fresh pork, form their staple
diet; drunkenness is common on pay-days and festivals, when
large quantities of a fiery brandy called chicha are consumed.
Chief Towns. — The capital of the republic, Guatemala or Guate-
mala la Nueva (pop. 1905 about 07,000) and the cities of Quezal-
tenango (31,000), Totonicapam (28,000), Coban (25,000), S0I0I&
(17,000), Escuintla (12,000), Huehuetanango (12,000), Amatitlan
(10,000) and Atitlan (9000) are described under separate headings.
All the chief towns except the seaports are situated within the
mountainous region where the climate is temperate. Retalhuleu,
among the southern foothills of the Sierra Madre, is one of the
centres of coffee production, and is connected by rail with the
Pacific port of Champerico, a very unhealthy place in the wet
season. Both Retalhuleu and Champerico were, lite Quezaltenango,
Solola, and other towns, temporarily ruined by the earthquake of
the 18th of April 1902. Santa Cruz Quiche\ 2S m. N.E. of Totom-
capam, was formerly the capital of the Quiche kings, but has now
a Lad i no population. Livingston, a seaport at the mouth of the
Polochic (here called the Rio Duke), was founded in 1806, and
subsequently named after the author of a code of Guatemalan laws;
few vestiges remain of the Spanish settlement of Sevilla la Nueva,
founded in 1844, and of the English colony .of Abbotsville, founded
in 1825, — both near Livingston. La Libertad, also called by its
Indian name of Sacluc, is the principal town of Peten.
Shipping and Communications. — The republic i§ in regular steam
communication on the Atlantic side with New Orleans, New York
and Hamburg, by vessels which visit the ports of Barrios (Santo
Tomas) and Xivingston. On the southern side the ports of San
Tose\ Champerico and Oc6s are visited by the Pacific mail steamers,
by the vessels of a Hamburg company and by those of the South
American (Chilean) and the Pacific Steam Navigation Companies.
Iztapa, formerly the principal harbour on the south coast, has been
almost entirely abandoned since 1853. Gualan, on the Motagua,
and Panzos, on the Polochic, are small river-ports. The principal
towns are connected by wagon roads, towards the construction and
maintenance of which each male inhabitant is required to pay two
pesos or give four days' work a year. There are coach routes be-
tween the capital and Quezaltenango, but over a great portion of
the country transport is still on mule-back. All the railway lines
have been built since 1875. The main lines are the Southern,
belonging to an American company and running from San Jose"
to the capital; the Northern, a government line from the capital
to Puerto Barrios, which completes the interoceanic railroad; and
the Western, from Champerico to Quezaltenango, belonging to a
Guatemalan company, but largely under German management.
For local traffic there are several lines; one from Iztapa, near San
Jos6, to Naranjo, and another from Ocos to the western coffee
plantations. On the Atlantic slope transport is effected mainly by
liver tow-boats from Livingston along the Golfo Dulce and other
lakes, and the Polochic river as far as Panzos. The narrow-gauge
railway that serves the German plantations in the Vera Paz region
is largely owned by Germans.
Guatemala joined the Postal Union in 1881; but its postal and
telegraphic services have suffered greatly from financial difficulties.
The telephonic systems of Guatemala la Nueva, Quezaltenango and
other cities are owned by private companies.
Commerce and Industry. — The natural resources of Guatemala
are rich but undeveloped; and the capital necessary for their
development is not easily obtained in a country where war, re-
volution and economic crises recur at frequent intervals, where the
premium on gold has varied by no less than 500% in a single
year, and where many of the wealthiest cities and agricultural
districts have been destroyed by earthquake in one day (18th of
April 1902). At the beginning of the 19th century, Guatemala had
practically no export trade; but between 1825 and 1850 cochineal
was largely exported, the centre of production being the Amatitlan
district. This industry was ruined by the competition of chemical
dyes, and a substitute was found in the cultivation of coffee.
GUATEMALA
663
Guatemala is surpassed only by Brazil and the East Indies in the
quantity of coffee it exports. The chief plantations are owned and
managed by Germans; more than half of the crop is sent to Ger-
many, while three-fifths of the remainder go to the United States and
one-fifth to Great Britain. The average yearly product is about
70,000,000 lb, worth approximately £1,300,000, and subject to an
export duty of one gold dollar (4s.) per quintal (101 lb). Sugar,
bananas, tobacco and cocoa are also cultivated; but much of the
sugar and bananas, most of the cocoa, and all the tobacco are con-
sumed in the country. During the colonial period, the cocoa of
western Guatemala and Soconusco was reserved on account of its
fine flavour for the Spanish court. The indigo and cotton planta-
tions yield little profit, owing to foreign competition, and have in
most cases been converted to other uses. The cultivation of bananas
tends to increase, though more slowly than in other Central American
countries. Grain, sweet potatoes and beans are grown for home
consumption. Cattle-farming is carried on in the high pasture-
lands and the plains of Peten; but the "whole number of sheep
(77,000 in 1900) and pigs (30,000) in the republic is inferior to the
number kept in many single English counties. Much of the wool
is sold, like the native cotton, to Indian and Ladino women, who
manufacture coarse cloth and linen in their homes.
By the Land Act of 1894. the state domains, except on the coasts
and frontiers, were divided into lots for sale. The largest holding
tenable by one person under this act was fixed at 50 caballerias, or
5625 acres; the price varies from £40 to £80 per caballeria of H2i
acres. Free grants of uncultivated land are sometimes made to
immigrants (including foreign companies'), to persons who undertake
to build roads or railways through their allotments, to towns,
villages and schools. The condition of the Indians on the planta-
tions is often akin to slavery, owing to the system adopted by some
planters of making payments in advance; for the Indians soon spend
their earnings, and thus contract debts which can only be repaid
by long service.
In addition to the breweries, rum and brandy distilleries, sugar
mills and tobacco factories, which are sometimes worked as adjuncts
to the plantations, there are many purely urban industries, such as
the manufacture of woollen and cotton goods on a large scale, and
manufactures of building material and furniture; but these in-
dustries are far less important than agriculture.
During the five years 1900 to 1504 inclusive, the average value of
Guatemalan imports, which consisted chiefly of textiles, iron and
machinery, sacks, provisions, flour, beer, wine and spirits, amounted
to £776,000; about one-half came from the United States, and
nearly one-fourth from the United Kingdom. The exports during
the same period had an average value of £1,528,000, and ranked as
follows in order of value: coffee (£*,300,ooo), timber, hides, rubber,
sugar, bananas, cocoa.
Finance. — rWithin the republic there are six banks, of issue, to
which the government is deeply indebted. There is practically
neither gold nor silver in circulation, and the value of the bank-
notes is so fluctuating that trade is seriously hampered. On the
25th of June 1903, the issue of bank-notes without a guarantee
was restricted; and thenceforward all banks were compelled to
retain gold or silver to the value of 10% of the notes issued in
1904, 20% in 1905 and 30% in 1906. This reform has not, to
any appreciable extent, rendered more stable the value of the
notes issued. The silver peso, or dollar, of 100 centavas is the
monetary unit, weighs 25 grammes •900 fine, and has a nominal
value of 4s. Being no longer current it has been replaced by the
paper peso. The nickel coins include the real (nominal value 6d.),
naff-real and quarter-real. The metric system of weights and
measures has been adopted, but the old Spanish standards remain
in general use.
Of the revenue, about 64 % is derived from customs and excise :
0% from property, road, military, slaughter and salt taxes; 1-7%
from the gunpowder monopoly; and the remainder from various
taxes, stamps, government lands, and postal and telegraph ser-
vices. The estimated revenue for 1905-1906 was 23,000,000 pesos
(about £328,500); the estimated expenditure was 27,317,659 pesos
(£390,200), of which £242,800 were allotted to the public debt,
£42,000 to internal development and justice, £29,000 to the army
and the remainder largely to education. The gold value of the
currency peso (75 =£1 in I903».7<>=»£i in 1904, 58 = £1 in 1905)
fluctuates between limits so wide that conversion into sterling
(especially for a series of years), with any pretension to accuracy,
is impracticable. In 18^9 the rate of exchange moved between
710% and 206% premium on gold. According to the official
statement, the gold debt, which runs chiefly at 4% and is held in
Germany and England, amounted to £1,987,905 on the 1st of
January 1905; the currency debt (note issues, internal loans, &c.)
amounted to £704,730; total £2,692,635, a decrease since 1900 of
about £300,000.
Government. — According to the constitution of December
1879 (modified in 1885, 1887, 1889 and 1903) the legislative
power is vested in a national assembly of 69 deputies (1 for every
20,000 inhabitants) chosen for 4 years by direct popular vote,
under universal manhood suffrage. The president of the republic
is elected in a similar manner, but for 6 years, and he is theoretic*
ally not eligible for the following term. He is assisted by 6
ministers, heads of government departments, and by a council
of state of 13 members, partly appointed by himself and partly
by the national assembly.
Local Government. — Each of the twenty-two departments is
administered by an official called a jefe politico, or political
chief, appointed by the president, and each is subdivided into
municipal districts. These districts are administered by one
or more alcaldes or mayors, assisted by municipal councils, both
alcaldes and councils being chosen by the people.
Justice. — The judicial power is vested in a supreme court,
consisting of a chief justice and four associate justices elected
by the people; six appeal courts, each with three judges, also
elected by the people; and twenty-six courts of first instance,
each consisting, of one judge appointed by the president and two
by the chief justice of the supreme court.
Religion and Instruction.— The prevailing form of religion
is the Roman Catholic, but the state recognizes no distinction
of creed. The establishment of conventual or monastic institu-
tions is prohibited. Of the population in 1893, 00% could
neither read nor write, 2% could only read, and 8% could read
and write. Primary instruction is nominally compulsory, and,
in government schools, is provided at the cost of the state.
In 1903 there were 1064 government primary schools. There
are besides about 128 private (occasionally aided) schools oi
similar character, owners of plantations on which there are more
than ten children being obliged to provide school accommodation.
Higher instruction is given in two national institutes at the
capital, one for men with 506 pupils and one for women with
300. At Quezaltenango there are two similar institutes, and
at Chiquimula there are other two. To each of the six there
is a school for teachers attached, and within the republic there
are four other schools for teachers. For professional instruction
(law, medicine, engineering) there are schools supported by
private funds, but aided occasionally by the government.
Other educational establishments are a school of art, a national
conservatory of music, a commercial college, four trades' schools
with more than 600 pupils and a national library. There is a
German school, endowed by the German government.
Defences — For the white and mixed population military
service is compulsory; from the eighteenth to the thirtieth
year of age in the active army, and from the thirtieth to the
fiftieth in the reserve. The effective force of the active army
is 56,900, of the reserve 29,400. About 7000 officers and men
are kept in regular service. Military training is given in all
public and most private schools.
History. — Guatemala was conquered by the Spaniards under
Pedro de Alvarado between 1522 and 1524. Up to the years
183 7-1839 its history differs only in minor details from that of
the neighbouring states of Central America (q.v.). The colonial
period was marked by the destruction of the ancient Indian
civilization, the extermination of many entire tribes, and the
enslavement of the survivors, who were exploited to the utmost
for the benefit of Spanish officials and adventurers. But although
the administration was weak, corrupt and cruel, it succeeded
in establishing the Roman Catholic religion, and in introducing
the Spanish language among the Indians and Ladinos, who thus
obtained a tincture of civilization and ultimately a desire for
more liberal institutions. The Central American provinces
revolted in 182 1, were annexed to the Mexican empire of Iturbide
from 1822 to 1823, and united to form a federal republic from
1823 to 1839. I n Guatemala the Clerical, Conservative or anti-
Federal party was supreme; after a protracted struggle it over-
threw the Liberals or Federalists, and declared the country an
independent republic, with Rafael Cartera (1814-1865) as pre-
sident. In 1845 an attempt to restore the federal union failed;
in 185 1 Carrera defeated the Federalist forces of Honduras and
Salvador at La Arada near Chiquimula, and was recognized as
the pacificator of the republic. In 1851 a new constitution was
promulgated, and Carrera was appointed president tiU 1856, a
dignity which was in 1854 bestowed upon him for life. His
664
GUATEMALA
rivalry with Gerardo Barrios (d. 1865), president of Salvador,
resulted in open war in 1863. At Coatepeque the Guatemalans
suffered a severe defeat, which was followed by a truce.
Honduras now joined with Salvador, and Nicaragua and Costa
Rica with Guatemala. The contest was finally settled in favour
of Carrera, who besieged and occupied San Salvador and made
himself dominant also in Honduras and Nicaragua. During
the rest of his rule, which lasted till his death in April 1865, he
continued to act in concert with the Clerical party, and en-
deavoured to maintain friendly relations with the European
governments. Carrera's successor was General Cerna, who had
been recommended by him for election. The Liberal party
began to rise in influence about 1870, and in May 187 1 Cerna
was deposed. The archbishop of Guatemala and the Jesuits were
driven into exile as intriguers in the interests of the Clericals*
Pres. Rufino Barrios (183 5- 188 5), elected in 1873, governed the
country after the manner of a dictator; he expelled the Jesuits,
confiscated their property and disestablished and disendowed
the church. But though he encouraged education, promoted
railway and other enterprises, and succeeded in settling difficulties
as to the Mexican boundary, the general result of his policy was
baneful. Conspiracies against him were rife, and in 1884 he
narrowly escaped assassination. His ambition was to be the
restorer of the federal union of the Central American states, and
when his efforts towards this end by peaceful means failed
he had recourse to the sword. Counting on the support of
Honduras and Salvador, he proclaimed himself, in February
£885, the supreme military chief of Central America, and claimed
the command of all the forces within the five states. President
Zaldfvar, of Salvador, had been his friend, but after the issue of
the decree of union he entered into a defensive alliance with
Costa Rica and Nicaragua. In March Barrios invaded Salvador,
and on the and of April a battle was fought, in which the Guate-
malan president was killed. He was succeeded by General
Manuel Barillas. No further effort was made to force on the
union, and on the 16th of April the war was formally ended*
•Peace, however, only provided opportunity for domestic con-
spiracy, with assassination and revolution in view. In 1892
General Jos6 Maria Reina Barrios was elected president, and in
1897 he was re-elected; but on the 8th of February 1898 he was
assassinated. Senor Morales, vice-president, succeeded him;
but in the same year Don Manuel Estrada Cabrera (b. 1857) was
elected president for the term ending 1905. Cabrera promoted
education, commerce and the improvement of communications,
but his re-election for the term 1905-1911 caused widespread
discontent. He was charged with aiming at a dictatorship, with
permitting or even encouraging the imprisonment, torture and
execution without trial of political opponents, with maladmini-
stration of the finances and with aggression against the neigh-
bouring states. A well-armed force, which included a body of
adventurers from San Francisco (U.S.A.) was organized by
General Barillas, the ex-president, and invaded Guatemala in
March 1906 from Mexico, British Honduras and Salvador.
Barillas (1 845-1907) proclaimed his intention of establishing
a silver currency, and gained, to a great extent, the sympathy of
the German and British residents; he had been the sole Guate-
malan president who had not sought to prolong his own tenure
of office. Ocos was captured by his lieutenant, General Castillo,
and the revolution speedily became a war, in which Honduras,
Costa Rica and Salvador were openly involved against Guate-
mala, while Nicaragua was hostile. But Cabrera held his ground,
and even gained several indecisive victories. The intervention
of President Roosevelt and of President Diaz of Mexico brought
about an armistice on the 19th of July, and the so-called " Marble-
head Pact " was signed on the following day on board the
United States cruiser " Marblehead." Its terms were embodied
in a treaty signed (28th of September) by representatives of the
four belligerent states, Nicaragua taking no part in the negotia-
tions. The treaty included regulations for the improvement of
commerce and navigation in the area affected by the war, ahd
provided for the settlement of subsequent disputes by the
arbitration of the United States and Mexico.
Bibliography. — Besides the works cited, under Central
America see the interesting narrative of Thomas Gage, the English
missionary, in Juarros, Compendio de la historic, de Guatemala
(1808-1818, 2 vols.; new ed., 1857), which in Bailly's English
translation (London, 1823) long formed the chief authority. See
also C. Tuan Anino, La Republica de Guatemala (Guatemala, 1894);
T. Brigham, Guatemala, The Land of the Quetzal (London, 1887);
J. M. Caceres, Geografiade Centro-America (Paris, 1882); G. Lemale,
Guia geografica de los centros de poblacion de la republica de Guatemala
(Guatemala, 1882); F. A. de Fuentes y Guzman, Historia de
Guatemala o Recordation Florida (Madrid, 1882); A. C. and A. P.
Maudslay, A Glimpse at Guatemala, and some Notes on the Ancient
Monuments of Central America (London, 1899); Gustavo Niederlein,
The Republic of Guatemala (Philadelphia, 1898) ; Ramon A. Salazar,
Historia del disenvolvimiento intelectual de Guatemala, vol. i. (Guate-
mala, 1897) ; Otto Stoll, Reisen und Schilderungen aus den Jahren
1 878-1883 (Leipzig, 1886); J. Mendez, Guia del immigrante en la
republica de Guatemala (Guatemala, 1895); Karl Sappr, " Grund-
ziige der physikalischen Geographie von Guatemala, Erganzungs-
hett No. 115, Petermann's Mitteilungen (Gotha, i8qa); Anuario
de estadistica de la republica de Guatemala (Guatemala); Memoria
de la Secretaria de Instruction Publica (Guatemala, 1899) ; Handbook
of Guatemala, revised (Bureau of the American Republics, Washing-
ton, 1897); United States Consular Reports (Washington); British
Foreign Office Diplomatic and Consular Reports (London).
GUATEMALA, or Guatemala la Nueva (i.e. " New Guate-
mala," sometimes written Nueva Guatemala, and formerly
Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala), the capital of the
republic of Guatemala, and until 182 1 of the Spanish captaincy-
general of Guatemala, which comprised Chiapas in Mexico and
all Central America except Panama. Pop. (1905) about 97,000.
Guatemala is built more than 5000 ft. above sea-level, in a wide
table-land traversed by the Rio de las Vacas, or Cow River, so
called from the cattle introduced here by Spanish colonists in
the 16th century. Deep ravines mark the edge of the table-land,
and beyond it lofty mountains rise on every side, the highest
peaks being on the south, where the volcanic summits of the
Sierra Madre exceed 12,000 ft. Guatemala has a station on the
transcontinental railway from Puerto Barrios on the Atlantic
(190 m. N.E.) to San Jos6 on the Pacific (75 m. S. by W.). It
is thrice the size of any other city in the republic, and has a
corresponding commercial superiority. Its. archbishop is the
primate of Central America (excluding Panama). Like most
Spanish-American towns Guatemala is laid out in wide and
regular streets, often planted with avenues of trees, and it has
extensive suburbs. The houses, though usually of only one
storey, are solidly and comfortably constructed; many of them
are surrounded by large gardens and courts. Among the open
spaces the chief are the Plaza Mayor, which contains the
cathedral, erected in 1730, the archiepiscopal palace, the govern-
ment buildings, the mint and other public offices; and the more
modern Reforma Park and Plaza de la Concordia, now the
favourite resorts of the inhabitants. There are many large
schools for both sexes, besides hospitals and an orphanage.
Many of the principal buildings, such as the military academy,
were originally convents. The theatre, founded in 1858, is one
of the best in, Central America. A museum, founded in 1831,
is maintained by the Sociedad Economica, which in various
ways has done great service to the city and the country. There
are two fortresses, the Castello Matamoros, built by Rafael
Carrera (see Guatemala [republic] under History), and the
Castello de San Jos6. Water is brought from a distance of about
8 m. by two old aqueducts from the towns of Mixco and Pimila;
fuel and provisions are largely supplied by the Pokoman Indians
of Mixco. The general prosperity, and to some extent the
appearance, of Guatemala have procured it the name of the Paris
of Central America. It is lighted by electricity and has a good
telephone service. Its trade is chiefly in coffee, but it also
possesses cigar factories, wool and cotton factories, breweries,
tanneries and other industrial establishments. The foreign
trade is chiefly controlled by Germans.
The first city named Guatemala, now called Ciudad Vieja
or " Old City," was founded in 1527 by Pedro de Alvarado, the
conqueror of the country, on the banks of the Rio Pensativo,
and at the foot of the volcano of Agua (i.e. " Water "). In
1 541 it was overwhelmed by a deluge of water from the flooded
GUATOS— GUAYAQUIL
665
crater of Agua; and in 1542 Alvarado founded Santiago de los
Cabalieros la Nueva, now Antigua. This city flourished greatly,
and by the middle of the 18th century had become the most
populous place in Central America, with 60,000 inhabitants and
more than 100 churches and convents. But in 1773 it was
ruined by an earthquake. It was rebuilt, and ultimately became
capital of the department of Sacatepeqttes, and a health-resort
locally celebrated for its thermal springs. But the Guatemalans
determined to found a new capital on the site occupied by the
hamlet of Ermita, 27 m. N.E. Here the third and last city of
Guatemala was built, and became the seat of government in
1770. The remarkable regularity of the streets is due to the
construction of the city on a uniform plan. The wide area
covered, and the lowftess of the houses, were similarly due to
an ordinance which, in order to minimize the danger from earth-
quakes, forbade the erection of any building more than 20 ft.
high. Many of the belfries of convents or churches, added after
the ordinance had fallen into abeyance, were overthrown by the
earthquake of 1874, which also destroyed a large part of Antigua.
GUATOS, a tribe of South American Indians of the upper
Paraguay. They are of a European fairness and wear beards.
They live almost entirely in canoes, building rough shelters
in the swamps. They aided the Brazilians in the war with
Paraguay 1865-70* Very few survive.
GUATUSOS, a tribe of American Indians of Costa Rica. They
are an active, hardy people, who have always maintained
hostility towards the Spaniards and retain their independence.
From their language they appear to be a distinct stock. They
were described by old writers as being very fair, with flaxen
hair, and these reports led to a belief, since exploded, that they
were European hybrids. There are very few surviving.
GUAVA (from the Mexican guayaba), the name applied to
the fruits of species of Psidium, a genus belonging to the natural
order Myrtaccae. The species which produces the bulk of the
guava fruits of commerce is Psidium Guajapa, a small tree from
15 to 20 ft. high, a native of the tropical parts of America arid
the West Indies. It bears short-stalked ovate or oblong leaves,
with strongly marked veins, and covered with a soft tomentum
or down. The flowers are borne on axillary stalks, and the fruits
vary much in size, shape and colour, numerous forms and
varieties being known and cultivated. The variety of which the
fruits are most valued is that which is sometimes called the
white guava (P. Guajava, var. pyriferutn). The fruits are pear-
shaped, about the size of a hen's egg, covered with a thin bright
yellow or whitish skin filled with soft pulp, also of a light yellowish
tinge, and having a pleasant sweet-acid and somewhat aromatic
flavour. P. Guajava, var. pomiferum, produces a more globular
or apple-shaped fruit, sometimes called the red guava. The
pulp of this variety is mostly of a darker colour than the former
and not of so fine a flavour, therefore the first named is most
esteemed for eating in a raw state; both, however, are used
in the preparation of two kinds of ' preserve known as guava
jelly and guava cheese, which are made in the West Indies
and imported thence to England; the fruits are of much, boo
perishable a nature to allow of their importation in their natural
state. Both varieties have been introduced into various parts
of India, as well as in other countries of the East, where they
have become perfectly naturalized. Though of course much too
tender for outdoor planting in England, the guava thrives there
in hothouses or stoves.
Psidium 'variabUe (also known as P. Cattleyanum), a tree of
from 10 to 20 ft. high, a native of Brazil (the Araga or Araga de
Praya), is known as the purple guava. The fruit, which is very
abundantly produced in the axils of the leaves, is large, spherical,
of a fine deep claret colour; 1 the rind is pitted, and the ptdp
is soft, fleshy, purplish, reddish next the skin, but becoming
paler towards the middle and in the centre almost or quite white.
It has ia very agreeable acid-sweet flavour, which has been
.likened to that of a strawberry.
GUAYAMA, a small city and the capital of. a municipal
district and department of the same narnej on the southern
coast of Porto Rico* 53 m - S*[of San Juafr. Pop. (1899) of the
dty, 5334; (101b) 8321; (1890) of the district, 12,749. TOie
district (r 56 sq. to.) includes Arroyo and Salinas. The city stands
about 230 ft. above the sea and has a mild, healthy climate. It is
connected with Ponce by railway (1010), and with the port of
Arroyo by an excellent Toad, part of the military road extending to
Cayey, and it exports sugar, nun, tobacco, coffee, cattle, fruit
and other products of the department, which is very fertile.
The city was founded in 1736, but was completely destroyed
by fire in 1832. It was rebuilt on a rectangular plan and possesses
several buildings of note. Drinking-water is brought in through
an aqueduct.
GUAYAQUIL, or Santiago db Guayaquil, a city and port
of Ecuador, capital of the province of Guayas, on the right
bank of the Guayas river, 33 m. above its entrance into the Gulf
of Guayaquil, in 2 12' S., 70° 31' W. Pop. (1800) 44,772;
(1897, estimate) 51,000, mostly half-breeds. The city is built
on a comparatively level pajonal or savanna, extending south-
ward from the base of three low hills, called Los Cerros de la
Cruz, between the river and the partially filled waters of the
Estero Salado. It is about 30 ft. above sea-level, and the lower
parts of the town are partially flooded in the rainy season.
The old town is the upper or northern part; and is inhabited
by the poorer classes, its streets being badly paved, crooked;
undrained, dirty and pestilential. The great fire of 1896
destroyed a large part >of the old town, and some of its insanitary
conditions were improved in rebuilding. The new town, or
southern part, is the business and residential quarter of the
better classes, but the buildings are chiefly of wood and the
streets are provided with surface drainage only. Among the 1
public buildings are the governor's and bishop's palaces, town*
hall, cathedral and o churches, national college, episcopal
seminary and schools of law and medirine, theatre, two hospitals,
custom-house, and several asylums and charitable institutions.
Guayaquil is also the seat of a university corporation with
faculties of law and medicine. A peculiarity of Guayaquil is
that the upper floors. in the business streets project over the
walks, forming coveted arcades. The year is cavided into a wet
and dry season, the former from January to June, when the hot
days are followed by nights of drenching rain. The mean annual
temperature is about 82 to 83° F.; malarial and bilious fevers
are common, the latter being known as " Guayaquil fever,"
and epidemics of yellow fever are frequent. The dry or summer
season is considered pleasant and healthy. The water-supply
is now brought in through iron mains from the Cordilleras
S3 m. distant. The mains pass under the Guayas river and
discharge into a large distributing reservoir on one of the hills
N. of the city. The city is provided with tramway and telephone
services, the streets are lighted with gai and electricity, and
telegraph communication with the outside world is maintained
by means of the West Coast cable, which lands at the small port
of Santa Elena, on the Pacific coast, about 65 nu W. of Guayaquil;
Railway connexion with Quito (200 m.) was established in June
1008. There is also steamboat connexion with the producing
districts of the province on the Guayas river and its tributaries,
on which boats run regularly as far up as Bodegas (80 m.) in
the dry season, and for a distance of 40.1m on the Daule. For
smaller boats there, are about 200 m. of navigation on this
system of rivers. The exports of the province are almost wholly
transported on these rivers, and are shipped either at Guayaquil,
or at Puna, its deep-water port, 6£ m, outside the Guayas bar,
on the E. end of Puna Island. The Guayas river is navigable
up to Guayaquil for steamers drawing 22 ft. of water; larger
vessels anchor at Puna, 40. m* from Guayaquil, where cargoes and
passengers are transferred to lighters and: tenders: There is a
quay on the river front, but the depth alongside does not exceed
18 ft. The principal exports, are cacao, rubber, coffee, tobacco,
hides, cotton, Panama hats, cinchona bark and ivory nutp, the
value of all exports for the year 1905 being 14,148,877 snares y in
a total of 185,565,668 sucres for the whole republic. In t^dBihe
exports were: cacao, about. 64,000,000 lb, valued at $6,400,000;
hides/ valued at $135,000; rubber, .valued at $235,000; coffee,
valued at $273,000; and vegetable ivory, valued at $102,000:.
666
GUAYAS— GUBBIO
There are some small industries in the city, including a shipyard,
saw-mills, foundry, sugar refineries, cotton and woollen mills,
brewery, and manufactures of soap, cigars, chocolate, ice, soda-
water and liqueurs.
Santiago de Guayaquil was founded on St James's day, the
25th of July 1535, by Sebastian de Benalcazar, but was twice
abandoned before itB permanent settlement in 1537 by Francesco
de Oreilana. It was captured and sacked several times in the
17th and 18th centuries by pirates and freebooters — by Jacob
Clark in 1624, by French pirates in 1686, by English freebooters
under Edward David in 1687, by William Dampier in 1707
and by Clapperton in 1709. Defensive works were erected in
1730, and in 1763, when the town was made a governor's residence,
a castle and other fortifications were constructed. Owing to
the flimsy construction of its buildings Guayaquil has been
repeatedly burned, the greater fires occurring in 1707, 1764,
1865, 1896 and 1899. The city was made the see of a bishopric
in 1837.
GUAYAS, or El Guayas, a coast province of Ecuador,
bounded N. by Manabf and Pichincha, E. by Los Rios, Canar
and Azuay, S. by El Oro and the Gulf of Guayaquil, and W.
by the same gulf, the Pacific Ocean and the province of Manabi.
Pop. (1893, estimate) 98,100; area, 11,504 sq. m. It, is very
irregular in form and comprises the low alluvial districts sur-
rounding the Gulf of Guayaquil between the Western Cordilleras
and the coast. It includes (since 1885) the Galapagos Islands,
lying 600 m. off the coast. The province of Guayas is heavily
forested and traversed by numerous rivers, for the most part
tributaries of the Guayas river, which enters the gulf from the
N. This river system has a drainage area of about 14,000 sq. m.
and an aggregate of 200 m. of navigable channels in the rainy
season. Its principal tributaries are the Daule and Babahoyo
or Chimbo (also called Bodegas), and of the latter the Vinces
and Yaguachi. The climate is hot, humid and unhealthy,
bilious and malarial fevers being prevalent. The rainfall is
abundant and the soil is deep and fertile. Agriculture and the
collection of forest products are the chief industries. The staple
products are cacao, coffee, sugarcane, cotton, tobacco and rice.
The cultivation of cacao is the principal industry, the exports
forming about one-third the world's supply. Stock-raising is
also carried on to a limited extent. Among forest products are
rubber, cinchona bark, toquilla fibre and ivory nuts. The
manufacture of so-called Panama hats from the fibre of the
toquilla palm (commonly called jiptfapa, after a town in Manabi
famous for this industry) is a long-established domestic industry
among the natives of this and other coast provinces, the humidity
of the climate greatly facilitating the work of plaiting the delicate
straws, which would be broken in a dry atmosphere. Guayas
is the chief industrial and commercial province of the republic,
about nineteen-twentieths of the commerce of Ecuador passing
through the port of its capital, Guayaquil. There are no land
transport routes in the province except the Quito & Guayaquil
railway, which traverses its eastern half. The sluggish river
channels which intersect the greater part of its territory afford
excellent facilities for transporting produce, and a large number
of small boats are regularly engaged in that traffic. There are
no large towns in Guayas other than Guayaquil. Duran, on the
Guayas river opposite Guayaquil, is the starting point of the
Quito railway and contains the shops and offices of that line.
The port of Santa Elena on a bay of the same name, about 65 m.
W. of Guayaquil, is a landing-point of the West Coast cable,
and a port of call for some of the regular steamship lines. Its
exports are chiefly Panama hats and salt.
GUAYCURUS, a tribe of South American Indians on the
Paraguay. The name has been used generally of all the mounted
Indians of Gran Chaco. The Guaycurus are a wild, fierce people,
who paint their bodies and go naked. They are fearless horse-
men and are occupied chiefly in cattle rearing.
GUAYMAS, or San Josi de Gttaymas, a seaport of Mexico,
in the state of Sonora, on a small bay opening into the Gulf of
California a few miles W. of the mouth of the Yaqui river, in
lat. 27 58' N., long. 1 io° 58' W. Pop. (1000) 8648. The harbour
is one of the best on the W. coast of Mexico, and the port is a
principal outlet for the products of the large state of Sonora.
The town stands on a small, arid plain, nearly shut in by moun-
tains, and has a very hot, dry climate. It is connected with the
railways of the United States by a branch of the Southern
Pacific from Benson, Arizona, and is 230 m. S. by W. of the
frontier town of Nogales, where that line enters Mexico. The
exports include gold, silver, hides and pearls.
GUBBIO (anc. Iguviunt, q.v.) med. Mvgubium), a town and
episcopal see of Umbria, Italy, in the province of Perugia, from
which it is 23 m. N.N.E. by road; by rail it is 13 m. N.W. of
Fossato di Vico (on the line between Foligno and Ancona)
and 70 m. E.S.E. of Arezzo. Pop. (1901) 5783 (town); 26,718
(commune). Gubbio is situated at the foot and on the steep
slopes of Monte Calvo, from 1568 to 1735 ft- above sea-level,
at the entrance to the gorge which ascends to Scheggia, probably
on the site of the ancient Umbrian town. It ptesents a markedly
medieval appearance. The most prominent building is the
Palazzo dei Consoli, on the N. side of the Piazza della Signoria;
it is a huge Gothic edifice with a tower, erected in 1332-1346,
according to tradition, by Matteo di Giovanello of Gubbio ;
the name of Angelo da Orvieto occurs on the arch of the main
door, but his work may be limited to the sculptures of this
arch. It has two stories above the ground floor, and, being on
the slope of the hill, is, like the whole piazza, raised on arched
substructures. On the S. side of the piazza is the Palazzo
Pretorio, or della Podesta, begun in 1349 and now the municipal
palace. It contains the famous Tabulae Igwdnae, and a collec-
tion of paintings of the Umbrian school, of furniture and of
majolica. On the E. side is the modern Palazzo Ranghiasci-
Brancaleone, which until 1882 contained fine collections, now
dispersed. Above the Piazza della Signoria, at the highest
point of the town, is the Palazzo Ducale, erected by the dukes
of Urbino in 1474-1480; the architect was, in all probability,
Lucio da Laurana, to whom is due the palace at Urbino, which
this palace resembles, especially in its fine colonnaded court.
The Palazzo Beni, lower down, belongs to a somewhat earlier
period of the 15th century. Pope Martin V. lodged here for a
few days in 1420. The Palazzo Accoramboni, on the other
hand, is a Renaissance structure, with a fine entrance arch.
Here Vittoria Accoramboni was born in 1557. Opposite the
Palazzo Ducale is the cathedral, dedicated to SS. Mariano e
Jacopo, a structure of the 12th century, with a facade, adorned
with contemporary sculptures, partly restored in 1514-1550.
The interior contains some good pictures by Umbrian artists,
a fine episcopal throne in carved wood, and a fine Flemish cope
given by Pope Marcellus II. (1555) in the sacristy. The ex-
terior of the Gothic church of S. Francesco, in the lower part
of the town, built in 1259, preserves its original style, but the in-
terior has been modernized; and the same fate has overtaken the
Gothic churches of S. Maria Nuova and S. Pietro» S. Agostino,
on the other hand, has its Gothic interior better preserved. The
whole town is full of specimens of medieval architecture, the
pointed arch of the 13th century being especially prevalent
A remarkable procession takes place in Gubbio on the 15th of
May in each year, in honour of S. Ubaldo, when three colossal
wooden pedestals, each over 30 ft. high, and crowned by statues
of SS. Ubaldo, Antonio and Giorgio, are carried through the
town, and then, in a wild race, up to the church of S. Ubaldo
on the mountain-side (2600 ft.) . See H. M. Bower, The Elevation
and Procession of ike Ceri at Gubbio (Folk-lore Society, London,
i8Q7).
After its reconstruction with the help of Narses (see Iguvtum)
the town remained subject to the exarchs of Ravenna, and,
after the destruction of the Lombard kingdom in 774, formed
part of the donation of Charlemagne to the pope. In the nth
century the beginnings of its independence may be traced. In
the struggles of that time it was generally on the Ghibelline side.
In 1 1 51 it repelled an attack of several neighbouring cities, and
formed from this time a republic governed by consuls. In n 55
it was besieged by the emperor Frederick I., but saved by the
intervention of its bishop, S. Ubaldo, and was granted privileges
GUBEN— GUDGEON
by the emperor. In 1203 it had its first podesta, and from this
period dates the rise of its importance. In 1387, after various
political changes, it surrendered to Antonio da Montefeltro of
Urbino, and remained under the dominion of the dukes of
Urbino until, in 1624, the whole duchy was ceded to the pope.
Gubbio was the birthplace of Oderisio, a famous miniature
painter (1240-1299), mentioned by Dante as the honour of his
native town (Purg. xi. 80 " /' onor d'Agobbio "), but no authentic
works by him exist. In the 14th and 15th centuries a branch
of the Umbrian school of painting flourished here, the most
famous masters of which were Guido Palmerucci (1280-1345?)
and several members of the Nelli family, particularly Ottaviano
(d. 1444), whose best work is the " Madonna del Belvedere "
in S. Maria Nuova at Gubbio (1404), extremely well preserved,
with bright colouring and fine details. Another work by him
is the group of frescoes including a large "Last Judgment/'
and scenes from the life of St Augustine, in the church of
S. Agostino, discovered in 1902 under a coating of whitewash.
These painters seem to have been influenced by the contemporary
masters of the Sienese school.
Gubbio occupies a far more important place in the history
of majolica. In a decree of 1438 a vasarius vasorum pictorum is
mentioned, who probably was not the first of his trade. The art
was brought to perfection by Giorgio Andreoli, whose father had
emigrated hither from Pavia, and who in 1498 became a citizen
of Gubbio. The works by his hand are remarkable for their
ruby tint, with a beautiful metallic lustre; but only one small
Uuza remains in Gubbio itself. His art was carried on by his sons,
Cencio and Ubaldo, but was afterwards lost, and only recovered
in 1853 by Angelko Fabbri and Luigi Carocci.
Two miles outside Porta Metauro to the N.E. is the Bottac-
cione, a large water reservoir, constructed in the 12th or 14th
century; the water is collected in the bed of a stream by a
massive dam.
See A. Colasanti, Gubbio (Bergamo, 1905); L. McCracken, Gubbio
(London, 1905). (T. As.)
GUBEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia, at
the confluence of the Lubis with the Neisse, 28 m. S.S.E. of
Frankfort-on-Oder, at the junction of railways to Breslau,
Halle and Forst. Pop. (1875) 23,704; (1905) 36,666. It pos-
sesses three Evangelical churches, a Roman Catholic church,
a synagogue, a gymnasium, a modern school, a museum and a
theatre. The principal industries are the spinning and weaving
of wool, dyeing, tanning, and the manufacture of pottery ware,
hats, cloth, paper and machinery. The vine is cultivated in the
neighbourhood to some extent, and there is also some trade in
fruit and vegetables. Guben is of Wenctish origin. It is men-
tioned in 1207 and received civic rights in 1235. It was sur-
rounded by walls in 131 1, about which time it came into the
possession of the margrave of Brandenburg, from whom it
passed to Bohemia in 1368. It was twice devastated by the
Hussites, and in 163 1 and 1642 it was occupied by the Swedes.
By the peace of Prague in 1635 it came into the possession of
the elector of Saxony, and in 1815 it was, with the rest of Lower
Lusatia, united to Prussia.
GUBERNAT1S, ANGELO DE, Count (1840- ), Italian man
of letters, was born at Turin and educated there and at Berlin,
where he studied philology. In 1862 he was appointed professor
of Sanskrit at Florence, but having married a cousin of the
Socialist Bakunin and become interested in his views he resigned
his appointment and spent some years in travel. He was
reappointed, however, in 1867; and in 1891 he was transferred
to the university of Rome. He became prominent both as an
orientalist, a publicist and a poet. He founded the Italia
letteraria (1862), the Rivista orietUale (1867), the Civitta italiana
and Rivista europea (1869), the BoUettino italiano degli studii
orientate (1876) and the Revue internationale (1883), and in
1887 became director of the Giornale delta societd asiatica. In
1878 he started the Dmonario biografieo degli scrittori contem-
poranei. His Oriental and mythological works include the
Piccola enciclopedia indiana (1867), the Fonti vedicke (1868),
a famous work on zoological mythology (1872), and another on
667
plant mythology (1878). He also edited the encyclopaedic
Storia universale delta letteratura (1882-1885). His work in
verse includes the dramas Goto, Romolo, 11 re Nal*, Don Rodrigo,
Savitri, &c.
GUDBRANDSDAU a district in the midlands of southern
Norway, comprising the upper course of the river Lougen or
Laagen from Lillehammer at the head of Lake Mjosen to its
source in Lake Lesjekogen and tributary valleys. Lillehammer,
the centre of a rich timber district, is 114 m« N. of Christiania
by rail. The railway continues through the well-wooded and
cultivated valley to Otta (70 m.). Several tracks run westward
into the wild district of the Jotunheim. From Otto good driving
routes run across the watershed and descend the western slope,
where the scenery is incomparably finer than in Gudbrandsdai
itself — (a) past Sorum, with the 13th-century churches of
Vaagen and Lorn (a fine specimen of the Stavekirke or timber-
built church), Aanstad and Polfos, with beautiful falls of the.
Otta river, to Grotlid, whence roads diverge to Stryn on the
Nordfjord, and to Marok on the Geirangerfjord; (6) past
Domaas (with branch road north to Storen near Trondhjem,
skirting the Dovrefjeld), over the watershed formed by Lesje-
kogen Lake, which drains in both directions, and down through
the magnificent Romsdal.
GUDE (Gudius), MARQUARD (1635-1689), German archaeo-
logist and classical scholar, was born at Rendsburg in Holstein
on the 1st of February 1635. He was originally intended for
the law, but from an early age showed a decided preference for
classical studies. In 1658 he went to Holland in the hope of
finding work as a teacher of classics, and in the following year,
through the influence of J. F. Gronovius, he obtained the post of
tutor and travelling companion to a wealthy young Dutchman,
Samuel Schars. During his travels Gude seized the opportunity
of copying inscriptions and MSS. At the earnest request of his
pupil, who had become greatly attached to him, Gude refused
more than one professional appointment, and it was not until
1671 that he accepted the post of librarian to Duke Christian
Albert of Holstein-Gottorp. Schars, who had accompanied
Gude, died in 1675, &nd left him the greater part of his property.
In 1678 Gude, having quarrelled with the duke, retired into
private life; but in 1682 he entered the service of Christian V.
of Denmark as counsellor of the Schleswig-Holstein chancellery,
and remained in it almost to the time of his death on the 26th
of November 1689. Gude's great life-work, the collection of
Greek and Latin inscriptions, was not published till 1731.
Mention may also be made of his editio princeps (1661) of the
treatise of Hippolytus the Martyr on Antichrist, and of his notes
on Phaedrus (with four new fables discovered by him) published
in P. Burmann's edition (1698).
His correspondence (ed. P. Burmann, 1697) is the most important
authority for the events of Gude's life, besides containing valuable
information on the learning of the times. See also J. M oiler, Cimbria
liter ata, iii., and C. Bureian in AUgemeine deutsche Biographie, x.
GUDEMAN, ALFRED (1862- ), American classical scholar,
was born in Atlanta, Georgia, on the 26th of August 1862.
He graduated at Columbia University in 1883 and studied under
Hermann Diels at the University of Berlin. From 1890 to 1893
he was reader in classical philology at Johns Hopkins University,
from 1893 to 1902 professor in the University of Pennsylvania,
and from 1902 to 1904 professor in Cornell University. In 1904
he became a member of the corps of scholars preparing the
Wolfflin Thesaurus linguae Latinae — a unique distinction for an
American Latinist, as was the publication of his critical edition,
with German commentary, of Tacitus' Agricola in 1902 by the
Weidmannsche Buchhandlung of Berlin. He wrote Latin
Literature of the Empire (2 vols., Prose and Poetry, 1898-1899),
a History of Classical Philology (1902) and Sources of Plutarch 1 s
Life of Cicero (1902) ; and edited Tacitus' Dialogus de oratoribus
(text with commentary, 1894 and 1898) and Agricola (1899;
with Germania, 1900), and Sallust's Cdliline (1903).
GUDGEON {Gobio fluviotilis), a small fish of the Cyprinid
family. It is nearly related to the barbel, and has a small barbel
or fleshy appendage at each corner of the mouth.. It is the
668
GUDRUN— GUELPHS AND GHIBELLINES
gdbione of Italy, goujon of France (whence adapted in M. English
as gojon), and Gr&ssling or GrUndling of Germany. Gudgeons
thrive in streams and lakes, keeping to the bottom, and seldom
exceeding 8 in. in length. In China and Japan there are varieties
differing only slightly from the common European type.
OUDRUN (Kudrun), a Middle High German epic, written
probably in the early years of the 13th century, not long after
the Nibelungenlied, the influence of which may be traced upon
it. It is preserved in a single MS. which was prepared at the
command of Maximilian I., and was discovered as late as 1820
m the Castle of Ambras in Tirol. The author was an unnamed
Austrian poet, but the story itself belongs to the cycle of 3agas,
which originated on the shores of the North Sea. The epic falls
into three easily distinguishable parts — the adventures of King
Hagen of Ireland, the romance of Hettel, king of the Hegelingen,
who woos and wins Hagen's daughter Hilde, and lastly, the
more or less parallel story of how Herwig, king of Sceland, wins,
in opposition to her father's wishes, Gudrun, the daughter of
Hettel and Hilde. Gudrun is carried off by a king of Normandy,
and her kinsfolk, who are in pursuit, are defeated in a great
battle on the island of Wulpensand off the Dutch coast. The
finest parts of the epic are those in which Gudrun, a prisoner in
the Norman castle, refuses to become the wife of her captor,
and is condemned to do the most menial work of the household.
Here, thirteen years later, Herwig and her brother Ortwin find
her washing clothes by the sea; on the following day they
attack the Norman castle with their army and carry out the
long-delayed retribution.
The epic of Gudrun is not unworthy to stand beside the
greater Nibelungenlied, and it has been aptly compared with
it as the Odyssey to the Iliad. Like the Odyssey, Gudrun is an
epic of the sea, a story of adventure; it does not turn solely
round the conflict of human passions; nor is it built up round
one all-absorbing, all-dominating idea like the Nibelungenlied.
Scenery and incident are more varied, and the poet has an
opportunity for a more lyric interpretation of motive and
character. Gudrun is composed in stanzas similar to those
of the Nibdungenlied, but with the essential difference that the
last line of each stanza is identical with the others, and does
not contain the extra accented syllable characteristic of the
Nibelungen metre.
Gudrun was first edited by von der Hagen in vol. i. of his
Heldenbuck (1820). Subsequent editions by A. Ziemann and A. J.
Vollmer followed in 1837 and 1845. The best editions are those
by K. Bartsch (4th ed., 1880), who has also edited the poem
for Kurschner's Deutsche Natienattiteratur (vol. 6, 1885), by B.
Syroons (1883) am * by ^" Martin {2nd ed., 1901). L. Ettraiiller
first applied Lachmann's ballad-theory, to the poem (1841), and K.
Mullenhoff (Kudrun, die echten Teile des Geaichts, 1845) rejected
more than three-quarters of the whole as " not genuine." There are
. many translations of the epic into modern German, the best known
being that of K. Simrock (15th ed., 1884). A translation into
English by M. P. Nichols appeared at Boston, U.S.A., in 1889.
See K. Bartsch, Beitrdge zur Geschichte und Kritik der Kudrun
(1865); H. Keck, Die Gudrunsage (1867); W. Wilmanns, Die
Entarichefang der Kudrundichtung (1873); A. Fecamp, Le Pohme
de Gudrun, ses origines, sa formation et son hisioire (1892) ; F. Panzer*
Hilde-Gudrun (1901). For later versions and adaptations of the
saga see O. Benedict. Die Gudrunsage in der neueren Literatur (1902.)
GUfiBRIANT, JEAN BAPTISTS BUDES, Comte de (1602-
1643), marshal of France, was born at Plessis-Budes, near St
Brieuc, of an old Breton family. He served first in Holland, and
in the Thirty Years' War he commanded from 1638 to 1639 the
French contingent in the army of his friend Bernard of Saxe-
Weimar, distinguishing himself particularly at the siege of
Breisach in 1638. Upon the death of Bernard he received
the command of his army, and tried, in conjunction with J,
Baner (1 596-1641), the Swedish general, a bold attack upon
Regensburg (1640). His victories of Wolfenbtittel on the
29th of June 1641 and of Kempen in 1642 won for him the
marshal's baton. Having failed in an attempt to invade Bavaria
in concert with Torstensjon he seized Rottweil, but Was mortally
wounded there on the 17th of November 1643,
A biography was published by Le Laboureur, Histoire'du mareschal
de Guebriantr in 1656. See A.. Brinzinger in WUrttembergische
Vierte\jahrschrift fur Landes geschichte (1902).
GUELDER ROSE, so called from Gueldeiiand, its supposed
source, termed also marsh elder, rose elder, water elder (Ger.
Wasser holder, Schneeball; Fr. worne-obier, Vobier d 1 Europe),
known botanically as Viburnum Ofulus, a shrub or small tree
of the natural order Caprifoliaceae, a native of Britain, and
widely distributed in the temperate and colder parts of Europe,
Asia and North America. It is common in Ireland, but rare
in Scotland. In height it is from 6 to 12 ft., and it thrives best
in moist situations. The leaves are smooth, 2 to 3 in. broad, with
3 to 5 unequal serrate lobes, and glandular stipules adnate to
the stalk. In autumn the leaves change their normal bright
green for a pink or crimson hue. The flowers, which appear in
June and July, are small, white, and arranged in cymes 2 to 4 in.
in diameter. The outer blossoms in the wild plant have an
enlarged corolla, | in. in diameter, and are devoid o£ stamens
or pistils; in the common cultivated variety all the flowers are
sterile and the inflorescence is globular, hence the term " snow-
ball tree " applied to the plant, the appearance of which at the
time of flowering has been prettily described by Cowper in his
Winter Walk at Noon. The guelder rose beats juicy, red, elliptical
berries, \ in. long, which ripen in September, and contain each a
single compressed seed. In northern Europe these are eaten,
and in Siberia, after fermentation with flour, they are distilled
for spirit. The plant has, however, emetic, purgative and nar-
cotic properties; and Taylor {Med. Jurisp.i. 448, 2nd ed., 1873)
has recorded an instance of the fatal poisoning of a child by
the berries. Both they and the bark contain valerianic acid,
The woody shoots of the guelder rose are manufactured into
various small articles in Sweden and Russia. Another member
of the genus, Viburnum, Lantana, wayfaring tree, is found in dry
copses and hedges in England, except in the north.
GUELPH, a city of Ontario, Canada, 45 m. W. of Toronto,
on the river Speed and the Grand Trunk and Canadian Pacific
railways. Pop. (1901) 11,496. It is the centre of a fine agri-
cultural district, and exports grain, fruit and live-stock in large
quantities. It contains, in addition to the county and municipal
buildings, the Ontario Agricultural College, which draws students
from all parts of North and South America. The river affords
abundant water-power for flour-mills, saw-mills, woollen-mills
and numerous factories, of which agricultural implements,
sewing machines and musical instruments are the chief.
GUELPHS AND GHIBELLINES. These names are doubtless
Italianized forms of the German words Welf and Waiblingen,
although one tradition says that they are derived from Guelph
and Gibel, two rival brothers of Pistoia. Another theory derives
Ghibelline from Gibello, a word used by the Sicilian Arabs to
translate Hohenstaufen. However, a more popular story tells
how, during a fight around Weinsberg in December 1140 between
the German king Conrad III. and Welf, count of Bavaria, a
member of the powerful family to which Henry the Lion, duke
of Saxony and Bavaria, belonged, the soldiers of the latter
raised the cry " Hie Welf I" to which the king's troops replied
with " Hie Waiblingen 1 " this being the name of one of Conrad's
castles. But the rivalry between Welf and Hohenstaufen, of
which family Conrad was a member, was anterior to this event,
and had been for some years a prominent fact in the history of
Swabia and Bavaria, although its introduction into Italy — in a
slightly modified form, however'— only dates from the time of
the Italian expeditions of the emperor Frederick I. It is about
this time that the German chronicler, Otto of Freising, says,
" Duae in Romano orbe apud Galliae Germaniaeve fines famosae
familiae actenus fuere, una Heinricorum de Gueibelinga, alia
Guelforum de Aldorfo, altera imperatores, altera raagnos duces
producere solita." Chosen German king in 1152, Frederick
was not only the nephew and the heir of Conrad, he was related
also to the Welfs; yet, although his election abated to some
extent the rivalry between Welf and Hohenstaufen in Germany,
it opened it upon a larger and fiercer scale in Italy.
During the long and interesting period covered by Frederick's
Italian campaigns, his enemies, prominent among whom were
the cities of the Lombard League, became known as Welfs,
or Guelphs, while his partisans seized upon the rival term of
GUENEVERE
669
Waiblingen, or Ghibelline, and the contest between these two
parties was carried on with a ferocity unknown even to the
inhabitants of southern Germany. The distracted state of
northern Italy, the jealousies between various pairs of towns,
the savage hatred between family and family, were some of the
causes which fed this feud, and it reached its height during the
momentous struggle between Frederick II. and the Papacy in
the 13th century. The story of the contest between Guelph
and Ghibelline, however, is little less than the history of Italy
in the middle ages. At the opening of the 13th century it was
intensified by the fight for the German and imperial thrones
between Philip, duke of Swabia, a son of Frederick I., and the
Welf, Otto of Brunswick, afterwards the emperor Otto IV.,
a fight waged in Italy as well as in Germany. Then, as the heir
of Philip of Swabia and the rival of Otto of Brunswick, Frederick
II. was forced to throw himself into the arms of the Ghibellines,
while his enemies, the popes, ranged themselves definitely among
the Guelphs, and soon Guelph and Ghibelline became synonymous
with supporter of pope and emperor.
. After the death of Frederick II. in 1250 the Ghibellines
looked for leadership to his son and successor, the German king,
Conrad IV., and then to his natural son, Manfred, while the
Guelphs called the French prince, Charles of Anjou, to their aid.
But the combatants were nearing exhaustion, and after the
execution of Conradin, the last of the Hohenstaufen, in 1268,
this great struggle began to lose force and interest. Guelph
and Ghibelline were soon found representing local and family
rather than papal and imperial interests; the names were
taken with little or no regard for their original significance,
and in the 15th century they began to die out of current politics.
However, when Louis XII. of France conquered Milan at the
beginning of the 16th century the old names were revived;
the French king's supporters were called Guelphs and the
friends of the emperor Maximilian I. were referred to as
Ghibellines.
The feud of Guelph and Ghibelline penetrated within the
walls of almost every city of northern Italy, and the contest
between the parties, which practically makes the history of
Florence during the 13th century, is specially noteworthy.
First one side and then the other was driven into exile; the
Guelph defeat at the battle of Monte Aperto in 1 260 was followed
by the expulsion of the Ghibellines by Charles of Anjou in 1266,
and on a smaller scale a similar story may be told of many other
cities (see Florence).
The Guelph cause was buttressed by an idea, yet very
nebulous, of Italian patriotism. Dislike of the German and the
foreigner rather than any strong affection for the Papacy was
the feeling which bound the Guelph to the pope, and so enabled
the latter to defy the arms of Frederick II. The Ghibelline
cause, on the other hand, was aided by the dislike of the temporal
power of the pope and the desire for a strong central authority.
This made Dante a Ghibelline, but the hopes of this party,
kindled anew by the journey of Henry VII. to Italy in 1310,
were extinguished by his departure. J. A. Symonds thus de-
scribes the constituents of the two parties: " The Guelph party
meant the burghers of the consular Communes, the men of
industry and commerce, the upholders of civil liberty, the
friends of democratic expansion. The Ghibelline party in-
cluded the naturalized nobles, the men of arms and idleness, the
advocates of feudalism, the politicians who regarded constitu-
tional progress with disfavour. That the banner of the church
floated over the one camp, while the standard of the empire
rallied to itself the hostile party, was a matter of comparatively
superficial moment." In another passage the same writer thus
describes the sharp and universal division between Guelph and
Ghibelline: " Ghibellines wore the feathers in their caps upon
one side, Guelphs upon the other. Ghibellines cut fruit at table
crosswise, Guelphs straight down . . . Ghibellines drank out
of smooth and Guelphs out of chased goblets. Ghibellines wore
white and Guelphs red roses." It is interesting to note that
while Dante was a Ghibelline, Petrarch was a Guelph.
See J. A. Symonds, The Renaissance in Italy, vol. i. (1875).
GUENEVERE (Lat. Guanhumara; Welsh, Gwenhwyfar;
O. Eng. Gaynore), in Arthurian romance the wife of King
Arthur. Geoffrey of Monmouth, who calls her Guanhumara,
makes her a Roman lady, but the general tradition is that she
was of Cornish birth and daughter to King Leodegrance.
Wace, who, while translating Geoffrey, evidently knew, and
used, popular tradition, combines these two, asserting that she
was of Roman parentage on the mother's side, but cousin to
Cador of Cornwall by whom she was brought up. The tradition
relating to Guenevere is decidedly confused and demands
further study. The Welsh triads know no fewer than three
Gwenhwyfars; Giraldus Cambrensis, relating the discovery of
the royal tombs at Glastonbury, speaks of the body found as
that of Arthur's second wife; the prose Merlin gives Guenevere
a bastard half-sister of the same name, who strongly resembles
her; and the Lancelot relates how this lady, trading on the
likeness, persuaded Arthur that she was the true daughter of
Leodegrance, and the queen the bastard interloper. This episode
of the false Guenevere is very perplexing.
To the majority of English readers Guenevere is best known
in connexion with her liaison with Lancelot, a story which, in
the hands of Malory and Tennyson, has assumed a form widely
different from the original conception, and at once more pictur-
esque and more convincing. In the French romances Lancelot
is a late addition to the Arthurian cyde, his birth is not recorded
till long after the marriage of Arthur and Guenevere, and he is
at least twenty years the junior of the queen. The relations
between them are of the most conventional and courtly char-
acter, and are entirely lacking in the genuine dramatic passion
which marks the love story of Tristan and Iseult. The Lancelot-
Guenevere romance took form and shape in the artificial atmo-
sphere encouraged by such patronesses of literature as Eleanor
of Aquitaine and her daughter Marie, Comtesse de Champagne
(for whom Chretien de Troyes wrote his Chevalier de la Charrette),
and reflects the low social morality of a time when love between
husband and wife was declared impossible. But though Guene-*
vere has changed her lover, the tradition of her infidelity is of
much earlier date and formed a part of the primitive Arthurian
legend. Who the original lover was is doubtful; the Vila
Gildae relates how she was carried off by Melwas, king of Aestiva
Regis, to Glastonbury, whither Arthur, at the head of an army,
pursued the ravisher. A fragment of a Welsh poem seems to
confirm this tradition, which certainly lies at the root of her
later abduction by Meleagaunt. In, the Lanzelet of Ulrich von
Zatzikhoven the abductor is Falerln. The story in these forms
represents an other-world abduction. A curious fragment of
Welsh dialogues, printed by Professor Rhys in his Studies on
the Arthurian Legend., appears to represent Kay as the abductor,
In the pseudo- Chronicles and the romances based upon them
the abductor is Mordred, and in the chronicles there is no doubt
that the lady was no unwilling victim. On the final defeat of
Mordred she retires to a nunnery, takes the veil, and is no more
heard of. Wace says emphatically—
Ne fu oie ne vine,
Ne fu trovie, ne seue
Por la vergogne del mesfait
El del ptcii qu ele avoilfait (n. 13627-30).
Layamon, who in his translation of Wace treats his original
much as Wace treated Geoffrey, says that there was a tradition
that she had drowned herself, and that her memory and that
of Mordred were hateful in every land, so that none would offer
prayer for thefr souls. On the other hand certain romances,
e.g. the Perceval, give her an excellent character. The truth is
probably that the tradition of his wife's adultery and treachery,
was a genuine part of the Arthurian story, which, neglected for
a time, was brought again into prominence by the social con-
ditions of the courts for which the later romances were com-
posed; and it is in this later and conventionalized form that
the tale has become familiar to us (see also Lanceix>t).
See Studies on the Arthurian Legend by Professor Rhys; The
Legend of Sir Lancelot, Grimm Library, xii., [Jessie L. Weston:
Der Karrenrilter* ed* Professor Foerater. (J. L. W.)
670
GUENON— GUERIN, BARON
GUENON (from the French, = one who grimaces, hence an
ape), the name applied by naturalists to the monkeys of the
African genus Cercopithecus, the Ethiopian representative of
the Asiatic macaques, from which they differ by the absence of
a posterior heel to the last molar in the lower jaw.
GUfiRET, a town of central France, capital of the department
of Creuse, situated on a mountain declivity 48 m. N.E. of Limoges
on the Orleans railway. Pop. (1906), town, 6042; commune
(including troops, &c.) , 8058. Apart from the H6tel des Monney-
roux (used as prefecture), a picturesque mansion of the 15th
and 1 6th centuries, with mansard roofs and mullioned windows,
Gu6ret has little architectural interest. It is the seat of a
prefect and a court of assizes, and has a tribunal of first instance,
a chamber of commerce and lyc6es and training colleges, for
both sexes. The industries include brewing, saw-milling,
leather-making and the manufacture of basket-work and
wooden shoes, and there is trade in agricultural produce and
cattle. Gu£ret grew up round an abbey founded in the 7th
century, and in later times became the capital of the district of
Marche.
GUEREZA, the native name of a long-tailed, black and white
Abyssinian monkey, Colobus guereza (or C. abyssinicus), char-
acterized by the white hairs forming a long pendent mantle.
Other east African monkeys with a similar type of colouring,
which, together with the wholly black west African C. satanas,
collectively constitute the subgenus Guereza, may be included
under the same title; and the name may be further extended
to embrace all the African thumbless monkeys of the genus
Colobus. These monkeys are the African representatives of
the Indo-Malay langurs (Semnopitheeus) y with which they agree
in their slender build, long limbs and tail, and complex stomachs,
although differing by the rudimentary thumb. The members
of the subgenus Guereza present a transition from a wholly
black animal (C. satanas) to one (C. caudatus) in which the sides
of the face are white, and the whole flanks, as well as the tail,
clothed with a long fringe of pure white hairs.
GUBRICKB, HEINRICH ERNST FERDINAND (1803-18 78),
German theologian, was born at Wettin in Saxony on the 25th
of February 1803 and studied theology at Halle, where he was
appointed professor in 1829. He greatly disliked the union
between the Lutheran and the Reformed churches, which had
been accomplished by the Prussian government in 181 7, and in
1833 he definitely threw in his lot with the Old Lutherans. In
1835 he lost his professorship, but he regained it in 1840. Among
his works were a Life of August Hermann Francke (1827, Eng.
trans. 1837), Church History (1833, Eng. trans, by W. T. Shedd,
New York, 1857-1863), AUgemeine christliche Symbolik (1839).
In 1840 he helped to found the Zeitschrijt fiir die gesamnUe
lutherische Theologie und Kirche, and he died at Halle on the
4th of February 1878.
GUERICKE* OTTO VON (1602-1686), German experimental
philosopher, was born at Magdeburg, in Prussian Saxony, on
the 20th of November 1602. Having studied law at Leipzig,
Helmstadt and Jena, and mathematics, especially geometry
and mechanics, at Leiden, he visited France and England, and
in 1636 became engineer-in-chief at Erfurt. In 1627 he was
elected alderman of Magdeburg, and in 1646 mayor of that city
and a magistrate of Brandenburg. His leisure was devoted to
scientific pursuits, especially in pneumatics. Incited by the
discoveries of Galileo, Pascal and Torricelli, he attempted the
creation of a vacuum. He began by experimenting with a pump
on water placed in a barrel, but found that when the water
was drawn off the air permeated the wood. He then took a
globe of copper fitted with pump and stopcock, and discovered
that he could pump out air as well as water. Thus he became
the inventor of the air-pump (1650). He illustrated his discovery
before the emperor Ferdinand III. at the imperial diet which
assembled at Regensburg in 1654, by the experiment of the
" Magdeburg hemispheres. 1 ' Taking two hollow hemispheres
of copper, the edges of which fitted nicely together, he exhausted
the air from between them by means of his pump, and it is
recorded that thirty horses, fifteen back to back, were unable
to pull them asunder until the air was readmitted. Besides
investigating other phenomena connected with a vacuum, he
constructed an electrical machine which depended on the excita-
tion of a rotating ball of sulphur; and he made successful
researches in astronomy, predicting the periodicity of the return
of comets. In 1681 he gave up office, and retired to Hamburg,
where he died on the nth of May 1686.
His principal observations are given in his work. Experiments
nova, ut vocant, Magdeburgica de vacuo sPatio (Amsterdam, 1672).
He is also the author of a Geschichte der odagerun^ und Eroberung
von Magdeburg. See F. W. Hoffmann, Otto von Gueftcke (Magdeburg,
1874).
GUBRIDON, a small table to hold a lamp or .vase, supported
by a tall column or a human or mythological figure. This piece
of furniture, often very graceful and elegant, originated in France
towards the middle of the 17th century. In the beginning the
table was supported by a negro or other exotic figure, and there
is some reason to believe that it took its name from the generic
appellation of the young African groom or " tiger," who was
generally called " Gu6ridon," or as we should say in English
" Sambo." The swarthy figure and brilliant costume of the
" Moor " when reproduced in wood and picked out in colours
produced a very striking effect, and when a small table was
supported on the head by the upraised hands the idea of passive
service was suggested with completeness. The gueridon is still
occasionally seen in something approaching its original form;
but it had no sooner been introduced than the artistic instinct
of the French designer and artificer converted it into a far
worthier object. By the death of Louis XIV. there were several
hundreds of them at Versailles, and within a generation or two
they had taken an infinity of forms — columns, tripods, termini
and mythological figures. Some of the simpler and more artistic
forms were of wood carved with familiar decorative motives and
gilded. Silver, enamel, and indeed almost any material from
which furniture can be made, have been used for their con-
struction. A variety of small " occasional " tables are now
called in French guiridons.
GUfiRIN, JEAN BAPTISTE PAULIN (1783-185 5), French
painter, was born at Toulon, on the 25th of March 1783, of poor
parents. He learnt, as a lad, his father's trade of a locksmith,
whilst at the same time he followed the classes of the free school
of art. Having sold some copies to a local amateur, Guerin
started for Paris, where he came under the notice of Vincent,
whose counsels were of material service. In 1810 Guenn made
his first appearance at the Salon with some portraits, which had
a certain success. In 18 12 he exhibited " Cain after the murder
of Abel " (formerly in Luxembourg), and, on the return of the
Bourbons, was much employed in works of restoration and de-
coration at Versailles. His " Dead Christ " (Cathedral, Baltimore)
obtained a medal in 1817, and this success was followed up by
a long series of works, of which the following are the more note-
worthy: " Christ on the knees of the Virgin " (1819); " Anchises
and Venus" (1822) (formerly in Luxembourg); " Ulysses and
Minerva " (1824) (Mus6e de Rennes) ; " the Holy Family " (1829)
(Cathedral, Toulon); and " Saint Catherine " (i838)(St Roch),
In his treatment of subject, Gu6rin attempted to realize rococo
graces of conception, the liveliness of which was lost in the
strenuous effort to be correct. His chief successes were attained
by portraits, and those of Charles Nodier and the Abbe Lamen-
nais became widely popular. He died on the 19th of January
1855^
GUfiRIN, PIERRE NARCISSE, Baron (1774-1833), French
painter, was born at Paris on the 13th of May 1774. Becoming
a pupil of Jean Baptiste Regnault, he carried off one of the three
" grands prix " offered in 1796, in consequence of the competition
not having taken place since 1793. The pension was not indeed
re-established, but Guenn fulfilled at Paris the conditions imposed
upon a pen$ionnaire f and produced various works, one of which
brought him prominently before the public. This work, " Marcus
Sextus " (Louvre), exhibited at the Salon of 1799, excited wild
enthusiasm, partly due to the subject, — a victim of Sulla's
proscription returning to Rome to find his wife dead and his
house in mourning — in which an allusion was found to the actual
GUERIN, MAURICE DE— GUERNSEY
671
situation of the emigres. Guerin on this occasion was publicly
crowned by the president of the Institute, and before his
departure for Rome (on the re-establishment of the £cole under
Suvee) a banquet was given to him by the most distinguished
artists of Paris. In 1800, unable to remain in Rome on account
of his healthy he went to Naples, where he painted the " Grave of
Amyntas." In 1802 Guerin produced " Phaedra and Hippolytus"
(Louvre); in 18 10, after his return to Paris, he again achieved
a great success with " Andromache and Pyrrhus " (Louvre) ; and
in the same year also exhibited ( ' Cepbalus and Aurora" (Collection
Sommariva) and" Bonaparte and the Rebels of Cairo" (Versailles) .
The Restoration brought to Guerin fresh honours; he had received
from the first consul in 1803 the cross of the Legion of Honour,
and in 181 5 Louis XVIII. named him Academician. The success
of Guerin's " Hippolytus " of " Andromache," of " Phaedra "
and of " Clytaemnestra" (Louvre) had been ensured by the skilful
selection of highly melodramatic situations, treated with the
strained and pompous dignity proper to the art of the first empire;
in " Aeneas relating to Dido the disasters of Troy" (Louvre),
which appeared side by side with " Clytaemnestra " at the Salon
of 1817, the influence of the Restoration is plainly to be traced.
In this work Guerin sought to captivate the public by an appeal
to those sensuous charms which he had previously rejected,
and by the introduction of picturesque elements of interest.
But with this work Guerin's public successes came to a close.
He was, indeed, commissioned to paint for the Madeleine a
scene from the history of St Louis, but his health prevented him
from accomplishing what he had begun, and in 1822 he accepted
the post of director of the ficole de Rome, which in 18 16 he had
refused. On returning to Paris in 1828, Guerin, who had pre-
viously been made chevalier of the order of St Michel* was
ennobled. He now attempted to complete " Pyrrhus and Priam,"
a work which he had begun at Rome, but in vain; hjs health had
finally broken down, and in the hope of improvement he returned
to Italy with Horace Vernet. Shortly after his arrival at Rome
Baron Guerin died, on the 6th of July 1833, and was buried
in the church of La Trinita de' Monti by the side of Claude
Lorraine.
A careful analysis and criticism of his principal works will be
found in Meyer's Gesckichte der franzOsischen Mater ei.
GUfiRIN DU CAYLA, GEORGES MAURICE DE (1810-1839),
French poet, descended from a noble but poor family, was born
at the chateau of Le Cayla in Languedoc, on the 4th of August
1 8 10. He was educated for the church at a religious seminary
at Toulouse, and then at the College Stanislas, Paris, after
which he entered the society at La Chesnaye in Brittany, founded
by Lamennais. It was only after great hesitation, and without
being satisfied as to his religious vocation, that under the in-
fluence of Lamennais he joined the new religious order in the
autumn of 1832; and when, in September of the next year,
Lamennais, who had come under the displeasure of Rome,
severed connexion with the society, Maurice de Guenn soon
followed his example. Early in the following year he went to
Paris, where he was for a short time a teacher at the College
Stanislas. In November 1838 he married a Creole lady of some
fortune; but a few months afterwards he was attacked by
consumption and died on the 19th of July 1839. In the Revue
des deux mandes for May 15th, 1840, there appeared a notice
of Maurice de Guerin by George Sand, to which she added two
fragments of his writings — one a composition in prose entitled
the Centaur, and the other a short poem. His Reliquiae (2 vols.,
1861), including the Centaury his journal, a number of his letters
and several poems, was edited by G. S. Tr6butien, and accom-
panied with a biographical and critical notice by Sainte-Beuve;
a new edition, with the title Journal, lettres et poetnes, followed
in 1862 ; and an English translation of it was published at New
York in 1867. Though he was essentially a poet, his prose is
more striking and original than his poetry. Its peculiar and
unique charm arises from his strong and absorbing passion for
nature, a passion whose intensity reached almost to adoration
and worship, but in which the pagan was more prominent than
the moral element. According to Sainte-Beuve, "no French
poet or painter has rendered so well the feeling for nature — the
feeling not so much for details as for the ensemble and the divine
universality, the feeling for the origin of things and the sovereign
principle of life."
The name of Eug£nie de Guerin (1805-1848), the sister
of Maurice, cannot be omitted from any notice of him*
Her Journals (1861, Eng. trans., 1865) and her Lettres
(1864, Eng. trans., 1865) indicated the possession of gifts
of as rare an order as those of her brother, though of a
somewhat different kind. In her case mysticism assumed a
form more strictly religious, and she continued to mourn her
brother's loss of his early Catholic faith. Five years older than
he, she cherished a love for him which was blended with a
somewhat motherly anxiety. After his death she began the
collection and publication of the scattered fragments of his
writings. She died, however, on the 31st of May 1848, before
her task was completed.
See the notices by George Sand and Sainte-Beuve referred to
above; Sainte-Beuve, Causeries du lundi (vol. xii.) and Nouveaux
Lundis (vol. iii.) ; G. Merlet, Causeries sur les femmes et les limes
(Paris, 1865) ; Selden, VEsprit des femmes de notre temps (Paris,
1864); Marelle, Eugtnie et Maurice de Gutrin (Berlin, 1869);
Harriet Parr, M. and JE. de Guerin, a monograph (London, 1870);
and Matthew Arnold's essays on Maurice and Eugenie de Guerin,
in his Essays in Criticism.
GUERNIERI, or Werner, a celebrated mercenary captain who
lived about the middle of the 14th century. He was a member
of the family of the dukes of Urslingen, and probably a de-
scendant of the dukes of Spoleto. From 1340 to 1343 he was
in the service of the citizens of Pisa, but afterwards he col-
lected a troop of adventurers which he called the Great Company,
and with which he plundered Tuscany and Lombardy. He then
entered the service of Louis I. the Great, king of Hungary and
Poland, whom he assisted to obtain possession of Naples; but
when dismissed from this service his ravages became more
terrible than ever, culminating in the dreadful sack of Anagni
in 1358, shortly after which Guernieri disappeared from history.
He is said to have worn a breastplate with the inscription,
" The enemy of God, of pity and of mercy."
GUERNSEY (Fr. Guernesey), one of the Channel Islands,
belonging to Britain, the second in size and westernmost of the
important members of the group. Its chief town, St Peter Port,
on the east coast, is in 2 33' W., 40° 27' N., 74 m. S. of Portland
Bill on the English coast, and 30 m. from the nearest French
coast to the east. The island, roughly triangular in form, is
oj m. long from N.E. to S. W. and has an extreme breadth of
Si m. and an area of 15,691 acres or 24*5 sq. m. Pop. (1901),
40,446, the density being thus 162 per sq. m.
The surface of the island rises gradually from north to south r
and reaches its greatest elevation at Haut Nez (349 ft.) above
Point Icart on the south coast. The coast scenery, which forms
one of the principal attractions to the numerous summer visitors
to the island, is finest on the south. This coast, between Jerbourg
and Pleinmont Points, respectively at the south-eastern and
south- western corners of the island, is bold, rocky and indented
with many exquisite little bays. Of these the most notable are
Moulin Huet, Saint's, and Petit Bot, all in the eastern half of
the south coast. The cliffs, however, culminate in the neigh-
bourhood of Pleinmont. Picturesque caves occur at several
points, such as the Creux Mahie. On the west coast there is a
succession of larger bays — Rocquaine Perelle, Vazon, and Cobo.
Off the first lies Lihou Island, the Hanois and other islets, and
all three bays are sown with rocks. The coast, however,
diminishes in height, until at the north-eastern extremity of the
island the land is so low across the Vale or Braye du Val, from
shore to shore, that the projection of L'Ancresse is within a
few feet of being isolated. The east coast, on which, besides the
town and harbour of St Peter Port, is that of St Sampson, pre-
sents no physical feature of note. The interior of the island
is generally undulating, and gains in beauty from its rich vegeta-
tion. Picturesque glens descend upon some of the southern
bays (the two converging upon Petit Bot are notable), and thfe
high-banked paths, arched with foliage, which follow the small
67a
GUERRAZZI— GUESDE
rills down to Moulin Huet Bay, are much admired under the
name of water-lanes.
The soil is generally light sandy loam, overlying an angular
gravel which rests upon the weathered granite. This soil
requires much manure, and a large proportion of the total area
(about three^fifths) is under careful cultivation, producing a
considerable amount of grain, but more famous for market-
gardening. Vegetables and potatoes are exported, with much
fruit, including grapes and flowers. Granite is quarried and
exported from St Sampson, and the fisheries form an important
industry.
For administrative purposes Guernsey is united with Alderney ,
Sark, Herm and the adjacent islets to form the bailiwick of
Guernsey, separate from Jersey. The peculiar constitution,
machinery of administration and justice, finance, &c, are con-
sidered under the heading Channel Islands. Guernsey is
divided into the ten parishes of St Peter Port, St Sampson, Vale,
Catel, St Saviour, St Andrew, St Martin, Forest, St Peter du
Bois and Torteval. The population of St Peter Port in 1901
was 18,264; of the other parishes that of St Sampson was 5614
and that of Vale 5082. The population of the bailiwick of
Guernsey nearly doubled between 182 1 and 1901, and that of
the island increased from 35,243 in 1891 to 40,446 in 1001.
The island roads are excellent, Guernsey owing much in this
respect to Sir John Doyle (d. 1834), the governor whose monu-
ment stands on the promontory of Jerbourg. Like Jersey and
the neighbouring part of France, Guernsey retains considerable
traces of early habitation in cromlechs and menhirs, of which
the most notable is the cromlech in the north at L'Ancresse.
As regards ecclesiastical architecture, all the parish churches
retain some archaeological interest. There is good Norman
work in the church of St Michael, Vale, and the church of St
Peter Port is a notable building of various periods from the early
14th century. Small remains of monastic buildings are seen at
Vale and on Lihou Island.
GUERRAZZI, FRANCESCO DOMENICO (1804-1873), Italian
publicist, born at Leghorn, was educated for the law at Pisa,
and began to practise in his native place. But he soon took to
politics and literature, under the influence of Byron, and his
novel, the BaUagli di Benevento(i827), brought him into notice.
Mazzini made his acquaintance, and with Carlo Bini they started
a paper, the Indicatore, at Leghorn in 1829, which was quickly
suppressed. Guerrazzi himself had to endure several terms of
imprisonment for hia activity in the cause of Young Italy, and
it was in Port of errata in 1834 that he wrote his most famous
novel Assidio di Firenze. He was the most powerful Liberal
leader at Leghorn, and in 1848 became a minister, with some
idea of exercising a moderating influence in the difficulties
with the grand-duke of Tuscany. In 1849, when the latter
fled, he was first one of the triumvirate with Mazzini and
Montanelli, and then dictator, but on the restoration he was
arrested and imprisoned for three years. His Apologia was
published in 1852. Released from prison, he was exiled to
Corsica, but subsequently was restored and was for some time a
deputy at Turin (1862-1870), dying of apoplexy at Leghorn
on the 25th of September 1873. He wrote a number of other
works besides the novels already mentioned, notably Isabella
Orsini (1845) and Beatrice Cenci (1854), and his Opere were
collected at Milan (1868).
See the Life and Works by Bosio (1877), and Carducci's edition of
his letters (1880).
GUERRERO, a Pacific coast state of Mexico, bounded N.W.
by Michoacan, N. by Mexico (state) and Morelos, N.E. and E.
by Puebla and Oaxaca, and S, and W. by the Pacific. Area,
24,996 sq. m. Pop., largely composed of Indians and mestizos
(1895), 417,886; (xooo) 479,205. The state is roughly broken
by the Sierra Madre and its spurs, which cover its entire surface
with the exception of the low coastal plain (averaging about
20 m. in width) on the Pacific. The valleys are usually narrow,
fertile and heavily forested, but difficult of access. The state
is divided into two distinct zones — the Herras calientes of the
coast and lower river courses where tropical conditions prevail,
and the tierras templadas of the mountain region where the
conditions are subtropical. The latter is celebrated for its
agreeable and healthy climate, and for the variety and character
of its products. The principal river of the state ia the Rio de las
Balsas or Mescala, which, having its source in Tlaxcala, flows
entirely across the state from W. to E., and then southward to
the Pacific on the frontier of Michoacan. This river is 429 m.
long and receives many affluents from the mountainous region
through which it passes, but its course is very precipitous and
its mouth obstructed by sand bars. Hie agricultural products
include cotton, coffee, tobacco and cereals, and the forests produce
rubber, vanilla and various textile fibres. Mining is undeveloped,
although the mineral resources of the state include silver, gold,
mercury, lead, iron, coal, sulphur and precious stones* The
capital, Chilpancingo, or Chilpancingo de los Bravos (pop. 7497
in 1900), is a small town in the Sierra Madre about no m. from
the coast and 200 m. S. of the Federal capital. It is a healthy
well-built town on the old Acapulco road, is lighted by electricity
and is temporarily the western terminus of the Interoceanic
railway from Vera Cruz. It is celebrated in the history of
Mexico as the meeting-place of the revolutionary congress of
18 13, which issued a declaration of independence. Chilpancingo
was badly damaged by an earthquake in January 1902, and
again on the 16th of April 1907. Other' important towns of the
state are Tixtla, or Tixtla de Guerrero, formerly the capital
(pop. 6316 in 1000), 3 m. N.E. of Chilpancingo; Chilapa (8256 in
1895), the most populous town of the state, partially destroyed
by a hurricane in 1889, and again by the earthquake of 1007;
Iguala (6631 in 1895); and Acapulco. Guerrero was organized
as a state in 1849, its territory being taken from the states of
Mexico, Michoacan and Puebla.
GUERRILLA (erroneously written "guerilla," being the
diminutive of the Span, guerra, war), a term currently used to
denote war carried on by bands in any irregular and unorganized
manner. At the Hague Conference of 1809 the position of
irregular combatants was one of the subjects dealt with, and the
rules there adopted were reaffirmed at the Conference of 1007.
They provide that irregular bands in order to enjoy recognition
as belligerent forces shall (a) have at their head a. person
responsible for his subordinates, (b) wear some fixed distinctive
badge recognizable at a d&tahce, (c) carry arms openly, and (d)
conform in their operations to the laws and customs of war.
The rules, however, also provide that in case of invasion the
inhabitants of a territory who on the approach of the invading
enemy spontaneously take up arms to resist it, shall be regarded
as belligerent troops if they carry arms openly and respect the laws
and customs of war, although they may not have had time to
become organized in accordance - with the above provisions.
These rules were borrowed almost word for word from the project
drawn up at the Brussels international conference of 1874,
which, though never ratified, was practically incorporated in the
army regulations issued by the Russian government in connexion
with the war of 1877-78. (T. Ba.)
GUERRINI, OLINDO (1845- ), Italian poet, was born
at Sant' Alberto, Ravenna, and after studying law took to a
life of letters, becoming eventually librarian at Bologna Univer-
sity. In 1877 he published Postuma, a volume of camoniere,
under the name of Lorenzo Stechetti, following this with Polemica
(1878), CanH popolari romagnoli (1880) and other poetical
works, and becoming known as the leader of the " verist "
school among Italian lyrical writers.
GUESDE, JULES BASILS (1845- ), French socialist,
was born in Paris on the nth of November 1845. He had
begun his career as a clerk in the French Home Office, but at
the outbreak of the Franco-German War he was editing Les
Droits de Vhomme at Montpellier, and had to take refuge at
Geneva in 1871 from a prosecution instituted on account of
articles which had appeared in his paper in defence of the
Commune. In 1876 he returned to France to become one of
the chief French apostles of Marxian collectivism, and was
imprisoned for six months in 1878 for taking part in the first
Parisian International Congress. He edited at different times
GUEST, E.— GUEVARA, A. DE
673
Les Droits de Vhomme, Le Cri dupeuple, Le Socialiste, but his
best-known organ was the weekly Egalitt. He had been in close
association with Paul Laf argue, and through him with Karl Marx,
whose daughter he married. It was in conjunction with Marx
and Lafargue that he drew up the programme accepted by the
national congress of the Labour party at Havre in 1880, which
laid stress on the formation of an international labour party
working by revolutionary methods. Next year at the Reims
congress the orthodox Marxian programme of Guesde was
opposed by the " possibles," who rejected the intransigeant
attitude of Guesde for the opportunist policy of Benolt Malon.
At the congress of St-£tienne the difference developed into
separation, those who refused all compromise with a capitalist
government following Guesde, while the opportunists formed
several groups. Guesde took his full share in the consequent
discussion between the Guesdists, the Blanquists, the possibilists,
&c. In 1893 he was returned to the Chamber of Deputies for
Lille (7th circonscription) with a large majority over the Christian
Socialist and Radical candidates. He brought forward various
proposals in social legislation forming the programme of the
Labour party, without reference to the divisions among the
Socialists, and on the 20 th of November 1894 succeeded in
raising a two days' discussion of the collectivist principle in the
Chamber. In 1902 he was not re-elected, but resumed his seat
in 1006. In 1903 there was a formal reconciliation at the Reims
congress of the sections of the party, which then took the name
of the Socialist party of France. Guesde, nevertheless, continued
to oppose the opportunist policy of Jaures, whom he denounced
for supporting one bourgeois party against another. His defence
of the principle of freedom of association led him, incongruously
enough, to support the religious Congregations against £mile
Combes. Besides his numerous political and socialist pamphlets
he published in 1901 two volumes of his speeches in the Chamber
of Deputies entitled Quatre arts de lutte de classe i8gj-i8g8.
GUEST, EDWIN (1800-1880), English antiquary, was born in
1800. He was educated at King Edward's school, Birmingham,
and at Caius College, Cambridge, where he graduated as eleventh
wrangler, subsequently becoming a fellow of his college. Called
to the bar in 1828, he devoted himself, after some years of legal
practice, to antiquarian and literary research. In 1838 he
published his exhaustive History of English Rhythms. He also
wrote a very large number of papers on Roman-British history,
which, together with a mass of fresh material for a history of
early Britain, were published posthumously under the editorship
of Dr Stubbs under the title Origines Celticae (1883). In 1852
Guest was: elected master of Caius College, becoming LL.D. in
the following year, and in 1854-1855 he was vice-chancellor of
Cambridge University. Guest was a fellow of the Royal Society,
and an honorary member of the Society of Antiquaries. He
died on the 23rd of November 1880.
QUEST (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger.
Gast } and Swed. gdst\ cognate with Lat. hostis, originally a
stranger, hence enemy; cf. " host " ), one who receives hos-
pitality in the house of another, his " host "; hence applied to
a parasite.
GUETTARD, JEAN frlENNE (1715-1786), French naturalist
and mineralogist, was born at £tampes,on the 2 2nd of September
171 5. In boyhood he gained a knowledge of plants from his
grandfather, who was an apothecary, and later he qualified as a
doctor in medicine. Pursuing the study of botany in various
parts of France and other countries, he began to take notice of
the relation between the distribution of plants and the soils and
subsoils. In this way his attention came to be directed to
minerals and rocks. In 1746 he communicated to the Academy
of Sciences in Paris a memoir on the distribution of minerals and
rocks, and this was accompanied by a map on which he had
recorded his observations. He thus, as remarked by W. D.
Conybeare, " first carried into execution the idea, proposed by
[Martin] Lister years before, of geological maps." In the course
of his journeys he made a large collection of fossils and figured
many of them, but he had no clear ideas about the sequence
of strata. He made observations also on the degradation of
mountains by rain, rivers and sea; and he was the first to
ascertain the existence of former volcanoes in the district of
Auvergne. He died in Paris on the 7th of January 1786.
His publications include: Observations sur les ptantes (2 vols.,
1747) ; Histoire de la dicouverte faite en France de matter es sem-
blables & ceUes dont la porcelaine de la Chine est contposSe (1765);
M&noires sur difft rentes parties des sciences et arts (5 vols., 1768-
T783); M&moire sur la minSralogie du Dauphine* (2 vols., 1779).
See The Founders of Geology, by Sir A. Geikie (1897).
GUEUX, LES, or " The Beggars," a name assumed by the
confederacy of nobles and other malcontents, who in 1566
opposed Spanish tyranny in the Netherlands. The leaders of
the nobles, who signed a solemn league known as " the Com-
promise," by which they bound themselves to assist in defending
the rights and liberties of the Netherlands against the civil and
religious despotism of Philip II., were Louis, count of Nassau,
and Henry, count of Brederode. On the 5th of April 1566
permission was obtained for the confederates to present a petition
of grievances, called " the Request," to the regent, Margaret,
duchess of Parma. About 250 nobles marched to the palace
accompanied by Louis of Nassau and Brederode. The regent
was at first alarmed at the appearance of so large a body, but
one of her councillors, Berlaymont by name, was heard to
exclaim, " What, madam, is your highness afraid of these
beggars (ces gueux)?" The appellation was not forgotten. At
a great feast held by some 300 confederates at the H6tel Culem-
burg three days later, Brederode in a speech declared that if need
be they were all ready to become " beggars " in their country's
cause. The words caught on, and the hall resounded with loud
cries of " VivetU les gueux!" The name became henceforward a
party appellation. The patriot party adopted the emblems of
beggarhood, the wallet and the bowl, as trinkets to be worn on
their hats or their girdles, and a medal was struck having on one
side the head of Philip II., on the other two clasped hands with
the motto " Fidele au roy, jusques d porter la besace." The
original league of " Beggars " was short-lived, crushed by the
iron hand of Alva, but its principles survived and were to be
ultimately triumphant.
In the year 1569 the prince of Orange, who had now openly
placed himself at the head of the party of revolt, granted letters
of marque to a number of vessels manned by crews of desperadoes
drawn from all nationalities. These fierce corsairs under the
command of a succession of daring and reckless leaders — the
best-known of whom is William de la Marck, lord of Lumey —
were called " Gueux de mer" or " Sea Beggars." At first they
were content with plundering both by sea and land and carrying
their booty to the English ports where they were able to refit
and replenish their stores. This went on till 1572, when Queen
Elizabeth suddenly refused to admit them to her harbours.
Having no longer any refuge, the Sea Beggars in desperation
made an attack upon Brill, which they seized by surprise in the
absence of the Spanish garrison on the 1st of April 1572. En-
couraged by their unhoped-for success, they now sailed to
Flushing, which was also taken by a coup de main. The capture
of these two towns gave the signal for a general revolt of the
northern Netherlands, and is regarded as the real beginning of
the War of Dutch Independence.
GUEVARA, ANTONIO DE (c. 1490- 1544), Spanish chronicler
and moralist, was a native of the province of Alava, and passed
some of his earlier years at the court of Isabella, queen of Castile.
In 1528 he entered the Franciscan order, and afterwards accom-
panied the emperor Charles V. during his journeys to Italy and
other parts of Europe. After having held successively the offices
of court preacher, ceurt historiographer, bishop of Guadix and
bishop of Mondonedo, he died in 1544. His earliest work,
entitled Reloj de principes, published at Valladolid in 1529, and,
according to its author, the fruit of eleven years' labour, is a
didactic novel, designed, after the manner of Xenophon's Cyro-
paedia } to delineate, in a somewhat ideal way for the benefit
of modern sovereigns, the life and character of an ancient prince,
Marcus Aurelius, distinguished for wisdom and virtue. It was
often reprinted in Spanish; and before the close of the century
had also been translated into Latin, Italian, French and English,
xn. 22
674
GUEVARA, L. V. DE— GUIANA
an English translation being by J. Bourchier (London, 1546)
and another being by T. North. It is difficult now to account for
its extraordinary popularity, its thought being neither just nor
profound, while its style is stiff and affected. It gave rise to a
literary controversy, however, of great bitterness and violence,
the author having ventured without warrant to claim for it an
historical character, appealing to an imaginary " manuscript
in Florence." Other works of Guevara are the Decade de
los Chares (Valladolid, 1539), or " Lives of the Ten Roman
Emperors/' in imitation of the manner of Plutarch and Suetonius;
and the Epistolas fatn Mares (Valladolid, 1530-1545), sometimes
called " The Golden Letters/' often printed in Spain, and
translated into all the principal languages of Europe. They are
in reality a collection of stiff and formal essays which have long
ago fallen into merited oblivion. Guevara, whose influence upon
the Spanish prose of the 16th century was considerable, also
wrote Libro de los inventores del arte de marear (Valladolid, 1539,
and Madrid, 1895).
GUEVARA, LUIS VELEZ DE (1579-1644)1 Spanish dramatist
and novelist, was born at ficija on the 1st of August 1579.
After graduating as a sizar at the university of Osuna in 1596,
he joined the household of Rodrigo de Castro, cardinal-arch-
bishop of Seville, and celebrated the marriage of Philip II. in
a poem signed " Vclcz de Santander," a name which he con-
tinued to use till some years later. He appears to have served
as a soldier in Italy and Algiers, returning to Spain in 1602 when
ho entered the service of the count de Saldafta, and dedicated
himself to writing for the stage. He died at Madrid on the
10th of November 1644. He was the author of over four hundred
plays, of which the best are Reinar despues de morir, Mds pesa el
rey que la sangre. La Luna de la Sierra and El Diablo estd en
Cantillana; but he is most widely known as the author of El
Diablo cojutlo (164 1), a fantastic novel which suggested to Le
Sage the idea of his Diable boiteux.
GUGUELMI, PIETRO (1 727-1804), Italian composer, was
born at Massa Carrara in May 1727, and died in Rome on the
1 Oth of November 1804. He received his first musical education
from his father, and afterwards studied under Durante at the
Conservatorio di Santa Maria di Lorcto at Naples. His first
operatic work, produced at Turin in 1755, established his
reputation, and soon his fame spread beyond the limits of his
own country, so that in 1762 he was called to Dresden to con-
duct the opera there. He remained for some years in Germany,
where his works met with much success, but the greatest triumphs
were reserved for him in England. He went to London, ac-
cording to Burney, in 1768, but according to Florimo in 1772,
returning to Naples in 1777. He still continued to produce
operas at an astounding rate, but was unable to compete suc-
cessfully with the younger masters of the day. In 1793 he
became maestro di atppdhi at St Peter's, Rome. He was a very
prolific composer of Italian comic opera, and there is in most
of his scores a vein of humour and natural gaiety not surpassed
by Cimarosa himself. In serious opera he was less successful.
But here also he shows at least the qualities of a competent
musician. Considering the enormous number of his works, his
unequal workmanship and the frequent instances of mechanical
and slip-shod writing in his music need not surprise us. The
following are among the most celebrated of his operas: / Due
OVmiW/i % La Serva inamorata % La Pastorella nobile, La Bella Pec-
catri<t % RtnMo % Artaserse* Dido** and Enea e Lavinia, He also
wrote oratorios and miscellaneous pieces of orchestral and
chamber music. Of his eight sons two at least acquired fame as
musicians — Pictro Carlo (1703-1827), a successful imitator of
his father's operatic style, and Giacomo. an excellent singer.
GUIANA {Guyana, Guayana 1 }. the general name given in its
1 The origin of the name is somewhat obscure, and has been
variously interpreted. But the late Col. G. E. Church supplies the
following note, which has the weight of his great authority: " I
cannot confirm the suggestion of Schomburgk that Guayan4 4 re-
ceived its name from a small river, a tributary of the Orinoco',
suppoA\i to be the Waini or Guair.ia. In South America, east of
the Andes, it was the common custom of any tribe occupying a
length of river to call it simply * the river '; but the other tribes
widest acceptation to the part of South America lying to the
north-east from 8° 40' N. to 3 30' S. and from 50 W. to 68° 30'
W. Its greatest length, from Cabo do Norte to the confluence
of the Rio Xie and Rio Negro, is about 1250 m., its greatest
breadth, from Barima Point in the mouth of the Orinoco to
the confluence of the Rio Negro and Amazon, 800 m. Its area
is roughly 690,000 sq. m. Comprised in this vast territory are
Venezuelan (formerly Spanish) Guiana, lying on both sides of
the Orinoco and extending S. and S.W. to the Rio Negro and
Brazilian settlements; British Guiana, extending from Venez-
uela to the left bank of the Corentyn river; Dutch Guiana
designated any section of it by the name of the people living on its
banks. Many streams, therefore, had more than a dozen names.
It is probable that no important river had one name alone through-
out its course, prior to the time of the Conquest. The radical wtni,
waini, wayni, is found as a prefix, and very frequently as a termina-
tion, to the names of numerous rivers, not only throughout Guayana
but all over the Orinoco and Amazon valleys. For instance, Paymary
Indians called the portion of the Purus river which they occupied the
Waini. It simply means water, or a fountain of water, or a river.
The alternative suggestion that Guayana is an Indian word signify-
ing ' wild coast,' I also think untenable. This term, applied to the
north-east frontage of South America between the Orinoco and the
Amazon, is found on the old Dutch map of Hartsinck, who calls it
4 Guiana Caribania of de Wilde Kust,' a name which must have
well described it when, in 1580, some Zealanders, of the Netherlands,
sent a ship to cruise along it, from the mouth of the Amazon to
that of the Orinoco, and formed the first settlement near the river
Pomeroon. The map of Firnao Vaz Dourado, 1564, calls the
northern part of South America, including the present British
Guiana, ' East Peru/ An anonymous Spanish map, about 1566,
gives Guayana as lying on the east side of the Orinoco just above
its mouth. About 1660, Sebastien de Ruesta, cosmographer of the
Casa de Contractacion de Seville, shows Guayana covering the
British, French and Dutch Guayanas. According to the map of
Nicolas de Fer, 1719, a tribe of Guayazis (Guyanas) occupied the
south side of the Amazon river, front of the island of Tupinambara,
east of the mouth of the Madeira. Aristides Rojas, an eminent
Venezuelan scholar, says that the Mariches Indians, near Caracas,
inhabited a site called Guayana long before the discovery of South
America by the Spaniards. Coudreau in his Chez nos Indiens
mentions that the Koucouyennes of Guayana take their name from
a large tree in their forests, ' which appears to be the origin of the
name Guayane.' According to Michelana y Rojas, in their report
to the Venezuelan government on their voyages in the basin of the
Orinoco, ' Guyana derives its name from the Indians who live
between the Caroni river and the Sierra de Imataca, called Guayanos.*
My own studies of aboriginal South America lead me to support the
statement of Michelana y Rojas, but with the following enlargement
of it : The Portuguese, in the early part of the 16th century, found
that the coast and mountain district of Rio de Janeiro, between
Cape Sao Thome and Angra dos Reis, belonged to the formidable
Tamoyos. South of these, for a distance of about 300 m. of the
ocean slope of the coast range, were the Guayand tribes, called by
the early writers Guiands, Goyand, Guayana, Goand and, plural,
Goayndzh, Goayandzes and Guayandzes. They were constantly at
feud with the Tamoyos and with their neighbours on the south, the
Carijos, as well as with the vast Tapuya hordes of the Sertao of the
interior. Long before the discovery, they had been forced to
abandon their beautiful lands, but had recuperated their strength,
returned and reconquered their ancient habitat. Meanwhile, how-
ever, many of them had migrated northward, some had settled in
the Sertao back of Bahia and Pernambuco, others on the middle
Amazon and in the valley of the Orinoco, but a large number had
crossed the lower Amazon and occupied an extensive area of country
to the north of it, about the size of Belgium, along the Tumuchumac
range of highlands, and the upper Paron and Maroni rivers, as well
as a large district on the northern slope of the above-named range.
In their new home they became known as Roucouyennes, because,
like the Mundurucus of the middle Amazon, they nibbed and
painted themselves with roucou or urucu (Bixa Orellana); but
other surrounding tribes called them Ouayanas, that is Guayanas —
the Gua, so common to the Guarani-Tupi tongue, having become
corrupted into Oua. Porto Seguro says of the so-called Tupis, ' at
other times they gave themselves the name of Guayd or Guayand,
which probably means " brothers," from which comes Guayazes and
Guayanazes. . . . The latter occupied the country just south of
Rio de Janeiro. . . . The masters of the Capitania of St Vincente
called themselves Guianas.' Guinila, referring to north-eastern
South America (1745), speaks of five missions being formed to
civilize the ' Nacion Guayana. 1 In view of the above, it may be
thought reasonable to assume that the vast territory now known
as Guayand (British, Dutch, French, Brazilian and Venezuelan)
derives its name from its aborigines who were found there at the
time of the discovery, and whose original home was the region I
have indicated."
GUIANA
675
Longitude West 60 of Groenwich
Emfrf^Tjilfc** ic.
(or Surinam), from the Corentyn to the Maroni river; French
Guiana (or Cayenne), from the Maroni to the Oyapock river; l
Brazilian (formerly Portuguese) Guiana, extending from the
southern boundaries of French, Dutch, British and part of
Venezuelan Guiana, to the Amazon and the Negro. Of these
divisions the first and last are now included in Venezuela and
Brazil respectively; British, Dutch and French Guiana are
described in order below, and are alone considered here.
In their physical geography the three Guianas present certain
common characteristics. In each the principal features are the
rivers and their branch streams. In each colony the northern
portion consists of a fluviomarine deposit extending inland and
gradually rising to a height of 10 to 15 ft. above the sea. This
alluvial plain varies in width from 50 m. to 18 m. and is traversed
by ridges of sand and shells, roughly parallel to what is now
the coast, indicating the trend of former shore lines. By the
draining and diking of these lands the plantations have been
formed along the coast and up the rivers. These low lands are
attached to a somewhat higher plateau, which towards the
coast is traversed by numerous huge sand-dunes and inland by
ranges of hills rising in places to as much as 2000 ft. The
greater part of this belt of country, in which the auriferous
districts principally occur, is covered with a dense growth of
jungle and high forest, but savannahs, growing only a long
wiry grass and poor shrubs, intrude here and there, being in the
S.E. much nearer to the coast than in the N.W. The hinterlands
consist of undulating open savannahs rising into hills and
mountains, some grass-covered, some in dense forest.
Geology *. — Guiana is formed almost entirely of gneiss and crystal-
1 This is the boundary generally accepted ; but it is in dispute.
2 See C. B. Brown and J. G. Sawkins, Reports on the Physical,
Descriptive and Economic Geology of British Guiana (London, 187O ;
C. Velain, " Esquisse geologique de la Guyane francaise et des
line schists penetrated by numerous dikes of diorite, diabase, &c.
The gold of the placer deposits appears to be derived, not from
quartz reefs, but from the schists and intrusive rocks, the selvages
of the diabase dikes sometimes containing as much as 5 oz. of
gold to the ton. In British Guiana a series of conglomerates, red
and white sandstone and red shale, rests upon the gneiss and
forms the remarkable table-topped mountains Koraima, Kukenaam,
&c. The beds are horizontal, and according to Brown and Sawkins,
three layers of greenstone, partly intrusive and partly contem-
poraneous, are interstratified with the sedimentary deposits. The
age of these beds is uncertain, but they evidently correspond with
the similar series which occurs in Brazil, partly Palaeozoic and
partly Cretaceous. In Dutch Guiana there are a few small patches
supposed to belong to the Cretaceous period. Along the coast,
and in the lower parts of the river valleys, are deposits which are
mainly Quaternary but may also include beds of Tertiary age.
History. — The coast of Guiana was sighted by Columbus in
1498 when he discovered the island of Trinidad and the peninsula
of Paria, and in the following year by Alonzo de Ojeda and
Amerigo Vespucci; and in 1500 Vincente Yaiiez Pinzon ventured
south of the equator, and sailing north-west along the coast
discovered the Amazon; he is believed to have also entered
some of the other rivers of Guiana, one of which, now called
Oyapock, is marked on early maps as Rio Pinzon. Little,
however, was known of Guiana until the fame of the fabled
golden city Manoa or El Dorado tempted adventurers to explore
its rivers and forests. From letters of these explorers found in
bassins du Parou et du Yari (affluents de TAmazone) d'apres les
explorations du Dr Crevaux," Bull. Soc. Giogr. ser. 7, vol. vi.
(Paris, 1885), pp. 453-492 (with geological map); E. Martin, Geo-
logische Studien uber Ntederldndisch-West-Indien, auf Grund eigener
Untersuchungsreisen (Leiden, 1888); W. Bergt, " Zur Geologie
des Coppename- und Nickerietales in Surinam (Hollandisch-
Guvana), Samml. d. Geol. Reichsmus. (Leiden), ser. 2, Bd. ii.
Heft 2, pp. 93-163 (with 3 maps); and for British Guiana, the
official reports on the geologv of various districts, by J. B. Harrison,
C. W. Anderson, H. I. Perkins, published at Georgetown.
676
GUIANA
captured ships, Sir Walter Raleigh was induced to ascend the
Orinoco in search of El Dorado in 1595, to send Lawrence
Key mis on the same quest in the following year, and in 161 7
to try once again, with the same intrepid lieutenant, an ex-
pedition fraught with disaster for both of them. As early as
1580 the Dutch had established a systematic trade with the
Spanish main, but so far as is known their first voyage to Guiana
was in 1598. By 1613 they had three or four settlements on
the coast of Demerara and Essequibo, and in about 1616 some
Zeelanders settled on a small island, called by them Kyk ober al
(" see over all"), in the confluence of the Cuyuni and Mazaruni
rivers. While the Dutch traders were struggling for a footing
in Essequibo and Demerara, English and French traders were
endeavouring to form settlements on the Oyapock river, in
Cayenne and in Surinam, and by 1652 the English had large
interests in the latter and the French in Cayenne. In 1663
Charles II. issued letters patent to Lord Willoughby of Parham
and Lawrence Hyde, second son of the earl of Clarendon, grant-
ing them the district between the Copenam and Maroni rivers,
a province described as extending, from E. to W. some 120 m.
This colony was, however, formally ceded to the Netherlands
in 1667 by the peace of Breda, Great Britain taking possession
of New York. Meanwhile the Dutch West India Company,
formed in 1621, had taken possession of Essequibo, over which
colony it exercised sovereign rights until 1791. In 1624 a Dutch
settlement was effected in the Berbice river, and from this grew
Berbice, for a long time a separate and independent colony.
In 1657 the Zeelanders firmly established themselves in the
Pomeroon, Monica and Demerara rivers, and by 1674 the Dutch
were colonizing all the territory now known as British and
D utch Guiana. The New Dutch West Indian Company, founded
in that year to replace the older company which had failed,
received Guiana by charter from the states-general in 1682.
In the following year the company sold one-third of their territory
to the city of Amsterdam, and another third to Cornells van
Aerssens, lord of Sommelsdijk. The new owners and the
company incorporated themselves as the Chartered Society of
Surinam, and Sommelsdijk agreed to fill the post of governor of
the colony at his own expense. The lucrative trade in slaves
was retained by the West Indian Company, but the society
could import them on its own account by paying a fine to the
company. Sommelsdijk's rule was wise and energetic. He
repressed and pacified the Indian tribes, erected forts and
disciplined the soldiery, constructed the canal which bears his
name, established a high court of justice and introduced the
valuable cultivation of the cocoa-nut. But on the 17th of June
1 688 he was massacred in a mutiny of the soldiers. The ' ' third "
which Sommelsdijk possessed was offered by his widow to William
III. of England, but it was ultimately purchased by the city of
Amsterdam for 700,000 fl. The settlements in Essequibo pro-
gressed somewhat slowly, and it was not until immigration was
attracted in 1740 by offers to newcomers of free land and im-
munity for a decade from taxation that anything like a colony
could be said to exist there. In 1732 Berbice placed itself under
the protection of the states-general of Holland and was granted
a constitution, and in 1773 Demerara, till then a dependency of
Essequibo, was constituted as a separate colony. In 1781 the
three colonies, Demerara, Essequibo and Berbice, were captured
by British privateers, and were placed by Rodney under the
governor of Barbados, but in 1782 they were taken by France,
then an ally of the Netherlands, and retained until the peace
of 1 783, when they were restored to Holland. In 1 784 Essequibo
and Demerara were placed under one governor, and Georgetown
— then called Stabroek — was fixed on as the seat of government.
The next decade saw a series of struggles between the colonies
and the Dutch West India company, which ended in the company
being wound up and in the three colonies being governed directly
by the states-general. In 1796 the British again took possession,
and retained the three colonies until the peace of Amiens in
1802, when they were once again restored to Holland, only to
be recaptured by Great Britain in 1803, in which year the
history proper of British Guiana began.
Brttbb
I. British Guiana, the only British possession in S. America,
was formally ceded in 1814-1815. The three colonies were in
1 83 1 consolidated into one colony divided into three
counties, Berbice extending from the Corentyn river
to the Abary creek, Demerara from the Abary to the
Boerasirie creek, Essequibo from the Boerasirie to the Venez-
uelan frontier. This boundary-line between British Guiana
and Venezuela was for many years the subject of dispute. The
Dutch, while British Guiana was in their possession, claimed the
whole watershed of the Essequibo river, while the Venezuelans
asserted that the Spanish province of Guayana had extended
up to the left bank of the Essequibo. In 1840 Sir Robert
Schomburgk had suggested a demarcation, afterwards known
as the " Schomburgk line "; and subsequently, though no
agreement was arrived at, certain modifications were made in
this British claim. In 1886 the government of Great Britain
declared that it would thenceforward exercise jurisdiction up to
and within a boundary known 3s " the modified Schomburgk
line." Outposts were located at points on this line, and for some
years Guianese police and Venezuelan soldiers faced one another
across the Amacura creek in the Orinoco mouth and at Yuruan
up the Cuyuni river. In 1897 the dispute formed the subject
of a message to congress from the president of the United States,
and in consequence of this intervention the matter was sub-
mitted to an international commission, whose award was issued
at Paris in 1899 (see Venezuela). By this decision neither
party gained its extreme claim, the line laid down differing
but little from the original Schomburgk line. The demarcation
was at once undertaken by a joint commission appointed by
Venezuela and British Guiana and was completed in 1904.
It was not found practicable, owing to the impassable nature
of the country, to lay down on earth that part of the boundary
fixed by the Paris award between the head of the Wenamu creek
and the summit of Mt. Roraima,and the boundary commissioners
suggested a deviation to follow the watersheds of the Caroni,
Cuyuni and Mazaruni rivers, a suggestion accepted by the two
governments. In 1902 the delimitation of the boundary between
British Guiana and Brazil was referred to the arbitration of the
king of Italy, and by his reward, issued in June i904V-the > sub-
stantial area in dispute was conceded to British Guiana. The
work of demarcation has since been carried out.
Towns, 6V. — The capital of British Guiana is Georgetown, at
the mouth of the Demerara river, on its right bank, with a
population of about 50,000. New Amsterdam, on the right
bank of the Berbice river, has a population of about 7500.
Each possesses a mayor and town council, with statutory powers
to impose rates. There are nineteen incorporated villages, and
ten other locally governed areas known as country districts, the
affairs of which are controlled by local authorities, known as
village councils and country authorities respectively.
Population. — The census of 1891 gave the population of
British Guiana as 278,328. There was no census taken in 1901.
By official estimates the population at the end of 1904 was
301,923. Of these some 120,000 were negroes and 124,000
East Indians; 4300 were Europeans, other than Portuguese,
estimated at about 11,600, and some 30,000 of mixed race.
The aborigines — Arawaks, Caribs, Wapisianas, Warraws, &c. —
who numbered about 10,000 in 1891, are now estimated at
about 6500. In 1904 the birth-rate for the whole colony was
30-3 per 1000 and the death-rate 28-8.
Physical Geography. — The surface features of British Guiana
may be divided roughly into four regions: first, the alluvial sea-
board, flat and below the level of high-water; secondly, the forest
belt, swampy along the rivers but rising into undulating lands and
hills between them; thirdly, the savannahs in and inland of the
forest belt, elevated table-lands, grass-covered and practically
treeless; and fourthly, the mountain ranges. The eastern portion
of the colony, from the source of its two largest rivers, the Corentyn
and Essequibo, is a rough inclined plain, starting at some 900 ft.
above sea-level at the source of the Takutu in the west, but only
some 400 at that of the Corentyn in the west, and sloping down
gradually to the low alluvial flats about 3 ft. below high-water
fine. The eastern part is generally forested; the western is an
almost level savannah, with woodlands along the rivers. The
GUIANA
677
northern portion of British Guiana, the alluvial flats alluded to
already, consists of a fluviomarine deposit extending inland from
25 m. to 30 m. f gradually rising to about 12 ft. above high- water
mark and ending against beds of sandy clay, the residua of igneous
rocks decomposed in situ, which form an extensive undulating
region rising to 150 ft. above the sea and stretching back to the
forest-covered hills. Roughly parallel to the existing coast-line are
narrow reefs of sand and sea-shells, which are dunes indicating the
trend of former limits of the sea, and still farther back are the
higher " sand hills," hills of granite or diabase with a thick stratum
of coarse white sand superimposed. From the coast-line seawards
the ocean deepens very gradually, and at low tide extensive flats
of sand and of mixed clay and sand (called locally " caddy ") are
left bare, these flats being at times covered with a deposit of thin
drift mud.
Two great parallel mountain systems cross the colony from W.
to E., the greater being that of the Pacaraima and Merum6 Mts.,
and the lesser including the Kanuku Mts. (2000 ft.), while the
Acarai Mts., a densely- wooded range rising to 2500 ft., form the
southern boundary of British Guiana and the watershed between
the Essequibo and the Amazon. These mountains rise generally
in a succession of terraces and broad plateaus, with steep or even
sheer sandstone escarpments. They are mostly flat-topped, and
their average height is about 3500 ft. The Pacaraima Mts., how-
ever, reach 8635 ft. at Roraima, and the latter remarkable mountain
rises as a perpendicular wall of red rock 1500 ft. in height springing
out of the forest-clad slopes below the summit, and was considered
inaccessible until in December 1884 Messrs im Thurn and Perkins
found a ledge by which the top could be reached. The summit is
a table-land some 12 sq. m. in area. Mt. Kukenaam is of similar
structure and also rises above 8500 ft. Other conspicuous summits
(about 7000 ft.) are Iwalkarima, Eluwarima, Ilutipu and Waiaka-
piapu. The southern portion of the Pacaraima range comprises
rugged hills and rock-strewn valleys, but to the N.. where the sand-
stone assumes the table-shaped form, there are dense forests, and
the scenery is of extraordinary grandeur. Waterfalls frequently
descend the cliffs from a great height (nearly 2000 ft. sheer at
Roraima and Kukenaam). The sandstone formation can be traced
from the northern Pacaraima range on the N.W. to the Corentyn
in the S.E. It is traversed in places by dikes and sills of diabase or
dolerite, while bosses of more or less altered gabbro rise through it.
The surface of a large part of the colony is composed of gneiss, and
of gneissose granite, which is seen in large water- worn bosses in the
river beds. Intrusive granite is of somewhat rare occurrence;
where found, it gives rise to long low rolls of hilly country and to
cataracts in the rivers. Extensive areas of the country consist of
quartz-porphyry, porphyrites and felstone, and of more or less
schistose rocks derived from them. These rocks are closely con-
nected with the gneissose granites and gneiss, and there are reasons
for believing that the latter are the deep-seated portions of them
and are only visible where they have been exposed by denudation.
Long ranges of hills, varying in elevation from a few hundreds to
from 2000 ft. to 3000 ft., traverse the plains of the gneissose districts.
These are caused either by old intrusions of diabase and gabbro
which have undergone modifications, or by later ones of dolerite.
These ranges are of high importance, as the rocks comprising them
are the main source of gold in British Guiana.
Rivers. — The principal physical features of British Guiana are
its rivers and their branches, which form one vast network of
waterways all over it, and are the principal, indeed practically the
only, highways inland from the coast. Chief among them are the
Waini, the Essequibo, and its tributaries the Mazaruni and Cuyuni,
the Demerara, the Berbice and the Corentyn. The Essequibo
rises in the Acarai Mts., in o° 41' N. and about 850 ft. above the
sea, and flows northwards for about 600 m. until it discharges itself
into the ocean by an estuary nearly 15 m. in width. # In this
estuary are several large and fertile islands, on four of which sugar
used to be grown. Now but one, Wakenaam, can boast of a factory.
The Essequibo can be entered only by craft drawing less than
20 ft. and is navigable for these vessels for not more than 50 m.,
its subsequent course upwards being frequently broken by cataracts
and rapids. Some 7 m. below the first series of rapids it is joined
by the Mazaruni, itself joined by the Cuyuni some 4 m. farther up.
It has a remarkable course from its source in the Merume Mountains,
about 2400 ft. above the sea. It flows first south, then west, north-
west, north, and finally south-east to within 20 m. of its own source,
forming many fine falls, and its course thereafter is still very tortuous.
In 4 N. and 58 W., the Essequibo is joined by the Rupununi,
which, rising in a savannah at the foot of the Karawaimento Mts.,
has a northerly and easterly course of fully 200 m. In 3 37' N.
the Awaricura joins the Rupununi, and by this tributary the rirara,
a tributary of the Amazon, may be reached, — an example of the
interesting series of itdbos connecting nearly all S. American rivers
with one another. Another large tributary of the Essequibo is the
Potaro, on which, at 1130 ft. above sea-level and in 5 8' N. and
50° 19' W., is the celebrated Kaieteur fall, discovered in 1870 by Mr
C. Barrington Brown while engaged on a geological survey. This
fall is produced by the river flowing from a tableland of sandstone
and conglomerate into a deep valley 822 ft. below. For the first
741 ft. the water falls as a perpendicular column, thence as a sloping
cataract to the still reach below. The river 200 yds. above the fall
is about 400 ft. wide, while the actual waterway of the fall itself
varies from 120 ft. in dry weather to nearly 400 ft. in rainy seasons.
The Kaieteur, which it took Mr Brown a fortnight to reach from
the coast, can now be reached on the fifth day from Georgetown.
Among other considerable tributaries of the Essequibo are the
Siparuni, Burro-Burro, Rewa, Kuyuwini and Kassi-Kudji. The
Demerara river, the head- waters of which are known only to Indians,
rises probably near 5 N., and after a winding northerly course of
some 200 m. enters the ocean in 6° 50' N. and 58 ° 20' W. A bar
of mud and sand prevents the entrance of vessels drawing more
than 10 ft. The river is from its mouth, which is nearly 2 m. wide,
navigable for 70 m. to all vessels which can enter. The Berbice
river rises in about 3 40' N., and in 3 53' N. is within 9 m. of the
Essequibo. At its mouth it is about 2$ m. wide, and is navigable
for vessels drawing not more than 12 ft. for about 105 m. and for
vessels drawing not more than 7 ft. for fully 175 m. Thence upwards
it is broken by great cataracts. The Canje creek joins the Berbice
river close to the sea. The Corentyn river rises in 1 ° 48' 30* N.,
about 140 m. E. of the Essequibo, and flowing northwards enters
the Atlantic by an estuary some 14 m. wide. The divide between its
head- waters and those of streams belonging to the Amazon system
is only some 400 ft. in elevation. It is navigable for about 150 m.,
some of the reaches being of great width and beauty. The upper
reaches are broken by a series of great cataracts, some of which,
until the discovery of Kaieteur, were believed to be the grandest in
British Guiana. Among other rivers are the Pomeroon, Monica
and Barima, while several large streams or creeks fall directly into
the Atlantic, the largest being the Abary, Mahaicony and Mahaica,
between Berbice andDemerara, and the Boerasirie between Demerara
and Essequibo. The colour of the water of the rivers and creeks
is in general a dark brown, caused by the infusion of vegetable
matter, but where the streams run for a long distance through
savannahs they are of a milky colour.
Climate. — The climate is, as tropical countries go, not unhealthy.
Malarial fevers are common but preventible; and phthisis is pre-
valent, not because the climate is unsuitable to sufferers from
pulmonary complaints, but because of the ignorance of the common
people of the elementary principles of hygiene, an ignorance which
the state is endeavouring to lessen by including the teaching of
hygiene in the syllabus of the primary schools. The temperature is
uniform on the coast for the ten months from October to July, the
regular N.E. trade winds keeping it down to an average of 8o° F.
In August and September the trades die away and the heat becomes
oppressive. In the interior the nights are cold and damp. Hurri-
canes, indeed even strong gales, are unknown; a tidal wave is an
impossibility; and the nature of the soil of the coast lands renders
earthquakes practically harmless. Occasionally there are severe
droughts, and the rams are sometimes unduly prolonged, but
usually the year is clearly divided into two wet and two dry seasons.
The long wet season begins in mid-April and lasts until mid-August.
The long dry season is from September to the last week in November.
December and January constitute the short rainy season, and
February and March the short dry season. The rainfall varies
greatly in different parts of the colony; on the coast it averages
about 80 in. annually.
Flora, — The vegetation is most luxuriant and its growth per-
petual. Indigenous trees and plants abound in the utmost variety,
while many exotics have readdy adapted themselves to local con-
ditions. Along the coast is a belt ol courida and mangrove — the
bark of the latter being used for tanning — forming a natural barrier
to the inroads of the sea, but one which — very unwisely — has been
in parts almost ruined to allow of direct drainage. The vast forests
afford an almost inexhaustible supply of valuable timbers; green-
heart and mora, largely used in shipbuilding and for wharves and
dock and lock gates; sil verbally, yielding magnificent planks for all
kinds of boats; and cabinet woods, such as cedar and crabwood.
There may be seen great trees, struggling for life one with the
other, covered with orchids — some of great beauty and value — and
draped with falling lianas and vines. Giant palms fringe the river-
banks and break the monotony of the mass of smaller foliage.
Many of the trees yield gums, oils and febrifuges, the bullet tree
being bled extensively for batata, a gum used largely in the manu-
facture of belting. Valuable varieties of rubber have also been
found in several districts, and since early in 1905 have attracted the
attention of experts from abroad. On the coast plantains, bananas
and mangoes grow readily and are largely used for food, while
several districts are admirably adapted to the growth of limes.
Oranges, pineapples, star-apples, granadillas, guavas are among the
fruits; Indian corn, cassava, yams, eddoes, tannias, sweet potatoes
and ochroes are among the vegetables, while innumerable varieties
of peppers are grown and used in large quantities by all classes.
The dainty avocado pear, purple and green, grows readily. In the
lagoons and trenches many varieties of water-lilies grow wild, the
largest being the famous Victoria repia.
Fauna. — Guiana is full of wild animals, birds, insects and
reptiles. Among the wild animals, one and all nocturnal, are
the mipourrie or tapir, manatee, acouri and labba (both ex-
cellent eating), sloth, ant-eater, armadillo, several kinds of deer,
baboons, monkeys and the puma and jaguar. The last is seen
6 7 8
GUIANA
frequently down on the coast, attracted from the forest by the
cattle grazing on the front and back pasture lands of the estates.
Among the birds may be mentioned the carrion crow (an invaluable
scavenger), vicissi and muscovy ducks, snipe, teal, plover, pigeon,
the ubiquitous kiskadee or quest que dit, a species of shrike — his
name derived from his shrill call — the canary and the twa-twa,
both charming whistlers. These are all found on the coast. In the
forest are maam (partridge), maroudi (wild turkey), the beautiful
bell-bird with note like a silver gong, the quadrille bird with its
tuneful oft-repeated bar, great flocks of macaws and parrots, and
other birds of plumage of almost indescribable richness and variety.
On the coast the trenches and canals are full of alligators, but the
great cayman is found only in the rivers of the interior. Among the
many varieties of snakes are huge constricting camoudies, deadly
bushmasters, labarrias and rattlesnakes. Among other reptiles
are the two large lizards, the salumpenta (an active enemy of the
barn-door fowl), and the iguana, whose flesh when cooked resembles
tender chicken. The rivers, streams and trenches abound with
fishes, crabs and shrimps, the amount of the latter consumed being
enormous, running into tons weekly as the coolies use them in their
curries and the blacks in their foo-foo.
Government and Administration. — Executive power is vested
in a governor, who is advised in all administrative matters by
an executive council, consisting of five official and three un-
official members nominated by the crown. Legislative authority
is vested in the Court of Policy, consisting of the governor, who
presides and without whose permission no legislation can be
initiated, seven other official members and eight elected members.
This body has, however, no financial authority, all taxation and
expenditure being dealt with by the Combined Court, consisting
of the Court of Policy combined with six financial representatives.
The elected members of the Court of Policy and the financial
representatives are elected by their several constituencies for
five years. Qualification for the Court of Policy is the owner-
ship, or possession under lease for a term of twenty-one years,
of eighty acres of land, of which at least forty acres are under
cultivation, or of house property to the value of $7500. A
financial representative must be similarly qualified or be in
receipt of a clear income of not less than £300 per annum.
Every male is entitled to be registered as a voter who (in addition
to the usual formal qualifications) owns (during six months prior
to registration) three acres of land in cultivation or a house of
the annual rental or value of £20; or is a secured tenant for
not less than three years of six acres of land in cultivation or
for one year of a house of £40 rental; or has an income of not
less than £100 per annum; or has during the previous twelve
months paid £4, 3s. 4d. in direct taxation. Residence in the
electoral district for six months prior to registration is coupled
with the last two alternative qualifications. Plural voting is
legal but no plumping is allowed. The combined court is by
this constitution, which was granted in 1801, allowed the use
of all revenues due to the crown in return for a civil list voted
for a term now fixed at three years. English is the official and
common language. The Roman-Dutch law, modified by orders-
in-council and local statutes, governs actions in the civil courts,
but the criminal law is founded on that of England. Magis-
trates have in civil cases jurisdiction up to £20, while an appeal
lies from their decisions in any criminal or civil case. The
supreme court consists of a chief justice and two puisne judges,
and has various jurisdictions. The full court, consisting of the
three judges or any two of them, has jurisdiction over all civil
matters, but an appeal lies to His Majesty in privy council in
cases involving £500 and upwards. A single judge sits in in-
solvency, in actions involving not over £520, and in appeals from
magistrates' decisions. The appeal full court, consisting of
three judges, sits to hear appeals from decisions of a single judge
in the limited civil, appellate and insolvency courts. Criminal
courts are held four times a year in each county, a single judge
presiding in each court. A court of crown cases reserved is
formed by the three judges, of whom two form a quorum pro-
vided the chief-justice is one of the two. There are no imperial
troops now stationed in British Guiana, but there is a semi-
military police force, a small militia and two companies of
volunteers. The Church of England and the Church of Scotland
are both established, and grants-in-aid are also given to the
Roman Catholic and Wesleyan churches and to several other
denominations.
The revenue and expenditure now each amount annually to an
average of a little over £500,000. About one-half of the revenue is
produced by import duties, and about £90,000 by excise. The
public debt on the 31st of March 1905 stood at £989,620.
The system of primary education is denominational and is mainly
supported from the general revenue. During 1904-1905, 213 schools
received grants-in-aid amounting to £23,500, the average cost per
scholar being a little over £1. These grants are calculated on the
results of examinations held annually, an allowance varying from
4s. 4Jd. to is. ojd. being made for each pass in reading, writing,
arithmetic, school-garden work, nature study, singing and drill,
English, geography, elementary hygiene and sewing. Secondary
education is provided in Georgetown at some private establishments,
and for boys at Queen's College, an undenominational government
institution where the course of instruction is the same as at a public
school in England, and the boys are prepared for the Cambridge
local examinations, on the result of which annually depend the
Guiana scholarship-^open to boys and girls, and carrying a university
or professional training in England — and two scholarships at
Queen's College.
Industries and Trade. — At the end of the third decade of the
19th century the principal exports were sugar, rum, molasses, cotton
and coffee. In 1830, 9,500,000 ft) of coffee were sent abroad, but
after the emancipation of the slaves it almost ceased as an export,
and the little that is now grown is practically entirely consumed
in the colony. The cultivation of cotton ceased in 1844, and, but
for a short revival during the American civil war, has never prospered
since. Efforts have been made to resuscitate its growth, but the
experiments of the Board of Agriculture have only shown that Sea
Island cotton is not adaptable to local conditions, and that no
other known variety can as yet be recommended. To-day the
principal exports are sugar, rum, molasses, molascuit — a cattle food
made from molasses — gold, timber, balata, shingles and cattle.
The annual value of the total exports is just under £2,000,000, of
which about two- thirds go to Great Britain and British possessions.
The cultivation of rice has made great strides in recent years, and,
where difficulties of drainage and irrigation can be economically
overcome, promises to increase rapidly. In 1873, 32,000,000 lb of
rice were imported, whereas in 1904-1905, the quantity imported
having fallen to 20,500,000 ft), there were over 18,000 acres under
rice cultivation, and exportation, principally to the British West
Indies, had commenced. The cultivation of the sugar-cane, and its
manufacture into sugar and its by-products, still remains, in spite
of numerous fluctuations, the staple industry. The provision of a
trustworthy labour supply for the estates is of great importance,
and local scarcity has made it necessary since 1840 to import it
under a system of indenture. In that year and until 1867, liberated
Africans were brought from Rio de Janeiro, Havana, Sierra Leone
and St Helena, and in 1845 systematic immigration from India
commenced and has since been carried on annually — save in 1849-
1850. In 1853 immigration from China was tried, and was carried
on by the government from 1859 to 1866, when it ceased owing to
a convention arranged at Peking, stipulating that all immigrants
should on the expiry of their term of indenture be entitled to be sent
back at the expense of the colony, a liability it could not afford to
incur. To reduce the cost of supervision and kindred expenses,
and consequently of the cane and its manufacture into sugar, the
policy of centralization has been universally adopted, and forty-six
estates now produce as much sugar as three times that number did
in 1875. During recent years Canada has come forward as a large
buyer of Guiana s sugar, and in 1904-1905 the same amount went
there as to the United States, in each case over 44,000 tons, whereas
in 1 901-1902 the United States took 85,000 tons and Canada under
8000 tons. Practically all the rum and molascuit go to England,
and the molasses to Holland and Portuguese possessions. The lands
on the coast and on the river banks up to the sand hills are of marked
fertility, and can produce almost any tropical vegetable or fruit.
Cultivation, however, save on the sugar, coffee and cocoa estates,
and by a few exceptional small farmers, is carried on in a haphazard
and half-hearted manner, and the problem of agricultural develop-
ment is one of great difficulty for the government. Much of tne
privately-owned land is not beneficially occupied, and in many cases
it is not possible even to learn to whom it belongs, and though there
are vast tracts of uncultivated crown land where a large farm or a
small homestead can be easily and cheaply acquired, the difficulties
involved in clearing, draining, and in some cases of protecting it by
dams, are prohibitive to all but the exceptionally determined.
Prospecting for gold began in 1880, and from i88d to 1893-1894
the output, chiefly from alluvial workings, increased from 250 oz.
to nearly 1 4.0,000 oz. annually. The industry then received a serious
check by tne failure of several mines, and for nearly a decade was
almost entirely in the hands of the small tributor, known locally as
a pork-knocker. There has been some revival, chiefly due to foreign
enterprise. At Omai on the Essequibo river a German syndicate
worked a large concession on the hydraulic process of placer mining
with considerable success, and more recently took to dredging on its
GUIANA
679
flats. In the Puruni (a tributary of the Mazaruni) American capita-
lists, working the Peters' mine, have established their workings to a
considerable depth, besides constructing a road, 60 m. in length,
from Kartabo point, at the confluence ofthe Guyuni and Mazaruni,
to the Puruni river opposite the mine. An English syndicate started
dredging in the Conawarook, a tributary of the Essequibo. The
principal gold districts are on the Essequibo and its tributaries —
the chief being the Cuyuni, Mazaruni, Potaro and Conawarook —
and on the Barima, Barama and Waini rivers in the north-west
district. There have been smaller workings, mostly unsuccessful,
in the Demerara and Berbice rivers.
Diamonds and other precious stones have been found in small
quantities, and since 1900 efforts have been made to extend the
output, nearly 11,000 carats weight of diamonds being exported in
1904. But though the small stones found were of good water, the
cost of transport to the diamond fields, on the Mazaruni river, was
heavy, and after 1904 the industry declined. Laws dealing with
gold and precious stones passed in 1880, 1886 and 1887, and regula-
tions in 1899, were codified in IQ02 and amended in 1905.
Timber is cut, and balata and rubber collected, from crown lands
by licences issued from the department of Lands and Mines. Wood-
cutting, save on concessions held by a local company owning an
up-country line of railway connecting the Demerara and Essequibo
rivers, is limited to those parts of the forest which are close to the
lower stretches of the rivers and creeks, the overland haulage of
the heavy logs being both difficult and costly, while transport
through the upper reaches of the rivers is impossible on account of
the many cataracts and rapids. The average annual value of im-
ports is £1 ,500,000, of which about two-thirds are from Great Britain
and British possessions. Of the vessels trading with the colony,
most are under the British flag, the remainder being principally
American and Norwegian.
The money of account is dollars and cents, but, with the exception
of the notes of the two local banks, the currency is British sterling.
The unit of land measure is the Rhynland rood, roughly equal to
12 ft. 4 in. A Rhynland acre contains 300 square roods.
Inland Communication, &c. — The public roads extend along the
coast from the Corentyn river to some 20 m. N. of the Essequibo
mouth on the Aroabisci coast, and for a short distance up each of
the principal rivers and creeks entering the sea between these
points. A line of railway 60J m. in length runs from Georgetown
to Rosignol on the left bank of the Berbice river opposite New
Amsterdam ; and another line 15 m. long starts from Vreed-en-hoop,
on the left bank of the Demerara river opposite Georgetown, and
runs to Greenwich Park on the fight bank of the Essequibo river
some 3 m. from its mouth. A light railway, metre gauge, 18 J m.
in length, connects Wismar (on the left bank of the Demerara
river some 70 m. from its mouth) with Rockstone (on the right bank
of the Essequibo, and above the first series of cataracts in that river).
Steamers run daily to and from Georgetown and Wismar, and
launches to and from Rockstone and Tumatumari Fall on the
Potaro, and all expeditions for the goldfields of the Essequibo and
its tributaries above Rockstone travel by this route. Another
steamer goes twice a week to Bartica at the confluence of the
Essequibo and Mazaruni, and another weekly to Mt. Everard on
the Barima, from which termini expeditions start to the other
gold and diamond fields. Steamers also run from Georgetown to
New Amsterdam and up the Berbice river for about 100 m. Above
the termini of these steamer routes all travelling is done in keelless
bateaux, propelled by paddlers and steered when coming through
the rapids at both bow and stern by certificated bowmen and
steersmen. Owing to the extreme dangers of this inland travelling,
stringent regulations have been framed as to the loading of boats,
supply of ropes and qualifications of men in charge, and the shooting
of certain falls is prohibited. Voyages up-country are of necessity
slow, but the return journey is made with comoaratively great
rapidity, distances laboriously covered on the up-trip in three days
being done easily in seven hours when coming back.
From England British Guiana is reached in sixteen days by the
steamers of the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company, and in nineteen
days by those of the direct line from London and Glasgow. There
are also regular services from Canada, the United States, France
and Holland.
History. — When taken over in 1803 the prospects of three
British colonies were by no means promising, and during the
next decade the situation became very critical. Owing to the
increased output of sugar by conquered Dutch and French
colonies the English market was glutted and the markets of
the continent of Europe were not available, Bonaparte having
closed the ports. The years 181 1 and 181 2 were peculiarly
disastrous, especially to those engaged in the manufacture of
sugar, and at a public meeting held in Georgetown early in the
latter year it was stated that the produce of the colony ordinarily
worth £1,860,000 had on account of deteriorated value decreased
by fully one-third. At this meeting it was resolved to petition
the imperial parliament to allow the interchange of produce
with the United States; a resolution which was unfortunately
rendered abortive by the outbreak of war between England and
the States in 1812, the trade of British Guiana being instead
actually harried by American privateers. In his address to
the Combined Court on the 20th of October 181 2 the governor
(General Carmichael) stated that a vessel with government
stores had been captured by an American privateer, and in
February 1813 the imperial government sent H.M.S. " Peacock "
to protect the coast. On the 23rd of that month in cruising
along the east coast of Demerara the " Peacock " met the
American privateer " Hornet," and though, after a gallant
struggle, in which Captain Peake, R.N., was killed, the English
ship was sunk with nearly all her crew, the colony did not suffer
from any further depredations. In the following years news
of the agitation in England in favour of emancipation gradually
became known to the slaves and caused considerable unrest
among them, culminating in 1823 in a serious outbreak on the
estates on the east coast of Demerara. Negroes, demanding
their freedom, attacked the houses of several managers, and
although at most points these attacks were repulsed with but
little loss on either side, the situation was so serious as to neces-
sitate the calling out of the military. The ringleaders were
arrested and promptly and vigorously dealt with, while a special
court-martial was appointed to try the Rev. John Smith, of
the London Missionary Society, who it was alleged had fostered
the rising by his teachings to the slave congregation at his
chapel in Le Ressouvenir. This trial was stigmatized as unfair
by the missionary party in England, but on the whole appears
to have been conducted decently by an undoubtedly unbiassed
court. It is difficult now to form any very definite conclusion.
Mr Smith certainly had great influence over the slaves, and
while his teaching prior to the outbreak was at least ill-advised,
he made no efforts while the disturbances were going on to use
his influence on the side of law and order; indeed all he could
say in his own defence was that he was ignorant of what was
going on, a statement it is impossible to believe to have been
strictly veracious. He was found guilty and sentenced to be
hanged. It is obvious that it was never intended to carry out
this sentence, and on the 29th of November the governor an-
nounced that he felt it imperative on him to transmit the findings
of the court for His Majesty's consideration. The question of
Smith's guilt or innocence created a great deal of feeling in
England, the anti-slavery and missionary societies making it
a basis for increased agitation in favour of the slaves; but
the imperial government evidently agreed with the colonial
executive in holding that he could not be exonerated of grave
responsibility, as the order of the king was that while the sentence
of death was remitted Mr Smith was to be dismissed from the
colony and to enter into a recognizance in £2000 not to return
to British Guiana or to reside in any other West Indian colony.
This order reached Georgetown in April 1824, but Mr Smith
had died in the city jail on the 6th of February of a pul-
monary complaint from which he had been suffering for some
time.
Sir Benjamin d'Urban was governor from April 1824 to May
1833, the principal event of his administration being the con-
solidation in 1 83 1 of the three colonies into one colony divided
into three counties, Berbice, Demerara and Essequibo.
Governor d'Urban was succeeded in June 1833 by Sir James
Carmichael Smyth, who began his administration by a pro-
clamation to the slaves stating that while the king intended to
improve their condition, the details of his plans were not as yet
completed, and warning them against impatience or insub-
ordination. When the resolutions foreshadowing emancipation,
passed by the House of Commons on the 12th of June 1833,
reached the colony, the planters, to whom the governor's pro-
clamation had been most distasteful, were thunderstruck and
even the government was surprised. Naturally the slaves were
wildly jubilant. Emancipation brought troublous times through
which the governor steered the colony with great tact and firm-
ness, serious troubles being nipped in the bud solely by his great
personality, and the subsequent conflicts with the apprentices
68o
GUIANA
might have been obviated had he lived longer. He died at
Camp House on the 4th of March 1838.
In the years following emancipation the colony was in a
serious condition. The report of a commission in 1850 proved
that it was virtually ruined, and only by the introduction of
immigrants to provide a reliable labour supply were the sugar
estates saved from total extinction. By 1853 the colony had
begun to make headway, and Sir Henry Barkly, the then gover-
nor, was able to state in his speech to the Combined Court in
January that its progress was in every way satisfactory. During
Governor Barkly's administration the long series of struggles
between the legislature and the executive terminated, and when
he left in May 1853 he did so with the respect and good- will of
all classes. The strengthening of the labour supply was not
effected without troubles. In 1847 the negroes in Berbice
attacked the persons and property of the Portuguese immigrants,
the riots spreading to Demerara and Essequibo, and not until
the military were called out were the disturbances quelled.
Similar riots in 1862 were only stopped by the prompt and
firm action of the new governor, Mr (afterwards Sir) Francis
Hincks, while rows between negroes and Chinese and negroes
and East Indians were frequent. Gradually, however, things
quieted down, and until 1883 the estates as a whole did well.
In 1884 the price of sugar fell so seriously as to make the pro-
spects of the colony very gloomy, and for nearly two decades
proprietors had to be content with a price kept artificially low
by bounty-fed beet-sugar, many estates being ruined, while
those that survived only did so by the application of every
economy, and by their owners availing themselves of every new
discovery in the sciences of cultivation and manufacture.
The year 1889 was marked by an outbreak on the part of a
section of the negro population in Georgetown directed against
the Portuguese residents there. A Portuguese had murdered
his black paramour and had been convicted and sentenced to
death. The governor commuted the sentence to penal servitude
for life. Shortly after this a Portuguese stall-holder in the
market assaulted a small black boy whom he suspected of
pilfering, the latter having to be taken to a hospital, while the
former, after being taken to a police station was, through some
misunderstanding or informality, at once released. Almost
immediately excitable and unreasoning negroes were rushing
about loudly proclaiming that the boy was dead, that the
Portuguese were allowed to kill black people and to go free, and
calling on one another to take their own revenge. Mobs gathered
quickly, attacked individual Portuguese and wrecked their
shops and houses, and not until the city had been given up for
two days to scenes of disgraceful disorder were the efforts of the
police and special constables successful in quelling the disturb-
ances. The damage done amounted to several thousands of
dollars, the Portuguese owners being eventually compensated
from general revenue.
In 1884 the dispute as to the boundary with Venezuela
became acute. It was reported to the colonial government that
the government of Venezuela had granted to an American
syndicate a concession which covered much of the territory
claimed by Great Britain, and although prompt investigation
by an agent despatched by the governor did not then disclose
any trace of interference with British claims, a further visit in
January 1885, made in consequence of reports that servants of
the Manoa Company had torn down notices posted by Mr
McTurk on his former visit, discovered that the British notices
had been covered over by Venezuelan ones and resulted in the
government of Great Britain declaring that it would thence-
forward exercise jurisdiction up to and within a boundary
known as "the modified Schomburgk line. ,, Outposts were
located at points on this line, and for some years Guianese police
and Venezuelan soldiers faced one another across the Amacura
creek in the Orinoco mouth and at Yuruan up the Cuyuni river.
Guianese officers were, however, presumably instructed not
actively to oppose acts of aggression by the Venezuelan govern-
ment, for in January 1895 Venezuelan soldiers arrested Messrs
D. D. Barnes and A. H. Baker, inspectors of police in charge at
Yuruan station, conveyed them through Venezuela to Caracas,
eventually allowing them to take steamer to Trinidad. For
this act compensation was demanded and was eventually paid
by Venezuela. The diplomatic question as to the boundary —
the results of which are stated above — was passed out of the
hands of the colony; see the account of the arbitration under
Venezuela.
The last two months of 1005 were marked by serious dis-
turbances in Georgetown, and in a lesser degree on the east
and west banks of the Demerara river. On the 29th of November
the dock labourers employed on the wharves in Georgetown
struck for higher wages, and large crowds invaded the principal
stores in the city, compelling men willing to work to desist and
in some cases assaulting those who opposed them. By the
evening of the 30th of November they had got so far out of
hand as to necessitate the reading of the Riot Act and a pro-
clamation by the governor (Sir F. M. Hodgson) forbidding all
assemblies. On the morning of the 1st of December serious
disturbances broke out at Ruimvelt, a sugar estate directly
south of Georgetown, where the cane-cutters had suddenly
struck for higher pay, and the police were compelled to fire on
the mob, killing some and wounding others. All through that
day mobs in all parts of the city assaulted any white man they
met, houses were invaded and windows smashed, and on two
further occasions the police had to fire. At night torrential rains
forced the rioters to shelter, and enabled the police to get rest,
their places being taken by pickets of militiamen and special
constables. On Saturday, the 2nd of December, the police had
got the upper hand, and the arrival that night of H.M.S.
" Sappho " and on Sunday of H.M.S. " Diamond " gave the
government complete control of the situation. Threatened
troubles on the sugar estates on the west bank were suppressed
by the prompt action of the governor, and the arrest of large
numbers of the rioters and their immediate trial by special
courts restored thorough order.
Authorities. — See Raleigh's Voyages for the Discovery of Guiana
i^S^Stf* (" Halduyt " series)j Laurence Keytnis' Relation of
the second Voyage to Guiana (1596), (" Hakluyt "'series) ; Sir R.
Schomburgk, Description of British Guiana (London, 1840); C.
Waterton, Wanderings in South America, 1812-1825 (London, 1828);
J. Rodway, History of British Guiana (Georgetown, 1 891-1894);
H. G. Dalton, History of British Guiana (London, 1855); J. W.
Boddam Whetham, Koraima and British Guiana (London, 1879);
C. P. Lucas, Historical Geography of British Colonies', E. F. im Thurn,
Among the Indians of Guiana (London, 1883); British Guiana
Directory (Georgetown, 1906) ; G. D. Bayley, Handbook of British
Guiana (Georgetown, 1909). (A. G. B.*)
II. Dutch Guiana, or Surinam, has an area of about 57,000
sq. m. British Guiana bounds it on the west and French on
the east (the long unsettled question of the French
boundary is dealt with in section III., French
Guiana) . The various peoples inhabiting Surinam are
distributed according to the soil and the products. The Indians
(Caribs, Arawaks, Warrous) live on the savannahs, or on the
upper Nickerie, Coppename and Maroni, far from the planta-
tions, cultivating their fields of manioc or cassava, and for the
rest living by fishing and hunting. They number about 2000.
The bush negroes (Marrons) dwell between 3 and 4 N., near
the isles and cataracts. They are estimated at 10,000, and are
employed in the transport of men and goods to the goldfields,
the navigation of the rivers in trade with the Indians, and in the
transport of wood to Paramaribo and the plantations. They
are the descendants of runaway slaves, and before missionaries
had worked among them their paganism retained curious traces
of their former connexion with Christianity. Their chief god
was Gran Gado (grand-god), his wife Maria, and his son Jesi
Kist. Various minor deities were also worshipped, Ampuka the
bush-god, Toni the water-god, &c. Their language was based
on a bastard English, mingled with many Dutch, Portuguese
and native elements. Their chiefs are called gramman or grand
man; but the authority of these men, and the peculiarities of
language and religion, have in great measure died out owing
to modern intercourse with the Dutch and others. The in-
habitants of Paramaribo and the plantations comprise a variety
GUIANA
681
of races, represented by Chinese, Javanese, coolies from India
and the West Indies, negroes and about 2000 whites. Of non-
Christian immigrants there are about 6000 Mahommedans and
12,000 Hindus; and Jews number about 1200. The total
population was given in 1907 as 84,103, exclusive of Indians,
&c, in the forests. Nearly one-half of this total are in Para-
maribo and one-half in the districts. The population has shown
a tendency to move from the districts to the town; thus in
1852 there were 6000 persons in the town and 32,000 in the
districts.
The principal settlements have been made in the lower valley
of the Surinam, or between that river and the Saramacca on
the W. and the Commewyne on the E. The Surinam is the chief
of a number of large rivers which rise in the Tumuc Humac
range or the low hills between it and the sea, which they enter
on the Dutch seaboard, between the Corentyn and the Maroni
(Dutch Corantijn and Maroivijne), which form the boundaries
with British and French territories respectively. Between the
rivers of Dutch Guiana there are remarkable cross channels
available during the floods at least. As the Maroni communi-
cates with the Cottica, which is in turn a tributary of the Comme-
wyne, a boat can pass from the Maroni to Paramaribo;
thence by the Sommelsdijk canal it can reach the Saramacca;
and from the Saramacca it can proceed up the Coppename, and
by means of the Nickerie find its way to the Corentyn. The
rivers are not navigable inland to any considerable extent, as
their courses are interrupted by rapids. The interior of the
country consists for the most part of low hills, though an extreme
height of 3800 ft. is known in the Wilhelmina Kette, in the
west of the colony, about 3 50' to 4 N. The hinterland south
of this latitude, and that part of the Tumuc Humac range along
which the Dutch frontier runs, are, however, practically unex-
plored. Like the other territories of Guiana the Dutch colony
is divided physically into a low coast-land, savannahs and
almost impenetrable forest.
Meteorological observations have been carried on at five
stations (Paramaribo, Coronie, Sommelsdijk, Nieuw-Nickerie
and Groningen). The mean range of temperature for the day,
month and year shows little variation, being respectively
77-54°-88-38° F., 76-1°- 78-62° F. and 70-52°- 90-14° F.
The north-east trade winds prevail throughout the year, but
the rainfall varies considerably; for December and January
the mean is respectively 8-58 and 9-57 in., for May and June
11-26 and 10-31 in., but for February and March 7-2 and 6-8i in.,
and for September 2-48 and 2-0 in. The seasons comprise a
long and a short dry season, and a period of heavy and of slight
rainfall.
Products and Trade. — It has been found exceedingly difficult to
exploit the produce of the forests. The most important crops and
those supplying the chief exports are cocoa, coffee and sugar, all
cultivated on the larger plantations, with rice, maize and bananas
on the smaller or coast lands. Most of the larger plantations are
situated on the lower courses of the Surinam, Commewyne, Nickerie
and Cottica, and on the coast lands, rarely in the upper parts.
Goldfields lie in the older rocks (especially the slate) of the upper
Surinam, Saramacca and Maroni. The first section of a railway
designed to connect the goldfields with Paramaribo was opened in
1906. The annual production of gold amounts in value to about
£100,000, but has shown considerable fluctuation. Agriculture is
the chief means of subsistence. About 42,000 acres are under
cultivation. Of 30,000 persons whose occupation is given in official
statistics, close upon 21,000 are engaged in agriculture or on the
plantations, 2400 in gold-mining and only 1000 in trade. The
exports increased in value from £200,800 in 1875 to £459,800 in
1899, and imports from £260,450 in 1875 to £510,180 in 1899; but
the average value of exports over five years subsequently was only
£414,000, while that of imports was £531,000.
Administration. — The colony is under a governor, who is president
of an executive council, which also includes a vice-president and
three members nominated by the crown. The legislative body is
the states, the members of which are elected for six years by electors,
of whom there is one for every 200 holders of the franchise. The
colony is divided into sixteen districts. For the administration of
justice there are three cantonal courts, two district courts, and the
supreme court at Paramaribo, whose president and permanent
members are nominated by the crown. The average local revenue
(1901-1906) was about £276,000 and the expenditure about £3 17,000;
both fluctuated considerably, and a varying subvention is necessary
from the home government (£16,000 in 1902, £60,400 in 1906; the
annual average is about £37,000). There are a civic guard of about
1800 men and a militia of 500, with a small garrison.
History. — The history of the Dutch in Guiana, and the
compression of their influence within its present limits, belongs
to the general history of Guiana (above). Surinam and the
Dutch islands of the West Indies were placed under a common
government in 1828, the governor residing at Paramaribo, but
in 1845 they were separated. Slavery was abolished in 1863.
Labour then became difficult to obtain, and in 1870 a convention
was signed between Holland and England for the regulation of
the coolie traffic, and a Dutch government agent for Surinam
was appointed at Calcutta. The problem was never satisfactorily
solved, but the interest of the mother-country in the colony
greatly increased during the last twenty years of the 19th
century, as shown by the establishment of the Surinam Associa-
tion, of the Steam Navigation Company's service to Paramaribo,
and by the formation of a botanical garden for experimental
culture at that town, as also by geological and other scientific
expeditions, and the exhibition at Haarlem in 1898.
Authorities. — Among the older works on Surinam the first
rank is held by Tan Jacob Hartsinck's masterly Beschryving van
Guiana, of de Wude Rust, in Zuid Amerika (2 vols., Amsterdam,
1770). Extracts from this work, selected for their bearing upon
British boundary questions, were translated and annotated by
J. A. J. de Villiers (London, 1897). A valuable Geschiedenis der
Kolonie van Suriname, by a number of " learned Jews," was
published at Amsterdam in 1791 ; and it was supplemented and so
tar superseded by Wolbers, Geschiedenis van Suriname (Amsterdam,
1861). See further W. G. Palgrave, Dutch Guiana (London,
1876); A. Kappler, Surinam, sein Land, &c. (Stuttgart, 1887);
Prince Roland Bonaparte, Les Habitants de Surinam (Paris, 1884);
K. Martin, " Benefit tiber eine Reise ins Gebiet des Oberen-
Surinam," Bijdraeen v. h. Inst, voor Tool Land en Volkenkunde,
i. 1. (The Hague); Westerouen van Meeteren, La Guyane n&er-
landaise fLeiden, 1884); H. Ten Kate, " Een en ander over
Suriname, Gids (1888); G. Verschuur, "Voyages aux trois
Guyanes, " Tour du monde (1893), PP- l > 49' 6 5 ; W - L * Lotft »
Beknopte Aardrijkskundige beschrtjvinf van Suriname (Amsterdam,
1898), and Tijaschrift van het Aardrijkskundi$ Genootschap (1878),
79 '• 93J Asch van Wyck, " La Colonie de Surinam," Les Pays-Bas
(1898); L. Thompson, Oversicht der Geschiedenis van Suriname
(The Hague, 1901); Catologus der Nederl. W. I. ten Toonstelling te
Haarlem (1899); Guide a trovers la section des Indes nierlandaises,
p. 323 (Amsterdam, 1899); Surinaamsche Almanak (Paramaribo,
annually). For the language of the bush-negroes see Wullschlaegel,
Kurzgefasste neger-englische Grammatik (Bautzen, 1854), and Deutsch
neger-englisches Worterbuch (Lobau, 1865).
III. French Guiana (Guyane). — This colony is situated
between Dutch Guiana and Brazil. A delimitation of the
territory belonging to France and the Netherlands
was arrived at in 189 1, by decision of the emperor of aaUam.
Russia. This question originated in the arrangement
of 1836, that the river Maroni should form the frontier. It
turned on the claim of the Awa or the Tapanahoni to be recog-
nized as the main head-stream of the Maroni, and the final
decision, in indicating the Awa, favoured the Dutch. In 1905
certain territory lying between the upper Maroni and the Itany,
the possession of which had not then been settled, was acquired
by France by agreement between the French and Dutch govern-
ments. The question of the exploitation of gold in the Maroni
was settled by attributing alternate reaches of the river to France
and Holland; while France obtained the principal islands in
the lower Maroni. The additional territory thus attached to
the French colony amounted to 965 sq. m. In December 1000
the Swiss government as arbitrators fixed the boundary between
French Guiana and Brazil as the river Oyapock and the water-
shed on the Tumuc Humac mountains, thus awarding to France
about 3000 of the 100,000 sq. m. which she claimed. This
dispute was of earlier origin than that with the Dutch; dis-
sensions between the French and the Portuguese relative to
territory north of the Amazon occurred in the 17 th century.
In 1700 the Treaty of Lisbon made the contested area (known
as the Terres du Cap du Nord) neutral ground. The treaty of
Utrecht in 17 13 indicated as the French boundary a river
which the French afterwards claimed to be the Araguary, but
the Portuguese asserted that the Oyapock was intended. After
xii. 22 a
682
GUIANA
Brazil had become independent the question dragged on until
in 1890-1895 there were collisions in the contested territory
between French and Brazilian adventurers. This compelled
serious action, and a treaty of arbitration, preliminary to the
settlement, was signed at Rio de Janeiro in 1 897 . French Guiana,
according to official estimate, has an area of about 51,000 sq. m.
The population is estimated at about 30,000; its movement is
not rapid. Of this total 12,350 live at Cayenne, 10,100 were
in the communes, 5700 formed the penal population, 1500 were
native Indians (Galibi, Emerillon, Oyampi) and 500 near
Maroni were negroes. Apart from Cayenne, which was rebuilt
after the great fire of 1888, the centres of population are un-
important: Sinnamarie with 1500 inhabitants, Mana with 1750,
Roura with 1200 and Approuague with n 50. In 1892 French
Guiana was divided into fourteen communes, exclusive of the
Maroni district. Belonging to the colony are also the three
Safety Islands (Royale, Joseph and Du Diable — the last notable
as the island where Captain Dreyfus was imprisoned), the Enfant
Perdu Island and the five Remire Islands.
A considerable portion of the low coast land is occupied by
marshes, with a dense growth of mangroves or, in the drier parts,
with the pinot or wassay palm (Euterpe oleracea). Settlements are
confined almost entirely to the littoral and alluvial districts. The
forest-clad hills of the hinterland do not generally exceed 1500 ft.
in elevation; that part of the Tumuc Humac range which forms
the southern frontier may reach an extreme elevation of 2600 ft.
But the dense tropical forests attract so much moisture from the
ocean winds that the highlands are the birthplace of a large number
of rivers which in the rainy season especially pour down vast volumes
of water. Not less than 15 are counted between the Maroni and the
Oyapock. South-eastward from the Maroni the first of importance
is the Mana, which is navigable for large vessels 10 m. from its mouth,
and for smaller vessels 27 m. farther. Passing the Sinnamary and
the Kourou, the Oyock is next reached, near the mouth of which
is Cayenne, the capital of the colony, and thereafter the Approuage.
All these rivers take their rise in a somewhat elevated area about
the middle of the colony; those streams which rise farther south,
in the Tumuc Humac hills, are tributaries of the two frontier rivers,
the Maroni on the one hand or the Oyapock on the other.
Climate and Products. — The rainy season begins in November or
December, and lasts till the latter part of June; but there are
usually three or four weeks of good weather in March. During the
rest of the year there is often hardly a drop of rain for months, but
the air is always very moist. At Cayenne the average annual rainfall
amounts to fully 130 in., and it is naturally heavier in the interior.
During the hotter part of the year — August, September, October —
the temperature usually rises to about 86° F., but it hardly ever
exceeds 88°; in the colder season the mean is 79 and it seldom
sinks so low as 70 °. Between day and night there is very little
thermometric difference. The prevailing winds are the N.N.E. and
the S.E. ; and the most violent are those of the N.E. During the
rainy season the winds keep between N. and E., and during the
dry season between S. and E. Hurricanes are unknown. In flora
and fauna French Guiana resembles the rest of the Guianese region.
Vegetation is excessively rich. Among leguminous trees, which are
abundantly representecf, the wacappu is the finest of many hard-
wood trees. Caoutchouc and various palms are also common.
The manioc is a principal source of food ; rice is an important object
of cultivation; and maize, yams, arrowroot, bananas and the
bread-fruit are also to be mentioned. Vanilla is one of the common
wild plants of the country. The clove tree has been acclimatized,
and in the latter years of the empire it formed a good source of
wealth; the cinnamon tree was also successfully introduced in
1772, but like that of the pepper-tree and the nutmeg its cultivation
is neglected. A very small portion of the territory indeed is de-
voted to agriculture, althougn France has paid some attention to
the development of this branch of activity. In 1880 a colonial
garden was created near Cayenne; since 1894 an experimental
garden has been laid out at Baduel. About 8200 acres are cultivated,
of which 5400 acres are under cereals and rice, the remaining being
under coffee (introduced in 17 16), cacao, cane and other cultures.
The low lands between Cayenne and Oyapock are capable of bearing
colonial produce, and the savannahs might support large herds;
cereals, root-crops and vegetables might easily be grown on the
high ground*, and timber working in the interior should be pro-
fitable.
Gold-mining is the most important industry in the colony.
Placers of great wealth have been discovered on the Awa, on the
Dutch frontier and at Carsevenne in the territory which formed the
subject of the Franco-Brazilian dispute. But wages are high and
transport is costly, and the amount of gold declared at Cayenne did
not average more than 130,550 oz. annually in 1900-1905. Silver
and iron have been found in various districts; kaolin is extracted
in the plains of Montsineiy; and phosphates have been discovered
at several places. Besides gold- workings, the industrial establish-
ments comprise saw-mills, distilleries, brick-works and sugar-
works.
Trade and Communications. — The commerce in 1885 amounted
to £336,000 for imports and to £144,000 for exports; in 1897 the
values were respectively £373,350 and £286,400, but in 1903, while
imports had increased in value only to £418,720, exports had risen
to £493i2i3. The imports consist of wines, flour, clothes, &c;
the chief are gold, phosphates, timber, cocoa and rosewood essence.
Cayenne is the only considerable port. One of the drawbacks to the
development of the colony is the lack of labour. Native labour is
most difficult to obtain, and attempts to utilize convict labour have
not proved very successful. Efforts to supply the need by immigra-
tion have not done so completely. The lancl routes are not numerous.
The most important are that from Cayenne to Mana by way of
Kourou, Sinnamarie and Iracoubo, and that from Cayenne along
the coast to Kaw and the mouth of the Approuague. Towards the
interior there are only foot-paths, badly made. By water, Cayenne
is in regular communication with the Safety Islands (35 m.), and the
mouth of the Maroni (80 m.), with Fort de France in the island of
Martinique, where travellers meet the mail packet for France, and
with Boston (U.S.A.). There is a French cable between Cayenne
and Brest.
Administration. — The colony is administered by a commissioner-
general assisted by a privy council, including the secretary general
and chief of the judicial service, the military, penitentiary and
administrative departments. In 1879 an elective general council
of sixteen members was constituted. There are a tribunal of first
instance and a higher tribunal at Cayenne, besides four justices of
peace, one of whom has extensive jurisdiction in other places. Of
the £256,000 demanded for the colony in the colonial budget for
J 9°6, £235,000 represented the estimated expenditure on the penal
settlement, so that the cost of the colony was only about £21,000.
The local budget for ipoi balanced at £99,000 and in 1905 at £1 16,450.
Instruction is given in the college of Cayenne and in six primary
schools. At the head of the clergy is an apostolic prefect. The
armed force consists of two companies of marine infantry, half a
battery of artillery, and a detachment of gendarmerie, and com-
prises about 380 men. The penal settlement was established by a
decree of 1852. From that year until 1867, 18,000 exiles had been
sent to Guiana, but for the next twenty years New Caledonia became
the chief penal settlement in the French colonies. But in 1885-
1887 French Guiana was appointed as a place of banishment for
confirmed criminals and for convicts sentenced to more than eight
years' hard labour. A large proportion of these men have been
found unfit for employment upon public works.
History. — The Sieur La Revardiere, sent out in 1604 by
Henry IV. to reconnoitre the country, brought back a favour-
able report; but the death of the king put a stop to the projects
of formal colonization. In 1626 a small body of traders from
Rouen settled on the Sinnamary, and in 1635 a similar band
founded Cayenne. The Compagnie du Cap Nord, founded by
the people of Rouen in 1643 and conducted by Poncet de Br£tigny,
the Compagnie de la France £quinoxiale, established in 1645,
and the second Compagnie de la France fiquinoxiale, or Com-
pagnie des Douze Seigneurs, established in 1652, were failures,
the result of incompetence, mismanagement and misfortune.
From 1654 the Dutch held the colony for a few years. The
French Compagnie des Indes Occiden tales, chartered in 1664
with a monopoly of Guiana commerce for forty years, proved
hardly more successful than its predecessors; but in 1674 the
colony passed under the direct control of the crown, and the
able administration of Colbert began to tell favourably on its
progress, although in 1686 an unsuccessful expedition against
the Dutch in Surinam set back the advance of the French
colony until the close of the century.
The year 1763 was marked by a terrible disaster. Choiseul,
the prime minister, having obtained for himself and his cousin
Praslin a concession of the country between the Kourou and
the Maroni, sent out about 12,000 volunteer colonists, mainly
from Alsace and Lorraine. They were landed at the mouth of
the Kourou, where no preparation had been made for their
reception, and where even water was not to be obtained. Mis-
management was complete; there was (for example) a shop for
skates, whereas the necessary tools for tillage were wanting.
By 1765 no more than 918 colonists remained alive, and these
were a famished fever-stricken band. A long investigation in
Paris resulted in the imprisonment of the incompetent leaders of
the expedition. Several minor attempts at colonization in
Guiana were made in the latter part of the century; but they
GUIART— GUIBERT, COMTE DE
683
all seemed to suffer from the same fatal prestige of failure.
During the revolution band after band of political prisoners
were transported to Guiana. The fate of the royalists, nearly
600 in number, who were exiled on the 18th Fructidor (1797)*
was especially sad. Landed on the Sinnamary without shelter
or food, two-thirds of them perished miserably. In 1800 Victor
Hugues was appointed governor, and he managed to put the
colony in a better state; but in 1809 his work was brought to
a close by the invasion of the Portuguese and British.
Though French Guiana was nominally restored to the French
in 1 814, it was not really surrendered by the Portuguese till
181 7. Numerous efforts were now made to establish the colony
firmly, although its past misfortunes had prejudiced the public
mind in France against it* In 1822 the first steam sugar mills
were introduced; in 1824 an agricultural colony (Nouvelle
Angouleme) was attempted in the Mana district, which, after
failure at first, became comparatively successful. The emanci-
pation of slaves and the consequent dearth of labour almost
ruined the development of agricultural resources about the
middle of the century, but in 1853 a large body of African
immigrants was introduced. The discovery of gold on the
Approuague in 1855 caused feverish excitement, and seriously
disturbed the economic condition of the country.
Authorities. — A detailed bibliography of French Guiana will be
found in Ternaux-Compans, Notice histortque de la Guyane frangaise
(Paris, 1843). Among more recent works, see E. Bassieres, Notice
sur la Guyane, issued on the occasion of the Paris Exhibition (1900) ;
Publications de la soci&e* d'Uudes pour la colonisation de la Guyane
francaise (Paris, 1843-1844); H.A.Coudreau,£a France tquinoxiale
(1887), Dtalectes indtens de Guyane (1891), Dix ans de Guyane (1892) ,
and Chez nos Indiens (1893), all at Paris; G. Brousseau, Les
Richesses de la Guyane francaise (Paris, 1901); L. F. Viala, Les
Trois Guyanes (Montpelher, 1893).
GUIART (or Guiard), GUILLAUME (d. c. 1316), French
chronicler and poet, was probably born at Orleans, and served
in the French army in Flanders in 1304. Having been disabled
by a wound he began to write, lived at Arras and then in Paris,
thus being able to consult the large store of manuscripts in the
abbey of St Denis, including the Grandes ckroniques de France.
Afterwards he appears as a tneneslrel de bouche. Guiart's poem
Branche des royaulx Hgnages, was written and then rewritten
between 1304 and 1307, in honour of the French king Philip IV.,
and in answer to the aspersions of a Flemish poet. Comprising
over 21,000 verses it deals with the history of the French kings
from the time of Louis VIII.; but it is only really important
for the period after 1296 and for the war in Flanders from 1301
to 1304, of which it gives a graphic account, and for which it is
a high authority. It was first published by J. A. Buchon
(Paris, 1828), and again in tome xxii. of the RecueU des historiens
des Gaules et de la France (Paris, 1865).
See A. Molinier, Les Sources de I'histoire de France, tome iii. (Paris,
1903).
GUIBERT, or Wibert (c. 1030-1100), of Ravenna, antipope
under the title of Clement III. from the 25th of June 1080 until
September 1100, was born at Parma between 1020 and 1030 of
the noble imperialist family, Corregio. He entered the priest-
hood and was appointed by the empress Agnes, chancellor and,
after the death of Pope Victor II. (1057), imperial vicar in Italy.
He strove to uphold the imperial authority during Henry IV.'s
minority, and presided over the synod at Basel (1061) which
annulled the election of Alexander II. and created in the person
of Cadalous, bishop of Parma, the antipope Honorius II.
Guibert lost the chancellorship in 1062. In 1073, through the
influence of Empress Agnes and the support of Cardinal Hi! de-
brand, he obtained the archbishopric of Ravenna and swore
fealty to Alexander II. and his successors. He seems to have
been at first on friendly terms with Gregory VII., but soon
quarrelled with him over the possession of the city of Imola,
and henceforth was recognized as the soul of the imperial faction
in the investiture contest. He allied himself with Cencius,
Cardinal Candidus and other opponents of Gregory at Rome,
and, on his refusal to furnish troops or to attend the Lenten
synod of 1075, he was ecclesiastically suspended by the pope.
He was probably excommunicated at the synod of Worms
(1076) with other Lombard bishops who sided with Henry IV.,
and at the Lenten synod of 1078 he was banned by name. The
emperor, having been excommunicated for the second time in
March 1080, convened nineteen bishops of his party at Mainz
on the 31st of May, who pronounced the deposition of Gregory ;
and on the 25th of June he caused Guibert to be elected pope
by thirty bishops assembled at Brixen. Guibert, whilst retain-
ing possession of his archbishopric, accompanied his imperial
master on most of the latter's military expeditions. Having
gained Rome, he was installed in the Lateran and consecrated
as Clement III. on the 24th of March 1084. One week later,
on Easter Sunday, he crowned Henry IV. and Bertha in St
Peter's. Clement survived not only Gregory VII. but also
Victor III. and Urban II., maintaining his title to the end and
in great measure his power over Rome and the adjoining regions.
Excommunication was pronounced against him by all his rivals.
He was driven out of Rome finally by crusaders in 1097, and
sought refuge in various fortresses on his own estates. St
Angelo, the last Guibertist stronghold in Rome, fell to Urban II.
on the 24th of August 1098. Clement, on the accession of
Paschal II. in 1099, prepared to renew his struggle but was
driven from Albano by Norman troops and died at Civita
Castellana in September 1100. His ashes, which were said by
his followers to have worked miracles, were thrown into the
water by Paschal II.
See J. Langen, Geschichte der rdmischen Kir the von Gregor VI L
bis Innocenz III. (Bonn, 1893); Jaffe-Wattenbach, Regesta pontif.
Roman. (2nd ed., 1885-1888); K. J. von Hefele, ConciUengeschichte,
vol. v. (2nd ed.) ; F. Lrregorovius, Rome in the Middle Ages, vol. iv.,
trans, by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, 1900-1902); and O.
Kohncke, Wibert von Ravenna (Leipzig, 1888). (C. H. Ha.).
GUIBERT (1053-1124), of Nogent, historian and theologian,
was born of noble parents at Clermont-en-Beauvoisis, and
dedicated from infancy to the church. He received his early
education at the Benedictine abbey of Flavigny (Flaviacum)
or St Germer, where he studied with great zeal, devoting himself
at first to the secular poets, an experience which left its imprint
on his works; later changing to theology, through the influence
of Anselm of Bee, afterwards of Canterbury. In 1104, he was
chosen to be head of the abbey of Notre Dame de Nogent and
henceforth took a prominent part in ecclesiastical affairs. His
autobiography (De vita sua, sive monodiarum), written towards
the close of his life, gives many picturesque glimpses of his time
and the customs of his country. The description of the com-
mune of Laon is an historical document of the first order. The
same local colour lends charm to his history of the first crusade
(Gesta Dei per Francos) written about 11 10. But the history
is largely a paraphrase, in ornate style, of the Gesta Francorum
of an anonymous Norman author (see Crusades); and when
he comes to the end of his authority, he allows his book to
degenerate into an undigested heap of notes and anecdotes.
At the same time his high birth and his position in the church
give his work an occasional value.
Bibliography.— Guibert's works, edited by d'Achery, werefirst
published in 165 1, in 1 vol. folio, at Paris (Venerabtlis Guiberti
abbatis B. Mariae de Novigento opera omnia), and republished
in Migne's Patrologia Latina, vols. clvi. and clxxxiv. They include,
besides minor works, a treatise on homiletics (" Liber quo ordine
sermo fieri debeat ") ; ten books of Moralia on Genesis, begun in
1084, but not completed until 11 16, composed on the model of Gregory
the Great's Moralia in Jobum ; five books of Tropologiae on Hosea,
Amos and the Lamentations; a treatise on the Incarnation, against
the Jews; four books De pignoribus sanctorum, a remarkably free
criticism on the abuses of saint and relic worship ; three books of
autobiography, De vita sua, sive monodiarum; and eight books of
the Historta quae dicitur Gesta Dei per Francos, sive historiaHiero-
solymitana (the ninth book is by another author). Separate editions
exist of the last named, in J. Bongars, Gesta Dei per Francos, i.,
and Recueil des historiens des croisades, hist. Occid., iv. 115-263.
It has been translated into French in Guizot's Collection, ix. 1-338.
See H. von Sybel, Geschichte des ersten Kreuzzuges (Leipzig, 1881);
B. Mo nod, Le Moine Guibert et son temps (Paris, 1905) ;and Guibert
de Nogent; histoire de sa vie, edited by G. Bourgin (Paris, 1907).
GUIBERT, JACQUES ANTOINE HIPPOLYTE, Comte de
( 1 743-1 790), French general and military writer, was born at
Montauban, and at the age of thirteen accompanied his father,
Charles Benoit, comte de Guibert (1715-1786), chief of staff to
68 4
GUICCIARDINI
Marshal de Broglie, throughout the war in Germany, and won
the cross of St Louis and the rank of colonel in the expedition
to Corsica (1767). In 1770 he published his Essai general de
tactique in London, and this celebrated work appeared in numer-
ous subsequent editions and in English, German and even
Persian translations (extracts also in Liskenne and Sauvan,
Bibl. historique et militaire, Paris, 1845). Of this work (for a
detailed critique of which see Max Jahns, Gesch. d. Kriegswissen-
schaften, vol. iii. pp. 205&-2070 and references therein) it may be
said that it was the best essay on war produced by a soldier
during a period in which tactics were discussed even in the salon
and military literature was more abundant than at any time up
to 187 1. Apart from technical questions, in which Guibert *s
enlightened conservatism stands in marked contrast to the
doctrinaire progressiveness of Menil Durand, Folard and others,
the book is chiefly valued for its broad outlook on the state of
Europe, especially of military Europe in the period 1 763-1 792.
One quotation may be given as being a most remarkable prophecy
of the impending revolution in the art of war, a revolution which
the " advanced " tacticians themselves scarcely foresaw. " The
standing armies, while a burden on the people, are inadequate
for the achievement of great and decisive results in war, and
meanwhile the mass of the people, untrained in arms, de-
generates. . . . The hegemony over Europe will fall to that
nation which . . . becomes possessed of manly virtues and
creates a national army " — a prediction fulfilled almost to the
letter within twenty years of Guibert 's death. In 1773 ne
visited Germany and was present at the Prussian regimental
drills and army manoeuvres; Frederick the Great, recognizing
Guibert's ability, showed great favour to the young colonel and
freely discussed military questions with him. Guibert's Journal
d'un voyage en AUemagne was published, with a memoir, by
Toulongeon (Paris, 1803). His DSfense du systeme de guerre
moderne, a reply to his many critics (Neuchatel, 1779) is a
reasoned and scientific defence of the Prussian method of
tactics, which formed the basis of his work when in 1775 he began
to co-operate with the count de St Germain in a series of much-
needed and successful reforms in the French army. In 1777,
however, St Germain fell into disgrace, and his fall involved that
of Guibert who was promoted to the rank of martchal de camp
and relegated to a provincial staff appointment. In his semi-
retirement he vigorously defended his old chief St Germain
against his detractors. On the eve of the Revolution he was
recalled to the War Office, but in his turn he became the object
of attack and he died, practically of disappointment, on the
6th of May 1790. Other works of Guibert, besides those men-
tioned, are: Observations sur la constitution politique et militaire
des armies de S. M. Prussienne (Amsterdam, 1778), Aloges of
Marshal Catinat (1775), of Michel de PHdpital (1778), and of
Frederick the Great (1787). Guibert was a member of the
Academy from 1786, and he also wrote a tragedy, Le Connttable
de Bourbon (1775) and a journal of travels in France and Switzer-
land.
See Toulongeon, £loge vfridique de Guibert (Paris, 1790) ; Madame
de Stael, tioge de Guibert; Bardin, Notice historique du general
Guibert (Paris, 1836) ; Flavian d'Aldeguier, Discours sur la vie et
les Merits du comte de Guibert (Toulouse, 1855); Count Forestie,
Biographie du comte de Guibert (Montauban, 1855); Count zur
Lippe, " Friedr. derGrosse und Oberst Guibert" (Milttdr-Wochenblatt,
1873, 9 and 10).
GUICCIARDINI, FRANCESCO (1483-1540), the celebrated
Italian historian and statesman, was born at Florence in the
year 1483, when Marsilio Ficino held him at the font of baptism.
His family was illustrious and noble; and his ancestors for
many generations had held the highest posts of honour in the
state, as may be seen in his own genealogical Ricordi autobio-
grafici e difamiglia (Op. ined. vol. x.). After the usual educa-
tion of a boy in grammar and elementary classical studies, his
father, Piero, sent him to the universities of Ferrara and Padua,
where he stayed until the year 1505. The death of an uncle,
who had occupied the see of Cortona with great pomp, induced
the young Guicciardini to hanker after an ecclesiastical career.
He already saw the scarlet of a cardinal awaiting him, and to
this eminence he would assuredly have risen. His father, how-
ever, checked this ambition, declaring that, though he had five
sons, he would not suffer one of them to enter the church in its
then state of corruption and debasement. Guicciardini, whose
motives were confessedly ambitious (see Ricordi, Op. ined.
x. 68), turned his attention to law, and at the age of twenty-three
was appointed by the Signoria of Florence to read the Institutes
in public. Shortly afterwards he engaged himself in marriage
to Maria, daughter of Alamanno Salviati, prompted, as he
frankly tells us, by the political support which an alliance with
that great family would bring him (ib. x. 71). He was then
practising at the bar, where he won so much distinction that the
Signoria, in 1512, entrusted him with an embassy to the court
of Ferdinand the Catholic. Thus he entered on the real work
of his life as a diplomatist and statesman. His conduct upon that
legation was afterwards severely criticized; for his political
antagonists accused him of betraying the true interests of the
commonwealth, and using his influence for the restoration of
the exiled house of Medici to power. His Spanish correspond-
ence with the Signoria (Op. ined. vol. vi.) reveals the extra-
ordinary power of observation and analysis which was a chief
quality of his mind; and in Ferdinand, hypocritical and pro-
foundly dissimulative, he found a proper object for his scientific
study. To suppose that the young statesman learned his frigid
statecraft in Spain would be perhaps too simple a solution of
the problem offered by his character, and scarcely fair to the
Italian proficients in perfidy. It is clear from Guicdardini's
autobiographical memoirs that he was ambitious, calculating,
avaricious and power-loving from his earliest years; and in
Spain he had no more than an opportunity of studying on a
large scale those political vices which already ruled the minor
potentates of Italy. Still the school was pregnant with in-
structions for so apt a pupiL Guicciardini issued from this first
trial of his skill with an assured reputation for diplomatic ability,
as that was understood in Italy. To unravel plots and weave
counterplots; to meet treachery with fraud; to parry force
with sleights of hand; to credit human nature with the basest
motives, while the blackest crimes were contemplated with cold
enthusiasm for their cleverness, was reckoned then the height
of political sagacity. Guicciardini could play the game to per-
fection. In 151 5 Leo X. took him into service, and made him
governor of Reggio and Modena. In 152 1 Parma was added to
his rule, and in 1523 he was appointed viceregent of Romagna
by Clement VII. These high offices rendered Guicciardini the
virtual master of the papal states beyond the Apennines, during
a period of great bewilderment and difficulty. The copious
correspondence relating to his administration has recently been
published (Op. ined. vols, vii., viii.). In 1526 Clement gave him
still higher rank as lieutenant-general of the papal army. While
holding this commission, he had the humiliation of witnessing
from a distance the sack of Rome and the imprisonment of
Clement, without being able to rouse the perfidious duke of
Urbino into activity. The blame of Clement's downfall did not
rest with him; for it was merely his duty to attend the camp,
and keep his master informed of the proceedings of the generals
(see the Correspondence, Op. ined. vols, iv., v.). Yet Guicdar-
dini's consdence accused him, for he had previously counselled
the pope to declare war, as he notes in a curious letter to himself
written in 1527 (Op. ined., x. 104). Clement did not, however,
withdraw his confidence, and in 153 1 Guicdardini was advanced
to the governorship of Bologna, the most important of all the
papal lord-lieutenandes (Correspondence, Op. ined. vol. ix.) . This
post he resigned in 1534 on the election of Paul III., preferring
to follow the fortunes of the Medicean princes. It may here be
noticed that though Guicciardini served three popes through a
period of twenty years, or perhaps because of this, he hated the
papacy with a deep and frozen bitterness, attributing the woes
of Italy to the ambition of the church, and dedaring he had
seen enough of sacerdotal abominations to make him a Lutheran
(see Op. ined. i. 27, 104, 96, and 1st. d* It., ed. Ros., ii. 218).
The same discord between his private opinions and his public
actions may be traced in his conduct subsequent to 1534. As a
GUICCIARDINI
685
political theorist, Guicciardini believed that the best form of
government was a commonwealth administered upon the type
of the Venetian constitution (Op. ined. i. A 6; ii. 130 sq.); and
we have ample evidence to prove that he had judged the tyranny
of the Medici at its true worth (Op. ined. i. 171, on the tyrant;
the whole Storia Florentine and Reggimento di Firenze, ib. i.
and iii., on the Medici). Yet he did notihesitate to place his
powers at the disposal of the most vicious members of that
house for the enslavement of Florence. In 1527 he had been
declared a rebel by the Signoria on account of his well-known
Medicean prejudices; and in 1530. deputed by Clement to
punish the citizens after their revolt, he revenged himself with a
cruelty and an avarice that were long and bitterly remembered.
When, therefore, he returned to inhabit Florence in 1534, he
did so as the creature of the dissolute Alessandro de' Medici.
Guicciardini pushed his servility so far as to defend this in-
famous despot at Naples in 1535, before the bar of Charles V.,
from the accusations brought against him by the Florentine
exiles (Op. ined. vol. ix.). He won his cause; but in the eyes
of all posterity he justified the reproaches of his contemporaries,
who describe him as a cruel, venal, grasping seeker after power,
eager to support a despotism for the sake of honours, offices
and emoluments secured for himself by a bargain with the
oppressors of his country. Varchi, Nardi, Jacopo Pitti and
Bernardo Segni are unanimous upon this point; but it is only
the recent publication of Guicciardini's private MSS. that has
made us understand the force of their invectives. To plead
loyalty or honest political conviction in defence of his Medicean
partianship is now impossible, face to face with the opinions
expressed in the Ricordi politic* and the Storia Fiarentina.
Like Machiavelli, but on a lower level, Guicciardini was willing
to " roll stones," or to do any dirty work for masters whom,
in the depth of his soul, he detested and despised. After the
murder of Duke Alessandro in 1537, Guicciardini espoused the
cause of Cosimo de* Medici, a boy addicted to field sports, and
unused to the game of statecraft. The wily old diplomatist
hoped to rule Florence as grand vizier under this inexperienced
princeling. He was mistaken, however, in his schemes, for
Cosimo displayed the genius of his family for politics, and coldly
dismissed his would-be lord-protector. Guicciardini retired in
disgrace to his villa, where he spent his last years in the com-
position of the Storia d' Italia. He died in 1540 without male
heirs.
Guicciardini was the product of a cynical and selfish age,
and his life illustrated its sordid influences. Of a cold and
worldly temperament, devoid of passion, blameless in his
conduct as the father of a family, faithful as the servant of his
papal patrons, severe in the administration of the provinces
committed to his charge, and indisputably able in his conduct
of affairs, he was at the same time, and in spite of these qualities,
a man whose moral nature inspires a sentiment of liveliest re-
pugnance. It is not merely that he was ambitious, cruel,
revengeful and avaricious, for these vices have existed in men
far less antipathetic than Guicciardini. Over and above those
faults, which made him odious to his fellow-citizens, we trace in
him a meanness that our century is less willing to condone.
His phlegmatic and persistent egotism, his sacrifice of truth and
honour to self-interest, his acquiescence in the worst conditions
of the world, if only he could use them for his own advantage,
combined with the glaring discord between his opinions and his
practice, form a character which would be contemptible in our
eyes were it not so sinister. The social and political decrepitude
of Italy, where patriotism was unknown, and only selfishness
survived of all the motives that rouse men to action, found its
representative and exponent in Guicciardini. When we turn
from the man to the author, the decadence of the age and race
that could develop a political philosophy so arid in its cynical
despair of any good in human nature forces itself vividly upon
our notice. Guicciardini seems to glory in his disillusionment,
and uses his vast intellectual ability for the analysis of the
corruption he had helped to make incurable. If one single
treatise of that century should be chosen to represent the spirit
of the Italian people in the last phase of the Renaissance, the
historian might hesitate between the Principe of Machiavelli
and the Ricordi politici of Guicciardini. The latter is perhaps
preferable to the former on the score of comprehensiveness.
It is, moreover, more exactly adequate to the actual situation,
for the Principe has a divine spark of patriotism yet lingering
in the cinders of its frigid science, an idealistic enthusiasm sur-
viving in its moral aberrations; whereas a great Italian critic
of this decade has justly described the Ricordi as " Italian
corruption codified and elevated to a rule of life." Guicciardini
is, however, better known as the author of the Storia d f Italia,
that vast and detailed picture of his country's sufferings between
the years 1494 and 1532. Judging him by this masterpiece of
scientific history, he deserves less commendation as a writer
than as a thinker and an analyst. The style is wearisome and
prolix, attaining to precision at the expense of circumlocution,
and setting forth the smallest particulars with the same dis-
tinctness as the main features of the narrative. The whole
tangled skein of Italian politics, in that involved and stormy
period, is unravelled with a patience and an insight that are
above praise. It is the crowning merit of the author that he
never ceases to be an impartial spectator — a cold and curious
critic. We might compare him to an anatomist, with knife and
scalpel dissecting the dead body of Italy, and pointing out the
symptoms of her manifold diseases with the indifferent analysis
of one who has no moral sensibility. This want of feeling, while
it renders Guicciardini a model for the scientific student, has
impaired the interest of his history. Though he lived through
that agony of the Italian people, he does not seem to be aware
that he is writing a great historical tragedy. He takes as much
pains in laying bare the trifling causes of a petty war with Pisa
as in probing the deep-seated ulcer of the papacy. Nor is he
capable of painting the events in which he took a part, in their
totality as a drama. Whatever he touches, lies already dead
on the dissecting table, and his skill is that of the analytical
pathologist. Consequently, he fails to understand the essential
magnitude of the task, or to appreciate the vital vigour of the
forces contending in Europe for mastery. This is very notice-
able in what he writes about the Reformation. Notwithstanding
these defects, inevitable in a writer of Guicciardini's tempera-
ment, the Storia d } Italia was undoubtedly the greatest historical
work that had appeared since the beginning of the modern era.
It remains the most solid monument ot the Italian reason in
the 16th century, the final triumph of that Florentine school
of philosophical historians which included Machiavelli, Segni,
Pitti, Nardi, Varchi, Francesco Vettori and Donato Giannotti.
Up to the year 1857 the fame of Guicciardini as a writer, and the
estimation of him as a man, depended almost entirely upon the
History of Italy, and on a few ill-edited extracts from his aphor-
isms. At that date his representatives, the counts Piero and
Luigi Guicciardini, opened their family archives, and com-
mitted to Signor Giuseppe Canestrini the publication of his
hitherto inedited MSS. in ten important volumes. The vast
mass of documents and finished literary work thus given to
the world has thrown a flood of light upon Guicciardini, whether
we consider him as author or as citizen. It has raised his re-
putation as a political philosopher into the first rank, where he
now disputes the place of intellectual supremacy with his friend
Machiavelli; but it has coloured our moral judgment of his
character and conduct with darker dyes. From the stores of
valuable materials contained in those ten volumes, it will be
enough here to cite (1) the Ricordi politici, already noticed,
consisting of about 400 aphorisms on political and social topics;
(2) the observations on Machiavelli 's Discorsi, which bring into
remarkable relief the views of Italy's two great theorists on
statecraft in the 16th century, and show that Guicciardini
regarded Machiavelli somewhat as an amiable visionary or
political enthusiast; (3) the Storia Fiorentina, an early work
of the author, distinguished by its animation of style, brilliancy
of portraiture, and liberality of judgment; and (4) the Dialogo
del reggimento di Firenze, also in all probability an early work,
in which the various forms of government suited to an Italian
686
GUICHARD— GUICHEN
commonwealth arc discussed with infinite subtlety, contrasted,
and illustrated from the vicissitudes of Florence up to the year
1494. To these may be added a series of short essays, entitled
Discorsi politici, composed during Guicciardini's Spanish lega-
tion. It is only after a careful perusal of these minor works
that the student of history may claim to have comprehended
Guicciardini, and may feel that he brings with him to the con-
sideration of the Storia d' Italia the requisite knowledge of the
author's private thoughts and jealously guarded opinions.
Indeed, it may be confidently affirmed that those who desire
to gain an insight into the true principles and feelings of the
men who made and wrote history in the 16th century will find
it here far more than in the work designed for publication by the
writer. Taken in combination with Machiavelli's treatises, the
Opere inedite furnish a comprehensive body of Italian political
philosophy anterior to the date of Fra Paolo Sarpi. (J. A. S.)
See Kosini's edition of the Storia d' Italia (10 vols., Pisa, 1819),
and the Opere inedite, in 10 vols., published at Florence, 1857.
A complete and initial edition of Guicciardini's works is now in
preparation in the hands of Alessandro Gherardi of the Florence
archives. Among the many studies on Guicciardini we may mention
Agostino Rossi's Francesco Guicciardini e il governo Fiorentino
(2 vols., Bologna, 1896), based on many new documents; F. de
Sanctis's essay " L'Uomo del Guicciardini," in his Nuovi Saggi
critici (Naples, 1879), and many passages in Professor P. Villari s
Machiavelh (Eng. trans., 1892); E. Benoist's Guichardin, historien
et homme d'6tat ttalien an Xvl* Steele (Paris, 1862), and C.Gioda's
Francesco Guicciardini e le sue opere inedite (Bologna, 1880) are not
without value, but the authors had not had access to many im-
portant documents since oublished. See also Geoffroy's article
" Une Autobiographic de ouichardin d'apres ses aeuvres in6dites,"
in the Revue des-deux mondes (1st of February 1874).
GUICHARD, KARL GOTTLIEB (1724-1775), soldier and
military writer, known as Quintus Icilius, was born at Magde-
burg in 1724, of a family of French refugees. He was educated
for the Church, and at Leiden actually preached a sermon as a
candidate for the pastorate. But he abandoned theology for
more secular studies, especially that of ancient history, in which
his learning attracted the notice of the prince of Orange, who
promised him a vacant professorship at Utrecht. On his arrival,
however, he found that another scholar had been elected by the
local authorities, and he thereupon sought and obtained a
commission in the Dutch army. He made the campaigns of
1747-48 in the Low Countries. In the peace which followed,
his combined military and classical training turned his thoughts
in the direction of ancient military history. His notes on this
subject grew into a treatise, and in 1754 he went over to England
in order to consult various libraries. In 1757 his Memoires
militaires sur les Grecs et les Romains appeared at the Hague, and
when Carlyle wrote his Frederick the Great it had reached its
fifth edition. Coming back, with English introductions, to the
Continent, he sought service with Ferdinand of Brunswick, who
sent him on to Frederick the Great, whom he joined in January
1758 at Breslau. The king was very favourably impressed with
Guichard and his works, and he remained for nearly 18 months
in the royal suite. His Prussian official name of Quintus Icilius
was the outcome of a friendly dispute with the king (see Nikolai,
Anekdoten, vi. 129-145; Carlyle, Frederick the Great, viii.
113-114). Frederick in discussing the battle of Pharsalia spoke
of a centurion Quintus Caecilius as Q. Icilius. Guichard ventured
to correct him, whereupon the king said, " You shall be Quintus
Icilius," and as Major Quintus Icilius he was forthwith gazetted
to the command of a free battalion. This corps he commanded
throughout the later stages of the Seven Years' War, his battalion,
as time went on, becoming a regiment of three battalions, and
Quintus himself recruited seven more battalions of the same
kind of troops. His command was almost always with the
king's own army in these campaigns, but for a short time it
fought in the western theatre under Prince Henry. When not
on the march he was always at the royal headquarters, and it
was he who brought about the famous interview between the
king and Gellert (see Carlyle, Frederick the Great, ix. 109;
Gellert, Briefwechsel mit Demoiselle Lucius, ed. Ebert, Leipzig,
1823, pp. 629-631) on the subject of national German literature.
On 22nd January 1761 Quintus was ordered to sack the castle
of Hubert usburg (a task which Major-General Saldern had point-
blank refused to undertake, from motives of conscience), and
carried out his task, it is said, to his own very considerable
profit. The place cannot have been seriously injured, as it was
soon afterwards the meeting-place of the diplomatists whose
work ended in the peace of Hubertusburg, but the king never
ceased to banter Quintus on his supposed depredations. The
very day of Frederick's triumphant return from the war saw the
disbanding of most of the free battalions, including that of
Quintus, but the major to the end of his life remained with the
king. He was made lieutenant-colonel in 1765, and in 1773,
in recognition of his work Mimoires critiques et historiques sur
plusieurs points d'antiquitts militaires, dealing mainly with
Caesar's campaigns in Spain (Berlin, 17 73), was promoted colonel.
He died at Potsdam, 1775.
GUICHEN, LUC URBAIN DE BOUfiXIC, Comte de (1712-
1790), French admiral, entered the navy in 1730 as " garde de ia
Marine," the first rank in the corps of royal officers. His pro-
motion was not rapid. It was not till 1748 that he became
" lieutenant de vaisseau," which was, however, a somewhat
higher rank than the lieutenant in the British navy, since it
carried with it the right to command a frigate. He was " capi-
taine de vaisseau," or post captain, in 1756. But his reputation
must have been good, for he was made chevalier de Saint Louis
in 1748. In 1775 he was appointed to the frigate "Terpsichore,"
attached to the training squadron, in which the due de Chartres,
afterwards notorious as the due d 'Orleans and as Philippe
£galit6, was entered as volunteer. In the next year he was
promoted chef d'escadre, or rear-admiral. When France had
become the ally of the Americans in the War of Independence, he
hoisted his flag in the Channel fleet, and was present at the battle
of Ushant on the 27th of July 1779. In March of the following
year he was sent to the West Indies with a strong squadron
and was there opposed to Sir George Rodney. In the first meeting
between them on the 17th of April to leeward of Martinique,
Guichen escaped disaster only through the clumsy manner in
which Sir George's orders were executed by his captains. Seeing
that he had to deal with a formidable opponent, Guichen acted
with extreme caution, and by keeping the weather gauge afforded
the British admiral no chance of bringing him to close action.
When the hurricane months approached (July to September)
he left the West Indies, and his squadron, being in a bad state
from want of repairs, returned home, reaching Brest in September.
Throughout all this campaign Guichen had shown himself very
skilful in handling a fleet, and if he had not gained any marked
success, he had prevented the British admiral from doing any
harm to the French islands in the Antilles. In December 1781
the comte de Guichen was chosen to command the force which
was entrusted with the duty of carrying stores and reinforce-
ments to the West Indies. On the 12th Admiral Kempenfelt,
who had been sent out by the British Government with an
unduly weak force to intercept him, sighted the French admiral
in the Bay of Biscay through a temporary clearance in a fog,
at a moment when Guichen 's warships were to leeward of the
convoy, and attacked the transports at once. The French
admiral could not prevent his enemy from capturing twenty of
the transports, and driving the others into a panic-stricken
flight. They returned to port, and the mission entrusted to
Guichen was entirely defeated. He therefore returned to port
also. He had no opportunity to gain any counterbalancing
success during the short remainder of the war, but he was present
at the final relief of Gibraltar by Lord Howe. His death occurred
on the 13th of January 1790. The comte de Guichen was, by
the testimony of his contemporaries, a most accomplished
and high-minded gentleman. It is probable that he had more
scientific knowledge than any of his English contemporaries
and opponents. But as a commander in war he was notable
chiefly for his skill in directing the orderly movements of a
fleet, and seems to have been satisfied with formal operations,
which were possibly elegant but could lead to no substantial
result. He had none of the combative instincts of his country-
man Suffren, or of the average British admiral.
GUIDE— -GUIDO OF AREZZO
687
See vicomte de Noailles, Marins et soldats frangais en Amerique
(*9°3) J and E. Chevalier, Histoire de la marine frangaise pendant
la guerre de V independence ameWicaine (1877). (D. H.)
GUIDE (in Mid. Eng. gyde, from the Fr. guide; the earlier
French form was guie } English " guy," the d was due to the
Italian form guida; the ultimate origin is probably Teutonic,
the word being connected with the base seen in O. Eng.
witan, to know), an agency for directing or showing the way,
specifically a person who leads or directs a stranger over unknown
or unmapped country, or conducts travellers and tourists
through a town, or over buildings of interest. In European
wars up to the time of the French Revolution, the absence of
large scale detailed maps made local guides almost essential to
the direction of military operations, and in the 18th century the
general tendency to the stricter organization of military re-
sources led in various countries to the special training of guide
officers (called Feldj&ger, and considered as general staff officers
in the Prussian army), whose chief duty it was to find, and if
necessary establish, routes across country for those parts of
the army that had to move parallel to the main road and as
nearly as possible at deploying interval from each other, for in
those days armies were rarely spread out so far as to have the
use of two or more made roads. But the necessity for such
precautions died away when adequate surveys (in which guide
officers were, at any rate in Prussia, freely employed) were
carried out, and, as a definite term of military organization to-day,
"guide" possesses no more essential peculiarity than fusilier,
grenadier or rifleman. The genesis of the modern " Guide "
regiments is perhaps to be found in a short-lived Corps of Guides
formed by Napoleon in Italy in 1796, which appears to have
been a personal escort or body guard composed of men who
knew the country. In the Belgian army of to-day the Guide
regiments correspond almost to the Guard cavalry of other
nations; in the Swiss army the squadrons of "Guides" act as
divisional cavalry, and in this role doubtless are called upon
on occasion to lead columns. The " Queen's own Corps of
Guides " of the Indian army consists of infantry companies
and cavalry squadrons. In drill, a " guide " is an officer or
non-commissioned officer told off to regulate the direction and
pace of movements, the remainder of the unit maintaining
their alignment and distances by him.
A particular class of guides are those employed in mountain-
eering; these are not merely to show the way but stand in the
position of professional climbers with an expert knowledge of
rock and snowcraft, which they impart to the amateur, at the
same time assuring the safety of the climbing party in dangerous
expeditions. This professional class of guides arose in the
middle of the 19th century whep Alpine climbing became re-
cognized as a sport (see Mountaineering). It is thus natural
to find that the Alpine guides have been requisitioned for
mountaineering expeditions all over the world. In climbing
in Switzerland, the central committee of the Swiss Alpine Club
issues a guides' tariff which fixes the charges for guides and
porters; there are three sections, for the Valais and Vaudois
Alps, for the Bernese Oberland, and for central and eastern
Switzerland. The names of many of the great guides have
become historical. In Chamonix a statue has been raised to
Jacques Balmat, who was the first to climb Mont Blanc in 1786.
Of the more famous guides since the beginning of Alpine climbing
may be mentioned Auguste Balmat, Michel Cros, Maquignay,
J. A. Carrel, who went with E. Whymper to the Andes, the
brothers Lauener, Christian Aimer and Jakob and Melchior
Anderegg.
" Guide " is also applied to a book, in the sense of an ele-
mentary primer on some subject, or of one giving full informa-
tion for travellers of a country, district or town. In mechanical
usage, the term " guide " is of wide application, being used of
anything which steadies or directs the motion of an object, as
of the "leading" screw of a screw-cutting lathe, of a loose
pulley used to steady a driving-belt, or of the bars or rods in a
steam-engine which keep the sliding blocks moving in a straight
line. The doublet " guy " is thus used of a rope which steadies
a sail when it is being raised or lowered, or of a rope, chain or
stay supporting a funnel, mast, derrick, &c.
GUIDI, CARLO ALESSANDRO (1650-1712), Italian lyric
poet, was born at Pavia in 1650. As chief founder of the well-
known Roman academy called " L'Arcadia," he had a con-
siderable share in the reform of Italian poetry, corrupted at
that time by the extravagance and bad taste of the poets Marini
and Achillini and their school. The poet Guidi and the critic
and jurisconsult Gravina checked this evil by their influence
and example. The genius of Guidi was lyric in the highest
degree; his songs are written with singular force, and charm
the reader, in spite of touches of bombast. His most celebrated
song is that entitled Alia Fortuna (To Fortune), which certainly
is one of the most beautiful pieces of poetry of the 17th century.
Guidi was squint-eyed, humpbacked, and of a delicate constitu-
tion, but possessed undoubted literary ability. His poems were
printed at Parma in 167 1, and at Rome in 1704. In 1681 he
published at Parma his lyric tragedy Atnalasunta in Italy y and
two pastoral dramas Daphne and Endymion. The last had the
honour of being mentioned as a model by the critic Gravina, in
his treatise on poetry. Less fortunate was Guidi's poetical
version of the six homilies of Pope Clement XI., first as having
been severely criticized by the satirist Settano, and next as
having proved to be the indirect cause of the author *s death.
A splendid edition of this version had been printed in 17 12,
and, the pope being then in San Gandolfo, Guidi went there to
present him with a copy. On the way he found out a serious
typographical error, which he took so much to heart that he
was seized with an apoplectic fit at Frascati and died on the
spot. Guidi was honoured with the special protection of
Ranuccio II., duke of Parma, and of Queen Christina of Sweden.
GUIDICCIONI, GIOVANNI (1480-1541), Italian poet, was born
at Lucca in 1480, and died at Macerata in 1541. He occupied a
high position, being bishop of Fossombrone and president of
Romagna. The latter office nearly cost him his life; a murderer
attempted to kill him, and had already touched his breast with
his dagger when, conquered by the resolute calmness of the
prelate, he threw away the weapon and fell at his feet, asking
forgiveness. The Rime and Letters of Guidiccioni are models of
elegant and natural Italian style. The best editions are those
of Genoa (1749), Bergamo (1753) and Florence (1878).
GUIDO OF AREZZO (possibly to be identified with Guido
de St Maur des Fosses), a musician who lived in the nth century.
He has by many been called the father of modern music, and a
portrait of him in the refectory of the monastery of Avellana
bears the inscription Beatus Guido, inventor musicae. Of his
life little is known, and that little is chiefly derived from the
dedicatory letters prefixed to two of his treatises and addressed
respectively to Bishop Theodald (not Theobald, as Burney writes
the name) of Arezzo, and Michael, a monk of Pomposa and
Guido's pupil and friend. Occasional references to the cele-
brated musician in the works of his contemporaries are, however,
by no means rare, and from these it may be conjectured with all
but absolute certainty that Guido was born in the last decade
of the 10th century. The place of his birth is uncertain in
spite of some evidence pointing to Arezzo; on the title-page of
all his works he is styled Guido Aretinus, or simply Arehnus.
At his first appearance in history Guido was a monk in the
Benedictine monastery of Pomposa, and it was there that he
taught singing and invented his. educational method, by means
of which, according to his own statement, a pupil might learn
within five months what formerly it would have taken him ten
years to acquire. Envy and jealousy, however, were his only
reward, and by these he was compelled to leave his monastery —
" inde est, quod me vides prolixis finibus exulatum," as he says
himself in the second of the letters above referred to. According
to one account, he travelled as far as Bremen, called there by
Archbishop Hermann in order to reform the musical service.
But this statement has been doubted. Certain it is that not
long after his flight from Pomposa Guido was living at Arezzo,
and it was here that, about 1030, he received an invitation to
Rome from Pope John XIV. He obeyed the summons, and the
688
GUIDO OF SIENA— GUIDO RENI
pope himself became his first and apparently one of his most
proficient pupils. But in spite of his success Guido could not be
induced to remain in Rome, the insalubrious air of which seems
to have affected his health. In Rome he met again his former
superior, the abbot of Pomposa, who seems to have repented
of his conduct, and to have induced Guido to return to Pomposa;
and here all authentic records of Guido's life cease. We only
know that he died, on the 17 th of May 1050, as prior of Avellana,
a monastery of the Carnal dulians; such at least is the statement
of the chroniclers of that order. It ought, however, to be added
that the Camaldulians claim the celebrated musician as wholly
their own, and altogether deny his connexion with the Bene-
dictines.
The documents discovered by Dom Germain Morin, the
Belgian Benedictine, about 1888, point to the conclusion that
Guido was a Frenchman and lived from his youth upwards in
the Benedictine monastery of St Maur des Fosses where he
invented his novel system of notation and taught the brothers
to sing by it. In codex 763 of the British Museum the com-
poser of the " Micrologus " and other works by Guido of Arezzo
is always described as Guido de Sancto Mauro.
There is no doubt that Guido's method shows considerable
progress in the evolution of modern notation. It was he who
for the first time systematically used the lines of the staff, and
the intervals or spaiia between them. There is also little doubt
that the names of the first six notes of the scale, «/, re, mi, fa,
sol, la, still in use among Romance nations, were introduced by
Guido, although he seems to have used them in a relative rather
than in an absolute sense. It is well known that these words
are the first syllables of six lines of a hymn addressed to St John
the Baptist, which may be given here: —
Ut queant laxis rcsonare fibris
Miva. gestorum /amuli tuorum,
Solve polluti labii reatum,
Sancte Joannes.
In addition to this Guido is generally credited with the intro-
duction of the F clef. But more important than all this, perhaps,
is the thoroughly practical tone which Guido assumes in his
theoretical writings, and which differs greatly from the clumsy
scholasticism of his contemporaries and predecessors.
The most important of Guido's treatises, and those which are
generally acknowledged to be authentic, are Micrologus Guidonis de
discipline artis mustcae, dedicated to Bishop Theodald of Arezzo,
and comprising a complete theory of music, in 20 chapters; Musicae
Guidonis regulae rhytnmicae in antiphonarii sui protogum prolatae,
written in trochaic decasyllabics of anything but classical structure;
Aliae Guidonis regulae de ignoto cantu, identidem in antiphonarii sui
prologum prolatae; and the Epistola Guidonis Michaeli monacho de
ignoto cantu, already referred to. These are published in the second
volume of Gerbert's Scriptores ecclesiastici de musica sacra. A very
important manuscript unknown to Gerbert (the Codex bibliothecae
Uticensis, in the Paris library) contains, besides minor treatises, an
antiphonarium and gradual undoubtedly belonging to Guido.
See also L. Angeloni, G. d' Arezzo (1811); Kiesewetter, Guido von
Arezzo (1840); Kornmuller, " Leben und Werken Guidos von
Arezzo," in Habert's Jahrb. (1876); Antonio Brandi, G. Aretino
(1882); G. B. Ristori, Biografia dt Guido monaco oV Arezzo (1868).
GUIDO OF SIENA. The name of this Italian painter is of
considerable interest in the history of art, on the ground that,
if certain assumptions regarding him could be accepted as true,
he would be entitled to share with Cimabue, or rather indeed
to supersede him in, the honour of having given the first onward
impulse to the art of painting. The case stands thus. In the
church of S. Domenico in Siena is a large painting of the " Virgin
and Child Enthroned," with six angels above, and in the Bene-
dictine convent of the same city is a triangular pinnacle, once
a portion of the same composition, representing the Saviour in
benediction, with two angels; the entire work was originally
a triptych, but is not so now. The principal section of this
picture has a rhymed Latin inscription, giving the painter's
name as Gu . . . o de Senis, with the date 122 1: the genuine-
ness of the inscription is not, however, free from doubt, and
especially it is maintained that the date really reads as 1281.
In the general treatment of the picture there is nothing to
distinguish it particularly from other work of the same early
period; but the heads of the Virgin and Child are indisputably
very superior, in natural character and graceful dignity, to
anything to be found anterior to Cimabue. The question there-
fore arises, Are these heads really the work of a man who painted
in 1 22 1 ? Crowe and Cavalcaselle pronounce in the negative,
concluding that the heads are repainted, and are, as they now
stand, due to some artist of the 14th century, perhaps Ugolino
da Siena; thus the claims of Cimabue would remain undisturbed
and in their pristine vigour. Beyond this, little is known of
Guido da Siena. There is in the Academy of Siena a picture
assigned to him, a half-figure of the " Virgin and Child," with
two angels, dating probably between 1250 and 1300; also in
the church of S. Bernardino in the same city a Madonna dated
1262. Milanesi thinks that the work in S. Domenico is due to
Guido Graziani, of whom no other record remains earlier than
1278, when he is mentioned as the painter of a banner. Guido
da Siena appears always to have painted on panel, not in fresco
on the wall. He has been termed, very dubiously, a pupil of
Pietrolino, and the master of " Diotisalvi," Mino da Turrita and
Berlinghieri da Lucca.
GUIDO RENI (1 575-1642), a prime master in the Bolognese
school of painting, and one of the most admired artists of the
period of incipient decadence in Italy, was born at Calvenzano
near Bologna on the 4th of November 1575. His father was a
musician of repute, a player on the flageolet; he wished to bring
the lad up to perform on the harpsichord. At a very childish
age, however, Guido displayed a determined bent towards the
art of form, scribbling some attempt at a drawing here, there
and everywhere. He was only nine years of age when Denis
Calvart took notice of him, received him into his academy of
design by the father's permission, and rapidly brought him
forward, so that by the age of thirteen Guido had already at-
tained marked proficiency. Albani and Domenichino became
soon afterwards pupils in the same academy. With Albani
Guido was very intimate up to the earlier period of manhood,
but they afterwards became rivals, both as painters and as
heads of ateliers, with a good deal of asperity on Albani's part;
Domenichino was also pitted against Reni by the policy of
Annibale Caracci. Guido was still in the academy of Calvart
when he began frequenting the opposition school kept by
Lodovico Caracci, whose style, far in advance of that of the
Flemish painter, he dallied with. This exasperated Calvart.
Him Guido, not yet twenty years of age, cheerfully quitted,
transferring himself openly to the Caracci academy, in which he
soon became prominent, being equally skilful and ambitious.
He had not been a year with the Caracci when a work of his
excited the wonder of Agostino and the jealousy of Annibale.
Lodovico cherished him, and frequently painted him as an angel,
for the youthful Reni was extremely handsome. After a while,
however, Lodovico also felt himself nettled, and he patronized
the competing talents of Giovanni Barbiere. On one occasion
Guido had made a copy of Annibale's " Descent from the
Cross"; Annibale was asked to retouch it, and, finding nothing
to do, exclaimed pettishly, " He knows more than enough "
(" Costui ne sa troppo "). On another occasion Lodovico, con-
sulted as umpire, lowered a price which Reni asked for* an early
picture. This slight determined the young man to be a pupil
no more. He left the Caracci, and started on his own account
as a competitor in the race for patronage and fame. A renowned
work, the story of " Callisto and Diana," had been completed
before he left.
Guido was faithful to the eclectic principle of the Bolognese
school of painting. He had appropriated something from
Calvart, much more from Lodovico Caracci; he studied with
much zest after Albert Durer; he adopted the massive, sombre
and partly uncouth manner of Caravaggio, One day Annibale
Caracci made the remark that a style might be formed reversing
that of Caravaggio in such matters as the ponderous shadows
and the gross common forms; this observation germinated in
Guido's mind, and he endeavoured after some such style, aiming
constantly at suavity. Towards 1602 he went to Rome with
Albani, and Rome remained his headquarters for twenty years.
GUIENNE
689
Here, in the pontificate of Paul V. (Borghese), he was greatly
noted and distinguished. In the garden-house of the Rospigliosi
Palace he painted the vast fresco which is justly regarded as his
masterpiece — " Phoebus and the Hours preceded by Aurora."
This exhibits his second manner, in which he had deviated far
indeed from the promptings of Caravaggio. He founded now
chiefly upon the antique, more especially the Niobe group and
the " Venus de* Medici, " modified by suggestions from Raphael,
Correggio, Parmigiano and Paul Veronese. Of this last painter,
although on the whole he did not get much from him, Guido
was a particular admirer; he used to say that he would rather
have been Paul Veronese than any other master — Paul was
more nature than art. The " Aurora " is beyond doubt a work
of pre-eminent beauty and attainment; it is stamped with
pleasurable dignity, and, without being effeminate, has a more
uniform aim after graceful selectness than can readily be traced
in previous painters, greatly superior though some of them had
been in impulse and personal fervour of genius. The pontifical
chapel of Montecavallo was assigned to Reni to paint; but,
being straitened in payments by the ministers, the artist made
off to Bologna. He was fetched back by Paul V. with cere-
monious 6clat, and lodging, living and equipage were supplied
to him. At another time he migrated from Rome to Naples,
having received a commission to paint the chapel of S. Gennaro.
The notorious cabal of three painters resident in Naples —
Corenzio, Caracciolo and Ribera — offered, however, as stiff an
opposition to Guido as to some other interlopers who preceded
and succeeded him. They gave his servant a beating by the
hands of two unknown bullies, and sent by him a message to
his master to depart or prepare for death; Guido waited for no
second warning, and departed. He now returned to Rome;
but he finally left that city abruptly, in the pontificate of Urban
VIII., in consequence of an offensive reprimand administered to
him by Cardinal Spinola. He had received an advance of 400
scudi on account of an altarpiece for St Peter's, but after some
lapse of years had made no beginning with the work. A broad
reminder from the cardinal put Reni on his mettle; he returned
the 400 scudi, quitted Rome within a few days, and steadily
resisted all attempts at recall. He now resettled in Bologna.
He had taught as well as painted in Rome, and he left pupils
behind him; but on the whole he did not stamp any great
mark upon the Roman school of painting, apart from his own
numerous works in the papal city.
In Bologna Guido lived in great splendour, and established a
celebrated school, numbering more than two hundred scholars.
He himself drew in it, even down to his latest years. On first
returning to this city, he charged about £21 for a full-length
figure (mere portraits are not here in question), half this sum
for a half-length, and £5 for a head. These prices must be
regarded as handsome, when we consider that Domenichino
about the same time received only £10, 10s. for his very large and
celebrated picture, the "Last Communion of St Jerome. ,,
But Guido's reputation was still on the increase, and in process
of time he quintupled his prices. He now left Bologna hardly
at all; in one instance, however, he went off to Ravenna, and,
along with three pupils, he painted the chapel in the cathedral
with his admired picture of the " Israelites gathering Manna."
His shining prosperity was not to last till the end. Guido was
dissipated, generously but indiscriminately profuse, and an
inveterate gambler. The gambling propensity had been his
from youth, but until he became elderly it did not noticeably
damage his fortunes. It grew upon him, and in a couple of
evenings he lost the enormous sum of 14,400 scudi. The vice
told still more ruinously on his art than on his character. In
his decline he sold his time at so much per hour to certain picture
dealers; one of them, the Shylock of his craft, would stand by,
watch in hand, and see him work. Half-heartedness, half-per-
formance, blighted his product: self-repetition and mere
mannerism, with affectation for sentiment and vapidity for
beauty, became the art of Guido. Some of these trade-works,
heads or half-figures, were turned out in three hours or even
less. It is said that, tardily wise, Reni left off gambling for
nearly two years; at last he relapsed, and his relapse was
followed not long afterwards by his death, caused by malignant
fever. This event took place in Bologna on the 18th of August
1642; he died in debt, but was buried with great pomp in the
church of S. Domenico.
Guido was personally modest, although he valued himself on his
position in the art, and would tolerate no slight in that relation;
he was extremely upright, temperate in diet, nice in his person and
his dress. He was fond of stately houses, but could feel also the
charm of solitude. In his temper there was a large amount of
suspiciousness; and the jealousy which his abilities and his suc-
cesses excited, now from the Caracci, now from Albani, now from
the monopolizing league of Neapolitan painters, may naturally
have kept this feeling in active exercise. Of his numerous scholars,
Simone Cantarini, named II Pesarese, counts as the most distin-
Siished ; he painted an admirable head of Reni, now in the Bolognese
allery. Tne portrait in the Ufnzi Gallery of Florence is from Keni's
own hand. Two other good scholars were Giacomo Semenza and
Francesco Gessi.
The character of Guido's art is so well known as hardly to call
for detailed analysis, bevond what we have already intimated. His
most characteristic style exhibits a prepense ideal, of form rather
than character, with a slight mode of handling, and silvery, some-
what cold, colour. In working from the nude he aimed at perfec-
tion of form, especially marked in the hands and feet. But tie was
far from always going to choice nature for his model; he trans-
muted ad libitum, and painted, it is averred, a Magdalene of de-
monstrative charms from a vulgar-looking colour-grinder. His
best works have beauty, great amenity, artistic feeling and high
accomplishment of manner, all alloyed by a certain core of common-
place; in the worst pictures the commonplace swamps everything,
and Guido has flooded European galleries with trasny and empty
pretentiousness, all the more noxious in that its apparent grace of
sentiment and form misleads the unwary into approval, and the
dilettante dabbler into cheap raptures. Both in Rome and wherever
else he worked he introduced increased softness of style, which
was then designated as the modern method. His pictures are
mostly Scriptural or mythologic in subject, and between two and
three hundred of them are to be found in various European col-
lections — more than a hundred of these containing life-sized figures.
The portraits which he executed are few — those of Sixtus V.,
Cardinal Spada and the so-called Beatrice Cenci being among the
most noticeable. The identity of the last-named portrait is very
dubious; it certainly cannot have been painted direct from Beatrice,
who had been executed in Rome before Guido ever resided there.
Many etchings are attributed to him — some from his own works,
and some after other masters; they are spirited, but rather negligent.
Of other works not already noticed, the following should be
named: — in Rome (the Vatican), the "Crucifixion of St Peter," an
example of the painter's earlier manner; in S. Lorenzo in Lucina,
"Christ Crucified"; in Forll, the "Conception"; in Bologna,
the " Alms of St Roch " (early), the " Massacre of the Innocents,"
and the " Pieta, or Lament over the Body of Christ " (in the church
of the Mendicant i), which is by many regarded as Guido's prime
executive work ; in the Dresden Gallery, an " Ecce Homo " ; in
Milan (Brera Gallery), "Saints Peter and Paul"; in Genoa (church
of S. Ambrogio), the "Assumption of the Virgin"; in Berlin,
" St Paul the Hermit and St Anthony in the Wilderness." The
celebrated picture of " Fortune " (in the Capitol) is one of Reni's
finest treatments of female form; as a specimen of male form, the
" Samson Drinking from the Jawbone 01 an Ass " might be named
beside it. One of his latest works of mark is the " Ariadne," which
used to be in the Gallery of the Capitol. The Louvre contains
twenty of his pictures, the National Gallery of London seven, and
others were once there, now removed to other public collections.
The most interesting of the seven is the small " Coronation of the k
Virgin," painted on copper, an elegantly finished work, more pretty
than beautiful. It was probably painted before the master quitted
Bologna for Rome.
For the life and works of Guido Reni, see Bolognini, Vita di
Guido Reni (1839); Passeri, Vite de' pittori\ and Malvasia, Felsina
Pittrice; also Lanzi, Storia pitlorica. (W. M. R.)
GUIENNE, an old French province which corresponded
roughly to the Aquitania Secunda of the Romans and the arch-
bishopric of Bordeaux. In the 12th century it formed with
Gascony the duchy of Aquitaine, which passed under the
dominion of the kings of England by the marriage of Eleanor
of Aquitaine to Henry II.; but in the 13th, through the con-
quests of Philip Augustus, Louis VIII. and Louis IX., it was
confined within the narrower limits fixed by the treaty of Paris
(1259). It is at this point that Guienne becomes distinct from
Aquitaine. It then comprised the Bordelais (the old countship
of Bordeaux), the Bazadais, part of P6rigord, Limousin, Quercy
and Rouergue, the Agenais ceded by Philip III. (the Bold) to
Edward I. (1279), and (still united with Gascony) formed a
690
GUIGNES— GUILDHALL
duchy extending from the Charente to the Pyrenees. This
duchy was held on the terms of homage to the French kings,
an onerous obligation; and both in 1296 and 1324 it was con-
fiscated by the kings of France on the ground that there had
been a failure in the feudal duties. At the treaty of Br6tigny
(1360) Edward III. acquired the full sovereignty of the duchy
of Guienne, together with Aunis, Saintonge, Angoumois and
Poitou. The victories of du Guesclin and Gaston Phcebus,
count of Foix, restored the duchy soon after to its 13th-century
limits. In 145 1 it was conquered and finally united to the
French crown by Charles VII. In 1460 Louis XI. gave it in
exchange for Champagne and Brie to his brother Charles, duke
of Berry, after whose death in 1472 it was again united to the
royal dominion. Guienne then formed a government which
from the 17 th century onwards was united with Gascony. The
government of Guienne and Gascony, with its capital at Bor-
deaux, lasted till the end of the ancien rigime. Under the
Revolution the departments formed from Guienne proper were
those of Gironde, Lot-et-Garonne, Dordogne, Lot, Aveyron and
the chief part of Tarn-et-Garonne.
GUIGNES, JOSEPH DE (1721-1800), French orientalist, was
born at Pontoise on the 10th of October 1721. He succeeded
Fourmont at the Royal Library as secretary interpreter of the
Eastern languages. A MSmoire historique sur Vorigine des
Huns et des Turcs, published by de Guignes in 1748, obtained his
admission to the Royal Society of London in 1752, and he
became an associate of the French Academy of Inscriptions in
1754. Two years later he began to publish his learned and
laborious Hisioire gSnerale des Huns, des Mongoles, des Turcs
et des autres Tartares occidentaux (1756-1758); and in 1757 he
was appointed to the chair of Syriac at the College de France.
He maintained that the Chinese nation had originated in
Egyptian colonization, an opinion to which, in spite of every
argument, he obstinately clung. He died in Paris in 1800.
The Hisioire had been translated into German by Dahnert
(1768-1771). De Guignes left a son, Christian Louis Joseph
(1759-1845), who, after learning Chinese from his father, went
as consul to Canton, where he spent seventeen years. On his
return to France he was charged by the government with the
work of preparing a Chinese-French-Latin dictionary (18 13).
He was also the author of a work of travels (Voyages & PSkin,
Manille, et Vile de France, 1808).
See Que*rard, La France littfraire, where a list of the memoirs
contributed by de Guignes to the Journal des savants is given.
GUILBERT, YVETTE (1869- ), French diseuse, was born in
Paris. She served for two years until 1885 in the Magasin du
Prin temps, when, on the advice of the journalist, Edmond
Stoullig, she trained for the stage under Landrol. She made
her d6but at the Bouffes du Nord, then played at the Vari6tes,
and in 1800 she received a regular engagement at the Eldorado
to sing a couple of songs at the beginning of the performance.
She also sang at the Ambassadeurs. She soon won an immense
vogue by her rendering of songs drawn from Parisian lower-class
life, or from the humours of the Latin Quarter, " Quatre z'Hudi-
ants " and the " Hdtel du numero trots " being among her early
triumphs. Her adoption of an habitual yellow dress and long
black gloves, her studied simplicity of diction, and her ingenuous
delivery of songs charged with risqui meaning, made her famous.
She owed something to M. Xanrof, who for a long time composed
songs especially for her, and perhaps still more to Aristide Bruant,
who wrote many of her argot songs. She made successful tours
in England, Germany and America, and was in great request as
an entertainer in private houses. In 1895 she married Dr M.
Schiller. In later years she discarded something of her earlier
manner, and sang songs of the " pompadour " and the " crino-
line " period in costume. She published the novels La Vedette
and Les Demi-vieilles, both in 1002.
GUILDFORD, a market town and municipal borough, and
the county town of Surrey, England, in the Guildford parlia-
mentary division, 29 m. S.W. of London by the London and
South Western railway; served also by the London, Brighton,
and South Coast and the South Eastern and Chatham railways.
Pop. (1001) 15,938- It is beautifully situated on an acclivity
of the northern chalk Downs and on the river Wey. Its older
streets contain a number of picturesque gabled houses, with
quaint lattices and curious doorways. The ruins of a Norman
castle stand finely above the town and are well preserved;
while the ground about them is laid out as a public garden.
Beneath the Angel Inn and a house in the vicinity are extensive
vaults, apparently of Early English date, and traditionally
connected with the castle. The church of St Mary is Norman
and Early English, with later additions and considerably re-
stored; its aisles retain their eastward apses and it contains
many interesting details. The church of St Nicholas is a modern
building on an ancient site, and that of Holy Trinity is a brick
structure of 1763, with later additions, also on the site of an
earlier church, from which some of the monuments are preserved,
including that of Archbishop Abbot (1640). The town hall
dates from 1683 and contains a number of interesting pictures.
Other public buildings are the county hall, corn-market and
institute with museum and library. Abbot's Hospital, founded
by Archbishop Abbot in 1619, is a beautiful Tudor brick building.
The county hospital (1866) was erected as a memorial to Albert,
Prince Consort. The Royal Free Grammar School, founded in
1509, and incorporated by Edward VI., is an important school
for boys. At Cranleigh, 6 m. S.E., is a large middle-class county
school. The town has flour mills, iron foundries and breweries,
and a large trade in grain; while fairs are held for live stock.
There is a manufacture of gunpowder in the neighbouring village
of Chilworth. Guildford is a suffragan bishopric in the diocese
of Winchester. The borough is under a mayor, 4 aldermen
and 12 councillors. Area, 2601 acres.
Guildford (Gyldeford, Geldeford), occurs among the posses-
sions of King Alfred, and was a royal borough throughout the
middle ages. It probably owed its rise to its position at the
junction of trade routes. It is first mentioned as a borough in
113 1. Henry III. granted a charter to the men of Guildford in
1256, by which they obtained freedom from toll throughout
the kingdom, and the privilege of having the county court
held always in their town. Edward III. granted charters to
Guildford in 1340, 1346 and 1367; Henry VI. in 1423; Henry
VII. in 1488. Elizabeth in 1580 confirmed earlier charters, and
other charters were granted in 1603, 1626 and 1686. The
borough was incorporated in i486 under the title of the mayor
and good men of Guildford. During the middle ages the govern-
ment of the town rested with a powerful merchant gild. Two
members for Guildford sat in the parliament of 1295, and the
borough continued to return two representatives until 1867
when the number was reduced to one. By the Redistribution
Act of 1885 Guildford became merged in the county for electoral
purposes. Edward II. granted to the town the right of having
two fairs, at the feast of St Matthew (21st of September) and
at Trinity respectively. Henry VII. granted fairs on the feast
of St Martin (nth of November) and St George (23rd of April).
Fairs in May for the sale of sheep and in November for the sale
of cattle are still held. The market rights date at least from
1276, and three weekly markets are still held for the sale
of corn, cattle and vegetables respectively. The cloth trade
which formed the staple industry at Guildford in the middle
ages is now extinct.
GUILDHALL, the hall of the corporation of the city of London,
England. It faces a courtyard opening out of Gresham Street.
The date of its original foundation is not known. An ancient
crypt remains, but the hall has otherwise undergone much
alteration. It was rebuilt in 141 1, beautified by the muni-
ficence of successive officials, damaged in the Great Fire of 1666,
and restored in 1789 by George Dance; while the hall was
again restored, with a new roof, in 1870. This fine chamber,
152 ft. in length, is the scene of the state banquets and enter-
tainments of the corporation, and of the municipal meetings
" in common hall." The building also contains a council
chamber and various court rooms, with a splendid library, open
to the public, a museum and art gallery adjoining. The hall
contains several monuments and two giant figures of wood,
GUILFORD (TITLE)— GUILFORD
691
known as Gog and Magog. These were set up in 1708, but the
appearance of giants in city pageants is of much earlier date.
GUILFORD, BARONS AND EARLS OF. Francis North,
1st Baron Guilford (1637-1685), was the third son of the 4th
Baron North (see North, Barons), and was created Baron
Guilford in 1683, after becoming lord keeper in succession to
Lord Nottingham. He had been an eminent lawyer, solicitor-
general (1671), attorney-general (1673), and chief-justice of the
common pleas (1675), and in 1679 was made a member of the
council of thirty and on its dissolution of the cabinet. He was
a man of wide culture and a stanch royalist. In 1672 he married
Lady Frances Pope, daughter and co-heiress of the earl of
Downe, who inherited the Wroxton estate; and he was suc-
ceeded as and baron by his son Francis (1673-17 20), whose eldest
son Francis (1 704-1 790), after inheriting first his father's title
as 3rd baron, and then (in 1734) the barony of North from his
kinsman the 6th Baron North, was in 1752 created 1st earl of
Guilford. His first wife was a daughter of the earl of Halifax,
and his son and successor Frederick was the English prime
minister, commonly known as Lord North, his courtesy title
while the 1st earl was alive.
Frederick North, 2nd earl of Guilford, but better known
by his courtesy title of Lord North (173 2-1 792), prime minister
of England during the important years of the American War,
was born on the 13th of April 1732, and after being educated at
Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, was sent to make the grand
tour of the continent. On his return he was, though only
twenty- two years of age, at once elected M.P. for Banbury, of
which town his father was high steward; and he sat for the
same town in parliament for nearly forty years. In 1759 he
was chosen by the duke of Newcastle to be a lord of the treasury,
and continued in the same office under Lord Bute and George
Grenville till 1765. He had shown himself such a ready debater
that on the fall of the first Rockingham ministry in 1766 he was
sworn of the privy council, and made paymaster-general by the
duke of Grafton. His reputation for ability grew so high that
in December 1767, on the death of the brilliant Charles Towns-
hend, he was made chancellor of the exchequer. His popularity
with both the House of Commons and the people continued to
increase, for his temper was never ruffled, and his quiet humour
perpetually displayed; and, when the retirement of the duke
of Grafton was necessitated by the hatred he inspired and the
attacks of Junius, no better successor could be found for the
premiership than the chancellor of the exchequer. Lord North
succeeded the duke in March 1770, and continued in office for
twelve of the most eventful years in English history. George
III. had at last overthrown the ascendancy of the great Whig
families, under which he had so long groaned, and determined to
govern as well as rule. He knew that he could only govern by
obtaining a majority in parliament to carry out his wishes, and
this he had at last obtained by a great expenditure of money
in buying seats and by a careful exercise of his patronage.
But in addition to a majority he must have a minister who would
consent to act as his lieutenant, and such a minister he found
in Lord North. How a man of undoubted ability such as Lord
North was could allow himself to be thus used as a mere in-
strument cannot be explained; but the confidential tone of the
king's letters seems to show that there was an unusual intimacy
between them, which may account for North's compliance.
The path of the minister in parliament was a hard one; he had
to defend measures which he had not designed, and of which
he had not approved, and this too in a House of Commons in
which all the oratorical ability of Burke and Fox was against
him, and when he had only the purchased help of Thurlow and
Wedderburne to aid him. The most important events of his
ministry were those of the American War of Independence.
He cannot be accused of causing it, but one of his first acts was
the retention of the tea-duty, and he it was also who introduced
the Boston Port Bill in 1774. When the war had broken out he
earnestly counselled peace, and it was only the earnest solici-
tations of the king not to leave his sovereign again at the mercy
of the Whigs that induced him to defend a war which from 1779
he knew to be both hopeless and impolitic. At last, in March
1782, he insisted on resigning after the news of Cornwallis's
surrender at Yorktown, and no man left office more blithely.
He had been well rewarded for his assistance to the king: his
children had good sinecures; his half-brother, Brownlow North
(1 741-1820), was bishop of Winchester; he himself was chan-
cellor of the university of Oxford, lord-lieutenant of the county
of Somerset, and had finally been made a knight of the Garter,
an honour which has only been conferred on three other members
of the House of Commons, Sir R. Walpole, Lord Castlereagh
and Lord Palmerston. Lord North did not remain long out of
office, but in April 1783 formed his famous coalition with his old
subordinate, C. J. Fox (q.v.), and became secretary of state
with him under the nominal premiership of the duke of Portland.
He was probably urged to this coalition with his old opponent
by a desire to show that he could act independently of the king,
and was not a mere royal mouthpiece. The coalition ministry
went out of office on Fox's India Bill in December 1783, and
Lord North, who was losing his sight, then finally gave up
political ambition. He played, when quite blind, a somewhat
important part in the debates on the Regency Bill in 1789, and
in the next year succeeded his father as earl of Guilford. He
did not long survive his elevation, and died peacefully on the
5th of August 1792. It is impossible to consider Lord North a
great statesman, but he was a most good-tempered and humorous
member of the House of Commons. In a time of unexampled
party feeling he won the esteem and almost the love of his most
bitter opponents. Burke finely sums up his character in his
Letter to a Noble Lord: " He was a man of admirable parts, of
general knowledge, of a versatile understanding, fitted for every
sort of business; of infinite wit and pleasantry, of a delightful
temper, and with a mind most disinterested. But it would be
only to degrade myself," he continues, " by a weak adulation,
and not to honour the memory of a great man, to deny that he
wanted something of the vigilance and spirit of command which
the times required."
By his wife Anne (d. 1797), daughter of George Speke of White
Lackington, Somerset, Guilford had four sons, the eldest of
whom, George Augustus (1757-1802), became 3rd earl on his
father's death. This earl was a member of parliament from
1778 to 1792 and was a member of his father's ministry and
also of the royal household; he left no sons when he died on
the 20th of April 1802 and was succeeded in the earldom by his
brother Francis (1761-1817), who also left no sons. The youngest
brother, Frederick (1 766-1827), who now became 5th earl of
Guilford, was remarkable for his great knowledge and love of
Greece and of the Greek language. He had a good deal to do
with the foundation of the Ionian university at Corfu, of which
he was the first chancellor and to which he was very liberal.
Guilford, who was governor of Ceylon from 1798 to 1805, died
unmarried on the 14th of October 1827. His cousin, Francis
(1772-1861), a son of Brownlow North, bishop of Winchester
from 1 781 to 1820, was the 6th earl, and the latter's descendant,
Frederick George (b. 1876), became 8th earl in 1886.
On the death of the 3rd earl of Guilford in 1802 the barony of
North fell into abeyance between his three daughters, the
survivor of whom, Susan (1 797-1884), wife of John Sidney Doyle,
who took the name of North, was declared by the House of
Lords in 1841 to be Baroness North, and the title passed to her
son, William Henry John North, the nth baron (b. 1836)
(see North, Barons).
For the Lord Keeper Guilford see the Lives by the Hon. R. North,
edited by A. Jessopp (1890); and E. Foss, The Judges of England,
vol. vii. ( 1 848-1 864). For the prime minister, Lord North, see
Correspondence of George III. wtth Lord North, edited by W. B.
Donne (1867) ; Horace Walpole, Journal of the Reign of George III.
(1859), and Memoirs of the Reign of George III., edited by G. F. R.
Barker (1894); Lord Brougham, Historical Sketches of Statesmen,
vol. i. (1839); Earl Stanhope, History of England (1858); Sir T. E.
May, Constitutional History of England (1863-1865); and W. E. H.
Lecky, History of England in the 18th century (1878-1890).
GUILFORD, a township, including a borough of the same
name, in New Haven county, Connecticut, U.S.A., on Long
Island Sound and at the mouth of the Menunkatuck or West
692 GUILLAUME, J. B. C. E.— GUILLAUME D'ORANGE
river, about 16 m. E. by S. of New Haven. Pop. of the township,
including the borough (1900), 2785, of whom 387 were foreign-
born; (1910) 3001; pop. of the borough (1910), 1608. The
borough is served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford
railroad. On a plain is the borough green of nearly 12 acres,
which is shaded by some fine old elms and other trees, and in
which there is a soldiers , monument. About the green are
several churches and some of the better residences. On an
eminence commanding a fine view of the Sound is an old stone
house, erected in 1639 for a parsonage, meeting-house and
fortification; it was made a state museum in 1898, when
extensive alterations were made to restore the interior to its
original appearance. The Point of Rocks, in the harbour, is
an attractive resort during the summer season. There are
about 12 ft. of water on the harbour bar at high tide. The
principal industries of Guilford are coastwise trade, the
manufacture of iron castings, brass castings, wagon wheels
and school furniture, and the canning of vegetables. Near the
coast are quarries of fine granite; the stone for the pedestal of
the Statue of Liberty on Bedloe's Island, in New York Harbour,
was taken from them.
Guilford was founded in 1639 as an independent colony by a
company of twenty-five or more families from Kent, Surrey
and Sussex, England, under the leadership of Rev. Henry Whit-
field (1 597-1657) . While still on shipboard twenty-five members
of the company signed a plantation covenant whereby they
agreed not to desert the plantation which they were about to
establish. Arriving at New Haven early in July 1639, they
soon began negotiations with the Indians for the purchase of
land, and on the 29th of September a deed was signed by which
the Indians conveyed to them the territory between East
River and Stony Creek for "12 coates, 12 Fathoms of Wampam,
12 glasses (mirrors), 12 payer of shooes, 12 Hatchetts, 12 paire of
Stockings, 12 Hooes, 4 kettles, 12 knives, 12 Hatts, 12 Por-
ringers, 12 spoones, and 2 English coates." Other purchases of
land from the Indians were made later. Before the close of the
year the company removed from New Haven and established the
new colony; it was known by the Indian name Menuncatuck
for about four years and the name Guilford (from Guildford,
England) was then substituted. As a provisional arrangement,
civil power for the administration of justice and the preservation
of the peace was vested in four persons until such time as a
church should be organized. This was postponed until 1643
when considerations of safety demanded that the colony should
become a member of the New Haven Jurisdiction, and then
only to meet the requirements for admission to this union were
the church and church state modelled after those of New Haven.
Even then, though suffrage was restricted to church members,
Guilford planters who were not church members were required
to attend town meetings and were allowed to offer objections
to any proposed order or law. From 1661 until the absorption
of the members of the New Haven Jurisdiction by Connecticut,
in 1664, William Leete (1611-1683), one of the founders of
Guilford, was governor of the Jurisdiction, and under his leader-
ship Guilford took a prominent part in furthering the sub-
mission to Connecticut, which did away with the church state
and the restriction of suffrage to freemen. Guilford was the
birthplace of Fitz-Greene Halleck (1 790-1867), the poet; of
Samuel Johnson (1696-1771), the first president of King's
College (now Columbia University); of Abraham Baldwin
(1 754-1807), prominent as a statesman and the founder of the
University of Georgia; and of Thomas Chittenden, the first
governor of Vermont. The borough was incorporated in 181 5.
See B. C. Steiner, A History of the Plantation of Menunca-Tuck
and of the Original Town of Guilford, Connecticut (Baltimore, 1807),
and Proceedings at the Celebration of the 2$oth Anniversary of the
Settlement of Guilford, Connecticut (New Haven, 1889).
GUILLAUME, JEAN BAPTISTE CLAUDE EUGENE (1822-
1905), French sculptor, was born at Montbard on the 4th of
July 1822, and studied under Cavelier, Millet, and Barrias, at
the ficole des Beaux- Arts, which he entered in 1841, and where
he gained the prix de Rome in 1845 with " Tieseus finding on a
rock his Father's Sword." He became director of the ficole des
Beaux-Arts in 1864, and director-general of Fine Arts from
1878 to 1879, when the office was suppressed. Many of his
works have been bought for public galleries, and his monuments
are to be found in the public squares of the chief cities of France.
At Rheims there is his bronze statue of " Colbert," at Dijon his
" Rameau " monument. The Luxembourg Museum has his
"Anacreon" (1852), " Les Gracques" (1853), " Faucheur "
(1855), and the marble bust of " Mgr Darboy "; the Versailles
Museum the portrait of " Thiers "; the Sorbonne Library the
marble bust of " Victor le Clerc, doyen de la faculte des lettres."
Other works of his are at Trinity Church, St Germain FAuxerrois,
and the church of St Clotilde, Paris. Guillaume was a prolific
writer, principally on sculpture and architecture of the Classic
period and of the Italian Renaissance. He was elected member
of the Acad6mie Francaise in 1862, and in 189 1 was sent to
Rome as director of the Academie de France in that city. He
was also elected an honorary member of the Royal Academy,
London, 1869, on the institution of that class.
GUILLAUME DE LORRIS (fi. 1230), the author of the earlier
section of the Roman de la rose, derives his surname from a small
town about equidistant from Montargis and Gien, in the present
department of Loiret. This and the fact of his authorship may
be said to be the only things positively known about him. The
rubric of the poem, where his own part finishes, attributes Jean de
Meun's continuation to a period forty years later than William's
death and the consequent interruption of the romance. Arguing
backwards, this death used to be put at about 1260; but Jean
de Meun's own work has recently been dated earlier, and so the
composition of the first part has been thrown back to a period
before 1240. The author represents himself as having dreamed
the dream which furnished the substance of the poem in his
twentieth year, and as having set to work to " rhyme it " five
years later. The later and longer part of the Roman shows
signs of greater intellectual vigour and wider knowledge than the
earlier and shorter, but Guillaume de Lorris is to all appearance
more original. The great features of his four or five thousand
lines are, in the first place, the extraordinary vividness and
beauty of his word-pictures, in which for colour, freshness
and individuality he has not many rivals except in the greatest
masters, and, secondly, the fashion of allegorical presentation,
which, hackneyed and wearisome as it afterwards became,
was evidently in his time new and striking. There are of course
traces of it before, as in some romances, such as those of Raoul
de Houdenc, in the troubadours, and in other writers; but it
was unquestionably Guillaume de Lorris who fixed the style.
For an attempt to identify Guillaume de Lorris see L. Jarry,
Guillaume de Lorris et le testament oVAlphonse de Poitiers (1881).
Also Paulin Paris in the Hist, litt. de la prance, vol. xxiii.
GUILLAUME DE PALERME (William of Palerne), hero of
romance. The French verse romance was written at the desire
of a Countess Yolande, generally identified with Yolande,
daughter of Baldwin IV., count of Flanders. The English poem
in alliterative verse was written about 1350 by a poet called
William, at the desire of Humphrey Bohun, earl of Hereford,
(d. 1 361). Guillaume, a foundling supposed to be of low degree,
is brought up at the court of the emperor of Rome, and loves
his daughter Melior who is destined for a Greek prince. The
lovers flee into the woods disguised in bear-skins. Alfonso,
who is Guillaume's cousin and a Spanish prince, has been
changed into a wolf by his step-mother's enchantments. He
provides food and protection for the fugitives, and Guillaume
eventually triumphs over Alfonso's father, and wins back from
him his kingdom. The benevolent werwolf is disenchanted,
and marries Guillaume's sister.
See Guillaume de Palerne, ed. H. Mtchelant (Soc. d. anc. textes fr.,
1876); Hist. litt. de la France, xxii. 829; William of Palcrme, ed.
Sir F. Madden (Roxburghe Club, 1832), and W. W. Skeat (E. E.
Text Soc., extra series No. 1, 1867); M. Kaluza, in Eng. Studien
(Heilbronn, iv. 196). The prose version of the French romance,
printed by N. Bonfons, passed through several editions.
GUILLAUME D'ORANGE (d. 812), also known as Guillaume
Fierabrace, St Guillaume de Gellone, and the Marquis au court
GUILLAUME D'ORANGE
693
nez, was the central figure of the southern cycle of French
romance, called by the trouveres the gesie of Garin de Monglane.
The cycle of Guillaume has more unity than the other great
cycles of Charlemagne or of Doon de Mayence, the various
poems which compose it forming branches of the main story
rather than independent epic poems. There exist numerous
cyclic MSS. in which there is an attempt at presenting a con-
tinuous histoire poStique of Guillaume and his family. MS. Royal
20 D xi. in the British Museum contains eighteen chansons
of the cycle. Guillaume, son of Thierry or Theodoric and of Aide,
daughter of Charles Martel, was born in the north of France
about the middle of the 8th century. He became one of the best
soldiers and trusted counsellors of Charlemagne, and in 790 was
made count of Toulouse, when Charles's son Louis the Pious
was put under his charge. He subdued the Gascons, and
defended Narbonne against the infidels. In 793 Hescham, the
successor of Abd-al-Rahman II., proclaimed a holy war against
the Christians, and collected an army of 100,000 men, half of
which was directed against the kingdom of the Asturias, while
the second invaded France, penetrating as far as Narbonne.
Guillaume met the invaders near the river Orbieux, at Villedaigne,
where he was defeated, but only after an obstinate resistance
which so far exhausted the Saracens that they were compelled to
retreat to Spain. He took Barcelona from the Saracens in 803,
and in the next year founded the monastery of Gellone (now Saint
Guilhem-le DSsert), of which he became a member in 806. He
died there in the odour of sanctity on the 28th of May 812.
No less than thirteen historical personages bearing the name
of William (Guillaume) have been thought by various critics
to have their share in the formation of the legend. William,
count of Provence, son of Boso II., again delivered southern
France from a Saracen invasion by his victory at Fraxinet in
973, and ended his life in a cloister. William Tow-head (TUe
d'Stoupe), duke of Aquitaine (d. 983), showed a fidelity to Louis
IV. paralleled by Guillaume d'Orange's service to Louis the
Pious. The cycle of twenty or more chansons which form the
gesie of Guillaume reposes on the traditions of the Arab invasions
of the south of France, from the battle of Poitiers (732) under
Charles Martel onwards, and on the French conquest of Catalonia
from the Saracens. In the Norse version of the Carolingian epic
Guillaume appears in his proper historical environment, as a
chief under Charlemagne; but he plays a leading part in the
Couronnement Looys, describing the formal associations of
Louis the Pious in the empire at Aix (813, the year after Guil-
laume's death), and after the battle of Aliscans it is from the
emperor Louis that he seeks reinforcements. This anachronism
arises from the fusion of the epic Guillaume with the champion
of Louis IV., and from the fact that he was the military and civil
chief of Louis the Pious, who was titular king of Aquitaine
under his father from the time when he was three years old.
The inconsistencies between the real and the epic Guillaume
are often left standing in the poems. The personages associated
with Guillaume in his Spanish wars belong to Provence, and
have names common in the south. The most famous of these
are Beuves de Comarchis, Ernaud de Girone, Garin d'Ans6un,
Aimer le ch6tif , so called from his long captivity with the Saracens.
The separate existence of Aimer, who refused to sleep under a
roof, and spent his whole life in warring against the infidel, is
proved. He was Hadhemar, count of Narbonne, who in 809
and 810 was one of the leaders sent by Louis against Tortosa.
No doubt the others had historical prototypes. In the hands
of the trouveres they became all brothers of Guillaume, and
sons of Aymeri de Narbonne, 1 the grandson of Garin de Monglane,
and his wife Ermenjart. Nevertheless when Guillaume seeks
help from Louis the emperor he finds all his relations in Laon,
in accordance with his historic Frankish origin.
1 The poem of Aymeri de Narbonne contains the account of the
young Aymeri's brilliant capture of Narbonne, which he then
receives as a fief from Charlemagne, of his marriage with Ermenjart,
sister of Boniface, king of the Lombards, and of their children. The
fifth daughter, Blanchefleur, is represented as the wife of Louis the
Pious. The opening of this poem furnished, though indirectly, the
matter of the Aymerillot of Victor Hugo's Ligende des sihcles.
The central fact of the gesie of Guillaume is the battle of the
Archamp or Aliscans, in which perished Guillaume's heroic
nephew, Vezian or Vivien, a second Roland. At the eleventh
hour he summoned Guillaume to his help against the overwhelm-
ing forces of the Saracens. Guillaume arrived too late to help
Vivien, was himself defeated, and returned alone to his wife
Guibourc, leaving his knights all dead or prisoners. This event
is related in a Norman-French transcript of an old French
chanson de geste, the Chancun de Willame — which only was
brought to light in 1901 at the sale of the books of Sir Henry
Hope Edwardes — in the Covenant Vivien, a recension of an older
French chanson and in Aliscans. Aliscans continues the story,
telling how Guillaume obtained reinforcements from Laon, and
how, with the help of the comic hero, the scullion Rainouart
or Rennewart, he avenged the defeat of Aliscans and his nephew's
death. Rainouart turns out to be the brother of Guillaume's
wife Guibourc, who was before her marriage the Saracen princess
and enchantress Orable. Two other poems are consecrated to
his later exploits, La Bataille Loquifer, the work of a French
Sicilian poet, Jendeu de Brie (fl. 1 170), and Le M outage Rainouart.
The staring-point of Herbert le due of Dammartin (fl. 11 70)
in Foucon de Candie (Candie = Gandia in Spain ?) is the return
of Guillaume from the battle; and the Italian compilation
/ Nerbonesi, based on these and other chansons, seems in some
cases to represent an earlier tradition than the later of the French
chansons, although its author Andrea di Barberino wrote towards
the end of the 14th century. The minnesinger Wolfram von
Eschenbach based his WUlehalm on a French original which
must have differed from the versions we have. The variations
in the story of the defeat of Aliscans or the Archant, and the
numerous inconsistencies of the narratives even when considered
separately have occupied many critics. Aliscans (Aleschans,
Alyscamps, Elysii Campi) was, however, generally taken to
represent the battle of Villedaigne, and to take its name from
the famous cemetery outside Aries. Wolfram von Eschenbach
even mentions the tombs which studded the field of battle.
Indications that this tradition was not unassailable were not
lacking before the discovery of the Chancun de Willame, which,
although preserved in a very corrupt form, represents the earliest
recension we have of the story, dating at least from the begin-
ning of the 1 2th century. It seems probable that the Archant
was situated in Spain near Vivien's headquarters at Tortosa, and
that Guillaume started from Barcelona, not from Orange, to
his nephew's help. The account of the disaster was modified by
successive trouveres, and the uncertainty of their methods may
be judged by the fact that in the Chancun de Willame two con-
secutive accounts (11. 450-1326 and n. 1326-2420) of the fight
appear to be set side by side as if they were separate episodes.
Le Couronnement Looys, already mentioned, Le Charroi de Ntmes
(12th century) in which Guillaume, who had been forgotten in
the distribution of fiefs, enumerates his services to the terrified
Louis, and Aliscans (12th century), with the earlier Chancun, are
among the finest of the French epic poems. The figure of
Vivien is among the most heroic elaborated by the trouveres,
and the giant Rainouart has more than a touch of Rabelaisian
humour.
The chansons de gesie of the cycle of Guillaume are: Enfances
Garin de Monglane (15th century) and Garin de Monglane (13th
century), on which is founded tne prose romance of Guirin de
Monglane, printed in the 15th century by Tehan Trepperel and
often later; Girars de Viane (13th century, by Bertrand de Bar-
sur-Aube), ed. P. Tarbe* (Reims, 1850); Hernaut de Beaulande
(fragment 14th century); Renter de Gennes, which only survives
in its prose form; Aymeri de Narbonne (c. 1210) by Bertrand de
Bar-sur-Aube, ed. L. Demaison (Soc. desanc. textesfr., Paris, 2 vols.,
1887); Les Enfances Guillaume (13th century); Les Narbonnais,
ed. H. Suchier (Soc. des anc. textes fr., 2 vols., 1898), with a Latin
fragment dating from the nth century, preserved at the Hague;
Le Couronnement Looys (ed. E. Langlois, 1888), Le Charroi de Ntmes,
La Prise d Orange, Le Covenant Vivien, Aliscans, which were edited
by W. J. A. Jonckbloet in vol. i. of his Guillaume d 'Orange (The
Hague, 1854); a critical text of Aliscans (Halle, 1903, vol. i.) is
edited by E. Wienbeck, W. Hartnacke and P. Rasch; Loquifer and
Le Montage Rainouart (12th century); Bovon de Commarchts (13th
century), recension of the earlier Siege de Barbastre, by Adenes li
694
GUILLEMOT— GUILLOTINE
Rois, ed. A. Scheler (Brussels, 1874); Guibert d'Andrenas (13th
century); La Prise de Cordres (13th century); La Mort Aimeri de
Narbonne, ed. J. Couraye de Pare (Soc. des Anciens Textes francais,
Paris, 1884); Foulque de Candie (ed. P. Tarbe\ Reims, i860); Le
Montage GuiUaume (12th century); Les Enfances Vivien (ed. C.
Wahlund and H. v. Feilitzen, Upsala and Paris, 1895); Chancun
de Willame (Chiswick Press, 1903), described by P. Meyer in Romania
(xxxiii. 597-618). The ninth branch of the Karlamagnus Sam (ed.
C. R. Unger, Christiania, i860) deals with the geste of GuiUaume.
/ Nerbonesi is edited by J. G. Isola (Bologna, 1877, &c.)
See C. Revillout, Etude hist, et liU. sur la vita sancti Willelmi
(Montpellier, 1876) ; W. T. A. Jonckbloet, GuiUaume d'Orange
(2 vols., 1854, The Hague); L. Clarus (ps. for W. Volk), Herzog
Wilhelm von Aquitanien (Miinster, 1865); P. Paris, in Hist. litt. de
la France (vol. xxii., 1852); L. Gautier, Epoptes francaises (vol. iv.,
2nd ed., 1882) ; R. Weeks, The newly discovered Chancun de Willame
(Chicago, 1904); A. Thomas, Etudes romanes (Paris, 1891), on
Vivien; L. Saltet, " S. Vidian de Martres-Tolosanes " in null, de
litt. eccUs. (Toulouse, 1902); P. Becker, Die allfrz. Wilhelmsage u.
ihre Beziehung zu Wilhelm dem Heiligen (Halle, 1806), and Der
sudfranzosiscne Sagenkreis und seine JProbleme (Halle, 1898); A.
Jeanroy, " Etudes sur ie cycle de GuiUaume au court nez " (in
Romania, vols. 25 and 26, 1806-1897); H. Suchier, " Recherches
sur . . . GuiUaume d'Orange (in Romania, vol. 32, 1903). The
conclusions arrived at by earlier writers are combated by Joseph
Bexiier in the first volume, " Le Cycle de GuiUaume d'Orange "
(1908), of his LSgendes Spumes, in which he constructs a theory that
the cycle of GuiUaume d'Orange grew up round the various shrines
on the pilgrim route to Saint (Tilles of Provence and Saint James of
Compostella — that the chansons de geste were, in fact, the product
of nth and 12th century trouveres, exploiting local ecclesiastical
traditions, and were not developed from earlier poems dating back
perhaps to the lifetime of GuiUaume of Toulouse, the saint of
Gellone.
GUILLEMOT (Fr. guillemot *), the name accepted by nearly
all modern authors for a sea-bird, the Colymbus troile of
Linnaeus and the Uria troile of Latham, which nowadays it
seems seldom if ever to bear among those who, from their voca-
tion, are most conversant with it, though, according to Willughby
and Ray his translator, it was in their time so caUed " by those
of Northumberland and Durham." Around the coasts of Britain
it is variously known as the frowl, kiddaw or skiddaw, langy
(cf. Ice. Langvia) y lavy, marrock, murre, scout (cf. Coot),
scuttock, strany, tinker or tinkershire and willock. In former
days the guiUemot yearly frequented the cliffs on many parts
of the British coasts in countless multitudes, and this is still
the case in the northern parts of the United Kingdom; but
more to the southward nearly all its smaUer settlements have
been rendered utterly desolate by the wanton and cruel destruc-
tion of their tenants during the breeding season, and even the
inhabitants of those which were more crowded had become so
thinned that, but for the intervention of the Sea Birds Preserva-
tion Act (32 & 33 Vict. cap. 17), which provided under penalty
for the safety of this and certain other species at the time of
year when they were most exposed to danger, they would un-
questionably by this time have been exterminated so far as
England is concerned.
Part of the guillemot's history is still little understood. We
know that it arrives at its wonted breeding stations on its
accustomed day in spring, that it remains there tiU, towards the
end of the summer, its young are hatched and able, as they soon
are, to encounter the perils of a seafaring life, when away go all,
parents and progeny. After that time it commonly happens
that a few examples are occasionally met with in bays and shallow
waters. Tempestuous weather wiU drive ashore a large number
in a state of utter destitution — many of them indeed are not
unfrequently washed up dead — but what becomes of the bulk
of the birds, not merely the comparatively few thousands that
are natives of Britain, but the tens and hundreds of thousands,
not to say millions, that are in summer denizens of more northern
latitudes, no one can say. This mystery is not peculiar to the
guillemot, but is shared by all the Alcidae that inhabit the
Atlantic Ocean. Examples stray every season across the Bay of
1 The word, however, seems to be cognate with or derived from
the Welsh and Manx Guillem, or Gwilym as Pennant spells it. The
association may have no real meaning, but one cannot help com-
paring the resemblance between the French guillemot and GuiUaume
with that between the English wiUock (another name for the bird)
and William.
Biscay, are found off the coasts of Spain and Portugal, enter
the Mediterranean and reach Italian waters, or, keeping farther
south, may even touch the Madeiras, Canaries or Azores; but
these bear no proportion whatever to the mighty hosts of whom
they are literaUy the " scouts," and whose position and move-
ments they no more reveal than do the vedettes of a well-
appointed army. The common guillemot of both sides of the
Atlantic is replaced farther northward by a species with a stouter
bUl, the U. arra or U. bruennichi of ornithologists, and on the
west coast of North America by the U. calif ornica. The habits
of aU these are essentially the same, and the structural resem-
blance between all of them and the Auks is so great that several
systematists have relegated them to the genus Alca, confining
the genus Uria to the guillemots of another group, of which
the type is the U. grylla } the black guillemot of British authors,
the dovekey or Greenland dove of sailors, the tysty of Shetlanders.
This bird assumes in summer an entirely black plumage with
the exception of a white patch on each wing, while in winter
it is beautifully marbled with white and black. Allied to it
as species or geographical races are the U. mandti, U. columba
and U. carbo. All these differ from the larger guillemots by
laying two or three eggs, which are generally placed in some
secure niche, while the members of the other group lay but a
single egg, which is invariably exposed on a bare ledge. (A. N .)
GUILLOCHE, a French word for an ornament, either painted
or carved, which was one of the principal decorative bands
employed by the Greeks in their temples or on their vases.
GuiUoches are single, double or triple; they consist of a series
of circles equidistant one from the other and enclosed in a band
which winds round them and interlaces. This guiUoche is
of Asiatic origin and was largely employed in the decoration of the
Assyrian palaces, where it was probably copied from Chaldaean
work, as there is an early example at Erech which dates from the
time of Gudea (2294 B.C.). The ornament as painted by the
Greeks has almost entirely disappeared, but traces are found in
the temple of Nemesis at Rhamnus; and on the terra-cotta slabs
by which the timber roofs of Greek temples were protected, it is
painted in colours which are almost as brilliant as when first
produced, those of the Treasury of Gela at Olympia being of great
beauty. These examples are double guiUoches, with two rows of
circles, each with an independent interlacing band and united
by a smaU arc with palmette inside; in both the single and double
guiUoches of Greek work there is a flower in the centre of the
circles. In the triple guilloche, the centre row of circles comes
half-way between the others, and the enclosing band crosses
diagonaUy both ways, interlacing alternately. The best example
of the triple guilloche is that which is carved on the torus mould-
ing of the base and on the small convex moulding above the
echinus of the capitals of the columns of the Erechtheum at
Athens. It was largely employed in Roman work, and the single
guilloche is found almost universaUy as a border in mosaic
pavements, not only in Italy but throughout Europe. In the
Renaissance in Italy it was also a favourite enrichment for
borders and occasionaUy in France and England.
GUILLON, MARIE NICOLAS SYLVESTRE (1760-1847),
French ecclesiastic, was born in Paris on the 1st of January 1760.
He was librarian and almoner in the household of the princess de
Lamballe, and when in 1792 she was executed, he fled to the
provinces, where under the name of Pastel he practised medicine.
A man of facile conscience, he afterwards served in turn under
Napoleon, the Bourbons and the Orleanists, and became canon of
St Denis, bishop of Morocco and dean of the Sorbonne.
Among his many literary works are a Collection des brefs du pape
Pie VI (1798), Bibliotheque choisie des peres grecs et latins (1822,
26 vols.) and a French translation of Cyprian with notes (1837, 2
vols.).
GUILLOTINE, the instrument for inflicting capital punish-
ment by decapitation, introduced into France at the period of the
Revolution. It consists of two upright posts surmounted by a
cross beam, and grooved so as to guide an oblique-edged knife,
the back of which is heavily weighted to make it fall swiftly and
with force when the cord by which it is held aloft is let go. Some
GUILT— GUIMARD
695
ascribe the invention of the machine to the Persians; and
previous to the period when it obtained notoriety under its
present name it had been in use in Scotland, England and various
parts of the continent. There is still preserved in the antiquarian
museum of Edinburgh the rude guillotine called the " maiden "
by which the regent Morton was decapitated in 1581. The last
persons decapitated by the Scottish " maiden " were the marquis
of Argyll in 1661 and his son the earl of Argyll in 1685.
It would appear that no similar machine was ever in general
use in England; but until 1650 there existed in the forest
of Hardwick, which was coextensive with the parish of
Halifax, West Riding, Yorkshire, a mode of trial and execution
called the gibbet law, by which a felon convicted of theft within
the liberty was sentenced to be decapitated by a machine called
the Halifax gibbet. A print of it is contained in a small book
called Halifax and its Gibbet Law (1708), and in Gibson's edition
of Camden's Britannia (1722). In Germany the machine was in
general use during the middle ages, under the name of the Diele,
the Hobel or the Dolabra. Two old German engravings, the one
by George Penez, who died in 1550, and the other by Heinrich
Aldegrever, with the date 1553, represent the death of a son of
Titus Manlius by a similar instrument, and its employment for
the execution of a Spartan is the subject of the engraving of the
eighteenth symbol in the volume entitled Symbolicae quaestiones
de universo genere, by Achilles Bocchi (1555). From the 13th
century it was used in Italy under the name of Mannaia for the
execution of criminals of noble birth. The Chronique de Jean
d* Anton, first published in 1835, gives minute details of an execu-
tion in which it was employed at Genoa in 1507; and it is
elaborately described by Pere Jean Baptiste Labat in his Voyage
en Espagne et en Italie en 1730. It is mentioned by Jacques,
viscomte de Puysegur, in his Memoir es as in use in the south of
France, and he describes the execution by it of Marshal Mont-
morency at Toulouse in 1632. For about a century it had, how-
ever, fallen into general disuse on the continent; and Dr
Guillotine, who first suggested its use in modern times, is said
to have obtained his information regarding it from the description
of an execution that took place at Milan in 1702, contained in
an anonymous work entitled Voyage historique et politique de
Suisse, d'ltalie, et d'Allemagne.
Guillotine, who was born at Saintes, May 28, 1738, and elected
to the Constituent Assembly in 1789, brought forward on the
1st December of that year two propositions regarding capital
punishment, the second of which was that, "in all cases of
capital punishment it shall be of the same kind — that is, decapita-
tion — and it shall be executed by means of a machine." The
reasons urged in support of this proposition were that in cases
of capital punishment the privilege of execution by decapitation
should no longer be confined to the nobles, and that it was
desirable to render the process of execution as swift and painless
as possible. The debate was brought to a sudden termination
in peals of laughter caused by an indiscreet reference of Dr
Guillotine to his machine, but his ideas seem gradually to have
leavened the minds of the Assembly, and after various debates
decapitation was adopted as the method of execution in the
penal code which became law on the 6th October 1791. At first
it was intended that decapitation should be by the sword, but
on account of a memorandum by M. Sanson, the executioner,
pointing out the expense and certain other inconveniences
attending that method, the Assembly referred the question to a
committee, at whose request Dr Antoine Louis, secretary to the
Academy of Surgeons, prepared a memorandum on the subject.
Without mentioning the name of Guillotine, it recommended the
adoption of an instrument similar to that which was formerly
suggested by him . The Assembly decided in favour of the report,
and the contract was offered to the person who usually provided
the instruments of justice; but, as his terms were considered
exorbitant, an agreement was ultimately come to with a German
of the name of Schmidt, who, under the direction of M. Louis,
furnished a machine for each of the French departments. After
satisfactory experiments had been made with the machine on
several dead bodies in the hospital of Bicetre, it was erected on
the Place de Grfcve for the execution of the highwayman Pelletier
on the 25th April 1792. While the experiments regarding the
machine were being carried on, it received the name Louisette
or La Petite Louison, but the mind of the nation seems soon to
have reverted to Guillotine, who first suggested its use; and in
the Journal des revolutions de Paris for 28th April 1792 it is
mentioned as la guillotine, a name which it thenceforth bore
both popularly and officially. In 1795 the question was much
debated as to whether or not death by the guillotine was in-
stantaneous, and in support of the negative side the case of
Charlotte Corday was adduced whose countenance, it is said,
blushed as if with indignation when the executioner, holding up
the head to the public gaze, struck it with his fist. The connexion
of the instrument with the horrors of the Revolution has hindered
its introduction into other countries, but in 1853 it was adopted
under the name of Fallschwert or Falibeil by the kingdom of
Saxony; and it is used for the execution of sentences of death
in France, Belgium and some parts of Germany. It has often
been stated that Dr Guillotine perished by the instrument which
bears his name, but it is beyond question that he survived the
Revolution and died a natural death in 1814.
See S&ttllot, Reflexions historiques et physiologiques sur le supplice
de la guillotine (1795) ; Sue, Opinion sur le supplice de la guillotine,
(1796); RcVeilte-Parise, Etude biographique sur Guillotine (Paris,
1 851); Notice historique et physiologique sur le supplice de la guil-
lotine (Paris, 1830) ; Louis Dubois, Recherches historiques et physio-
logiques sur la guillotine et details sur Sanson (Paris, 1843); and a
paper by J. W. Croker in the Quarterly Review for December 1843,
reprinted separately in 1850 under the title The Guillotine, a historical
Essay.
GUILT, a lapse from duty, a crime, now usually the fact of
wilful wrong-doing, the condition of being guilty of a crime,
hence conduct deserving of punishment. The O. Eng. form
of the word is gylt. The New English Dictionary rejects for
phonetic reasons the usually accepted connexion with the
Teutonic root gold-, to pay, seen in Ger. gelten, to be of value,
Geld, moneys payment, English " yield."
GUIMARAES (sometimes written Guimaraens), a town of
northern Portugal, in the district of Braga, formerly included in
the province of Entre-Minho-e-Douro; 36 m. N.E. of Oporto
by the Trofa-Guimaraes branch of the Oporto-Corunna railway.
Pop. (1900) 9104. Guimaraes is a very ancient town with
Moorish fortifications; and even the quarters which are locally
described as " new " date partly from the 15th century. It
occupies a low hill, skirted on the north-west by a small tributary
of the river Ave. The citadel, founded in the nth century by
Count Henry of Burgundy, was in 1094 the birthplace of his
son Alphonso, the first king of Portugal. The font in which
Alphonso was baptized is preserved, among other interesting
relics, in the collegiate church of Santa Maria da Oliveira, " St
Mary of the Olive/ ' a Romanesque building of the 14th century,
which occupies the site of an older foundation. This church
owes its name to the legend that the Visigothic king Wamba
(672-680) here declined the crown of Spain, until his olive wood
spear-shaft blossomed as a sign that he should consent. The
convent of Sao Domingos, now a museum of antiquities, has a
fine I2th-i3th century cloister; the town hall is built in the blend
of Moorish and Gothic architecture known as Manoelline.
Guimaraes has a flourishing trade in wine and farm produce;
it also manufactures cutlery, linen, leather and preserved fruits.
Near the town are Citania, the ruins of a prehistoric Iberian
city, and the hot sulphurous springs of Taipas, frequented since
the 4th century, when Guimaraes itself was founded.
GUIMARD, MARIE MADELEINE (1743-1816), French dancer,
was born in Paris on the 10th of October 1743. For twenty-five
years she was the star of the Paris Opera. She made herself
even more famous by her love affairs, especially by her long
liaison with the prince de Soubise. She bought a magnificent
house at Pantin, and built a private theatre connected with it,
where Colle's Par tie de chasse de Henri IV which was prohibited
in public, and most of the Proverbes of Carmontelle (Louis
Carrogis, 1717-1806), and similar licentious performances were
given to the delight of high society. In 1772, in defiance of the
696
GUIMET— GUINEA
archbishop of Paris, she opened a gorgeous house with a theatre
seating five hundred spectators in the Chaussee d'Antin. In this
Temple of Terpsichore, as she named it, the wildest orgies took
place. In 1786 she was compelled to get rid of the property,
and it was disposed of by lottery for her benefit for the sum of
300,000 francs. Soon after her retirement in 1789 she married
Jean Etienne Despreaux (1 748-1820), dancer, song-writer and
playwright.
GUIMET, JEAN BAPTISTE (1795-1871), French industrial
chemist, was born at Voiron on the 20th of July 1795. He studied
at the ficole Poly technique in Paris, and in 181 7 entered the
Administration des Poudres et Salpfitres. In 1828 he was
awarded the prize offered by the Soci6t6 d'Encouragement pour
l'Industrie Nationale for a process of making artificial ultramarine
with all the properties of the substance prepared from lapis
lazuli; and six years later he resigned his official position in
order to devote himself to the commercial production of that
material, a factory for which he established at Fleurieux sur
Sa6ne. He died on the 8th of April 1871.
His son £mile £tienne Guimet, born at Lyons on the 26th
of June 1836, succeeded him in the direction of the factory,
and founded the Musee Guimet, which was first located at Lyons
in 1879 and was handed over to the state and transferred to
Paris in 1885. Devoted to travel, he was in 1876 commissioned
by the minister of public instruction to study the religions of
the Far East, and the museum contains many of the fruits of
this expedition, including a fine collection of Japanese and
Chinese porcelain and many objects relating not merely to the
religions of the East but also to those of Ancient Egypt, Greece
and Rome. He wrote Lettres sur VAlgtrie (1877) and Promenades
japonaises (1880), and also some musical compositions, including
a grand opera, Tal-Tsoung (1894).
GUINEA, the general name applied by Europeans to part of
the western coast region of equatorial Africa, and also to the
gulf formed by the great bend of the coast line eastward and then
southward. Like many other geographical designations the
use of which is controlled neither by natural nor political
boundaries, the name has been very differently employed by
different writers and at different periods. In the widest accepta-
tion of the term, the Guinea coast may be said to extend from
1 3 N. to 16 S., from the neighbourhood of the Gambia to Cape
Negro. Southern or Lower Guinea comprises the coasts of
Gabun and Loango (known also as French Congo) and the Portu-
guese possessions on the south-west coast, and Northern or
Upper Guinea stretches from the river Casamance to and inclusive
of the Niger delta, Cameroon occupying a middle position. In
a narrower use of the name, Guinea is the coast only from Cape
Palmas to the Gabun estuary. Originally, on the other hand,
Guinea was supposed to begin as far north as Cape Nun, opposite
the Canary Islands, and Gomes Azurara, a Portuguese historian
of the 1 5th century, is said to be the first authority who brings
the boundary south to the Senegal. The derivation of the name
is uncertain, but is probably taken from Ghinea, Ginnie, Genni
or Jenn6, a town and kingdom in the basin of the Niger, famed
for the enterprise of its merchants and dating from the 8th
century a.d. The name Guinea is found on maps of the middle
of the 14th century, but it did not come into general use in
Europe till towards the close of the 15th century. 1
1 Guinea may, however, be derived from Ghana (or Ghanata) the
name of the oldest known state in the western Sudan. Ghana dates,
according to some authorities, from the 3rd century a.d. From
the 7th to the 12th century it was a powerful empire, its dominions
extending, apparently, from the Atlantic to the Niger bend. At
one time Tenn6 was included within its borders. Ghana was finally
conquered by the Mandingo kings of Melle in the 13th century. Its
capital, also called Ghana, was west of the Niger, and is generally
placed some 200 m. west of Jennc". In this district L. Desplagnes
discovered in 1907 numerous remains of a once extensive city,
which he identified as those of Ghana. The ruins lie 25 m. W. of
tioned by Arab historians as the capital of Ghanata. The identifica-
tion of Ghana city with Jenn£ is not justified, though Idrisi seems
to be describing Jcnne* when writing of " Ghana the Great."
Although the term Gulf of Guinea is applied generally to that
part of the coast south of Cape Palmas and north of the mouth
of the Congo, particular indentations have their peculiar designa-
tions. The bay formed by the configuration of the land between
Cape St Paul and the Nun mouth of the Niger is known as the
Bight of Benin, the name being that of the once powerful native
state whose territory formerly extended over the whole district.
The Bight of Biafra, or Mafra (named after the town of Mafra in
southern Portugal), between Capes Formosa and Lopez, is the
most eastern part of the Gulf of Guinea; it contains the islands
Fernando Po, Prince's and St Thomas's. The name Biafra —
as indicating the country — fell into disuse in the later part of
the 19th century.
The coast is generally so low as to be visible to navigators only
within a very short distance, the mangrove trees being their
only sailing marks. In the Bight of Biafra the coast forms an
exception, being high and bold, with the Cameroon Mountains
for background. At Sierra Leone also there is high land. The
coast in many places maintains a dead level for 30 to 50 m.
inland. Vegetation is exceedingly luxuriant and varied. The
palm-oil tree is indigenous and abundant from the river Gambia
to the Congo. The fauna comprises nearly ail the more remark-
able of African animals. The inhabitants are the true Negro
stock.
By the early traders the coast of Upper Guinea was given
names founded on the productions characteristic of the different
parts. The Grain coast, that part of the Guinea coast extending
for 500 m. from Sierra Leone eastward to Cape Palmas received
its name from the export of the seeds of several plants of a
peppery character, called variously grains of paradise, Guinea
pepper and melegueta. The name Grain coast was first applied
to this region in 1455. It was occasionally styled the Windy or
Windward coast, from the frequency of short but furious
tornadoes throughout the year. Towards the end of the 18th
century, Guinea pepper was supplanted in Europe by peppers
from the East Indies. The name now is seldom used, the Grain
coast being divided between the British colony of Sierra Leone
and the republic of Liberia. The Ivory coast extends from Cape
Palmas to 3 W., and obtained its name from the quantity of
ivory exported therefrom. It is now a French possession. East-
wards of the Ivory coast are the Gold and Slave coasts. The
Niger delta was for long known as the Oil rivers. To two
regions only of the coast is the name Guinea officially applied,
the French and Portuguese colonies north of Sierra Leone being
so styled.
Of the various names by which the divisions of Lower Guinea
were known, Loango was applied to the country south of the
Gabun and north of the Congo river. It is now chiefly included
in French Congo. Congo was used to designate the country
immediately south of the river of the same name, usually spoken
of until the last half of the 19th century as the Zaire. Congo is
now one of the subdivisions of Portuguese West Africa (see
Angola). It must not be confounded with the Belgian
Congo.
Few questions in historical geography have been more keenly
discussed than that of the first discovery of Guinea by the
navigators of modern Europe. Lancelot Malocello, a Genoese,
in 1270 reached at least as far as the Canaries. The first direct
attempt to find a sea route to India was, it is said, also made by
Genoese, Ugolino and Guido de Vivaldo, TedisioDoria and others
who equipped two galleys and sailed south along the African
coast in 1291. Beyond the fact that they passed Cape Nun
there is no trustworthy record of their voyage. In 1 346 a Catalan
expedition started for " the river of gold " on the Guinea coast;
its fate is unknown. The French claim that between 1364 and
1 4 10 the people of Dieppe sent out several expeditions to Guinea;
and Jean de Bethencourt, who settled in the Canaries about
1402, made explorations towards the south. At length the
consecutive efforts of the navigators employed by Prince Henry
of Portugal — Gil Eannes, Diniz Diaz, Nuno Tristam, Alvaro
Fernandez, Cadamosto, Usodimare and Diego Gomez — made
known the coast as far as the Gambia, and by the end
GUINEA— GUINGAMP
697
of the 15th century the whole region was familiar to
Europeans.
For further information see Senegal, Gold Coast, Ivory Coast,
French Guinea, Portuguese Guinea, Liberia, &c. For the
history of European discoveries, consult G. E. de Azurara, Chronica
de deseobrimento e conquista de Guini, published, with an intro-
duction, by Barros de Santarem (Paris, 1841), English translation,
The Discovery and Conquest of Guinea, by C. R. Beazley and E.
Prestage (Hakluyt Society publications, 2 vols., London, 1 896-1899),
vol. ii. has an introduction on the early history of African explora-
tion, &c. with full bibliographical notes). L. Estancelin, Recherches
sur les voyazes et dScouvertes des navigateurs normands en Afrique
(Paris, 1832); Villault de Belief ond, Relation des costes aV Afrique
appelUes Guinie (Paris, 1669); Pere Labat, Nouvelle Relation de
V Afrique occidentale (Paris, 1728) ; Desmarquets, M4m. chron. pour
servir d Vhist. de Dieppe (1875) ; Santarem, PrioriU de la d&couverte
des pays situes sur la cdte occidentale d' Afrique (Paris, 1842) ; R. H.
Major, Life of Prince Henry the Navigator (London, 1868) ; and the
elaborate review of Major's work by M. Codine in the Bulletin de la
Soc. de Giog. (1873); A. E. Nordenski6ld, Periplus (Stockholm,
1897); The Story of Africa, vol. i. (London, 1892), edited by Dr
Robert Brown.
GUINEA, a gold coin at one time current in the United
Kingdom. It was first coined in 1663, in the reign of Charles II.,
from gold imported from the Guinea coast of West Africa by a
company of merchants trading under charter from the British
crown — hence the name. Many of the first guineas bore an
elephant on one side, this being the stamp of the company;
in 1675 a castle was added. Issued at the same time as the
guinea were five-guinea, two-guinea and half-guinea pieces.
The current value of the guinea on its first issue was twenty
shillings. It was subsidiary to the silver coinage, but this latter
was in such an unsatisfactory state that the guinea in course of
time became over-valued in relation to silver, so much so that
in 1694 it had risen in value to thirty shillings. The rehabilita-
tion of the silver coinage in William III.'s reign brought down
the value of the guinea to 2 is. 6d. in 1698, at which it stood until
1 71 7, when its value was fixed at twenty-one shillings. This
value the guinea retained until its disappearance from the
coinage. It was last coined in 1813, and was superseded in 181 7
by the present principal gold coin, the sovereign. In 17 18 the
quarter-guinea was first coined. The third-guinea was first
struck in George III.'s reign (1787). To George III.'s reign also
belongs the " spade-guinea/' a guinea having the shield on the
reverse pointed at the base or spade-shaped. It is still customary
to pay subscriptions, professional fees and honoraria of all kinds,
in terms of " guineas/ 1 a guinea being twenty-one shillings.
GUINEA FOWL, a well-known domestic gallinaceous bird,
so called from the country whence in modern times it was
brought to Europe, the Meleagris and Avis or Gallina Numidica
of ancient authors. 1 Little is positively known of the wild stock
to which we owe our tame birds, nor can the period of its re-
introduction (for there is apparently no evidence of its domestica-
tion being continuous from the time of the Romans) be assigned
more than roughly to that of the African discoveries of the
Portuguese. It does not seem to have been commonly known
till the middle of the 16th century, when John Caius sent a
description and figure, with the name Gallus Mauritanus, to
Gesner, who published both in his Paralipomena in 1555, and
in the same year Belon also gave a notice and woodcut under
the name of Poulle de la GuirUe; but while the former authors
properly referred their bird to the ancient Meleagris, the latter
confounded the Meleagris and the turkey.
The ordinary guinea fowl of the poultry-yard (see also Poultry
and Poultry-Farming) is the Numida meleagris of ornitho-
logists. The chief or only changes which domestication seems
to have induced in its appearance are a tendency to albinism
generally shown in the plumage of its lower parts, and frequently,
though not always, the conversion of the colour of its legs and
I Columella (De re rustica, viii. cap. 2) distinguishes the Melea-
gris from the Gallina Africana ov Numidica, the latter having, he
says, a red wattle (palea, a reading obviously preferable to galea),
while it was blue in the former. This would look as if the Meleagris
had sprung from what is now called Numida btilorhyncha, while the
Gallina Africana originated in the N. meleagris, species which
have a different range, and if so the fact would point to two distinct
introductions — one Dy Greeks, the other by Latins.
feet from dark greyish-brown to bright orange. Tliat the home
of this species is West Africa from the Gambia * to the Gaboon
is certain, but its range in the interior is quite unknown. It
appears to have been imported early into the Cape Verd Islands,
where, as also in some of the Greater Antilles and in Ascension,
it has run wild. Representing the species in South Africa we
have the N. coronata, which is very numerous from the Cape
Colony to Ovampoland, and the N. cornuta of Drs Finsch and
Hartiaub, which replaces it in the west as far as the Zambesi.
Madagascar also has its peculiar species, distinguishable by its
red crown, the N. mitrata of Pallas, a name which has often been
misapplied to the last. This bird has been introduced to
Rodriguez, where it is now found wild. Abyssinia is inhabited
by another species, the N. ptilorhyncha* which differs from all
the foregoing by the absence of any red colouring about the head.
Very different from all of them, and the finest species known, is
the N. vulturina of Zanzibar, conspicuous by the bright blue in
its plumage, the hackles that adorn the lower part of its neck,
and its long tail. By some writers it is thought to form a separate
genus, Acryllium. All these guinea fowls except the last are
characterized by having the crown bare of feathers and elevated
into a bony " helmet," but there is another group (to which
the name Guttera has been given) in which a thick tuft of feathers
ornaments the top of the head. This contains four or five
species, all inhabiting some part or other of Africa, the best known
being the N. cristata from Sierra Leone and other places on the
western coast. This bird, apparently mentioned by Marcgrave
more than 200 years ago, but first described by Pallas, is remark-
able for the structure — unique, if not possessed by its represen-
tative forms — of its furcula, where the head, instead of being
the thin plate found in all other GaUinae, is a hollow cup opening
upwards, into which the trachea dips, and then emerges on its
way to the lungs. Allied to the genus Numida, but readily
distinguished thereform among other characters by the possession
of spurs and the absence of a helmet, are two very rare forms,
Agelastes and Phasidus, both from western Africa. Of their
habits nothing is known. All these birds are beautifully figured
in Elliot's Monograph of the Phasianidae, from drawings by
Wolf. (A. N.)
GUINEA-WORM (Dracontiasis), a disease due to the Filaria
medinensis, or Dracunculus, or Guinea- worm, a filarious nematode
like a horse-hair, whose most frequent habitat is the subcutaneous
and intramuscular tissues of the legs and feet. It is common on
the Guinea coast, and in many other tropical and subtropical
regions and has been familiarly known since ancient times.
The condition of dracontiasis due to it is a very common one,
and sometimes amounts to an epidemic. The black races are
most liable, but Europeans of almost any social rank and of
either sex are not altogether exempt. The worm lives in water,
and, like the Filaria sanguinis hominis, appears to have an
intermediate host for its larval stage. It is doubtful whether
the worm penetrates the skin of the legs directly; it is not
impossible that the intermediate host (a Cyclops) which contains
the larvae may be swallowed with the water, and that the larvae
of the Dracunculus may be set free in the course of digestion.
GttlNES, a town in the interior of Havana province, Cuba,
about 30 m. S.E. of Havana. Pop. (1907) 8053. It is situated
on a plain, in the midst of a rich plantation district, chiefly
devoted to the cultivation of tobacco. The first railway in Cuba
was built from Havana to Gtiines between 1835 and 1838. One
of the very few good highways of the island also connects Guinea
with the capital. The pueblo of Gtiines, which was built on a
great private estate of the same name, dates back to about 1735.
The church dates from 1850. Gtiines became a " villa " in 18 14,
and was destroyed by fire in 181 7.
GUINGAMP, a town of north-western France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of C6tes-du-Nord, on the
* Specimens from the Gambia are said to be smaller, and have been
described as distinct under the name of N. rendalli.
8 Darwin (Anim. and PI. under Domestication, i. 294), gives this
as the original stock of the modern domestic birds, but obviously by
an accidental error. As before observed, it may possibly have been
the true tuXtaypls of the Greeks.
6 9 8
GUINNESS— GUIRAUD
right bank of the Trieux, 20 m. W.N.W. of St Brieuc on the
railway to Brest. Pop. (1906), town 6937, commune 9212.
Its chief church, Notre-Dame de Bon-Secours, dates from the
14th to the 1 6th centuries; two towers rise on each side of the
richly sculptured western portal and a third surmounts the
crossing. A famous statue of the Virgin, the object of one of
the most important " pardons " or religious pilgrimages in
Brittany, stands in one of the two northern porches. The
central square is decorated by a graceful fountain in the Renais-
sance style, restored in 1743. Remains of the ramparts and of
the chateau of the dukes of Penthi£vre, which belong to the
15th century, still survive. Guingamp is the seat of a sub-
prefect and of a tribunal of first instance. It is an important
market for dairy-cattle, and its industries include flour-milling,
tanning and leather-dressing. Guingamp was the chief town of
the countship (subsequently the duchy) of Penthievre. The
Gothic chapel of Graces, near Guingamp, contains fine
sculptures.
GUINNESS, the name of a family of Irish brewers. The
firm was founded by Arthur Guinness, who about the middle
of the 1 8th century owned a modest brewing-plant at Leixlip,
a village on the upper reaches of the river Liffey. In or about
1759 Arthur Guinness, seeking to extend his trade, purchased
a small porter brewery belonging to a Mr Rainsford at St James's
Gate, Dublin. By careful attention to the purity of his product,
coupled with a shrewd perception of the public taste, he built
up a considerable business. But his third son, Benjamin Lee
Guinness (1798-1868), may be regarded as the real maker of
the firm, into which he was taken at an early age, and of which
about 1825 he was given sole control. Prior to that date the
trade in Guinnesses porter and stout had been confined to Ireland,
but Benjamin Lee Guinness at once established agencies in the
United Kingdom, on the continent, in the British colonies and
in America. The export trade soon assumed huge proportions;
the brewery was continually enlarged, and when in 1855 his
father died, Benjamin Lee Guinness, who in 1851 was elected
first lord mayor of Dublin, found himself sole proprietor of the
business and the richest man in Ireland. Between i860 and
1865 he devoted a portion of this wealth to the restoration
of St Patrick's cathedral, Dublin. The work, the progress
of which he regularly superintended himself, cost £160,000.
Benjamin Lee Guinness represented the city of Dublin in parlia-
ment as a Conservative from 1865 till his death, and in 1867
was created a baronet. He died in 1868, and was succeeded in
the control of the business by Sir Arthur Edward Guinness (b.
1840), his eldest, and Edward Cecil Guinness (b. 1847), his third,
son. Sir Arthur Edward Guinness, who for some time repre-
sented Dublin in parliament, was in 1880 raised to the peerage
as Baron Ardilaun, and about the same time disposed of his
share in the brewery to his brother Edward Cecil Guinness.
In 1886 Edward Cecil Guinness disposed of the brewery,
the products of which were then being sent all over the world,
to a limited company, in which he remained the largest share-
holder. Edward Cecil Guinness was created a baronet in 1885,
and in 1891 was raised to the peerage as Baron Iveagh.
The Guinness family have been distinguished for their philan-
thropy and public munificence. Lord Ardilaun gave a recreation
ground to Dublin, and the famous Muckross estate at Killarney
to the nation. Lord Iveagh set aside £250,000 for the creation
of the Guinness trust (i88q) for the erection and maintenance
of buildings for the labouring poor in London and Dublin, and
was a liberal benefactor to the funds of Dublin university.
GUINOBATAN, a town of the province of Albay, Luzon,
Philippine Islands, on the Inaya river, 9 m. W. by N. of the town
of Albay. Pop. (1903), 20,027. Its chief interest is in hemp,
which isgrown in large quantities in the neighbouring country.
GUIPUZCOA, a maritime province of northern Spain, included
among the Basque provinces, and bounded on the N. by the
Bay of Biscay; W. by the province of Biscay (Viscaya); S. and
S.E. by Alava and Navarre: and N.E. by the river Bidassoa, 1
1 A small island in the Bidassoa, called La Isla de los Faisanes, or
risle de la Conference, is celebrated as the place where the marriage
which separates it from France. Pop. (1900), 195,850; area,
728 sq. m. Situated on the northern slope of the great Can-
tabrian chain at its junction with the Pyrenees, the province has
a great variety of surface in mountain, hill and valley; and its
scenery is highly picturesque. The coast is much indented,
and has numerous harbours, but none of very great importance;
the chief are those of San Sebastian, Pasajes, Guetaria, Deva
and Fuenterrabia. The rivers (Deva, Urola, Oria, Urumea,
Bidassoa) are all short, rapid and unnavigable. The mountains
are for the most part covered with forests of oak, chestnut or
pine; holly and arbutus are also common, with furze and heath
in the poorer parts. The soil in the lower valleys is generally
of hard clay and unfertile; it is cultivated with great care,
but the grain raised falls considerably short of what is required
for home consumption. The climate, though moist, is mild,
pleasant and healthy; fruit is produced in considerable
quantities, especially apples for manufacture into zaragua or
cider. The chief mineral products are iron, lignite, lead, copper,
zinc and cement. Ferruginous and sulphurous springs are very
common, and are much frequented every summer by visitors
from all parts of the kingdom. There are excellent fisheries,
which supply the neighbouring provinces with cod, tunny,
sardines and oysters; and the average yearly value of the coast-
ing trade exceeds £400,000. By Irun, Pasajes and the frontier
roads £4,000,000 of imports and £3,000,000 of exports pass to
and from France, partly in transit for the rest of Europe, Apart
from the four Catalan provinces, no province has witnessed such
a development of local industries as Guipuzcoa. The principal
industrial centres are Irun, Renteria, Villabona, Vergara and
Azpeitia for cotton and linen stuffs; Zumarraga for osies;
Eibar, Plasencia and Elgoibar for arms and cannon and gold
incrustations; Irun for soap and carriages; San Sebastian,
Irun and Onate for paper, glass, chemicals and saw-mills;
Tolosa for paper, timber, cloths and furniture; and the banks
of the bay of Pasajes for the manufacture of liqueurs of every
kind, and the preparation of wines for export and for consumption
in the interior of Spain. This last industry occupies several
thousand French and Spanish workmen. An arsenal was
established at Azpeitia during the Carlist rising of 1870-1874;
but the manufacture of ordnance and gunpowder was subse-
quently discontinued. The main line of the northern railway
from Madrid to France runs through the province, giving access,
by a loop line, to the chief industrial centres. The custom-house
through which it passes on the frontier is one of the most
important in Spain. Despite the steep gradients, where traffic
is hardly possible except by ox-carts, there are over 350 m. of
admirably engineered roads, maintained solely by the local
tax-payers. After San Sebastian, the capital (pop. 1 900, 37,812),
the chief towns are Fuenterrabia (4345) and Irun (9912). Other
towns with more than 6000 inhabitants are Azpeitia (6066),
Eibar (6583), Tolosa (811 1) and Vergara (6196). Guipuzcoa
is the smallest and one of the most densely peopled provinces of
Spain; for its constant losses by emigration are counterbalanced
by a high birth-rate and the influx of settlers from other districts
who are attracted by its industrial prosperity.
For an account of its inhabitants and their customs, language and
history, see Basques and Basque Provinces.
GUIRAUD, ERNEST (1837-1892), French composer, was
born at New Orleans on the 26th of June 1837. He studied at
the Paris Conservatoire, where he won the grand prix de Rome.
His father had gained the same distinction many years previously,
this being the only instance of both father and son obtaining
this prize. Ernest Guiraud composed the following operas:
Sylvie (1864), Le Kobold (1870), Madame Turlupin (1872),
Piccolino (1876), Galante Aventure (1882), and also the ballet
Gretna Green, given at the Op6ra in 1873. His opera Fr&Ugonde
was left in an unfinished condition and was completed by Camille
Saint-Saens. Guiraud, who was a fellow-student and intimate
of the duke of Guienne was arranged between Louis XI. and Henry
IV. in 1463, where Francis I., the prisoner of Charles V., was
exchanged for his two sons in 1526, and where in 1659 " the Peace of
the Pyrenees " was concluded between D. Luis de Haro and Cardinal
Mazarin.
GUISBOROUGH— GUISE
699
friend of Georges Bizet, was for some years professor of composi-
tion at the Conservatoire. He was the author of an excellent
treatise on instrumentation. He died in Paris on the 6th of
May 1892.
GUISBOROUGH, or Guisbrough, a market town in the
Cleveland parliamentary division of the North Riding of York-
shire, England, 10 m. E.S.E. of Middlesbrough by a branch of
the North-Eastern railway. Pop. of urban district (1001), 5645.
It is well situated in a narrow, fertile valley at the N. foot of
the Cleveland Hills. The church of St Nicholas is Perpendicular,
greatly restored. Other buildings are the town hall, and the
modern buildings of the grammar school founded in 1 56 1 . Ruins
of an Augustinian priory, founded in 11 20, are beautifully
situated near the eastern extremity of the town. The church
contains some fine Decorated work, and the chapter house and
parts of the conventual buildings may be traced. Considerable
fragments of Norman and transitional work remain. Among
the historic personages who were buried within its walls was
Robert Bruce, lord of Annandale, the competitor for the throne
of Scotland with John Baliol, and the grandfather of King
Robert the Bruce. About 1 m. S.E. of the town there is a
sulphurous spring discovered in 1 8 2 2 . The district neighbouring
to Guisborough is rich in iron-stone. Its working forms the
chief industry of the town, and there are also tanneries and
breweries.
GUISE, a town of northern France, in the department of
Aisne, on the Oise, 31 m. N. of Laon by rail. Pop. (1906), 7562.
The town was formerly the capital of the district of Thierache
and afterwards of a countship (see below). There is a chateau
dating in part from the middle of the 16th century. Camille
Desmoulins was in 1762 born in the town, which has erected a
statue to him. The chief industry is the manufacture of iron
stoves and heating apparatus, carried on on the co-operative
system in works founded by J. B. A. Godin, who built for his
workpeople the huge buildings known as the famiMstere, in front
of which stands his statue. A board of trade-arbitration is
among the public institutions.
GUISE, HOUSE OF, a cadet branch of the house of Lorraine
(q.v.). Rene* II., duke of Lorraine (d. 1508), united the two
branches of the house of Lorraine. From his paternal grand-
mother, Marie d'Harcourt, Rene* inherited the countships of
Aumale, Mayenne, Elbeuf, Lillebonne, Brionne and other
French fiefs, in addition to the honours of the elder branch,
which included the countship of Guise, the dowry of Marie of
Blois on her marriage in 1333 with Rudolph or Raoul of Lorraine.
Renews eldest surviving son by his marriage with Philippa,
daughter of Adolphus of Egmont, duke of Gelderland, was
Anthony, who succeeded his father as duke of Lorraine (d. 1544),
while the second, Claude, count and afterwards duke of Guise,
received the French fiefs. The Guises, though naturalized in
France, continued to interest themselves in the fortunes of
Lorraine, and their enemies were always ready to designate
them as foreigners. The partition between the brothers Anthony
and Claude was ratified by a further agreement in 1530, reserving
the lapsed honours of the kingdoms of Jerusalem, Sicily, Aragon,
the duchy of Anjou and the countships of Provence and Maine
to the duke of Lorraine. Of the other sons of Ren6 II., John
( 1 498-1 550) became the first cardinal of Lorraine, while Ferri,
Louis and Francis fell fighting in the French armies at Marignano
(151 5), Naples (1528) and Pavia (1525) respectively.
Claude of Lorraine, count and afterwards 1st duke of
Guise (1496-1550), was born on the 20th of October 1496. He
was educated at the French court, and at seventeen allied
himself to the royal house of France by a marriage with
Antoinette de Bourbon (1493-1583) daughter of Francois, Count
of Vend6me. Guise distinguished himself at Marignano (15 15),
and was long in recovering from the twenty-two wounds he
received in the battle; in 152 1 he fought at Fuenterrabia, when
Louise of Savoy ascribed the capture of the place to his efforts; in
1522 he defended northern France, and forced the English to
raise the siege of Hesdin; and in 1523 he obtained the government
of Champagne and Burgundy, defeating at Neufchateau the
imperial troops who had invaded his province. In 1525 he
destroyed the Anabaptist peasant army, which was overrunning
Lorraine, at Lupstein, near Saverne (Zabern). On the return
of Francis I. from captivity, Guise was erected into a duchy
in the peerage of France, though up to this time only princes of
the royal house had held the title of duke and peer of France.
The Guises, as cadets of the sovereign house of Lorraine and
descendants of the house of Anjou, claimed precedence of the
Bourbon princes. Their pretensions and ambitions inspired
distrust in Francis I., although he rewarded Guise's services by
substantial gifts in land and money. The duke distinguished
himself in the Luxemburg campaign in 1542, but for some years
before his death he effaced himself before the growing fortunes
of his sons. He died on the 12th of April 1550.
He had been supported in all his undertakings and intrigues
by his brother John, cardinal of Lorraine (1498-1550), who
had been made coadjutor of Metz at the age of three. The
cardinal was archbishop of Reims, Lyons and Narbonne, bishop
of Metz, Toul, Verdun, Therouanne, Lucon, Albi, Valence,
Nantes and Agen, and before he died had squandered most of
the wealth which he had derived from these and other benefices.
Part of his ecclesiastical preferments he gave up in favour of
his nephews. He became a member of the royal council in 1 530,
and in 1536 was entrusted with an embassy to Charles V.
Although a complaisant helper in Francis I.'s pleasures, he was
disgraced in 1542, and retired to Rome. He died at Nogent-
sur-Yonne on the 18th of May 1550. He was extremely dis-
solute, but as an open-handed patron of art and learning, as
the protector and friend of Erasmus, Marot and Rabelais he
did something to counter-balance the general unpopularity of
his calculating and avaricious brother.
Claude of Guise had twelve children, among them Francis, 2nd
duke of Guise; Charles, 2nd cardinal of Lorraine (1524-1574), who
became archbishop of Reims in 1538 and cardinal in 1547; Claude,
marquis of Mayenne, duke of Aumale (1526-1573), governor of
Burgundy, who married Louise de Breze\ daughter of Diane de
Poitiers, thus securing a powerful ally for the family; Louis (1527-
1578), bishop of Troves, archbishop of Sens and cardinal of uuise;
Rene, marquis of Elbeuf (1 536-1566), from whom descended the
families of Harcourt, Armagnac, Marsan and Lillebonne; Mary of
Lorraine (q.v.), generally known as Mary of Guise, who after the
death of her second husband, James V. of Scotland, acted as regent
of Scotland for her daughter Mary, queen of Scots; and Francis
C 1 534"? 5 6 3) » grand prior of the order of the Knights of Malta. The
solidarity of this family, all the members of which through three
generations cheerfully submitted to the authority of the head of the
house, made it a formidable factor in French politics.
Francis of Lorraine, 2nd duke of Guise (1519-1563), " le
grand Guise," was born at Bar on the 17th of February 1519.
As count of Aumale he served in the French army, and was
nearly killed at the siege of Boulogne in 1545 by a wound which
brought him the name of "Balafre\" Aumale was made (1547)
a peerage-duchy in his favour, and on the accession of Henry II.
the young duke, who had paid assiduous court to Diane de
Poitiers, shared the chief honours of the kingdom with the
constable Anne de Montmorency. Both cherished ambitions
for their families, but the Guises were more unscrupulous in
subordinating the interests of France to their own. Mont-
morency's brutal manners, however, made enemies where Guise's
grace and courtesy won him friends. Guise was a suitor for
the hand of Jeanne d'Albret, princess of Navarre, who refused,
however, to become a sister-in-law of a daughter of Diane de
Poitiers and remained one of the most dangerous and persistent
enemies of the Guises. He married in December 1548 Anne of
Este, daughter of Ercole II., duke of Ferrara, and through her
mother Ren6e, a granddaughter of Louis XII. of France. In
the same year he had put down a peasant rising in Saintonge
with a humanity that compared very favourably with the
cruelty shown by Montmorency to the town of Bordeaux. He
made preparations in Lorraine for the king's German campaign
of 1551-52. He was already governor of Dauphin6, and now
became grand chamberlain, prince of Joinville, and hereditary
seneschal of Champagne, with large additions to his already
considerable revenues. He was charged with the defence of
Metz, which Henry II. had entered in 1551. He reached the
700
GUISE
city in August 1552, and rapidly gave proof of his great powers
as a soldier and organizer by the skill with which the place, badly
fortified and unprovided with artillery, was put in a state of
defence. Metz was invested by the duke of Alva in October
with an army of 60,000 men, and the emperor joined his
forces in November. An army of brigands commanded by Albert
of Brandenburg had also to be reckoned with. Charles was
obliged to raise the siege on the 2nd of January 1553, having
lost, it is said, 30,000 men before the walls. Guise used his
victory with rare moderation and humanity, providing medical
care for the sick and wounded left behind in the besiegers' camp.
The subsequent operations were paralysed by the king's suspicion
and carelessness, and the constable's inactivity, and a year later
Guise was removed from the command. He followed the con-
stable's army as a volunteer, and routed the army of Charles V.
at the siege of Renty on the 12th of August 1554. Mont-
morency's inaction rendered the victory fruitless, and a bitter
controversy followed between Guise and the constable's nephew
Coligny, admiral of France, which widened a breach already
existing.
The conclusion of a six years' truce at Vaucelles (1556) dis-
appointed Guise's ambitions, and he was the main mover in the
breach of the treaty in 1558, when he was sent at the head of a
French army to Italy to the assistance of Pope Paul IV. against
Spain. Guise, who perhaps had in view the restoration to his
family of the Angevin dominion of Naples and Sicily, crossed the
Alps early in 1557 and after a month's delay in Rome, where he
failed to receive the promised support, marched on the kingdom
of Naples, then occupied by the Spanish troops under Alva.
He seized and sacked Campli (April 17th), but was compelled
to raise the siege of Civitella. Meanwhile the pope had veered
round to a Spanish alliance, and Guise, seeing that no honour
was to be gained in the campaign, wisely spared his troops, so
that his army was almost intact when, in August, he was hastily
summoned home to repel the Spanish army which had invaded
France from the north, and had taken St Quentin. On reaching
Paris in October Guise was made lieutenant-general of the
kingdom, and proceeded to prepare for the siege of Calais. The
town was taken, after six days' fighting, on the 6th of January
1558, and this success was followed up by the capture of Guines,
Thionville and Arlon, when the war was ended by the treaty
of Cateau Cambr&sis (1 559). Although his brother, the cardinal
of Lorraine, was one of the negotiators, this peace was concluded
against the wishes of Guise, and was regarded as a triumph of the
constable's party. The Guises were provided with a weapon
against Montmorency by the bishop of Arras (afterwards Cardinal
Granvella), who gave to the cardinal of Lorraine at an interview
at Peronne in 1558 an intercepted letter proving the Huguenot
leanings of the constable's nephews.
On the accession in 1559 of Francis II., their nephew by
marriage with Mary Stuart, the royal authority was practically
delegated to Guise and the cardinal, who found themselves
beyond rivalry for the time being. They had, however, to cope
with a new and dangerous force in Catherine de' Medici, who
was now for the first time free to use her political ability. The
incapacity, suspicion and cruelty of the cardinal, who controlled
the internal administration, roused the smaller nobility
against the Lorraine princes. A conspiracy to overturn their
government was formed at Nantes, with a needy Pengord
nobleman named La Renaudie as its nominal head, though the
agitation had in the first instance been fostered by the agents
of Louis I., prince of Conde\ The Guises were warned of the
conspiracy while the court was at Blois, and for greater security
removed the king to Amboise. La Renaudie, nothing daunted,
merely postponed his plans; and the conspirators assembled
in small parties in the woods round Amboise. They had, how-
ever, been again betrayed and many of them were surrounded
and taken before the coup could be delivered; one party, which
had seized the chateau of Noizay, surrendered on a promise
of amnesty given " on his faith as a prince " by James of Savoy,
duke of Nemours, a promise which, in spite of the duke's protest,
was disregarded. On the igth of March 1560, La Renaudie and
the rest of the conspirators openly attacked the chateau of
Amboise. They were repelled; their leader was killed; and
a large number were taken prisoners. The merciless vengeance
of the Guises was the measure of their previous fears. For a
whole week the torturings, quarterings and hangings went on,
the bodies being cast into the Loire, the young king and queen
witnessing the bloody spectacle day by day from a balcony of the
chateau.
The cruel repression of this " conspiracy of Amboise " inspired
bitter hatred of the Guises, since they were avenging a rising
rather against their own than the royal authority. They now
entrenched themselves with the king at Orleans, and the Bourbon
princes, Anthony, king of Navarre, and his brother CondS, were
summoned to court. The Guises convened a special commission
to try Conde, who was condemned to death; but the affair was
postponed by the chancellor, and the death of Francis II. in
December saved Cond6. Guise then made common cause with
his old rival Montmorency and with the Marshal de Saint Andre*
against Catherine, the Bourbons and Coligny. This alliance,
constituted on the 6th of April 1561, and known as the trium-
virate, aimed at the annulment of the concessions made by
Catherine to the Huguenots. The cardinal of Lorraine fomented
the discord which appeared between the clergy of the two
religions when they met at the colloquy of Poissy in 1561, but
in spite of the extreme Catholic views he there professed, he was
at the time in communication with the Lutheran princes of
Germany, and in February 1562 met the duke of Wtirttemberg
at Zabern to discuss the possibility of a religious compromise.
The signal for civil war was given by an attack of Guise's
escort on a Huguenot congregation at Vassy (1st of March 1562).
Although Guise did not initiate the massacre, and although,
when he learned what was going on, he even tried to restrain
his soldiers, he did not disavow their action. When Catherine de'
Medici forbade his entry into Paris, he accepted the challenge,
and on the 16th of March he entered the city, where he was a
popular hero, at the head of 2000 armed nobles. The provost of
the merchants offered to put 20,000 men and two million livres
at his disposal. In September he joined Montmorency in
besieging Rouen, which was sacked as if it had been a foreign
city, in spite of Guise's efforts to save it from the worst horrors.
At the battle of Dreux (19th of December 1562) he commanded
a reserve army, with which he saved Montmorency's forces from
destruction and inflicted a crushing defeat on the Huguenots.
The prince of Cond6 was his prisoner, while the capture of
Montmorency by the Huguenots and the assassination of the
Marshal de Saint-Andre 1 after the battle left Guise the undisputed
head of the Catholic party. He was appointed lieutenant-general
of the kingdom, and on the 5th of February 1563 he appeared
with his army before Orleans. On the 19th, however, he was
shot by the Huguenot Jean Poltrot de M6r6 as he was returning
to his quarters, and died on the 24th of the effects of the wound.
Guise's splendid presence, his generosity and humanity and his
almost unvarying success on the battlefield made him the idol
of his soldiers. He attended personally to the minutest details,
and Monluc complains that he even wrote out his own orders.
The mistakes and cruelties associated with his name were partly
due to the evil counsels of his brother Charles, the cardinal,
whose cowardice and insincerity were the scorn of his contem-
poraries. The negotiations of the Guises with Spain dated from
the interview with Granvella at Peronne, in 1558, and after the
death of his brother the cardinal of Lorraine was constantly in
communication with the Spanish court, offering, in the event
of the failure of direct heirs to the Valois kings, to deliver up the
frontier fortresses and to acknowledge Philip II. as king of France.
His death in 1574 temporarily weakened the extreme Catholic
party.
Of the children of Francis " le Balafre* " five survived him: Henry,
3rd duke of Guise; Charles, duke of Mayenne (1554-161 1) ty.u.), who
consolidated the League; Catherine (1552-1596), who married Louis
of Bourbon, duke of Montpensier, and encouraged the fanaticism of
the Parisian leaguers ; Louis, second cardinal of Guise, afterwards of
Lorraine (1555-1588), who was assassinated with his brother Henry;
and Francis (1558-1573)-
GUISE
701
Henry of Lorraine, 3rd duke of Guise (1550-1588), born
on the 31st of December 1550, was thirteen years old at the
time of his father's death, and grew up under the domination
of a passionate desire for revenge. Catherine de' Medici refused
to take steps against Coligny, who was formally accused by the
duchess of Guise and her brothers-in-law of having incited the
murder. In 1566 she insisted on a formal reconciliation at
Moulins between the Guises and Coligny, at which, however, none
of the sons of the murdered man was present. Henry and his
brothers were, however, compelled in 1572 to sign an ambiguous
assent to this agreement. Guise's widow married James of
Savoy, duke of Nemours, and the young duke at sixteen went
to fight against the Turks in Hungary. On the fresh outbreak
of civil war in 1567 he returned to France and served under his
uncle Aumale. In the autumn of 1 568 he received a considerable
command, and speedily came into rivalry with Henry of Valois,
duke of Anjou. He had not inherited his father's generalship,
and his rashness and headstrong valour more than once brought
disaster on his troops, but the showy quality of his fighting
brought him great popularity in the army. In the defence of
Poitiers in 1 569 with his brother, the duke of Mayenne, he showed
more solid abilities as a soldier. On the conclusion of peace in
1570 he returned to court, where he made no secret of his attach-
ment to Margaret of Valois. His pretensions were violently
resented by her brothers, who threatened his life, and he saved
himself by a precipitate marriage with Catherine of Cleves
(daughter of Francis of Cleves, duke of Nevers, and Margaret
of Bourbon), the widow of a Huguenot nobleman, Antoine de
Crog, prince of Porcien. Presently he ended his disgrace by an
apparent reconciliation with Henry of Valois and an alliance
with Catherine de' Medici. He was an accomplice in the first
attack on Coligny 's life, and when permission for the massacre
of Saint Bartholomew had been extorted from Charles IX. he
roused Paris against the Huguenots, and satisfied his personal
vengeance by superintending the murder of Coligny. He was
now the acknowledged chief of the Catholic party, and the
power of his family was further increased by the marriage (1575)
of Henry III. with Louise of Vaud6mont, who belonged to the
elder branch of the house of Lorraine. In a fight at Dormans
(10th of October 1575), the only Catholic victory in a disastrous
campaign, Guise received a face wound which won for him his
father's name of Balafre* and helped to secure the passionate
attachment of the Parisians. He refused to acquiesce in the
treaty of Beaulieu (5th of May 1576), and with the support of
the Jesuits proceeded to form a " holy league " for the defence
of the Roman Catholic Church. The terms of enrolment enjoined
offensive action against all who refused to join. This association
had been preceded by various provincial leagues among the
Catholics, notably one at P6ronne. Cond6 had been imposed
on this town as governor by the terms of the peace, and the
local nobility banded together to resist him. This, like the Holy
League itself, was political as well as religious in its aims, and
was partly inspired by revolt against the royal authority. In
the direction of the League Guise was hampered by Philip
of Spain, who subsidized the movement, while he also had to
submit to the dictation of the Parisian democracy. Ulterior
ambitions were freely ascribed to him. It was asserted that
papers seized from his envoy to Rome, Jean David, revealed a
definite design of substituting the Lorraines, who represented
themselves as the successors of Charlemagne, for the Valois;
but these papers were probably a Huguenot forgery. Henry III.
eventually placed himself at the head of the League, and resumed
the war against the Huguenots; but on the conclusion of peace
(September 1577) he seized the opportunity of disbanding the
Catholic associations. The king's jealousy of Guise increased
with the duke's popularity, but he did not venture on an open
attack, nor did he dare to avenge the murder by Guise's partisans
of one of his personal favourites, Saint-Me*grin, who had been
set on by the court to compromise the reputation of the duchess
of Guise. 1
1 This incident supplied Alexandre Dumas phre with the subject
of his Henri III et sa cour (1829).
Meanwhile the duke had entered on an equivocal alliance with
Don John of Austria. He was also in constant correspondence
with Mary of Lorraine, and meditated a descent on Scotland
in support of the Catholic cause. But the great riches of the
Guises were being rapidly dissipated, and in 1578 the duke
became a pensioner of Philip II. When in 1 584 the death of the
duke of Anjou made Henry of Navarre the next heir to the
throne, the prospect of a Huguenot dynasty roused the Catholics
to forget their differences, and led to the formation of a new
league of the Catholic nobles. At the end of the same year Guise
and his brother, the duke of Mayenne, with the assent of other
Catholic nobles, signed a treaty at Joinville with Philip II.,
fixing the succession to the crown on Charles, cardinal of Bourbon,
to the exclusion of the Protestant princes of his house. In March
1585 the chiefs of the League issued the Declaration of P6ronne,
exposing their grievances against the government and announcing
their intention to restore the dignity of religion by force of arms.
On the refusal of Henry III. to accept Spanish help against
his Huguenot subjects, war broke out. The chief cities of France
declared for the League, and Guise, who had recruited his forces
in Germany and Switzerland, took up his headquarters at
Chalons, while Mayenne occupied Dijon, and his relatives, the
dukes of Elbeuf, Aumale and Mercoeur,* roused Normandy
and Brittany. Henry III. accepted, or feigned to accept, the
terms imposed by the Guises at Nemours (7th of July 1585).
The edicts in favour of the Huguenots were immediately revoked.
Guise added to his reputation as the Catholic champion by
defeating the German auxiliaries of the Huguenots at Vimory
(October 1587) and Auneau (November 1587). The protestations
of loyalty to Henry III. which had marked the earlier manifestoes
of the League were modified. Obedience to the king was now
stated to depend on his giving proof of Catholic Zealand showing
no favour to heresy. In April 1588 Guise arrived in Paris,
where he put himself at the head of the Parisian mob, and on
the 1 2th of May, known as the Day of the Barricades, he actually
had the crown within his grasp. He refused to treat with
Catherine de' Medici, who was prepared to make peace at any
cost, but restrained the populace from revolution and permitted
Henry to escape from Paris. Henry came to terms with the
League in May, and made Guise lieutenant-general of the royal
armies. The estates-general, which were assembled at Blois,
were devoted to the Guise interest, and alarmed the king by
giving voice to the political as well as the religious aspirations
of the League. Guise remained at the court of Blois after
receiving repeated warnings that Henry meditated treason.
On the 25th of December he was summoned to the king's chamber
during a sitting of the royal council, and was murdered by
assassins carefully posted by Henry HI. himself. The cardinal
of Lorraine was murdered in prison on the next day. The
history of the Guises thenceforward centres in the duke of
Mayenne (a. v.).
By his wife, Catherine of Cleves, the third duke had fourteen
children: among them Charles, 4th duke of Guise (1571-1640);
Claude, duke of Chevreuse (1578-1657), whose wife, Marie de Rohan,
duchess of jChevreuse, became famous for her intrigues; Louis(is85~
1 621), 3rd cardinal of Guise, archbishop of Reims, remembered for
his liaison with Charlotte des Essarts, mistress of Henry IV.
Charles, 4th duke of Guise (1571-1640), was imprisoned
for three years after his father's death. He married Henriette
Catherine de Joyeuse, widow of the duke of Montpensier. His
eldest son predeceased him, and he was succeeded by his second
son Henry (1614-1664), who had been archbishop of Reims,
but renounced the ecclesiastical estate and became 5th duke.
He made an attempt (1647) on the crown of Naples, and was a
prisoner in Spain from 1648 to 1652. A second expedition to
Naples in 1654 was a fiasco. He was succeeded by his nephew,
Louis Joseph (1650-1671), as 6th duke. With his son, Francis
Joseph (1670-1675), the line failed; and the title and estates
passed to his great-aunt, Marie of Lorraine, duchess of Guise
1 Philippe-Emmanuel of Lorraine, duke of Mercoeur, a cadet of
Lorraine and brother of Louise de VaudSmont, Henry III.'s queen.
His wife, Mary of Luxemburg, descended from the dukes of Brittany,
and he was made governor of the province in 1582. He aspired to
separate sovereignty, and called his son prince and duke of Brittany.
702
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(1615-1688), daughter of the 4th duke, and with her the title
became extinct. The title is now vested in the family of the
Bourbon-Orleans princes.
Authorities. — A number of contemporary documents relating to
the Guises are included by L. Cimber and F. Danjou in their Archives
curieuses de Vhistoire de France (Paris, 1834, &c). Vol. iii. contains a
soldier's diary of the siege of Metz, first published in Italian (Lyons,
1553), accounts of the sieges of Calais (Tours, 1558), of Thionville
(Paris, 1558) ; vol. iv. an account of the tumult of Amboise from the
Memoir es of Conde, and four accounts of the affair of Vassy ; vol. v.
four accounts of the battle of Dreux, one dictated by Guise, and
accounts of the murder of Guise; vol. xi. accounts of the Parisian
revolution of 1558; and vol. xii. numerous pamphlets and pieces
dealing with the murder of Henry of Guise and his brother. An
account of the murder of Guise and of the subsequent measures taken
by Mayenne, which was supplied by the Venetian ambassador,
G. Mocenigo, to his government, is printed by H. Brown in the Eng .
Hist, Rev. (April 1895). For the foreien policy of the Guises, and
especially their relations with Scotland, there is abundant material
in the English Calendar of State Papers of Queen Elizabeth (Foreign
Series) and in the correspondence of Cardinal Granvella. The
memoirs of Francis, duke of Guise, covering the years 1547 to i§6j,
were published by Michel and Poujoulat in series 1, vol. iv. of their
CoU. de mSmoires. Among contemporary memoirs see especially those
of the prince of Conde, of Blaise de Monluc and of Gaspard de Saulx-
Tavannes. See also La Vie de F. de Lorraine, due de Guise (Paris,
1681), by J. B. H. du Trousset de Valincourt; A. de Ruble, L'As-
sassinat deF.de Lorraine, due de Guise (1897), where there is a list of
the MS. sources available for a history of the house; R. de Bouille,
Hist, des dues de Guise (4 vols., 1849) ; H. Forneron, Les Guise et leur
ipoque (2 vols., 1887).
GUITAR (Fr. guitarre, Ger. Guitarre f Ital. chitarra, Span.
guitarra), a musical instrument strung with gut strings twanged
by the fingers, having a body with a flat back and graceful
incurvations in complete contrast to the members of the family
of lute (q*v.), whose back is vaulted. The construction of the
instrument is of paramount importance in assigning to the
guitar its true position in the history of musical instruments,
midway between the cithara (q.v.) and the violin; The medieval
stringed instruments with neck fall into two classes, characterized
mainly by the construction of the body: (1) Those which,
like their archetype the cithara, had a body composed of a flat
or delicately arched back and soundboard joined by ribs. (2)
Those which, like the lyre, had a body consisting of a vaulted
back over which was glued a flat soundboard without the inter-
mediary of ribs; this method of construction predominates
among Oriental Instruments and is greatly inferior to the first.
A striking proof of this inferiority is afforded by the fact that
instruments with vaulted backs, such as the rebab or rebec,
although extensively represented during the middle ages in all
parts of Europe by numerous types, have shown but little or no
development during the course of some twelve centuries, and
have dropped out one by one from the realm of practical music
without leaving a single survivor. The guitar must be referred
to the first of these classes.
The back and ribs of the guitar are of maple, ash or cherry-
wood, frequently inlaid with rose-wood, mother-of-pearl,
tortoise-shell, &c, while the soundboard is of pine and has one
large ornamental rose sound hole. The bridge, to which the
strings are fastened, is of ebony with an ivory nut which deter-
mines the one end of the vibrating strings, while the nut at the
end of the fingerboard determines the other. The neck and
fingerboard are made of hard wood, such as ebony, beech or pear.
The head, bent back from the neck at an obtuse angle contains
two parallel barrels or long holes through
. which the pegs or metal screws pass, three
: on each side of the head. The correct
Notation.
w
PEE
Real Sounds.
positions for stopping the intervals are
marked on the fingerboard by little metal
ridges called frets. The modern guitar
E has six strings, three of gut and three of
silk covered with silver wire, tuned as
shown. To the thumb are assigned the three deepest strings,
while the first, second and third fingers are used to twang the
highest strings. It is generally stated that the sixth or lowest
string was added in 1790 by Jacob August Otto of Jena, who
was the first in Germany to take up the construction of guitars
after their introduction from Italy in 1788 by the duchess Amalie
of Weimar. Otto l states that it was Capellmeister Naumann of
Dresden who requested him to make him a guitar with six
strings by adding the low £, a spun wire string. The original
guitar brought from Italy by the duchess Amalie had five
strings, 2 the lowest A being the only one covered with wire. Otto
also covered the D in order to increase the fulness of the
tone. In Spain six-stringed guitars and vihuelas were known
in the 16th century; they are described by Juan Bermudo 8 and
others. 4 The lowest string was tuned to G.
Other Spanish guitars of the same period
had four, five or seven strings or courses of
strings in pairs of unisons. They were always
twanged by the fingers.
The guitar is derived from the cithara 8 both
structurally and etymologically. It is usually
asserted that the guitar was introduced into
Spain by the Arabs, but this statement is open
to the gravest doubts. There is no trace among
the instruments of the Arabs known to us of any
similar to the guitar in construction or shape,
although a guitar (fig. 2) with slight incurva-
tions was known to the ancient Egyptians. 9
There is also extant a fine example of the guitar,
with ribs and incurvations and a long neck
provided with numerous frets, on a Hittite
bas-relief on the dromos at Euyuk (c. 1000 B.C.)
in Cappadocia. 7 Unless other monuments of
much later date should come to light showing
guitars with ribs, we shall be justified in
assuming that the instrument, which required
skill in construction, died out in Egypt and in
Asia before the days of classic Greece, and had
to be evolved anew from the cithara by the
Greeks of Asia Minor. That the evolution
should take place within the Byzantine Empire F">m Juan Bermudo.
or in Syria would be quite consistent with the Fig. i. — Spanish
traditions of the Greeks and their veneration Guitar with seven
for the cithara, which would lead them to adapt Strings. 1555.
the neck and other improvements to it, rather Vihuela da Mano.
than adopt the rebab, the tanbur or the
barbiton from the Persians or Arabians. This is, in fact, what seems
to have taken place. It is true that in the 14th century in
an enumeration of musical instruments by the Archipreste de
Hita, a guitarra morisca is mentioned and unfavourably compared
with the guitarra latina; moreover, the Arabs of the present day still
use an instrument called kuitra (which in N.Africa would be guithara),
but it has a vaulted back, the body being like half a pear with a long
neck; the strings are twanged by means of a quill. The Arab
instrument therefore belongs to a different class, and to admit
the instrument as the ancestor of the Spanish guitar would be tanta-
mount to deriving the guitar from the lute. 8
By piecing together various indications given by Spanish writers,
we obtain a clue to the identity of the medieval instruments,
which, in the absence of absolute proof, is entitled to serious con-
sideration. From Bermudo's work, quoted above, we learn that
the guitar and the vihuela da mano were practically identical, differ-
ing only in accordance and occasionally in the number of strings. 8
Three kinds of vihuelas were known in Spain during the middle ages,
distinguished by the qualifying phrases da arco (with bow), da mano (by
hand), da penola (with quill). Spanish scholars 10 who have inquired
into this question of identity state that the guitarra latina was after-
wards known as the vihuela da mano, a statement fully supported by
1 ttber den Bau der Bogeninstrumente (Jena, 1828), pp. 94 and 95.
* See Pietro Millioni, Veto e facil modo d' imparare a sonar e et
accordare da se medesimo la chitarra spagnola, with illustration
(Rome, 1637).
8 Declaration de instrumentos musicales (Ossuna, 1555), fol. xciii. b
and fol. xci. a. See also illustration of vihuela da mano.
* See also G. G. Kapsperger, Libro primo di ViUaneUe con V in-
favolutura del chitarone et alfabeto per la chitarra spagnola (three
books, Rome, 1610-1623).
6 See Kathleen Schlesinger, The Instruments of the Orchestra, part ii.
11 Precursors of the Violin Family," pp. 230-248.
6 See Denon's Voyage in Egypt (London, 1807, pi. 55).
7 Illustrated from a drawing in Perrot and Chipiez, " Judee
Sardaigne, Syrie, Cappadoce. Vol. iv. of Hist, de Vart dans
I'antiquitf, Paris, 1887, p. 670. Also see plate from a photograph
by Prof. John Garstang, in Kathleen Schlesinger, op. cit.
8 See Biernath, Die Guitarre (1908).
See also Luys Milan, Libro de musiea de vihuela da mano,
Intitulado II Maestro, where the accordance is D, G, C, E, A, D from
bass to treble.
10 Mariano Soriano, Fuertes Historia de la musiea espaHola
(Madrid, 1855), i. 105, and iv. 208, &c.
7°4
GUITAR FIDDLE
other evidence. As the Arab kuitra was known to be played by means
of a quill, we shall not be far wrong in identifying it with thevthuelada
penola. The word vihuela or vtgola is connected with the Latin
fidicula or fides, a stringed instrument mentioned by Cicero l as being
made from the wood of the plane-tree and having many strings.
The remaining link in the chain of identification is afforded by St
Isidore, bishop of Seville in the 7th century,
who states that fidicula was another name for
cithara, " Veteres aut citharas fidicula vel
fidice nominaverunt." * The fidicula there-
fore was the cithara, either in its original
classical form or in one of the transitions which
transformed it into the guitar. The existence
of a superior guitarra latina side by side with
the guitarra morisca is thus explained. It was
derived directly from the classical cithara intro-
duced by the Romans into Spain, the archetype
of the structural beauty which formed the
basis of the perfect proportions and delicate
_ structure of the violin. In an inventory * made
From Denon's Voyage by Philip van Wilder of the musical instruments
in Egypt. which had belonged to Henry VIII. is the
Fig. 2. — Ancient following item bearing on the question: " foure
Egyptian Guitar, fcitterons with iiii. cases they are called Spanishe
1700 to 1200 B.C. vialles" Vial or viol was the English equivalent
of vihuela. The transitions whereby the cithara
acquired a neck and became a guitar are shown in the miniatures (fig. 3)
of a single MS., the celebrated Utrecht Psalter, which gave rise to so
many discussions. The Utrecht Psalter was executed in the diocese
of Reims in the 9th century, and the miniatures, drawn by an Anglo-
Saxon artist attached to the Reims school, are unique, and illustrate
a b c d
Fig. 3. — Instrumentalists from the Utrecht Psalter, 9th century:
(a) The bass rotta, first transition of cithara in (C) ; (b, c, d), Transi-
tions showing the addition of neck to the body of the cithara.
the Psalter, psalm by psalm. It is evident that the Anglo-Saxon
artist, while endowed with extraordinary talent and vivid imagina-
tion, drew his inspiration from an older Greek illustrated Psalter
from the Christian East, 4 where the evolution of the guitar took
place.
One of the earliest representations (fie. 4) of a guitar in Western
Europe occurs in a Passionale from Zwitalten a.d. 1180, now in the
1 De natura deorum, ii. 8, 22.
* See Etymohfiarium, lib. iii., cap. 21.
s See British Museum, Harleian MS. 1419, fol. 200.
4 The literature of the Utrecht Psalter embraces a large number of
books and pamphlets in many languages of which the principal are
here given: Professor T. O. Westwood, Facsimiles of the Miniatures
and Ornaments of Anglo-Saxon and Irish MSS. (London, 1868); Sir
Thos. Duff us-Hardy, Report on the Athanasian Creed in connection
with the Utrecht Psalter (London, 1872); Report on the Utrecht
Psalter, addressed to the Trustees of the British Museum (London,
1874); Sir Thomas Duffus-Hardy, Further Report on the Utrecht
Psalter (London, 1874) ; Walter de Gray Birch, The History, Art and
Palaeography of the MS. styled the Utrecht Psalter (London, 1876);
Anton Springer, " Die Psalterillustrationen im friihen M it tela Iter mit
besonderer Rttcksicht auf den Utrecht Psalter," Abhandlungen der
kgl. sacks. Ges. d. Wissenschaften, phil.-hist. Klasse, Bd. viii. pp. 187-
2p6, with 10 facsimile plates in autotype from the MS.; Adolf
Goldschmidt, " Der Utrecht Psalter," in Repertorium fiir Kunst-
wissenschaft, Bd. xv. (Stuttgart, 1892), pp. Ijj6-i66; Franz Friedrich
Leitschuh, Geschichte der karolingischen Malerei, ihr Bilderkreis und
Graeven, " Die Vorlage des Utrecht Psalters," paper read before the
XI. International Oriental Congress, Paris, 1897. See also Reper-
torium fur Kunshvissenschaft (Stuttgart, 1898), Bd. xxi. pp. 28-35;
J. J. Tikkanen, Abendldndische Psalter-Illustration im MiUelal/er,
part iii. " Der Utrecht Psalter " (Helsinefors, 1900), 320 pp. and
77 ills. (Professor Tikkanen now accepts the Greek or Syrian origin
of the Utrecht Psalter) ; Georr Swarzenski, " Die karolingische
Malerei und Plastik in Reims,' in Jahrbuch d. kgl. preusstschen
Kunstsammlungen, Bd. xxiii. (Berlin. 1902), pp. 81-100; Ormonde
M. Dalton, " The Crystal of Lothair, in Archdologie, vol. lix. (1904) ;
From Dr H. Janitachek's Geschichte der deutschen
Royal Library at Stuttgart. 1 St Pelagia seated on an ass holds a
rotta, or cithara in transition, while one of the men-servants leading
her ass holds her guitar. Both instruments have three strings and the
characteristic guitar outline with incurvations, the rotta differing
in having no neck. Mersenne' writing early in the 17th century
describes and figures two
Spanish guitars, one with
four, the other with five
strings; the former had
a cittern head, the latter
the straight head bent
back at an obtuse angle
from the neck, as in the
modern instrument; he
gives the Italian, French
and Spanish tablatures
which would seem to
show that the guitar
already enjoyed a certain i
vogue in France and
Italy as well as in Spain.
Mersenne states that the
proportions of the guitar Malerei.
demand that the length Fig. 4.— Representation of a European
of the neck from shoulder Guitar, a.d. 1 1 80.
to nut shall be equal to
the length of the body from the centre of the rose to the tail
end. From this time until the middle of the 19th century the
guitar enjoyed great popularity on the continent, and became
the fashionable instrument in England after the Peninsular War,
mainly through the virtuosity of Ferdinand Sor, who also
wrote compositions for it. This popularity of the guitar was
due less to its merits as a solo instrument than to the ease
with which it could be mastered sufficiently to accompany the voice.
The advent of the Spanish guitar in England led to the wane in the
popularity of the cittern, also known at that time in contradistinc-
tion as the English or wire-strung guitar, although the two instru-
ments differed in many particulars. As further evidence of the great
popularity of the guitar all over Europe may be instanced the extra-
ordinary number of books extant on the instrument, giving instruc-
tions how to play the guitar and read the tablature. 7 (K. S.)
GUITAR FIDDLE (Troubadour Piddle) , a modern name
bestowed retrospectively upon certain precursors of the violin
possessing characteristics of both guitar and fiddle. The name
" guitar fiddle " is intended to emphasize the fact that the
instrument in the shape of the guitar, which during the middle
ages represented the most perfect principle of construction for
stringed instruments with necks, adopted at a certain period the
use of the bow from instruments of a less perfect type, the rebab
and its hybrids. The use of the bow with the guitar entailed
certain constructive changes in the instrument: the large central
rose sound-hole was replaced by lateral holes of various shapes;
the fiat bridge, suitable for instruments whose strings were
plucked, gave
place to the
arched bridge
required in order
to enable the bow
to vibrate each
string separ-
ately; the arched
bridge, by raising
the strings higher
above the sound-
board, made the ^ Z 7 .?''
Stopping of From Ruhlmann's Geschichte der BogeninstntmemU.
strings on the Fig. 1 . — Typical Alto Guitar Fiddle, 1 5th
neck extremely century (Pinakothek, Munich),
difficult if not impossible; this matter was adjusted by the
addition of a finger-board of suitable shape and dimensions (fig. 1).
At this stage the guitar fiddle possesses the essential features of
Kathleen Schlesinger, The Instruments of the Orchestra, part ii. " The
Precursors of the Violin Family," chap. viii. " The Question of the
Origin of the Utrecht Psalter," pp. 352-382 (with illustrations), where
all the foregoing are summarized.
* Reproduced in Hubert Janitschek's Geschichte der deutschen
Malerei, Bd. iii. of Gesch. der deutschen Kunst (Berlin, 1890), p. 118.
e Harmonie universale (Paris, 1636), livre ii. prop. xiv.
7 See C. F. Becker, Darstellung der musik. Liter atur (Leipzig, 1836) ;
and Wilhelm Tappert, " Zur Geschichte der Guitarre, in Monatshefle
fiir Musikgeschichte (Berlin, 1882), No. 5. pp. 77-85).
GUITRY— OUIZOT
70S
the violin, and may justly claim to be its immediate predecessor l
not so much through the viols which were the outcome of the
Minnesinger fiddle with sloping shoulders, as through the inter-
mediary of the Italian lyra, a guitar-shaped bowed instrument
with from 7 to 12 strings.
From such evidence as we now possess, it would seem that the
evolution of the early guitar with a neck from the Greek cithara took
place under Greek influence in the Christian East. The various
stages of this transition have been definitely established by the re-
markable miniatures of the Utrecht Psalter * Two kinds of citharas
are shown: the antique rectangular, * and the later design with
rounded body having at the point where the arms are added indica-
tions of the waist or incurvations characteristic of the outline of the
Spanish guitar. 4 The first stage in the transition is shown by a
cithara or rotta * in which arms and transverse bar are replaced by a
kind of frame repeating the outline of the body and thus completing
the second lobe of the Spanish guitar. The next stages in the transi-
tion are concerned with the addition of a neck 6 and of frets. 7 All
these instruments are twanged by the fingers. One may conclude that
the use of the bow was either unknown at this time (c. 6th century
A.D.), or that it was still confined to instruments of the rebab type.
The earliest known representation of a guitar fiddle complete with
bow 8 (fig. 2) occurs in a Greek Psalter written and illuminated in
Caesarea by the archpriest Theodorus in 1066 (British Museum, Add.
MS. 19352). Instances of perfect guitar fiddles
abound in the 13th century MSS. and monu-
ments, as for instance in a picture by Cimabue
(1240-1302), in the Pitti Gallery in Florence. 9
An evolution on parallel lines appears also
to have taken place from the antique rectangular
cithara 10 of the citharoedes, which was a favourite
in Romano-Christian art. 11 In this case examples
illustrative of the transitions are found repre-
sented in great variety in Europe. The old
German rotta" of the 6th century preserved in
the V6lker Museum, Berlin, and the instru-
ments played by King David in two early
Anglo-Saxon illuminated MSS., one a Psalter
(Cotton MS. Vesp. A. i. British Museum)
finished in a.d. 700, the other " A Commentary
on the Psalms by Cassiodorus manu Bedae " of
~ t- .. _. the 8th century preserved in the Cathedral
Fig. 2.— Earliest Library at Durham" form examples of the first
example 01 tfte stage of transition. From such types as these
Ourtar Middle, a.d. the rec tangular crwth or crowd was evolved by
IOO °* the addition of a finger-board and the reduc-
tion in the number of strings, which follows
as a natural consequence as soon as an extended compass can be
obtained by stopping the strings. By the addition of a neck we
obtain the clue to the origin of rectangular citterns with rounded
corners and of certain instruments played with the bow whose bodies
or sound-chests have an outline based upon the rectangle with
various modifications. We may not look upon this type of guitar
fiddle as due entirely to western or southern European initiative;
its origin like that of the type approximating to the violin is evidently
Byzantine. It is found among the frescoes which cover walls and
barrel vaults in the palace of Kosseir 'Amra, 14 believed to be that of
Caliph Walid II. (a.d. 744) of the Omayyad dynasty, or of Prince
I See "The Precursors of the Violin Family," by Kathleen
Schlesinger, part ii. of An Illustrated Handbook on the Instruments of
the Orchestra (London, 1908), chs. ii. and x.
* See Kathleen Schlesinger, op. tit. part ii., the " Utrecht Psalter,"
p. 127-135, and the "Question of the Origin of the Utrecht
>salter," pp. 136-166, where the subject is discussed and illustrated.
8 Idem, see pL vi. (2) to the right centre.
4 Idem, see pi. iii. centre and figs. 1 18 and 1 19.
8 Idem, see fig. 117, p. 341, and figs. 172 and 116.
*Idem, see fig. 121, p. 246, figs. 122, 123, 125 and 126 pi. iii. vi.
(1) and (2).
7 Idem, see fig. 126, pi. 350, and pi. iii. right centre.
8 Idem, see fig. 173, p. 448. • Idem, see fig. 205, p. 480.
10 See Museo Fio Clementino, by Visconti (Milan, 1818).
11 See for example Georgics, iv. 471-475 in the Vatican Virgil
(Cod. 3*2£), in facsimile (Rome, 1899) (British Museum press-mark 8,
tab. f. vol. ii.).
M This rotta was found in an Alamannic tomb of the 4th to the 7th
•centuries at Oberflacht in the Black Forest. A facsimile is preserved
in the collection of the Kgl. Hochschule, Berlin, illustrations in
" Grabfunde am Berge Lupfen bei Oberflacht, 1846," Jahresberichte
d. Wurttemb. Altertums-Vereins, iii. (Stuttgart, 1846), tab. viih also
Kathleen Schlesinger, op. cit. part ii. fig. 168 (drawing from the
facsimile).
11 Reproductions of both miniatures are to be found in Professor
J., O. Westwood's Facsimiles of the Miniatures and Ornaments of
Anglo-Saxon and Irish MSS. (London, 1868).
14 An illustration occurs in the fine publication of the Austrian
•Academy of Sciences, Kusejr l Amra (Vienna, 1907, pi. xxxiv.).
From a Byzantine MS.
in the British Museum.
B
Ahmad, the Abbasid (862-866). The instrument, a cittern with four
strings, is being played by a bear. Other examples occur in the
Stuttgart Carofingian Psalter ,s (10th century); in MS. 1260 (BibL
Imp. Paris) Tristan and Yseult; as guitar fiddle in the Liber Regalis
preserved in Westminster Abbey (14th century); in the Sforza
Book" (1444-1476), the Book of Hours executed tor Bona of Savoy,
wife of Galeazzo Maria Sforza; on one of the carvings of the 13th
century in the Cathedral of Amiens. It has also been painted by
Italian artists of the 15th and 16th centuries. (K. S.)
GUITRY, LDCIEN GERMAIN (i860- ), French actor, was
born in Paris. He became prominent on the French stage at the
Porte Saint-Martin theatre in 1900, and the Vari6tes in ioox,
and then became a member of the Comldie Francaise, but he
resigned very soon in order to become director of the Renaissance,
where he was principally associated with the actress Marthe
Brand&s, who had also left the Com6die. Here he established
his reputation, in a number of plays, as the greatest contemporary
French actor in the drama of modern reality.
GUIZOT, FRANCOIS PIERRE GUILLAUME (1 787-1874),
historian, orator and statesman, was born at Nlmes on the 4th of
October 1787, of an honourable Protestant family belonging to the
bourgeoisie of that city. It is characteristic of the cruel disabilities
which still weighed upon the Protestants of France before the
Revolution, that his parents, at the time of their union, could
not be publicly or legally married by their own pastors, and that
the ceremony was clandestine. The liberal opinions of his
family did not, however, save it from the sanguinary intolerance
of the Reign of Terror, and on the 8th April 1794 his father
perished at Nlmes upon the scaffold. Thenceforth the education
of the future minister devolved entirely ' upon his mother, a
woman of slight appearance and of homely manners, but endowed
with great strength of character and clearness of judgment.
Madame Guizot was a living type of the Huguenots of the 16th
century, stern in her principles and her faith, immovable in her
convictions and her sense of duty. She formed the character of
her illustrious son and shared every vicissitude of his life. In the
days of his power her simple figure, always clad in deep mourning
for her martyred husband, was not absent from the splendid
circle of his political friends. In the days of his exile in 1848
she followed him to London, and there at a very advanced age
closed her life and was buried at Kensal Green. Driven from
Nlmes by the Revolution, Madame Guizot and her son repaired
to Geneva, where he received his education. In spite of her
decided Calvinistic opinions, the theories of Rousseau, then
much in fashion, were not without their influence on Madame
Guizot. She was a strong Liberal, and she even adopted the
notion inculcated in the £mile that every man ought to learn a
manual trade or craft. Young Guizot was taught to be a car-
penter, and he so far succeeded in his work that he made a table
with his own hands, which is still preserved. Of the progress of
his graver studies little is known, for in the work which he
entitled Memoirs of my own Times Guizot omitted all personal
details of his earlier life. But his literary attainments must
have been precocious and considerable, for when he arrived in
Paris in 1805 to pursue his studies in the faculty of laws, he
entered at eighteen as tutor into the family of M. Stapfer,
formerly Swiss minister in France, and he soon began to write
in a journal edited by M. Suard, the Publiciste. This connexion
introduced him to the literary society of Paris. In October 1809,
being then twenty-two, he wrote a review of M. de Chateau-
briand's Martyrs, which procured for him the approbation and
cordial thanks of that eminent person, and he continued to
contribute largely to the periodical press. At Suard's he had
made the acquaintance of Pauline Meulan, an accomplished lady
of good family, some fourteen years older than himself, who
had been forced by the hardships of the Revolution to earn her
living by literature, and who also was engaged to contribute a
series of articles to Suard's journal. These contributions were
11 See reproduction of some of the miniatures in Jacob and H. von
Hefner-Alteneck, Trachten des christlichen Mittelalters (Darmstadt,
1840-1854, 3 vols.), and in Trachten, Kunstwerke und Gerdtschaften
vomfrunen Mittelalter (Frankfort-on-Main, 1 879-1890).
"Add. MS. 342Q4, British Museum, vol. ii. fol. 83, 161, vol. iii.
fol. 402, vol. iv. fols. 534 and 667.
xn. 23
706
GUIZOT
interrupted by her illness, but immediately resumed and con-
tinued by an unknown hand. It' was discovered that Francois
Guizot had quietly supplied the deficiency on her behalf. The
acquaintance thus begun ripened into friendship and love, and
in 181 2 Mademoiselle de Meulan consented to marry her youthful
ally. She died in 1827; she was the author of many esteemed
works on female education. An only son, born in 1819, died
in 1837 of consumption. In 1828 Guizot married Elisa Dillon,
niece of his first wife, and also an author. She died in 1833,
leaving a son, Maurice Guillaume (1833-1892), who attained
some reputation as a scholar and writer.
During the empire, Guizot, entirely devoted to literary
pursuits, published a collection of French synonyms (1809),
an essay on the fine arts (181 1), and a translation of Gibbon
with additional notes in 1812. These works recommended him
to the notice of M. de Fontanes, then grand-master of the
university of France, who selected Guizot for the chair of modern
history at the Sorbonne in 181 2. His first lecture (which is
reprinted in his Memoirs) was delivered on the nth of December
of that year. The customary compliment to the all-powerful
emperor he declined to insert in it, in spite of the hints given him
by his patron, but the course which followed marks the beginning
of the great revival of historical research in France in the 19th
century. He had now acquired a considerable position in the
society of Paris, and the friendship of Royer-Collard and the
leading members of the liberal party, including the young due
de Broglie. Absent from Paris at the moment of the fall of
Napoleon in 1814, he was at once selected, on the recommenda-
tion of Royer-Collard, to serve the government of Louis XVIII.
in the capacity, of secretary-general of the ministry of the
interior, under the abbe" de Montesquiou. Upon the return
of Napoleon from Elba he immediately resigned, on the 25th of
March 181 5 (the statement that he retained office under General
Carnot is incorrect) , and returned to his literary pursuits. After
the Hundred Days, he repaired to Ghent, where he saw Louis
XVIII., and in the name of the liberal party pointed out to his
majesty that a frank adoption of a liberal policy could alone
secure the duration of the restored monarchy — advice which
was ill-received by M_ de Blacas and the king's confidential
advisers. This visit to Ghent, at the time when France was a
prey to a second invasion, was made a subject of bitter reproach
to Guizot in after life by his political opponents, as an unpatriotic
action. " The Man of Ghent " was one of the terms of insult
frequently hurled against him in the days of his power. But the
reproach appears to be wholly unfounded. The true interests
of France were not in the defence of the falling empire, but in
establishing a liberal policy on a monarchical basis and in
combating the reactionary tendencies of the ultra-royalists. It
is at any rate a remarkable circumstance that a young professor
of twenty-seven, with none of the advantages of birth or political
experience, should have been selected to convey so important
a message to the ears of the king of France, and a proof, if any
were wanting, that the Revolution had, as Guizot said, " done
its work."
On the second restoration, Guizot was appointed secretary-
general of the ministry of justice under M. de Barbe'-Marbois,
but resigned with his chief in 1816. Again in 1819 he was,
appointed general director of communes and departments in
the ministry of the interior, but lost his office with the fall of
Decazes in February 1820. During these years Guizot was one
of the leaders of the Doctrinaires, a small party strongly attached
to the charter and the crown, and advocating a policy
which has become associated (especially by Faguet) with the
name of Guizot, that of the juste milieu, a via media between
absolutism and popular government. Their opinions had more of
the rigour of a sect than the elasticity of a political party. Ad-
hering to the great principles of liberty and toleration, they were
sternly opposed to the anarchical traditions of the Revolution.
They knew that the elements of anarchy were still fermenting
in the country; these they hoped to subdue, not by reactionary
measures, but by the firm application of the power of a limited
constitution, based on the suffrages of the middle class and
defended by the highest literary talent of the times. Their
motives were honourable. Their views were philosophical.
But they were opposed alike to the democratical spirit of the
age, to the military traditions of the empire, and to the bigotry
and absolutism of the court. The fate of such a party might
be foreseen. They lived by a poMcy of resistance; they perished
by another revolution (1830). They are remembered more for
their constant opposition to popular demands than by the
services they undoubtedly rendered to the cause of temperate
freedom.
In 1820, when the reaction was at its height after the murder
of the due de Berri, and the fall of the ministry of the due
Decazes, Guizot was deprived of his offices, and in 1822 even
his course of lectures were interdicted. During the succeeding
years he played an important part among the leaders of the
liberal opposition to the government of Charles X., although
he had not yet entered parliament, and this was also the time
of his greatest literary activity. . In 1822 he had published his
lectures on representative government (Histoire des origines du
gouvernement reprtsentatif, 1821-1822, 2 vols.; Eng. trans.
1852); also a work on capital punishment for political offences
and several important political pamphlets. From 1822 to 1830
he published two important collections of historical sources, the
memoirs of the history of England in 26 volumes, and the
memoirs of the history of France in 31 volumes, and a revised
translation of Shakespeare, and a volume of essays on the
history of France. The most remarkable work from his own
pen was the first part of his Histoire de la revolution d y Angletcrre
depuis Charles I" & Charles II. (2 vols., 18 26V 182 7; Eng.
trans., 2 vols., Oxford, 1838), a book of great merit and im-
partiality, which he resumed and completed during his exile
in England after 1848. The Martignac administration restored
Guizot in 1828 to his professor's chair and to the council of
state. Then, it was that he delivered the celebrated courses
of lectures which raised his reputation as an historian to the
highest point of fame, and placed him amongst the best writers of
France and of Europe. These lectures formed the basis of
his general Histoire de la civilisation en Europe (1828; Eng.
trans, by W. Hazlitt, 3 vols., 1846), and of his Histoire de la
civilisation en France (4 vols., 1830), works which must ever be
regarded as classics of modern historical research.
Hitherto Guizot 's fame rested on his merits as a writer on
public affairs and as a lecturer on modern history. He had
attained the age of forty-three before he entered upon the full
display of his oratorical strength. In January 1830 he was
elected for the first time by the town of Lisieux to the chamber
of deputies, and he retained that seat during the whole of his
political life. Guizot immediately assumed an important
position in the representative assembly, and the first speech he
delivered was in defence of the celebrated address of the 221,
in answer to the menacing speech from the throne, which was
followed by the dissolution of the chamber, and was the precursor
of another revolution. On his returning to Paris from Nimes
on the 27th of July, the fall of Charles X. was already imminent.
Guizot was called upon by his friends Casimir-Pener, LafBtte,
Villemain and Dupin to draw up the protest of the liberal
deputies against the royal ordinances of July, whilst he applied
himself with them to control the revolutionary character of the
late contest. Personally, Guizot was always of opinion that it
was a great misfortune for the cause of parliamentary government
in France that the infatuation and ineptitude of Charles X.
and Prince Polignac rendered a change in the hereditary line of
succession inevitable. But, though convinced that it was
inevitable, he became one of the most ardent supporters of Louis-
Philippe. In August 1830 Guizot was made minister of the
interior, but resigned in November. He had now passed into
the ranks of the conservatives, and for the next eighteen years
was the most determined foe of democracy, the unyielding
champion of " a monarchy limited by a limited number of
bourgeois."
In 1 83 1 Casimir-Perier formed a more vigorous and compact
administration, which was terminated in May 1832 by his death;
GUIZOT
707
the summer of that year was marked by a formidable republican
rising in Paris, and it was not till the nth of October 1832 that
a stable government was formed, in which Marshal Soult was
first minister, the due de Broglie took the foreign office, Thiers
the home department, and Guizot the department of public
instruction. This ministry, which lasted for nearly four years,
was by far the ablest that ever served Louis Philippe.
Guizot, however, was already marked with the stigma of un-
popularity by the more advanced liberal party. He remained
unpopular all his life, " not," said he, " that I court unpopularity,
but that I think nothing about it." Yet never were his great
abilities more useful to his country than whilst he filled this
office of secondary rank but of primary importance, in the
department of public instruction. The duties it imposed on him
were entirely congenial to his literary tastes, and he was master
of the subjects they concerned. He applied himself in the first
instance to carry the law of the 28th of June 1833, and then for
the next three years to put it into execution. In establishing
and organizing primary education in France, this law marked
a distinct epoch in French history. In fifteen years, under its
influence, the number of primary schools rose from ten to
twenty-three thousand; normal schools for teachers, and a
general system of inspection, were introduced; and boards of
education, under mixed lay and clerical authority, were created.
The secondary class of schools and the university of France were
equally the subject of his enlightened protection and care,
and a prodigious impulse was given to philosophical study and
historical research. The branch of the Institute of France
known as the " AcadSmie des Sciences Morales et Politiques,"
which had been suppressed by Napoleon, was revived by Guizot.
Some of the old members of this learned body — Talleyrand,
Sieyes, Roederer and Lakanal — again took their seats there,
and a host of more recent celebrities were added by election for
the free discussion of the great problems of political and social
science. The " Socie'te de THistoire de France " was founded
for the publication of historical works; and a vast publication
of medieval chronicles and diplomatic papers was undertaken
at the expense of the state (see History; and France, History,
section Sources).
The object of the cabinet of October 1832 was to organize
a conservative party, and to carry on a policy of resistance to the
republican faction which threatened the existence of the monarchy.
It was their pride and their boast that their measures never
exceeded the limits of the law, and by the exercise of legal power
alone they put down an insurrection amounting to civil war in
Lyons and a sanguinary revolt in Paris. The real strength of
the ministry lay not in its nominal heads, but in the fact that in
this government and this alone Guizot and Thiers acted in cordial
co-operation. The two great rivals in French parliamentary
eloquence followed for a time the same path; but neither of
them could submit to the supremacy of the other, and circum-
stances threw Thiers almost continuously on a course of
opposition, whilst Guizot bore the graver responsibilities of
power.
Once again indeed, in 1839, they were united, but it was in
opposition to M. M0I6, who had formed an intermediate govern-
ment, and this coalition between Guizot and the leaders of the
left centre and the left, Thiers and Odilon Barrot, due to his
ambition and jealousy of Mole', is justly regarded as one of the
chief inconsistencies of his life. Victory was secured at the
expense of principle, and Guizot's attack upon the government
gave rise to a crisis and a republican insurrection. None of
the three chiefs of that alliance took ministerial office, however,
and Guizot was not sorry to accept the post of ambassador in
London, which withdrew him for a time from parliamentary
contests. This was in the spring of 1840, and Thiers succeeded
shortly afterwards to the ministry of foreign affairs.
Guizot was received with marked distinction by the queen
and by the society of London. His literary works were highly
esteemed, his character was respected, and France was never
more worthily represented abroad than by one of her greatest
orators. He was known to be well versed in the history and the
literature of England, and sincerely attached to the alliance of
the two nations and the cause of peace. But, as he himself
remarked, he was a stranger to England and a novice in diplom-
, acy; and unhappily the embroiled state of the Syrian question,
on which the French government had separated itself from the
joint policy of Europe, and possibly the absence of entire con-
fidence between the ambassador and the minister of foreign
affairs, placed him in an embarrassing and even false position.
The warnings he transmitted to Thiers were not believed. The
warlike policy of Thiers was opposed to his own convictions.
The treaty of the 1 $th of July was signed without his knowledge
and executed in the teeth of his remonstrances. For some weeks
Europe seemed to be on the brink of war, until the king put an
end to the crisis by refusing his assent to the military preparations
of Thiers, and by summoning Guizot from London to form a
ministry and to aid his Majesty in what he termed " ma lutte
tehace contre Tanarchie." Thus began, under dark and adverse
circumstances, on the 29th of October 1840, the important
administration in which Guizot remained the master-spirit for
nearly eight years. He himself took the office of minister for
foreign affairs, to which he added some years later, on the
retirement of Marshal Soult, the ostensible rank of prime
minister. His first care was the maintenance of peace and the
restoration of amicable relations with the other powers of Europe.
If he succeeded, as he did succeed, in calming the troubled
elements and healing the wounded pride of France, the result
was due mainly to the indomitable courage and splendid
eloquence with which he faced a raging opposition, gave unity
and strength to the conservative party, who now felt that they
had a great leader at their head, and appealed to the thrift and
prudence of the nation rather than to their vanity and their
ambition. In his pacific task he was fortunately seconded by
the formation of Sir Robert Peel's administration in England,
in the autumn of 1841. Between Lord Palmerston and Guizot
there existed an incompatibility of character exceedingly
dangerous in the foreign ministers of two great and in some
respects rival countries. With Lord Palmerston in office, Guizot
felt that he had a bitter and active antagonist in every British
agent tlfcoughout the world; the combative element was strong
in his own disposition; and the result was a system of perpetual
conflict and counter-intrigues. Lord Palmerston held (as it
appears from his own letters) that war between England and
France was, sooner or later, inevitable. Guizot held that such
a war would be the greatest of all calamities, and certainly never
contemplated it. In Lord Aberdeen, the foreign secretary of
Sir Robert Peel, Guizot found a friend and an ally perfectly
congenial to himself. Their acquaintance in London had been
slight, but it soon ripened into mutual regard and confidence.
They were both men of high principles and honour; the Scotch
Presbyterianism which had moulded the faith of Lord Aberdeen
was reflected in the Huguenot minister of France; both were
men of extreme simplicity of taste, joined to the refinement of
scholarship and culture; both had an intense aversion to war
and felt themselves ill-qualified to carry on those adventurous
operations which inflamed the imagination of their respective
opponents. In the eyes of Lord Palmerston and Thiers their
policy was mean and pitiful; but it was a policy which secured
peace to the world, and united the two great and free nations of
the West in what was termed the entente cordiale. Neither of
them would have stooped to snatch an advantage at the expense
of the other; they held the common interest of peace and
friendship to be paramount; and when differences arose, as they
did arise, in remote parts of the world, — in Tahiti, in Morocco,
on the Gold Coast, — they were reduced by this principle to their
proper insignificance. The opposition in France denounced
Guizot 's foreign policy as basely subservient to England. He
replied in terms of unmeasured contempt, — " You may raise
the pile of calumny as high as you will; vous n'arriverez jamais
H la hauteur de mon dedain!" The opposition in England
attacked Lord Aberdeen with the same reproaches, but in vain.
King Louis Philippe visited Windsor. The queen of England
(in 1843) stayed at the Chateau d'Eu. In 1845 British and
708
GUIZOT
French troops fought tide by side for the first time in an expedi-
tion to the River Plate.
The fall of Sir Robert Peel's government in 1846 changed
these intimate relations; and the return of Lord Palmerston to
the foreign office led Guizot to believe that he was again exposed
to the passionate rivalry of the British cabinet. A friendly
understanding had been established at Eu between the two
courts with reference to the future marriage of the young queen
of Spain. The language of Lord Palmerston and the conduct
of Sir Henry Bulwer (afterwards Lord Dalling) at Madrid led
Guizot to believe that this understanding was broken, and that
it was intended to place a Coburg on the throne of Spain.
Determined to resist any such intrigue, Guizot and the king
plunged headlong into a counter-intrigue, wholly inconsistent
with their previous engagements to England, and fatal to the
happiness of the queen of Spain. By their influence she was
urged into a marriage with a despicable offset of the house of
Bourbon, and her sister was at the same time married to the
youngest son of the French king, in direct violation of Louis
Philippe's promises. This transaction, although it was hailed
at the time as a triumph of the policy of France, was in truth
as fatal to the monarch as it was discreditable to the minister.
It was accomplished by a mixture of secrecy and violence. It
was defended by subterfuges. By the dispassionate judgment
of history it has been universally condemned. Its immediate
effect was to destroy the Anglo-French alliance, and to throw
Guizot into closer relations with the reactionary policy of
Mcttcrnkh and the Northern courts.
The history of Guizot f s administration, the longest and the
last which existed under the constitutional monarchy of France,
bears the stamp of the great qualities and the great defects of his
political character, for he was throughout the master-spirit of
that government. His first object was to unite and discipline
the conservative party, which had been broken up by previous
dissensions and ministerial changes. In this he entirely succeeded
by his courage and eloquence as a parliamentary leader, and by
the use of all those means of influence which France too liberally
supplies to a dominant minister. No one ever doutyed the
purity and disinterestedness of Guizot 's own conduct. He
despised money, he lived and died poor; and though he
encouraged the fever of money-getting in the French nation, his
own habits retained their primitive simplicity. But he did not
disdain to use in others the baser passions from which he was
himself free. Some of his instruments were mean; he employed
them to deal with meanness after its kind. Gross abuses and
breaches of trust came to light even in the ranks of the govern-
ment! and under an incorruptible minister the administration
was denounced as corrupt. Licet uti aiieno vitio is a proposition
as false in politics as it is in divinity.
Of his parliamentary eloquence it is impossible to speak too
highly. It was terse, austere, demonstrative and commanding,
--not persuasive, not humorous, seldom adorned, but condensed
with the force of a supreme authority in the fewest words. He
was essentially a ministerial speaker, far more powerful in
defence than in opposition. Like Pitt he was the type of
authority and resistance, unmoved by the brilliant charges,
the wit, the gaiety, the irony and the discursive power of his
great rival. Nor was he less a master of parliamentary tactics
and of those sudden changes and movements in debate which,
as in a battle, sometimes change the fortune of the day. His
confidence in himself, and in the majority of the chamber which
he had moulded to his will, was unbounded; and long success
and the habit of authority led him to forget that in a country
like France there was a people outside the chamber elected by
a small constituency, to which the minister and the king himself
were held responsible.
A government based on the principle of resistance and re-
pression ami marked by dread and distrust of popular power,
a Hvstcm of diplomacy which sought to revive the traditions of
the old French monarchy, a sovereign who largely exceeded the
bounds of constitutional power and whose obstinacy augmented
wit h years, a minister who, though far removed from the servility
of the courtier, was too obsequious to the personal influence of
the king, were all singularly at variance with the promises of the
Revolution of July, and they narrowed the policy of the adminis-
tration. Guizot 's view of politics was essentially historical
and philosophical. His tastes and his acquirements gave him
little insight into the practical business of administrative govern-
ment. Of finance he knew nothing; trade and commerce were
strange to him; military and naval affairs were unfamiliar to
him; all these subjects he dealt with by second hand through
his friends, P. S. Dumon (1 797-1870), Charles Marie Tanneguy,
Comte DuchAtel (1803-1867), or Marshal Bugeaud. The con-
sequence was that few measures of practical improvement were
carried by his administration. Still less did the government
lend an ear to the cry for parliamentary reform. On this subject
the king's prejudices were insurmountable, and his ministers
had the weakness to give way to them. It was impossible to
defend a system which confined the suffrage to 200,000 citizens,
and returned a chamber of whom half were placemen. Nothing
would have been easier than to strengthen the conservative
party by attaching the suffrage to the possession of land in
France, but blank resistance was the sole answer of the govern-
ment to the just and moderate demands of the opposition.
Warning after warning was addressed to them in vain by friends
and by foes alike; and they remained profoundly unconscious
of their danger till the moment when it overwhelmed them.
Strange to say, Guizot never acknowledged either at the time
or to his dying day the nature of this error; and he speaks of
himself in his memoirs as the much-enduring champion of liberal
government and constitutional law. He utterly fails to perceive
that a more enlarged view of the liberal destinies of France and
a less intense confidence in his own specific theory might have
preserved the constitutional monarchy and averted a vast series
of calamities, which were in the end fatal to every principle
he most cherished. But with the stubborn conviction of
absolute truth he dauntlessly adhered to his own doctrines to
the end.
The last scene of his political life was singularly characteristic
of his inflexible adherence to a lost cause. In the afternoon of
the 23rd of February 1848 the king summoned his minister
from the chamber, which was then sitting, and informed him
that the aspect of Paris and the country during the banquet
agitation for reform, and the alarm and division of opinion in
the royal family, led him to doubt whether he could retain his
ministry. That doubt, replied Guizot, is decisive of the question,
and instantly resigned, returning to the chamber only to announce
that the administration was at an end and that Mole had been
sent for by the king. Mote failed in the attempt to form a govern-
ment, and between midnight and one in the morning Guizot,
who had according to his custom retired early to rest, was again
sent for to the Tuileries. The king asked his advice. " We are
no longer the ministers of your Majesty," replied Guizot; " it
rests with others to decide on the course to be pursued. But
one thing appears to be evident: this street riot must be put
down; these barricades must be taken; and for this purpose
my opinion is that Marshal Bugeaud should be invested with full
power, and ordered to take the necessary military measures, and
as your Majesty has at this moment no minister, I am ready to
draw up and countersign such an order." The marshal, who
was present, undertook the task, saying, " I have never been
beaten yet, and I shall not begin to-morrow. The barricades
shall be carried before dawn." After this display of energy the
king hesitated, and soon added: " I ought to tell you that M.
Thiers and his friends are in the next room forming a govern*
ment!" Upon this Guizot rejoined, " Then it rests with them
to do what they think fit," and left the palace. Thiers and
Barrot decided to withdraw the troops. The king and Guizot
next met at Claremont. This was the most perilous conjuncture
of Guizot *s life, but fortunately he found a safe refuge in Paris
for some days in the lodging of a humble miniature painter
whom he had befriended, and shortly afterwards effected his
escape across the Belgian frontier and thence to London, where
he arrived on the 3rd of March. His mother and daughters
j
GUJARAT— GUJARATI AND RAJASTHANI
bad preceded him, and he was speedily installed in a modest
habitation in Pelham Crescent, Brompton.
The society of England, though many persons disapproved
of much of his recent policy, received the fallen statesman with
as much distinction and respect as they had shown eight years
before to the king's ambassador. Sums of money were placed
at his disposal, which he declined. A professorship at Oxford
was spoken of, which he was unable to accept. He stayed in
England about a year, devoting himself again to history. He
published two more volumes on the English revolution, and in
1854 his Histoire de la r&publique d'Angleterre et de Cromwell
(2 vols., 1854), then his Histoire du protectorat de Cromwell et
du ritablissement des Stuarts (2 vols., 1856). He also published
an essay on Peel, and amid many essays on religion, during the
ten years 1 858-1 868, appeared the extensive MSmoires pour
servir a V histoire de mon temps, in nine volumes. His speeches
were included in 1863 in his Histoire parkmentaire de la France
(5 vols, of parliamentary speeches, 1863).
Guizot survived the fall of the monarchy and the government
he had served twenty-six years. He passed abruptly from the
condition of one of the most powerful and active statesmen in
Europe to the condition of a philosophical and patriotic spectator
of human affairs. He was aware that the link between himself
and public life was broken for ever; and he never made the
slightest attempt to renew it. He was of no party, a member
of no political body; no murmur of disappointed ambition, no
language of asperity, ever passed his lips; it seemed as if the
fever of oratorical debate and ministerial power had passed from
him and left him a greater man than he had been before, in the
pursuit of letters, in the conversation of his friends, and as head
of the patriarchal circle of those he loved. The greater part of
the year he spent at his residence at Val Richer, an Augustine
monastery near Lisieux in Normandy, which had been sold at
the time of the first Revolution. His two daughters, who married
two descendants of the illustrious Dutch family of De Witt,
so congenial in faith and manners to the Huguenots of France,
kept his house. One of his sons-in-law farmed the estate. And
here Guizot devoted his later years with undiminished energy
to literary labour, which was in fact his chief means of subsistence.
Proud, independent, simple and contented he remained to the
last; and these years of retirement were perhaps the happiest
and most serene portion of his life.
Two institutions may be said even under the second empire
to have retained their freedom — the Institute of France and the
Protestant Consistory. In both of these Guizot continued to the
last to take an active part. He was a member of three of the five
academies into which the Institute of France is divided. The
Academy of Moral and Political Science owed its restoration
to him, and he became in 1832 one of its first associates. The
Academy of Inscriptions and Belles Lettres elected him in 1833
as the successor to M. Dacier; and in 1836 he was chosen a
member of the French Academy, the highest literary distinction
of the country. In these learned bodies Guizot continued for
nearly forty years to take a lively interest and to exercise a
powerful influence. He was the jealous champion of their
independence. His voice had the greatest weight in the choice
of new candidates; the younger generation of French writers
never looked in vain to him for encouragement; and his constant
aim was to maintain the dignity and purity of the profession
of letters.
In the consistory of the Protestant church in Paris Guizot
exercised a similar influence. His early education and his
experience of life conspired to strengthen the convictions of a
religious temperament. He remained through life a firm believer
in the truths of revelation, and a volume of Meditations on the
Christian Religion was one of his latest works. But though
he adhered inflexibly to the church of his fathers and combated
the rationalist tendencies of the age, which seemed to threaten
it with destruction, he retained not a tinge of the intolerance or
asperity of the Calvinistic creed. He respected in the Church of
Rome the faith of the majority of his countrymen; and the
writings of the great Catholic prelates, Bossuet and Bourdaloue,
709
were as familiar and as dear to him as those of his own persuasion,
and were commonly used by him in the daily exercises of family
worship.
In these literary pursuits and in the retirement of Val Richer
years passed smoothly and rapidly away; and as his grand-
children grew up around him, he began to direct their attention
to the history of their country. From these lessons sprang his
last and not his least work, the Histoire de France raconUe d mes
petits enfants, for although this publication assumed a popular
form, it is not less complete and profound than it is simple and
attractive. The history came down to 1789, and was continued
to 1870 by his daughter Madame Guizot de Witt from her
father's notes.
Down to the summer of 1874 Guizot 's mental vigour and
activity were unimpaired. His frame, temperate in all things,
was blessed with a singular immunity from infirmity and disease;
but the vital power ebbed away, and he passed gently away on
the 1 2th of September 1874, reciting now and then a verse of
Corneille or a text of Scripture.
Bibliography. — See his own rfemoires pour servir a I* histoire de
mon temps (8 vols., 1858-1861) ; Lettres de M. Guizot d sa famille et &
ses amis (1884) ; C. A. Sainte-Beuve, Causeries du lundi (vol. i., 1857)
and Nouveaux Lundis (vols. i. and ix., 1863- 1872) ; £. Scherer,
Etudes critiques sur la literature contemporaine (vol. iv. t 1873);
Mme de Witt, Guizot dans sa famille (1880) ; Jules Simon, Thiers,
Guizot et Remusat (1885) ; E. Faguet, Politiques et moralistes au XIX*
Steele (1891); G. Bardoux, Guizot (1894) in the series of "Lee
Grands Ecrivains francais " ; Maurice Guizot, Les Annies de retraite
de M. Guizot (1901); and for a long list of books and articles on
Guizot in periodicals see H. P. Thieme, Guide bibliographique de la
HtUrature francaise de 1800 d 1906 (s.v. Guizot, Paris, IJK>7). For a
notice of his first wife see C. A. Sainte-Beuve, Portraits de femrnes
(1884), and Ch. de R6musat, Critiques et Uudes litUr aires (vol. ii.,
1847). (H. R.; J. T. S.*)
GUJARAT or Guzerat, a region of India, in the Bombay
Presidency. In the widest sense of the name it includes the
whole of the country where the Gujarati language is spoken,
i.e. the northern districts and states of the Presidency from
Palanpur to Damaun, with Kathiawar and Cutch. But it is
more properly confined to the country north of the Nerbudda
and east of the Rann of Cutch and Kathiawar. In this sense
it has an area of 29,071 sq. m., with a population in 1901 of
4,798,504. It includes the states distributed among the agencies
of Palanpur, Mahi Kantha, Rewa Kantha and Cambay, with
most of Baroda and the British districts of Ahmedabad, Kaira,
Panch Mahals and Broach. Less than one-fourth is British
territory. The region takes its name from the Gujars, a tribe
who passed into India from the north-west, established a kingdom
in Rajputana, and spread south in a.d. 400-600. The ancient
Hindu capital was Anhilvada; the Mahommedan dynasty,
which ruled from 1396 to 1572, founded Ahmedabad, which is
still the largest city; but Gujarat owed much of its historical
importance to the seaports of Broach, Cambay and Surat.
Its fertile plain, with a regular rainfall and numerous rivers,
has caused it to be styled the " garden of India." It suffered,
however, severely from the famine of 1 899-1 901. For an
account of the history, geography, &c, of Gujarat seethe
articles on the various states and districts. Gujarat gives its
name to the vernacular of northern Bombay, viz. Gujarati,
one of the three great languages of that Presidency, spoken by
more than 9 millions. It has an ancient literature and a peculiar
character. As the language of the Parsis it is prominent in the
Bombay press; and it is also the commercial language of
Bombay city, which lies outside the territorial area of Gujarat.
See J. Campbell, History of Gujarat (Bombay, 1896); Sir E. C.
Bayley, The Muhammedan Kingdom of Gujarat (1886); A. K.
Forbes, Ras Mala (1856).
GUJARATI and RAJASTHANI, the names of two members
of the western sub-group of the Intermediate Group of Indo-
Aryan languages (q.v.). The remaining member of this sub-group
is Panjabi or Punjabi (see Hindostani). In 1001 the speakers
of those now dealt with numbered: Gujarati, 9>439>°25> and
Rajasthani, 10,91 7,71 2. The two languages are closely connected
and might almost be termed co-dialects of the same form of
speech. Together they occupy an almost square block of country,
710
some 400 m. broad, reaching from near Agra and Delhi on the
river Jumna to the Arabian Sea. Gujarati (properly Gujarati) is
spoken in Gujarat, the northern maritime province of the Bombay
Presidency, and also in Baroda and the native states adjoining.
Rajasthani (properly Rajasthani, from " Rdjaslhdn" the native
name for Rajputana) is spoken in Rajputana and the adjoining
parts of Central India.
In the articles Indo-Aryan Languages and Prakrit the
history of the earlier stages of the Indo-Aryan vernaculars is
given at some length. It is there shown that, from the most
ancient times, there were two main groups of these forms of
speech — one, the language of the Midland, spoken in the country
near the Gangetic Doab, and the other, the so-called " Outer
Band," containing the Midland on three sides, west, north and
south. The country to the west and south-west of the Midland,
in which this outer group of languages was spoken, included
the modern Punjab, Rajputana arid Gujarat. In process of
time the population of the Midland expanded and carried its
language to its new homes. It occupied the eastern and central
Punjab, and the mixed (or "•intermediate ") language which
there grew up became the modern Panjabi. To the west it
spread into Rajputana, till its progress was stopped by the
Indian desert, and in Rajputana another intermediate language
took rise and became Rajasthani. As elsewhere explained, the
language-wave of the Midland exercised less and less influence
as it travelled farther from its home, so that, while in eastern
Rajputana the local dialect is now almost a pure midland speech,
in the west there are many evident traces of the old outer
language still surviving. To the south-west of Rajputana there
was no desert to stop the wave of Midland expansion, which
therefore rolled on unobstructed into Gujarat, where it reached
the sea. Here the survivals of the old outer language are
stronger still. The old outer Prakrit of north Gujarat was known
as " Saurastrl," while the Prakrit of the Midland invaders was
called " Sauraseni," and we may therefore describe Gujarati
as being an intermediate language derived (as explained in the
articles Prakrit) from a mixture of the Apabhramsa forms of
Saurastri and Sauraseni, in which the latter predominated.
It will be observed that, at the present day, Gujarati breaks
the continuity of the outer band of Indo-Aryan languages.
To its north it has Sindhi and to its south Marathi, both outer
languages with which it has only a slight connexion. On the
other hand, on the east and north-east it has Rajasthani, into
which it merges so gradually and imperceptibly that at the
conventional border-line, in the state of Palanpur, the inhabitants
of Rajputana say that the local dialect is a form of Gujarati,
while the inhabitants of Gujarat say that it is Rajasthani.
Gujarati has no important local dialects, but there is consider-
able variation in the speeches of different classes of the com-
Lanmmse. mumt y- Parsees and Mussulmans (when the latter
use the language — as a rule the Gujarat Mussulmans
speak Hindostani) have some striking peculiarities of pronuncia-
tion, the most noticeable of which is the disregard by the latter
of the distinction between cerebral and dental letters. The
uneducated Hindus do not pronounce the language in the same
way as their betters, and this difference is accentuated in northern
Gujarat, where the lower classes substitute e for £, c for k, ch for
kh % s for c and ch, h for s, and drop h as readily as any cockney.
There is also (as in the case of the Mussulmans) a tendency to
confuse cerebral and dental consonants, to substitute r for d and
l } to double medial consonants, and to pronounce the letter
a as a, something like the a in " all." The Bhils of the hills
east of Gujarat also speak a rude Gujarati, with special dialectic
peculiarities of their own, probably due to the fact that the
tribes are of Dra vidian origin. These Bhil peculiarities are
further mixed with corruptions of Marathi idioms in Nimar
and Khandesh, where we have almost a new language.
Rajasthani has numerous dialects, each state claiming one
or more of its own. Thus, in the state of Jaipur there have been
catalogued no less than ten dialects among about 1,688,000
people. All Rajasthani dialects can, however, be easily classed
in four well-defined groups, a north-eastern, a southern, a
GUJARATI AND RAJASTHANI
western and an east-central. The north-eastern (Mewati) is
that form of Rajasthani which is merging into the Western
Hindi of the Midland. It is a mixed form of speech, and need
not detain us further. Similarly, the southern (Malvi) is much
mixed with the neighbouring Bundell form of Western Hindi.
The western (Marwari) spoken in Marwar and its neighbourhood,
and the east-central (Jaipur!) spoken in Jaipur and its neighbour-
hood, may be taken as the typical Rajasthani dialects. In the
following paragraphs we shall therefore confine ourselves to
Gujarati, Marwari and Jaipuri.
We know more about the ancient history of Gujarati than we
do about that of any other Indo-Aryan language/ The one
native grammar of Apabhramsa Prakrit which we possess in a
printed edition, was written by Hemacandra (12th century a.d.),
who lived in what is now north Gujarat, and who naturally
described most fully the particular vernacular with which he was
personally familiar. It was known as the Nagara Apabhrarhsa,
closely connected (as above explained) with Sauraseni, and was
so named after the Nagara Brahmans of the locality. These
men carried on the tradition of learning inherited from Hema-
candra, and we see Gujarati almost in the act of taking birth
in a work called the Mugdhdvabodhamauktika, written by one
of them only two hundred years after his death. Formal
Gujarati literature is said to commence with the poet Narsingh
MSta in the 15th century. Rajasthani literature has received
but small attention from European or native scholars, and we
are as yet unable to say how far back the language goes.
Both Gujarati and Rajasthani are usually written in current
scripts related to the well-known Nagarl alphabet (see Sanskrit).
The form employed in Rajputana is known all over northern
India as the " Mahajani " alphabet, being used by bankers or
Mahdjans, most of whom are Marwaris. It is noteworthy as
possessing two distinct characters for d and r. The Gujarati
character closely resembles the Kaithi character of northern
India (see Bihari). The Nagari character is also freely used in
Rajputana, and to a less extent in Gujarat, where it is employed
by the Nagara Brahmans, who claim that their tribe has given
the alphabet its name.
In the following description of the main features of our two
languages, the reader is presumed to be familiar with the leading
facts stated in the articles Indo-Aryan Languages and
Prakrit. The article Hindostani may also be perused with
advantage. *
(Abbreviations. Skr. = Sanskrit. Pr. = Prakrit. Ap.= Apabh-
rarhsa. G. » Gujarati. R. = Rajasthani. H. ** HindSstifoi.)
Vocabulary, — The vocabulary of both Gujarat and Rajasthani is
very free from taisama words. The great mass of both vocabularies
is tadbhava (see Indo-Aryan Languages). Rajputana was from
an early period brought into close contact with the Mogul court at
Agra and Delhi, and even in the 13th century a.d. official documents
of the Rajput princes contained many borrowed Persian and Arabic
words. Gujarati, under the influence of the learned Nagara Brah-
mans, has perhaps more tatsatna words than Rajasthani, but their
employment is not excessive. On the other hand, Parsees and
Mussulmans employ Persian and Arabic words with great freedom;
while, owing to its maritime connexions, the language has also
borrowed occasional words from other parts of Asia and from Europe.
This is specially marked in the strange dialect oi the Kathiawar
boatmen who travel all over the world as lascars on the great steam-
ships. Their language is a mixture of Hindostani and Gujarati
with a heterogeneous vocabulary.
Phonetics. — With a few exceptions to be mentioned below, the
sound-system of the two languages itfthc same as that of Sanskrit,
and is represented in the same manner in the Roman character
(see Sanskrit). The simplest method for considering the subject
in regard to Gujarati is to compare it with the phonetical system of
Hindostani ($.*.). As a rule, Rajasthani closely follows Gujarati
and need not be referred to except in special cases. G. invariably
simplifies a medial Pr. double consonant, lengthening the preceding
vowel in compensation. Thus Skr. mraksayam, Ap. makkhanu,
H. makkhan, but G. m&khan, butter. In H. this rule is generally
observed, but in G. it is universal, while, on the other hand, in
Panjabi the double consonant is never simplified, but is retained as
in Ap. In G. (and sometimes in R.) when a is followed by h it is
changed to e, as in H. shahr, G. feher, a city. As in other outer
languages H. ai and au are usually represented by a short e and by
a (sounded like the a in " all n ) respectively. Thus H. baifhS. G.
belho l seated; H. cautha, G. c&tho (written cotho), fourth. In R.
this e is often further weakened to the sound of a in " man/' a change
GUJARAT! AND RAJASTHANI
which is also common in Bengali. Many words which have i in H.
have a in G. and R., thus, H. likhi, G. lakhi, he writes; H. din,
G. and R. dan, a day. Similarly we have a for «, as in H. turn, G., R.
lame, you. In colloquial G. d often becomes d, and I becomes I ; thus,
pdni lor pdm, water; mdres for mdris, I shall strike. As in most
Indo-Aryan vernaculars an a after an accented syllable is very lightly
pronounced, and is here represented by a small • above the line.
The Vedic cerebral/ and the cerebral n are very common as medial
letters in both G. and R. (both being unknown to literary H.)
The rule is, as elsewhere in western and southern intermediate
and outer languages, that when n and / represent
a double nn (or nn) or a double // in Pr. they are dental,
but when they represent single medial letters they are
cerebralized. Thus Ap. sonnaU, G. sonU, gold; Ap.
ghanaU, G.ghanfl, dense; Ap. callai, G. cdli, he goes;
Ap. calai, G. ca\l, he moves. In northern G. and in
some caste dialects dental and cerebral letters are
absolutely interchangeable, as in 4&h*do or dahdid, a
day ; tU or tU, thou ; aidhd or dttfhd, given. In G. and R.
medial 4 » pronounced as a rough cerebral r, and is
then so transcribed. We have seen that in the Marwari
alphabet there are actually distinct letters for these two
sounds. In colloquial G. c and ch are pronounced s,
especially in the north, as in pds lor foe, five; pusyd
for puchyd, he asked. Similarly, in the north, i and jh
become %, as in zda* for jhdq\, a tree. In some localities
(as in Marathi) we have Is and dz for these sounds, as
in Tsardtar (name of a tract of country) for Cardlar. On
the other hand, k, kh and g, especially when preceded or
followed by i, e or y, become in the north c, ch and j
respectively; thus, dic*rd for dik*rd, a son; chelar for
khelar, a field; lajyd for lagyd, begun. A similar change
is found in dialectic Marathi, and is, of course, one of
the commonplaces of the philology of the Romance
languages. The sibilants s and £ are colloquially pro-
nounced h (as in several outer languages), especially in the
north. Thus deh for dei, a country ; hU for iU, what ; ham a -
jdvyo for sanPjavyo, he explained. An original aspirate
is, however, often dropped, as in '6 for hU, I ; *dte for
hdtke^ on the hand. Standard G. is at the same time
fond of pronouncing an h where it is not written, as in
ante, we, pronounced ahme. In other respects both G.
and R. closely agree in their phonetical systems with
the Apabhrarhsa form of Saurasem Prakrit from which
the Midland language is derived.
Declension. — Gujarati agrees with Marathi (an outer
language) as against Hindostani in retaining the
neuter gender of Sanskrit and Prakrit. Moreover,
the neuter gender is often employed to indicate living
beings of which the sex is uncertain, as in the case of
dik a rU, a child, compared with dtk a rd, a son, and dik a ri, a daughter.
In R. there are only sporadic instances of the neuter, which grow
more and more rare as we approach the Midland. Nouns in both G.
and R. may be weak or strong as is fully explained in the article
Hindostani. We have there seen that the strong form of masculine
nouns in Western Hindi generally ends in au, the a of words like
the Hindostani ghdzd, a horse, being an accident due to the fact that
the Hindostani dialect of Western Hindi borrows this termination
from Panjabi. G. and R. follow Western Hindi, for their masculine
strong forms end in o. Feminine strong forms end in i as elsewhere.
Neuter strong forms in G. end in ft, derived as follows: Skr, svar-
nakam, Ap. sonpaii, G. sonU, gold. As an example of the three
genders of the same word we may take G. chdk a ro (masc.), a boy;
chok^n (fern.), a girl; chdfrrU (neut.), a child. Long forms corre-
sponding to the Eastern Hindi ghor^wd, a horse, are not much used,
but we not infrequently meet another long form made by suffixing
the pleonastic termination old or ro (fern. & or ri; G. neut. <ftt or ru)
which is directly descended from the Ap. pleonastic termination
(fail, 4a\, (fan. We come across this most often in R., where it is used
contemptuously, as in Turuk»fd, a Turk.
In the article Hindostani it is shown that all the oblique cases of
each number in Sanskrit and Prakrit became melted down in the
modern languages into one general oblique case, which, in the Mid-
land, is derived in the singular from the Ap. termination -W or -fcf, and
that even this has survived only in the case of strong masculine
nouns; thus, ghdzd, obi. ghdre. In G. and R. this same termination
has also survived, but for all nouns as the case sign of the agent and
locative cases. The general oblique case is the same as the nomina-
tive, except in the case of strong masculine and neuter nouns, in 6
and U respectively, where it ends in a, not e. This d- termination is
Characteristic of the outer band of languages, and is one of the sur-
vivals already referred to. It is derived from the Apabhrarhsa
genitive form in -aha, corresponding to the Magadhi Pr. (an outer
Prakrit) termination -aha. Thus, G. chdk a ro, a son; chok a rU, a
child; obi. sing. chdk a rd.. < ... ...
In G. the nominative and oblique plural for all nouns are formed
by adding o to the oblique form singular, but in the neuter strong
forms the oblique singular is nasalized. The real plural is the same
in form as the oblique singular in the case of masculines, and as a
nasalized oblique singular in the case of neuter strong forms, as in
711
other modern Indo-Aryan vernaculars, and the added is a further
plural termination (making a double plural, exactly as it does in the
Ardhamigadhi Prakrit putia-6, sons) which is often dropped. The
nasalization of the strong neuter plurals is inherited from Ap., in
which the neuter nom. plural of such nouns ended in -a<B In R.
the nominative plural of masculine nouns is the same in form as the
oblique case singular, and the oblique plural ends in d. The feminine
has d both in the nominative and in the oblique plural. These are
all explained in the article Hindostani. We thus get the following
paradigms of the declension of nouns.
Apabhramsa.
Gujarati.
Rajasthani.
Strong Noun Masc. —
11 Ahorse: 1 Sing. Nom.
gh6(laU
ghd<fd
ghdtfo
Obi.
ghddaaha
ghdaa*
ghdtfd
Ag.-Loc.
ghodaahi
ghofa ghdaai
ghdaa-o
ghOaai
Plur. Nom.
ghoaaa
gho<fd
Obi.
ghoiadhd
ghd<fd-o
ghdtfa
Ag.-Loc.
ghoauahf
ghoaa-o-e
gkdtf
Strong Noun Neut. —
"Gold." Sing. Nom.
sonnaU
sonU
t .
Obi.
sonnaaha
sdnd
t .
Ag.-Loc.
sonnaaki
sane, sonde
Plur. Nom.
sonnadJ
s§nl
• •
Obi.
sonnadhd
sdn&~o
Ag.-Loc.
sonnaaJrt
sond-o-e
Strong Noun Fern. —
~
*
11 A mare" Sing. Nom.
ghdqMd
ghofi
gkodi
Obi.
ghofoahi
ghotfi
gha<ll
Ag.-Loc.
ghdifiae
ghofie
gho<fi
Plur. Nom.
ghd<fia~d
ghoifi-d
gh64yd
ghoclya
Obi.
ghdifdahu
ghotfi-d
Ag.-Loc.
Weak Noun Masc. or Neut. —
ghd^iaM
ghoifi-o-e
gho4yd
" A house." Sing. Nom.
gharu (neut.)
ghar
gJtar -
Obi.
. gharaha
ghar
ghar
Ag.-Loc.
gharahi
ghare
gkarai
Plur. Nom.
. ghardX
ghar-o
ghar
Obi.
ghardhd *
ghar-o
ghard
Ag.-Loc,
gharahf
ghar-o~e
ghara
Weak Noun Fern. —
" A word." Sing. Nora.
valid
wat
bat
Obi.
vattahi
wot,
bat
Ag.-Loc.
vattae
wale
bdt_
Plur. Nom.
vattd-d
wdt-o
bald
Obi.
vattahu
wdt-6
bald
Ag.-Loc.
vattahi
wal-o-e
bald
The general oblique case can be employed for any case except the
nominative, but, in order to define the meaning, it is customary to
add postpositions as in Hindostani. These are :
Genitive.
Dative.
Ablative.
Locative.
Gujarati .
Rajasthani
no
ro, ho
ne
nai, rat, kai
thx
su
md
mat
The suffix no of the genitive is believed to be a contraction of
land, which is found in old Gujarati poetry, and which, under the
form tanas in Sanskrit and tanau in Apabhramsa, mean " belonging
to." It is an adjective, and agrees in gender, number and case with
the thing possessed. Thus, rdjd-nd dih a rd, the king's son ; . raja-ni
dik*ri, the king's daughter; rdjd-nU ghar, the king's house; rdjd-nd
dik a rd~ne, to the king s son (nd is in the oblique case masculine to
agree with difrrd) ; rajd-ne ghare, in the king's house. The ro and
hd of R. are similarly treated, but, of course, have no neuter. The
dative postpositions are simply locatives of the genitive ones, as in
all modern Indo-Arvan languages (see Hindostani). 77«, the post-
position of the G. ablative, is connected with thawu, to be, one of the
verbs substantive in that language. The ablative suffix is made in
this way in many modern Indo-Aryan languages (e.g. Bengali, q.v.).
It means literally " having been " and is to be ultimately referred
to the Sanskrit root, sthh, stand. The derivation of .the other
postpositions is discussed in the article Hindostani.
Strong adjectives agree with the nouns they qualify in gender,
number and case, as in the examples of the genitive above. Weak
adjectives are immutable.
Pronouns closely agree with those found in Hindostani . > In the
table on following page we give the first two personal pronouns,
and the demonstrative pronoun " this."
Similarly are formed the remaining pronouns, viz. G. a, R. u, he,
that; G. te, R. so (obi. sing. A), that; G. je, R. jo, who; G. kdn
(obi. kdn, kd, or ke), R. kun (obL kun), who? ; G. £u, R. kM , what ? ;
G.,R. kdt, anyone, someone, ha% anything, something. G. has two
other demonstratives, peld and olyd, both meaning " that." The
derivation of these and of iU has been discussed without any decisive
result. The rest are explained in the article Hindostani. The
712
GUJARATI AND RAJASTHANI
Apabhramsa.
Gujarati.
Rajasthani.
I
Nom.
haU
kit
hu, mhu, mat
Obi.
mat, mahu, majjhu
ma, maj
ma, mka, mu
MY
maharaU
mdrd
mdrd, mhdrd
WE
Nom.
amhe
ami
mhe
Obi.
amhahd
am-d
mhd
OUR
amhdraii
amdrd
mhd-ro, mh&-kd
THOU
Nom.
tuhU
tu
tu
Obi.
taX, tuha, tujjhu
ta, tuj
ta, tha, t&
THY
tuhdrau
tdrd
thdrd
YOU
Nom.
tumhl
tame
the, tame
Obi.
tumhahd
tam~d
tha*, tamd
YOUR
tumhdraU
tamOrd
thd-rd, thd-ko
THIS, HE
Nom.
eho
e
yd
Obi.
(?) ihaha, imaha
e
%
THESE, THEY Nom.
et
e-o
I, jyi
Obi.
eammi, Ih&na
cm
ina, yd.
reflexive pronoun is G. ap*ne, R. apa. It is generally employed as a
plural of the first personal pronoun including the person addressed ;
thus G. ap°ni, we (including you), but ante, we (excluding you).
In G. pdte, obi. potd, is used to mean " self."
Conjugation. — The old present has survived as in Hindostani and
other Indian languages. Taking the base call or col, go, as our model,
we have :
Apabhramsa.
Gujarati.
Rajasthani.
Sing.
1 . .
2 . .
callau
callahi
earn
cole
ca\d
cafai
3 • •
callai
cOli
cafai
Plur.
i . .
callahU
cam
cafS
2 . .
callahu
cOld
cafd
3 • •
callahi
cole
cafai
The derivation of the G. I plural is unknown. That of the other
G. and R. forms is manifest. The imperative closely follows this,
but as usual has no termination in the second person singular.
In R. the future may be formed by adding gd (cf. Hindostani gd),
Id, or Id to the old present. Thus, cafU-gd, cafdrlo or cald-ld I shall
go. The go and Id agree in gender and number with the subject,
but Id is immutable. The termination with / is also found in Bhoj puri
(see Bihari), in Marat hi and in Nepali. For go see Hindostani.
Another form of the future has s or h for its characteristic letter,
and is the only one employed in G. Thus, Ap. caUisaU or callihaU,
G. cGUi, R. (Jaipuri) capsyu, (Marwari) caf*hu. The other personal
terminations diner considerably from those of the old present, and
closely follow Ap. Thus, Ap. 3 sing. caUisai or caUini, G. cBXHe,
Marwari caf a hi.
The participles and infinitive are as follows:
Apabhramsa.
Gujarati.
Rajasthani.
Pres. Part. Active .
Past. Part. Passive
Future Part. Passive .
Infinitive ....
callantau
calliau
caUiawau
cdl°0
cOlyd
cOl*vd
cdl*vU
ca\*to
cafyo
caf'bo
caf a bo
In G. the infinitive is simply the neuter of the future passive
participle. The participles are employed to form finite tenses;
thus G. hU cdl a td, I used to go; hU cdlyd, I went. If the verb is
transitive (see Hindostani) the passive meaning of the past participle
comes into force. The subject is put into the case of the agent, and
the participle inflects to agree with the object, or, if there is no object,
is employed impersonally in the neuter (in G.) or in the masculine
(in R.). In Hindostani, if the object is expressed in the dative, the
participle is also employed impersonally, in the masculine; thus
r&jd-ni skerni-kd mdrd [masc., not mdri, (fem.], by-the-king, with
reference-to-the-tigress, it-(impersonal)-was- killed, i.e. the king killed
the tigress. But in G. and R., even if the object is in the dative,
the past participle agrees with it; thus, G, r&jae wdghan-ne marl,
by-tne-king, with-reference-to-the-tigress, she-was-killed. Other
examples from G. of this passive construction are me kahyU, by
me it was said, I said ; teni ci\\h\ lakht, by him a letter was written,
he wrote a letter; % bale vag?4&-md, dah&fa kadyd, by this lady, in the
wilderness, days were passed, i.e. she passed her days in the wilder-
ness ; rajOe vicaryU, the king considered. The idiom of R. is exactly
the same in these cases, except that the masculine must be used
where G. has the neuter; thus, rajOai vicdryo. The future passive
participle is construed in much the same way, but (as in Latin) the
subject may be put into the dative. Thus, mare d c&p*<fi v8c*vi, mihi
Hie liber (est) legendus, I must read that book, but also fine (agent
case) I kdm kar*vU, by him this business is to be done.
G. also forms a past participle in lid (cdleld), which is one of the
many survivals of the outer language. This -/- participle is typical
of most of the languages of the outer band, including Marathi, Oriya,
Bengali, Bihari and Assamese. It is formed by the addition of the
Prakrit pleonastic suffix -ilia-, which was not used by the Prakrit
of the Midland, but was common elsewhere. Compare, for instance,
the Ardhamagadhi past participle passive an-Ulia-, brought.
The usual verbs substantive are as follows : G. chu, R. hu or chil,
I am, which are conjugated regularly as old presents, and G. hatd,
R. ho or chd, was, which is a past participle, like the Hindostani
(q.v.) tha. Hd, hatd and ho are explained in the article on that
language. Chu is for Skr. %cch&mi, Ap. acchaU. The use of this base
is one of the outer band survivals. Even in Prakrit, it is not found
(so far as the present writer is aware) in the Saurasenl of the Midland.
Using these as auxiliaries the finite verb makes a whole series of
periphrastic tenses. A present definite is formed by conjugating the
old present tense (not the present participle) with the present tense
of the verb substantive. Thus, G.cOlU chu, I am going. A similar
idiom is found in some Western Hindi dialects, but Hindostani em-
ploys the present participle; thus, calta hu. In G. and R., however,
the imperfect is formed with the present participle as in H. Thus,
G. hu cal a td hatd, I was going. So, as in H., we have a perfect
hu cOlyd (or cOleld) chU, I nave gone, and a pluperfect hU cmyo (or
cOleld) hatd, I had gone. The R. periphrastic tenses are made on the
same principles. With the genitive 01 the G. future passive participle,
cOl a vd-nd, we have a kind of gerundive, as in hu cal a vOno chU, I am
to be gone, i.e. I am about to go; hu cdl a vand hatd, I was about to go.
The same series of derivative verbs occurs in G. and R. as in H.
Thus, we have a potential passive (a simple passive in G.) formed by
adding a to the base, as in G. lakhltU, to write, lakhdvu, to be written ;
and a causal by adding dv or d&, as in lakhaWvU, to cause to write ;
bes^vu, to sit, besdApvU, to seat. A new passive may be formed in
G. from the causal, as in tap*vu, to be hot; tapav a vU, to cause to be
hot ; to heat ; tapavdvu\ to be heated.
Several verbs have irregular past participles. These must be
learnt from the grammars. So also the numerous compound verbs,
such as (G.) caR Sah'vu, to be able to go; cdH cuk*vU t to have com-
pleted going; cdlyd kar*vU, to be in the habit of going, and so on. --
Very little is known about the literature of Rajputana, except
that it is of large extent. It includes a number of bardic chronicles
of which only one has been partially edited, but the t Hmnham
contents of which have been described by Tod in his
admired Raj as than. It also includes a considerable religious
literature, but the whole mass of this is still in MS. From those
specimens which the present writer has examined, it would
appear that most of the authors wrote in Braj Bhasha, the
Hindu literary dialect of Hindostani (q.v.) In Maxwar it is an
acknowledged fact that the literature falls into two branches,
one called Pingal and couched in Braj Bhasha, and the other
called Dingal and couched in Rajasthani. The most admired
work in pingal is the Raghundih RApak written by Mansa Ram
in the beginning of the 19th century. It is nominally a treatise
on prosody, but, like many other works of the same kind, it
contrives to pay a double debt, for the examples of the metres
are so arranged as to form a complete epic poem celebrating the
deeds of the hero Rama.
The earliest writer of importance in Gujarati, and its most
admired poet, was Narsingh Meta, who lived in the 15th
century a.d. Before him there were writers on Sanskrit grammar,
rhetoric and the like, who employed an old form of Gujarati
for their explanations. Narsingh does not appear to have
written any considerable work, his reputation depending on his
short songs, many of which exhibit much felicity of diction.
He had several successors, all admittedly his inferiors. Perhaps
the most noteworthy of these was Rewa Sankar, the translator
of the Mahabhdrala (see Sanskrit: Literature). A more
important side of Gujarati literature is its bardic chronicles,
the contents of which have been utilized by Forbes in his Ras
Mala. Modern Gujarati literature mostly consists of translations
or imitations of English works.
Authorities. — Volume ix. of the Linguistic Survey of India
contains a full and complete account of Gujarati and Rajasthani,
including their various dialectic forms.
For Rajasthani, see S. H. Kellogg, Grammar of the Hindi Language
(2nd ed., London, 1893). I Q this are described several dialects of
Rajasthani. See also Ram Karn Sarmft, MdrwOri Vydharana
(Jodhpur, 1 901) (a Marwari grammar written in that language) •
and G. Macalister, Specimens of the Dialects spoken in the State of
Jaipur (contains specimens, vocabularies and grammars) (Allahabad,
For Gujarati, there are numerous grammars, amongst which we
may note W. St C. Tisdall, Simplified Grammar of the Gujarati
Language (London, 1892) and (the most complete) G. P. Taylor,
The Student's Gujarati Grammar (2nd ed., Bombay, 1908). As for
dictionaries, the most authoritative is the Narma-kos' of Narmada
GUJRANWALA— GULBARGA
m
Sankar (Bhauitagar and Surat, 1&73), in Gujarati throughout. For
English readers we may mention Shahpurji Edalji's (2nd ed.,
Bombay, 1868), the introduction to which contains an account of
Gujarati literature by J. Glasgow, Belsare's (Ahmedabad, 1895), and
Karbhari's (Ahmedabad, 1899). (G. A. Gr.)
GUJRANWALA, a town and district of British India, in the
Lahore division of the Punjab. The town is situated 40 m. N.
of Lahore by rail. It is of modern growth, and owes its import-
ance to the father and grandfather of Maharaja Ranjit Singh,
whose capital it formed during the early period of the Sikh
power. Pop. (1001) 29,224. There are manufactures of brass-
ware, jewellery, and silk and cotton scarves.
The District comprises an area of 3198 sq. m. In 1901 the
population was 756,797, showing an increase of 29% in the
decade. The district is divided between a low alluvial tract
along the rivers Chenab and Degh and the upland between them,
which forms the central portion of the Rechna Doab, inter-
mediate between the fertile submontane plains of Sialkot and
the desert expanses of Jhang. Part of the upland tract has been
brought under cultivation by the Chenab canal. The country
is very bare of trees, and the scenery throughout is tame and in
the central plateau becomes monotonous. It seems likely that
the district once contained the -capital of the Punjab, at an epoch
when Lahore had not began to exist. We learn from the Chinese
Buddhist pilgrim, Hsuan Tsang, that about the year 630 he
visited a town known as Tse-kia (or Taki), the metropolis of the
whole country of the five rivers. A mound near the modern
village of Asarur has been identified as the site of the ancient
capital. Until the Mahommedan invasions little is known of
Gujranwala, except that Taki had fallen into oblivion and Lahore
bad become the chief city. Under Mahommedan rule the district
flourished for a time; but a mysterious depopulation fell upon
the tract, and the whole region seems to have been almost
entirely abandoned. On the rise of Sikh power, the waste plains
of Gujranwala were seized by various military adventurers.
Chsrat Singh took possession of the village of Gujranwala, and
here hfe grandson the great Maharaja Ranjit Singh was born.
The Sikh rule, which was elsewhere so disastrous, appears to
have been an unmitigated benefit to this district. Ranjit Singh
settled large colonies in the various villages, and encouraged
cultivation throughout the depopulated plain. In 1847 the
district came under British influence in connexion with the
regency at Lahore; and in 1849 it was included in the territory
annexed after the second Sikh war. A large export trade fs
carried on in cotton, wheat and other grains. The district is
served by the main line and branches of the North-Western
railway.
GUJRAT, a town and district of British India, in the Rawal-
pindi division of the Punjab, lying on the south-western border
of Kashmir. The town stands about 5 m. from the right bank
of the river Chenab, 70 m. N. of Lahore by rail. Pop. (1901)
19,410. It is built upon an ancient site, formerly occupied,
according to tradition, by two successive cities, the second of
which is supposed to have been destroyed in 1303, the year of
a Mongol invasion. More than 200 years later either Sher Shah
or Akbar founded the existing town. Though standing in the
midst of a Jat neighbourhood, the fort was first garrisoned by
Gujars, and took the name of Gujrat. Akbar's fort, largely
improved by Gujar Singh, stands in the centre of the town.
The neighbouring shrine of the saint Shah Daula serves
as a kind of native asylum for lunatics. The town has manu-
factures of furniture, inlaid work in gold and iron, brass-ware,
boots, cotton goods and shawls.
The District of Gujrat comprises a narrow wedge of sub-
Himalayan plain country, possessing few natural advantages.
From the basin of the Chenab on the south the general level
rises rapidly towards the interior, which, owing to the great
distance of the water beneath the surface, assumes a dreary
and desert aspect. A range of low hills, known as the Pabbi,
traverses the northern angle of Gujrat. They are composed
of a friable Tertiary sandstone and conglomerate, destitute of
vegetation, and presenting a mere barren chaos of naked rock,
deeply scored with precipitous ravines. Immediately below the
Pabbi stretches a high plateau, terminating abruptly in a pre-
cipitous bluff some 200 ft. in height. At the foot of this plateau
is a plain, which forms the actual valley of the Chenab and
participates in the irrigation from the river bed.
Numerous relics of antiquity stud the surface of the district,
Mounds of ancient construction yield early coins, and bricks are
found whose size and type prove them to belong to the pre- •
historic period. A mound now occupied by the village of Moga
or Mong has been identified as the site of Nicaea, the city built
by Alexander the Great on the field of his victory over Porus.
The Delhi empire established its authority in this district under
Bahlol Lodi (1451-1489). A century later it was visited by
Akbar, who founded Gujrat as the seat of government. During
the decay of the Mogul power, the Ghakkars of Rawalpindi
overran this portion of the Punjab and established themselves in
Gujrat about 1741. Meanwhile the Sikh power had been assert-
ing itself in the eastern Punjab, and in 1765 the Ghakkar chief
was defeated by Sirdar Gujar Singh, chief of the Bhangi con-
federacy. On his death, his son succeeded him, but after a
few months' warfare, in 1798, he submitted himself as vassal
to the Maharaja Ranjit Singh. In 1846 Gujrat first came under
the supervision of British officials. Two years later the district
became the theatre for the important engagements which decided
the event of the second Sikh war. After several bloody battles
in which the British were unsuccessful, the Sikh power was
irretrievably broken at the engagement which took place at
Gujrat on the 22nd of February 1849. The Punjab then passed
by annexation under British rule.
The district comprises an area of 2051 sq. m. In 1901 the*
population was 750,548* showing a decrease of 1%, compared
with an increase of 10% in the previous decade. The district
has a large export trade in wheat and other grains, oil, wool,
cotton and hides. The main line and the Siud-Sagar branch
of the North-Western railway traverse it.
GULA, a Babylonian goddess, the consort of Ninib. She is
identical with another goddess, known as Bau, though it would
seem that the two were originally independent. The name Bau
is more common in the oldest period and gives way in the post-
Khammurabic age to Gula. Since it is probable that Ninib (g.v.)
has absorbed the cults of minor sun-deities, the two names may
represent consorts of different gods. However this may be, the
qualities of both are alike, and the two occur as synonymous
designations of Ninib 's female consort. Other names borne by
this goddess are Nin-Karrak, Ga-tum-dug and Nin-din-dug,
the latter signifying " the lady who restores to life." The
designation well emphasizes the chief trait of Bau-Gula which is
that of healer. She is often spoken of as " the great physician,"
and accordingly plays a specially prominent rdle in incantations
and incantation rituals intended to relieve those suffering from
disease. She is, however, also invoked to curse those who
trample upon the rights of rulers or those who do wrong with
poisonous potions. As in the case of Ninib, the cult of Bau-Gula
is prominent in Shirgulla and in Nippur. While generally in
close association with her consort, she is also invoked by herself,
and thus retains a larger measure of independence than most
of the goddesses of Babylonia and Assyria. She appears in a
prominent position on the designs accompanying the Kudurrus
boundary-stone monuments of Babylonia, being represented
by a statue, when other gods and goddesses are merely pictured
by their shrines, by sacred animals or by weapons. In neo-
Babylonian days her cult continues to occupy a prominent
position, and Nebuchadrezzar II. speaks of no less than
three chapels or shrines within the sacred precincts of E-Zida
in the city of Borsippa, besides a temple in her honour at
Babylon. (M. Ja.)
GULBARGA, an ancient city of India, situated in the Nizam's
dominions, 70 m. S.E. of Sholapur. Pop. (1901) 29,228. Origin-
ally a Hindu city, it was made the capital of the Bahmani kings,
when that dynasty established their independence in the Deccan
in 1347, and it remained such until 1422. The palaces, mosques
and tombs of these kings still stand half-ruined. The most
notable building is a mosque modelled after that of Cordova
xn. 23 a
714
GULF STREAM— GULL
in Spain, covering an area of 38,000 sq. ft., which is almost
unique in India as being entirely covered in. Since the opening
of a station on the Great India Peninsula railway, Gulbarga
has become a centre of trade, with cotton-spinning and weaving
mills. It is also the headquarters of a district and division of the
same name. The district, as recently reconstituted, has an area
of 6004 sq. m.; pop. (1001), 1,041,067.
GULF STREAM, 1 the name properly applied to the stream
current which issues from the Gulf of Mexico and flows north-
eastward, following the eastern coast of North America, and
separated from it by a narrow strip of cold water (the Cold Wall),
to a point east of the Grand Banks off Newfoundland. The
Gulf Stream is a narrow, deep current, and its velocity is esti-
mated at about 80 m. a day. It is joined by, and often indis-
tinguishable from, a large body of water which comes from
outside the West Indies and follows the same course. The term
was formerly applied to the drift current which carries the mixed
waters of the Gulf Stream and the Labrador current eastwards
across the Atlantic. This is now usually known as the " Gulf
Stream drift," although the name is not altogether appropriate.
See Atlantic.
GULFWEED, in botany, a popular name for the seaweed
Sargassum bacciferum, one of the brown seaweeds (Phaeophyceae) ,
large quantities of which are found floating in the Gulf of Mexico,
whence it is carried northwards by the Gulf Stream, small
portions sometimes being borne as far as the coasts of the British
Isles. It was observed by Columbus, and is remarkable among
seaweeds for its form, which resembles branches bearing leaves and
berries; the latter, to which the species-name bacciferum refers,
are hollow floats answering the same purpose as the bladders
in another brown seaweed, Fucus vesiculosus, which is common
round the British Isles between high and low water.
GULL, SIR WILLIAM WITHEY, 1st Bart. (1 816-1890),
English physician, was the youngest son of John Gull, a barge-
owner and wharfinger of Thorpe-le-Soken, Essex, and was born
on the 31st of December 1816 at Colchester. He began life
as a schoolmaster, but in 1837 Benjamin Harrison, the treasurer
of Guy's Hospital, who had noticed his ability, brought him up
to London from the school at Lewes where he was usher, and
gave him employment at the hospital, where he also gained
permission to attend the lectures. In 1843 he was made a
lecturer in the medical school of the hospital, in 1851 he was
chosen an assistant physician, and in 1856 he became full
physician. In 1847 he was elected ■ Fullerian professor of
physiology in the Royal Institution, retaining the post for the
usual three years, and in 1848 he delivered the Gulstonian
Lectures at the College of Physicians, where he filled every office
of honouT but that of president. He died in London on the 29th
of January 1890 after a series of paralytic strokes, the first of
which had occurred nearly three years previously. He was
created a baronet in 1872, in recognition of the skill and care he
had shown in attending the prince of Wales during his attack
of typhoid in 1871. Sir William Gull's fame rested mainly on
his success as a clinical practitioner; as he said himself, he was
" a clinical physician or nothing." This success must be largely
ascribed to his remarkable powers of observation, and to the
great opportunities he enjoyed for gaining experience of disease.
He was sometimes accused of being a disbeliever in drugs.
That was not the case, for he prescribed drugs like other
physicians when he considered them likely to be beneficial.
He felt, however, that their administration was only a part of
the physician's duties, and his mental honesty and outspokenness
prevented him from deluding either himself or his patients with
unwarranted notions of what they can do. But though he
regarded medicine as primarily an art for the relief of physical
suffering, he was far from disregarding the scientific side of his
1 The word " gulf," a portion of the sea partially enclosed by the
coast-line, and usually taken as referring to a tract of water larger
than a bay and smaller than a sea, is derived through the Fr. golfe,
from Late Gr. #c6X<fcoj, class. Gr. k6Xttos, bosom, hence bay, cf. Lat.
sinus. In University slang, the term is used of the position of those
who fail to obtain a place in the honours list at a public examination,
but are allowed a "pass." >
profession, and he made some real contributions to medical
science. His papers were printed chiefly in Guy's Hospital
Reports and in the proceedings of learned societies: among the
subjects he wrote about were cholera, rheumatic fever, taenia,
paraplegia and abscess of the brain, while he distinguished for
the first time (1873) the disease now known as myxoedema,
describing it as a " cretinoid state in adults."
GULL (Welsh gwylan, Breton, goelann, whence Fr. goSland),
the name commonly adopted,. to the almost entire exclusion
of the O. Eng. Mew (Icel. mdfur, Dan. maage, Swedish
m&se, Ger. Meve, Dutch meeuw, Fr. mouette), for a group
of sea-birds widely and commonly known, all belonging to the
genus Larusoi Linnaeus, which subsequent systematists have
broken up in a very arbitrary and often absurd fashion. The
family Laridae is composed of two chief groups, Larinae and
Sterninae — the gulls and the terns, though two other subfamilies
are frequently counted, the skuas (Stercorariinae), and that
formed by the single genus Rhynchops, the skimmers; but
there seems no strong reason why the former should not be
referred to the Larinae and the latter to the Sterninae.
Taking the gulls in their restricted sense, Howard Saunders,
who has subjected the group to a rigorous revision (Proc. Zool.
Society, 1878, pp. 1 55-211), admits forty-nine species of them,
which he places in five genera instead of the many which some
prior investigators had sought to establish. Of the genera
recognized by him, Pagophila and Rhodostethia have but one
species each, Rissa and 2[ema two, while the rest belong to Laws.
The Pagophila is the so-called ivory-gull, P. eburnea, names
which hardly do justice to the extreme whiteness of its plumage,
to which its jet-black legs offer a strong contrast. The young,
however, are spotted with black. An inhabitant of the most
northern seas, examples, most commonly young birds of the
year, find their way in winter to more temperate shores. Its
breeding-place has seldom been discovered, aad the first of its
eggs ever seen by ornithologists was brought home by Sir L.
M'Clintock in 1853 from CapeKrabbe (Journ. R. Dubl. Society,
i. 60, pi. 1) ; others were subsequently obtained by Dr Malmgren
in Spitsbergen. Of the species of Rissa, one is the abundant
and well-known kittiwake, R. tridactyla> of circumpolar range,
breeding, however, also in comparatively low latitudes, as on
the coasts of Britain, and in winter frequenting southern waters.
The other is R. brevirostris, limited to the North Pacific, between
Alaska and Kamchatka. The singular fact requires to be noticed
that in both these species the hind toe is generally deficient,
but that examples of each are occasionally found in which this
functionless member has not wholly disappeared. We have
then the genus Lotus, which ornithologists have attempted most
unsuccessfully to subdivide. It contains the largest as well as
the smallest of gulls. In some species the adults assume a dark-
coloured head every breeding-season, in others any trace of dark
colour is the mark of immaturity. The larger species prey fiercely
on other kinds of birds, while the smaller content themselves
with a diet of small animals, often insects and worms. But
however diverse be the appearance, structure or habits of the
extremities of the series of species, they are so closely connected
by intermediate forms that it is hard to find a gap between them
that would justify a generic division. Forty-three species ol
this genus are recognized by Saunders. About fifteen belong to
Europe and fourteen to North America, of which (excluding
stragglers) some five only are common to both countries. Our
knowledge of the geographical distribution of several of then-
is still incomplete. Some have a very wide range, others very
much the reverse, as witness L. fuliginosus, believed to be
confined to the Galapagos, and L. scppulinus and L. bulleri to
New Zealand, — the last indeed perhaps only to the South Island.
The largest species of the group are the glaucous gull and greater
black-backed gull, L. glaucus and L. marinus, of which the former
is circumpolar, and the latter nearly so—not being hitherto found
between Labrador and Japan. The smallest species is the
European L. minutus, though the North American!,. Philadelphia
does not much exceed it in size. Many of the gulls congregate
in vast numbers to breed, whether on rocky cliffs of the sea-coast
GULLY— GUM
715
or on healthy islands in inland waters. Some 0/ the settlements
of the black-headed or " peewit " gulj, L. ridibundus, are a
source of no small profit to their proprietors, — the eggs, which
are rightly accounted a great delicacy, being taken on an orderly
system up to a certain day, and the birds carefully protected.
Ross's or the roseate gull, RhodosUthia rosea, forms a well-marked
genus, distinguished not so much by the pink tint of its plumage
(for that is found in other species) but by its small dove-like bill
and wedge-shaped tail. It is an exceedingly scarce bird, and
beyond its having an Arctic habitat, little has yet been ascertained
about it. More rare still is one of the species of Xema, X.
furcatum, of which only two specimens, both believed to have
come from the Galapagos, have been seen. Its smaller congener
Sabine's gull, X. sabinii, is more common, and has been found
breeding both in Arctic America and in Siberia, and several
examples, chiefly immature birds, have been obtained in the
British islands. Both species of Xema are readily distinguished
from all other gulls by their forked tails. (A. N.)
GULLY, JOHN (1783-1863), English sportsman and politician,
was born at Wick, near Bath, on the 21st of August 1783, the son
of an innkeeper. He came into prominence as a boxer, and in
1805 he was matched against Henry Pearce, the " Game Chicken,"
before the duke of Clarence (afterwards William IV.) and
numerous other spectators, and after fighting sixty-four rounds,
which occupied an hour and seventeen minutes, was beaten.
In 1807 he twice fought Bob Gregson, the Lancashire giant, for
two hundred guineas a side, winning on both occasions. As the
landlord of the " Plough " tavern in Carey Street, London, he
retired from the ring in 1808, and took to horse-racing. In
1827 he lost £ 40,000 by backing his horse " Mameluke '* (for
which he had paid four thousand guineas) for the St Leger.
In partnership with Robert Ridskale, in 1832, he made £85,000
by' winning the Derby and St Leger with " St Giles " and
" Margrave. " In partnership with John Day he won the Two
Thousand Guineas with " Ugly Buck " in 1844, and two years
later he took the Derby and the Oaks with " Pyrrhus the First "
and " Mendicant, 11 in 1854 the Two Thousand Guineas with
"Hermit," and in the same year, in partnership with Henry
Pad wick, the Derby with " Andover." Having bought Ack-
worth Park near Pontefract he was M.P. from December 1832
to July 183,7. In 1862 he purchased the Wingate Grange estate
and collieries. Gully was twice married and had twelve children
by each wife. He died at Durham on the 9th of March 1863.
He appears to have been no relation of the subsequent Speaker,
Lord Selby.
GULPAiGAN (Jerbddegdn of the Arab geographers), a district
and city in Central Persia, situated N.W. of Isfahan and S»E.
of Irak. Together with Khunsar it forms a small province,
paying a yearly revenue. 91 about £6000. The city of Gulpaigan
is situated -87 m. N.W. of Isfahan, at an elevation of 5875 ft.
in 33 24' N, and 50 20' E., and has a population of about 5000.
The district is fertile and produces much grain and some opium.
Sometimes it is under the governor-general of the . Isfahan
province, at others it forms part of the province of Irak, and at
times, as in 1906, is under a governor appointed from Teheran.
GUM (Fr. gomme, Lat. gommi, Gr. k6mm*> possibly a Coptic
word; distinguish " gum," the fleshy covering of the base of
a tooth, in O. Eng. gdma, palate, cf. Ger. Gaumen, roof of the
mouth; the ultimate origin is probably the root gha, to open
wide, seen in Gr. x<dvav, to gape, cf. "yawn"), the generic
name given to a group of amorphous carbo-hydrates of the
general formula (CeHioOe),!, which exist in the juices of almost
all plants, and also occur as exudations from stems, branches
and fruits o£ plants. They are entirely soluble or soften in water,
and form with it a thick glutinous liquid or mucilage. They
yield mucic and oxalic acids when treated with nitric acid.
In structure the gums are quite amorphous, being neither organ-
ized like starch nor crystallized like sugar. They are odourless
and tasteless, and some yield clear aqueous solutions — the real
gums — while others swell up and will not percolate filter paper —
the vegetable mucilages. The acacias and the Rosaceae yield
their gums most abundantly when sickly and in an abnormal
state, caused by a fulness of sap in the young tissues, whereby
the new cells are softened and finally disorganized; the cavities
thus formed fill with liquid, which exudes, dries and constitutes
the gum.
Gum arable may be taken as the type of the gums entirely
soluble in water. Another variety, obtained from the Prosopis
dulcis y a leguminous plant, is called gum mesquite or mezquite;
it comes from western Texas and Mexico, and is yellowish in
colour, very brittle and quite soluble in water.
Gum arabic occurs in pieces of varying «ze, and some kinds
are full of minute cracks. The specific gravity of Turkey picked gum
(the purest variety) is 1-487. or, when dried at ioo° C, 1*525. It is
soluble in water to an indefinite extent ; boiled with dilute sulphuric
acid it is converted into the sugar galactose. Moderately strong
nitric acid changes it into mucic, saccharic, tartaric and oxalic acids.
Under the influence of yeast it does not enter into the alcoholic
fermentation, but M. P. E. Berthelot, by digesting with chalk and
cheese, obtained from it 12 % of its weight of alcohol, along with
calcium lactate, but no appreciable quantity of sugar. Gum arabic
may be regarded as a potassium and calcium salt of gu ramie or arabic
acid. T. Graham {Chemical and Physical Researches) recommended
dialysis as the best mode of preparing gummic acid, and stated that
the power of gum to penetrate the parchment septum is 400 times
less than that of sodium chloride, and, further, that by mixing the gum
with substances of the crystalloid class the diffusibility is lowered,
and may be even reduced to nothing. The mucilage must be acidu-
lated with hydrochloric acid before dialysing, to set free the gummic
acid. By adding alcohol to the solution, the acid is precipitated as
a white amorphous mass, which becomes glassy at 100 . Its formula
is (CcHioOt) jH 2 0, and it forms compounds with neariy all bases which
are easily soluble in water. Gummic acid reddens litmus, its re-
action being about equal to carbonic acid. When solutions of gum
arabic and gelatin are mixed, oily drops of a compound of the two
are precipitated, which on standing form a nearly colourless jelly,
melting at 25 ° C., or by the heat of the hand. This substance can
be washed without decomposition. Gummic acid is soluble in
water; when well dried at loo° C, it becomes transformed into
metagummic acid, which is insoluble, but swells up in water like
gum tragacanth.
Gum arabic, when heated to 150 C. with two parts of acetic
anhydride, swells up to a mass which, when washed witjb boiling
water, and then with alcohol, gives a white amorphous insoluble
powder called acetyl arabin C«H»(CiH s O)206. It is saponified by
alkalies, with reproduction of soluble gum. Gum arabic is not
precipitated from solution by alum, stannous chloride, sulphate or
nitrate of copper, or neutral lead acetate ; with basic lead acetate
it forms a white jelly, with ferric chloride it yields a stiff clear
gelatinoid mass, and its solutions are also precipitated by borax.
The finer varieties are used as an emollient and demulcent
in medicine, and in the manufacture of confectionery; the
commoner qualities are used as an adhesive paste, for giving
lustre to crape, silk, &c, in cloth finishing to stiffen the fibres,
and .in .calico-printing. For labels, &c, it is usual to mix sugar
or glycerin with it to prevent it from cracking.
Gum Senegal, a variety of gum arabic produced by Acacia
Vereh, occurs in pieces generally rounded, of the size of a pigeon's
egg, and of a reddish or yellow colour, and specific gravity 1.436.
It gives with water a somewhat stronger mucilage than gum
arabic, from which it i& distinguished by its clear interior , fewer
cracks and greater toughness. It is imported from the river
Gambia, and from Senegal and Bathurst.
Chagual gum, a variety brought from Santiago, Chile, resembles
gum Senegal. About 75% is soluble in water. Its solution is
not thickened by borax, and is precipitated by neutral lead
acetate; and dilute sulphuric acid converts it into ^glucose.
Gum tragacanth, familiarly called gum dragon, exudes from
the stem, the lower part especially, of the various species of
Astragalus, especially A. gummifer, and is collected in Asia
Minor, the chief port of shipment being Smyrna. Formerly only
what exuded spontaneously was gathered; this was often : of
a brownish colour; but now the flow of the gum is aided by
incisions cut near the root, and the product is the fine, white,
flaky variety so much valued in commerce. The chief flow of
gum takes place during the night, and hot and dry weather is
the most favourable for its production.
In colour gum tragacanth is of a dull white; it occurs in horny,
flexible and tough, thin, twisted flakes, translucent, and with peculiar
wavy lines on the surface. When dried at temperatures under
100 C. it loses about 14% of water, and is then easily powdered.
Its specific gravity is 1 -384. With water it swells by absorption, and
716
GUMBEL-— GUMBO
with even fifty times its weight of that liquid forms a thick mucilage.
Part of it only is soluble in water, and that resembles gummic acid in
being precipitated by alcohol and ammonium oxalate, but differs
from it in giving a precipitate with neutral lead acetate and none
with borax. The insoluble part of the gum is a calcium salt of
bassorin (Ci 2 H»Oio), which is devoid of taste and smell, forms a
gelatmoid mass with water, but by continued boiling is rendered
soluble.
Gum tragacanth is used in calico-printing as a thickener of
colours and mordants; in medicine as a demulcent and vehicle
for insoluble powders, and as an excipient in pills; and for
setting and mending beetles and other insect specimens. It is
medicinally superior to gum acacia, as it does not undergo
acetous fermentation. The best pharmacopeial preparation
is the MucUago Tragacanthae. The compound powder is a
useless preparation, as the starch it contains is very liable to
ferment.
Gum kuteera resembles in appearance gum tragacanth, for
which the attempt has occasionally been made to substitute it.
It is said to be the product of Sterculia urens, a plant of the
natural order Sterculiaceae.
Cherry tree gum is an exudation from trees of the genera
Primus and Cerasus. It occurs in shiny reddish lumps, resem-
bling the commoner kinds of gum arabic. With water, in which
it is only partially soluble, it forms a thick mucilage. Sulphuric
acid converts it into /-arabinose; and nitric acid oxidizes it to
oxalic acid (without the intermediate formation of muck acid
as in the case of gum arabic).
Gum of Bassora, from Bassora or Bussorah in Asia, is some-
times imported into the London market under the name of the
hog tragacanth. It is insipid, crackles between the teeth, occurs
in variable-sized pieces, is tough, of a yellowish-white colour,
and opaque, and has properties similar to gum tragacanth.
Its specific gravity is 1*36. It contains only i% of soluble
gum or arabin. Under the name of Caramania gum it is mixed
with inferior kinds of gum tragacanth before exportation.
Mucilage. — Very many seeds, roots, &c, when infused in
boiling water, yield mucilages which, for the most part, consist
of bassorin. Linseed, quince seed and marshmallow root yield
it in large quantity. In their reactions the different kinds of
mucilage present differences; e.g. quince seed yields only
oxalic acid when treated with nitric acid, and with a solution of
iodine in zinc iodide it gives, after some time, a beautiful red
tint. Linseed does not give the latter reaction; by treatment
with boiling nitric acid it yields mudc and oxalic acids.
Gum Resins. — This term is applied to the inspissated milky juices
of certain plants, which consist of gum soluble in water, resin and
essential oil soluble in alcohol, other vegetable matter and a, small
amount of mineral matter. They are generally opaque and solid*, and
often brittle. When finely powdereaand rubbed down with water
they form emulsions, the undissolved resin being suspended in the
gum solution. Their chief uses are in medicine. Examples are
ammoniacum, asafetida, bdellium, euphorbium, gamboge, myrrh,
sagapanum and scammony.
GOMBEL, KARL WILHBLM VON, Baron (1823-1898),
German geologist, was born at Dannenfels, in the Palatinate
of the Rhine, on the nth of February 1823, and is known chiefly
by his researches on the geology of Bavaria. He received a
practical and scientific education in mining at Munich and
Heidelberg, taking the degree of Ph.D. at Munich in 1862;
and he was engaged for a time at the colliery of St Ingbert and
as a surveyor in that district. In 1851, when the Geological
Survey of Bavaria was instituted, Gumbel was appointed chief
geologist; in 1863 he was made honorary professor of geognosy
and surveying at the university of Munich, and in 1879, Oberberg
director of the Bavarian mining department with which the
Geological Survey was incorporated. His geological map of
Bavaria appeared in 1858, and the official memoir descriptive
of the detailed work, entitled Geognostische Beschreibung des
K&nigreichs Bayern was issued in three parts (1861, 1868 and
1879). He subsequently published his Geologie von Bayern in
2 vols. ( 1 884-1 894), an elaborate treatise on geology, with special
reference to the geology of Bavaria. In the course of his long
and active career he engaged in much palaeontological work:
he studied the fauna of the Trias, and in 1861 introduced the
term Rhaetic for the uppermost division of that system; he
supported at first the view of the organic nature of Eozoon (1866
and 1876), he devoted special attention to Foraminifera, and
described those of the Eocene strata of the northern Alps (1868);
he dealt also with Receptaculites (1875) which he regarded as a
genus belonging to the Foraminifera. He died on the 18th of
June 1898.
GUMBINNEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of East Prussia, on the Pissa, an affluent of the Pregel, 22 m. by
rail S. W. of Eydtkuhnen on the line to KSnigsberg. Pop. (1905),
14,194. The surrounding country is pleasant and fruitful, and
the town has spacious and regular streets shaded by linden
trees. It has a Roman Catholic and three Evangelical churches,
a synagogue, a gymnasium, two public schools, a public library,
a hospital and an infirmary. In the market square there is a
statue of the king of Prussia Frederick William I., who in 1724
raised Gumbinnen to the rank of a town, and in 1732 brought
to it a number of persons who had been driven from Salzburg by
religious persecution. On the bridge over the Pissa a monument
has been erected to the soldiers from the neighbourhood who
fell in the Franco-German war of 1870-71. Iron founding and
the manufacture of machinery, wool, cotton, and linen weaving,
stocking-making, tanning, brewing and distilling are the principal
industries. There are horse and cattle markets, and some trade
in corn and linseed.
See J. Schneider, Aus Gumbinnens Vergangenheit (Gumbinnen.
1904).
GUMBO, or Okra, termed also Okro, Ochro, Kelmia,
Gubbo and Syrian mallow (Sans. Tindisa, Bengali Dheras,
Pers. Bdmiyah — the Bammia of Prosper Alpinus; Fr.
Gombaut, or better Gombo, and Keimie comestible), Hibiscus
esculentus, a herbaceous hairy annual plant of the natural order
Malvaceae, probably of African origin, and now naturalized or
cultivated in all tropical countries. TTie leaves are cordate,
and 3 to 5-lobed, and the flowers yellow, with a crimson centre;
the fruit or pod, the Bendi-Kai of the Europeans of southern
India, is a tapering, 10-angled capsule, 4 to 10 in. in length,
except in the dwarf varieties of the plaht, and contains numerous
oval dark-coloured seeds, hairy at the base. Three distinct
varieties of the gumbo (Quiabo and Quimgombo) in Brazil have
been described by Pacheco. The unripe fruit is eaten either
pickled or prepared like asparagus. It is also an ingredient
in various dishes, e.g. the gumbo of the Southern United States
and the calalou of Jamaica; and on account of the large amount
of mucilage it contains, it is extensively consumed, both fresh
and in the form of the prepared powder, for the thickening of
broths and soups. For winter use it is salted or sliced and dried.
The fruit is grown on a very large scale in the vicinity of Con-
stantinople. It was one of the esculents of Egypt in the time
of Abul-Abbas el-Nebftti, who journeyed to Alexandria in 121 6
(Wustenfeld, Gesch. d. arab. Ante, p. 118, G<5tt., 1840), and is
still cultivated by the Egyptians, who called it Ba'mmgi.
The seeds of the gumbo are used as a substitute for coffee.
From their demulcent and emollient properties, the leaves and
immature fruit have long been in repute in the East for the
preparation of poultices and fomentations. Alpinus (1592)
mentions the employment of their decoction in Egypt in oph-
thalmia and in uterine and other complaints.
' The musk okra (Sans., Latdkasturikd, cf. the Gr. K&arwp; Bengali,
Laldkasturi; Ger. Bisamkornersirauch; Fr. Keimie musqu£e) t
Hibiscus Abelmoschus (Abelmoschus moschatus), indigenous to India,
and cultivated in most warm regions of the globe, is a suffruticose
plant, bearing a conical 5-ridged pod about 3 in. in length, within
which are numerous brown reniform seeds, smaller than those of H.
esculentus. The seeds possess a musky odour, due to an oleo-resin
present in the integument, and are known to perfumers under the
name of ambrette as a substitute for musk. They are said to be used
by the Arabs for scenting coffee. The seeds (in the Fantee language,
Incromahom) are used in Africa as beads ; and powdered and steeped
in rum they are valued in the West Indies as a remedy for snake-
bites. The plant yields an excellent fibre, and, being rich in mucilage,
is employed in Upper India for the clarifying of sugar. The best-
perfumed seeds are reported to come from Martinique.
See P. Alpinus, De plantis Aegypti, cap. xxvii. p. 38 (Venice, 1592) ;
J. Sontheimer's Abd Allah ibn Ahmad, &c. i. 1 18 (Stuttgart,
GUMTI— GUN
717
1840-1842); P. P. Pacheco, " La Ketmie potagere ou comestible,"
La Belgtque horticole, iv. 63 (1853); Delia Sudda, " De l'emploi
a Constantinople de la racine de 1 Hibiscus esculent us," Ripert. de
pharm., January i860, p. 229; E. I. Waring, Pkarm. of India, p.
35 (1868); O. Popp, " uber die Aschenbestandteile der Samen von
Acacia nilotica und Hibiscus esculentus in Aeypten," Arch, der
Pharm. cxcv. p. 140 (1871); Drury, The Useful Plants of India, pp.
1, 2 (2nd ed., 1873); U. C. Dutt, The Mat. Med. of the Hindus, pp.
123. 321 (1877); Lanessan, Hist, des drogues, i. 181-184 (1878);
G. Watt, Dictionary of the Economic Products of India (1890).
GUMTI, a river of northern India. It rises in a depression in
the Pilibhit district of the United Provinces, and after a sinuous
but generally south-easterly course of 500 m. past Lucknow and
Jaunpur joins the Ganges in Ghazipar district. At Jaunpur it
is a fine stream, spanned by a 16th-century bridge of sixteen
arches, and is navigable by vessels of 17 tons burden. There
is also a small river of the same name in the Tippera district
of eastern Bengal and Assam.
GUMULJINA, or Gumurdjina, a town of European Turkey,
in the vilayet of Adrianople. Pop. (1905), about 8000, of whom
three-fourths are Turks and the remainder Greeks, Jews or
Armenians. Gumuljina is situated on the river Karaja-Su,
south of the eastern extremity of the Rhodope range of mountains
and 13 m. inland from the Aegean Sea. It has a station on the
railway between Salonica and D6d6agatch. The district produces
wheat, maize, barley and tobacco; sericulture and viticulture
are both practised on a limited scale. A cattle fair is held
annually on Greek Palm Sunday. Copper and antimony are
found in the neighbourhood.
GUMUS, or Gumz, Negroes of the Shangalla group of tribes,
dwelling in the mountainous district of Fazogli on the Sudan-
Abyssinian frontier. They live in independent groups, some
being mountaineers while others are settled on the banks
of the Blue Nile. Gumz in the native tongue signifies
" people," and the sub-tribes have distinctive names. The Gumus
are nature-worshippers, God and the sun being synonymous.
On ceremonial occasions, they carry parasols of honour (see
Shangalla).
GtiHttSH-KHANEH, the chief town of a sanjak of the same
name in the Trebizond vilayet of Asiatic Turkey, situated on
high ground (4400 ft.) in the valley of the Kharshut Su, about
£ m. to south of the Trebizond-Erzerum chaussSe. The silver
mines from which the place takes its name were noted in ancient
times and are mentioned by Marco Polo. Pop. about 3000,
chiefly Greeks, who are in the habit of emigrating to great
distances to work in mines. They practically supply the whole
lead- and silver-mining labour in Asiatic Turkey, and in conse-
quence the Greek bishop of Gumush-Khaneh has under his
jurisdiction all the communities engaged in this particular class
of mines.
GUN, a general term for a weapon, tubular in form, from
which a projectile is discharged by means of an explosive.
When applied to artillery the word is confined to those pieces
of ordnance which have a direct as opposed to a high-angle fire,
in which case the terms " howitzer " and " mortar " are used
(see Ordnance and Machine-Gun). " Gun " as applied to
firearms which are carried in the hand and fired from the shoulder,
the old " hand gun," is now chiefly used of the sporting shot-gun,
with which this article mainly deals; in military usage this type
of weapon, whether rifle, carbine, &c, is known collectively as
" small arms " (see Rule and Pistol). The origin of the word,
which in Mid. Eng. is gonne or gunne, is obscure, but it has
been suggested by Professor W. W. Skeat that it conceals a
female name, Gunnilde or Gunhilda. The names, e.g. Mons Meg
at Edinburgh Castle and fault Grete (heavy Peg), known to
readers of Carlyle's Frederick the Great, will be familiar parallel-
isms. " Gunne " would be a shortened " pet name " of Gunn-
hilde. The New English Dictionary finds support for the sugges-
tion in the fact that in Old Norwegian gunne and hilde both
mean " war," and quotes an inventory of war material at
Windsor Castle in 1330-1331, where is mentioned " una magna
balista de cornu quae vocatur Domina Gunilda." Another
suggestion for the origin of the word is that the word represents
a shortened form, gonne, of a supposed French mangonne, a
mangonel, but the French word is mangonneau.
Firearms are said to have been first used in European warfare
in the 14th century. The hand gun (see fig. 1) came into
practical use in 1446 ^
and was of very rude [Vl^iL\
construction. It con- ^v3^!u
sisted of a simple iron ^—
or brass tube with a
touch-hole at the top
fixed in a straight stock
of wood, the end of _
which passed under the ^*j£
right armpit when the '
" gonne " was about to
be fired. A similar * "
weapon (see fig. 2) was F I( *- 1. — Hand Gun.
also used by the horse-soldier, with a ring at the end of the
stock, by which it was suspended by a cord round the neck;
a forked rest, fitted by a ring to the saddlebow, served to steady
the gun. This rest, when not in use, hung down in front of the
right leg. A match was made of cotton or hemp spun slack,
and boiled in a strong solution of saltpetre or in the lees of
wine. The touch-hole was first placed on the top of the barrel,
but afterwards at the side, with a
small pan underneath to hold the
priming, and guarded by a cover
moving on a pivot.
An improvement in firearms took
place in the first year of the reign
of Henry VII., or at the close of
Edward IV., by fixing a cock (Fr.
serpentine) on the hand gun to hold
the match, which was brought
down to the priming by a trigger,
whence the term matchlock. This
weapon is still in use among the
Chinese, Tatars, Sikhs, Persians and Turks. An improvement
in the stock was also made during this period by forming it
with a wide butt end to be placed against the right breast.
Subsequently the stock was bent, a German invention, and the
arm was called a hackbutt or hagbut, and the smaller variety
a demihague. The arquebus and hackbutt were about a yard
in length, including barrel and stock, and the demihague was
about half the
size and weight,
the forerunner of
the pistol. The
arquebus was
the standard
infantry firearm
in Europe from
the battle of
Pavia to the in-
troduction of the
heavier and
more powerful
musket. It did
not as a rule
require a rest, as
did the musket.
The wheel-lock,
an improvement From q^,^ Baxd9 dc VMa » s Twemu et Condi 1626-1675.
on the match- Fig. 3.— Musketeer, 1626.
lock, was in-
vented in Nuremberg in 1517; was first used at the siege
of Parma in 1521; was brought to England in 1530, and con-
tinued in partial use there until the time of Charles II. This
wheel-lock consisted of a fluted or grooved steel wheel which
protruded into the priming pan, and was connected with a
strong spring. The cock, also regulated by a spring, was fitted
with a piece of iron pyrites. In order to discharge the gun the
Fig. 2. — Mounted Man
with Hand Gun.
7t8
GUN
lock was wound up by a key, the cock was let down on the
priming pan, the pyrites resting on the wheel; on the trigger
being pressed the wheel was released and rapidly revolved,
emitting sparks, which ignited the powder in the pan. The
complicated and expensive nature of this lock, with its liability
to injury, no doubt prevented its general adoption.
About 1540 the Spaniards constructed a larger and heavier
firearm (matchlock), carrying a ball of 10 to t'le pound, called
a musket. This weapon was introduced into England before the
middle of the 16th century, and soon came into general use
throughout Europe. The snaphance was invented about this
period in Germany, and from its comparative cheapness was
From General Hardy de PennTs Turenne et Condi, 1626-1675.
Figs. 4 and 5. — Musketeers, 1675.
much used in England, France and Holland. It held a flint
instead of the pyrites of the wheel or firelock, which ignited the
powder in the pan by striking on a piece of furrowed steel, when
released by the trigger, and emitting sparks.
As a sporting weapon the gun may be said to date from the
invention of the wheel-lock in the beginning of the 16th century,
though firearms were used for sporting purposes in Italy, Spain,
Germany, and to some extent in France, in the 15th century.
Before that period the longbow in England and the crossbow on
the Continent were the usual weapons of the chase. In Great
Britain little use appears to have been made of firearms for game
shooting until the latter half of the 17th century, and the arms
then used for the purpose were entirely of foreign make.
The French gunmakers of St-fitienne claim for their town
that it is the oldest centre of the firearms industry. They do
not appear to have made more than the barrels of the finest
sporting arms, and these even were sometimes made in Paris.
The production of firearms by the artists of Paris reached its
zenith about the middle of the 17th century. The Italian,
German, Spanish and Russian gunsmiths also showed great
skill in the elegance and design of their firearms, the Spaniards
in particular being makers of fine barrels. The pistol (q.v.) is
understood to have been made for the first time about 1540 at
Pistoia in Italy. About 1635 the modern firelock or flint-lock
was invented, which only differed from the snaphance by the cover
of the pan forming part of the furrowed steel struck by the flint.
Originally the priming was put into the pan from a flask contain-
ing a fine-grained powder called serpentine powder. Later the
top of the cartridge was bitten off and the pan filled therefrom
before loading. The mechanism of the flint-lock musket rendered
all this unnecessary, as, in loading, a portion of the charge passed
through the vent into the pan, where it was held by the cover or
hammer. The matchlock, as a military weapon, gradually gave
way to the firelock, which came into general use in the last half
of the 17th century, and was the weapon of Marlborough's and
Wellington's armies. This was the famous " Brown Bess " of the
British army. The highest development of the flint-lock is found
in the fowling-pieces of the end of the 18th and beginning of the
ioth centuries, particularly those made by Joseph Manton, the
celebrated English gunsmith and inventor. The Napoleonic wars
affqtded English gunmakers an opportunity, which they fully
utilized, of gaining the supremacy over their foreign competitors
in tHe gunmaking trade. English gunmakers reduced the weight,
improved the shooting powers, and perfected the lock mechanism
of the sporting gun, and increased the range
and efficiency of the rifle. This transference
of the gunmaking craft from the Continent
to England was also assisted by the tyranny
of the foreign gunmaking gilds. In 1637 the
London gunmakers obtained their charter of
incorporation. The important gunmaking
industry of Birmingham dates from 1603, and
soon rivalled that of London. Double shot-
guns do not appear to have been generally
used until the 19th century.
The first successful double
guns were built with the
barrels over and under, and
not side by side, and were
invented about 1616 by
one Guilliano Bossi of
Rome. In 1784 double
shot guns were described as
a novelty. Joseph Manton
patented the elevated rib
which rested on the barrels.
The general success of the
double gun was eventually
due to the light weight
which the better material
and workmanship of tne
best gunmakers made pos-
sible, and to the quickness
and certainty of ignition of
the modern cartridge.
The objections to the
flint-lock were that it did
not entirely preserve the
priming from wet, and that
the flint sparks sometimes
failed to ignite the charge.
In 1807 the Rev. Alexander
John Forsyth obtained a
patent for priming with a
fulminating powder made
of chlorate of potash, sul-
phur and charcoal, which
exploded by concussion.
This important improve-
ment in firearms was not
recognized and adopted by
the military authorities
until more than thirty
years later. In the mean-
time it was gradually de-
veloped, and the copper
percussion cap invented,
by various gunmakers and
private individuals.
Thomas Shaw of Phila-
delphia first used fulminate
in a steel cap in 18 14, which
he changed to a copper cap
in 1816. It was not until ^>% \\®\
the introduction of the
copper cap that the per-
cussion gun could be con-
sidered in every way
superior to the flint. In
i834,in the reign of William
IV., Forsyth's invention
was tested at Woolwich by
firing 6000 rounds from six
flint-lock muskets, and a
similar number from six percussion muskets, in all weathers
9 J
GUN
719
This trial established the percussion principle. The shooting
was found to be more accurate, the recoil less, the charge
of powder having been reduced from 6 to. 4^ drs., the
rapidity of firing greater and the number of miss-fires much
reduced, being as 1 to 26 nearly in favour of the percussion
system. In consequence of this successful trial the military
flint-lock in 1839 was altered to suit the percussion principle.
This was easily accomplished by replacing the hammer and pan
by a nipple with a hole through its centre to the vent or touch-
hole, and by replacing the cock which held the flint by a smaller
cock or hammer with a hollow to fit on the nipple when released
by the trigger. On the nipple was placed the copper cap contain-
ing the detonating composition, now made of three parts of
chlorate of potash, two of fulminate of mercury and one of
powdered glass.
In 1840 the Austrian army was supplied with the percussion
musket, and in 1842 a new model percussion musket with a block
or back-sight for 150 yds. was issued to the British army, 11 lb
6 oz. in weight, 4 ft. 6| in. in length without bayonet, 6 ft.
with bayonet and with a barrel 3 ft. 3 in. in length, firing a
bullet of 14} to the lb with 4} drs. of powder. This musket
was larger in bore than that of France, Belgium, Russia and
Austria, and thus had the advantage of being able to fire their
balls, while the English balls could not be fired from their barrels.
But the greater weight and momentum of the English ball was
counteracted by the excess of windage. This percussion muskjet
of 1842, the latest development of the renowned Brown Bess,
continued in use in the British army until partially superseded
in 185 1 by the Minte rifle, and altogether by the Enfield rifle
720
GUN
in 1855. For further information a* to the history and develop-
ment of military! target and sporting rifles see Rifle.
Illustrations are given herewith of a German carbine of the 16th
century, with double wheel-lock (fig. 8); a snaphance (fig. 9);
several forms of the Brown Bess or flint-lock military musket (English,
William III., fig. 10; George II., fig. 11; George III., fig. 12;
French, Napoleon, fig. 13) ; and of the percussion musket adopted in
the British service in 1839 (fig. 14). Examples of non-European
firearms are shown in figs. 6 and 7, representing a Moorish Hint-lock
and an Indian matchlock respectively. Figs. 15-18 represent
various carbines, musketoons and blunderbusses, fig. 15 showing
a small blunderbuss or musketoon of the early 18th century, fig. 16
a large blunderbuss of 1750, fig. 17 a flint-lock cavalry carbine of
about 1825 and fig. 18 a percussion carbine of 1830. All these are
drawn from arms in the museum of the Royal United Service
Institution, London.
Modern Shot Guns. — The modern sporting breech-loaders
may be said to have originated with the invention of the cartridge-
case containing its own means of ignition. The breech-loading
mechanism antedated the cartridge by many years, the earliest
breech-loading hand guns dating back to 1 537. Another distinct
type of breech-loader was invented in France about the middle
of the 1 7th century. During the 1 7th and 18th centuries breech-
loading arms were very numerous and of considerable variety.
The original cartridge, a charge of powder and bullet in a paper
envelope, dates from 1 586. These were used with muzzle-loaders,
the base of the cartridge being ripped or bitten off by the soldier
before placing in the barrel. It was only when the detonating
cap came into use that the paper cartridge answered well in
breech-loaders. The modem breech-loader has resulted from a
gradual series of improvements, and not from any one great
invention. Its essential feature is the prevention of all escape
of gas at the breech when the gun is fired by means of an expan-
sive cartridge-case containing its own means of ignition. The
earner breech-loaders were not gas-tight, because the cartridge-
cases were either consumable or the load was placed in a strong
non-expansive breech-plug. The earliest efficient modern
cartridge-case was the pin-fire, patented by Houiller, a Paris
gunsmith, in 1847, with a thin weak shell which expanded by
the force of the explosion, fitted perfectly in the barrel, and thus
formed an efficient gas check. Probably no invention connected
with firearms has wrought such changes in the principle of gun-
construction as those effected by the expansive cartridge-case.
This invention has completely revolutionized the art of gun-
making, has been successfully applied to all descriptions of
firearms, and has produced a new and important industry —
that of cartridge manufacture.
About 1836, C. Lefaucheux, a Paris gunsmith, improved
the old Pauly system of breech-loading, but its breech action
was a crude mechanism, with single grip worked by a
bottom lever. The double grip for the barrels was the subsequent
invention of a Birmingham gunmaker. The central-fire cartridge,
practically as now in use, was introduced into England in 186 1
by Daw. It is said to have been the invention of Pottet, of
Paris, improved upon by Schneider, and gave rise to considerable
litigation in respect of its patent rights. Daw, who controlled
the English patents, was the only exhibitor of central-fire guns
and cartridges at the International Exhibition of 1862. In
his system the barrels work on a hinge joint, the bottom lever
withdraws the holding-down bolt; the cartridge is of the modern
type, the cap being detonated by a striker passing through the
standing breech to the inner face. The cartridge-case is with-
drawn by a sliding extractor fitted to the breech ends of the
barrels. Daw was subsequently defeated in his control of the
patents by Eley Bros., owing to the patent not having been kept
in force in France. The modern breech-loading gun has been
gradually and steadily improved since i860. Westley Richards
adopted and improved Matthews' top-lever mechanism. About
1866 the rebounding lock was introduced, and improved in 1869.
The treble wedge-fast mechanism for holding down the barrels
was originated by W. W. Greener in 1865, *&& perfected in 1873.
A very important improvement was the introduction of the
hammerless gun, in which the mechanism for firing is placed
entirely within the gun. This was made possible by the introduc-
tion of, the central-fire cartridge. In 1862 Daw, and in 1866
Green, introduced hammerless guns in which the cocking was
effected by the under lever. These guns did not attain popularity.
In 187 1 T. Murcott patented a hammerless gun, the first to obtain
distinct success. This also was a lever-cocking gun. About the
same time Needham introduced the principle of utilizing the
weight of the barrels to assist in cocking. In 1875 Anson and
Deeley utilized the fore-end attached to the barrels to cock the
locks. From this date hammerless guns became really popular.
Subsequently minor improvements were made by many other
gun-makers, including alternative movements introduced by
Purdey and Rogers. Improvements were also introduced
by Westley Richards, Purdey and others, including cocking by
means of the mainspring. In 1874 J. Needham introduced
the ejector mechanism, by which each empty cartridge-case is
separately and automatically thrown out of the gun when the
breech is opened, the necessary force being provided by the
mainspring of the lock. W. W. Greener and some other gun-
makers have since introduced minor modifications and improve-
ments of this mechanism. Next in turn came Perks and other
inventors, who separated the ejector mechanism from the lock
work. This very decided improvement is universal to»d&y.
A later innovation in the modern breech-loader is the single
trigger mechanism introduced by some of the leading English
gun-makers, by which both barrels can be fired in succession
by a single trigger. This improvement enables both barrels
to be rapidly fired without altering the grip of the right hand,
but deprives the shooter of the power of selecting his barrel.
Repeating or magazine shot-guns on the principle of the
repeating rifle, with a magazine below the single firing barrel,
are also made by some American and continental gun-makers,
but as yet have not come into general use, being comparatively
cumbersome and not well balanced. The difficulty of a shifting
balance as each cartridge is fired has also yet to be overcome.
Several varieties of a combination rifle and shot-gun are also
made, for a description of which see Rifle.
The chief purposes for which modern shot-guns are required
are game-shooting, trap-shooting at pigeons and wild-fowling.
The game gun may be any bore from 32 to 10 gauge. The usual
standard bore is 12 gauge unless It be for a boy, when it is 20
gauge. The usual weight of the 12-bore double-barrelled game
gun is from 6 to 7 lb with barrels 30 in. long, there, however,
being a present tendency to barrels of a shorter length. These
barrels are made of steel, as being a stronger and more homo-
geneous material than the barrels formerly produced, which were
mostly of Damascus pattern, a mixture of iron and steel. Steel
barrels, drilled from the solid block, were originally produced
by Whitworth. To-day the makers of steel for this purpose
are many. The standard charge for the 12-bore is 42 grains of
smokeless powder and 1 oz. to ijth oz. of shot. Powder of a
lighter gravimetric density is occasionally employed, when the
weight of the charge is reduced to 33 grains. This charge of
powder corresponds to the 3 drams of black powder formerly
used; The ordinary game gun should have a killing circle of
30 in. at 30 yds. with the first barrel and at 40 yds. with the
second. Improved materials and methods of manufacture, and
what is known as " choke " boring of the barrels, have enabled
modern gun-makers to regulate the shooting of guns to a nicety.
Choke-boring is the constriction of the diameter of the barrel
near the muzzle, and was known in America in the early part
of the 19th century. In 1875 Pape of Newcastle was awarded
a prize for the invention of choke-boring, there being no other
claimant. The methods of choke-boring have since been varied
and improved by the leading English gun-makers. The pigeon
gun is usually heavier than the game gun and more choked. It
generally weighs from 7 to 8 ft). Its weight, by club rules, is
frequently restricted to 7 J lb and its bore to 12 gauge. The
standard wild-fowling gun is a double 8-bore with 30-in. barrels
weighing 15 ft>. and firing a charge of 7 drams of powder and
2! to 3 oz. of shot. These guns are also made in both smaller and
larger varieties, including a single barrel 4-bore, which is the
largest gun that can be used from the shoulder, and single
GUNA— GUNCOTTON
721
barrel punt guns of i|-in. bore, weighing 100 lb. While no
conspicuous advance in improved gun-mechanism and invention
has been made during the last few years, the materials and
methods of manufacture, and the quality and exactitude of the
gun-maker's work, have continued gradually and steadily to
improve. English, and particularly London-made, guns stand
pre-eminent all over the world. (H. S.-K.)
GUNA, a town and military station in Central India, in the
state of Gwalior. Pop. (1901) 11,452. After the Mutiny, it
became the headquarters of the Central India Horse, whose
commanding officer acts as ex-officio assistant to the resident of
Gwalior; and its trade has developed rapidly since the opening
of a station on a branch of the Great Indian Peninsula railway
in 1899,
GUNCOTTON, an explosive substance produced by the action
of strong nitric acid on cellulose at the ordinary temperature;
chemically it is a nitrate of cellulose, or a mixture of nitrates,
according to some authorities. The first step in the history of
guncotton was made by T. J. Pelouze in 1838, who observed that
when paper or cotton was immersed in cold concentrated nitric
acid the materials, though not altered in physical appearance,
became heavier, and after washing and drying were possessed
of self-explosive properties. At the time these products were
thought to be related to the nitrated starch obtained a little
previously by Henri Braconnot and called xyloidin; they are
only related in so far as they are nitrates. C. F. Schonbein of
Basel published his discovery of guncotton in 1846 (Phil. Mag.
[3]) 3*, P- 7)» and this was shortly after followed by investigations
by R. R. Bottger of Frankfort and Otto and Knop, all of whom
added to our knowledge of the subject, the last-named introducing
the use of sulphuric along with nitric acid in the nitration process.
The chemical composition and constitution of guncotton has
been studied by a considerable number of chemists and many
divergent views have been put forward on the subject. W. Crum
was probably the first to recognize that some hydrogen atoms
of the cellulose had been replaced by an oxide of nitrogen, and
this view was supported more or less by other workers, especially
Hadow, who appears to have distinctly recognized that at least
three compounds were present, the most violently explosive of
which constituted the main bulk of the product commonly
obtained and known as guncotton. This particular product was
insoluble in a mixture of ether and alcohol, and its composition
could be expressed by the term tri-nitrocellulose. Other products
were soluble in the ether-alcohol mixture: they were less
highly nitrated, and constituted the so-called collodion gun-
cotton.
The smallest empirical formula for cellulose (q.v.) may certainly
be written CeHi O 8 . How much of the hydrogen and oxygen
are in the hydroxylic (OH) form cannot be absolutely stated,
but from the study of the acetates at least three hydroxyl groups
may be assumed. The oldest and perhaps most reasonable idea
represents guncotton as cellulose trinitrate, but this has been
much disputed, and various formulae, some based on cellulose
as C12H30O10, others on a still more complex molecule, have been
proposed. The constitution of guncotton is a difficult matter to
investigate, primarily on account of the very insoluble nature
of cellulose itself, and also from the fact that comparatively
slight variations in the concentration and temperature of the
acids used produce considerable differences in the products.
The nitrates are also very insoluble substances, all the so-called
solvents merely converting them into jelly. No method has yet
been devised by which the molecular weight can be ascertained. 1
The products of the action of nitric acid on cellulose are not
nitro compounds in the sense that picric acid is, but are nitrates
or nitric esters.
Guncotton is made by immersing cleaned and dried cotton
waste in a mixture of strong nitric and sulphuric acids. The
1 The composition of the cellulose nitrates was reviewed by G.
Lunge {Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc. t 1901, 23, p. 527), who, assuming the
formula C24H40P*, for cellulose, showed now the nitroceUuloees
described by different chemists may be expressed by the formula
Cs 4 H*_,0»(NOj)», where x has the values 4, 5, 6, . . . 12.
relative amounts of the acids in the mixture and the time of
duration of treatment of the cotton varies somewhat in different
works, but the underlying idea is the same, viz. employing such
an excess of sulphuric over nitric that the latter will be rendered
anhydrous or concentrated and maintained as such in solution in
the sulphuric acid, and that the sulphuric acid shall still be suffi-
ciently strong to absorb and combine with the water produced
during the actual formation of the guncotton. In the recent
methods the cotton remains in contact with the acids for two to
four hours at the ordinary air temperature (15 C), in which time
it is almost fully nitrated, the main portion, say 90%, having
a composition represented by the formula 2 C«H702(N0 8 )a, the
remainder consisting of lower nitrated products, some oxidation
products and traces of unchanged cellulose and cellulose
sulphates. The acid is then slowly run out by an opening in the
bottom of the pan in which the operation is conducted, and water
distributed carefully over its surface displaces it in the interstices
of the cotton, which is finally subjected to a course of boiling
and washing with water. This washing is a most important part
of the process. On its thoroughness depends the removal of
small quantities of products other than the nitrates, for instance,
some sulphates and products from impurities contained in the
original cellulose. Cellulose sulphates are one, and possibly the
main, cause of instability in guncotton, and it is highly desirable
that they should be completely hydrolysed and removed in
the washing process. The nitrated product retains the outward
form of the original cellulose. In the course of the washing,
according to a method introduced by Sir F. Abel, the cotton is
ground into a pulp, a process which greatly facilitates the
complete removal of acids, &c. This pulp is finally drained, and
is then either compressed/ while still moist, into slabs or blocks
when required for blasting purposes, or it is dried when required
for the manufacture of propellants. Sometimes a small quantity
of an alkali (e.g. sodium carbonate) is added to the final washing
water, so that quantities of this alkaline substance ranging from
0-5% to a little over 1% are retained by the guncotton. The
idea is that any traces of acid not washed away by the washing
process or produced later by a slow decomposition of the sub-
stance will be thereby neutralized and rendered harmless.
Guncotton in an air-dry state, whether in the original form or
after grinding to pulp and compressing, burns with very great
rapidity but does not detonate unless confined.
Immediately after the discovery of guncotton Schonbein
proposed its employment as a substitute for gunpowder, and
General von Lenk carried out a lengthy and laborious series of
experiments intending to adapt it especially for artillery use.
All these and many subsequent attempts to utilize it, either loose
or mechanically compressed in any way, signally failed. How-
ever much compressed by mechanical means it is still a porous
mass, and when it is confined as in a gun the flame and hot gases
from the portion first ignited permeate the remainder, generally
causing it actually to detonate, or to burn so rapidly that its
action approaches detonation. The more closely it is confined
the greater is the pressure set up by a small part of the charge
burning, and the more completely will the explosion of the
remainder assume the detonating form. The employment of
guncotton as a propellant was possible only after the discovery
that it could be gelatinized or made into a colloid by the action
of so-called solvents, e.g. ethylacetate and other esters, acetone
and a number of like substances (see Cordite).
When quite dry guncotton is easily detonated by a blow on an
anvil or hard surface. If dry and warm it is much more sensitive to
percussion or friction, and also becomes electrified by friction under
those conditions. The amount of contained moisture exerts a con-
siderable effect on its sensitiveness. With about 2 % of moisture it
can still be detonated on an anvil, but the action is generally confined
to the piece struck. As the quantity of contained water increases it
becomes difficult or even impossible to detonate by an ordinary
blow. Compressed dry guncotton is easily detonated by an initiative
detonator such as mercuric fulminate. Guncotton containing more
than 15% of water is uninflammable, may be compressed or worked
without danger and is much more di fficult to detonate by a fulminate
* This formula is retained mainly on account of its simplicity.
It also expresses all that is necessary in this connexion.
722
GUNDULICH— GUNNING
detonator than when dry. 1 A small charge of dry guncotton will,
however, detonate the wet material, and this peculiarity is made
use of in the employment of guncotton for blasting purposes. A
charge of compressed wet guncotton may be exploded, even under
water, by the detonation of a small prjmer of the dry and water-
proofed material, which in turn can be started by a small fulminate
detonator. The explosive wave from the dry guncotton primer is
in fact better responded to by the wet compressed material than the
dry, and its detonation is somewhat sharper than that of the dry.
It is not necessary for the blocks of wet guncotton to be actually in
contact if they be under water, and the peculiar explosive wave
can also be conveyed a little distance by a piece of metal such as a
railway rail. The more nearly the composition of guncotton
approaches that represented by C«H70t(NQj) Jf the more stable is
it as regards storing at ordinary' temperatures, and the higher the
igniting temperature. Carefully prepared guncotton after washing
with alcohol-ether until nothing more dissolves may require to be
heated to 1 80-1 85 ° C. before inflaming. Ordinary commercial gun-
cottons, containing from 10 to 15% of lower nitrated products, will
ignite as a rule some 20-25 ° lower.
Assuming the above formula to represent guncotton, there is
sufficient oxygen for internal combustion without any carbon being
left. The gaseous mixture obtained by burning guncotton in a
vacuum vessel contains steam, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide,
nitrogen, nitric oxide, and methane. When slowly heated in a
vacuum vessel until ignition takes place, some nitrogen dioxide, NO*,
is also produced. When kept for some weeks at a temperature of
ioo° in steam, a considerable number of fatty acids, some bases, and
glucose-like substances result. Under different pressures the relative
amounts of the combustion products vary considerably, Under very
great pressures carbon monoxide, steam and nitrogen are the main
products, but nitric oxide never quite disappears.
Dilute mineral acids have little or no action on guncotton. - Strong
sulphuric acid in contact with it liberates first nitric acid and later
oxides of nitrogen, leaving a charred residue or a brown solution
according to the quantity ot acid. It sometimes fires on contact with
strong sulphuric acid, especially when slightly warmed. The alkali
hydroxides (e.g. sodium hydroxide) will in a solid state fire it on
contact. Strong or weak solutions of these substances also decom-
pose it, producing some alkali nitrate and nitrite, the cellulose
molecule being only partially restored, some quantity undergoing
oxidation. Ammonia is also active; but not quite in the same
manner as the alkali hydroxides. Dry guncotton heated in ammonia
gas detonates at about 70 °, and ammonium hydroxide solutions of all
strengths slowly decompose it, yielding somewhat complex products.
Alkali sulphohydrates reduce guncotton, or other nitrated celluloses,
completely to cellulose. The production of the so-called " artificial
silk depends on this action.
A characteristic difference between guncotton and collodion
cotton is the insolubility of the former in ether or alcohol or a mixture
of these liquids. The so-called ( collodion . cottons are nitrated,
celluloses, but of a lower degree of nitration (as a rule) than guncotton.
They are sometimes spoken of as " lower M or " soluble " cottons or
nitrates. The solubility in ether-alcohol may be owing to a lower
degree of nitration, or to the temperature conditions under which the
process of -manufacture has been carried on. If guncotton be correctly
represented by the formula CbHtCMNOj)*, it should contain a little
more than 14% of nitrogen. Guncottons are examined for degree
of nitration by the nitrometer, in which apparatus they are decom-
posed by sulphuric acid in contact with mercury, and ail the nitrogen
is evolved as nitric oxide, NO. which is measured and the weight ofits
contained nitrojgen calculated. Ordinary guncottons seldom contain
more than 13% of nitrogen, and in most cases the amount does not
exceed 12*5%. Generally speaking, the lower the nitrogen content of
a guncotton, as found by the nitrometer, the higher the percentage of
matters soluble in a mixture of ether-alcohol. These soluble matters
arc usually considered as " lower " nitrates.
Guncottbns are usually tested by the Abel heat test for stability
(see Cordite). Another heat test, that of Will, consists in heating
a weighed quantity of the guncotton in a stream of carbon dioxide
to 130 C, passing the evolved gases over some red-hot copper, and
finally collecting them over a solution of potassium hydroxide which
retains the carbon dioxide and allows the nitrogen, arising from the
guncotton decomposition, to be measured. This is done at definite
time intervals so that the rate of decomposition can be followed.
The relative stability is then judged by the amount of nitrogen gas
collected in a certain time. Several modifications of this and of the
Abel heat test are also in use. (See Explosives.) (W. R. E. H.)
GUNDULICH, IVAN (1 588-1638), known also as Giovanni
Gondola, Servian poet, was born at Ragusa on the 8th of January
1588. His father, Franco Gundulich, once the Ragusan envoy
to Constantinople and councillor of the republic, gave him an
excellent education. He studied the " humanities " with the
Jesuit, Father Muzzi, and philosophy with Father Ricasoli.
After that he studied Roman law and jurisprudence in general.
He was member of the Lower Council and once served as the
1 Air-dried guncotton will contain 2 % or less of moisture.
chief magistrate of the republic. He died on the 8th of December
1638. A born poet, he admired much the Italian poets of his
time, from whom he made many translations into Servian. It
is believed that he so translated Tasso's Gerusalemme libcrata.
He is known to have written eighteen works, of which eleven
were dramas, but of these only three have been fully preserved,
others having perished during the great earthquake and fire in
1667. Most of those dramas were translations from the Italian,
and were played, seemingly with great success, by the amateurs
furnished by the noble families of Ragusa. But his greatest
and justly celebrated work is an epic, entitled Osman, in twenty
cantos. It is the first political epic on the Eastern Question,
glorifying the victory of the Poles over Turks and Tatars in the
campaign of 162 1, and encouraging a league of the Christian
nations, under the guidance of Yladislaus, the king of Poland,
for the purpose of driving away the Turks from Europe. The
fourteenth and fifteenth cantos are lost. It is generally believed
that the Ragusan government suppressed them from considera-
tion for the Sultan, the protector of the republic, those two
cantos having been violently anti-Turkish.
Osman was printed for the first time in Ragusa in 1826, the two
missing cantos being replaced by songs written by Pietro Sorgo (or
Sorkochevich). From this edition the learned Italian, Francesco
Appendini, made an Italian translation published in 1827. Since
that time several other editions have been made. The best are con-
sidered to be the edition of the South Slavonic Academy in Agram
(1877) and the edition published in Semlin (1889) by Professor
Yovan Boshkovich. In the edition of 1844 (Agram) the last cantos,
fourteen and fifteen, were replaced by very fine compositions of the
Serbo-Croatian poet, Mazhuranich (Mazurani6). The complete
works of Gundulich have been published in Agram, 1847, by V.
Babukich and by the South Slavonic Academy of Agram in 1889.
(CMi.),-
GUNG'L, JOSEF (1810-1889), Hungarian composer and
conductor, was born on the 1st of December 1810, at ZsambSk,
in Hungary. After starting life as a school-teacher, and learning
the elements of music from Ofen, the school-choirmaster, he
became first oboist at Graz, and, at twenty-five, bandmaster of
the 4th regiment of Austrian artillery. His first composition,
a Hungarian march, written in 1836, attracted some notice,
and in 1843 he was able to establish an orchestra in Berlin.
With this band he travelled far, even (in 1849) to America. It is
worth recording that Mendelssohn's complete Midsummer
Night's Dream music is said to have been first played by GungTs
band. In 1853 he became bandmaster to the 23rd. Infantry
Regiment at Briinn, but in 1864 he lived at Munich, and in 1876
at Frankfort, after (in 1873) having conducted with great success
a series of promenade concerts at Covent Garden, London. From
Frankfort Gung'l went to Weimar to live with his daughter,
a well-known German opera singer and local prima donna.
There he died, on the 31st of January 1889. GungTs dances
number over 300, perhaps the most popular being the " Amor-
etten," "Hydropaten," "Casino," "Dreams on the Ocean"
waltzes; "In Stiller Mitternacht " polka, and " Blue Violets "
mazurka. His Hungarian march wa6 transcribed by Liszt.
His music is characterized by the same easy flowing melodies
and well-marked rhythm that distinguish the dances of Strauss,
to whom alone he can be ranked second in this kind of com-
position.
GUNNER, or Master Gunner, in the navy, the warrant
officer who has charge of the ordnance and ammunition, and
of the training of the men at gun drill. His functions m this
respect are of less relative importance than they were in former
times, when specially trained corps of seamen gunners had not
been formed.
GUNNING, PETER (1614-1684), English divine, was born at
Hoo, in Kent, and educated at the King's School, Canterbury,
and Clare College, Cambridge, where he became a fellow in 1633.
Having taken orders, he advocated the royalist cause from the
pulpit with much eloquence. In 1644 he retired to Oxford,
and held a chaplaincy at New College until the city surrendered
to the parliamentary forces in 1646. Subsequently he was
chaplain, first to the royalist Sir Robert Shirley of Eatington
(1629-1656), and then at the Exeter House chapeL After the
GUNNY— GUNPOWDER
723
Restoration in 1660 he returned to Clare College as master, and
was appointed Lady Margaret professor of divinity. He also
received the livings of Cottesmore, Rutlandshire, and Stoke
Bruerne, Northamptonshire. In 1661 he became head of St
John's College, Cambridge, and was elected Regius professor
of divinity. He was consecrated bishop of Chichester in 1669,
and was translated ( to the see of Ely in 1674-1675. Holding
moderate religious views, he deprecated alike the extremes
represented by Puritanism and Roman Catholicism.
His works are chiefly reports of his disputations, such as that
which appears in the Scisme Unmask 7 (Paris, 1658), in which the
definition of a schism is discussed with two Romanist opponents.
GUHNY, a sort of cloth, the name of which is supposed to be
derived from ganga or gania of Rumphius, or from gonia, a
vernacular name of the Crotolaria juncea — a plant common in
Madras. One of the first notices of the term itself is to be found
in Knox's Ceylon, in which he says: " The filaments at the bottom
of the stem (coir from the coco-nut husk, Cocos nucifera) may
be made into a coarse cloth called gunny, which is used for bags
and similar purposes."
Warden, in The Linen Trade, says:
" A very large proportion of the jute grown in Bengal is made into
cloth in tne districts tfrhere it is cultivated, and this industry forms
the grand domestic manufacture of all the populous eastern districts
of Bengal. It pervades all classes, and penetrates into every house-
hold, almost every one, man, woman and child, beingin some way
engaged in it. Boatmen, husbandmen, palankeen carriers, domestic
servants, every one, in fact, being Hindu — for Mussulmans spin cotton
only — pass their leisure moments, distaff in hand, spinning gumny
twist. It is spun by the takur and dhara, the former being a kind of
spindle, which is turned upon the thigh or the sole of the foot, and
tne latter a reel', on, which the thread, when sufficiently twisted, is
wound up. Another kind of spinning machine, called a gnurghurea, is
occasionally used. A bunch of the raw material is hung up in every
farmer's house, or on the protruding stick of a thatched roof, and
every one who has leisure forms with these spindles some coarse
pack-thread, of which, ropes are twisted for the use of the farm.
The lower Hindu castes,, from this pack-thread, spin a finer thread
for being made in to, cloth, and,, there being a loom in nearly every
house, very much of it is woven by the women of the lower class of
people. It is especially the employment of the Hindu widow, as it
enables her to earn her bread without being a burden on her family.
The cloth thus made is of various qualities, such as clothing for the
family (especially the women, a great proportion of whom on all the
eastern frontier wear almost nothing else), coarse fabrics, bedding,
rice and sugar bags, sacking, pack-sheet, &c. Much of it is woven into
short lengthsanovery narrow widths, two or three of which are some-
times sewed into one piece before they are sold. That intended for
rice and sugar bags is made about 6 feet long, and from 24 to 27 inches
wide, and doubled. A considerable quantity of jute yam is dyed and
woven into cloth for various local purposes, and some of it is also
sent out of the district. The principal places where chotee, or jute
cloth for gunny bags is made are within a radius of perhaps 150 to
200 miles around Dacca, and there both labour and land are remark-
ably cheap. The short, staple, common jute is generally consumed in
the local manufacture, the finer and long stapled being reserved for
the export trade. These causes enable gunny cloth and bags to be
sold almost as cheaply as the raw material, which creates an
immense demand for them in nearly every market of the world."
Such appeared to be the definition of gunny cloth at the time
the above was written — between 1850 and i860. Most of the
Indian cloth for gunny bags is now made by power, and within
about 20 m. of Calcutta. In many respects the term gunny doth
is still applied to all and sundry, but there is no doubt that the
original name was intended for cloth which was similar to what
is now known as "cotton bagging." This particular type of
cloth is still largely made in the hand loom, even in Dundee,
this method of manufacture being considered, for certain reasons,
more satisfactory than the power loom method (see Jute and
Bagging).
GUNPOWDER, an explosive composed of saltpetre, charcoal
and sulphur. Very few substances have had a greater effect
on civilization than gunpowder. Its employment altered the
whole art of" w#r, aifd its influence gradually and indirectly
permeated and affected the whole fabric of society. Its direct
effect on the arts of peace was but slight, and had but a limited
range, which could not be compared to the modern extended
employment of high explosives for blasting in mining and
engineering work.
It is probably quite incorrect to speak of the discovery of
gunpowder. From modern researches it seems more likely and
more just to think of it as a thing that has developed, passing
through many stages — mainly of improvement, but some
undoubtedly retrograde. There really is not sufficient solid
evidence on which to pin down its invention to one man. As
Lieutenant-Colonel H. W. L. Hime {Gunpowder and Ammunition,
1904) s^ys, the invention of gunpowder was impossible until
the properties of nearly pure saltpetre had become known. The
honour, however, has been associated with two names in par-
ticular, Berthold Schwartz, a German monk, and Friar Roger
Bacon. Of the former Oscar Guttmann writes (Monumenta
pulveris pyrii, 1904, p. 6) : " Berthold Schwartz was generally
considered to be the inventor of gunpowder, and only in England
has Roger Bacon's claim been upheld, though there are English
writers who have pleaded in favour of Schwartz. Most writers
are agreed that Schwartz invented the first fire-arms, and as
nothing was known of an inventor of gunpowder, it was perhaps
considered justifiable to give Schwartz the credit thereof.
There is some ambiguity as to when Schwartz lived. The year
1354 is sometimes mentioned as the date of his invention of
powder, and this is also to be inferred from an inscription on
the monument to him in Freiburg. But considering there can
be no doubt as to the manufacture in England of gunpowder
and cannon in 1344, that we have authentic information of
guns in France in 1338 and in Florence in 1326, and that the
Oxford MS. De officii* regum of 1325 gives an illustration of a
gun, Berthold Schwartz must have lived long before 1354 to
have been the inventor of gunpowder or guns," In Germany
also there were powder-works at Augsburg in 1340, in Spandau
in 1344, and Liegnitz in 1348.
Roger Bacon, in his De mirabUi potestate artis et naturae
(1242), makes the most important communication on the history
of gunpowder. Reference is made to an explosive mixture as
known before, his. time, and employed for " diversion, producing
a noise like thunder and flashes like lightning." In one passage
Bacon speaks of saltpetre as a violent explosive, but there is
no doubt that he knew it was not a self-explosive substance,
but only so when mixed with other substances, as appears from
the statement in De secretis operibus artis et naturae, printed
at Hamburg in 1618, that " from saltpetre and other ingredients
we are able to make a fire that shall burn at any distance we
please. ,, A great part of his three chapters, 9, 10, 11, long
appeared without meaning until the anagrammatic nature of
the sentences was realized. The words of this anagram are
(chap. 11) : " Item ponderis totum 30 sed tamen salis petrae luru
vopo vir can utri 1 et sulphuris; et sic facies tonitruum et corusca-
tionem, si scias artificium. Videas tamen utrum loquar aenig-
mate aut secundum veritatem." Hime, in his chapter on the
origin of gunpowder, discusses these chapters at length, and gives,
omitting the anagram, the translation: " Let the total weight
of the ingredients be 30, however, of saltpetre ... of sulphur;
and with such a mixture you will produce a bright flash and a
thundering noise, if you know the trick. You may find (by
actual experiment) whether I am writing riddles to you or the
plain truth." The anagram reads, according to Hime, " salis
petrae r(ecipe) vii part(es), v nov(ellae) corul(i), v et sulphuris "
(take seven parts of saltpetre, five of young hazel-wood, and five
of sulphur). Hime then goes on to show that Bacon was in
possession of an explosive which was a considerable advance on
mere incendiary compositions. Bacon does not appear to have
been aware of the projecting power of gunpowder, He knew
that it exploded and that perhaps people might be blown up or
frightened by it; more cannot be said. The behaviour of small
quantities of any explosive is hardly ever indicative of its
behaviour in large quantities and especially when under con-
finement. Hime is of opinion that Bacon blundered upon
gunpowder whilst playing with some incendiary composition,
such as those mentioned by Marcus Graecus and others, in which
1 These words were emended by some authors to read luru mope
can ubre, the letters of which can be arranged to give pulvere car*
bonum.
724
GUNPOWDER
he employed his comparatively pure saltpetre instead of crude
nitrum. It has been suggested that Bacon derived his knowledge
of these fiery mixtures from the MS. Liber ignium, ascribed to
Marcus Graecus, in the National Library in Paris (Dutens,
Enquiry into Origin of Discoveries attributed to Moderns).
Certainly this Marcus Graecus appears to have known of some
incendiary composition containing the gunpowder ingredients,
but it was not gunpowder. Hime seems to doubt the existence
of any such person as Marcus Graecus, as he says: " The Liber
ignium was written from first to last in the period of literary
forgeries and pseudographs . . . and we may reasonably
conclude that Marcus Graecus is as unreal as the imaginary
Greek original of the tract which bears his name." Albertus
Magnus in the De mirabitibus mundi repeats some of the receipts
given in Marcus Graecus, and several other writers give receipts
for Greek fire, rockets, &c. Dutens gives many passages in his
work, above-named, from old authors in support of his view
that a composition of the nature of gunpowder was not unknown
to the ancients. Hime's elaborate arguments go to show that
these compositions could only have been of the incendiary type
and not real explosives. His arguments seem to hold good as
regards not only the Greeks but also the Arabs, Hindus and
Chinese (see also Fireworks).
There seems no doubt that incendiary compositions, some
perhaps containing nitre, mostly, however, simply combustible
substances as sulphur, naphtha, resins, &c, were employed and
projected both for defence and offence, but they were projected
or blown by engines and not by themselves. It is quite incon-
ceivable that a real propelling explosive should have been
known in the time of Alexander or much later, and not have
immediately taken its proper place. In a chapter discussing
this question of explosives amongst the Hindus, Hime says:
" It is needless to enlarge the list of quotations: incendiaries
pursued much the same course in Upper India as in Greece and
Arabia." No trustworthy evidence of an explosive in India is
to be found until the 21st of April 1526, the date of the decisive
battle of Panipat, in which Ibrahim, sultan of Delhi, was killed
and his army routed by Baber the Mogul, who possessed both
great and small fire-arms.
As regards also the crusader period (1097-1201), so strange
and deadly an agent of destruction as gunpowder could not
possibly have been employed in the field without the full know-
ledge of both parties, yet no historian, Christian or Moslem,
alludes to an explosive of any kind, while all of them carefully
record the use of incendiaries. The employment of rockets
and " wildfire " incendiary composition seems undoubtedly of
very old date in India, but the names given to pieces of artillery
under the Mogul conqueror of Hindustan point to a European,
or at least to a Turkish origin, and it is quite certain that
Europeans were retained in the service of Akbar and Aurangzeb.
The composition of present day Chinese gunpowder is almost
identical with that employed in Europe, so that in all probability
the knowledge of it was obtained from Western sources.
In the writings of Bacon there is no mention of guns or the
use of powder as a propellant, but merely as an explosive and
destructive power. Owing perhaps to this obscurity hanging
over the early history of gunpowder, its employment as a
propelling agent has been ascribed to the Moors or Saracens.
J. A. Conde (Historia de la dotninacion de los Arabes en Espafia)
states that Ismail Ben Firaz, king of Granada, who in 1325
besieged Boza, had among his machines " some that cast globes
of fire," but there is not the least evidence that these were guns.
The first trustworthy document relative to the use of gun-
powder in Europe, a document still in existence, and bearing date
February 11, 1326, gives authority to the council of twelve of
Florence and others to appoint persons to superintend the
manufacture of cannons of brass and iron balls, for the defence
of the territory, &c, of the republic. John Barbour, arch-
deacon of Aberdeen, writing in 1375, states that cannons (crakys
of war) were employed in Edward III.'s invasion of Scotland
in 1327. An indenture first published by Sir N. H. Nicolas
in his History of the Royal Navy (London, 1846), and again by
Lieutenant-Colonel H. Brackenbury (Proc. R.A. Inst., 1865),
stated to be 1338, contains references to small cannon as among
the stores of the Tower, and also mentions " un petit barrell de
gonpoudre le quart* plein." If authentic, this is possibly the
first mention of gunpowder as such in England, but some doubts
have been thrown upon the date of this MS. From a contem-
porary document in the National Library in Paris it seems that
in the same year (1338) there existed in the marine arsenal at
Rouen an iron weapon called pot de feu, for propelling bolts,
together with some saltpetre and sulphur to make powder for
the same. Preserved in the Record Office in London are trust-
worthy accounts from the year 1345 of the purchase of ingredients
for making powder, and of the shipping of cannon to France.
In 1346 Edward III. appears to have ordered all available
saltpetre and sulphur to be bought up for him. In the first
year of Richard II. (1377) Thomas Norbury was ordered to buy,
amongst other munitions, sulphur, saltpetre and charcoal, to
be sent to the castle of Brest. In 1414 Henry V. ordered
that no gunpowder should be taken out of the kingdom
without special licence, and in the same year ordered twenty
pipes of willow charcoal and other articles for the use of the
guns.
The manufacture of gunpowder seems to have been carried
on as a crown monopoly about the time of Elizabeth, and
regulations respecting gunpowder and nitre were made about
1623 (James I.). Powder-mills were probably in existence at
Waltham Abbey about the middle or towards the end of the
1 6th century.
Ingredients and their Action. — Roger Bacon in his anagram gives
the first real recipe for gunpowder, viz. (according to Hime, ch. xii.)
saltpetre 41-2, charcoal 29-4, sulphur 29-4. Dr John Arderne of
Newark, who began to practise about 1350 and was later surgeon to
Henry IV., gives a recipe (Sloane MSS. 335, 795), saltpetre 66*6,
charcoal 22*2, sulphur n«i, " which are to be thoroughly mixed on
a marble and then sifted through a doth. ' ' This powder is nominally
of the same composition as one given in a MS. of Marcus Graecus,
but the saltpetre of this formula by Marcus Graecus was undoubtedly
answerable for the difference in behaviour of the two compositions.
Roger Bacon had not only refined and obtained pure nitre, but had
appreciated the importance of thoroughly mixing the components of
the powder. Most if not all the early powder was a " loose " mixture
of the three ingredients, and the most important step in connexion
with the development of gunpowder was undoubtedly the introduc-
tion of wet mixing or " incorporating." Whenever this was done, the
improvement in the product must have been immediately evident.
In the damp or wetted state pressure could be applied with compara-
tive safety during the mixing. The loose powder mixture came to be
called " serpentine "; after wet mixing it was more or less granu-
lated or corned and was known as " corned " powder. Corned powder
seems to have been gradually introduced. It is mentioned in the
Fire Book of Conrad von Schongau (in 142Q), and was used for hand-
guns in England long before 1560. It would seem that corned powder
was used for hand-guns or small arms in the 15th century, but cannon
were not made strong enough to withstand its explosion for quite
another century (Hime) . According to the same writer, in the period
1 250-1450, when serpentine only was used, one powder could differ
from another in the proportions of the ingredients; in the modern
period — say 1 700-1 886 — the powders in use (in each state)differed
only as a general rule in the size of the grain, whilst during the transi-
tion period — 1450-1700 — they generally differed both in composi-
tion and size of grain.
Corned or grained powder was adopted in France in 1525, and in
1540 the French utilized an observation that large-grained powder
was the best for cannon, and restricted the manufacture to three sizes
of grain or corn, possibly of the same composition. Early in the 18th
century two or three sizes of grain and powder of one composition
appear to have become common. The composition of English
powder seems to have settled down to 75 nitre, 15 charcoal, and 10
sulphur, somewhere about the middle of the 18th century.
The composition of gunpowders used^ in different countries at
different times is illustrated in the following tables: —
English Powders (Him
e).
1250.
1350-
I560-
1647.
1670.
1742.
1781.
Saltpetre .
Charcoal .
Sulphur
412
294
294
66-6
22-2
II-I
50-0
333
166
66-6
16-6'
16-6
71-4
M'3
14-3
750
T2-5
12-5
75*0
15-0
IO-O 1
1 This represents the composition of English powder at present,
and no doubt it has remained the same for a longer time than the
above date indicates.
GUNPOWDER
725
Foreign Powders (Hime).
France.
Sweden.
Germany.
Denmark.
France.
Sweden.
Germany.
1338.
1560.
I595-
1608.
1650.
1697.
1882.
Saltpetre .
Charcoal .
Sulphur
25
66-6
166
i6-6
52-2
26-1
21-7
68.3
75-6
136
IO-8
73
17
10
78
1 Brown or coco-powder for large charges in guns. The charcoal is not burnt black but roasted
until brown, and is made from some variety of straw, not wood.
When reasonably pure, none of the ingredients of gunpowder
absorbs any material quantity of moisture from the atmosphere,
and the nitre only is a soluble substance. It seems extremely
probable that for a long period the three substances were simply
mixed dry, indeed sometimes kept separate and mixed just before
being required; the consequence must have been that, with every
care as to weighing out, the proportions of any given quantity
would alter on carriage. Saltpetre is considerably heavier than
sulphur or charcoal, and would tend to separate out towards the
bottom of the containing vessel if subjected to jolting or vibration.
When pure there can only be one kind of saltpetre or sulphur,
because they are chemical individuals, but charcoal is not. Its com-
position, rate of burning, &c, depend not only on the nature of the
woody material from which it is made, but auite as much on the
temperature and time of heating employed in the making. The woods
from which it is made contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, and
the two latter are never thoroughly expelled in charcoal-making.
If they were, the resulting substance would be of no use for gun-
powder. 1-3% of hydrogen and 8-15% of oxygen generally
remain in charcoals suitable for gunpowder. A good deal of the
fieriness and violence of explosion of a gunpowder depends on the
mode of burning of the charcoal as well as on the wood from which
it is made.
Properties of Ingredients. — Charcoal is the chief combustible in
powder. It must burn freely, leaving as little ash or residue as
possible; it must be friable, and grind into a non-gritty powder.
The sources from which powder charcoal is made are dogwood
CRhamnus franpda), willow (Salix alba), and alder (Betula alnus).
Dogwood is mainly used for small-arm powders. Powders made from
dogwood charcoal burn more rapidly than those from willow, Ac.
The wood after cutting is stripped of bark and allowed to season for
two or three years. It is then picked to uniform size and charred in
cylindrical iron cases or slips, which can be introduced into slightly
larger cylinders set in a furnace. The slips are provided with
openings for the escape of gases. The rate ot heating as well as the
absolute temperature attained have an effect on the product, a slow
rate of heating yielding more charcoal, and a high temperature
reducing the hydrogen and oxygen in the final product. When heated
for seven hours to about 800 C. to 900 C. the remaining hydrogen
and oxygen amount to about 2 % and 12 % respectively. The time
of charring is as a rule from 5 to 7 hours. The slips are then removed
from the furnace and placed in a larger iron vessel, where they are
kept comparatively air-tight until quite cold. The charcoal is then
sorted, and stored for some time before {grinding. The charcoal is
ground, and the powder sifted on a rotating reel or cylinder of fine
mesh copper-wire gauze. The sifted powder is again stored for
some time before use in closed iron vessels.
Sicilian sulphur is most generally employed for gunpowder, and
for complete purification is first distilled and then melted and cast
into moulds. It is afterwards ground into a fine powder and sifted
as in the case of the charcoal.
Potassium nitrate is eminently suitable as an oxygen-provider,
not being deliquescent. Nitrates are continually being produced in
surface soils, &c, by the oxidation of nitrogenous substances.
Nitric and nitrous acids are also produced by electric discharges
through the atmosphere, and these are found eventually as nitrates
in soils, &c. Nitre is soluble in water, and much more so in hot than
in cold. Crude nitre, obtained from soils or other sources, is purified
by recrystallization. The crude material is dissolved almost to
saturation in boiling water: on filtering and then cooling this liquor
to about 30 C. almost pure nitre crystallizes out, most of the usual
impurities still remaining in solution. By rapidly cooling and agitat-
ing the nitre solution crystals are obtained of sufficient fineness for the
manufacture of powder without special grinding. Nitre contains
nearly 48 % of oxygen by weight, five-sixths of which is available for
combustion purposes. Nearly all the gases of the powder explosion
are derived from the nitre. The specific gravity ot nitre is 2*2 : 200
grams will therefore occupy about 100 cubic centimetres volume.
This quantity on its decomposition by heat alone yields 28 grams or
22,400 c.c. of nitrogen, and 80 grams or 56,000 c.c. of oxygen as gases,
and 94 grams of potassium oxide, a fusible solid which vaporizes
at a very high temperature.
Incorporation. — The materials are weighed out separately, mixed
by passing through a sieve, and then uniformly moistened with a
certain auantity of water, whilst on the bed of the incorporating
mill. Tnis consists of two heavy iron wheels mounted so as to
run in a circular bed. The incorporation requires about four hours.
The mechanical action of rollers on
the powder paste is a double one:
not only crushing but mixing by
pushing forwards and twisting side-
ways. The pasty mass is deflected so
that it repeatedly comes under first one
roller and then the next by scrapers,
set at an angle to the bed, which follow
each wheel.
Although the charge is wet it is
possible for it to be fired either by the
neat developed by the roller friction, by
sparks from foreign matters, as bits of
stone, &c., or possibly by heat generated by oxidation of the
materials. The mills are provided with a drenching apparatus
so arranged that in case of one mill firing it and its neigh-
bours will be drowned by water from a cistern or tank immediately
above the mill. The product from the incorporation is termed
" mill-cake."
After this incorporation in the damp state the ingredients never
completely separate on drying, however much shaken, because each
particle of nitre is surrounded by a thin layer of water containing
nitre in solution in which the particles of charcoal and sulphur are
entangled and retained. After due incorporation, powders are
pressed to a certain extent whilst still moist. The density to which
a powder is pressed is an important matter in regard to the rate of
burning. The effect of high density is to slow down the initial rate
of burning. Less dense powders burn more rapidly from the first
and tend to put a great strain on the gun. Fouling is usually less
with denser powders; and, as would be expected, such powders bear
transport better and give less dust than light powders. Up to a
certain pressure, hardness, density, and size of grain of a powder
have an effect on the rate of burning and therefore on pressure.
Glazing or polishing powder grains, also exerts a slight retarding
action on burning and enables the powders to resist atmospheric
moisture better. Excess of moisture in gunpowder has a marked
effect in reducing the explosiveness. All powders are liable to
absorb moisture, the quality and kind of charcoal being the main
determinant in this respect; hard burnt black charcoal is least
absorbent. The material employed in brown powders absorbs
moisture somewhat readily. Powder kept in a very damp atmo-
sphere, and especially in a changeable one, spoils rapidly, the salt-
petre coming to the surface in solution and then crystallizing out.
The pieces also break up owing to the formation of large crystals
of nitre in the mass. After the pressing of the incorporated powder
into a " press-cake," it is broken up or granulated by suitable
machines, and the resulting grains separated and sorted by sifting
through sieves of determined sizes of mesh. Some dust is formed
in this operation, which is sifted away and again worked up under
the rollers (for sizes of grains see fig. 1). These grains, cubes, &c,
are then either polished oy rotating in drums alone or with graphite,
which adheres to and coats the surfaces of the grains. This process
is generally followed with powders intended for small-arms or
moderately small ordnance.
Shaped Powders. — Prisms or prismatic powder are made by
breaking up the press-cake into a moderately fine state, whilst still
moist, and pressing a certain quantity in a mould. The moulds
generally employed consist of a thick plate of bronze in which are
a number of hexagonal perforations. Accurately fitting plungers
are so applied to these that one can enter at the top and tne other
at the bottom. The lower plunger being withdrawn to the bottom
of the plate the hexagonal hole is charged with the powder and the
two plungers set in motion, thus compressing the powder between
them. After the desired pressure has Deen applied the top plunger
is withdrawn, and the lower one pushed upward to eject the prism
of powder. The axial perforations in prism powders are made by
small bronze rods which pass through the lower plunger and fit
into corresponding holes in the upper one. If these prisms are
made by a steadily applied pressure a density throughout of about
1*78 may be obtained. Further to regulate the rate of burning so
that it shall be slow at first and more rapid as the powder is con-
sumed, another form of machine was devised, the cam press, in which
the pressure is applied very rapidly to the powder. It receives in
fact one blow, which compresses the powder to the same dimensions,
but the density of the outer layers of substance of the prism is much
greater than in the interior.
The leading idea in connexion with all shaped powder grains,
and with the very large sizes, was to regulate the rate of burning so
as to avoid extreme pressure when first ignited and to keep up the
pressure in the gun as more space was provided in the chamber or
tube by the movement of the shot towards the muzzle. In the
perforated prismatic powder the ignition is intended to proceed
through the perforations; since in a charge the faces of the prisms
fit pretty closely together, it was thought that this arrangement
would prevent unburnt cores or pieces of powder from being blown
out. These larger grain powders necessitated a lengthened bore to
take advantage of the slower production of gases and complete
combustion of the powder. General T. J. Rodman first suggested
and employed the perforated cake cartridge in i860, the cake having
nearly the diameter of the bore and a thickness of 1 to 2 in.
726
GUNPOWDER
with perforations running parallel with the gun axis. The burning
would then start from the comparatively small surfaces of the
g»rforations, which would become larger as the powder burnt away,
xperiments bone out this theory perfectly. It was found that
small prisms were more convenient to make than large disks, and
as the prisms practically fit together into a disk the same result
was obtained. This effect of mechanical density on rate of burning
is good only up to a certain pressure, above which the gases are
driven through the densest form of granular material. After
granulating or pressing into shapes, all powders must be dried.
This is done by heating in specially ventilated rooms heated by
steam pipes. As a. rule this drying is followed by the finishing or
polishing process. Powders are finally blended, tx. products from
different batches or " makes " are mixed so that identical proof
results are obtained.
Sizes and Shapes of Powders. — In fig. i , a to k show the relative
sizes and shapes of grain as formerly employed for military purposes,
except that the three largest powders, e-f-g and h are figured half-
size to save space, whereas the remainder indicate the actual dimen-
sions of the grains, a is for small-arms, all the others are for cannon
of various sizes.
(half-size.)
(half-size.)
-0..75
Fig. i.
Proof of Powder. — In addition to chemical examination powder is
passed through certain mechanical tests: —
1 . For colour, glaze, texture and freedom from dust.
2. For proper incorporation.
3. For shape, size and proportion of the grains. — The first is judged
by eye, and grains of the size required are obtained by the use of
sieves of different sizes.
4. Density.— The density is generally obtained in some form of
mercury densimeter, the powder being weighed in air and then
under mercury. In some forms of the instrument the air can be
pumped out so that the weighing takes place in vacuo.
5. Moisture and absorption of moisture. — The moisture and
hygroscopic test consists in weighing a sample, drying at loo C.
for a certain time, weighing again, &c, until constant. The dried
weighed sample can then be exposed to an artificial atmosphere of
known moisture and temperature, and the gain in weight per hour
similarly ascertained by periodic weighings.
6. Firing proof— The nature of this depends upon the purpose for
which the powder is intended. For sporting powders it consists in
the " pattern " given by the shot upon a target at a given distance,
or, if fired with a bullet, upon the figure of merit," or mean radial
deviatiori of a certain number of rounds; also upon the penetrative
power. For military purposes the " muzzle " velocity produced
by a powder is ascertained by a chronograph which measures the
exact time the bullet or other projectile takes to traverse a known
distance between two wire screens. By means of " crusher gauges "
the exact pressure per square inch upon certain points in the interior
of the bore can be found.
In the chemical examination of gunpowder the points to be
ascertained are, in addition to moisture, freedom from chlorides or
sulphates, and correct proportion of nitre and sulphur to charcoal.
Products of Fired Powder and Changes taking place on Explosion. —
With a mixture of the complexity of gunpowder it is quite impossible
to say beforehand what will be the relative amounts of products.
The desired products are nitrogen and carbon dioxide as gases, and
potassium sulphate and carbonate as solids. But the ingredients
of the mixture are not in any simple chemical proportion. Burning
in contact with air under one atmosphere pressure, and burning in
a closed or partially closed vessel under a considerable number of
atmospheres pressure, may produce quite different results. The
temperature of a reaction always rises with increased pressure.
Although the main function of the nitre is to give up oxygen and
nitrogen, of the charcoal to produce carbon dioxide and most of
the heat, and of the sulphur by vaporizing to accelerate the rate of
burning, it is quite impossible to represent the actions taking place
on explosion by any simple or single chemical equation. Roughly
speaking, the gases from black powder burnt in a closed vessel have
a volume at o C. and 760 mm. pressure of about 280 times that of
the original powder. The temperature produced under one atmo-
sphere is above 2000 C, and under greater pressures considerably
higher.
Experiments have been made by Benjamin Robins (1743), Charles
Hutton (1778), Count Rumford (i797), Gay-Lussac (1823), R.
Bunsen and L. Schiskoff (1857), T. J. Rodman (1861), C. Karolyi
(1863), and later many researches by Sir Andrew Noble and Sir
F. A. Abel, and by H. Debus and others, all with the idea of getting
at the precise mechanism of the explosion. Debus (Ann., 1882,
vols. 212, 213; 1891, vol. 265) discussed at great length the results
of researches by Bunsen, Karolyi, Noble and Abel, and others on
the combustion of powder in closed vessels in such manner that all
the products could be collected and examined and the pressures
registered. A Waltham Abbey powder, according to an experiment
by Noble and Abel, gave when fired in a closed vessel the following
quantities of products calculated from one gram of powder : —
Fractions of Fractions of a
a gram. molecule or atom.
Potassium carbonate . . '2615. -00189 molecule
Potassium sulphate . . •1268 \ -00072 „
„ thiosulphate . . -1666 \ -00087 »
„ sulphide . . . 0252 \ 00017 „
Sulphur -ooi2 - -00004 atom
Carbon dioxide .... -2678 x -00608 molecule
Carbon monoxide .... '0339 \00121 „
Nitrogen 1071 -^0765 atom
Hydrogen ...... -0008 -o»o8 „
Hydrogen sulphide . , . -0080 -00023 molecule
Potassium thiocyanate -0004 \
Nitre ....... -0005 \
Ammonium carbonate -0002 x
From this, and other results, Debus concluded tfcat Waltham
Abbey powder could be represented by the formula 16KrJOj+21 -18C
-f6.63S and that on combustion in a closed vessel the end results
could be fairly expressed (rounding off fractions) byS 16KN0j+
21CH-5S=5K,CO,+K 2 S04+2K 2 S,+13C0 2 -f3COH-8N s A Some of
the sulphur is lost, part combining with the metal of the Apparatus
and part with hydrogen in the charcoal. The military\ powders
of most nations can be represented by the formula U6KNO1
+21-2C+6-6S, proportions which are reasonably near to a theoreti-
cal mixture, that is one giving most complete combustion, greatest
gas volume and temperature. The combustion of powder consists
of two processes: (i.) oxidation, during which potassium caHbonate
and sulphate, carbon dioxide and nitrogen are mainly formeW. and
(ii.) a reduction process in which free carbon acts on the pot*ssmm
sulphate and free sulphur on the potassium carbonate, producing
potassium sulphide and carbon monoxide respectively. iJMost
powders contain more carbon and sulphur than necessary, Hence
the second stage. In this second stage heat is lost. The potas* um
sulphide is also the most objectionable constituent as regards fou^ng-
The energy of a powder is given, according to Bert helot , x D >'
multiplying the gas volume by the heat (in calories) produced dur%
burning; Debus shows that a powder composed ot 16KNO» to K-
and 8S would have the least, and one of composition 16KNO^"
24C+16S the greatest, when completely burnt. The great e 8 *
capability with the lowest proportion of carbon and sulphur to nitF
would be obtained from the mixture -f- 16KNO»-f22C-f 8S.
Smokeless and even noiseless powders seem to have been sough*
for during the whole gunpowder period. In 1756 one was experi-
mented with in France, but was abandoned owing to difficulties
in manufacture. Modern smokeless powders are certainly less noisy
than the black powders, mainly because of the absence of metallic
salts which although they may be gaseous whilst in the gun are
GUNPOWDER PLOT
727
h
ri-
sy
lie
re
certainly ejected as solids or become solids at the moment of contact
with air.
Brawn Powders. — About the middle of the 19th century guns and
projectiles were made much larger and heavier than previously,
and it was soon found that the ordinary black powders of the most
dense form burnt much too rapidly, straining or bursting the pieces.
Powders were introduced containing about 3% sulphur and 17-19%
of a special form of charcoal made from slightly charred straw,
or similar material. This " brown charcoal " contains a considerable
amount of the hydrogen and oxygen of the original plant substance.
The mechanical processes of manufacture of these brown powders
is the same as for black. They, however, differ from black by Tburning
very slowly, even under considerable pressure. This comparative
slowness is caused by (1) the presence of a small amount of water
even when air-dry; fe) the fact that the brown charcoal is practi-
cally very slightly altered cellulosic material, which before it can
burn completely must undergo a little further resolution or charring
at the expense of some heat from the portion of charge first ignited ;
and (3) the lower content of sulphur. An increase of a few per cent
in the sulphur of black powder accelerates its rate of burning, and
it may become almost a blasting powder. A decrease in sulphur has
the reverse effect. It is really the sulphur vapour that in the early
period of combustion spreads the flame through the charge.
Many other powders have been made or proposed in which nitrates
or chlorates of the alkalis or of barium, &c, are the oxygen providers
and substances as sugar, starch, and many other organic compounds
as the combustible elements. Some of these compositions have found
employment for blasting or even as sporting powders, but in most
cases their objectionable properties of fouKng, smoke and mode' of
exploding have prevented their- use for military purposes. The
adoption by the French government of the comparatively smokeless
nitrocellulose explosive of Paul Vieille in 1887 practically put an
end to the old forms of gunpowders. The first smokeless powder
was made in 1865 by Colonel E. Schultze (Ding. Pol Jour, 174,
p. 323; x 75. P- 453) by nitrating wood meal and adding potassium
and barium nitrates. It is somewhat similar in composition to the
E. C. sporting powder. F. Uchatius, in Austria, proposed a smoke-
less powder made from nitrated starch, but it Was not adopted
owing to its hygroscopic nature and also its tendency to detonate.
Bibliogra phy. — Vanucchio Biringuccio, De la fnrotechnia (Venice,
1540) ; Tartaglia, Quesiti e invenzioni diversi (lib. lii.) (Venice, 1546) ;
Peter Whitehorne, How to make Saltpetre, Gunpowder ; &c. (London,
1573); Nic. Macchiavelli, The Arte of Warre, trans, by White-
horne (London, 1588); Hanzelet, Recueu de plusiers machines mili*
taires (Paris, 1620); Boillet Langrois, Modeiles artifices de feu
(1620); Kruger, Chemical Meditations on the Explosion of Gun-
powder (in Latin) (1636) ; Collado, On the Invention of Gunpowder
(Spanish) (1641); The True Way to make all Sorts of Gunpowder
and Matches (1647); Hawksbee, On Gunpowder (1666); winter,
On Gunpowder (in Latin); Robins, New Principles of Gunnery
(London, 1742) (new ed. by Hutton, 1805); D'Antoni, Essame delta
polvere (Turin, 1765) (trans, by Captain Thomson, R.A., London.
1787); Count Rumford, "Experiments on Fired Gunpowder,
PhiL Trams. Roy. Soc. (1797); Charles Hutton, Mathematical Tracts,
vol. iii. (1812); Sir W. Congreve, A Short Account of Improvements
in Gunpowder made by (London, 1818); Bunsen and SchiskofT,
" On the Chemical Theory of Gunpowder," Pog£. Ann., 1857,
vol. cii. ; General Rodman, Experiments on Metal lor Cannon, and
Qualities of Cannon Powder (Boston, 1861); Napoleon III., Etudes
sur le passS el Vaven&t de Vartillerie, vol. iii. (Paris, 1862) ; Von Karolyi,
" On the Products of the Combustion of Gun Cotton and Gun-
powder," PhiL Mag. (October 1863); Captain F. M. Smith, Hand*
book of the Manufacture and Proof of Gunpowder at Waltham Abbey
(London, 1870); Noble and Abel, Fired Gunpowder (London, 1875.
1880); Noble, Artillery and Explosives (1906); H. W, L. Hirae,
Gunpowder and Ammunition, their Origin and Progress (1904);
O. uuttmann, The Manufacture of Explosives (1895), Monumenta
pulveris pyrii (1906) ; Notes on Gunpowder and Gun Cotton, published
by order of the secretary of state for war (London, 1907). • (See also
Explosives.) (W. R. E. H.)
GUNPOWDER PLOT, the name given to a conspiracy for
blowing up King James I. and the parliament on the 5th of
November 1605.
To understand clearly the nature and origin of the famous
conspiracy, it is necessary to recall the political situation and
the attitude of the Roman Catholics towards the government
at the accession of James I. The Elizabethan administration
had successfully defended its own existence and the Protestant
faith against able and powerful antagonists, but this had not
been accomplished without enforcing severe measures of re-
pression and punishment upon those of the opposite faith.
The beginning of a happier era, however, was expected with
the opening of the new reign. The right of James to the crown
could be more readily, acknowledged by the Romanists than
that of Elizabeth: Pope Clement VIII. appeared willing to
meet the king half-way. James himself was by nature favour-
able to the Roman Catholics and had treated the Roman
Catholic lords, in Scotland with great leniency, in spite of their
constant plots and rebellions. Writing to Cecil before his
accession he maintained, " I am so far from any intention of
persecution as I protest to God I reverence their church as our
mother church, although clogged with many infirmities and
corruptions, besides that I did ever hold persecution as one of
the infallible notes of a false church." He declared to North-
umberland, the kinsman and master of Thomas Percy, the
conspirator, " as for the Catholics, I will neither persecute any
that will be quiet and give but an .outward obedience to the
law, neither will I spare to advance any of them that will be of
good service and worthily deserved." It is probable that these
small but practical concessions would have satisfied the lay
Roman Catholics and the secular priests, but they were very
far from contenting the Jesuits, by whom the results of such
leniency were especially feared: " What rigour of laws would
not compass in so many years," wrote Henry Tichborae, the
Jesuit, in 1598, " this liberty and lenity will effectuate in 20 days,
to wit the disfurnishing of the seminaries, the disanimating of
men to come and others to return, the expulsion of the society
and confusion as in Germany, extinction of zeal and favour,
disanimation of princes from the hot pursuit of the enterprise.
. . . We shall be left as a prey to the wolves that will besides
drive our greatest patron [the king of Spain] to stoop to a peace
which will be the utter ruin of our edifice, this many years in
building." Unfortunately, about this time the Jesuits, who
thus thrived on political intrigue, and who were deeply impli-
cated in treasonable correspondence with Spain, had obtained
a complete ascendancy over the secular priests, who were for
obeying the civil government as far as possible and keeping free
from politics. The time, therefore, as far as the Roman Catholics
themselves were concerned, was not a propitious one for intro-
ducing the moderate concessions which alone James, had
promised: James, too, on his side, found that religious tolera-
tion, though clearly sound in principle, was difficult in practice.
During the first few months of the reign all went well. In July
1603 the fines for recusancy were remitted. In January 1604
peaceable Roman Catholics could live unmolested and " serve
God according to their consciences without any danger." But
James's expectations that the pope would prevent dangerous
and seditious persons from entering the country were unful-
filled and the numbers of the Jesuits and the Roman Catholics
greatly increased. Rumours of plots came to hand. Cecil,
though like his master naturally in favour of toleration, with
his experience gained in the reign of Elizabeth, was alarmed
at the policy pursued and its results, and great anxiety was
aroused in the government and nation, which was in the end
shared by the king. It was determined finally to return to the
earlier policy of repression. On the 22nd of February 1604 a
proclamation was issued banishing priests; on the 28th of
November 1604, recusancy fines were demanded from 13 wealthy
persons, and on the 10th of February 1605 the penal laws were
ordered to be executed. The plot, however, could not have
been occasioned by these measures, for it had been already
conceived in the mind of Robert Catesby. It was aimed at the
repeal of the whole Elizabethan legislation againsi the Roman
Catholics and perhaps derived some impulse at first from the
leniency lately shown by the administration, afterwards gaining
support from the opposite cause, the return of the government
to the policy of repression.
It was in May 1603 that Catesby told Percy, in reply to the
latter's declaration of his intention to kill the king, that he was
" thinking of a most sure way." Subsequently, about the 1st of
November 1603, Catesby sent a message to his cousin Robert
Winter at Huddington, near. Worcester, to come to London,
which the latter refused. On the arrival of a second urgent
summons shortly afterwards he obeyed, and was then at a house
at Lambeth, probably in January 1604, initiated by Catesby
together with John Wright into the plot to blow up the parlia-
ment house. Before putting this plan into execution, however,
728
GUNPOWDER PLOT
it was decided to try a " quiet way "; and Winter was sent over
to Flanders to obtain the good offices of Juan de Velasco, duke of
Frias and constable of Castile, who had arrived there to conduct
the negotiations for a peace between England and Spain, in order
to obtain the repeal of the penal laws. Winter, having secured
nothing but vain promises from the constable, returned to
England about the end of April, bringing with him Guy Fawkes,
a man devoted to the Roman Catholic cause and recommended
for undertaking perilous adventures. Subsequently the three
and Thomas Percy, who joined the conspiracy in May, met in a
house behind St Clement's and, having taken an oath of secrecy
together, heard Mass and received the Sacrament in an adjoining
apartment from a priest stated by Fawkes to have been Father
Gerard. Later several other persons were included in the plot,
viz. Winter's brother Thomas, John Grant, Ambrose Rokewood,
Robert Keyes, Sir Everard Digby, Francis Tresham, a cousin of
Catesby and Thomas Bates Catesby's servant, all, with the
exception of the last, being men of good family and all Roman
Catholics. Father Greenway and Father Garnet, the Jesuits,
were both cognisant of the plot (see Garnet, Henry). On the
24th of May 1604 a house was hired in Percy's name adjoining
the House of Lords, from the cellar of which they proposed to
work a mine. They began on the 1 1 th of December 1604, and by
about March had got half-way through the wall. They then
discovered that a vault immediately under the House of Lords
was available. This was at once hired by Percy, and 36 barrels of
gunpowder, amounting to about 1 ton and 12 cwt., were brought
in and concealed under coal and faggots. The preparations
being completed in May the conspirators separated. Fawkes
was despatched to Flanders, where he imparted the plot to Hugh
Owen, a zealous Romanist intriguer. Sir Edmund Baynham
was sent on a mission to Rome to be at hand when the news came
to gain over the pope to the cause of the successful conspirators.
An understanding was arrived at with several officers levied for
the service of the archduke, that they should return at once to
England when occasion arose of defending the Roman Catholic
cause. A great hunting match was organized at Danchurch in
Warwickshire by Digby, to which large numbers of the Roman
Catholic gentry were invited, who were to join the plot after
the successful accomplishment of the explosion of the 5th of
November, the day fixed for the opening of parliament, and
get possession of the princess Elizabeth, then residing in the
neighbourhood; while Percy was to seize the infant prince
Charles and bring him on horseback to their meeting-place. Guy
Fawkes himself was to take ship immediately for Flanders, spread
the news on the continent and get supporters. The conspirators
imagined that a terrorized and helpless government would
readily agree to all their demands. Hitherto the secret had been
well kept and the preparations had been completed with extra-
ordinary success and without a single drawback; but a very
serious difficulty now confronted the conspirators as the time for
action arrived, and disturbed their consciences. The feelings of
ordinary humanity shrunk from the destruction of so many
persons guiltless of any offence. But in addition, among the
peers to be assassinated were included many Roman Catholics
and some lords nearly connected in kinship or friendship with the
plotters themselves. Several appeals, however, made to Catesby
to allow warning to be given to certain individuals were firmly
rejected.
On the 26th of October Lord Monteagle, a brother-in-law of
Francis Tresham, who had formerly been closely connected with
some of the other conspirators and had engaged in Romanist
plots against the government, but who had given his support to
the new king, unexpectedly ordered supper to be prepared at his
house at Haxton, from which he had been absent for more than a
year. While at supper about 6 o'clock an anonymous letter was
brought by an unknown messenger which, having glanced at, he
handed to Ward, a gentleman of his service and an intimate
friend of Winter, the conspirator, to be read aloud. The cele-
brated letter ran as follows: —
"My lord, out of the love I bear to some of your friends, I have
a care for your preservation. Therefore I would advise you, as you
tender your life, to devise some excuse to shift of your attendance
of this Parliament, for God and man hath concurred to punish the
wickedness of this time. And think not slightly of this advertise-
ment, but retire yourself into your country, where you may expect
the event in safety, for though there be no appearance of any stir,
yet I say they shall receive a terrible blow the Parliament, and
yet they shall not see who hurts them. This counsel is not to be
contemned, because it may do you good and can do you no harm,
for the danger is past as soon as you have burnt the letter: and I
hope God will give you the grace to make good use of it, to whose
holy protection I commend you."
The authorship of the letter has never been disclosed or proved,
but all evidence seems to point to Tresham, and to the proba-
bility that he had some days before warned Monteagle and agreed
with him as to the best means of making known the plot and
preventing its execution, and at the same time of giving the
conspirators time to escape (see Tresham, Francis).
Monteagle at once started for Whitehall, found Salisbury and
other ministers about to sit down to supper, and showed the
letter, whereupon it was decided to search the cellar under the
House of Lords before the meeting of parliament, but not too
soon, so that the plot might be ripe and be fully disclosed.
Meanwhile Ward, on the 27th of October, as had evidently been
intended, informed Winter that the plot was known, and on the
28th Winter informed Catesby and begged him to give up the
whole project. Catesby, however, after some hesitation, finding
from Fawkes that nothing had been touched in the cellar, and
prevailed upon by Percy, determined to stand firm, hoping that
the government had put no credence in Monteagle's letter, and
Fawkes returned to the cellar to keep guard as before. On the
4th the king, having been shown the letter, ordered the earl of
Suffolk, as lord chamberlain, to examine the buildings. He was
accompanied by Monteagle. On arriving at the cellar, the door
was opened to him by Fawkes. Seeing the enormous piles of
faggots he asked the name of their owner, to which Fawkes
replied that they belonged to Percy. His name immediately
aroused suspicions, and accordingly it was ordered that a further
search should be made by Thomas Knyvett, a Westminster
magistrate who, coming with his men at night, discovered the
gunpowder and arrested Fawkes on the threshold.
The opinion that the whole plot was the work of Salisbury, that
he acted as an ageqt provocateur and lured on his victims to
destruction, repeated by some contemporary and later writers and
recently formulated and urged with great ability, has no solid
foundation. Nor is it even probable that he was aware of its
existence till he received Monteagle's letter. Even after its
reception complete belief was not placed in the warning. A
search was made only to make sure that nothing was wrong and
guided only by Monteagle's letter, while no attempt was made to
seize the conspirators. The steps taken by Salisbury after the
discovery of the gunpowder do not show the possession of any
information of the plot or of the persons who were its chief agents
outside Fawkes's first statement, and his knowledge is seen to
develop according to the successive disclosures and confessions of
the latter. Thus on the 7th of November he had no knowledge
of the mine, and it is only after Fawkes's examination by torture
on the 9th, when the names of the conspirators were drawn from
him, that the government was able to classify them according
to their guilt and extent of their participation. The inquiry was
not conducted by Salisbury alone, but by several commissioners,
some of whom were Roman Catholics, and many rivals and
secret enemies. To conceal his intrigue from all these would
have been impossible, and that he should have put himself in their
power to such an extent is highly improbable. Again, the plan
agreed upon for disclosing the plot was especially designed to
allow the conspirators to escape, and therefore scarcely a method
which would have been arranged with Salisbury. Not one of the
conspirators, even when all hope of saving life was gone, made any
accusation against Salisbury or the government and all died
expressing contrition for their crime. Lastly Salisbury had no
conceivable motive in concocting a plot of this description. His
political power and position in the new reign had been already
secured and by very different methods. He was now at the
height of his influence, having been created Viscount Cranborne
GUN-ROOM— GUNTER
729
in August 1604 and earl of Salisbury in May 1605; and James
had already, more than 16 months before the discovery of the
plot, consented to return to the repressive measures against the
Romanists. The success with which the conspirators concealed
their plot from Salisbury's spies is indeed astonishing, but is
probably explained by its very audacity and by the absence of
incriminating correspondence, the medium through which the
minister chiefly obtained his knowledge of the plans of his
enemies.
On the arrest of Fawkes the other conspirators, except Tresham,
fled in parties by different ways, rejoining each other in Warwick-
shire, as had been agreed in case the plot had been successful.
Catesby, who with some others had covered the distance of
80 m. between London and his mother's house at Ashby St
Legers in eight hours, informed his friends in Warwickshire, who
had been awaiting the issue of the plot, of its failure, but suc-
ceeded in persuading Sir Everard Digby, by an unscrupulous
falsehood, to further implicate himself in his hopeless cause by
assuring him that both James and Salisbury were dead; and,
according to Father Garnet, this was not the first time that
Catesby had been guilty of lies in order to draw men into the plot.
He pushed on the same day with his companions in the direction
of Wales, where, it was hoped, they would be joined by bands of
insurgents. They arrived at Huddington at 2 in the afternoon.
On the morning of the 7th the band, numbering about 36 persons,
confessed and heard Mass, and then rode away to Holbeche,
2 m. from Stourbridge, in Staffordshire, the house of Stephen
Littleton, who had been present at the hunting at Danchurch
(see Digby, Everard), where they arrived at 10 o'clock at night,
having on their way broken into Lord Windsor's house at Hewell
Grange and taken all the armour they found there. Their case
was now desperate. None had joined them : " Not one came to
take our part," said Sir Everard Digby, " though we had expected
so many." They were being followed by the sheriff and all the
forces of the county. All spurned them from their doors when
they applied for succour. One by one their followers fled from
the house in which the last scene was to be played out. They
now began to feel themselves abandoned not only by man but
by God; for an explosion of some of their gunpowder, on the
morning of the 8th, by which Catesby and some others were
scorched, struck terror into their hearts as a judgment from
heaven. The assurance of innocence and of a just cause which
till now had alone supported them was taken away. The great-
ness of their crime, its true nature, now struck home to them, and
the few moments which remained to them of life were spent in
prayer and in repentance. The supreme hour had now arrived.
About 1 1 o'clock the sheriff and his men came up and immediately
began firing into the house. Catesby, Percy and the two Wrights
were killed, Winter and Rokewood wounded and taken prisoners
with the men who still adhered to them. In all eight of the con-
spirators, including the two Winters, Digby, Fawkes, Rokewood,
Keyes and Bates, were executed, while Tresham died in the
Tower. Of the priests involved, Garnet was tried and executed,
while Greenway and Gerard succeeded in escaping.
So ended the strange and famous Gunpowder Plot. However
atrocious its conception and its aims, it is impossible not to feel,
together with horror for the deed, some pity and admiration for
the guilty persons who took part in it. " Theirs was a crime
which it would never have entered into the heart of any man to
commit who was not raised above the lowness of the ordinary
criminal." They sinned not against the light but in the dark.
They erred from ignorance, from a perverted moral sense rather
than from any mean or selfish motive, and exhibited extraordinary
courage and self-sacrifice in the pursuit of what seemed to them
the cause of God and of their country. Their punishment was
terrible. Not only had they risked and lost all in the attempt
and drawn upon themselves the frightful vengeance of the state,
but they saw themselves the means of injuring irretrievably the
cause for which they felt such devotion. Nothing could have
been more disastrous to the cause of the Roman Catholics than
their crime. The laws against them were immediately increased
in severity, and the gradual advance towards religious toleration
was put back for centuries. In addition a new, increased and
long-enduring hostility was aroused in the country against the
adherents of the old faith, not unnatural in the circumstances,
but unjust and undiscriminating, because while some of the
Jesuits were no doubt implicated, the secular priests and Roman
Catholic laity as a whole had taken no part in the conspiracy.
Bibliography. — The recent controversy concerning the nature
and origin of the plot can be followed in What was the Gunpowder
Plot ? by John Gerard, S.J. (1897); What Gunpowder Plot was, by
S. R. Gardiner (a rejoinder) (1897); The Gunpowder Plot . . . in
reply to Professor Gardiner, by John Gerard, S.J. (1897); Thomas
Winter's Confession and the Gunpowder Plot, by John Gerard, S.J.
(with facsimiles of his writing) (1898); Eng. Hist. Rev. iii. 510
and xii. 791; Edinburgh Review, clxxxv. 183; Athenaeum
1897, ii. 149, 785, 855; 1898, i. 23, ii. 352, 420; Academy, vol. 52
p. 84; The Nation, vol. 65 p. 400. A considerable portion of the
controversy centres round the question of the authenticity of
Thomas Winter's confession, the MS. of which is at Hatfield, sup-
ported by Professor Gardiner, but denied by Father Gerard princi-
pally on account of the document having been signed " Winter "
instead of " Wintour," the latter apparently being the conspirator's
usual style of signature. The document was deposited by the 3rd
Marquess of Salisbury for inspection at the Record Office, and
was pronounced by two experts, one from the British Museum and
another from the Record Office, to be undoubtedly genuine. The
cause of the variation in the signature still remains unexplained, but
ceases to have therefore any great historical importance. The
bibliography of the contemporary controversy is given in the article
on Henry Garnet in the Dictionary of National Biography and in
The Gunpowder Plot by David Jardine (1857), the latter work still
remaining the principal authority on the subject; add to these
Gardiner s Hist, of England, i., where an excellent account is given;
History of the Jesuits in England, by Father Ethelred Taunton
(1901); Father Gerard's Narrative in Condition of the Catholics
under James L (1872), and Father Greenway 's Narrative in Troubles
of our Catholic Forefathers, 1st series (1872), interesting as con-
temporary accounts, but not to be taken as complete or infallible
authorities, of the same nature being Historia Provinciae Anglicanae
Societatis Jesu, by Henry More, S.J. (1660), pp. 309 et seq.; also
History of Great Britain, by John Speed (161 1), pp. 839 et seq.;
Archaeolo$ia, xii. 200, xxviii. 422, xxix. 80; Harleian Miscellany
(1809), ih. 119-135, or Somers Tracts (1809), ii. 07-117; M. A.
Tierney's ed. of D odd's Church History, vol. iv. (184 1); Treason
and Plot, by Martin Hume (1901); Notes and Queries, 7 ser. vi.,
8 ser. iv. 408, 497, v. 55, xii. 505, 9 ser. xi. 115; Add. MSS.
Brit. Mus. 6178; State Trials, ii.; Calendar of State Pap. Dom.
(1603-1610), and the official account, A True and Perfect Relation of
the Whole Proceedings against the late most Barbarous Traitors (1606),
a neither true nor complete narrative however, now superseded as
an authority, reprinted as The Gunpowder Treason . . . with ad-
ditions in 1679 oy Thomas Barlow, bishop of Lincoln. A large
number of letters and papers in the State raper Office relating to
the plot were collected in one volume in 1819, called the Gunpowder
Plot Book', these are noted in their proper place in the printed
calendars of State Papers, Domestic Series; see also articles on
Fawkes, Guy; Tresham, Francis; Monteagle, William
Parker, ath Baron; Percy, Thomas; Catesby, Robert;
Garnet, Henry; Digby, Sir Everard. (P. C. Y.)
GUN-ROOM, a ship cabin occupied by the officers below the
rank of lieutenant, but who are not warrant officers of the class of
the boatswain, gunner or carpenter. In the wooden sailing ships
it was on the lower deck, and was originally the quarters of the
gunner.
GUNTER, EDMUND (1 581-1626), English mathematician, of
Welsh extraction, was born in Hertfordshire in 158 1. He was
educated at Westminster school, and in 1509 was elected a student
of Christ Church, Oxford. He took orders, became a preacher
in 1 6 14, and in 161 5 proceeded to the degree of bachelor in
divinity. Mathematics, however, which had been his favourite
study in youth, continued to engross his attention, and on the
6th of March 1619 he was appointed professor of astronomy in
Gresham College, London. This post he held till his death on the
10th of December 1626. With Gunter's name are associated
several useful inventions, descriptions of which are given in his
treatises on the Sector, Cross-staff, Bow, Quadrant and other
Instruments. He contrived his sector about the year 1606, and
wrote a description of it in Latin, but it was more than sixteen
years afterwards before he allowed the book to appear in English.
In 1620 he published his Canon triangulorum (see Logarithms).
There is reason to believe that Gunter was the first to discover
(in 1622 or 1625) that the magnetic needle does not retain the
same declination in the same place at all times. By desire of
730
James I. he published in 1624 The Description and Use of His
Majestie's Dials in Whitehall Garden, the only one of his works
which has not been reprinted. He introduced the words cosine
and cotangent, and he suggested to Henry Briggs, his friend and
colleague, the use of the arithmetical complement (see Brigg's
Arithmelica Logarithmica, cap. xv.) . His practical inventions are
briefly noticed below:
Gunter's Chain, the chain in common use for surveying, is 22 yds.
long and is divided into 100 links. Its usefulness arises from its
decimal or centesimal division, and the fact that 10 square chains
make an acre.
Gunter's Line, a logarithmic line, usually laid down upon scales,
sectors, &c. It is also called the line of lines and the line of numbers,
being only the logarithms graduated upon a ruler, which therefore
serves to solve problems mstrumentally in the same manner as
logarithms do arithmetically.
Gunter's Quadrant, an instrument made of wood, brass or other
substance, containing a kind of stereographic projection of the sphere
on the plane of the equinoctial, the eye being supposed to be placed
in one of the poles, so that the tropic, ecliptic, and horizon form the
arcs of circles, but the hour circles are other curves, drawn by
means of several altitudes of the sun for some particular latitude
every year. This instrument is used to find the hour of the day,
the sun f s azimuth, Sec, and other common problems of the sphere
or globe, and also to take the altitude of an object in degrees.
Gunter's Scale (generally called by seamen the Gunter) is a large
plane scale, usually 2 ft. long by about ij in. broad, and engraved
with various lines of numbers. On one side are placed the natural
lines (as the line of chords, the line of sines, tangents, rhumbs, &c),
and on the other side the corresponding artificial or logarithmic
ones. By means of this instrument questions in navigation, trigono-
metry, &cv, are solved with the aid of a pair of compasses.
GtiNTHER, JOHANN CHRISTIAN (1605-1723), German poet,
was born at Striegau in Lower Silesia on the 8th of April 1695.
After attending the gymnasium at Schweidnitz, he was sent in
1715 by his father, a country doctor, to study medicine at
Wittenberg; but he was idle and dissipated, had no taste for the
profession chosen for him, and came to a complete rupture with
his family. In 1 7 1 7 he went to Leipzig, where he was befriended
by J, B. Mencke (1674-1732), who recognized his genius; and
there he published a poem on the peace of Passarowitz (concluded
between the German emperor and the Porte in 17 18) which
acquired him reputation. A recommendation from Mencke to
Frederick Augustus II. of Saxony, king of Poland, proved worse
than useless, as Giinther appeared at the audience drunk. From
that time he led an unsettled and dissipated life, sinking ever
deeper into the slough of misery, until he died at Jena on the
15th of March 1723, when only in his 28th year. Goethe pro-
nounces Giinther to have been a poet in the fullest sense of the
term. His lyric poems as a whole give evidence of deep and
lively sensibility, fine imagination, clever wit, and a true ear for
melody and rhythm; but an air of cynicism is more or less
present in most of them, and dull or vulgar witticisms are not
infrequently found side by side with the purest inspirations of
his genius.
Gtinther's collected poems were published in'four volumes (Breslau,
1 723-1 735). They are also included in vol. vi. of Tittmann's Deutsche
Dichter des iften Jakrh. (Leipzig, 1874), and vol. xxxviii. of
Kiirschner's Deutsche NationalliUratur (1883). A pretended auto-
biography of Giinther appeared at Schweidnitz in 1732, and a life
of him by Siebrand at Leipzig in 1738. See Hoffmann von Fallers-
leben, J. Ch. Giinther (Breslau, 1833; ; O. Roquette, Leben und Dichten
J. Ch. Giinther s (Stuttgart, i860); M. Kalbeck, Neue Beitrdge zur
Biographie des Dichters C. Giinther (Breslau, 1879).
GtfNTHER OF SCHWARZBURG (1304-1349), Germanking, was
a descendant of the counts of Schwarzburg and the younger son
of Henry VII., count of Blankenburg. He distinguished himself
as a soldier, and rendered good service to the emperor Louis IV.,
on whose death in 1347 he was offered the German throne, after
it had been refused by Edward III., king of England. He was
elected German king at Frankfort on the 30th of January 1349
by four of the electors, who were partisans of the house of Wittels-
bach and opponents of Charles of Luxemburg, afterwards the
emperor Charles IV. Charles, however, won over many of
Gunther's adherents, defeated him at Eltville, and Gtinther, who
was now seriously ill, renounced his claims for the sum of 20,000
marks of silver. He died three weeks afterwards at Frankfort,
GUNTHER, J. C— GUPTA
and was buried in the cathedral of that city, where a statue was
erected to his memory in 1352.
See Graf L. Utterodt zu Scharffenberg, Giinther, Graf von Schwarz-
burg, ertvahlter deutscher Kbnig (Leipzig, 1862); and K. Janson,
Das Kdnigtum GUnthers von Schwarzburg (Leipzig, 1880).
GUNTRAM, or Gontran (561-592), king of Burgundy, was one
of the sons of Clotaire I. On the death of his father (561) he
and his three brothers divided the Frankish realm between them,
Guntram receiving as his share the valleys of the Sa6ne and
Rhone, together with Berry and the town of Orleans, which he
made his capital. On the death of Charibert (567), he further
obtained the civitates of Saintes, Angouleme and Perigueux.
During the civil war which broke out between the kings of
Neustriaand Austrasia, his policy was to try to maintain a state of
equilibrium. After the assassination of Sigebert (575), he took
the youthful Childebert II. under his protection, and, thanks to
his assistance against the intrigues of the great lords, the latter
was able to maintain his position in Austrasia. After the death
of Chilperic (584) he protected the young Clotaire II. in the same
way, and prevented Childebert from seizing his dominions. His
course was rendered easier by the fact that his own sons had
died; consequently, having an inheritance at his disposal, he
was able to offer it to whichever of his nephews he wished. The
danger to the Frankish realm caused by the expedition of
Gundobald (585), and the anxiety which was caused him by the
revolts of the great lords in Austrasia finally decided him in favour
of Childebert. He adopted him as his son, and recognized him as
his heir at the treaty of Andelot (587); he also helped him to
crush the great lords, especially Ursion and Berthefried, who were
conquered in la Woevre. From this time on he ceased to play a
prominent part in the affairs of Austrasia. He died in 592, and
Childebert received his inheritance without opposition. Gregory
of Tours is very indulgent to Guntram, who showed himself on
occasions generous towards the church; he almost always calls
him " good king Guntram," and in his writings are to be found
such phrases as "good king Guntram took as his servant a concu-
bine Veneranda " (iv. 25); but Guntram was really no better
than the other kings of his age; he was cruel and licentious,
putting his cubicularius Condo to death, for instance, because he
was suspected of having killed a buffalo in the Vosges. He was
moreover a coward, and went in such constant terror of assassina-
tion that he always surrounded himself with a regular body-
guard.
See Krusch, " Zur Chronologie der merowingischen Konige," in
the Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte, xxu. 451-490; Uiysse
Chevalier, Bio-bibliographie (2nd ed.), s.v. " Guntram." (C. Pf.)
GUNTUR, a town and district of British India, in the Madras
presidency. The town (pop. in 1901 , 30,833) has a station on the
Bellary-Bezwada branch of the Southern Mahratta railway. It
is situated east of the Kondavid hills, and is very healthy.
It appears to have been founded in the 18th century by the
French. At the time of the cession of the Circars to the English
in 1765, Guntur was specially exempted during the life of Basalat
Jang, whose personal jagir it was. In 1788 it came into British
possession, the cession being finally confirmed in 1823. It has
an important trade in cotton, with presses and ginning factories.
There is a second-grade college supported by the American
Lutheran Mission. Until 1859, Guntur was the headquarters of
a district of the same name, and in 1904 a new District of
Guntur was constituted, covering territory which till then had
been divided between Kistna and Nellore. Area, 5733 sq. m.
The population on this area in 1901 was 1,490,635. The district
is bounded on the E. and N. by the river Kistna; in the W. a
considerable part of the boundary is formed by the Gundlakamma
river. The greater part consists of a fertile plain irrigated by
canals from the Kistna, and producing cotton, rice and other
crops.
GUPTA, an empire and dynasty of northern India, which
lasted from about a.d. 320 to 480. The dynasty was founded by
Chandragupta I., who must not be confounded with his famous
predecessor Chandragupta Maurya. He gave his name to the
Gupta era, which continued in use for several centuries, dating
GURA— GURKHA
73 1
from the 26th of February, a.d. 320. Chandragupta was suc-
ceeded by Samudragupta (c. a.d. 326-375), one of the greatest
of Indian kings, who conquered nearly the whole of India, and
whose alliances extended from the Oxus to Ceylon; but his
name was at one time entirely lost to history, and has only
been recovered of recent years from coins and inscriptions. His
empire rivalled that of Asoka, extending from the Hugli on the
east to the Jumna and Chambal on the west, and from the foot of
the Himalayas on the north to the Nerbudda on the south. His
son Chandragupta II. {c. a.d. 375-413) was also known as Vikra-
Maditya (q.v.) , and seems to have been the original of the mythical
Hindu king of that name. About 388 he conquered the Saka
satrap of Surashtra (Kathiawar) and penetrated to the Arabian
Sea. His administration is described in the work of Fa-hien,
the earliest Chinese pilgrim, who visited India in a.d. 405-411.
Pataliputra was the capital of the dynasty, but Ajodhya seems to
have been sometimes used by both Samudragupta and Chandra-
gupta II. as the headquarters of government. The Gupta
dynasty appears to have fostered a revival of Brahmanism at the
expense of Buddhism, and to have given an impulse to art and
literature. The golden age of the empire lasted from a.d. 330 to
455, beginning to decline after the latter date. When Skandagupta
came to the throne in 455, India was threatened with an irruption
of the White Huns, on whom he inflicted a severe defeat, thus
saving his kingdom for a time; but about 470 the White Huns
(see Ephthalites) returned to the attack, and the empire was
gradually destroyed by their repeated inroads. When Skanda-
gupta died about 480, the Gupta empire came to an end, but the
dynasty continued to rule in the eastern provinces for several
generations. The last known prince of the imperial line of
Guptas was Kamaragupta II. (c. 535), after whom it passed " by
an obscure transition " into a dynasty of eleven Gupta princes,
known as " the later Guptas of Magadha," who seem for the
most part to have been merely local rulers of Magadha. One of
them, however, Adityasena, after the death of the paramount
sovereign in 648, asserted his independence. The last known
Gupta king was Jivitagupta II., who reigned early in the 8th
century. About the middle of the century Magadha passed under
the sway of the Pal kings of Bengal.
See J. F. Fleet, Gupta Inscriptions (1888); and Vincent A. Smith,
The Early History of India (2nd ed., Oxford, 1908), pp. 264-295.
GURA, EUGEN (1 842-1 906), German singer, was born near
Saatz in Bohemia, and educated at first for the career of a painter
at Vienna and Munich; but later, developing a fine baritone
voice, he took up singing and studied it at the Munich Cohserva-
torium. In 1865 he made his d£but at the Munich opera, and in
the following years he gained the highest reputation in Germany,
being engaged principally at Leipzig till 1876 and then at Ham-
burg till 1883. He sang in 1876 in the Ring at Bayreuth, and was
famous for his Wagnerian r61es; and his Hans Sachs in Meislcr-
singer, as performed in London in 1882, was magnificent. In
later years he showed the perfection of art in his singing of German
Lieder. He died in Bavaria on the 26th of August J906.
GURDASPUR, a town and district of British India, in the
Lahore division of the Punjab. The town had a population
in 1 901 of 5764. It has a fort (now containing a Brahman
monastery) which was famous for the siege it sustained in 171 2
from the Moguls. The Sikh leader, Banda, was only reduced by
starvation, when he and his men were tortured to death after
capitulating.
The District comprises an area of 1889 sq. m. It is bounded
on the N. by the native states of Kashmir and Chamba, on the E.
by Kangra district and the river Beas, on the S.W. by Amritsar
district, and on the W. by Siaikot, and occupies the submontane
portion of the Bari Doab, or tract between the Beas. and the
Ravi. An intrusive spur of the British dominions runs north-
ward into the lower Himalayan ranges, to include the mountain
sanatorium of Dalhousie, 7687 ft. above sea-level. This station,
which has a large fluctuating population during the warmer
months, crowns the most westerly shoulder of a magnificent
snowy range, the Dhaoladhar, between which and the plain two
minor ranges intervene. Below the hills stretches a picturesque
and undulating plateau covered with abundant timber, made
green by a copious rainfall, and watered by the streams of the
Bari Doabj which, diverted by dams and embankments, now
empty their waters into the Beas directly, in order that their
channels may not interfere with the Bari Doab canal. The
district contains several large jhils or swampy lakes, and is
famous for its snipe-shooting. It is historically important in
connexion with the rise of the Sikh confederacy. The whole of
the Punjab was then distributed among the Sikh chiefs who
triumphed over the imperial governors. In the course of a few
years, however, the maharaja Ranjit Singh acquired all the
territory which those chiefs had held. Pathankot and the
neighbouring villages in the plain, together with the whole hill
portion of the 'district, formed part of the area ceded by the
Sikhs to the British after the first Sikh war in 1846, >In
1862, after receiving one or two additions, the district was
brought into its present shape. In 1901 the population was
94o>334> showing a slight decrease, compared with an increase of
15% in the previous decade. A branch of the North-Western
railway runs through the district. The largest town and chief
commercial centre is Batala, There are important woollen mills
at Dhariwal, and besides their products the district exports
cotton, sugar, grain and oil-seeds.
GURGAON, a town and district of British India, in the Delhi
division of the Punjab. The town (pop. in 1901, 4765) is the
headquarters of the district, but is otherwise unimportant. The
district has an area of 1984 sq. m. It is bounded on the N. by
Rohtak, on the W. and S.W. by portions of the Alwar, Nabha
and Jind native states, on the S. by the Muttra district of the
United Provinces, on the E. by the river Jumna and on the N.E.
by Delhi. It comprises the southernmost corner of the Punjab
province, stretching away from the level plain towards the hills
of Rajputana. Two low rocky ranges enter its borders from the
south and run northward in a bare and unshaded mass toward
the plain country. East pf the western ridge the valley is wide
and open, extending to the banks of the Jumna. To the west
lies the subdivision of Rewari, consisting of a sandy plain dotted
with isolated hills. Numerous torrents carry off the drainage
from the upland ranges, and the most important among them
empty themselves at last into the Na jaf garh jhil. This swampy
lake lies to the east of the civil station of Gurgaon, and stretches
long arms into the neighbouring districts of Delhi and Rohtak.
Salt is manufactured in wells at several villages. The mineral
products are iron ore, copper ore, plumbago and ochre.
In 1803 Gurgaon district passed into the hands of the British
after Lord Lake's conquests. On the outbreak of the Mutiny in
May 1857, the nawab of Farukhnagar, the principal feudatory of
the district, rose in rebellion. The Meos and many Rajput
families followed his example. A faithful native officer preserved
the public buildings and records at Rewari from destruction;
but with this exception, British authority became extinguished
for a time throughout Gurgaon. After the fall of the rebel
capital, a force marched into the district and either captured or
dispersed the leaders of rebellion . The territory of thenawab was
confiscated on account of his participation in the Mutiny. Civil
administration was resumed under orders from the Punjab
government, to which province the district was formally annexed
on the final pacification of the country. The population in 1901
was 746,208, showing an increase of 11% in the decade. The
largest town and chief trade centre is Rewari. The district is
now traversed by several lines of railway, and irrigation is
provided by the Agra canal. The chief trade is in cereals, but
hardware is also exported.
GURKHA (pronounced g6orka; from Sans, gau, a cow, and
raks, to protect), the ruling Hindu race in Nepal (q.v.). The
Gurkhas, or Gurkhalis, claim descent from the rajas of Chitor in
Rajputana. When driven out of their own country by the
Mahommedan invasion, they took refuge in the hilly districts
about Kumaon, whence they graduafly invaded the country to
the eastward as far as Gurkha, Noakote and ultimately to the
valley of Nepal and even Sikkira. They were stQpped by the
English in an attempt to push south, and t,he treaty of. §eganli,
732
GURNALL— GURNEY, E.
which ended the Gurkha War of 1814, definitely limited their
territorial growth. The Gurkhas of the present day remain
Hindus by religion, but show in their appearance a strong
admixture of Mongolian blood. They make splendid infantry
soldiers, and by agreement with their government about 20,000
have been recruited for the Gurkha regiments of the Indian army.
As a rule they are bold, enduring, faithful, frank, independent
and self-reliant. They despise other Orientals, but admire and
fraternize with Europeans, whose tastes in sport and war they
share. They strongly resemble the Japanese, but are of a
sturdier build. Their national weapon is the kukri, a heavy
curved knife, which they use for every possible purpose.
See Capt. Eden Vansittart, Notes on the Gurkhas (1898) ; and P.
D. Bonarjee, The Fighting Races of India (1899).
GURNALL, WILLIAM (161 7-1679), English author, was born
in 161 7 at King's Lynn, Norfolk. He was educated at the free
grammar school of his native town, and in 1631 was nominated
to the Lynn scholarship in Emmanuel College, Cambridge, where
he graduated B.A. in 1635 and M.A. in 1639. He was made
rector of Lavenham in Suffolk in 1644; and before he received
that appointment he seems to have officiated, perhaps as curate,
at Sudbury. At the Restoration he signed the declaration
required by the Act of Uniformity, and on this account he was
the subject of a libellous attack, published in 1665, entitled
Covenant- Renouncers Desperate Apostates. He died on the 12th
of October 1679. Gurnall is known by his Christian in Complete
Armour, published in three volumes, dated 1655, 1658 and 1662.
It consists of a series of sermons on the latter portion of the 6th
chapter of Ephesians, and is described as a " magazine from
whence the Christian is furnished with spiritual arms for the
battle, helped on with his armour, and taught the use of his
weapon; together with the happy issue of the whole war."
The work is more practical than theological; and its quaint
fancy, graphic and pointed style, and its fervent religious tone
render it still popular with some readers.
See also An Inquiry into the Life of the Rev. W. Gurnall, by
H. M'Keon (1830), and a biographical introduction by Bishop Ryle
to the Christian in Complete Armour (1865).
GURNARD (Trigla), a genus of fishes forming a group of the
family of " mailed cheeks " (Triglidae), and easily recognized by
three detached finger-like appendages in front of the pectoral fins,
and by their large, angular, bony head, the sides of which are
protected by strong, hard and rough bones. The pectoral
appendages are provided with strong nerves, and serve not only
as organs of locomotion when the fish moves on the bottom, but
also as organs of touch, by which it detects small animals on
which it feeds. Gurnards are coast-fishes, generally distributed
over the tropical and temperate areas; of the forty species
known six occur on the coast of Great Britain, viz. the red
Trigla pleuracanthica.
gurnard (T. pint), the streaked gurnard ( T. lineata), the sapphirine
gurnard ( T. hirundo), the grey gurnard ( T. gurnardus), the piper
(T. lyra) and the long-finned gurnard (7\ obscura or T. lucerna).
Although never found very far from the coast, gurnards descend
to depths of several hundred fathoms; and as they are bottom-
fish they are caught chiefly by means of the trawl. Not rarely,
however, they may be seen floating on the surface of the water,
with their broad, finely coloured pectoral fins spread out like
fans. In very young fishes, which abound in certain localities
on the coast in the months of August and September, the pectorals
are comparatively much longer than in the adult, extending to
the end of the body; they are beautifully coloured and kept
expanded, the little fishes looking like butterflies. When caught
and taken out of the water, gurnards emit a grunting noise,
which is produced by the vibrations of a diaphragm situated
transversely across the cavity of the bladder and perforated in
the centre. This grunting noise gave rise to the name " gur-
nard," which is probably an adaptation or variation of the Fr.
grognard, grumbler, cf. the Fr. grondin, gurnard, from gronder,
and Ger. Knurrfisch. Their flesh is very white, firm and whole-
some.
GURNET, the name of a philanthropic English family of
bankers and merchants, direct descendants of Hugh de Gournay,
lord of Gournay, one of the Norman noblemen who accompanied
William the Conqueror to England. Large grants of land were
made to Hugh de Gournay in Norfolk and Suffolk, and Norwich
has since that time been the headquarters of the family, the
majority of whom were Quakers. Here in 1770 the brothers
John and Henry Gurney founded a banking-house, the business
passing in 1779 to Henry's son, Bartlett Gurney. On the death of
Bartlett Gurney in 1802 the bank became the property of his
three cousins, of whom John Gurney (1 750-1809) was the most
remarkable. One of his daughters was Elizabeth Fry; another
married Sir Thomas Fowell Buxton. Of his sons one was Joseph
John Gurney (i 788-1847), a well-known philanthropist of the
day; another, Samuel Gurney (1786-1856) assumed on his
father's death the control of the Norwich bank. Samuel Gurney
also took over about the same time the control of the London bill-
broking business of Richardson, Overend & Company, in which
he was already a partner. This business had been founded in
1800 by Thomas Richardson, clerk to a London bill-discounter,
and John Overend, chief clerk in the bank of Smith, Payne &
Company at Nottingham, the Gurneys supplying the capital.
At that time bill-discounting was carried on in a spasmodic
fashion by the ordinary merchant in addition to his regular
business, but Richardson considered that there was room for a
London house which should devote itself entirely to the trade in
bills. This, at that time, novel idea proved an instant success.
The title of the firm was subsequently changed to Overend,
Gurney & Company, and for forty years it was the greatest
discounting-house in the world. During the financial crisis of
1825 Overend, Gurney & Company were able to make short
loans to many other bankers. The house indeed became known as
" the bankers' banker," and secured many of the previous clients
of the Bank of England. Samuel Gurney died in 1856. He was
a man of very charitable disposition, and during the latter years
of his life charitable and philanthropic undertakings almost
monopolized his attention. In 1865 the business of Overend,
Gurney & Company, which had come under less competent
control, was converted into a joint stock company, but in 1866
the firm suspended payment with liabilities amounting to eleven
millions sterling.
GURNEY, EDMUND (1847-1888), English psychologist, was
born at Hersham, near Walton-on-Thames, on the 23rd of March
1847. He was educated at Blackheath and at Trinity College,
Cambridge, where he took a high place in the classical tripos and
obtained a fellowship. His work for the schools was done, says
his friend F. W. H. Myers, " in r the intervals of his practice on the
piano." Dissatisfied with his own executive skill as a musician,
he wrote The Power of Sound (1880), an essay on the philosophy
of music. He then studied medicine with no intention of practis-
ing, devoting himself to physics, chemistry and physiology. In
1880 he passed the second M.B. Cambridge examination in the
science of the healing profession. These studies, and his great
logical powers and patience in the investigation of evidence, he
devoted to that outlying field of psychology which is called
" Psychical Research." He asked whether, as universal tradition
declares, there is an unexplored region of human faculty trans-
cending the normal limitations of sensible knowledge. That
there is such a region it was part of the system of Hegel to declare,
and the subject had been metaphysically treated by Hartmann,
Schopenhauer, Du Prel, Hamilton and others, as the philosophy
GURWOOD— GUSTAVUS I. ERIKSSON
733
of the Unconscious or Subconscious. But Gurney's purpose was
to approach the subject by observation and experiment, especially
in the hypnotic field, whereas vague and ill-attested anecdotes
had hitherto been the staple of the evidence of metaphysicians.
The tendency of his mind was to investigate whatever facts may
give a colour of truth to the ancient belief in the persistence of the
conscious human personality after the death of the body. Like
Joseph Glanvill's, the natural bent of Gurney 's mind was sceptical.
Both thought the current and traditional reports of supernormal
occurrences suggestive and worth investigating by the ordinary
methods of scientific observation, and inquisition into evidence
at first hand. But the method of Gurney was, of course, much
more strict than that of the author of Sadducismus Triumphatus,
and it included hypnotic and other experiments unknown to
Glanvill. Gurney began at what he later saw was the wrong end
by studying, with Myers, the " seances " of professed spiritualistic
" mediums " (1874-1878). Little but detection of imposture
came of this, but an impression was left that the subject ought
not to be abandoned. In 1882 the Society for Psychical Research
was founded. (See Psychical Research.) Paid mediums were
discarded, at least for the time, and experiments were made in
" thought-transference " and hypnotism. Personal evidence as
to uninduced hallucinations was also collected. The first results
are embodied in the volumes of Phantasms of the Living, a vast
collection (Podmore, Myers and Gurney), and in Gurney 's
remarkable essay, Hallucinations. The chief consequence was
to furnish evidence for the process called "telepathy," involving
the provisional hypothesis that one human mind can affect
another through no recognized channel of sense. The fact was
supposed to be established by the experiments chronicled in the
Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research, and it was
argued that similar experiences occurred spontaneously, as, for
example, in the many recorded instances of " deathbed wraiths "
among civilized and savage races. (Tylor, Primitive Culture, i.
chapter xi., especially pp. 449-450, 1873. Lang, Making of
Religion, pp. 120-124, 1898.) The dying man is supposed
to convey the hallucination of his presence as one living
person experimentally conveys his thought to another, by
" thought - transference." Gurney's hypnotic experiments,
marked by great exactness, patience and ingenuity, were under-
taken in 1885-1888. Their tendency was, in Myers's words,
" to prove — so far as any one operator's experience in this protean
subject can be held to prove anything — that there is sometimes,
in the induction of hypnotic phenomena, some agency at work
which is neither ordinary nervous stimulation (monotonous or
sudden) nor suggestion conveyed by any ordinary channel to the
subject's mind. " These results, if accepted, of course corroborate
the idea of telepathy. (See Gurney, 4 ' Hypnotism and Telepathy,"
Proceedings S.P.R. vol. iv.) Experiments by MM. Gibert, Janet,
Richet, HSricourt and others are cited as tending in the same
direction. Other experiments dealt with " the relation of the
memory in the hypnotic state to the memory in another hypnotic
state, and of both to the normal or waking memory." The result
of Gurney 's labours, cut short by his ear^y death, was to raise and
strengthen the presumption that there exists an unexplored
region of human faculty which ought not to be neglected by
science as if the belief in it were a mere survival of savage super-
stition. Rather, it appears to have furnished the experiences
which, misinterpreted, are expressed in traditional beliefs.
That Gurney was credulous and easily imposed upon those who
knew him, and knew his penetrating humour, cannot admit;
nor is the theory likely to be maintained by those whom bias
does not prevent from studying with care his writings. In con-
troversy " he delighted in replying with easy courtesy to attacks
envenomed with that odium plus quant theologicum which the
very allusion to a ghost or the human soul seems in some philo-
sophers to inspire." In discussion of themes unpopular and
obscure Gurney displayed the highest tact, patience, good
temper, humour and acuteness. There never was a more dis-
interested student. In addition to his work on music and his
psychological writings, he was the author of Tertium Quid
(1887), a collection of essays, on the whole a protest against one-
sided ideas and methods of discussion. He died at Brighton on
23rd June 1888, from the effects of an overdose of narcotic
medicine. (A. L.)
GURWOOD, JOHN (1790-1845), British soldier, began his
career in a merchant's office, but soon obtained an ensigncy in
the 52nd (1808). With his regiment he served in the " Light
Division " of Wellington's army throughout the earlier Penin-
sular campaigns, and at Ciudad Rodrigo (19th Jan. 181 2) he
led one of the forlorn hopes and was severely wounded. For his
gallant conduct on this occasion Wellington presented Gurwood
with the sword of the French governor of Ciudad Rodrigo. A
little later, transferring to the 9th Light Dragoons, he was made
brigade-major to the Guards' cavalry which had just arrived in
the Peninsula. In the latter part of the war he served as brigade-
major to Lambert's brigade of the sixth infantry division, and
was present at the various actions in which that division played
a conspicuous part — the Nivelle, the Nive, Orthes and Toulouse.
At Waterloo Captain Gurwood was for the third time severely
wounded. In the first twelve years of the peace he was pro-
moted up to the grade of lieu t. -colonel, and in 184 1 became
brevet-colonel. He was for many years the duke of Wellington's
private secretary, and was entrusted by him with the collection
and editing of the Wellington Despatches,' which occupied Gur-
wood from 1837 to the end of his life. This work is a monument
of industrious skill, and earned its author a Civil List Pension of
£200. But overwork and the effects of his wounds had broken
his health, and he committed suicide on Christmas day 1845.
He was a C.B. and deputy-lieutenant of the Tower.
GUSLA, or Gusli, an ancient stringed instrument still in use
among the Slavonic races. The modern Servian gusla is a kind
of tanbur (see Pandura), consisting of a round, concave body
covered with a parchment soundboard; there is but one horse-
hair string, and the peg for tuning it is inserted in oriental fashion
in the back of the head. The gusla is played with a primitive
bow called goudalo. The gouslars or blind bards of Servia and
Croatia use it to accompany their chants. C. G. Anton 1 men-
tions an instrument of that name in the shape of a half-moon
strung with eighteen strings in use among the Tatars. Prosper
Merim6e ? has taken the gusla as the title for a book of Servian
poems, which are supposed to have been collected by him among
the peasants, but which are thought to have been inspired by the
Viaggio in Dalmazia of Albarto Fortis.
Among the Russians, the gusli is an instrument of a different
type, a kind of psaltery having five or more strings stretched
across a flat, shallow sound-chest in the shape of a wing. In the
gusli the strings, of graduated length, are attached to little nails
or pins at one end, and at the other they are wound over a rod
having screw attachments for increasing and slackening the
tension. There is no bridge to determine the vibrating length of
the strings. The body of the instrument is shaped roughly like
the tail of the grand piano, following the line of the strings; the
longest being at the left of the instrument. Matthew Guthrie
gives an illustration of the gusli. 8 (K. S.)
GUSTAVUS I. ERIKSSON (1496-1560), king of Sweden, was
born at his mother's estate at Lindholm on Ascension Day 1496.
He came of a family which had shone conspicuously in 15th-
century politics, though it generally took the anti-national side.
His father, Erik Johansson of Rydboholm, " a merry and jocose
gentleman," but, like all the Swedish Vasas, liable to sudden
fierce gusts of temper, was one of the senators who voted for the
deposition of Archbishop Trolle, at the riksdag of 151 7 (see
Sweden, History), for which act of patriotism he lost his head.
Gustavus's mother, Cecilia Mansdatter, was closely connected
by marriage with the great Sture family. Gustavus's youthful
experiences impressed him with a life-long distrust of everything
Danish. In his eighteenth year he was sent to the court of his
cousin Sten Sture. At the battle of Brannkyrka, when Sture
1 Erste Linien tines Versuchs uber den Ursprung der alien Slaven
(Leipzig, 1783-1789), p. 145.
2 La Guzla, ou choix de poisies lyriques recueillies dans la D alma tie,
la Bosnie, la Croatie, &c. (Paris, 1827).
8 Dissertations sur les antiouiUs de Russie (St Petersburg, 1795),
pi. ii. No. 9, p. 31.
734
GUSTAVUS I. ERIKSSON
defeated Christian II. of Denmark, the young Gustavus bore the
governor's standard, and in the same year (1518) he was delivered
with five other noble youths as a hostage to King Christian, who
treacherously carried him prisoner to Denmark. "He was
detained for twelve months in the island fortress of Kalo, on the
east coast of Jutland, but contrived to escape to Lubeck in
September 1519. There he found an asylum till the 20th of May
1520, when he chartered a ship to Kalmar, one of the few Swedish
fortresses which held out against Christian II.
It was while hunting near Lake Malar that the news of the
Stockholm massacre was brought to him by a peasant fresh from
. the capital, who told him, at the same time, that a price had been
set upon his head. In his extremity, Gustavus saw only one
way of deliverance, an appeal for help to the sturdy yeomen of the
dales. How the dalesmen set Gustavus on the throne and how
he and they finally drove the Danes out of Sweden (1521-1523)
is elsewhere recorded (see Sweden: History). But his worst
troubles only began after his coronation on the 6th of June 1523.
The financial position of the crown was the most important of all
the problems demanding solution, for upon that everything else
depended. By releasing his country from the tyranny of
Denmark, Gustavus had made the free independent development
of Sweden a possibility. It was for him to realize that possibility.
First of all, order had to be evolved from the chaos in which
Sweden had been plunged by the disruption of the Union; and
the shortest, perhaps the only, way thereto was to restore the
royal authority, which had been in abeyance during ninety years.
But an effective reforming monarchy must stand upon a sound
financial basis; and the usual revenues of the crown, always
inadequate, were so diminished that they did not cover half the
daily expenses of government. New taxes could only be imposed
with extreme caution, while the country was still bleeding from
the wounds of a long war. And men were wanted even more
than money. The lack of capable, trustworthy administrators
in Sweden was grievous. The whole burden of government
weighed exclusively on the shoulders of the new king, a young
man of seven and twenty. Half his time was taken up in
travelling from one end of the kingdom to the other, and doing
purely clerical work for want of competent" assistance. We can
form some idea of his difficulties when we learn that, in 1533, he
could not send an ambassador to Lubeck because not a single
man in his council, except himself, knew German. It was this
lack of native talent which compelled Gustavus frequently to
employ the services of foreign adventurers like Berent von
Mehlen, John von Hoja, Konrad von Pyhy and others.
It was not the least of Gustavus's many anxieties, that he had
constantly to be on the watch lest a formidable democratic rival
should encroach on his prerogative. That rival was the Swedish
peasantry. He succeeded indeed in putting down the four
formidable rebellions which convulsed the realm from 1525 to
1542, but the consequent strain upon his resources was very
damaging, and more than once he was on the point of abdicating
and emigrating, out of sheer weariness. Moreover he was in con-
stant fear of the Danes. Necessity compelled him indeed (1534-
1536) to take part in Grevensfejde (Counts' War) (see Denmark,
History), as the ally of Christian III., but his exaggerated
distrust of the Danes was invincible. " We advise and exhort
you," he wrote to the governor of Kalmar, " to put no hope or
trust in the Danes, or in their sweet scribbling, inasmuch as they
mean nothing at all by it except how best they may deceive and
betray us Swedes." Such instructions were not calculated to
promote confidence between Swedish and Danish negotiators.
A fresh cause of dispute was generated in 1548, when Christian
III.'s daughter was wedded to Duke Augustus of Saxony. On
that occasion, apparently by way of protest against the decree of
the diet of Vesteras (15th of January 1544), declaring the
Swedish crown hereditary in Gustavus's family, the Danish king
caused to be quartered on his daughter's shield not only the three
Danish lions and the Norwegian lion with the axe of St Olaf , but
also " the three crowns " of Sweden. Gustayus, naturally
suspicious, was much perturbed by the innovation, and warned
all his border officials to be watchful and prepare for the worst.
In 1557 he even wrote to the Danish king protesting against the
placing of " the three crowns " in the royal Danish seal beneath
the arms of Denmark. Christian III. replied that " the three
crowns " signified not Sweden in especial, but the three Scan-
dinavian kingdoms, and that their insertion in the Danish shield
was only a reminiscence of the union of Kalmar. But Gustavus
was not satisfied, and this was the beginning of " the three
crowns " dispute which did so much damage to both kingdoms.
The events which led to the rupture of Gustavus with the Holy
See are set forth in the proper place (see Sweden: History).
Here it need only be added that it was a purely political act, as
Gustavus, personally, had no strong dogmatic leanings either
way. He not unnaturally expressed his amazement when that
very juvenile reformer Olavus Petri confidently informed him
that the pope was antichrist. He consulted the older and graver
Lauren tius Andreae, who told him how " Doctor Martinus had
clipped the wings of the pope, the cardinals and the big bishops,"
which could not fail to be pleasing intelligence to a monarch who
was never an admirer of episcopacy, while the rich revenues of the
church, accumulated in the course of centuries, were a tempting
object to the impecunious ruler of an impoverished people.
Subsequently, when the Protestant hierarchy was forcibly
established in Sweden, matters Were much complicated by the
absolutist tendencies of Gustavus. The incessant labour, the
constant anxiety, which were the daily portion of Gustavus Vasa
during the seven and thirty years of his reign, told at last even
upon his magnificent constitution. In the spring of 1560,
conscious of an ominous decline of his powers, Gustavus sum-
moned his last diet, to give an account of his stewardship. On
the 1 6th of June 1 560 the assembly met at Stockholm. Ten days
later, supported by his sons, Gustavus greeted the estates in the
great hall of the palace, when he took a retrospect of his reign,
reminding them of the misery of the kingdom during the union
and its deliverance from " that unkind tyrant, King Christian."
Four days later the diet passed a resolution confirming the
hereditary right of Gustavus's son, Prince Eric, to the throne.
The old king's last anxieties were now over and he could die in
peace. He expired on the 29th of September 1560.
Gustavus was thrice married. His first wife, Catherine,
daughter of Magnus I., duke of Saxe-Lauenburg, bore him in
1 533 his eldest son Eric. This union was neither long nor happy,
but the blame for its infelicity is generally attributed to the lady,
whose abnormal character was reflected and accentuated in her
unhappy son. Much more fortunate was Gustavus's second
marriage, a year after the death of his first consort, with his own
countrywoman, Margaret Lejonhufvud, who bore him five sons
and five daughters, of whom three sons, John, Magnus and
Charles, and one daughter, Cecilia, survived their childhood.
Queen Margaret died in 155 1; and a twelvemonth later
Gustavus wedded her niece, Catharine Stenbock, a handsome
girl of sixteen, who survived him more than sixty years.
Gustavus's outward appearance in the prime of life is thus
described by a contemporary; " He was of the middle
height, with a round head, light yellow hair, a fine long beard,
sharp eyes, a ruddy countenance . . . and a body as fitly and
well proportioned as any painter could have painted it. He was
of a sanguine-choleric temperament, and when untroubled and
un vexed a bright and cheerful gentleman, easy to get on with,
and however many peoplehappened to be in the same room with
him, he was never at a loss for an answer to every one of them."
Learned he was not, but he had naturally bright and clear under-
standing, an unusually good memory, and a marvellous capacity
for taking pains. He was also very devout, and his morals were
irreproachable. On the other hand, Gustavus had his full share
of the family failings of irritability and suspiciousness, the latter
quality becoming almost morbid under the pressure of adverse
circumstances. His energy too not infrequently degenerated
into violence, and when crossed he was apt to be tyrannical.
See A. Alberg, Gustavus Vasa and his Times (London, 1882);
R. N. Bain, Scandinavia, chaps. iii, and v. (Cambridge, 1905);
P. B. Watson, The Swedish Revolution under Gustavus Vasa (London,
1889); 0. Sjogren, Gustaf Vasa (Stockholm, 1896); C. M. Butler,
GUSTAVUS II. ADOLPHUS
735 1
The Reformation in Sweden (New York, 1883); Svetiges Historia
(Stockholm, 1877-1881); J. Weidline, Sckwediscke Geschichie itn
Zeitalter der Reformation (Gotha, 1882). (R. N. B.)
GUSTAVUS IL ADOLPHUS (1594-1632), king of Sweden,
the eldest son of Charles IX. and of Christina, daughter of
Adolphus, duke of Holstein-Gottorp, was born at Stockholm
castle on the 9th of December 1594. From the first he was
carefully nurtured to be the future prop of Protestantism by his
austere parents. Gustavus was well grounded in the classics,
and his linguistic accomplishments were extraordinary. He may
be said to have grown up with two mother-tongues, Swedish and
German; at twelve he had mastered Latin, Italian and Dutch;
and he learnt subsequently to express himself in Spanish, Russian
and Polish. But his practical father took care that he should
grow up a prince, not a pedant. So early as his ninth year he was
introduced to public life; at thirteen he received petitions and
conversed officially with the foreign ministers; at fifteen he
administered his duchy of Vestmanland and opened the Oiebro
diet with a speech from the throne; indeed from 16 10 he may be
regarded as his father's co-regent. In all martial and chivalrous
accomplishments he was already an adept; and when, a year
later, he succeeded to supreme power, his superior ability was as
uncontested as it was incontestable.
The first act of the young king was to terminate the frat-
ricidal struggle with Denmark by the peace of Knared (28th
of January 1 6 1 3) . Simultaneously, another war, also an heritage
from Charles IX., had been proceeding in the far distant regions
round lakes Ilmen, Peipus and Ladoga, with Great Novgorod as
its centre. It was not, however, like the Danish War, a national
danger, but a political speculation meant to be remunerative and
compensatory, and was concluded very advantageously for Sweden
by the peace of Stolbova on the 27th of February 1617 (see
Sweden : History) . By this peace Gustavus succeeded in exclud-
ing Muscovy from the Baltic. '* I hope to God," he declared, to
the Stockholm diet in 161 7, when he announced the conclusion of
peace, " that the Russians will feel it a bit difficult to skip over
that little brook." The war with Poland which Gustavus re-
sumed in 162 1 was a much more difficult affair. It began with an
attack upon Riga as the first step towards conquering Livonia.
Riga was invested on the 13 th of August and surrendered on the
15th of September; on the 3rd. of October Mitau was occupied;
but so great were the ravages of sickness during the campaign
that the Swedish army had to be reinforced by no fewer than
1 0,000 men. A truce was thereupon concluded and hostilities
were suspended till the summer of 1625, in the course of which
Gustavus took Kokenhusen and invaded Lithuania. In January
1626 he attacked the Poles at Walhof and scattered the whole of
their army after slaying a fifth part of it. This victory, remark-
able besides as Gustavus's first pitched battle, completed the
conquest of Livonia. As, however, it became every year more
difficult to support an army in the Dvina district, Gustavus now
resolved to transfer the war to the Prussian provinces of Poland
with a view to securing the control of the Vistula, as he had already
secured the control of the Dvina. At the end of 1626, the
Swedish fleet, with 14,000 men on board, anchored in front of the
chain of sand-dunes which separates the Frische-Haff from the
Baltic. Pillau, the only Baltic port then accessible to ships of
war, was at once occupied, and Konigsberg shoitly afterwards
was scared into an unconditional neutrality. July was passed in
conquering the bishopric of Ermeland. The surrender of Elbing
and Marienburg placed Gustavus in possession of the fertile and
easily defensible delta of the Vistula, wjiich he treated as a
permanent conquest, making Axel Oxenstjerna its first governor-
general. Communications between Danzig and the sea were cut
off by the erection of the first of Gustavus's famous entrenched
camps at Dirschau. From the -end of August 1626 the city was
blockaded, and in the meantime Polish irregulars,' under the
capable Stanislaus Koniecpolski, began to harass the Swedes.
But the object of the campaign, a convenient basis of operations,
was won; and in. October the king departed to Sweden to get
reinforcements. He returned in May 1627 with 7000 men,
which raised his forces to 14,000, against which Koniecpolski
could only oppose 9000. But his superior strategy frustrated all
the efforts of the Swedish king, who in the course of the year was
twice dangerously wounded and so disabled that he could never
wear armour again. Gustavus had made extensive preparations
for the ensuing campaign and took the field with 32,000 men.
But once again, though far outnumbered, and unsupported by
his own government, the Polish grand-hetman proved more than
a match for Gustavus, who, on the 10th of September, broke up
his camp and returned to Prussia; the whole autumn campaign
had proved a failure and cost him 5000 men. During the ensuing
campaign of 1629 Gustavus had to contend against the combined
forces of Koniecpolski and 10,000 of Waflenstein's mercenaries.
The Polish commander now showed the Swedes what he could do
with adequate forces. At Stuhm, on the 29th of June, he
defeated Gustavus, who lost most of his artillery and narrowly
escaped capture. The result of the campaign was the conclusion
of the six years' truce of Altmark, which was very advantageous
to Sweden.
And now Gustavus turned his attention to Germany. The
motives which induced the Swedish king to intervene directly in
the Thirty Years' War are told us by himself in his correspondence
with Oxenstjerna. Here he says plainly that it was the fear lest
the emperor should acquire the Baltic ports and proceed to build
up a sea-power dangerous to Scandinavia. For the same reason,
the king rejected the chancellor's alternative of waging a simply
defensive war against the emperor by means of the fleet, with
Stralsund as his base. He was convinced by the experience of
Christian IV. of Denmark that the enemies' harbours could be
wrested from them only by a successful offensive war on land;
and, while quite alive to the risks of such an enterprise in the
face of two large armies, Tilly's and Wallenstein's, each of them
larger than his own, he argued that the vast extent of territory
and the numerous garrisons which the enemy was obliged to
maintain, more than neutralized his numerical superiority.
Merely to blockade all the German ports with the Swedish fleet
was equally impossible. The Swedish fleet was too weak for
that; it would be safer to take and fortify the pick of them. In
Germany itself, if he once got the upper hand, he would not find
himself without resources. It is no enthusiastic crusader, but an
anxious and farseeing if somewhat speculative statesman who
thus opens his mind to us. No doubt religious considerations
largely influenced Gustavus. He had the deepest sympathy for
his fellow-Protestants in Germany; he regarded them as God's
peculiar people, himself as their divinely appointed deliverer.
But his first duty was to Sweden; and, naturally and rightly,
he viewed the wjiole business from a predominantly Swedish
point of view. Lutherans and Calvinists were to be delivered
from a " soul-crushing tyranny "; but they were to be delivered
by a foreign if friendly power; and that power claimed as her
reward the hegemony of Protestant Europe and all the political
privileges belonging to that exalted position.
On the 19th of May 1630 Gustavus solemnly took leave of the
estates of the realm assembled at Stockholm. He appeared
before them holding in his arms his only child and heiress, the
little princess Christina, then in her fourth year, and tenderly
committed her to the care of his loyal and devoted people. Then
he solemnly took the estatefs to witness, as he stood there " in the
sight of the Almighty," that he had begun hostilities " out of no
lust for war, as many will certainly devise and imagine," but in
self-defence and to deliver his fellow- Christians from oppression.
On the 7th of June 1630 the Swedish fleet set sail, and two days
after midsummer day, the whole army, 16,000 strong, was
disembarked at Peenemtihde. Gustavus's plan was to take
possession of the mouths of the Oder Haff, and, resting upon
Stralsund in the west and Prussia in the east, penetrate into
Germany. In those days rivers were what railways now are, the
great military routes; and Gustavus's German war was a war
waged along river lines. The opening campaign was to be fought
along the Hne of the Oder. Stettin, the capital of Pomerania,
and the key of the Oder line, was occupied and converted into a
first-class fortress. He then proceeded to clear Pomerania of the
piebald imperial host composed of every nationality under
73&
GUSTAVUS III.
heaven, and officered by Italians, Irishmen, Czechs, Croats,
Danes, Spaniards and Walloons. Gustavus's army has often
been described by German historians as an army of foreign
invaders; in reality it was far more truly Teutonic than the
official defenders of Germany at that period. Gustavus's
political difficulties (see Sweden: History) chained him to his
camp for the remainder of the year. But the dismissal of
Wallenstein and the declaration in Gustavus's favour of Magde-
burg, the greatest city in the Lower Saxon Circle, and strate-
gically the strongest fortress of North Germany, encouraged him
to advance boldly. But first, honour as well as expediency
moved him to attempt to relieve Magdeburg, now closely invested
by the imperialists, especially as his hands had now been con-
siderably strengthened by a definite alliance with France (treaty
of Barwalde, 13th of January 1631). Magdeburg, therefore,
became the focus of the whole campaign of 1631; but the
obstructive timidity of the electors of Brandenburg and Saxony
threw insuperable obstacles in his way, and, on the very day
when John George I. of Saxony closed his gates against Gustavus
the most populous and prosperous city in North Germany
became a heap of smoking ruins (20th of May). Gustavus, still
too weak to meet the foe, entrenched himself at Werben, at the
confluence of the Havel and Elbe. Only on the 1 2th of September
did the elector of Saxony, alarmed for the safety of his own
states, now invaded by the emperor, place himself absolutely at
the disposal of Gustavus; and, five days later, at the head of the
combined Swedish-Saxon army, though the Swedes did all the
fighting, Gustavus routed Tilly at the famous battle of Breiten-
feld, north of Leipzig.
The question now was: In what way should Gustavus utilize
his advantage? Should he invade the Austrian crown lands,
and dictate peace to Ferdinand II. at the gates of Vienna? Or
should he pursue Tilly westwards and crush the league at its own
hearth and home? Oxenstjerna was the first alternative,
but Gustavus decided in favour of the second. His decision has
been greatly blamed. More than one modern historian has
argued that if Gustavus had done in 1631 what Napoleon did in
1805 and 1809, there would have been a fifteen instead of a thirty
years 1 war. But it should be borne in mind that, in the days of
Gustavus, Vienna was by no means so essential to the existence
of the Habsburg monarchy as it was in the days of Napoleon;
and even Gustavus could not allow so dangerous an opponent as
Tilly time to recover himself. Accordingly, he set out for the
Rhine, taking Marienberg and Frankfort on his way, and on the
aoth of December entered Mainz, where he remained throughout
the winter of 1631-1632. At the beginning of 1632, in order to
bring about the general peace he so earnestly desired, he proposed
to take the field with an overwhelming numerical majority. The
signal for Gustavus to break up from the Rhine was the sudden
advance of Tilly from behind the Danube. Gustavus pursued
Tilly into Bavaria, forced the passage of the Danube at Donau-
wdrth and the passage of the Lech, in the face of Tilly's strongly
entrenched camp at Rain, and pursued the flying foe to the
fortress of Ingolstadt where Tilly died of his wounds a fortnight
later. Gustavus then liberated and garrisoned the long-oppressed
Protestant cities of Augsburg and Ulm, and in May occupied
Munich. The same week Wallenstein chased John George from
Prague and manoeuvred the Saxons out of Bohemia. Then,
armed as he was with plenipotentiary power, he offered the
elector of Saxony peace on his own terms. Gustavus suddenly
saw himself exposed to extreme peril. If Tilly had made John
George such an offer as Wallenstein was now empowered to
make, the elector would never have become Gustavus's ally;
would he remain Gustavus's ally now? Hastily quitting his
quarters in Upper Swabia, Gustavus hastened towards Nurem-
berg on his way to Saxony, but finding that Wallenstein and
Maximilian of Bavaria had united their forces, he abandoned the
attempt to reach Saxony, and both armies confronted each
other at Nuremberg which furnished Gustavus with a point of
support of the first order. He quickly converted the town into
an entrenched and fortified camp. Wallenstein followed the
king's example, and entrenched himself on the western bank of
the Regnitz in a camp twelve English miles in circumference.
His object was to pin Gustavus fast to Nuremberg and cut off his
retreat northwards. Throughout July and August the two
armies faced each other immovably. On the 24th of August,
after an unsuccessful attempt to storm Alte Veste, the key of
Wallenstein *s position, the Swedish host retired southwards.
Towards the end of October, Wallenstein, after devastating
Saxony, was preparing to go into winter quarters at Liitzen,
when the king surprised him as he was crossing the Rippach
(1st of November) and a rearguard action favourable to the
Swedes ensued. Indeed, but for nightfall, Wallenstein's scattered
forces might have been routed. During the night, however,
Wallenstein re-collected his host for a decisive action, and at day-
break on the 6th of November^ while an autumn mist still lay
over the field, the battle began. It was obviously Gustavus's plan
to drive Wallenstein away from the Leipzig road, north of which
he had posted himself, and thus, in case of success, to isolate, and
subsequently, with the aid of the Saxons in the Elbe fortresses,
annihilate him. The king, on the Swedish right wing, succeeded
in driving the enemy from the trenches and capturing his cannon.
What happened after that is mere conjecture, for a thick mist
now obscured the autumn sun, and the battle became a colossal
me!6e the details of which are indistinguishable. It was in the
midst of that awful obscurity that Gustavus met his death — how
or where is not absolutely certain; but it would seem that he
lost his way in the darkness while leading the Smaland horse to
the assistance of his infantry, and was despatched as he lay
severely wounded on the ground by a hostile horseman.
By lis wife, Marie Eleonora, a sister of the elector of Branden-
burg, whom he married in 1620, Gustavus Adolphus had one
daughter, Christina, who succeeded him on the throne of Sweden.
See Sveriges Historia (Stockholm, 1877, 81), vol. iv.; A. Oxen-
stjerna, Skrifter och Brefvexling (Stockholm, 1900, &c.) ; G. Bjorlen,
Gustaf Adolf (Stockholm, 1890) ; R. N. Bain, Scandinavia (Cam-
bridge, 1905); C. R. L. Fletcher, Gustavus Adolphus (London,
1892) ; J. L. Stevens, History of Gustavus Adolphus (London, 1885) ;
J. Mankell, Om Gustaf II. Adolf s politik (Stockholm, 1881); E.
Bluemel, Gustav Adolf, Kdnig von Schweden (Eisleben, 1894); A.
Rydfors, De diplomatiska fdrbindelserna meUan Sverige och England
1024-1630 (Upsala, 1890). (R. N. B.)
GUSTAVUS III. (1746-1792), king of Sweden, was the eldest
son of Adolphus Frederick, king of Sweden, and Louisa Ulrica of
Prussia, sister of Frederick the Great, and was born on the 24th
of January 1746. Gustavus was educated under the care of two
governors who were amongst the most eminent Swedish states-
men of the day, Carl Gustaf Tessin and Carl Scheffer; but he
owed most perhaps to the poet and historian Olof von Dalin.
The interference of the state with his education, when he was
quite a child, was, however, doubly harmful, as his parents
taught him to despise the preceptors imposed upon him by the
diet, and the atmosphere of intrigue and duplicity in which he
grew up made him precociously experienced in the art of dissimu-
lation. But even his most hostile teachers were amazed by the
brilliance of his natural gifts, and, while still a boy, he possessed
that charm of manner which was to make him so fascinating and
so dangerous in later life, coupled with the strong dramatic
instinct which won for him his honourable place in Swedish
literature. On the whole, Gustavus cannot be said to have been
well educated, but he read very widely; there was scarce a
French author of his day with whose works he was not intimately
acquainted; while his enthusiasm for the new French ideas of
enlightenment was as sincere as, if more critical than, his
mother's. On the 4th of November 1766, Gustavus married
Sophia Magdalena, daughter of Frederick V. of Denmark. The
match was an unhappy one, owing partly to incompatibility of
temper, but still more to the mischievous interference of the
jealous queen-mother.
Gustavus first intervened actively in politics in 1768, at the
time of his father's interregnum, when he compelled the dominant
Cap faction to summon an extraordinary diet from which he
hoped for the reform of the constitution in a monarchical direction.
But the victorious Hats refused to redeem the pledges which they
had given before the elections. " That we should have lost the
GUSTAVOS III.
737
constitutional battle does not distress us so much/' wrote
Gustavus, in the bitterness of his heart; "but what does dismay
me is to see my poor nation so sunk in corruption as to place its
own felicity in absolute anarchy." From the 4th of February to
the 25th of March 1771, Gustavus was at Paris, where he carried
both the court and the city by storm. The poets and the philo-
sophers paid him enthusiastic homage, and all the distinguished
women of the day testified to his superlative merits. With many
of them he maintained a lifelong correspondence. But his visit
to the French capital was no mere pleasure trip; it was also a
political mission. Confidential agents from the Swedish court
had already prepared the way for him, and the due de Choiseul,
weary of Swedish anarchy, had resolved to discuss with him the
best method of bringing about a revolution in Sweden. Before
he departed, the French government undertook to pay the out^
standing subsidies to Sweden unconditionally, at the rate of one
and a half million livres annually; and the comte de Vergennes,
one of the great names of French diplomacy, was transferred
from Constantinople to Stockholm. On his way home Gustavus
paid a short visit to his uncle, Frederick the Great, at Potsdam.
Frederick bluntly informed his nephew that, in concert with
Russia and Denmark, he had guaranteed the integrity of the
existing Swedish constitution, and significantly advised the
young monarch to play the part of mediator and abstain from
violence.
On his return to Sweden Gustavus made a sincere and earnest
attempt to mediate between the Hats and Caps who were ruining
the country between them (see Sweden: History). On the 21st
of June 1 77 1 he opened his first parliament in a speech which
awakened strange and deep emotions in all who heard it. It was
the first time for more than a century that a Swedish king had
addressed a Swedish diet from the throne in its native tongue.
The orator laid especial stress on the necessity of the sacrifice of
all party animosities to the common weal, and volunteered, as
" the first citizen of a free people," to be the mediator between
the contending factions. A composition committee was actually
formed, but it proved illusory from the first, the patriotism of
neither of the factions being equal to the puniest act of self-
denial. The subsequent attempts of the dominant Caps still
further to limit the prerogative, and reduce Gustavus to the
condition of a roi fainSant, induced him at last to consider the
possibility of a revolution. Of its necessity there could be no
doubt. Under the sway of tne Cap faction, Sweden, already the
vassal, could not fail to become the prey of Russia. She was
on the point of being absorbed in that northern system, the
invention of the Russian vice-chancellor, Count Nikita Panin,
which that patient statesman had made it the ambition of his
life to realize. Only a swift and sudden coup d f Hat could save the
independence of a country isolated from the rest of Europe by a
hostile league. At this juncture Gustavus was approached by
Jakob Magnus Sprengtporten, a Finnish nobleman of determined
character, who had incurred the enmity of the Caps, with the
project of a revolution. He undertook to seize the fortress of
Sveaborg by a 1 coup de main, and, Finland once secured, Sprengt-
porten proposed to embark for Sweden, meet the king and his
friends near Stockholm, and surprise the capital by a night
attack, when the estates were to be forced, at the point of the
bayonet, to accept a new constitution from the untrammelled
king. The plotters were at this juncture reinforced by an ex-
ranger from Scania (Skane), Johan Kristoffer Toll, also a victim
of Cap oppression. Toll proposed that a second revolt should
break out in the province of Scania, to confuse the government
still more, and undertook personally to secure the southern fortress
of Kristianstad, After some debate, it was finally arranged
that, a few days after the Finnish revolt had begun, Kristianstad
should openly declare against the government. Prince Charles,
the eldest of the king's brothers, was thereupon hastily to mobilize
the garrisons of all the southern fortresses, for the ostensible
purpose of crushing the revolt at Kristianstad; l>ut on arriving
before the fortress he was to make common cause with the rebels,
and march upon the capital from the south, while Sprerigtporten
attacked it simultaneously from the east: On the 6th of August
1772 Toll succeeded, by sheer bluff, in winning the fortress of
Kristianstad. On the 1 6th Sprengtporten succeeded in surprising
Sveaborg. But contrary winds prevented him from crossing to
Stockholm, and in the meanwhile events had occurred which made
his presence there unnecessary.
On the 16th of August the Cap leader, Ture Rudbeck, arrived
at Stockholm with the news of the insurrection in the south,
and Gustavus found himself isolated in the midst of enemies.
Sprengtporten lay weather-bound in Finland, Toll was five
hundred miles away, the Hat leaders were in hiding. Gustavus
thereupon resolved to strike the decisive blow without waiting
for the arrival of Sprengtporten. He acted with military
promptitude. On the evening of the 18th all the officers whom
he thought he could trust received secret instructions to assemble
in the great square facing the arsenal on the following morning.
At ten o'clock on the 10th Gustavus mounted his horse and rode
straight to the arsenal. On the way his adherents joined him in
little groups, as if by accident, so that by the time he reached his
destination he had about two hundred officers in his suite. After
parade he reconducted them to the guard-room of the palace
and unfolded his plans to them. He then dictated a new oath of
allegiance, and every one signed it without hesitation . It absolved
them from their allegiance to the estates, and bound them solely
to obey their lawful king, Gustavus III. Meanwhile the senate
and the governor-general, Rudbeck, had been arrested and the
fleet secured. Then Gustavus made a tour of the city and was
everywhere received by enthusiastic crowds, who hailed him as a
deliverer. On the evening of the 20th heralds perambulated the
streets proclaiming that the estates were to meet in the Rikssaal
on the following day; every deputy absenting himself would be
regarded as the enemy of his country and his king. On the 21st,
a few moments after the estates had assembled, the king in full
regalia appeared, and taking his seat on the throne, delivered that
famous philippic, one of the masterpieces of Swedish oratory, in
which he reproached the estates for their unpatriotic venality
and licence in the past. A new constitution was recited by the
estates and accepted by them unanimously. The diet was then
dissolved.
Gustavus was inspired by a burning enthusiasm for the great-
ness and welfare of Sweden, and worked in the same reformatory
direction as the other contemporary sovereigns of the " age of
enlightenment." He took an active part in every department of
business, but relied far mote on extra-official counsellors of his
own choosing than upon the senate. The effort to remedy the
frightful corruption which had been fostered by the Hats and
Caps engaged a considerable share of his time and he even found
it necessary to put the whole of a supreme court of justice {Gbta
Hofr&tt) on its trial. Measures were also taken to reform the
administration and the whole course of judicial procedure, and
torture as an instrument of legal investigation was abolished.
In 1774 an ordinance providing for the liberty of the press was
even issued. The national defences were at the same time
developed on a " Great Power " scale, and the navy was so
enlarged as to become one of the most formidable in Europe.
The dilapidated finances were set in good order by the " currency
realization ordinance " of 1777. Gustavus also introduced new
national economic principles. In 1775 free trade in corn was
promoted and a number of oppressive export-tolls were abolished.
The poor law was also amended, absolute religious liberty was
proclaimed, and he even succeeded in inventing and popularizing
a national costume which was in general use from 1778 till his
death. His one great economic blunder was the attempt to make
the sale of spirits a government monopoly, which was an obvious
infringement upon the privileges of the estates. His foreign
policy, on the other hand, was at first both wise and wary.
Thus, when the king summoned the estates to assemble at*
Stockholm on the 3rd of September 1778, he could give a
brilliant account of his six years' stewardship. Never was a
parliament more obsequious or a king more gracious. " There
was no room for a single No during the whole session." Yet,
short as the session was, it was quite long enough to open the
eyes of the deputies to the fact that their political supremacy had
xii. 24
73»
GUSTAVUS IV.-^GUSTAVUS V.
departed. They had changed places with the king. He was now
indeed their sovereign lord; and, for all his gentleness, the
jealousy with which he guarded, the vigour with which he
enforced the prerogative, plainly showed that he meant to remain
so. Even the few who were patriotic enough to acquiesce in the
change by no means liked it. The diet of 1778 had been
obsequious; the diet of 1786 was mutinous. The consequence
was that nearly all the royal propositions were either rejected
outright or so modified that Gustavus himself withdrew
them.
The diet of 1786 marks a turning-point in Gustavus's history.
Henceforth we observe a determination on his part to rule with-
out a parliament; a passage, cautious and gradual, yet un-
flinching, from semi-constitutionalism to semi-absolutism. His
opportunity came in 1788, when the political complications
arising out of his war with Catherine II. of Russia enabled him
by the Act of Unity and Security (on the 17th of February 1789)
to override the opposition of the rebellious and grossly unpatriotic
gentry, and, with the approbation of the three lower estates,
establish a new and revolutionary constitution, in which, though
the estates still held the power of the purse, the royal authority
largely predominated. Throughout 1789 and 1790 Gustavus, in
the national interests, gallantly conducted the unequal struggle
with Russia, finally winning in the Svensksund foth-ioth July)
the most glorious naval victory ever gained by the Swedish arms,
the Russians losing one-third of their fleet and 7000 men. A
month later, on the 14th of August 1790, peace was signed
between Russia and Sweden at Varala. Only eight months
before, Catherine had haughtily declared that " the odious and
revolting aggression " of the king of Sweden would be " for-
given " only if he " testified his repentance " by agreeing to a
peace granting a general and unlimited amnesty to all his rebels,
and consenting to a guarantee by the Swedish diet (" as it would
be imprudent to confide in his good faith alone ") for the obser-
vance of peace in the future. The peace of Varala saved Sweden
from any such humiliating concession, and in October 1791
Gustavus took the bold but by no means imprudent step of con-
cluding an eight years* defensive alliance with the empress, who
thereby bound herself to pay her new ally annual subsidies
amounting to 300,000 roubles.
Gustavus now aimed at forming a league of princes against the
Jacobins, and every other consideration was subordinated
thereto. His profound knowledge of popular assemblies enabled
him, alone among contemporary sovereigns, accurately to gauge
from the first the scope and bearing of the French Revolution.
But he was hampered by poverty and the jealousy of the other
European Powers, and, after showing once more his unrivalled
mastery over masses of men at the brief Gefle diet (22nd of
January-24th of February 1792), he fell a victim to a widespread
aristocratic conspiracy. Shot in the back by Anckarstrom at a
midnight masquerade at the Stockholm opera-house, on the 16th
of March 1 792, he expired on the 29th.
Although he may be charged with many foibles and extrava-
gances, Gustavus III. was indisputably one of the greatest
sovereigns of the 18th century. Unfortunately his genius never
had full scope, and his opportunity came too late. Gustavus was,
moreover, a most distinguished author. He may be said to have
created the Swedish theatre, and some of the best acting dramas
in the literature are by his hand. His historical essays, notably
the famous anonymous eulogy on Torstenson crowned by the
Academy, are full of feeling and exquisite in style, — his letters to
his friends are delightful. Every branch of literature and art
interested him, every poet and artist of his day found in him a
most liberal and sympathetic protector.
See R. N. Bain, Gustavus III. and his Contemporaries (London,
1904); E. G. Geijer, Konung Gustaf III.'s eflerlemnade papper
(Upsala, 1 843-1845); C. T. Odhner, Sveriges pohtiska kistoria under
Konung Gustaf III.'s regering (Stockholm, 1885-1896); B. von
Beskow, Om Gustaf III. s&som Konung och mdnniska (Stockholm,
1 860-1 861); O. Levertin, Gustaf III. som dramatisk f or f attar e
(Stockholm, 1894); Gustaf III.'s bref till G. M. Armfelt (Fr.) (Stock-
holm, 1883); Y. K. Grot, Catharine II. and Gustavus III. (Russ.)
(St Petersburg, 1884).
(R. N. B.)
GUSTAVUS IV. (1 778-1837), king of Sweden, the son of
Gustavus III. and Queen Sophia Magdalena, was born at Stock-
holm on the 1st of November 1778. Carefully educated under
the direction of Nils von Rosenstein, he grew up serious and
conscientious. In August 1 796 his uncle the regent Charles, duke
of Sudermania, visited St Petersburg for the purpose of arranging
a marriage between the young king and Catherine II. 's grand-
daughter, the grand-duchess Alexandra. The betrothal was
actually fixed for the 22nd of September, when the whole
arrangement foundered on the obstinate refusal of Gustavus to
allow his destined bride liberty of worship according to the rites
of the Greek Orthodox Church — a rebuff which undoubtedly
accelerated the death of the Russian empress. Nobody seems to
have even suspected at the time that serious mental derangement
lay at the root of Gustavus's abnormal piety. On the contrary,
there were many who prematurely congratulated themselves on
the fact that Sweden had now no disturbing genius, but an
economical, God-fearing, commonplace monarch to deal with.
Gustavus's prompt dismissal of the generally detested Gustaf
Reuterholm added still further to his popularity. On the 31st of
October 1797 Gustavus married Frederica Dorothea, daughter of
Charles Frederick, grand-duke of Baden, a marriage which might
have led to a war with Russia but for the fanatical hatred of the
French republic shared by the emperor Paul and Gustavus IV.,
which served as a bond of union between them. Indeed the
king's horror of Jacobinism was morbid in its intensity, and drove
him to adopt all sorts of reactionary measures and to postpone
his coronation for some years, so as to avoid calling together a
diet; but the disorder of the finances, caused partly by the
continental war and partly by the almost total failure of the crops
in 1798 and 1799, compelled him to summon the estates to
Norrkoping in March 1800, and on the 3rd of April Gustavus was
crowned. The notable change which now took place in Sweden's
foreign policy and its fatal consequences to the country are else-
where set forth (see Sweden, History) . By the end of 1 808 it was
obvious to every thinking Swede that the king was insane. His
violence had alienated his most faithful supporters, while his
obstinate incompetence paralysed the national efforts. To
remove a madman by force was the one remaining expedient;
and this was successfully accomplished by a conspiracy of officers
of the western army, headed by Adlersparre, the Anckarsvards,
and Adlercreutz, who marched rapidly from Skane to Stockholm.
On the 13th of March 1809 seven of the conspirators broke into
the royal apartments in the palace unannounced, seized the king,
and conducted him to the chateau of Gripsholm; Duke Charles
was easily persuaded to accept the leadership of a provisional
government, which was proclaimed the same day; and a diet,
hastily summoned, solemnly approved of the revolution. On the
29th of March Gustavus, in order to save the crown for his son,
voluntarily abdicated; but on the 10th of May the estates,
dominated by the army, declared that not merely Gustavus but
his whole family had forfeited the throne. On the 5th of June
the duke regent was proclaimed king under the title of Charles
XIII., after accepting the new liberal constitution, which was
ratified by the diet the same day. In December Gustavus and
his family were transported to Germany. Gustavus now assumed
the title of count of Gottorp, but subsequently called himself
Colonel Gustafsson, under which pseudonym he wrote most of his
works. He led, separated from his family, an erratic life for
some years; was divorced from his consort in 1812; and finally
settled at St Gall in Switzerland in great loneliness and indigence.
He died on the 7th of February 1837, and, at the suggestion of
King Oscar II. his body was brought to Sweden and interred in
the Riddarholmskyrka. From him descend both the Baden and
the Oldenburg princely houses on the female side.
See H. G. Trolle-Wachtmeister, Anteckningar och minnen (Stock-
holm, 1889); B. von Beskow, Lefnadsminnen (Stockholm, 1870);
K. V. Key- Aberg, De diplomatiska forbindelserna meUan Sverige och
Storbrittannien under Gustaf IV.' sKrig emotNapoUon (Upsala, 1890) ;
Colonel Gustafsson, La Journie du treize mars, &c. (St Gall, 1835; :
Memorial des Obersten Gustafsson (Leipzig, 1829). (R. N. B.)
GUSTAVUS V. (1858- ), king of Sweden, son of Oscar II.,
king of Sweden and Norway, and Queen Sophia Wilhelmina, was
GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS UNION— GUTENBERG
739
born at Drottningholm on the 16th of June 1858. He entered the
army, and was, like his father, a great traveller. As crown prince
he held the title of duke of Wfirmland. He married in 188 1
Victoria (b. 1862), daughter of Frederick William Louis, grand
duke of Baden, and of Louise, princess of Prussia. The duchess
of Baden was the granddaughter of Sophia, princess of Sweden,
and the marriage of the crown prince thus effected a union
between the Bernadotte dynasty and the ancient Swedish royal
house of Vasa. During the absence or illness of his father
Gustavus repeatedly acted as regent, and was therefore already
thoroughly versed in public affairs when he succeeded to the
Swedish throne on the 8th of December 1907, the crown of
Norway having been separated from that of Sweden in 1905.
He took as his motto " With the people for the Fatherland."
The crown prince, Oscar Frederick William Gustavus Adolphus,
duke of Scania (b. 1882), married in 1905 Princess Margaret of
Connaught (b. 1882), niece of King Edward VII. A son was
born to them at Stockholm on the 22nd of April 1906, and another
son in the following year. The king's two younger sons were
William, duke of Sudermania (b. 1884), and Eric, duke of
Westmanland (b. 1889).
GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS UNION (Gttstav-Adolp-Stiftung,
Gustav-Adolf-Vexein, Evangelischer Verein deb. Gustav-
Adolf-Stotung), a society formed of members of the Evangelical
Protestant churches of Germany, which has for its object the aid
of feeble sister churches, especially in Roman Catholic countries.
The project of forming such a society was first broached in con-
nexion with the bicentennial celebration of the battle of Liitzen
on the 6th of November 1832; a proposal to collect funds for a
monument to Gustavus Adolphus having been agreed to, it was
suggested by Superintendent Grossmann that the best memorial
to the great champion of Protestantism would be the formation
of a union for propagating his ideas. For some years the society
was limited in its area and its operations, being practically
confined to Leipzig and Dresden, but at the Reformation festival
in 1 841 it received a new impulse through the energy and elo-
quence of Karl Zimmermann (1803-1877), court preacher at
Darmstadt, and in 1843 a general meeting was held at Frankfort-
on-the-Main, where n6 fewer than twenty-nine branch associations
belonging to all parts of Germany except Bavaria and Austria
were represented. The want of a positive creed tended to make
many of the stricter Protestant churchmen doubtful of the
usefulness of the union, and the stricter Lutherans have always
held aloof from it. On the other hand, its negative attitude in
relation to Roman Catholicism secured for it the sympathy of
the masses. At a general convention held in Berlin in September
1846 a keen dispute arose about the admission of the Konigsberg
delegate, Julius Rupp (1 800-1884), who in 1845 had been
deprived for publicly repudiating the Athanasian Creed and
became one of the founders of the " Free Congregations "; and
at one time it seemed likely that the society would be completely
broken up. Amid the political revolutions of the year 1848 the
whole movement fell into stagnation; but in 1849 another
general convention (the seventh), held at Breslau, showed that,
although the society had lost both in membership and income,
it was still possessed of considerable vitality. From that date
the Gustav-Adolf- Verein has been more definitely " evangelical "
in its tone than formerly; and under the direction of Karl
Zimmermann it greatly increased both in numbers and in wealth.
It has built over 2000 churches and assisted with some two
million pounds over 5000 different communities. Apart from its
influence in maintaining Protestantism in hostile areas, there can
be no doubt that the union has had a great effect in helping the
various Protestant churches of Germany to realize the number
and importance of their common interests.
See K. Zimmermann, Geschichte des Gustau-Adolf-Vereins (Darm-
stadt, 1877).
GtlSTROW, a town of Germany, in the grand duchy of
Mecklenburg-Schwerin, on the Nebel and the railway from
Liibeck to Stettin, 20 m. S. of Rostock. Pop. (1875), 10,923;
(1905) 17,163* The principal buildings are the castle, erected in
the middle of the 16th century and now used as a workhouse;
the cathedral, dating from the 13th century and restored in
1868, containing many fine monuments and possessing a square
tower 100 ft. high; the Pfarrkirche, with fine altar-paintings;
the town hall (Rathaus), dating from the 16th century; the
music hall, and the theatre. Among the educational establish-
ments are the ducal gymnasium, which possesses a library of
15,000 volumes, a modern and a commercial school. The town
is one of the most prosperous in the duchy, and has machine
works, foundries, tanneries, sawmills, breweries, distilleries, and
manufactories of tobacco, glue, candles and soap. There is also
a considerable trade in wool, corn, wood, butter and cattle, and
an annual cattle show and horse races are held.
Gustrow, capital of the Mecklenburg duchy of that name, or of
the Wend district, was a place of some importance as early as the
1 2th century, and in 12 19 it became the residence of Henry
B or win II., prince of Mecklenburg, from whom it received
Schwerin privileges. From 13 16 to 1436 the town was the
residence of the princes of the Wends, and from 1 556 to 1695 of the
dukes of Mecklenburg-Giistrow. In 1628 it was occupied by the
imperial troops, and Wallenstein resided in it during part of the
years 1628 and 1629.
GUTENBERG, JOHANN (c. 1398-1468), German printer, is
supposed to have been born c. 1 398-1399 at Mainz of well-to-do
parents, his father being Friele zum Gensfleisch and his mother
Elsgen Wyrich (or, from her birthplace, zu Gutenberg, the name
he adopted). He is assumed to be mentioned under the name of
" Henchen " in a copy of a document of 1420, and again in a
document of c. 1427-1428, but it is not stated where he then
resided. On January 16, 1430, his mother arranged with the
city of Mainz about an annuity belonging to him; but when, in
the same year, some families who had been expelled a few years
before were permitted to return to Mainz, Gutenberg appears not
to have availed himself of the privilege, as he is described in the
act of reconciliation (dated March 28) as " not being in Mainz."
It is therefore assumed that the family had taken refuge in
Strassburg, where Gutenberg was residing later. There he is
said to have been in 1434, and to have seized and imprisoned the
town clerk of Mainz for a debt due to him by the corporation of
that city, releasing him, however, at the representations of the
mayor and councillors of Strassburg, and relinquishing at the
same time all claims to the money (310 Rhenish guilders = about
2400 mark). 1 Between 1436 and 1439 certain documents
1 It is difficult to know which of the Gutenberg documents can
be trusted and which not. Schorbach, in his recent biography of
Gutenberg, accepts and describes 27 of them (Festschrift, 1900, p.
163 sqq.), 17 of which are known only from (not always accurate)
copies or transcripts. Under ordinary circumstances history might
be based on them. But it is certain that some so-called Gutenberg
documents, not included in the above 27, are forgeries. Fr. J.
Bodmann. (1754-1820), for many years professor and librarian at
Mainz, forced at least two; one (dated July 20, 1459) he even
provided with four forged seals; the other (dated Strassburg, March
24, 1424) purported to be an autograph letter of Gutenberg to a
fictitious sister of his named Bertha. Of these two documents
French and German texts were published about 1800-1802; the
forger lived for twenty years afterwards but never undeceived the
?ublic. He enriched the Gutenberg literature with other fabrications,
n fact Bodmann had trained himself for counterfeiting MSS. and
documents; he openly boasted of his abilities in this respect, and
used them, sometimes to amuse his friends who were searching for
Gutenberg documents, sometimes for himself to fill up gaps in
Gutenberg's life. (For two or three more specimens of his capacities
see A. Wyss in Zeitschr. filr Altert. «. Gesch. Schlesiens, xv. 9 sag.)
To one of his friends (Professor Gotthelf Fischer, who preceded him
as librarian of Mainz) one or two other fabrications may be ascribed.
There are, moreover, serious misgivings as to documents said to have
been discovered about 1740 (when the citizens of Strassburg claimed
the honour of the invention for their city) by Jacob Wencker (the
then archivist of Strassburg) and J. D. Schoepflin (professor and
canon of St Thomas's at Strassburg). For instance, of the above
document of 1434 no original has ever come to light ; while the draft
of the transaction, alleged to have been written at the time in a
register of contracts, and to have been found about 1740 by Wencker,
has also disappeared with the register itself. The document (now
only known from a copy said to have been taken by Wencker from
the draft) is upheld as genuine by Schorbach, who favours an in-
vention of printing at Strassburg, but Bockenheimer, though
supporting Gutenberg and Mainz, declares it to be a fiction (Guten-
berg-Feier, Mainz, 1900, pp. 24-33). Again, suspicions are justified
740
GUTENBERG
represent him as having been engaged there in some experiments
requiring money, with Andreas Dritzehn, a fellow-citizen, who
became not only security for him but his partner to carry out
Gutenberg's plan for polishing stones and the manufacture of
looking-glasses, for which a lucrative sale was expected at the
approaching pilgrimage of 1440 (subsequently postponed, accord-
ing to the documents, although there is no evidence for this
postponement) to Aix-la-Chapelle. Money was lent for this
purpose by two other friends. In 1438 another partnership was
arranged between Gutenberg, Andreas Dritzehn, and Andreas
and Anton Heilmann, and that this had in view the art of
printing has been inferred from the word " drucken " used by one
of the witnesses in the law proceedings which soon after followed.
An action was brought, after the death of Dritzehn, by his two
brothers to force Gutenberg to accept them as partners in their
brother's place, but the decision was in favour of the latter. In
1441 Gutenberg became surety to the St Thomas Chapter at
Strassburg for Johann Karle, who borrowed 100 guilders (about
£16) from the chapter, and on November 17, 1442, he himself
borrowed 80 livres through Martin Brechter (or Brebter) from
the same chapter. Of his whereabouts from the 12 th of March
1444 (when he paid a tax at Strassburg) to the 17th of October
1448 nothing certain is known. But on the latter date we find
him at Mainz, borrowing 1 50 gold guilders of his kinsman, Arnold
Gelthus, against an annual interest of 7} gold guilders. We do
not know whether the interest on this debt has ever been paid, but
the debt itself appears never to have been paid off, as the contract
of this loan was renewed (vidimused) on August 23, 1503, for
other parties. It is supposed that soon afterwards Gutenberg
must have been able to show some convincing results of his work,
for it appears that about 1450 Johann Fust (q.v.) advanced him
800 guilders to promote it, on no security except that of
" tools " still to be made. Fust seems also to have undertaken to
advance him 300 guilders a year for expenses, wages, house-rent,
parchment, paper, ink, &c, but he does not appear to have ever
done so. If at any time they disagreed, Gutenberg was to return
the 800 guilders, and the " tools " were to cease to be security.
It is not known to what purpose Gutenberg devoted the money
advanced to him. In the minutes of the law-suit of 1455 he
himself says that he had to make his " tools " with it. But he
is presumed to have begun a large folio Latin Bible, and to have
printed during its progress some smaller books * and likewise the
Letter of Indulgence (granted on the 12th of April 1451 by Pope
Nicholas V. in aid of John II., king of Cyprus, against the Turks),
of 31 lines, having the earliest printed date 1454, of which
several copies are preserved in various European libraries. A
copy of the 1455 issue of the same Indulgence is in the Ry lands
Library at Manchester (from the Althorp Library).
It is not known whether any books were printed while this
partnership between Gutenberg and Fust lasted. Trithemius
(Ann. Hirsaug. ii. 421) says they first printed, from wooden
with respect to the documents recording Gutenberg's lawsuit of 143Q
at Strassburg. Bockenhetmer explains at great length (I.e. pp. 41-72)
that they are forgeries. He even explains (ibid. pp. 97-107) that the
so-called Helmasperger document of November 6, 1455, may be a
fabrication of the Faust von Aschaffenburg family, who endeavoured
to claim Johann Fust as their ancestor. There are also £1 ) a fragment
of a fictitious ** press," said to have been constructed by Gutenberg
in 14*1.1, and to have been discovered (!) at Mainz in 1856; (2) a
forged imprint with the date 1458 in a copy of Pope Gregory's
Dialogues, really printed at Strassburg about 1470; (3) a forged
rubric in a copy of the Tractatus de celebratione missarum, from
which it would appear that Johann Gutenberg and Johann Num-
mcister had presented it on June 19, 1463, to the Carthusian monastery
near Mainz; U) four forged copies of the Indulgence of 1455, in the
Culemann Collection in the Kastner Museum at Hanover, &c. (see
further, Hessels. " The so-called Gutenberg Documents," in The
Library, 1900).
1 Among these were perhaps (1) one or two editions of the work of
Dona t us, l)e octo partibus orationis, 27 lines to a page, of one of which
two leaves, now in the Paris National Library, were discovered at
Maim in the original binding of an account book, one of them having,
but in a later hand, the year 1451 (?); (2) the Turk-Kalendar for
H55 (preserved in the Hof-Bibliothek at Munich); (3) the Cisianus
(preserved in the Cambridge Univ. Libr.), and perhaps others now
lost.
blocks, a vocabulary called Catholicon, which cannot have been
the Catholicon of Johannes de Janua, a folio of 748 pages in two
columns of 66 lines each, printed in 1460, but was perhaps a
small glossary now lost. 2 The Latin Bible of 42 lines, a folio
of 1282 printed pages, in two columns with spaces left for
illuminated initials (so called because each column contains
42 lines, and also known as the Mazarin Bible, because the
first copy described was found in the library of Cardinal Mazarin),
was finished before the 15th of August 1456 ;* German biblio-
graphers now claim this Bible for Gutenberg, but, according
to bibliographical rules, it must be ascribed to Peter Schoffer,
perhaps in partnership with Fust. It is in smaller type than
the Bible of 36 lines, which latter is called either (a) the Bamberg
Bible, because nearly all the known copies were found in the
neighbourhood of Bambejg, or (b) Schdhorn's Bible, because
J. G. Schelhorn was the first who described it in 1760, or (c)
Pfisler J s Bible, because its printing is ascribed to AJbrecht
Pfister of Bamberg, who used the same type for several small
German books, the chief of which is Boner's Edeistein (146 1, 4 to),
SB leaves, with 85 woodcuts, a book of fables in German rhyme.
Some bibliographers believe this 36-line Bible to have been
begun, if not entirely printed, by Gutenberg during Ms-paitnerahip
with Fust, as its type occurs in the 31-line Letters of Indulgence
of 1454, was used for the 27-line Donatus (of 1451?), and,
finally, when found in Pfister's possession in 1461, appears to
be old and worn, except the additional letters k, w, z required
for German, which are clear and sharp like the types used in
the Bible. Again, others profess to prove (Dziatzko, Gutenberg's
friihesie Druckerpraxis) that B 86 was a reprint of B 42 ,
Gutenberg's work, whatever it may have been, was not a
commercial success, and in 1452 Fust had to come forward
with another 800 guilders to prevent a collapse. But some time
before November 1455 the latter demanded repayment of his
advances (see the Helmasperger Notarial Document of November
6, 1455, in Dziatzko's BeUrdgezur Gutonbergfrage, Berlin, 1889),
and took legal proceedings against Gutenberg. We do not know
the end of these proceedings, but if Gutenberg had prepared any
printing materials it would seem that he was compelled to yield
up the whole of them to Fust; that the latter removed them to
his own house at Mainz, and there, with the assistance of Peter
Schftffer, issued various books until the sack of the city in 1462
by Adolphus II. caused a suspension of printing for three years,
to be resumed again in 1465.
We have no information as to Gutenberg's activity, and very
little of his whereabouts, after his separation from Fust. In a
document dated June 21, 1457, he appears as witness on behalf
of one of his relatives, which shows that he was then still at
Mainz. Entries in the registers of the St Thomas Church at
Strassburg make it clear that the annual interest on the money
which Gutenberg on the 17th of November 144a .(see above) had
borrowed from the chapter of that church was regularly paid
till the nth of November 1457, either by himself or by his
f Ulric Zell states, in the Cologne Chronicle of 1499, that Gutenberg
and Fust printed a Bible in large type like that used in missals. It
has been said that this description applies to the 42-line Bible, as its
type is as large as that of most missals printed before 1500, and that
the size now called missal type (double pica) was not used in missals
until late in the i6th century. This is no doubt true of the smaller
missals printed before 1500, some of which are in even smaller type
than the 42-line Bible. But many of the large folio missals, as that
printed at Mainz by Peter Schoffer in 1483, the Carthusian missal
printed at Spires by Peter Drach about 1490, and the Dominican
missal printed by Andrea de Torresanis at Venice in 1496, are in as
large type as the 36-line Bible. Peter Schoffer (T425-1502) of
Gernsheim, between Mainz and Mannheim, who was a copyist in
Paris in 1449, and whom Fust called his servant (famulus), is said by
Trithemius to have discovered an easier way of founding characters,
whence Lambinet and others concluded that Schoffer invented the
punch. Schoffer himself, in the colophon of the Psalter of 1457, a
work which some suppose to have been planned and partly printed
by Gutenberg, claims only the mode of printing rubrics and coloured
capitals.
The Leipzig copy of this Bible (which formerly belonged to Herr
;mm of Dresden) has at the end the MS. year IA53 in old Arabic
numerals. But certain circumstances connected with tbte date make
it look very suspicious*
GUTERSLOH— GUTHRIE
74*
surety, Martin Brechter. But the payment due on the latter
date appears to have been delayed, as an entry in the register
of that year shows that the chapter had incurred expenses in
taking steps to have both Gutenberg and Brechter arrested.
This time the difficulties seem to have been removed, but on and
after the nth of November 1458 Gutenberg and Brechter
remained in default. The chapter made various efforts, all
recorded in their registers, to get their money, but in vain.
Every year they recorded the arrears with the expenses to which
they were put in their efforts to arrest the defaulters, till at last
in 1474 (six years after Gutenberg's death) their names are no
longer mentioned.
Meantime Gutenberg appears to have been printing, as we
learn from a document dated February 26, 1468, that a syndic
of Mainz, Di Conrad Homery (who had formerly been in the
service of the elector Count Diet her of Ysenburg), had at one
time supplied him, not with money, but with some formes, types,
tools, implements and other things belonging to printing, which
Gutenberg had left after his death, and which had, and still,
belonged to him (Homery); this material had come into the
hands of Adolf, the archbishop of Mainz, who handed or sent
it back to Homery, the latter undertaking to use it in no other
town but Mainz, nor to sell it to any person except a citizen of
Mainz, even if a stranger should offer him a higher price for the
things. This material has never yet been identified, so that we
do not know what types Gutenberg may have had at his disposal;
they could hardly have included the types of the Catholicon of
1460, as is suggested, this work being probably executed by
Heinrich BechtermUnze (d. 1467), who afterwards removed to
EHville, orperhaps by Peter Schoffer, who, about 1470, advertises
the book as his property (see K. Burger, Buchh&ndler-Anzeigen).
It is uncertain whether Gutenberg remained in Mainz or removed
to the neighbouring town of Eltville, where he may have been
engaged for a while with the brothers Bechtermtinze, who
printed there for some time with the types of the 1460 Catholicon.
On the 17th of January 1465 he accepted the post of salaried
courtier from the archbishop Adolf, and in this capacity received
annually a suit of livery together with a fixed allowance of corn
and wine. Gutenberg seems to have died at Mainz at the
beginning of 1468, and was, according to tradition, buried in
the Franciscan church in that dty. His relative Arnold Gelthus
erected a monument to his memory near his supposed grave,
and forty years afterwards Ivo Wittig set up a memorial tablet
at the legal college at Mainz. No books bearing the name of
Gutenberg as printer are known, nor is any genuine portrait
of him known, those appearing upon medals, statues or engraved
plates being all fictitious.
In 1898 the firm of L. Rosenthal, at Munich, acquired a
Missale specials on paper, which Otto Hupp, in two treatises
published in 1898 and 1902, asserts to have been printed by
Gutenberg about 1450, seven years before the 1457 Psalter.
Various German bibliographers, however, think that it could
not have been printed before 1480, and, judging from the fac-
similes published by Hupp, this date seems to be approximately
correct.
On the 24th of June 1900 the five-hundredth anniversary of
Gutenberg's birth was celebrated in several German cities,
notably in Mainz and Leipzig, and most of the recent literature
on the invention of printing dates from that time.
So we may note that in 1902 a vellum fragment of an Astro-
nomical Kalendar was discovered by the librarian of Wiesbaden,
Dr G. Zedler (Die Slteste Gutenbergtype, Mainz, 1902), apparently
printed in the 36-line Bible type, and as the position of the sun,
moon and other planets described in this document suits the
years 1429, 1448 and 1467, he ascribes the printing of this
Kalendar to the year 1447. A paper fragment of a poem in
German, entitled Weltgericht, said to be printed in the 36-line
Bible type, appears to have come into the possession of Herr
Eduard Beck at Mainz in 1892, and was presented by him in
1003 to the Gutenberg Museum in that city. Zedler published
a facsimile of it in 1904 (for the Gutenberg Gesellschaft), with a
description, in which he places it before the 1447 Kalendar,
c^ 1444-1447. Moreover, fragments of two editions of Donatus
different from that of 1451 (?) have recently been found; see
Schwenke in CentralbLfUr Bibliothekwesen (1908).
The recent literature upon Gutenberg's life and work and early
printing in general includes the following: A von der Linde,
Geschichte und Erdichtung (Stuttgart, 1878); id. Geschichte der
Buehdruckerkunst (Berlin, 1886) ; J. H. Hessels, Gutenberg, Was he
the Inventor of Printing ? (London, 1882) ; id. Haarlem, the Birthplace
of Printing, not Mentz (London, 1886); O. Hart wig, Festschrift zum
fiinfhundertjahrigen Geburtstag von Johann Gutenberg (Leipzig, 1900),
which includes various treatises by Schenk zu Schweinsberg, K.
Schorbach, &c; P. Schwenke, Untersuchungen zur Geschichte des
ersten Buchdruchs (Berlin, 1900) ; A. Borckel, Gutenberg, sein Leben,
&c. (Giessen, 1897) ; id. Gutenberg und seine beruhmten Nachfolger
tm ersten Jahrhundert der Typographic (Frankfort, 1900); F.
Schneider, Mainz und seine Drucker (1900); G. Zedler, Gutenberg-
Forschungen (Leipzig, 1901); J. H. Hessels, The so-called Gutenberg
Documents (London, 1910). For other works on the subject see
Typography. (J. H. H.)
GtiTERSLOH, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Westphalia, urn. S.W. from Bielefeld by the railway to Dort-
mund. Pop. (1005), 7375. It is a seat of silk and cotton in-
dustries, and has a large trade in Westphalian hams and sausages.
Printing, brewing and distilling are also carried on, and the
town is famous for its rye-bread (Pumpernickel). Gtitersloh has
two Evangelical churches, a Roman Catholic church, a synagogue,
a school and other educational establishments.
See Eickhoff, Geschichte der Stadt und Gemeinde Gtitersloh
(Gtitersloh, 1904).
GUTHRIE, SIR JAMES (1859- ), Scottish painter, and one
of the leaders of the so-called Glasgow school of painters, was
born at Greenock. Though in his youth he was influenced by
John Pettie in London, and subsequently studied in Paris, his
style, which is remarkable for grasp of character, breadth and
spontaneity, is due to the lessons taught him by observation of
nature, and to the example of Crawhall, by which he benefited in
Lincolnshire in the early 'eighties of the- last century. In his
early works, such as " The Gipsy Fires are Burning, for Daylight
is Past and Gone " (1882), and the " Funeral Service in the
Highlands," he favoured a thick impasto, but with growing
experience he used his colour with greater economy and reti-
cence. Subsequently he devoted himself almost exclusively to
portraiture. Sir James Guthrie, like so many of the Glasgow
artists, achieved his first successes on the Continent, but soon
found recognition in his native country. He was elected
associate of the Royal Scottish Academy in 1888, and full
member in 1892, succeeded Sir George Reid as president of the
Royal Scottish Academy in 1902, and was knighted in 1903.
His painting " Schoolmates " is at the Ghent Gallery. Among
his most successful portraits are those of his mother, Mr R.
Garroway, Major Hotchkiss, Mrs Fergus, Professor Jack, and
Mrs Watson.
GUTHRIE, THOMAS (1803-1873), Scottish divine, was born
at Brechin, Forfarshire, on the 12th of July 1803. He entered
the university of Edinburgh at the early age of twelve, and
continued to attend classes there for more than ten years. On
the and of February 1825 the presbytery of Brechin licensed him
as a preacher in connexion with the Church of Scotland, and in
1826 he was in Paris studying natural philosophy, chemistry, and
comparative anatomy. For two years he acted as manager of
his father's bank, and in 1830 was inducted to his first charge,
Arbirlot, in Forfarshire, where he adopted a vivid dramatic style
of preaching adapted to his congregation of peasants, farmers
and weavers. In 1837 he became the colleague of John Sym in
the pastorate of Old Greyfriars, Edinburgh, and at once
attracted notice as a great pulpit orator. Towards the close of
1840 he became minister of St John's church, Victoria Street,
Edinburgh. He declined invitations both from London and
from India. He was an enthusiastic supporter of the move-
ment which led to the Disruption of 1843; and his name is
thenceforth associated with the Free Church, for which he
collected £116,000 from July 1845 to June 1846 to provide
manses for the seceding ministers. In 1844 he became a
teetotaller. In 1847 he began the greatest work of his life by the
publication of his first " Plea for Ragged Schools." This
742
GUTHRIE— GUTS-MUTHS
pamphlet elicited a beautiful and sympathetic letter from Lord
Jeffrey. A Ragged School was opened on the Castle Hill, which
has been the parent of many similar institutions elsewhere,
though Guthrie's relation to the movement is best described as
that of an apostle rather than a founder. He insisted on bringing
up all the children in his school as Protestants; and he thus
made his schools proselytizing as well as educational institutions.
This interference with religious liberty led to some controversy;
and ultimately those who differed from Guthrie founded the
United Industrial School, giving combined secular and separate
religious instruction. In April 1847 the degree of D.D. was
conferred on Guthrie by the university of Edinburgh; and in
1850 William Hanna (1808-1882), the biographer and son-in-law
of Thomas Chalmers, was inducted as his colleague in Free St
John's Church.
In 1850 Guthrie published A Plea on behalf of Drunkards and
against Drunkenness, which was followed by The Gospel in
Ezekiel (1855); The City: its Sins and Sorrows (1857); Christ
and the Inheritance of the Saints (1858) ; Seedtime and Harvest of
Ragged Schools (i860), consisting of his three Pleas for Ragged
Schools. These works had an enormous sale, and portions of
them were translated into French and Dutch. His advocacy of
temperance had much to do with securing the passing of the
Forbes Mackenzie Act, which secured Sunday closing and
shortened hours of sale for Scotland. Mr Gladstone specially
quoted him in support of the Light Wines Bill (i860). In 1862
he was moderator of the Free Church General Assembly; but he
seldom took a prominent part in the business of the church
courts. His remarkable oratorical talents, rich humour, genuine
pathos and inimitable power of story-telling, enabled him to do
good service to the total abstinence movement. He was one of
the vice-presidents of the Evangelical Alliance. In 1864, his
health being seriously impaired, he resigned public work as
pastor of Free St John's (May 17), although his nominal
connexion with the congregation ceased only with his death.
Guthrie had occasionally contributed papers to Good Words,
and, about the time of his retirement from the ministry, he
became first editor of the Sunday Magazine, himself contribut-
ing several series of papers which were afterwards published
separately. In 1865 he was presented with £5000 as a mark of
appreciation from the public. His closing years were spent
mostly in retirement ; and after an illness of several months' dura-
tion he died at St Leonards-on-Sea on the 24th of February 1873.
In addition to the books mentioned above he published a number
of books which had a remarkable circulation in England and America,
such as Speaking to the Heart (1862) ; The Way to Life (1862) ; Man
and the Gospel (1865) ; The Angel's Song (1865) ; The Parables (1866) ;
Our Fathers Business (1867); Out of Harness (1867); Early Piety
(1868); Studies of Character from the Old Testament (1868-1870);
Sundays Abroad (1871).
See Autobiography of Thomas Guthrie, D.D., and Memoir, by his
sons (2 vols., London, 1874-1875).
GUTHRIE, THOMAS ANSTET (1856- ), known by the
pseudonym of F. Anstey, English novelist, was born in Kensing-
ton, London, on the 8th of August 1856. He was educated at
King's College, London, and at Trinity Hall, Cambridge, and was
called to the bar in 1880. But the popular success of his story
Vice- Versa (1882) with its topsy-turvy substitution of a father
for his schoolboy son, at once made his reputation as a humorist
of an original type. He published in 1883 a serious novel, The
Giant* s Robe; but, in spite of its excellence, he discovered (and
again in 1889 with The Pariah) that it was not as a serious novelist
but as a humorist that the public insisted on regarding him. As
such his reputation was further confirmed by The Black Poodle
(1884), The Tinted Venus (1885), A Fallen Idol (1886), and other
works. He became an important member of the staff of Punch,
in which his " Voces populi " and his humorous parodies of a
reciter's stock-piece (" Burglar Bill," &c.) represent his best
work. In 1901 his successful farce The Man from Blankley J s,
based on a story which originally appeared in Punch, was first
produced at the Prince of Wales's Theatre, in London.
GUTHRIE, the capital of Oklahoma, U.S.A., and the county-
seat of Logan county, extending on both sides of Cottonwood
creek, and lying one mile south of the Cimarron river. Pop.
(1890) 5333, (1900) 10,006, (1907) 11,652, of whom 2871 were
negroes. It is served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa F6,
the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the Missouri, Kansas &
Texas, the Fort Smith & Western, and the St Louis, El Reno
& Western railways. The city is situated about 940 ft. above
the sea, in a prairie region devoted largely to stock-raising and
the cultivation of Indian corn, wheat, cotton and various fruits,
particularly peaches. Guthrie is one of the headquarters of the
Federal courts in the state, the other being Muskogee. The
principal public buildings at Guthrie are the state Capitol,
the Federal building, the City hall, the Carnegie library, the
Methodist hospital and a large Masonic temple. Among the
schools are St Joseph's Academy and a state school for the deaf
and dumb. Guthrie has a considerable trade with the surround-
ing country and has cotton gins, a cotton compress, and foundries
and machine shops; among its manufactures are cotton-seed
oil, cotton goods, flour, cereals, lumber, cigars, brooms and
furniture. The total value of the factory product in 1905 was
$1,200,662. The municipality owns and operates the water-
works. The city was founded in 1889, when Oklahoma was
opened for settlement; in 1890 it was made the capital of the
Territory, and in 1907 when Oklahoma was made a state, it
became the state capital.
GUTHRUM (Godrum) (d. 890), king of East Anglia, first
appears in the English Annals in the year 875, when he is
mentioned as one of three Danish kings who went with the host
to Cambridge. He was probably engaged in the campaigns of
the next three years, and after Alfred's victory at Edington in
878, Guthrum met the king at AUer in Somersetshire and was
baptized there under the name of iEthelstan. He stayed there
for twelve days and was greatly honoured by his godfather
Alfred. In 890 Guthrum-^Ethelstan died: he is then spoken
of as " se noroerna cyning " (probably) " the Norwegian king,"
referring to the ultimate origin of his family, and we are told
that he was the first (Scandinavian) to settle East Anglia.
Guthrum is perhaps to be identified with Gormr ( = Guthrum)
hinn heimski or hinn rfki of the Scandinavian sagas, the foster-
father of Horoaknutr, the father of Gorm the old. There is a
treaty known as the peace of Alfred and Guthrum.
GUTSCHMID, ALFRED, Baron von (183 5-1 887), German
historian and Orientalist, was born on the 1st of July at Losch-
witz (Dresden). After holding chairs at Kiel (1866), Konigsberg
(1873), and Jena (1876), he was finally appointed professor
of history at Tubingen, where he died on the 2nd of March 1887.
He devoted himself to the study of Eastern language and history
in its pre-Greek and Hellenistic periods and contributed largely
to the literature of the subject.
Works. — Vber die Fragments des Pompeius Trogus (supple-
mentary vol. of Jahrbucher fur klass. Phil., 1857) * Die mahedonische
Anagraphe (1864); Beitrdge zur Gesch. des alien Orients (Leipzig,
1858) ; Neue Beitrdge zur Gesch. des alt. Or., vol. i., Die Assyriologte
in Deutschland (Leipzig, 1876) ; Die GktubwHrdigkeit der armenischen
Gesch. des Moses von Khoren (1877); Untersuchungen vber die
syrische Epitome des eusebischen Canones (1886); Untersuch. uber
die Gesch. des Konitreichs Osraene (1887) ; Gesch. Irans (Alexander
the Great to the fall of the Arsacidae) (Tubingen, 1887). He wrote
on Persia and Phoenicia in the 9th edition of the Ency. Brit. A
collection of minor works entitled Kleine Schriften was published by
F. Rlihl at Leipzig (1889-1894, 5 vols.), with complete list of his
writings. See article by Rlihl in AUgemeine deutsche Biographie,
xlix. (1904).
GUTS-MUTHS, JOHANN CHRISTOPH FRIEDRICH (1759-
1839), German teacher and the principal founder of the German
school system of gymnastics, was born at Quedlinburg on the 9th
of August 1 7 59. He was educated at the gymnasium of his native
town and at Halle University; and in 1785 he went to Schnep-
f enthal, where he taught geography and gymnastics. His method
of teaching gymnastics was expounded by him in various
handbooks; and it was chiefly through them that gymnastics
very soon came to occupy such an important position in the
school system of Germany. He also did much to introduce a
better method of instruction in geography. He died on the
21st of May 1839.
GUTTA— GUTTA PERCHA
743
His principal works are Gymnastik fur die Jugend (1793) ; Spiele
tur Obung und Erkolung des Korpers und Geistes fur die Jugend
(1796); Turnbuch (1817); Handbuch der Geographie (1810); and a
number of books constituting a BibHothek fUr Paaagogik, Schulwesen,
und die gesammte p&dagogiscne Literatur Deutschlands. He also con-
tributed to the Vollstdndtges Handbuch der neuesten Erdbesckreibung,
and along with Jacobi published Deuisches Land und deuisches Votk,
the first part, Deuisches Land, being written by him.
GUTTA (Latin for " drop "), an architectural term given to
the small frusta of conical or cylindrical form carved below
the triglyph and under the regula of the entablature of the Doric
Order. They are sometimes known as "trunnels," a corruption of
"tree-nail," and resemble the wooden pins which in framed timber
work or in joinery are employed to fasten together the pieces
of wood; these are supposed to be derived from the original
timber construction of the Doric temple, in which the pins,
driven through the regula, secured the latter to the taenia, and,
according to C. Chipiez and F. A. Choisy, passed through the
taenia to hold the triglyphs in place. In the earliest examples
of the Doric Order at Corinth and Selinus, the guttae are com-
pletely isolated from the architrave, and in Temple C. at Selinus
the guttae are 3 or 4 in. in front of it, as if to enable the pin to
be driven in more easily. In later examples they are partly
attached to the architrave. Similar guttae are carved under the
mutules of the Doric cornice, representing the pins driven
through the mutules to secure the rafters. In the temples at
Bassae, Paestum and Selinus, instances have been found where
the guttae had been carved separately and sunk into holes cut
in the soffit of the mutules and the regula. Their constant
employment in the Doric temples suggests that, although
originally of constructive origin, they were subsequently
employed as decorative features.
GUTTA PERCHA, the name applied to the evaporated milky
fluid or latex furnished by several trees chiefly found in the
islands of the Malay Archipelago. The name is derived from
two Malay words, getah meaning gum, and pertja being the name
of the tree — probably a Bassia — from which the gum was (errone-
ously) supposed to be obtained.
Botanical Origin and Distribution. — The actual tree is known
to the Malays as taban, and the product as getah taban. The best
gutta percha of Malaya is chiefly derived from two trees, and is
known as getah taban merah (red) or getah taban sutra (silky) . The
trees in question, which belong to the natural order Sapotaceae,
have now been definitely identified, the first as Dichopsis gutta
(Bentham and Hooker), otherwise Isonandra gutta (Hooker) or
Palaquium gutta (Burck), and the second as Dichopsis oblongifolia
(Burck). Allied trees of the same genus and of the same natural
order yield similar but usually inferior products. Among them
may be mentioned species of Payena (getah soondie).
Gutta percha trees often attain a height of 70 to 100 ft. and
the trunk has a diameter of from 2 to 3 ft. They are stated to
be mature when about thirty years old. The leaves of Dichopsis,
which are obovate-lanceolate, with a distinct pointed apex,
occur in clusters at the end of the branches, and are bright green
and smooth on the upper surface but on the lower surface are
yellowish-brown and covered with silky hairs. The leaves are
usually about 6 in. long and about 2 m. wide at the centre. The
flowers are white, and the seeds are contained in an ovoid berry
about 1 in. long.
The geographical distribution of the gutta percha tree is
almost entirely confined to the Malay Peninsula and its immediate
neighbourhood. It includes a region within 6 degrees north and
south of the equator and 93°-ii9° longitude, where the tem-
perature ranges from 66° to 90 F. and the atmosphere is exceed-
ingly moist. The trees may be grown from seeds or from cuttings.
Some planting has taken place in Malaya, but little has so far
been done to acclimatize the plant in other regions. Recent
information seems to point to the possibility of growing the tree
in Ceylon and on the west coast of Africa.
Preparation of Gutta Percha, — The gutta is furnished by the
greyish milky fluid known as the latex, which is chiefly secreted
in cylindrical vessels or cells situated in the cortex, that is,
between the bark and the wood (or cambium). Latex also
occurs in the leaves of the tree to the extent of about 9 % of the
dried leaves, and this may be removed from the powdered leaves
by the use of appropriate solvents, but the process is not practic-
able commercially. The latex flows slowly where an incision is
made through the bark, but not nearly so freely, even in the
rainy season, as the india-rubber latex. On this account the
Malays usually fell the tree in order to collect the latex, which
is done by chopping off the branches and removing circles of the
bark, forming cylindrical channels about an inch wide at various
points about a foot apart down the trunk. The latex exudes and
fills these channels, from which it is removed and converted into
gutta by boiling in open vessels over wood fires. The work is
usually carried on in the wet season when the latex is more
fluid and more abundant.- Sometimes when the latex is thick
water is added to it before boiling.
The best results are said to be obtained from mature trees
about thirty years old, which furnish about 2 to 3 lb of gutta.
Older trees do not appear to yield larger amounts of gutta,
whilst younger trees are said to furnish less and of inferior
quality. The trees have been so extensively felled for the gutta
that there has been a great diminution in the total number
during recent years, which has not been compensated for by the
new plantations which have been established.
Uses of Gutta Percha. — The Chinese and Malays appear to have
been acquainted with the characteristic property of gutta percha
of softening in warm water and of regaining its hardness when
cold, but this plastic property seems to have been only utilized
for ornamental purposes, the construction of walking-sticks and
of knife handles and whips, &c.
The brothers Tradescant brought samples of the curious
material to Europe about the middle of the 17th century. It
was then regarded as a form of wood, to which the name of
" mazer " wood was given on account of its employment in
making mazers or goblets. A description of it is given in a book
published by John Tradescant in 1656 entitled Musaeum Trades-
cantianum or a Collection of Rarities preserved at South Lambeth
near London. Many of the curiosities collected from all parts of
the world by the Tradescants subsequently formed the nucleus of
the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford which was opened in 1683,
but the specimen of " mazer wood " no longer exists.
In 1843 samples of the material were sent to London by Dr
William Montgomerie of Singapore, and were exhibited at the
Society of Arts, and in the same year Dr Jos6 d'Almeida sent
samples to the Royal Asiatic Society. Gutta percha was also
exhibited at the Great Exhibition of 185 1.
Dr Montgomerie's communication to the Society of Arts led
to many experiments being made with the material. Casts of
medals were successfully produced, and Sir William Siemens, in
conjunction with Werner von Siemens, then made the first
experiments with the material as an insulating covering for cable
and telegraph wires, which led to the discovery of its important
applications in this connexion and to a considerable commercial
demand for the substance.
The value of gutta percha depends chiefly on its quality, that
is its richness in true gutta and freedom from resin and other
impurities which interfere with its physical characters, and
especially its insulating power or inability to conduct electricity.
The chief use of gutta percha is now for electrical purposes.
Other minor uses are in dentistry and as a means of taking
impressions of medals, &c. It has also found application in
the preparation of belting for machinery, as well as for the
construction of the handles of knives and surgical instruments,
whilst the inferior qualities are used for waterproofing.
Commercial Production. — The amount of gutta percha exported
through Singapore from British and Dutch possessions in the
East is subject to considerable fluctuation, depending chiefly on
the demand for cable and telegraph construction. In 1886 the
total export from Singapore was 40,411 cwt., of which Great
Britain took 31,666 cwt.; in 1896 the export was 51,982 cwt.
of which 29,722 cwt. came to Great Britain; while in 1905,
42,088 cwt. were exported (19,517 cwt. to Great Britain). It
has to be remembered that the official returns include not only
744
GUTTER— GUTZKOW
gutta percha of various grades of quality but also other inferior
products sold under the name of gutta percha, some of which are
referred to below under the head of substitutes. The value of
gutta percha cannot therefore be correctly gauged from the
value of the imports. In the ten years 1806-1006 the best
qualities of gutta percha fetched from 4s. to about 7s. per lb.
Gutta percha, however, is used for few and special purposes,
and there is no free market, the price being chiefly a matter
of arrangement between the chief producers and consumers.
Characters and Properties, — Gutta percha appears in commerce in
the form of blocks or cakes of a dirty greyish appearance, often
exhibiting a reddish tinge, and just soft enough to be indented by the
nail. It is subject to considerable adulteration, various materials,
such as coco-nut oil, being added by the Malays to improve its appear-
ance. The solid, which is fibrous in texture, hard and inelastic but
not brittle at ordinary temperature, becomes plastic when immersed
in hot water or if otherwise raised to a temperature of about 65 ° — 66 ° C.
in the case of gutta of the first quality, the temperature of softening
being dependent on the quality of the gutta employed. In this
condition it can be drawn out into threads, but is still inelastic. On
cooling again the gutta resumes its hardness without becoming brittle.
In this respect gutta percha differs from india-rubber or caoutchouc,
which does not become plastic and unlike gutta percha is elastic.
This property of softening on heating and solidifying when cooled
again, without change in its original properties, enables gutta percha
to be worked into various forms, rolled into sheets or drawn into
ropes. The specific gravity of the best gutta percha lies between
0*96 and 1. Gutta percha is not dissolved by most liquids, although
some remove resinous constituents; the best solvents are oil of
turpentine, coal-tar oil,;carbon bisulphide and chloroform, and light
petroleum when hot. Gutta percha is not affected by alkaline
solutions or by dilute acids, strong sulphuric acid chars it when
warm, and nitric acid effects complete oxidation.
When exposed to air and light, gutta percha rapidly deteriorates,
oxygen being absorbed, producing a brittle resinous material.
Chemical Composition. — Chemically, gutta percha is not a single
substance but a mixture of several constituents. As the proportions
of these constituents in the crude material are not constant, the
properties of gutta percha are subject to variation. For electrical
purposes it should have a high insulating power and dielectric strength
and a low inductive capacity; the possession of these properties is
influenced by the resinous constituents present.
The principal constituent of the crude material is the j)ure gutta,
a hydrocarbon of the empirical formula CioH^. It is therefore
isomeric with the hydrocarbon of caoutchouc and with that of oil of
t urpentine. Accompanying this are at least two oxygenated resinous
constituents — albane CioHuO and fluavil C»HMO--which can be
separated from the pure gutta by the use of solvents. Pure gutta is
not dissolved by ether and light petroleum in the cold, whereas the
resinous constituents are removed by these liquids. The true gutta
exhibits in an enhanced degree the valuable properties of gutta
percha, and the commercial value of the raw material is frequently
determined by ascertaining the proportion ofcrue gutta present, the
higher the proportion of this the more valuable is the gutta percha.
The following are the results of analyses of gutta percha from trees
of the genus Dichopsis or Palaquium : —
Gutta
per cent.
Resin
per cent.
Dichopsis (or Palaquium) oblongifolia
f» »i „ gutta
„ „ „ polyantha
„ „ „ pustulata .
„ „ „ Maingayi .
88-8
82 «o
493
47-8
24.4
II-2
18-0
50-7
522
75-6
The hydrocarbon of gutta percha, gutta, is closely related in
chemical constitution to caoutchouc. When distilled at a high
temperature both are resolved into a mixture of two simpler hydro-
carbons, isoprene (C5H8) and caoutchoucine or dipentene (CioHic),
and the latter by further heating can be resolved into isoprene, a
hydrocarbon of known constitution which has been produced
synthetically and spontaneously reverts to caoutchouc. The precise
relationship of isoprene to gutta has not been ascertained, but
recently Harries has further elucidated the connexion between gutta
and caoutchouc by showing that under the action of ozone both
break up into laevulinic aldehyde and hydrogen peroxide, but differ
in the proportions of these products they furnish. The two materials
must therefore be regarded as very closely related in chemical
constitution. Like caoutchouc, gutta percha is able to'combine with
sulphur, and this vulcanized product has found some commercial
applications.
Manufacture of Gutta Percha* — Among the earliest patents taken
out for the manufacture of gutta percha were those of Charles
Hancock, the first of which is dated 1843.
Before being used for technical purposes the raw gutta percha is
cleaned by machinery whilst in the plastic state. The chopped or:
sliced material is washed by mechanical means in hot water and
forced through a? sieve or strainer of fine wire gauze to remove dirt.
It is then kneaded or " masticated " by machinery to remove the
enclosed water, and is finally transferred whilst still hot and plastic
to the rolling-machine, from which it emerges in sheets of different
thickness. Sometimes chemical treatment of the crude gutta percha
is resorted to for the purpose of removing the resinous constituents
by the action of alkaline solutions or of light petroleum.
Substitutes for Gutta Percha. — For some purposes natural and
artificial substitutes for gutta percha have been employed. The
similar products furnished by other plants than those which yield
gutta percha are among the more important of the natural substitutes,
of which the material known as " balata " or " Surinam gutta
percha," is the most valuable. This is derived from a tree, Mimusops
balata (bullet tree), belonging to the same natural order as gutta
percha trees, viz. Sapotaceae. It is a large tree, growing to a height
of 80 to 100 ft. or more, which occurs in the West Indies, in South
America, and is especially abundant in Dutch and British Guiana.
The latex which furnishes balata is secreted in the cortex between the
bark and wood of the tree. As the latex flows freely the trees are
tapped by making incisions in the same fashion as in india-rubber
trees, and the balata is obtained by evaporating the milky fluid.
Crude balata varies in composition. It usually contains nearly equal
proportions of resin and true gutta. The latter appears to be
identical with the chief constituent of gutta percha. The properties
of balata correspond with its composition, and it may therefore be
classed as an interior gutta percha* Balata fetches from is. 6d. to
2s. 8d. per ft).
Among the inferior substitutes for gutta percha may be mentioned
the evaporated latices derived from Butyrospermum Parkii (shea-
butter tree of West Africa or karite of the Sudan), Calotropis zigantea
(Madar tree of India), and Dyer a costulaia of Malaya and Borneo,
which furnishes the material known as " Pontianac." All these
contain a small amount of gutta-like material associated with large
quantities of resinous and other constituents. They fetch only a
few pence per lb, and are utilized for waterproofing purposes.
Various artificial substitutes for gutta percha have been invented
chiefly for use as insulating materials. These often consist of
mixtures of bitumen with linseed and other oils, resins, &c, in some
cases incorporated with inferior grades of gutta percha.
For further information respecting gutta percha, and for figures of
the trees, the following works may be consulted: J umelle, Les
Plantes d caoutchouc et a gutta (Paris, Challamel, 1903); Obach,
" Cantor Lectures on Gutta Percha," Journal of the Society of Arts,
1898. (W. R. D.)
GUTTER (O. Fr. goutiere, mod. gouttiere, from Lat. gulla,
drop), in architecture, a horizontal channel or trough contrived
to carry away the water from a flat or sloping roof to its discharge
down a vertical pipe or through a spout or gargoyle; more
specifically, but loosely, the similar channel at the side of a
street, below the pavement. In Greek and Roman temples the
cymatium of the cornice was the gutter, and the water was
discharged through the mouths of lions, whose heads were
carved on the same. Sometimes the cymatium was not carried
along the flanks of a temple, in which case the rain fell off the
lower edge of the roof tiles. In medieval work the gutter rested
partly on the top of the wall and partly on corbel tables, and the
water was discharged through gargoyles. Sometimes, however,
a parapet or pierced balustrade was carried on the corbel table
enclosing the gutter. In buildings of a more ordinary class the
parapet is only a continuation of the wall below, and the gutter
is set back and carried in a trough resting on the lower end of the
roof timbers. The safest course is to have an eaves gutter
which projects more or less in front of the wall and is secured to
and carried by the rafters of the roof. In Renaissance archi-
tecture generally the pierced balustrade of the Gothic and transi-
tion work was replaced by a balustrade with vertical balusters.
In France a compromise was effected, whereby instead of the
horizontal coping of the ordinary balustrade a richly carved
cresting was employed, of which the earliest example is in
the first court of the Louvre by Pierre Lescot. This exists
throughout the French Renaissance, and it is one of its chief
characteristic features.
GUTZKOW, KARL FERDINAND (1811-1878), German novelist
and dramatist, was born on the 17th of March i8u at Berlin,
where his father held a clerkship in the war. office. After leaving
school he studied theology and philosophy at the university of
his native town, and while still a student, began his literary
career by the publication in 183 1 of a periodical entitled Forum
der JournaUiteratur. This brought him to the notice of Wolfgang
GUTZLAFF— GUY OF WARWICK
Menzel, who invited him to Stuttgart to assist in the editorship
of the Literaturblatt. At the same time he continued his uni-
versity studies at Jena, Heidelberg and Munich. In 1832 he
published anonymously at Hamburg Briefe eines Narren an
tine Ndrrin, and in 1833 appeared at Stuttgart Maha-Guru,
Geschichte eines Gettes, a fantastic and satirical romance. In
1835 he went to Frankfort, where he founded the Deutsche
Revue. In the same year appeared Wally, die Zweiflerin, from
the publication of which may be said to date the school of writers
who, from their opposition to the literary, social and religious
traditions of romanticism, received the name of " Young
Germany." The work was directed specially against the
institution of marriage and the belief in revelation; and what-
ever interest it might have attracted from its own merits was
enhanced by the action of the German federal diet, which
condemned Gutzkow to three months 1 imprisonment, decreed
the suppression of all he had written or might yet write, and
prohibited him from exercising the functions of editor within
the German confederation. During his term of imprisonment
at Mannheim, Gutzkow employed himself in the composition
of his treatise Zur Philosophic der Geschichte (1836). On
obtaining his freedom he returned to Frankfort, whence he
went in 1837 to Hamburg. Here he inaugurated a new epoch
of his literary activity by bringing out his tragedy Richard
Savage (1839), which immediately made the round of all the
German theatres. Of his numerous other plays the majority
are now neglected; but a few have obtained an established
place in the repertory of the German theatre — especially the
comedies Zopf und Schwert (i&44),Das Urbild des TartUffe (1847),
Der Kdnigsleutnant (1849) and the blank verse tragedy, Uriel
Acosta (1847). In 1847 Gutzkow went to Dresden, where he
succeeded Tieck as literary adviser to the court theatre. Mean-
while he had not neglected the novel. Seraphine (1838) was
followed by Blasedow und seine Sdhne, a satire on the educational
theories of the time. Between 1850 and 1852 appeared Die
Ritter vom Geiste, which may be regarded as the starting-point
for the modern German social novel. Der Zauberer von Rom is
a powerful study of Roman Catholic life in southern Germany.
The success of Die Ritter vom Geiste suggested to Gutzkow the
establishment of a journal on the model of Dicken's Household
Words, entitled Unterhaltungen am h&uslichen Herd, which first
appeared in 1852 and was continued till 1862. In 1864 he had an
epileptic fit, and his productions show henceforth decided traces
of failing powers. To this period belong the historical novels
Hohenschwangau (1868) and Fritz EUrodt (187*), Lebensbilder
(1870-187 2), consisting of autobiographic sketches, and Die
Sdhne Pestalozzis (1870), the plot of which is founded on the
story of Kaspar Hauser. On account of a return of his nervous
malady, Gutzkow in 1873 made a journey to Italy, and on his
return took up his residence in the country near Heidelberg,
whence he removed to Frankfort-on-Main, dying there on the
16th of December 1878. With the exception of one or two of his
comedies, Gutzkow's writings have fallen into neglect. But he
exerted a powerful influence on the opinions of modern Germany ;
and his works will always be of interest as the mirror in which
the intellectual and social struggles of his time are best reflected.
An edition of Gutzkow's collected works appeared at Jena (1873-
1876, new ed., 1870). £. Wolff has published critical editions of
Gutzkow's Meisterdramen (1892) and Wally die Zweiflerin (1905).
His more important novels have been frequently reprinted. For
Gutzkow's lite see his various autobiographical writings such as
A us der Knabenzeit (1852), Ruckblicke auf mein Leben (1876), &c.
For an estimate of his life and work see J. Proelss, Dasjunge Deutsche
land (1892); also H. H. Houben, Studien uber die Dramen GtUskows
(1898) and Gutzkow- Funde (1901).
GtiTZLAFF, KARL FRIEDRICH AUGUST (1803-1851),
German missionary to China, was born at Pyritz in Pomerania
on the 8th of July 1803. When still apprenticed to a saddler
in Stettin, he made known his missionary inclinations to the
king of Prussia, through whom he went to the Padagogium at
Halle, and afterwards to the mission institute of Janike in Berlin.
In 1826, under the auspices of the Netherlands Missionary
Society, he went to Java, where he was able to learn Chinese.
745
Leaving the society in 1828, he went to Singapore, and in August
of the same year removed to Bangkok, where he translated the
Bible into Siamese. In 1829 he married an English lady, who
aided him in the preparation of a dictionary of Cochin Chinese,
but she died in August 183 1 before its completion. Shortly
after her death he sailed to Macao in China, where, and subse-
quently at Hong Kong, he worked at a translation of the Bible
into Chinese, published a Chinese monthly magazine, and wrote
in Chinese various books on subjects of useful knowledge. In
1834 he published at London a Journal of Three Voyages along
the Coast of China in 1831, 1832 and 1833. He was appointed
in 1835 joint Chinese secretary, to the English commission, and
during the opium war of 1840-42 and the negotiations connected
with the peace that followed he Tendered valuable service by
his knowledge of the country and people. The Chinese author-
ities refusing to permit foreigners to penetrate into the interior,
Giitzlaff in 1844 founded an institute for training native mis-
sionaries, which was so successful that during the first four years
as many as forty-eight Chinese were sent out from it to work
among their fellow-countrymen. He died at Hong Kdng on
the 9th of August 1851.
Giitzlaff also wrote A Sketch of Chinese History, Ancient and
Modern (London, 1834), and a similar work published in German at
Stuttgart in 1847; China Opened (1838); and the Life of Taow-
Kwang (1851;. German edition published at Leipzig in 1852). A
complete collection of his Chinese writings is contained in the library
at Munich.
GUY OF WARWICK, English hero of romance. Guy, son of
Siward or Seguard of Wallingford, by his prowess in foreign
wars wins in marriage F61ice (the Phyllis of the well-known
ballad), daughter and heiress of Roalt, earl of Warwick. Soon
after his marriage he is seized with remorse for the violence of
his past life, and, by way of penance, leaves his wife and fortune
to make a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. After years of absence
he returns in time to deliver Winchester for King iEthelstan
from the invading northern kings, Anelaph (Anlaf or Olaf) and
Gonelaph, by slaying in single fight their champion the giant
Colbrand. Local tradition fixes the duel at Hyde Mead near
Winchester. Making his way to Warwick he becomes one of his
wife's bedesmen, and presently retires to a hermitage in Arden,
only revealing his identity at the approach of death. The
versions of the Middle English romance of Guy which we possess
are adaptations from the French, and are cast in the form of a
roman d'aventures, opening with a long recital of Guy's wars in
Lombardy, Germany and Constantinople, and embellished with
fights with dragons and surprising feats of arms. The kernel
of the tradition evidently lies in the fight with Colbrand; which
represents, or at least is symbolic 1 of an historical fact. The
religious side of the legend finds parallels in the stories of St
Eustachius and St Alexius, 2 and makes it probable that the
Guy-legend, as we have it, has passed through monastic hands.
Tradition seems to be at fault in putting Guy's adventures
under ^Ethelstan. The Anlaf of the story is probably Olaf
Tryggvason, who, with Sweyn of Denmark, harried the southern
counties of England in 993 and pitched his winter quarters in
Southampton. Winchester was saved, however, not by the
valour of an English champion, but by the payment of money.
This Olaf was not unnaturally confused with Anlaf Cuaran or
Havelok (#.i>.).
The name Guy (perhaps a Norman form of A. S. twg=war)
may be fairly connected with the family of Wigod, lord of
Wallingford under Edward the Confessor, and a Filicia, who
belongs to the 12th century and was perhaps the Norman poet's
patroness, occurs in the pedigree of the Ardens, descended from
Thurkill of Warwick and his son Siward. Guy's Cliffe, near
Warwick, where in the 14th century Richard de Beauchamp, earl
of Warwick, erected a chantry, with a statue of the hero, does not
correspond with the site of the hermitage as described in the
1 Some writers have supposed that the fight with Colbrand
symbolizes the victory of Brunanburh. Anelaph and Gonelaph
would then represent the cousins Anlaf Sihtricson and Anlaf
Godfreyson (see Havelok).
* See the English legends in C. Horstmann, Altenglische Legenden,
Neue Folge (Heilbronn, 1881).
xn. 24 a
746
GUY— GUYON
romance. The bulk of the legend is obviously fiction, even
though it may be vaguely connected with the family history of
the Ardens and the Waltingford family, but it was accepted as
authentic fact in the chronicle of Pierre de Langtoft (Peter of
Langtof t) written at the end of the 13th century. The adventures
of Reynbrun, son of Guy, and his tutor Heraud of Arden, who
had also educated Guy, have much in common with his father's
history, and form an interpolation sometimes treated as a separate
romance. There is a certain connexion between Guy and Count
Guido of Tours (fl. 800), and Alcuin's advice to the count is
transferred to the English hero in the Speculum Gy of Warewyke
(c. 1327), edited for the Early English Text Society by G. L.
Morrill, 1898.
The French romance (Brit. Mus. Harl. MS. 3775) has not been
printed, but U described by Emile Littrg in Hist. litt. de la France
(xxii., 841-851, 1852). A French prose version was printed in
Paris, 1525, and subsequently (see G. Brunet, Manuel au Hbraire,
s. v. " Guy de Warvich "); the English metrical romance exists in
four versions, dating from the early 14th century; the text was
edited by J. Zupitza (1875-1876) for the E.E.T.S. from Cambridge
University Lib. Paper MS. Ff. 2, 38, and again (3 pts. 1883-1891,
extra series, Nos. ±2, 49, 59), from the Auchinleck and Caius College
MSS. The popularity of the legend is shown by the numerous
versions in English : Guy of Warwick, translated from the Latin of
Girardus Cornubiensis (n. 1350) into English verse by John Lydgate
between 1442 and 1468; Guy of Warwick, a poem (written in 1617
and licensed, but not printed; by John Lane, the MS. of which (Brit.
Mus.) contains a sonnet by John Milton, father of the poet; The
Famous Historic of Guy, Earl ofWarwick{c. i6o7),by Samuel Rowlands;
The Booke of the Moste Victorious Prince Guy of Warwicke (William
Copland, no date) ; other editions by J. Cawood and C. Bates; chap-
books and ballads of the 17th and 18th centuries: The Tragical
History, Admirable Atchievements and Curious Events of Guy, Earl of
Warwick, a tragedy (1661) which may possibly be identical with a
play on the subject written by John Day and Thomas Dekker, and
entered at Stationers' Hall on the 15th of January 16 18/19;
three verse fragments are printed by Hales and Furnivall in tneir
edition of the Percy Folio MS. vol. ii. ; an early French MS. is
described by J. A. Herbert {An Early MS. of Gut de Warwick,
London, 190*).
See also M, Weyrauch Die mittelengl. Fassungen der Sage von Guy
2 pts., Breslau, 1890 and 1901); J. Zupitza in Sitzungsber. d. phil.-
\ist. KL d. kgl. Akaa. d. Wtss. (vol. lxxiv., Vienna, 1874), ana Zur
Literaturgeschichte des Guy von Warwick (Vienna, 1873) ; a learned
discussion of the whole subject by H. L. Ward, Catalogue of
Romances (i. 471-501, 1883); and an article by S. L. Lee in the
Dictionary of National Biography.
GUY, THOMAS (1644-1724), founder of Guy's Hospital,
London, was the son of a lighterman and coal-dealer at South-
ward After serving an apprenticeship of eight years with a
bookseller, he in 1668 began business on his own account. He
dealt largely in Bibles, which had for many years been poorly
and incorrectly printed in England. These he at first imported
from Holland, but subsequently obtained from the university
of Oxford the privilege of printing. Thus, and by an extremely
thrifty mode of life, and more particularly by investment in
government securities, the subscription of these into the South
Sea Company, and the subsequent sale of his stock in 1720,
he became master of an immense fortune. He died unmarried
on the 17 th of December 1724. In 1707 he built three wards
of St Thomas's Hospital, which institution he otherwise subse-
quently benefited; and at a cost of £18,793, IOS - he erected
Guy's Hospital, leaving for its endowment £219,499; he also
endowed Christ's Hospital with £400 a year, and in 1678 endowed
almshouses at Tamworth, his mother's birthplace, which was
represented by him in parliament from 1695 to 1707. The
residue of his estate, which went to distant relatives, amounted
to about £80,000.
See A True Copy of the Last Will and Testament of Thomas Guy, Es$.
I London, 1725); J. Noorthouck, A New Hist, of London, bk. iii.
oh. i. p. 684 (1773); Nichols, Literary Anecdotes, iii. 599 (18 12);
Charles Knight, Shadows of the Old Booksellers, pp. j-23 (1865);
and A Biographical History of Guy's Hospital, by 5. Wilkes and G.
T. Bettany (1892).
GUYON, JEANNE MARIE BOUVIER DE LA MOTHE
(1648-1717), French quietist writer, was born at Montargis,
where her family were persons of consequence, on the 13th of
April 1648. If her somewhat hysterical autobiography may be
trusted she was much neglected in her youth; most of her time
£
was spent as a boarder in various convent schools. Here she
went through all the religious experiences common to neurotic
young women; these were turned in a definitely mystical
direction by the duchesse de Bethune, daughter of the disgraced
minister, Fouquet, who spent some years at Montargis after her
father's fall. In 1664 Jeanne Marie was married to a rich invalid
of the name of Guyon, many years her senior. Twelve years
later he died, leaving his widow with three small children and
a considerable fortune. All through her unhappy married life
the mystical attraction had grown steadily in violence; it
now attached itself to a certain Father Lacombe, a Barnabite
monk of weak character and unstable intellect. In 168 1 she
left her family and joined him; for five years the two rambled
about together in Savoy and the south-east of France, spreading
their mystical ideas. At last they excited the suspicion of the
authorities; in 1686 Lacombe was recalled to Paris, put under
surveillance, and finally sent to the Bastille in the autumn of
1687. He was presently transferred to the castle of Lourdes,
where he developed softening of the brain and died in 1715.
Meanwhile Madame Guyon had been arrested in January r688,
and been shut up in a convent as a suspected heretic. Thence
she was delivered in the following year by her old friend, the
duchesse de Bethune, who had returned from exile to become a
power in the devout court-circle presided over by Madame de
Maintenon. Before long Madame Guyon herself was introduced
into this pious assemblage. Its members were far from critical;
they were intensely interested in religion; and even Madame
Guyon's bitterest critics bear witness to her charm of manner,
her imposing appearance, and the force and eloquence with
which she explained her mystical ideas. So much was Madame
de Maintenon impressed, that she often invited Madame Guyon
to give lectures at her girls' school of St Cyr. But by far the
greatest of her conquests was Fenelon, now a rising young
director of consciences, much in favour with aristocratic ladies.
Dissatisfied with the formalism of average Catholic piety, he
was already thinking out a mystical theory of his own; and
between 1689 and 1693 they corresponded regularly. But as
soon as ugly reports about Lacombe began to spread, he broke
off all connexion with her. Meanwhile the reports had reached
the prudent ears of Madame de Maintenon. In May 1693 she
asked Madame Guyon to go no more to St Cyr. In the hope of
clearing her orthodoxy, Madame Guyon appealed to Bossuet,
who decided that her books contained " much that was intoler-
able, alike in form and matter." To this judgment Madame
Guyon submitted, promised to " dogmatize no more," and
disappeared into the country (1693). In the next year she again
petitioned for an inquiry, and was eventually sent, half as a
prisoner, half as a penitent, to Bossuet's cathedral town of
Meaux. Here she spent the first half of 1695 1 but in the summer
she escaped without his leave, bearing with her a certificate of
orthodoxy signed by him. Bossuet regarded this flight as a
gross act of disobedience; in the winter Madame Guyon was
arrested and shut up in the Bastille. There she remained till
1703. In that year she was liberated, on condition. she went to
live on her son's estate near Blois, under the eye of a stern bishop.
Here the rest of her life was spent in charitable and pious
exercises; she died on the 9th of June 1717. During these
latter years her retreat at Blois became a regular place of
pilgrimage for admirers, foreign quite as often as French.
Indeed, she is one of the many prophetesses whose fame has
stood highest out of their own country. French critics of all
schools of thought have generally reckoned her an hysterical
degenerate; in England and Germany she has as often roused
enthusiastic admiration.
Authorities.— Tie de Madame Guyon, icrite par eUe-mhne
(really a compilation made from various fragments) (3 vols., Paris,
1791). There is a life in English by T. C. Upham (New York, 1854) ;
and an elaborate study by L. Guerrier (Paris, 1881). For a remark-
able review of this latter work see Brunetiere, NouveUes Eludes
critiques, vol. ii. The complete edition of Madame Guyon's works,
including the autobiography and five volumes of letters, runs to
forty volumes (1767-1791) ; the most important works are published
separately, Opuscules spirttuels (2 vols., Paris, 1790). They have
GUYON— GUZMICS
747
been several times translated into English. See also the literature
of the article on Quietism; and H. Delacroix, Etudes sur le
mysticism* (Paris, 1908). (St C.)
GUYON, RICHARD DEBAUFRE (1803-1856), British soldier,
general in the Hungarian revolutionary army and Turkish pasha,
was born at Walcot, near Bath, in 1803. After receiving a
military education in England and in Austria he entered the
Hungarian hussars in 1823, in which he served until after his
marriage with a daughter of Baron Spleny, a general officer in
the imperial service. At the outbreak of the Hungarian War in
1848, he re-entered active service as an officer of the Hungarian
Honv6ds, and he won great distinction in the action of Sukoro
(September 29, 1848) and the battle of Schwechat (October
30). He added to his reputation as a leader in various actions
in the winter of 1848-1849, and after the battle of Kapolna was
made a general officer. He served in important and sometimes
independent commands to the end of the war, after which he
escaped to Turkey. In 1852 he entered the service of the sultan.
He was made a pasha and lieutenant-general without being
required to change his faith, and rendered distinguished service
in the campaign against the Russians in Asia Minor (1854-55).
General Guyon died of cholera at Scutari on the 12th of
October 1856.
See A. W. Kinglake, The Patriot and the Hero General Guyon (1856).
GUYOT, ARNOLD HENRY (1807-1884), Swiss-American
geologist and geographer, was born at Boudevilliers, near
Neuchatel, Switzerland, on the 28th of September 1807. He
studied at the college of Neuchatel and in Germany, where
he began a lifelong friendship with Louis Agassiz. He was
professor of history and physical geography at the short-lived
Neuchatel " Academy " from 1839 to 1848, when he removed,
at Agassiz's instance, to the United States, settling in Cambridge,
Massachusetts. For several years he was a lecturer for the
Massachusetts State Board of Education, and he was professor
of geology and physical geography at Princeton from 1854 until
his death there on the 8th of February 1884. He ranked high
as a geologist and meteorologist. As early as 1838, he undertook,
at Agassiz's suggestion, the study of glaciers, and was the first
to announce, in a paper submitted to the Geological Society of
France, certain important observations relating to glacial motion
and structure. Among other things he noted the more rapid
flow of the centre than of the sides, and the more rapid flow of
the top than of the bottom of glaciers; described the laminated
or " ribboned " structure of the glacial ice, and ascribed the
movement of glaciers to a gradual molecular displacement
rather than to a sliding of the ice mass as held by de Saussure.
He subsequently collected important data concerning erratic
boulders. His extensive meteorological observations in America
led to the establishment of the United States Weather Bureau,
and his Meteorological and Physical Tables (1852, revised ed.
1884) were long standard. His graded series of text-books and
wall-maps were important aids in the extension and populariza-
tion of geological study in America. In addition to text-books,
his principal publications were: Earth and Man, Lectures on
Comparative Physical Geography in its Relation to the History
of Mankind (translated by Professor C. C. Felton, 1849); A
Memoir qf Louis Agassiz (1883); and Creation, or the Biblical
Cosmogony in the Light of Modern Science (1884).
See James D. Dana's " Memoir " in the Biographical Memoirs of
the National Academy of Science, vol. ii. (Washington, 1886).
GUYOT, YVES (1843- ), French politician and economist,
was born at Dinan on the 6th of September 1843. Educated at
Rennes, he took up the profession of journalism, coming to
Paris in 1867. He was for a short period editor-in-chief of
Ulndlpendant du midi of Nimes, but joined the staff of La
Rappel on its foundation, and worked subsequently on other
journals. He took an active part in municipal life, and waged a
keen campaign against the prefecture of police, for which he
suffered six months' imprisonment. He entered the chamber of
deputies in 1885 as representative of the first arrondissement of
Paris and was rapporteur general of the budget of 1888. He
became minister of public works under the premiership of P. E.
Tirard in 1889, retaining his portfolio in the cabinet of C. L. de
Freycinet until 1892. Although of strong liberal views, he lost
his seat in the election of 1893 owing to his militant attitude
against socialism. An uncompromising free-trader, he published
La ComSdie protectionniste (1905; Eng. trans. The Comedy of
Protection); La Science iconomique (1st ed. 1881; 3rd ed. 1907);
La Prostitution (1882); La Tyrannie socialists (1893), all three
translated into English; Les Conflits du travail et leur solution
(1003); La D&mocratie individualiste (1907).
GUYTON DE MORVEAU, LOUIS BERNARD, Baron (1737-
1816), French chemist, was born on the 4th of January 1737, at
Dijon, where his father was professor of civil law at the univer-
sity. As a boy he showed remarkable aptitude for practical
mechanics, but on leaving school he studied law in the university
of Dijon, and in his twenty-fourth year became advocate-general
in the parlement of Dijon. This office he held till 1782. Devot-
ing his leisure to the study of chemistry, he published in 1772 his
Digressions academiques, in whicji he set forth his views on
phlogiston, crystallization, &c, and two years later he established
in his native town courses of lectures on materia medica,
mineralogy and chemistry. An essay on chemical aomenclature,
which he published in the Journal de physique for JVlay 1782, was
ultimately developed with the aid of A. L. Lavoisier, C. L.
Berthollet and A. F. Fourcroy, into the Mtthode d'une nomen-
clature chimique, published in 1787, the principles of which were
speedily adopted by chemists throughout Europe. Constantly in
communication with the leaders of the Lavoisierian school, he
soon became a convert to the anti-phlogistic doctrine; and he
published his reasons in the first volume of the section " Chymie,
Pharmacie et Metallurgie " of the EncyclopSdie mtthodique
(1786), the chemical articles in which were written by him, as
well as some of those in the second volume (1792). In 1794 he
was appointed to superintend the construction of balloons for
military purposes, being known as the author of some aeronautical
experiments carried out at Dijon some ten years previously.
In 1 791 he became a member of the Legislative Assembly, and in
the following year of the National Convention, to which he was
re-elected in 1795, but he retired from political life in 1797. In
1798 he acted as provisional director of the Polytechnic School,
in the foundation of which he took an active part, and from 1800
to 1 8 14 he held the appointment of master of the mint. In 181 1
he was made a baron of the French Empire. He died in Paris on
the 2nd of January 181 6.
Besides being a diligent contributor to the scientific periodicals
of the day, Guyton wrote Memoire sur V Education publique (1762) ;
a satirical poem entitled Le Rat iconoclaste, ou te Jesuite croqub
(1763); Discours publics et tloges (1775-1782); Plaidoyers sur
plusieurs questions de droit (1785) ; and Traitt des moyens de dksin-
fecter Voir (1801), describing the disinfecting powers of chlorine,
and of hydrochloric acid gas which he had successfully used at Dijon
in 1773. With Hugues Maret (1726-1785) and Tean Francois
Durande (d. 1794) he also published the Elemens de chymie th&orique
et pratique (1776-1777).
GUZMICS, IZIDOR (1 786-1839), Hungarian theologian, was
born on the 7th of April 1786 at Vamos-Csalad, in the county of
Sopron. At Sopron (Oedenburg) he was instructed in the art
of poetry by Paul Horvath. In October 1805 he entered the
Benedictine order, but left it in August of the following year,
only again to assume the monastic garb on the 10th of November
1 806. At the monastery of Pannonhegy he applied himself to the
study of Greek under Farkas T6th and in 181 2 he was sent to
Pesth to study theology. Here he read the best German and
Hungarian authors, and took part in the editorship of the
Nemzeti (National) Plutarkus, and in the translation of Johann
Htibner's Lexicon. On obtaining the degree of doctor of divinity
in 1 81 6, he returned to Pannonhegy, where he devoted himself to
dogmatic theology and literature, and contributed largely to
Hungarian periodicals. The most important of his theological
works are: A kath. anyaszentegyhdznak hitbeli tanitdsa (The
Doctrinal Teaching of the Holy Catholic Church) , and A kereszUn-
yeknek valldsbeli egyesuUsokrol (On Religious Unity among
Christians), both published at Pesth in 1822; also a Latin
treatise entitled Theologia Christiana fundamentalis et theologia
dogmatica (4 vols., Gyor, 1828-1829). His translation of
74«
GWADAR— GWALIOR
Theocritus in hexameters was published in 1824. His versions of
the Oedipus of Sophocles and of the Iphigenia of Euripides
were rewarded by the Hungarian Academy, of which in 1838 he
was elected honorary member. In 1832 he was appointed abbot
of the wealthy Benedictine house at Bakonyb61, a village m the
county of Veszpr6m. There he built an asylum for 150 children,
and founded a school of harmony and singing. He died on the
1st of September 1839.
GWADAR, a port on the Makran coast of Baluchistan, about
290 m. W. of Karachi. Pop. (1903)1 435°. In the last half of the
1 8th century it was handed over by the khan of Kalat to the
sultan of Muscat, who still exercises sovereignty over the port,
together with about 300 sq. m. of the adjoining country. It is
a place of call for the steamers of the British India Navigation
Company.
GWALIOR, a native state of India, in the Central India
agency, by far the largest of the numerous principalities com-
prised in that area. It is the dominion of the Sindhia family.
The state consists of two well-defined parts which may roughly
be called the northern and the southern. The former is a compact
mass of territory, bounded N. and N. W. by the Chambal river,
which separates it from the British districts of Agra and
Etawah, and the native states of Dholpur, Karauli and Jaipur
of Rajput ana; £. by the British districts of Jalaun, Jhansi,
Lalitpur and Saugor; S. by the states of Bhopal, Tonk, Khil-
chipur and Rajgarh; and W. by those of Jhalawar, Tonk and
Kotah of Rajputana. The southern, or Malwa, portion is made
up of detached or semi-detached districts, between which are
interposed parts of other states, which again are mixed up with
each other in bewildering intricacy. The two portions together
have a total area of 25,041 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 2,933,001, showing
a decrease of 13 % in the decade.
The state may be naturally divided into plain, plateau and
hflly country. The plain country extends from the Chambal
river in the extreme southwards for about 80 m., with a maximum
width from east to west of about 120 m. This plain, though
broken in its southern portion by low hills, has generally an
elevation of only a few hundred feet above sea-level. In the
summer season the climate is very hot, the shade temperature
rising frequently to 112° F., but in the winter months (from
November to February inclusive) it is usually temperate and
for short periods extremely cold. The average rainfall is 30 in.,
but the period 1891-1901 was a decade of low rainfall, and
distress was caused by famine. South of this tract there is a
gradual ascent to the Central India plateau, and at Sipri the
general level is 1500 ft. above the sea. On this plateau lies the
remainder of the state, with the exception of the small district
of Amjhera in the extreme south. The elevation of this region
gives it a moderate climate during the summer as compared
with the plain country, while the winter is warmer and more
equable. The average rainfall is 28 in. The remaining portion
of the state, classed as hilly, comprises only the small district
of Amjhera. This is known as the Bhil country, and lies among
the Vindhya mountains with a mean elevation of about 1800 ft.
The rainfall averages 23 in. In the two years 1899 and 1900 the
monsoon was very weak, the result being a severe famine which
caused great mortality among the Bhil population. Of these
three natural divisions the plateau possesses the most fertile
soil, generally of the kind known as " black cotton," but the
low-lying plain has the densest population. The state is watered
by numerous rivers. The Nerbudda, flowing west, forms the
southern boundary. The greater part of the drainage is dis-
charged into the Chambal, which forms the north-western and
northern and eastern boundary. The Sind, with its tributaries
the Kuwari, Asar and Sankh, flows through the northern division.
The chief products are wheat, millets, pulses of various kinds,
maize, rice, linseed and other oil-seeds; poppy, yielding the
Malwa opium; sugar-cane, cotton, tobacco, indigo, garlic, tur-
meric and ginger. About 60% of the population are employed
in agricultural and only 15% in industrial occupations, the
great majority of the latter being home workers. There is a
leather factory at Morar; cotton-presses at Morena, Baghana
and Ujjain; ginning factories at Agar, Nalkhera, Shajapur and
Sonkach; and a cotton-mill at Ujjain. The cotton industry
alone shows possibilities of considerable development, there being
55,000 persons engaged in it at the time of the census of 1 901.
The population is composed of many elements, among which
Brahmans and Rajputs are specially numerous. The prevailing
religion is Hinduism, 84 % of the people being Hindus and only
6% Mahommedans. The revenue of the state is about one
million sterling; and large reserves have been accumulated,
from which two millions were lent to the government of India
in 1887, and later on another million for the construction of the
Gwalior-Agra and Indore-Neemuch railways. The railways
undertaken by the state are: (1) from Bina on the Indian
Midland to Goona; (2) an extension of this line to Baran,
opened in 1899; (3) from Bhopal to Ujjain; (4) two light
railways, from Gwalior to Sipri and Gwalior to Bhind, which
were opened by the viceroy in November 1899. On the same
occasion the viceroy opened the Victoria College, founded to
commemorate the Diamond Jubilee; and the Memorial Hospital,
built in memory of the maharaja's father. British currency
has been introduced instead of Chandori rupees, which were
much depreciated. The state maintains three regiments of
Imperial Service cavalry, two battalions of infantry and a
transport corps.
History. — The Sindhia family, the rulers of the Gwalior state,
belong to the Mahratta nation and originally came from the
neighbourhood of Poona. Their first appearance in Central
India was early in the 18th century in the person of Ranoji
(d. 1745), a scion of an impoverished branch of the family, who
began his career as the peshwa's slipper-carrier and rose by his
military abilities to be commander of his bodyguard. In 1726,
together with Malhar Rao Holkar, the founder of the house of
Indore, he was authorized by the peshwa to collect tribute
(chauth) in the Malwa districts. He established his headquarters
at Ujjain, which thus became the first capital of Sindhia's
dominions.
Ranoji's son and successor, Jayapa Sindhia, was killed at
Nagaur in 1759, and was in his turn succeeded by his son Jankoji
Sindhia. But the real founder of the state of Gwalior was
Mahadji Sindhia, a natural son of Ranoji, who, after narrowly
escaping with his life from the terrible slaughter of Panipat in
1 761 (when Jankoji was killed), obtained with some difficulty
from the peshwa a re-grant of his father's possessions in Central
India (1769). During the struggle which followed the death
of Madhu Rao Peshwa in 1772 Mahadji seized every occasion
for extending his power and possessions. In 1775, however,
when Raghuba Peshwa threw himself on the protection of the
British, the reverses which Mahadji encountered at their hands —
Gwalior being taken by Major Popham in 1780 — opened his
eyes to their power. By the treaty of Salbai (1782) it was
agreed that Mahadji should withdraw to Ujjain, and the British
retire north of the Jumna. Mahadji, who undertook to open
negotiations with the other belligerents, was recognized as an
independent ruler, and a British resident was established at his
court. Mahadji, aided by the British policy of neutrality, now
set to work to establish his supremacy over Hindustan proper.
Realizing the superiority of European methods of warfare, he
availed himself of the services of a Savoyard soldier of fortune,
Benoit de Boigne, whose genius for military organization and
command in the field was mainly instrumental in establishing
the Mahratta power. Mahadji's disciplined troops made him
invincible. In 1785 he re-established Shah Alam on the imperial
throne at Delhi, and as his reward obtained for the peshwa the
title of vakU-ul-mutlak or vicegerent of the empire, contenting
himself with that of his deputy. In 1788 he took advantage of
the cruelties practised by Ghulam Kadir on Shah Alam, to
occupy Delhi, where he established himself as the protector of
the aged emperor. Though nominally a deputy of the peshwa he
was now ruler of a vast territory, including the greater part of
Central India and Hindustan proper, while his lieutenants
exacted tribute from the chiefs of Rajputana. There can be no
doubt that he looked with apprehension on the growing power of
GWEEDORE
749
the British; but he wisely avoided any serious collision with
them.
Mahadji died in 1794, and was succeeded by his adopted son,
Daulat Rao Sindhia, a grandson of hiB brother Tufcoji. When,
during the period of unrest that followed the deaths of the
peshwa, Madhu Rao II., in 1795 and of Tukoji Holkar in 1797,
the Mahratta leaders fought over the question of supremacy,
the peshwa, Baji Rao II., the titular head of the Mahratta
confederation, fled from his capital and placed himself under
British protection by the treaty of Bassein (December 31, 1802).
This interposition of the British government was resented by
the confederacy, and it brought on the Mahratta War of 1803.
In the campaign that followed a combined Mahratta army, in
which Daulat Rao's troops furnished the largest contingent, was
defeated by General Arthur Wellesley at Assaye and Argaum
in Central India; and Lord Lake routed Daulat Rao^s J&uropean-
trained battalions in Northern India at Agra, Aligarh and
Laswari. Daulat Rao was then compelled to sign the treaty
of Sarji Anjangabn (December 30, 1803), which stripped him of
his territories between the Jumna and Ganges, the district of
Broach in Gujarat and other lands in the south. By the same
treaty he was deprived of the forts of Gwalior and Gonad; but
these were restored by Lord Cornwallis in 1805, when the
Chambal river was made the northern boundary of the state.
By a treaty signed at Burhanpur in 1803 Daulat Rao further
agreed to maintain a subsidiary force, to be paid out of the
revenues of the territories ceded under the treaty of Sarji
Anjangaon. When, however, in 1816 he was called upon to
assist in the suppression of the Pindaris, though by the treaty of
Gwalior (1817) he promised his co-operation, his conduct was so
equivocal that in 1818 he was forced to sign a fresh treaty by
which he ceded A jmere and other lands.
Daulat Rad died without issue in 1827, and his wfdow,Baiza Bai
(d. 1862), adopted Mukut Rao, a boy of eleven belonging to a dis-
tant branch of the family, who succeeded as Jankoji Rao Sindhia.
His rule was weak; the state was distracted by interminable
palace intrigues and military mutinies, and affairs went from
bad to worse when, in 1843, Jankoji Rao, who left no heir,
was succeeded by another boy, adopted by his widow, Tara Bai,
under the name of Jayaji Rao Sindhia. The growth of turbulence
and misrule now induced Lord EUenborough to interpose, and
a British force under Sir Hugh Gough advanced upon Gwalior
(December 1843). The Mahratta troops were defeated simul-
taneously at Maharajpur and Punniar (December 29), with the
result that the Gwalior government signed a treaty ceding
territory with revenue sufficient for the maintenance of a con-
tingent force to be stationed at the capital, and limiting the
future strength of the Gwalior army, while a council of regency
was appointed during the minority to act under the resident's
advice. In 1857 the Gwalior contingent joined the mutineers;
but the maharaja himself remained loyal to the British, and fled
from his capital until the place was retaken and his authority
restored by Sir Hugh Rose (Lord Strathnairn) on the 19th of
June 1858. He was rewarded with the districts of Neemuch
and Amjhera, but Gwalior fort was occupied by British troops
and was only restored to his son in 1886 by Lord Dufferin.
Jayaji Rao, who died in 1886, did much for the development of
his state. He was created a G.C.S.I. in 1861, and subsequently
became a counsellor of the empress, a G.C.B. and CLE.
His son, the maharaja, Madhava Rao Sindhia, G.C.S.I., was
born in 1877. During his minority the state was administered
for eight years by a council of regency. He was entrusted with
ruling powers In 1894, and in all respects continued the reforming
policy of the council, while paying personal attention to every
department, being a keen soldier, an energetic administrator, and
fully alive to the responsibilities attaching to his position. He
was created an honorary aide-de-camp to the king-emperor and
an honorary colonel in the British army. He went to China as
orderly officer to General Gaselee in 1901, and provided the
expedition with a hospital ship at his own expense, while his
Imperial Service Transport Corps proved a useful auxiliary to the
British army* in the Chitral and Tirah expeditions. '
The City op Gwalior is 76 m. by rail S. of Agra, and had a
population in 1001 of 119,433. This total includes the new town
of LaBhkar or " the Camp " which is the modern capital of the
state and old Gwalior. The old town has a threefold interest:
first as a very ancient seat of Jain worship; secondly for its
example of palace architecture of the best Hindu period (1486-
2516); and thirdly as an historic fortress. There are several
remarkable Hindu temples within the fort. One, known as the
Sas Baku, is beautifully adorned with bas-reliefs. It was
finished in a.d. 1093, and, though much dilapidated, still forms a
most picturesque fragment. An older Jain temple has been used
as a mosque. Another temple in the fortress of Gwalior is called
the Teli^Mandir, or " Oilman's Temple." This building was
originally dedicated to Vishnu, but afterwards converted to the
worship of Siva. The most striking part of the Jain remains at
Gwalior is a series of caves or rock-cut sculptures, excavated in
the rock on all sides, and numbering nearly a hundred, great and
small. Most of them are mere niches to contain statues, though
some are cells that may have been originally intended for
residences. One curious fact regarding them is that, according to
inscriptions, they were all excavated within the short period of
about thirty-three years, between 144 1 and 1474. Some of the
figures are of colossal size; one, for instance, is 57 ft. high, which
is taller than any other in northern India.
The palace built by Man Singh (1486-1516) forms the most
interesting example of early Hindu work of its class in India.
Another palace of even greater extent was added to this in 1516;
both Jehangfr and Shah Jahan added palaces to these two — the
whole making a group of edifices unequalled for picturesqueness
and interest by anything of their class in Central India. Among
the apartments in the palace was the celebrated chamber, named
the Baradari, supported on 12 columns, and 45 ft. square, with a
stone roof, forming one of the most beautiful palace-halls in the
world. It was, besides, singularly interesting from the expedients
to which the Hindu architect was forced to resort to imitate the
vaults of the Moslems. Of the buildings, however, which so
excited the admiration of the emperor Baber, probably little now
remains. The fort of Gwalior, within which the above buildings
are situated, stands on an isolated rock. The face is perpendicular
and where the rock is naturally less precipitous it has been
scarped. Its greatest length from north-east to south-west is a
mile and a half, and the greatest breadth 900 yds. The rock
attains its maximum height of 342 ft. at the northern end. A
rampart, accessible by a steep road, and farther up by huge steps
cut out of the rock, surrounds the fort. The citadel stands at the
north-eastern corner of the enclosure, and presents a very
picturesque appearance. The old town of Gwalior, which is of
considerable size, but irregularly built, and extremely dirty, lies
at the eastern base of the rock. It contains the tomb of Mahom-
med Ghaus, erected during the early part of Akbar's rejgn. The
fort of Gwalior was traditionally built by one Surya Sen, the raja
of the neighbouring country. In 1 196 Gwalior was captured by
Mahommed Ghori; it then passed into the hands of several
chiefs until in 1559 Akbar gained possession of it, and made it a
state prison for captives of rank. On the dismemberment of the
Delhi empire, Gwalior was seized by the Jat rana of Gohad.
Subsequently it was garrisoned by Sindhia, from whom it was
wrested in 1780 by the forces of the East India Company, and to
whom it was finally restored by the British in 1886. The modern
town contains the palace of the chief, a college, a high school, a
girls' school, a service school to train officials, a law school,
hospitals for men and for women, a museum, paper-mills, and a
printing-press issuing a state gazette.
Gwalior Residency, an administrative unit in the Central
India agency, comprises Gwalior state and eleven smaller states
and estates. Its total area is 17,825 sq. m., and its population
in 1 901 was 2,187,612. Of the area, 17,020 sq. m. belong to
Gwalior State, and the agency also includes the small states of
Raghugarh, Khaniadhana, Paron, Garha, Umri and Bhadaura,
with the Chhabra pargana of Tonk.
GWEEDORE, a hamlet and tourist resort of Co. Donegal,
Ireland, on the Londonderry & Lough S willy & Letterkenny
750
GWILT— GYANTSE
railway. The river Clady, running past the village from the
Nacung Loughs, affords salmon and trout fishing. The fine
surrounding scenery culminates to the east in the wild mountain
Errigal (2466 ft.) at the upper end of the loughs. The place owes
its popularity as a resort to Lord George Hill (d. 1879), who also
laboured for the amelioration of the conditions of the peasantry
on his estate, and combated the Rundale system of minute
repartition of property. In 1889, during the troubles which
arose out of evictions, Gweedore was the headquarters of the
Irish constabulary, when District Inspector Martin was openly
murdered on attempting to arrest a priest on his way to Mass.
GWILT, JOSEPH (1784-1863), English architect and writer,
was the younger son of George Gwilt, architect surveyor to the
county of Surrey, and was born at Southwark on the nth of
January 1784. He was educated at St Paul's school, and after a
short course of instruction in his father's office was in 1801
admitted a student of the Royal Academy, where in the same
year he gained the silver medal for his drawing of the tower and
steeple of St Dunstan-in-the-East. In 1811 he published a
Treatise on the Equilibrium of Arches, and in 181 5 he was elected
F.S.A. After a visit to Italy in 1816, he published in 1818
Notitia architectonica italiana, or Concise Notices of the Buildings
and Architects of Italy. In 1825 he published an edition of Sir
William Chambers's Treatise on Civil Architecture; and among
his other principal contributions to the literature of his profession
are a translation of the Architecture of Vitruvius (1826), a Treatise
on the Rudiments of Architecture, Practical and Theoretical (1826),
and his valuable Encyclopaedia of Architecture (1842), which was
published with additions by Wyatt Papworth in 2867. In
recognition of Gwilt 's advocacy of the importance to architects of
a knowledge of mathematics, he was in 1833 elected a member of
the Royal Astronomical Society. He took a special interest in
philology and music, and was the author of Rudiments of the
Anglo-Saxon Tongue (1829), and of the article " Music " in the
Encyclopaedia metropolitans. His principal works as a practical
architect were Markree Castle near Sligo in Ireland, and St
Thomas's church at Charlton in Kent. He died on the 14th of
September 1863.
GWYN, NELL [Eleanor] (1650-1687), English actress, and
mistress of Charles II., was born on the 2nd of February
1650/1, probably in an alley off Drury Lane, London, although
Hereford also claims to have been her birthplace. Her father,
Thomas Gwyn, appears to have been a broken-down soldier of a
family of Welsh origin. Of her mother little is known save that
she lived for some time with her daughter, and that in 1679 she
was drowned, apparently when intoxicated, in a pond at Chelsea.
Nell Gwyn, who sold oranges in the precincts of Drury Lane
Theatre, passed, at the age of fifteen, to the boards, through the
influence of the actor Charles Hart and of Robert Duncan or
Dungan,, an officer of the guards who had interest with the
management. Her first recorded appearance on the stage was in
1665 as Cydaria, Montezuma's daughter, in Dryden's Indian
Emperor, a serious part ill-suited to her. In the following year
she was Lady Wealthy in the Hon. James Howard's comedy The
English Monsieur. Pepys was delighted with the playing of
" pretty, witty Nell," but when he saw her as Florimel in Dryden's
Secret Love, or the Maiden Queen, he wrote " so great a per-
formance of a comical part was never, I believe, in the world
before " and, " so done by Nell her merry part as cannot be
better done in nature " (Diary, March 25, 1667). Her success
brought her other leading roles — Bellario, in Beaumont and
Fletcher's Philaster; Flora, in Rhodes's Flora's Vagaries;
Samira, in Sir Robert Howard's Surprisal; and she remained
a member Df the Drury Lane company until 1669, playing con-
tinuously save for a brief absence in the summer of 1667 when she
lived at Epsom as the mistress of Lord Buckhurst, afterwards
6th earl of Dorset (?.«.). Her last appearance was as Almahide
to the Almanzor of Hart, in Dryden's The Conquest of Granada
(1670), the production of which had been postponed some
months for her return to the stage after the birth of her first
son by the king.
As an actress Nell Gwyn was largely indebted to Dryden, who
seems to have made a special study of her airy, irresponsible
personality, and who kept her supplied with parts which suited
her. She excelled in the delivery of the risky prologues and
epilogues which were the fashion, and the poet wrote for her
some specially daring examples. It was, however* as the
mistress of Charles II. that she endeared herself to the public.
Partly, no doubt, her popularity was due to the disgust inspired
by her rival, Louise de Keroualle, duchess of Portsmouth, and to
the fact that, while the Frenchwoman was a Catholic, she was a
Protestant. But very largely it was the result of exactly those
personal qualities that appealed to the monarch himself. She
was piquante rather than pretty, short of stature, and her chief
beauty was her reddish-brown hair. She was illiterate, and with
difficulty scrawled an awkward E. G. at the bottom of her letters,
written for her by others. But her frank recklessness, her
generosity, her invariable good temper, her ready wit, her
infectious high . spirits and amazing indiscretions appealed
irresistibly to a generation which welcomed in her the living
antithesis of Puritanism. " A true child of the London streets,"
she never pretended to be superior to what she was, nor to inter-
fere in matters outside the special sphere assigned her; she
made no ministers, she appointed to no bishoprics,, and for the
high issues of international politics she had no concern. She
never forgot her old friends, and, as far as is known, remained
faithful to her royal lover from the beginning of their intimacy
to his death, and, after his death, to his memory.
Of her two sons by the king, the elder was. created Baron
Hedington and earl of Burford and subsequently duke of St
Albans; the younger, James, Lord Beauclerk, died in 1680,
while still a boy. The king's death-bed request to his brother,
"Let not poor Nelly starve," was faithfully carried out by
James II., who paid her debts from the Secret Service fund,
provided her with other moneys, and settled on her an estate
with reversion to the duke of St Albans. But she did not long
survive her Jover's death. She died in November 1687, and was
buried on the 17th, according to her own request* in the church
of St Martin-in-the-Fields, her funeral sermon being preached by
the vicar, Thomas Tenison, afterwards archbishop of Canterbury,
who said " much to her praise." Tradition credits the founda-
tion of Chelsea Hospital to her influence over the king.
See Peter Cunningham, The Story of Nell Gwyn, edited by Gordon
Goodwin (1903); Waldron's edition of John Dowries' s Roscius
Anglicanus (1789); Osmund Airy, Charles II. (1004); Pepys, Diary;
Evelyn, Diary and Correspondence; Origin and Early Htstory of the
Royal Hospital at Chelsea, edited by Major-General G. Hutt (1872) ;
Memoirs of the Life of Eleanor Gwinn (1752); Burnet, History of
My Own Time, part i., edited by Osmund Airy (Oxford, 1897);
Louise de KtrouaUe, Duchess of Portsmouth, by H. Forneron, trans-
lated by Mrs Crawford (1887).
GWYNIAD, the name given to a fish of the genus Coregonus or
White fish (C. clupeoides), inhabiting the large lakes of North
Wales and the north of England. At Ullswater it is known by the
name of " schelly," at Loch Lomond by that of " powen." It is
tolerably abundant in Lake Bala, keeping to the deepest portion
of the lake for the greater part of the year, but appearing in
shoals near the shores at certain seasons. It is well flavoured,
like all the species of Coregonus f but scarcely attains to the
weight of a pound. The name gwyniad is a Welsh word, and
signifies " shining "; and it is singular that a similar fish in
British Columbia, also belonging to the family of Salmonoids, is
called by the natives "quinnat," from the silvery lustre of its
scales, the word having in their language the same meaning as
the Welsh "gwyniad."
GYANTSE, one of the large towns of Tibet. It lies S.E. of
Shigatse, 130 m. from the Indian frontier and 145 m. from Lhasa.
Its central position at the junction of the roads from India and
Bhutan with those from Ladakh and Central Asia leading to
Lhasa makes it a considerable distributing trade centre. Its
market is the third largest in Tibet, coming after Lhasa and
Shigatse, and is especially celebrated for its woollen cloth and
carpet manufactures. Here caravans come from Ladakh,
Nepal and upper Tibet, bringing gold, borax, salt, wool, musk
and furs, to exchange for tea, tobacco, sugar, cotton goods.
GYGES— GYLLENSTJERNA
broadcloth and hardware. The town is compactly built of stone
houses, with wooden balconies facing the main street, whence
narrow lanes strike off into uninviting slums, and contains a fort
and monastery. In the British expedition of 1004 Gyantse
formed the first objective of the advance, and the force was
besieged here in the mission post of Changlo for some time. The
Tibetans made a night attack on the post, and were beaten off
with some difficulty, but subsequently the British attacked and
stormed the fort or jong. Under the treaty of 1004 a British
trade agent is stationed at Gyantse.
GYGES, founder of the third or Mermnad dynasty of Lydian
kings, he reigned 687-652 B.C. according to H. GeLser, 600-657
B.C. according to H. Winckler. The chronology of the Lydian
kings given by Herodotus has been shown by the Assyrian
inscriptions to be about twenty years in excess. Gyges was the
son of Dascylus, who, when recalled from banishment in Cappa-
docia by the Lydian king Sadyattes — called Candaules " the
Dog-strangler " (a title of the Lydian Hermes) by the Greeks —
sent his son back to Lydia instead of himself. Gyges soon became
a favourite of Sadyattes and was despatched by him to fetch
Tudo, the daughter of Arnossus of Mysia, whom the Lydian king
wished to make his queen. On the way Gyges fell in love with
Tudo, who complained to Sadyattes of his conduct. Forewarned
that the king intended to punish him with death, Gyges assas-
sinated Sadyattes in the night and seized the throne with the
help of Arselis of Mylasa, the captain of the Carian bodyguard,
whom he had won over to his cause. Civil war ensued, which
was finally ended by an appeal to the oracle of Delphi and the
confirmation of the right of Gyges to the crown by the Delphian
god. Further to secure his title he married Tudo. Many legends
were told among the Greeks about his rise to power. That
found in Herodotus, which may be traced to the poet Archiloehus
of Paros, described how " Candaules " insisted upon showing
Gyges his wife when unrobed, which so enraged her that she gave
Gyges the choice of murdering her husband and making himself
king, or of being put to death himfcelf. Plato made Gyges a
shepherd, who discovered a magic ring by means of which he
murdered his master and won the affection of his wife (Hdt. i.
8-14; Plato, Rep. 359; Justin i. 7; Cicero, De of. iii. 0).
Once established on the throne Gyges devoted himself to con-
solidating his kingdom arid making it a military power. The
Troad was conquered, Colophon captured from the Greeks,
Smyrna besieged and alliances entered into with Ephesus and
Miletus. The Cimmerii, who had ravaged Asia Minor, were
beaten back, and an embassy was sent to Assur-bani-pal at
Nineveh (about 650 B.C.) in the hope of obtaining his help against
the barbarians. The Assyrians, however, were otherwise
engaged, and Gyges turned to Egypt, sending his faithful Carian
troops along with Ionian mercenaries to assist Psammetichus in
shaking off the Assyrian yoke (660 B.C.). A few years later he
fell in battle against the Cimmerii under Dugdamme* (called
Lygdamis by Strabo i. 3. 21), who took the lower town of Sardis.
Gyges was succeeded by his son Ardys.
' See Nicolaus Damascenus, quoting from the Lydian historian
Xanthus, in C. Mailer j Fragmenta historicorum Graecorum, iii.;
R. Schubert, GeschidUe der Kdnige von Lydien (1884); M. G.
Radet, La Lydie et le monde grec au temps de Mermnades (1892-
1893); H. Gelzer, " Das Zeitalter des Gyges " (Rhein. Mus., 1875);
H. Winckler, Altorientalische Forschungen, i. (1893); Macan's edition
of Herodotus. (A H. S.)
GYLIPPUS, a Spartan general of the 5th century B.C.; he
was the son of Cleandridas, who had been expelled from Sparta
for accepting Athenian bribes (446 B.C.) and had settled at Thurii.
His mother was probably a helot, for Gylippus is said to have
been, like Lysander and Callicratidas, a mothax (see Helot).
When Alcibiades urged the Spartans to send a general to lead the
Syracusan resistance against the Athenian expedition, Gylippus
was appointed, and his arrival was undoubtedly the turning point
of the struggle^ 1 4-4 1 3). Though at first his long hair, his thread-
bare cloak and his staff furnished the subject of many a jest, and
his harsh and overbearing manner caused grave discontent,
yet the rapidity and decisiveness of his movements, won the
sympathy and respect of the Syracusans. Diodorus (xiii. 28-32),
7Si
probably following Timaeus, represents him as inducing the
Syracusans to pass sentence of death on the captive Athenian
generals, but we need have no hesitation in accepting the state-
ment of Philistus (Plutarch, Nicias, 28), a Syracusan who
himself took part in the defence, and Thucydides (vii. 86), that
he tried, though without success, to save their lives, wishing to
take them to Sparta as a signal proof of his success Gylippus
fell, as his father had done, through avarice; entrusted by
Lysander with an immense sum which he was to deliver to the
ephors at Sparta, he could not resist the temptation to enrich
himself and, on the discovery of his guilt, went into exile.
Thucydides vi. 93. 104, vii.; Plutarch, Nicias, 19, 21, 27, 28,
Lysander, 16, ij; Diodorus xiii. 7, 8, 28-32; Polyaenus i. 39. 4.2).
See Syracuse (for the siege operations), commentaries on Thucydides
and the Greek histories.
GYLLEMBOURG-EHRENSVARD, THOMASINE CHRISTINE,
Baroness (i 773-1856), Danish author, was born on the 9th of
November 1773, at Copenhagen. Hermaiden name wasBuntzen.
Her great beauty early attracted notice, and before she was
seventeen she married the famous writer Peter Andreas Heiberg.
To him she bore in the following year a son, afterwards illustrious
as the poet and critic Johan Ludvig Heiberg. In 1800 her
husband was exiled, and she obtained a divorce, marrying in
December 1801 the Swedish Baron K. F. Ehrensvard, himself
a political fugitive. Her second husband, who presently adopted
the name of Gyllembourg, died in 181 5. In 1822 she followed
her son to Kiel, where he was appointed professor, and in 1825
she returned with him to Copenhagen. In 1827 she first appeared
as an author by publishing her romance of The Polonius Family
in her son's newspaper Flyvende Post. In 1828 the same journal
contained The Magic Ring, which was immediately followed
by En Hverdags historie (An Everyday Story). The success of
this anonymous work was so great that the author adopted
until the end of her career the name of "The Author of An
Everyday Slory. } ' In 1833-1834 she published three volumes
of Old and New Novels. New Stories followed in 1835 and 1836.
In 1839 appeared two novels, Montanus the Younger and Ricida;
in 1840, One in All; in 1841, Near and Far; in 1843, A Corre-
spondence; in 1844, The Cross Ways; in 1845, Two Generations.
From 1849 to 1851 the Baroness Ehrensv&rd -Gyllembourg was
engaged in bringing out a library edition of her collected works
in twelve volumes. On the 2nd of July 1856 she died in her son's
house at Copenhagen. Not until then did the secret of her
authorship transpire; for throughout her life she had preserved
the closest reticence on the subject even with her nearest friends.
The style of Madame Ehrensvard-Gyllembourg is clear and
sparkling; for English readers no closer analogy can be found
than between her and Mrs Gaskell, and Cranford might well
have been written by the witty Danish authoress.
See J. L. Heiberg, Peter Andreas Heiberg og Thomasine Gyllembourg
(Copenhagen, 1882), and L. Kornelius-Hybel, Nogle Bemaerkninger
omP. A. Heiberg og Fru Gyllembourg (Copenhagen, 1883).
GYLLENSTJERNA, JOHAN, Count (1635-1680), Swedish
statesman, completed his studies at Upsala and then visited
most of the European states and laid the foundations of that deep
insight into international politics which afterwards distinguished
him. On his return home he met Sling Charles X. in the Danish
islands and was in close attendance upon him till the monarch's
death in 1660. He began his political career at the diet which
assembled in the autumn of the same year. An aristocrat by
birth and inclination, he was nevertheless a true patriot and
demanded the greatest sacrifices from his own order in the
national interests. He was therefore one of those who laboured
most zealously for the recovery of the crown lands. In the
Upper House he was the spokesman of the -gentry against the
magnates, whose inordinate privileges he would have curtailed
or. abolished. His adversaries vainly endeavoured to gain him
by favour, for as court-marshal and senator he was still more
hostile to the dominant patricians who followed the adventurous
policy of Magnus de la Gardie. Thus he opposed the French
alliance which de la Gardie carried through in 1672, and con-
sistently advocated economy in domestic and neutrality in
foreign affairs. On the outbreak of the war in 1675 he was the
752
GYMKHANA— GYMNASTICS AND GYMNASIUM
most loyal and energetic supporter of the young Charles XI.,
and finally his indispensable counsellor. Indeed, it may be said,
that the political principles which he instilled into the youthful
monarch were faithfully followed by Charles during the whole
of his reign.- In 1679 Gyllenstjerna was appointed the Swedish
plenipotentiary at the peace congress of Lund. The alliance
which he then concluded with Denmark bound the two northern
realms together in a common foreign policy, and he sought
besides to facilitate their harmonious co-operation by every
means in his power. In 1680, after bringing home Charles XI. 's
Danish bride from Copenhagen, he was appointed governor-
general of Scania (Skane), but expired a few weeks later.
See M. Hojer, Ojversigt af SverUes yttre politik under dren 1676-
1680 (Upsala, 1875). (R. N. B.)
GYMKHANA, a display of miscellaneous sports, originally at
the military stations of India. The word would seem to be
a colloquial remodelling of the Hindustani gend-khana, ball-
house or racquet-court, by substituting for gend the first syllable
of the English word "gymnastics." The definition given in
Yule's Glossary is as follows: " A place of public resort at a
station, where the needful facilities for athletics and games
. . . are provided." The name of the place was afterwards
applied to the games themselves, and the word is now used almost
exclusively in this sense. According to Yule the first use of it
that can be traced was, on the authority of Major John Trotter,
at Rurki in the year 1861, when a gymkhana was instituted
there. Gymkhana sports were invented to relieve the monotony
of Indian station life, and both officers and men from the ranks
took part in them. The first meetings consisted of promiscuous
horse and pony races at catch weights. To these were soon
added a second variety, originally called the pdgdl (funny races),
the one generally known outside India, which consisted of
miscellaneous races and competitions of all kinds, some serious
and some amusing, on horseback, on foot and on bicycles.
Among these may be mentioned the usual military sports; such
as tent-pegging, lemon-cutting and obstacle racing; rickshaw
racing; tilting at the ring, sack, pillion, hurdle, egg-and-spoon,
blindfold, threading-the-needle and many other kinds of races
depending upon the inventive powers of the committees in charge,
GYMNASTICS AND GYMNASIUM, terms signifying respec-
tively a system of physical exercises practised either for recrea-
tion or for the purpose of promoting the health and development
of the body, and the building where such exercises are carried
on. The gymnasium of the Greeks was originally the school
where competitors in the public games received their training,
and was so named from the circumstance that these competitors
exercised naked (yvfwds). The gymnasium was a public in-
stitution as distinguished from the palaestra, which was a
private school where boys were trained in physical exercises,
though the term palaestra is also often used for the part of a
gymnasium specially devoted to wrestling and boxing. The
athletic contests for which the gymnasium supplied the means
of training and practice formed part of the social life of the
Greeks from the earliest times. They were held in honour of
heroes and gods; sometimes forming part of a periodic festival,
sometimes of the funeral rites of a deceased chief. In course of
time the Greeks grew more attached to such sports; their free
active life, spent to a great extent in the open air, fostered the
liking almost into a passion. The victor in any athletic contest,
though he gained no money prize, was rewarded with the honour
and respect of his fellow citizens; and a victory in the great
religious festivals was counted an honour for the whole state.
In these circumstances the training of competitors for the
greater contests became a matter of public concern; and
accordingly special buildings were provided by the state, and
their management entrusted to public officials. The regulation
of the gymnasium at Athens is attributed by Pausanias (i. 39. 3)
to Theseus. Solon made several laws on the subject; but
according to Galen it was reduced to a system in the time of
Cleisthenes. Ten gymnasiarchs, one from each tribe, were
appointed annually. These performed in rotation the duties
of their office, which were to maintain and pay the persons who
were training for public contests, to conduct the games at the
great Athenian festivals, to exercise general supervision over
the morals of the youths, and to adorn and keep up the gym-
nasium. This office was one of the ordinary 'Keirovpyliu (public
services), and great expense was entailed on the holders. Under
them were ten sophronistae, whose duty, was to watch the conduct
of the youths at all times, and especially to be present at all
their games. The practical teaching and selecting of the suitable
exercises for each youth were in the hands of the paedotribae and
gymnastae f the latter of whom also superintended the effect on the
constitution of the pupils, and prescribed for them when they were
unwell. The aleiptot oiled and rubbed dust on the bodies of the
youths, acted as surgeons, and administered the drugs prescribed.
According to Galen. there was also a teacher of the various
games of ball. The gymnasia built to suit these various purposes
were large buildings, which contained not merely places for each
kind of exercise, but also a stadium, baths, covered porticos for
practice in bad weather, and outer porticos where the philosophers
and men of letters read public lectures and held disputations.
The gymnasium of the Greeks did not long remain an institu-
tion exclusively devoted to athletic exercises. It soon began
to be applied to other uses even more important. The develop-
ment arose naturally through the recognition by the Greeks of
the important place in education occupied by physical culture,
and of the relation between exercise and health. The gymnasium
accordingly became connected with education on the one hand
and with medicine on the other. Due training of the body and
maintenance of the health and strength of children were the
chief part of earlier Greek education. Except the time devoted
to letters and music, the education of boys was conducted in
the gymnasia, where provision was made, as already mentioned,
for their moral as well as their physical training. As they grew
older, conversation and social intercourse took the place of the
more systematic discipline. Philosophers and sophists assembled
to talk and to lecture in the gymnasia, which thus became places
of general resort for the purpose of all less systematic intellectual
pursuits, as well as for •physical exercises. In Athens there were
three great public gymnasia — Academy, Lyceum and Cynosarges
— each of which was consecrated to a special deity with whose
statue it was adorned; and each was rendered famous by
association with a celebrated school of philosophy. Plato's
teaching in the Academy has given immortality to that gym-
nasium; Aristotle conferred lustre on the Lyceum; and the
Cynosarges was the resort of the Cynics. Plato when treating
of education devotes much consideration to gymnastics (see
especially Rep, iii. and various parts of Lews); and according
to Plato it was the sophist Prodicus who first pointed out the
connexion between gymnastics and health. Having found such
exercises beneficial to his own weak health, he formulated a
method whicl^ was adopted generally, and which was improved by
Hippocrates. 1 Galen lays the greatest stress on the proper use of
gymnastics, a£d throughout ancient medical writers we find that
special exercises are prescribed as the cure for special diseases.
The Greek institution of the gymnasium never became popular
with the Romans, who regarded the training of boys in gymnastics
with contempt \ as conducive to idleness and immorality, and of
little use from\ a military point of view; though at Sparta
gymnastic training had been chiefly valued as encouraging
warlike tastes and promoting the bodily strength needed for the
use of weapons) and the endurance of hardship. Among the
Romans of the republic, the games in the Campus Martius, the
duties of camp Dife, and the enforced marches and other hard-
ships of actual warfare, served to take the place of the gymnastic
exercises required by the Greeks. The first public gymnasium
at Rome was bui|t by Nero and another by Commodus. In the
middle ages, thoiiigh jousts and feats of horsemanship and field
sports of various k^nds were popular, the more systematic training
of the body which jthe Greeks had associated with the gymnasium
fell into neglect; while the therapeutic value of special exercises
as understood by Hippocrates and Galen appears to have been
lost sight of. R :>usseau, in his fimilc, was the first in modern
times to call attention to the injurious consequences of such
GYMNOSOPHISTS
753
indifference) and he insisted on the importance of physical
culture as an essential part of education. It was probably due
in some measure to his influence that F. L. Jahn and his followers
in Germany, encouraged by the Prussian minister Stein, estab-
lished the Turnpl&tze, or gymnastic schools, which played an
important part during the War of Liberation, and in the political
agitations which followed the establishment of the German
confederation by the Congress of Vienna. The educational
reformers Pestalozzi and Froebel emphasized the need for
systematic physical training in any qomplete scheme of education.
The later development of the classical gymnasium (when it had
become the school of intellectual culture rather than of ex-
clusively physical exercise), and not the original idea, has been
perpetuated in the modern use of the word in Germany, where
the name " gymnasium " is given to the highest grade of second-
ary school, and the association of the word with athleticism has
been entirely abandoned. On the other hand, in England,
France and elsewhere in Europe, as well as in America, the
history of the word has been precisely the reverse; the con-
nexion of the gymnasium with philosophy and mental culture
has been dropped, and it indicates a building exclusively intended
for the practice of physical exercises. But whereas the Greeks
received training in the gymnasium for contests which are now
designated as athletic sports (q.v.), gymnastics in the modern
sense is a term restricted to such exercises as are usually practised
indoors, with or without the aid of mechanical appliances, . as
distinguished from sports or games practised in the open air.
It was not untO near the end of the ioth century that gym-
nastics were recognized in England as anything more than a
recreation; their value as a specifically therapeutic agent, or as
an article in the curriculum of elementary schools, was not
realized. More recently, however, educationists have urged with
increasing insistence the need for systematic physical training,
and their views received greater attention when evidence of
deterioration in the physique of the people began to accumulate.
During the first decade of the ioth century more than one com-
mission reported to parliament in England in favour of more
systematic and general physical training being encouraged or
even made compulsory by public authority. Voluntary associa-
tions were formed for encouraging such training and providing
facilities for it. Gymnastics had already for several years been
an essential part of the training of army recruits with exceedingly
beneficial results, and gymnasia had been established at Alder-
shot and other military centres. Physical exercises, although
not compulsory, obtained a permanent place in the code for
elementary schools in Great Britain; and much care has been
taken to provide a syllabus of exercises adapted for the improve-
ment of the physique of the children. These exercises are partly
gymnastic and partly of the nature of drill; they do not in most
cases require the use of appliances, and are on that account
known as " free movements," which numbers of children go
through together, accompanied whenever possible by music.
On the other hand at the larger public schools and universities
there are elaborate gymnasia equipped with a great variety of
apparatus, the skilful use of which demands assiduous practice;
and this is encouraged by annual contests between teams of
gymnasts representing rival institutions.
The appliances vary to some extent in different gymnasia,
some of the more complicated requiring a greater amount of
space and involving a larger cost than is often practic-
°^Z able. But where these considerations are negligible,
apparatus, substantial uniformity is to be found in the equipment
of gymnasia not designed for specifically medical
purposes. The simplest, and in many respects the most generally
useful, of all gymnastic apparatus is the dumb-bell. It was in
use in England as early as the time of Elizabeth, and it has the
advantage that it admits of being exactly proportioned to the
individual strength of each learner, and can be adjusted in
weight as his strength increases. The exercises that may be
performed with the dumb-bell, combined with a few simple
drill-like movements, give employment to all parts of the body
and to both sides equally. Dumb-bell exercises, therefore, when
arranged judiciously and with knowledge, are admirably suited
for developing the physique, and are extensively employed in
schools both for boys and girls. The bar-bell is merely a two-
handed dumb-bell, and its use is similar in principle. The
Indian club is also in use in most gymnasia; but the risk of
overstraining the body by its unskilful handling makes it less
generally popular than the dumb-bell. All these appliances
may be, and often are, used either in ordinary schoolrooms or
elsewhere outside the gymnasium. The usual fixed sorts of
apparatus, the presence of which (or of some of them) in a building
may be said to constitute it a gymnasium, are the following: a
leaping-rope; a leaping-pole; a vaulting-horse; a horizontal
bar, so mounted between two upright posts that its height from
the ground may be adjusted as desired; parallel bars, used for
exercises to develop the muscles of the trunk and arms; the
trapeze consisting of a horizontal bar suspended by ropes at a
height of 4 to 5 ft. from the ground; the bridge ladder; the
plank; the inclined plane; the mast; swinging rings; the
prepared wall; the horizontal beam.
Before the end of the 19th century the therapeutic value of
gymnastics was fully realized by the medical profession; and a
number of medical or surgical gymnasia came into existence,
provided with specially devised apparatus for the treatment of
different physical defects or weaknesses. The exercises practised
in them are arranged upon scientific principles based on
anatomical and physiological knowledge; and these principles
have spread thence to influence largely the practice of gym-
nastics in schools and in the army. A French medical writer
enumerates seven distinct groups of maladies, each including a
number of different complaints, for which gymnastic exercises
are a recognized form of treatment; and there are many mal-
formations of the human body, formerly believed to be incurable,
which are capable of being greatly remedied if not entirely
corrected by regular gymnastic exercises practised under medical,
direction.
The value of gymnastics both for curing defects, and still more
fox promoting health and the development of normal physique,
is recognized even more clearly on the continent of Europe than
in Great Britain. In Germany the government not only controls
the practice of gymnastics but makes it compulsory for every
child and adult to undergo a prescribed amount of such
physical training. In France also, physical training by gym-
nastics is under state control; in Sweden, Denmark, Switzer-
land, Italy, Russia, systems more or less distinct enjoy
a wide popularity; and in Finland gymnastics are practised
on lines that exhibit national peculiarities. The Finns intro-
duce an exceptional degree of variety into their exercises as
well as into the appliances devised to assist them; women are
scarcely less expert than men in the performance of them; and
the enthusiasm with which the system is supported produces
the most beneficial results in the physique of the people. Inter-
national gymnastic contests have become a feature of the revived
Olympic Games (see Athletic Sports), and in those held at
Athens in 1906 a team of Danish ladies took part in the competi-
tion and proved by their skilful performance that gymnastics
may be practised with as much success by women as by men.
The chief work on the ancient gymnastics is Krause, Gymnostik
und Agonistik der Hellenen (1841) ; of more recent works mention
may be made of Jager, Gymnostik der Hellenen (1881) ; L. Grasberger,
Erziehung und Unterricht im klossischen Altertum (1881); J. P.
Mahaffy, Old Greek Education (1883); A. S. Wilkms, National
Education in Greece (1873); E « ^ >az » Histoire de la gymnastique
(i£86) ; Wickenhagen, Antike und moderne Gymnostik (1891) ; Becker-
Goll, Charicles ii. ; Brugsma, Gymnasiorum apud Graecos descriptio
); Petersen, Das Gymnasium der Griechen (1858). See also
aisne", Gymnastique pratique (Paris, 1870); Collineau, La
(1855); Petersen, Das Gymnasium der Griechen (1858). See also
N. Laisne\ Gymnastique pratique (Paris, 1879); Collineau, La
Gymnastique (Paris, 1884) ; L 'Hygiene d Vecole (Paris, 1889) ; P. de
Coubertin, La Gymnastique utilitaire (Paris, 1905); H. Nissen,
Rational Home Gymnastics (Boston. 1903). (R. J. M.)
GYMNOSOPHISTS (Lat. gymnosophistae, from Gr. yv^6s,
oo<j>urri]S, "naked philosophers "), the name given by the
Greeks to certain ancient Hindu philosophers who pursued
asceticism to the point of regarding food and clothing as detri-
mental to purity of thought. From the fact that they often
754
GYMNOSPERMS
lived as hermits in forests, the Greeks also called them Hylobioi
(cf. the Vana-prasthas in Sanskrit writings). Diogenes La6rtius
(ix. 61 and 63) refers to them, and asserts that Pyrrho of Elis,
the founder of pure scepticism, came under their influence, and
on his return to Elis imitated their habits of life, to what extent
does not appear. Strabo (xv. 711, 714) divides them into
Brahmans and Sarmans (or Shamans). See Jains.
GYMNOSPERMS, in Botany. The Gymnosperms, with the
Angiosperms, constitute the existing groups of seed-bearing
plants or Phanerogams: the importance of the seed as a dis-
tinguishing feature in the plant kingdom may be emphasized
by the use of the designation Spermophyta for these two groups,
in contrast to the Pteridophyta and Bryophyta in which true
seeds are unknown. Recent discoveries have, however, estab-
lished the fact that there existed in the Palaeozoic era fern-
like plants which produced true seeds of a highly specialized
type; this group, for which Oliver and Scott proposed the term
Pteridospermae in 1904, must also be included in the Sper-
mophyta. Another instance of the production of seeds in an
extinct plant which further reduces the importance of this
character as a distinguishing feature is afforded by the Palaeozoic
genus Lepidocarpon described by Scott in 1901 ; this lycopodia-
ceous type possessed an integumented megaspore, to which
the designation seed may be legitimately applied (see PalaeO-
botany: Palaeozoic).
As the name Gymnosperm (Gr. yvyafe, naked, owkppa, seed)
implies, one characteristic of this group is the absence of an ovary
or closed chamber containing the ovules. It was the English
botanist Robert Brown who first recognized this important
distinguishing feature in conifers and cycads in 1825; he estab-
lished the gymnospermy of these seed-bearing classes as distinct
from the angiospermy of the monocotyledons and dicotyledons.
As Sachs says in his history of botany, " no more important
discovery was ever made in the domain of comparative mor-
phology and systematic botany." As Coulter and Chamberlain
express it, " the habitats of the Gymnosperms to-day indicate
that they either are not at home in the more genial conditions
affected by Angiosperms, or have not been able to maintain
themselves in competition with this group of plants."
These naked-seeded plants are of special interest on account
of their great antiquity, which far exceeds that of the Angio-
sperms, and as comprising different types which carry us back
to the Palaeozoic era and to the forests of the coal period. The
best known and by far the largest division of the Gymnosperms
is that of the cone-bearing trees (pines, firs, cedars, larches,
&c), which play a prominent part in the vegetation of the present
day, especially in the higher latitudes of the northern hemisphere;
certain members of this class are of considerable antiquity, but
the conifers as a whole are still vigorous and show but little
sign of decadence. The division known as the Cycadophyta
is represented by a few living genera of limited geographical
range and by a large number of extinct types which in the
Mesozoic era (see Palaeobotany: Mesozoic) played a conspicuous
part in the vegetation of the world. Among existing Cycado-
phyta we find surviving types which, in their present isolation,
their close resemblance to fossil forms, and in certain morpho-
logical features, constitute links with the past that not only
connect the present with former periods in the earth's history,
but serve as sign-posts pointing the way back along one of the
many lines which evolution has followed.
It is needless to discuss at length the origin of the Gymno-
sperms. The two views which find most favour in regard to
the Coniferales and Cycadophyta are: (1) that both have been
derived from remote filicinean ancestors; (2) that the cycads
are the descendants of a fern-like stock, while conifers have been
evolved from lycopodiaceous ancestors. The line of descent
of recent cycads is comparatively clear in so far as they have
undoubted affinity with Palaeozoic plants which combined
cycadean and filicinean features; but opinion is much more
divided as to the nature of the phylum from which the conifers
are derived. The Cordaitales (see Palaeobotany: Palaeozoic)
are represented by extinct forms only, which occupied a prominent
position in the Palaeozoic period; these plants exhibit certain
features in common with the living Araucarias, and others which
invite a comparison with the maidenhair tree (Ginkgo biloba),
the solitary survivor of another class of Gymnosperms, the
Ginkgoales (see Palaeobotany: Mesozoic). The Gnetales are
a class apart, including three living genera, of which we know
next to nothing as regards their past history or line of descent.
Although there are several morphological features in the three
genera of Gnetales which might seem to bring them into line
with the Angiosperms, it is usual to regard these resemblances
as parallel developments along distinct lines rather* than to
interpret them as evidence of direct relationship.
Gymnospermae. — Trees or shrubs; leaves vary considerably in
size and form. Flowers unisexual, except in a few cases (Gnetales)
without a perianth. Monoecious or dioecious. Ovules naked,
rarely without carpellary leaves, usually borne on carpophylls,
which assume various forms. The single megaspore enclosed in the
nucellus is filled with tissue (prothallus) before fertilization, and
contains two or more archegonia, consisting usually of a large egg-cell
and a small neck, rarely of an egg-cell only and no neck (Gnetutn and
Wehoitschia). Microspore spherical or oval, with or without a
bladder-like extension of the exine, containing a prothallus of two
or more cells, one of which produces two non-motile or motile male
cells. Cotyledons two or several. Secondary xylem and phloem
produced by a single cambium, or by successive cambial zones; no
true vessels (except in the Gnetales) in the wood, and no companion-
cells in the phloem.
I. Pteridospermae (see Palaeobotany, Palaeozoic).
II. Cycadophyta.
A. Cycadales (recent and extinct).
B. Bennettitales (see Palaeobotany : Mesozoic).
III. Cordaitales (see Palaeobotany : Palaeozoic).
IV. Ginkgoales (recent and extinct).
V. Coniferales.
A. Taxaceae.
B. Pinaceae.
There is no doubt that the result of recent research and of work
how in progress will be to modify considerably the grouping of the
conifers. The family Araucarieae, represented by Araucaria and
Agathis, should perhaps be separated as a special class and a re-
arrangement of other genera more in accord with a natural system of
classification will soon be possible; but for the present its twofold
subdivision may be retained.
VI. Gnetales.
A. Ephedroideae.
B. Gnetoideae.
C. Welwitschioideae (Tumboideae).
Cycadophyta. — A. Cycadales.— Steals tuberous or columnar, not
infrequently branched, rarely epiphytic (Peruvian species of Zamia) ;
fronds pinnate, bi-pinnate in the Australian genus Bowenia. Dioeci-
ous; flowers in the form of cones, except the female flowers of Cycas 9
which consist of a rosette of leaf-like carpels at the apex of the stem.
Seeds albuminous, with one integument ; the single embryo, usually
bearing two partially fused cotyledons, is attached to a long tangled
suspensor. Stems and roots increase in diameter by secondary
thickening, the secondary wood being produced by one cambium or
developed from successive cambium-rings.
The cycads constitute a homogeneous group of a few living
members confined to tropical and sub-tropical regions. As a fairly
typical and well-known example of the Cyca-
daceae, a species of the genus Cycas (e.g. C.
circinaltSy C. revoluta, &c.) is briefly de-
scribed. The stout columnar stem may
reach a height of 20 metres, and a diameter
of half a metre; it remains either unbranched
or divides near the summit into several short
and thick branches, each branch terminating
in a crown of long pinnate leaves. The sur-
face of the stem is covered with rhomboidal
areas, which represent the persistent bases
of foliage- and scale- leaves. I n some species
of Cycas there is a well-defined alternation of
transverse zones on the stem, consisting of
larger areas representing foliage-leaf bases,
and similar but smaller areas formed by the
bases of scale-leaves (Fand 5, fig. i). ( The
scale-leaves clothing the terminal bud are
linear-lanceolate in form, and of a brown or
yellow colour; they are pushed aside as the
stem-axis elongates and becomes shrivelled,
finally falling off, leaving projecting bases
which are eventually cut off at a still lower
level. Similarly, the dead fronds fall off.leaving a ragged petiole, which
is afterwards separated from the stem by an absciss-layer a short
distance above the base. In some species of Cycas the leaf-bases
do not persist as a permanent covering to the stem, but the surface
Fig. 1. — Stein of
Cycas. F, foliage-
leaf bases; S, scale-
leaf bases.
GYMNOSPERMS
755
Fig. 2. — Cycas siamensis.
is covered with a wrinkled bark, as in Cycas siamensis, which has a
stem of unusual form (fig. 2). Small tuberous shoots, comparable on
a large scale with the bulbils of Lycopodium Selago, are occasionally
produced in the axils of some of the persistent leaf-bases; these are
characteristic of sickly plants, and serve as a means of vegetative
reproduction. ■ In the genus Cycas the female flower is peculiar
among cycads in consisting of a terminal crown of separate leaf-like
carpels several inches in length ; the apical portion of each carpellary
leal may be broadly triangular in form, and deeply dissected on the
margins into narrow woolly appendages like rudimentary pinnae.
From the lower part of a
carpel are produced several
laterally placed ovules,
which become bright red
or orange on ripening; the
bright fleshy seeds, which
in some species are as large
as a goose's egg, and the
tawny spreading carpels
produce a pleasing com*
Duration of colour in the
midst of the long dark-green
fronds, which curve grace-
fully upwards and outwards
from the summit of the
columnar stem. In Cycas
the stem apex, after produc-
ing a cluster of carpellary
leaves, continues to elongate
and produces more bud-
scales, which are afterwards
pushed aside as a fresh
crown of fronds is developed.
The young leaves of Cycas consist of a straight rachis bearing numer-
ous linear pinnae, traversed by a single midrib; the pinnae are
circinately coiled like the leaf of a fern (fig. 3)- The ^ flower of
Cycas conforms to the type of structure characteristic of the cycads,
and consists of a long cone of numerous sporophylls bearing many
oval pollen-sacs on their lower faces. The type described serves as a
convenient representative of its class. There are eight other living
genera, which may be classified as follows: —
Classification.-^^. Cycadeae.— Characterized by (a) the alternation
of scale- and foliage-leaves (fig. r) on the branched or unbranched
stem; (6) the growth of the main stem through the female flower;
(c) the presence of a prominent single vein in the linear pinnae; (d)
the structure of the female flower, which is peculiar
in not having the form of a cone, but consists of
numerous independent carpels, each of which bears
two or more lateral ovules. Represented by a single
genus, Cycas. (Tropical Asia, Australia, &c).
B. Zamieae. — The stem does not grow through
the female flower; both male and female flowers
are in the form of cones, (a) Stangerieae. —
Characterized by the fern-like venation of the
pinnae, which have a prominent midrib, giving
off at a wide angle simple or^ forked and
occasionally anastomosing lateral veins. A single
genus, Stangeria, confined to South Africa, (b)
Euzamieae. — The pinnae are traversed by several
parallel veins. Bowenia, an Australian cycad, is
pecunar 1 in having bi-pinnate fronds (fig. 5). The
various genera are distinguished from one another
by the shape and manner of attachment of the
pinnae, the form of the carpellary scales, and to
some extent by anatomical characters. Encepha-
lartos (South and Tropical Africa).— Large cones;
the carpellary scales terminate in a peltate distal
expansion. Macrozamia (Australia). — Similar to
Encephalartos except in the presence of a spinous
projection from the swollen distal end of the carpels.
Zamia (South America, Florida, &c.).— Stem short
and often divided into several columnar branches.
Each carpel terminates in a peltate head. Cerato^
zamia (Mexico).— Similar in habit to Macrozamia,,
p IG# 3. — Cycas. but distinguished by the presence of two horn-like
Young Frond, spinous processes on the apex of the carpels.
Microcycas (Cuba).— Like Zamia, except that the
ends of the stamens are flat, while the apices of the carpels are
peltate. Dioon (Mexico) (fig. 4).— Characterized by the woolly scale-
leaves and carpels; the latter terminate in a thick laminar expan-
sion of triangular form, bearing two placental cushions, on which
the ovules are situated. Bowenia (Australia). — Bi-pinnate fronds;
stem short and tuberous (fig. 5). . .
The stems of cycads are often described as unbranched; it is true
that in comparison with conifers, in which the numerous branches,
springing from the main stem, give a Characteristic form
to the tree, the tuberous or columnar stem of the Cyca-
daceae constitutes a striking distinguishing feature.
Branching, however, occurs not infrequently; in Cycas
the tall stem often oroduces several candelabra-like arms; in Zamia
Stem
and
hat.
the main axis may break up near the base into several cylindrical
branches ; in species of Dioon (fig. 4) lateral branches are occasion-
ally produced. The South African Encephalartos frequently produces
several branches. Probably the oldest example of this genus in
cultivation is in the Botanic
Garden of Amsterdam, its
age is considered by Pro-
fessor de Vries to be about
two thousand years:
although an accurate deter-
mination of age is impos-
sible, there is no doubt that
many cycads grow very
slowly and are remarkable
for longevity. The thick
armour of petiole-bases en-
veloping the stem is a
characteristic Cycadean
feature; in Cycas the alter-
nation of scale-leaves and
fronds is more clearly shown
than in other cycads; in
Encephalartos, Dioon, &c. ; p^ a photograph of a plant in the Pwadeniya
the persistent scale - leaf Gardens, Ceylon, by Professor R. H. Yapp,
bases are almost equal in
size to those of the foliage- Fig. \.— Dioon edule.
leaves, and there is no
regular alternation of zones sucn as characterizes some species of
Cycas. Another type of stem is illustrated by Stangeria and Zamia,
also by a few forms of Cycas (fig. 2), in which the fronds fall off
Fig. 5. — Bowenia spcctabilisi frond.
completely, leaving a comparatively smooth stem. The Cyas type of
frond, except as regards the presence of a midrib in each pmna,
characterizes the cycads generally, except Bowenia and Stangeria.
In the monotypic genus Bowenia the large
fronds, borne singly on the short and thick
stem, are bi-pinnate (fig. 5) ; the segments,
which are broadly ovate or rhomboidal,
haVe several forked spreading veins, and
resemble the large pinnules of some species
of Adiantum. In Stangeria, also a genus
represented by one species (5. paradoxa of
South Africa), the long and comparatively
broad pinnae, with an entire or irregularly
incised margin, are very fern-like, a cir-
cumstance which led Kunze to describe the
plant in 1835 as a species of the fern
Lomaria. In rare cases thepinnae of cycads
are lobed or branched: in Dioon spinu-
losum (Central America) the margin of the
segments bears numerous spinous pro-
cesses; in some species of Encephalartos,
e.g. E. horridus, the lamina is deeply lobed;
and in a species of the Australian genus
Macrozamia, M. keteromera, the narrow
pinnae are dichotomously branched almost to the base (fig. 6), and re-
semble the frond of some species of the fern Schizaea, or the fossil genus
Baiera (Ginkgoales). An interesting species of Cycas, C.Micholitzxi, has
recently been described by Sir William Thiselton-Dyer from Annam,
where it was collected by one of Messrs Sanders & Son's collectors,
in which the pinnae instead of being of the usual simple type are
Fig. 6. — Macrozamia
keteromera. A, part of
frond; B, single pinna.
75^
GYMNOSPERMS
dichotomously branched as in Macrozamia heteromera. In Cerato-
zamia the broad petiole-base is characterized by the presence of two
lateral spinous processes, suggesting stipular appendages, com-
parable, on a reduced scale, with the large stipules of the Marattiaceae
among Ferns. The vernation varies in different genera; in Cycas
the rachis is straight and the pinnae circinately coiled (fig. 3); in
Encephalartos, Dioon, &c., both rachis and segments are straight ; in
Zamta the rachis is bent or slightly coiled, bearing straight pinnae.
The young leaves arise on the stem-apex as conical protuberances
with winged borders, on which the pinnae appear as rounded humps,
usually in basipetal order; the scale-leaves in their young condition
resemble fronds, but the lamina remains undeveloped. A feature of
interest in connexion with the phylogeny of cycads is the presence of
long hairs clothing the scale-leaves, and forming a cap on the summit
of the stem-apex or attached to the bases of petioles; on some fossil
cycadean plants these outgrowths have the form of scales, and are
identical in structure with the ramenta (paleae)of the majority of ferns.
The male flowers of cycads are constructed on a uniform plan,
and in all cases consist of an axis bearing crowded, spirally dis-
Phww. posed sporophylls. These are often wedge-shaped and
angular; in some cases they consist of a short, thick
stalk, terminating in a peltate expansion, or prolonged upwards in
the form of a triangular lamina. The sporangia (pollen-sacs), which
occur on the under-side of the stamens, are often arranged in more or
less definite groups or son, interspersed with hairs (paraph yses) ;
dehiscence takes place along a line marked out by the occurrence of
smaller and thinner-walled cells bounded by larger and thicker-
walled elements, which form a fairly prominent cap-like " annulus "
near the apex of the sporangium, not unlike the annulus characteristic
of the Schizaeaceae among ferns. The sporangrial wall, consisting
of several layers of cells, encloses a cavity containing numerous oval
rres (pollen-grains). In structure a cycadean sporangium recalls
se of certain terns (Marattiaceae, Osmundaceae and Schizaeaceae),
but in the development of the spores there are certain peculiarities
not met with among the Vascular Cryptogams. With the exception
of Cycas, the female flowers are also in the form of cones, bearing
numerous carpellary scales. In Cycas revoluta and C. circinalis each
leaf-like carpel may produce several laterally attached ovules, but
in C. Normanbyana the carpel is shorter and the ovules are reduced
to two ; this latter type brings us nearer to the carpels of Dioon, in
which the flower has the form of a cone, and the distal end of the
carpels is longer and more leaf -like than in the other genera of the
Zamieae, which are characterized by shorter carpels with thick
peltate heads bearing two ovules on the morphologically lower
surface. The cones of cycads attain in some cases [e.g. Encephalartos)
a considerable size, reaching a length of more than a toot. Cases have
been recorded (by Thiselton-Dyer in Encephalartos and by Wieland
in Zamia) in which the short carpellary cone-scales exhibit a foliace-
ous form. It is interesting that no monstrous cycadean cone has
been described in which ovuliferous and staminate appendages are
borne on the same axis: in the Bennettitales (see Pal aeobotany :
Mesozoic) flowers were produced bearing on the same axis both
androecium and gynoecium.
The pollen-grains when mature consist of three cells, two small
and one large cell; the latter grows into the pollen-tube, as in the
IHfcro. Coniferales, and from one of the small cells two large
ciliated spermatozoids are eventually produced. A
J^l remarkable exception to this rule has recently been
recorded by Caldwell, who found that in Microcycas
MoonM, Calocoma the body-cells may be eight or even ten in
*^ number and the sperm-cells twice as numerous. One of
the most important discoveries made during the latter part of the
19th century was that by Ikeno, a Japanese botanist, who first
demonstrated the existence of motile male cells in the genus Cycas.
Similar spermatozoids were observed in some species of Zamia by
H. J. Webber, and more recent work enables us to assume that all
cycads produce ciliated male gametes. Before following the growth
of the pollen-grain after pollination, we will briefly describe the
structure of a cycadean ovule. An ovule consists of a conical nucellus
surrounded by a single integument. At an early stage of develop-
ment a large cell makes its appearance in the central region of the
nucellus; this increases in size and eventually forms three cells; the
lowest of these grows vigorously and constitutes the megaspore
(embryo-sac) , which ultimately absorbs the greater part of the nucellus.
The megaspore-nucleus divides repeatedly, and cells are produced,
from the peripheral region inwards, which eventually fill the spore-
cavity with a homogeneous tissue (prothallus) ; some of the super-
ficial cells at the micropylar end of the megaspore increase in size and
divide by a tangential wall into two, an upper cell which gives rise
to the short two-celled neck of the archegonium, and a lower cell
which develops into a large egg-cell. Each megaspore may contain
2 to 6 archegonia. During the growth of the ovum nourishment is
supplied from the contents of the cells immediately surrounding the
egg-cell, as in the development of the ovum of Pinus and other
conifers. Meanwhile the tissue in the apical region of the nucellus
has been undergoing disorganization, which results in the formation
of a pollen-chamber (fig. 7, C) immediately above the mega-
spore. Pollination in cycads has always been described as
anemophilous, but according to recent observations by Pearson
on South African species it seems probable that, at least in some
Fig. 7. — Zamia. Part of Ovule in longi-
tudinal section. (After Webber.)
P, Prothallus. Pt, Pollen-tube.
Archegonia. Pg t Pollen-grain.
Nucellus. G, Generative cell
Pollen-chamber. (second cell of
pollen-tube).
A,
N,
C,
cases, the pollen is conveyed to the ovules by animal agency.
The pollen-grains find their way between the carpophylls, which at
the time of pollination are slightly apart owing to the elongation of
the internodes of the flower-axis* and pass into the pollen-chamber;
the large cell of the pollen-grain grows out into a tube- {Pt), which
penetrates the nucellar tissue and often branches repeatedly; the
pollen-grain itself, with the prothallus-cells, projects freely into the
pollen-chamber {jas. 7). The nucleus of the outermost (second
small cell (fig. 7, G) divides, and ! one of the daughter-nuclei passes
out of the cell, and may enter the lowest (first) small cell. The
outermost cell, by the division of the remaining nucleus, produces
two large spermatozoids
(fig. 8, a, a). In Micro-
cycas 16 sperm-cells are
produced. In the. course
of division two bodies ap-
pear in the cytoplasm,
and behave as centro-
somes during the karyo-
kinesis; they gradually
become threadlike and
coil round each daughter
nucleus. This thread
gives rise to a spiral cili-
ated band lying in a de-
pression on the body of
each spermatozoid ; the
large spermatozoids
eventually escape from
the pollen-tube, and are.
able to perform ciliary
movements in the watery
liquid which occurs be-
tween the thin papery
remnant of nucellar tissue
and the archegonial necks. Before fertilization a neck-canal cell is
formed by the division of the ovum-nucleus. After the body of a
spermatozoid has coalesced with the egg-nucleus the .latter divides
repeatedly and forms a mass of tissue which grows more vigorously
in the lower part of the fertilized ovum, and extends upwards
towards the apex of the ovum as a peripheral layer of paren-
chyma surrounding a central space. By further growth this
tissue gives rise to a proembryo, which consists* at the micro-
pylar end, of a sac; the tissue at the chalazal end grows into a long
and tangled suspensor, terminating in a mass of cells, which is
eventually differentiated into a radicle, plumule and two cotyledons.
In the ripe seed the integument assumes the form of a fleshy envelope,
succeeded internally by a hard woody shell, internal to which is
a thin papery membrane — the apical portion of the nucellus — which
is easily dissected out as a conical cap covering the apex of the
endosperm. A thorough examination of cyca-
dean seeds has recently been made by Miss St opes.
more particularly with a view to a comparison of
their vascular supply with that in Palaeozoic
gymnospermous seeds (Flora, 1904). The first
leaves borne on the seedling axis are often scale-
like, and these are followed by two or more larger
laminae, which foreshadow the pinnae of the adult
frond.
The anatomical structure of the vegetative
organs of recent cycads is of special interest as
affording important evidence of rela- A mMtamv
tionship with extinct types, and with # y *
other groups of recent plants. Brongniart, who
was the first to investigate in detail the anatomy
of a cycadean stem, recognized an agreement, as
regards the secondary wood, with Dicotyledons
and Gymnosperms, rather than with Monoco-
tyledons. He drew attention also to certain
structural similarities between Cycas and Ginkgo.
The main anatomical features of a cycad stem
may be summarized as follows: the centre is
occupied by a large parenchymatous pith traversed
by numerous secretory canals, and in some genera
by cauline vascular bundles (e.g. Encephalartos
and Macrozamia). In addition to these cauline
strands (confined to the stem and not connected
with the leaves), collateral bundles are often met with in the
pith, which form the vascular supply of terminal flowers borne at
intervals on the apex of the stem. These latter bundles may be seen
in sections of old stems to pursue a more or less horizontal course,
passing outwards through the main woody cylinder. This lateral
course is due to the more vigorous growth of the axillary branch
formed near the base of each flower, which is a terminal structure,
and, except in the female flower of Cycas, puts a limit to the
apical growth of the stem. The vigorous lateral branch therefore
continues the line of the main axis. The pith is encircled bya
cylinder of secondary wood, consisting of single or multiple radial
rows of tracheids separated by broad medullary rays composed of
large parenchymatous cells; the tracheids bear numerous bordered
Fig.8. — Zamia.
Proximal end of
Pollen-tube, a,
a,Spermatozoids
from Gof fig. 7;
Pg t pollen-grain ;
c, proximal cell
(first cell). (After
Webber.)
GYMNOSPERMS
757
(After Worsdell.)
id, Periderm in leaf-bases.
//, Leaf -traces in cortex.
ph, Phloem.
x, Xylem.
in, Medullary bundles.
c, Cortical bundles.
pits on the radial walls. The large medullary rays give to the wood
a characteristic parenchymatous or lax appearance, which is in
marked contrast to the more compact wood of a conifer. The
protoxylem-elements are situated at the extreme inner edge of the
secondary wood, and may occur as small groups of narrow, spirally-
pitted elements scattered among the parenchyma which abuts on the
main mass of wood. Short and reticulately-pitted tracheal cells,
similar to tracheids, often occur in the circummedullary region of
cycadean stems. In an old stem of Cycas, Encephalartos or Macro-
zatnia the secondary wood consists of
several rather unevenly concentric
zones, while in some other genera it
forms a continuous mass as in coni-
fers and normal dicotyledons. These
concentric rings of secondary xylem
and phloem (fig. 9) afford a character-
istic cycadean feature. After the
cambium has been active for some
time producing secondary xylem and
phloem, the latter consisting of sieve-
tubes, phloem-parenchyma and fre-
quently thick-walled fibres, a second
cambium is developed in the peri-
cycle; this produces a second vascular
zone, which is in turn followed by a
third cambium, and so on, until several
hollow cylinders are developed. It
has been recently shown that several
cambium-zones may remain in a state
of activity, so that the formation of a
° * " * new cambium does not necessarily
Fig. 9. — Macrosamia. mark a cessation of growth in the
Diagrammatic transverse more internal meristematic rings. It
section of part of Stem, occasionally happens that groups of
xylem ana phloem are developed
internally to some of the vascular
rings; these are characterized by an
inverse orientatidn of the tissues,
the xylem being centrifugal and the
phloem centripetal in its development.
The broad cortical region, which con-
tains many secretory canals, is tra-
versed by numerous vascular bundles (fig. 9, c) some of which pursue
a more or less vertical course, and by frequent anastomoses with one
another form a loose reticulum of vascular strands; others are leaf-
traces on their way from the stele of the stem to the leaves. Most of
these cortical bundles are collateral in structure, but in some the xylem
and phloem are concentrically arranged; the secondary origin of
these bundles from procambium-strands was described by Mettenius
in his classical paper of i860. During the increase in thickness of a
cycadean stem successive layers of cork-tissue are formed by phello-
gens in the persistent bases of leaves (fig. 9, pd), which increase in size
to adapt themselves to the growth of the vascular zones. The leaf-
traces of cycads are remarkable both on account of their course and
their anatomy. In a transverse section of a stem (fig. 9) one sees
some vascular bundles following a horizontal or slightly oblique
course in the cortex, stretch-
j^ s\ S*~\r^ m 8 f 01 " a * on £er or snorter
JH / 2^u f V ^* distance in a direction con-
^fl Hi *-) / A centric with the woody
H H V J^ cylinder. From each leaf-
^^^^^^/ V base two main bundles
^f j — v II /O spread right and left
I V \ "X ^: -^ through the cortex of the
I <f"^ ^^ -^ stem (fig. 9, It), and as they
I \^~ — y ^3> curve gradually towards the
11 vascular ring they present
the appearance of two
rather flat ogee curves,
usually spoken of as the
leaf-trace girdles (fig. 9, It).
The distal ends of these
girdles give off several
branches, which traverse
the petiole and rachis as
numerous collateral bundles. The complicated girdle-like course is
characteristic of the leaf-traces of most recent cycads, but in some
cases, e.g. in Zamia floridana, the traces are described by Wieland
in his recent monograph on American fossil cycads (Carnegie Institu-
tion Publications, 1906) as possessing a more direct course similar to
that in Mesozoic genera. A leaf-trace, as it passes through the cortex,
has a collateral structure, the protoxylem being situated at the inner
edge of the xylem ; when it reaches the leaf-base the position of the
spiral tracheids is gradually altered, and the endarch arrangement
(protoxylem internal) gives place to a mesarch structure (protoxylem
more or less central and not on the edge of the xylem strand). In a
bundle examined in the basal portion of a leaf the bulk of the xylem
is found to be centrifugal in position, but internally to the protoxylem
there is a group of centripetal tracheids; higher up in the petiole the
xylem is mainly centripetal, the centrifugal wood being represented
Fig. 10. — Ginkgo triloba. Leaves.
Fig. 1 1 . — Ginkgo adianteiies.
Fossil (Eocene) leaf from the
Island of Mull.
by a small arc of tracheids external to the protoxylem and separated
from it by a few parenchymatous elements. Finally, in the pinnae of
the frond the centrifugal xylem may disappear, the protoxylem being
now exarch in position and abutting on the phloem. Similarly in
the sporophylls of some cycads the bundles are endarch near the base
and mesarch near the distal end of the stamen or carpel. The
vascular system of cycadean seedlings presents some features worthy
of note; centripetal xylem occurs m the cotyledonary bundles
associated with transfusion-tracheids. The bundles from the
cotyledons pursue a direct course to the stele of the main axis, and
do not assume the girdle-form char-
acteristic of the adult plant. This
is of interest from the point of view
of the comparison of recent cycads
with extinct species (Bennettites), in
which the leaf-traces follow a much
more direct course than in modern
cycads. The mesarch structure of
the leaf-bundles is met with in a less
pronounced form in the flower ped-
uncles of some cycads. This fact is
of importance as showing that the
type of vascular structure, which
characterized the stems of many
Palaeozoic genera, has not entirely
disappeared from the stems of modern cycads ; but the mesarch bundle
is now confined to the leaves and peduncles. The roots of some cycads
resemble the stems in producing several cambium- « t
rings; they possess 2 to 8 protoxylem-groups, and are ^^
characterized Dy a broad pericyclic zone. A common phenomenon in
cycads is the production of roots which grow upwards (apogeotropic),
and appear as coralline branched structures above the level ot the
ground ; some of the cortical cells of these roots are hypertrophied,
and contain numerous filaments of blue-green Algae (Nostocaceae),
which live as endoparasites in the cell-cavities.
Ginkgoalbs. — This class-designation has been recently proposed
to give emphasis to the isolated position of the genus Ginkgo
(Salisburia) among the Gymnosperms. Ginkgo biloba, the maiden-
hair tree, has usually been placed by botanists in the Taxeae in the
neighbourhood of the yew (Taxus), but the proposal by Eichler in
1852 to institute a special family, the Saksburieae, indicated a
recognition of the existence of special characteristics which dis-
tinguish the genus from other members of the Coniferae. The
discovery by the Japanese botanist Hirase of the development of
ciliated spermatozoids in the pollen-tube of Ginkgo, in place of the
non-motile male cells of typical conifers, served as a cogent argument
in favour of separating the genus from the Coniferales and placing it
in a class of its own. In 171 2 Kaempfer published a drawing of a
Japanese tree, which he described under the name Ginkgo; this term
was adopted in 177 1 by Linnaeus, who spoke of Kaempfer's plant as
Ginkgo biloba. In 1707
Smith proposed to use the
name Salisburia adiantifolia
in preference to the '* un-
couth " genus Ginkgo and
44 incorrect " specific term
biloba. Both names are still
in common use. On account
of the resemblance of the
leaves to those of some
species of Adiantum, the
appellation maiden-hair tree
has long been given to
Ginkgo biloba. Ginkgo is of
special interest on account
of its isolated position among
existing plants, its restricted
geographical distribution,
and its great antiquity (see
Palaeobotany : Mesozoic).
This solitary survivor of an
ancient stock is almost ex-
tinct, but a few old and pre-
sumably wild trees are re-
corded by travellers in parts
of China. Ginkgo is common
as a sacred tree in the gardens
of temples in the Far East, and often cultivated in North America and
Europe. Ginkgo biloba, which may reach a height of overdo metres,
forms a tree of pyramidal shape with a smooth grey bark. The leaves
(figs. 10 and 11) have a long, slender petiole terminating in a fan-
shaped lamina, which may be entire, divided by a median incision into
two wedge-shaped lobes, or subdivided into several narrow segments.
The venation is like that of many ferns, e.g. Adiantum; the lowest
vein in each half of the lamina follows a course parallel to the edge,
and gives off numerous branches, which fork repeatedly as they
spread in a palmate manner towards the leaf margin. The foliage-
leaves occur either scattered on long shoots of unlimited growth, or at
the apex of short shoots (spurs), which may eventually elongate into
long shoots.
Fig. 12. — Ginkgo biloba. A, Male
flower; B, C, single stamens; D y
female flower.
758
GYMNOSPERMS
The flowers are dioecious. The male flowers (fig. 12), borne in the
axil of scale-leaves, consist of a stalked central axis bearing loosely
Flowers disposed stamens; each stamen consists of a slender
filament terminatinc; in a small apical scale, which bears
usually two, but not infrequently three or four pollen-sacs (fig. 12, Q.
The axis of the flower is a shoot bearing leaves in the form of stamens.
A mature pollen-grain contains a prothallus of 3 to 5 cells (Fig. 13,
Pg) ; the exine extends over two-thirds of the circumference, leaving
a thin portion of the wall,
which on collapsing pro-
duces a longitudinal
groove similar to the
median depression on the
pollen-grain of a cycad.
The ordinary type of
female flower has the form
of a long, naked peduncle
bearing a single ovule on
either side of the apex
(fi£. 12), the base of each
being enclosed by a small,
collar-like rim, the nature
of which has been vari-
ously interpreted. A
young ovule consists of a
conical nucellus sur-
rounded by a single in-
Fig. !*-<**». Apex of Ovule, and ^jFM"Sl! ** ?
Pollen-grain. (After Hirase.)
p, Pollen-tube (proximal end).
c % Pollen-chamber,
e, Upward prolongation of megaspore.
a, Archegonia.
Pjj, Pollen-grain.
Ex, Exine.
two-lipped micropyle. A
large pollen-chamber
occupies the apex of the
nucellus; immediately
below this, two or more
archegonia (fig. 13, a) are
developed in the upper
region of the megaspore,
each consisting of a large
egg-cell surmounted by two neck-cells and a canal-cell which is
cut off shortly before fertilization. After the entrance of the pollen-
grain the pollen-chamber becomes roofed over by a blunt pro-
tuberance of nucellar tissue. The megaspore (embryo-sac) con-
tinues to grow after pollination until the greater part of the nucellus
is gradually destroyed; it also gives rise to a vertical outgrowth,
which projects from the apex of the megaspore as a short, thick
column (fig. 13, e) supporting the remains of the nucellar tissue
which forms the roof of the pollen-chamber (fig. 13, c). Surround-
ing the pitted wall of the ovum there is a definite layer of large
cells, no doubt representing a tapetum, which, as in cycads and
conifers, playB an important part in nourishing the growing egg-cell.
The endosperm detached from a large Ginkgo ovule after fertilization
bears a close resemblance to that of a cycad; the apex is occupied by
a depression, on the floor of which two small holes mark the position
of the archegonia, and the outgrowth from the megaspore apex
projects from the centre as a short peg. After pollination the pollen-
tube grows into the nucellar tissue, as in cycads, and the pollen-grain
itself (fig. 13, Pg) hangs down into the pollen-chamber; two Targe
spirally ciliated spermatozoids are produced, their manner of de-
velopment agreeing very closely with that of the corresponding cells
in Cycas and Zamia. After fertilization the ovum-nucleus divides
and cell-formation proceeds rapidly, especially in the lower part of
the ovum, in which the cotyledon and axis of the embryo are differ-
entiated ; the long, tangled suspensor of the cycadean embryo is not
found in Ginkgo, It is often stated that fertilization occurs after the
ovules have fallen, but it has been demonstrated by Hirase that this
occurs while the ovules are still attached to the tree. The ripe seed,
which grows as large as a rather small plum, is enclosed by a thick,
fleshy envelope covering a hard woody shell with two or rarely three
longitudinal keels. A papery remnant of nucellus lines the inner face
of the woody shell, and, as in cycadean seeds, the apical portion is
readily separated as a cap covering the summit of the endosperm.
The morphology of the female flowers has been variously inter-
preted bv Dotanists; the peduncle bearing the ovules has been
describea as homologous with the petiole of a foliage-leaf and as a
shoot -structure, the collar-like envelope at the base of the ovules
being referred to as a second integument or arillus, or as the repre-
sentative of a carpel. The evidence afforded by normal and abnormal
flowers appears to be in favour of the following interpretation : The
peduncle is a shoot bearing two or more carpels. Each ovule is
enclosed at the base by an envelope or collar homologous with the
lamina of a leaf; the fleshy and hard coats of the nucellus constitute
a single integument. The stalk of an ovule, considerably reduced in
normal flowers and much larger in some abnormal flowers, is homo-
logous with a leaf-stalk, with which it agrees in the structure and
number of vascular bundles. The facts on which this description is
based are derived partly from anatomical evidence, and in part from
an account given by a Japanese botanist, Fujii, of several abnormal
female flowers; in some cases the collar at the base of an ovule,
often described as an arillus, is found to pass gradually into the
lamina of a leaf bearing marginal ovules (fig. id, B). The occurrence
of more than two ovules on one peduncle is by no means rare; a
particularly striking example is described by Fujii, in which an
unusually thick peduncle bearing several stalked ovules terminates
in a scaly bud (fig. 14, A, b). The frequent occurrence of more than
two pollen-sacs and the equally common occurrence of additional
ovules have been regarded by some authors as evidence in favour of
the view that ancestral types normally possessed a greater number
of these organs than are usually found in the recent species. This
view receives support from fossil evidence. Close to the A
apex of a shoot the vascular bundles of a leaf make their "™ B V-
appearance as double strands, and the leaf-traces in the upper part
of a shoot have the form of distinct bundles, which in the older part of
the shoot form a continuous ring. Each double leaf-trace passes
through four internodes
before becoming a part of
the stele; the double
nature of the trace is a
characteristic feature.
Secretory sacs occur
abundantly in the leaf-
lamina, where they appear
as short lines between the
veins; they are abundant
also in the cortex and pith
of the shoot, in the fleshy
integument of the ovule,
and elsewhere. The
secondary wood of the
shoot and root conforms
in the main to the coni-
ferous type; in the short
shoots the greater breadth Fig. 14. — Ginkgo. Abnormal female
of the medullary rays in Flowers. A, Peduncle; 6, scaly bud;
the more internal part of B, leaf bearing marginal ovule. (After
the xylem recalls the Fujii.)
cycadean type. The
secondary phloem contains numerous thick-walled fibres, parenchy-
matous cells, and large sieve-tubes with plates on the radial
walls; swollen parenchymatous cells containing crystals are
commonly met with in the cortex, pith and medullary-ray tissues.
The wood consists of tracheids, with circular bordered pits on
their radial walls, and in the late summer wood pits are un-
usually abundant on the tangential walls. A point of anatomical
interest is the occurrence in the vascular bundles of the cotyledons,
scale-leaves, and elsewhere of a few centripetally developed tracheids,
which give to the xylem-strands a mesarch structure such as char-
acterizes the foliar bundles of cycads. The root is diarch in structure,
but additional protoxylem-strands may be present at the base of the
main root ; the pericycle consists of several layers of cells.
This is not the place to discuss in detail the past history of Ginkgo
(see Palaeobotan Y : Mesozoic). Among Palaeozoic genera there are
some which bear a close resemblance to the recent type in Qeohghml
the form of the leaves; and petrified Palaeozoic seeds, B i a t W y %
almost identical with those of the maidenhair tree, have
been described from French and English localities. During the
Triassic and Jurassic periods the genus Baiera — no doubt a repre-
sentative of the Ginkgoales — was widely spread throughout Europe
and in other regions; Ginkgo itself occurs abundantly in Mesozoic
and Tertiary rocks, and was a common plant in the Arctic regions as
elsewhere during the Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous periods. Some
unusually perfect Ginkgo leaves have been found in the Eocene leaf-
beds between the lava-flows exposed in the cliffs of Mull (fig. n).
From an evolutionary point of view, it is of interest to note the
occurrence of filicinean and cycadean characters in the maidenhair tree.
The leaves at once invite a comparison with ferns; the numerous
long hairs which form a delicate woolly covering on young leaves recall
the hairs of certain ferns, but agree more closely with the long
filamentous hairs of recent cycads. The spermatozoids constitute
the most striking link with both cycads and ferns. The structure of
the seed, the presence of two neck-cells in the archegonia, the late
development of the embryo, the partially-fused cotyledons and
certain anatomical characters, are features common to Ginkgo and
the cycads. The maidenhair tree is one of the most interesting
survivals from the past ; it represents a type which, in the Palaeozoic
era, may have been merged into the extinct class Cordaitales.
Through the succeeding ages the Ginkgoales were represented by
numerous forms, which gradually became more restricted in their
distribution and fewer in number during the Cretaceous and Tertiary
periods, terminating at the present day in one solitary survivor.
Coniferales. — Trees and shrubs characterized by a copious
branching of the stem and frequently by a regular pyramidal form.
Leaves simple, small, linear or short and scale-like, usually persisting
for more than one year. Flowers monoecious or dioecious, unisexual,
without a perianth, often in the form of cones, but never terminal
on the main stem.
The plants usually included in the Coniferae constitute a less
homogeneous class than the Cycadaceae. Some authors use the
term Coniferae in a restricted sense^ as including those External
genera which have the female flowers in the form of cones, feature*.
the other genera, characterized by flowers of a different
type, being placed in the Taxaceae, and often spoken of as Taxads.
GYMNOSPERMS
759
In order to avoid confusion in the use of the term Coniferae, we may
adopt as a class-designation the name Coniferales, including both the
Coniferae — using the term in a restricted sense — and the Taxaceae.
The most striking characteristic of the majority of the Coniferales is
the regular manner of the monopodial branching and the pyramidal
shape. Araucaria imbricata, the Monkey-puzzle tree, A. excelsa, the
Norfolk Island pine, many pines and firs, cedars and other genera
illustrate the pyramidal form. The mammoth redwood tree of
California, 5e$tt#ia (Wettingtonid) gigantea, which represents the tallest
Gymnosperm, is a good example of the regular tapering main stem
and narrow pyramidal form. The cypresses afford instances of tall
and narrow trees similar in habit to Lombardy poplars. The common
cypress (Cupressus sempervirens), as found wild in the mountains of
Crete and Cyprus, is characterized by long and spreading branches,
which give it a cedar-like habit. A pendulous or weeping habit is
assumed by some conifers, e.g. Picea excelsa var. virgata represents
a form in which the main branches attain a considerable horizontal
extension, and trail themselves like snakes along the ground. Certain
species of Pinus, the yews (Taxus) and some other genera grow as
bushes, which in place of a main mast-like stem possess several
repeatedly-branched leading shoots. The unfavourable conditions
in Arctic regions have produced a dwarf form, in which the main
snoots grow close to the ground. Artificially induced dwarfed plants
of Pinus, Cupressus, Sctadopitys (umbrella pine) and other genera
are common^ cultivated by the Japanese. The dying off of older
branches and the vigorous growth of shoots nearer the apex of the
stem produce a form of tree illustrated by the stone pine of the
Mediterranean region {Pinus Pinea), which Turner has rendered
familiar in his " Childe Harold's Pilgrimage " and other pictures of
Italian scenery. Conifers are not infrequently seen in which a lateral
branch has bent sharply upwards to take the place of the injured
main trunk. An upward tendency of all the main lateral branches,
known as fastigiation, is common in some species, producing well-
marked varieties, e.g. Cephalotaxus pedunculate, var. fastigiata; this
fastigiate habit may arise as a sport on a tree with spreading branches.
Another departure from the normal is that in which the juvenile or
seedling form of shoot persists in the adult tree; the numerous
coniferous plants known as species of Retinospora are examples of
this. The name Retinospora, therefore, does not stand for a true
genus, but denotes persistent young forms of Juniper us, Thuja f
Cupressus, &c, in which the small scaly leaves of ordinary species are
replaced by the slender, needle-like leaves, which stand out more or
less at right angles from the branches. The flat branchlets of
Cupressus, Thuja (arbor vitae), Thujopsis dolabrata Gapanese arbor
vitae) are characteristic of certain types of conifers; in some cases
the horizontal extension of the branches induces a dorsiventral
structure. A characteristic feature of the genus Agaihis (Dammar a)
the Kauri pine of New Zealand, is the deciduous habit of the
branches; these become detached from the main trunk leaving a
well-defined absciss-surface, which appears as a depressed circular
scar on the stem. A new genus of conifers, Taiwania, has recently
been described from the island of Formosa; it is said to agree in
habit with the Japanese Cryplomeria, but the cones appear to nave a
structure which distinguishes them from those of any other genus.
With a few exceptions conifers are evergreen, and retain the leaves
for several years (10 years in Araucaria imbricata, 8 to 10 in Picea
i -**,-. excelsa, 5 in Taxus baccata; in Pinus the needles usually
Leave*. faU ^ Q ctober of their third year) The larch (j^ r ^
sheds its leaves in the autumn, in the Chinese larch (Pseudo-
larix Kaempferi) the leaves turn a bright yellow colour before
falling. In the swamp cypress (Taxodium distichum) the tree
assumes a rich brown colour in the autumn, and sheds its leaves
together with the branchlets which bear them ; deciduous branches
occur also in some other species, e.g. Sequoia sempervirens (redwood),
Thuja occidentalism &c. The leaves of conifers are characterized by
their small size, e.g. the needle-form represented by Pinus, Cedrus t
Larix, &c, the linear flat or angular leaves, appressed to the branches,
of Thuja, Cupressus, Libocedrus, &c. The flat and comparatively
broad leaves of Araucaria imbricata, A. BidwUlii, and some species
of the southern genus Podocarpus are traversed by several parallel
veins, as are also the still larger leaves of Agathis, which may reach a
length of several inches. In addition to the foliage-leaves several
genera also possess scale-leaves of various kinds, represented by bud-
scales in Pinus, Picea, &c, which frequently persist for a time at the
base of a young shoot which has pushed its way through the yielding
cap of protecting scales, while in some conifers the bud-scales adhere
together, and after being torn near the base are carried up by the
growing axis as a thin brown cap. The cypresses, araucarias and
some other genera have no true bud-scales; in some species, e.g.
Araucaria BidwUlii, the occurrence of small foliage-leaves, which have
functioned as bud-scales, at intervals on the shoots affords a measure
of seasonal growth. The occurrence of long and short shoots is a
characteristic feature of many conifers. In Pinus the needles occur
in pairs, or in clusters of 3 or 5 at the apex of a small and incon-
spicuous short shoot of limited growth (spur), which is enclosed at
its base by a few scale-leaves, and borne on a branch of unlimited
growth in the axil of a scale-leaf. In the Californian Pinus mono-
phyUa each spur bears usually one needle, but two are not un-
common: it would seem that rudiments of two needles are always
produced, but, as a rule, only one develops into a needle. In
Sciadopiiys similar spur* occur, each bearing a single needle, which
in its grooved surface and in the possession of a double vascular
bundle bears traces of an origin from two needle-leaves. A peculiarity
of these leaves is the inverse orientation of the vascular tissue; each
of the two veins has its phloem next the upper and the xylem towards
the lower surface of the leaf; this unusual position of the xylem and
phloem may be explained by regarding the needle of Sciadopiiys as
being composed of a pair of leaves borne on a short axillary shoot and
fused by their margins (fig. 1 5, A). Long and short shoots occur also
in Cedrus and Larix, but in these genera the spurs are longer and
stouter, and are not shed with the leaves; this kind of short shoot, by
accelerated apical growth, often passes into the condition of a long
shoot on which the leaves are scattered and separated by com-
paratively long internodes, instead of being crowded into tufts such as
are borne on the ends of the spurs. In the genus Phyllocladus (New
Zealand, &c.) there are no green foliage-leaves, but in their place
flattened branches (phylloclades) borne in the axils of small scale-
leaves. The cotyledons are often two in number, but sometimes (e.g.
Pinus) as many as fifteen; these leaves are usually succeeded by
foliage-leaves in the form of delicate spreading needles, and these
primordial leaves are followed, sooner or later, by the adult type
of leaf, except in Retinosporas, which retain the juvenile foliage.
In addition to the first foliage-leaves and the adult type of leaf,
there are often produced leaves which are intermediate both in shape
and structure between the seedling and adult foliage. Dimorphism
or heterophylly is fairly common. One of the best known examples
is the Chinese juniper (Juniperus chinensis), in which branches with
spinous leaves, longer and more spreading than the ordinary adult
leaf, are often found associated with the normal type of branch. In
some cases, e.g. Sequoia sempervirens, the fertile branches bear leaves
which are less spreading than those on the vegetative shoots. Certain
species of the southern hemisphere genus Dacrydium afford particu-
larly striking instances of heterophylly, e.g. D. Kirkii of New Zealand,
in which some branches bear small and appressed leaves, while in
others the leaves are much longer and more spreading. A well-
known fossil conifer from Triassic strata — Voltzia heterophyUa — also
illustrates a marked dissimilarity in the leaves of the same shoot.
The variation in leaf-form and the tendency of leaves to arrange
themselves in various ways on different branches of the same plant
are features which it is important to bear in mind in the identifica-
tion of fossil conifers. In this connexion we may note the striking
resemblance between some of the New Zealand Alpine Veronicas,
e.g. Veronica Hectori, V.cupressoides f &c. (aAsoPolycladuscupressinus,
a Composite), and some of the cypresses and other conifers with
small appressed leaves. The long linear leaves of some species of
Podocarpus, in which the lamina is traversed by a single vein, recall
the pinnae of Cycas; the branches of some Dacrydiums and other
forms closely resemble those of lycopods; these superficial re-
semblances, both between different genera of conifers and between
conifers and other plants, coupled with the usual occurrence of fossil
coniferous twigs without cones attached to them, render the deter-
mination of extinct types a very unsatisfactory and frequently an
impossible task.
A typical male flower consists of a central axis bearing numerous
spirally-arranged sporophylls (stamens), each of which consists of
a slender stalk (filament) terminating distally in a more Flowers.
or less prominent knob or triangular scale, and bearing
two or more pollen-sacs (microsporangia) on its lower surface. The
pollen-grains of some genera (e.g. Pinus) are furnished with bladder-
like extensions of the outer wall, which serve as aids to wind-dispersal.
The stamens of Araucaria and Agaihis are peculiar in bearing several
long and narrow free pollen-sacs; these may be compared with the
sporangiophores of the horsetails (Equisetum) ; in Taxus (yew) the
filament is attached to the centre of a large circular distal expansion,
which bears several pollen-sacs on its under surface. In the conifers
proper the female reproductive organs have the form of cones, which
may be styled flowers or inflorescences according to different inter-
pretations of their morphology. In the Taxaceae the flowers have
a simpler structure. The female flowers of the Abietineae may be
taken as representing a common type. A pine cone reaches maturity
in two years; a single year suffices for the full development in Larix
and several other genera. The axis of the cone bears numerous
spirally disposed flat scales (cone-scales), each of which, if examined
in a young cone, is found to be double ; and to consist of a lower and
an upper portion. The latter is a thin flat scale bearing a median
ridge or keel (e.g. Abies), on each side of which is situated an inverted
ovule, consisting of a nucellus surrounded by a single integument.
As the cone grows in size and becomes woody the lower half of the
cone-scale, which we may call the carpellary scale, may remain small,
and is so far outgrown by the upper half (seminiferous scale) that it is
hardly recognizable in the mature cone. In many species of Abies
(e.g. Abies pectinata, &c.) the ripe cone differs from those of Pinus,
Picea and Cedrus in the large size of the carpellary scales, which
project as conspicuous thin appendages beyond the distal margins of
the broader and more woody seminiferous scales ; the long carpellary
scale is a prominent feature also in the cone of the Douglas pine
(Pseudotsuga Douglasii). The female flowers (cones) vary consider-
ably in size; the largest are the more or less spherical cones of
Araucaria — a single cone of A. imbricata may produce as many as
300 seeds, one seed to each fertile cone-scale — and the long pendent
760
GYMNGSPERMS
temah
ttoww.
cones, 1 to 2 ft. in length, of the sugar pine of California (Pinus
Lambertiana) and other species. Smaller cones, less than an inch
long, occur in the larch, Athrotaxis (Tasmania), Fitzroya (Patagonia
and Tasmania), &c. In the Taxodieae and Araucarieae the cones are
similar in appearance to those of the Abietineae, but they differ in
the fact that the scales appear to be single, even in the young con-
dition; each cone-scale in a genus of the TaxodUnae (Sequoia, &c.)
bears several seeds, while in the AraucarUnae (Araucaria and Agathis)
each scale has one seed. The Cupressineae have cones composed of
a few scales arranged in alternate whorls; each scale bears two or
more seeds, and shows no external sign of being composed of two
distinct portions. In the junipers the scales become fleshy as the
seeds ripen, and the individual scales fuse together in the form of
a berry. The female flowers of the Taxaceae assume another form ;
in Microcachrys (Tasmania) the reproductive structures are spirally
disposed, and form small globular cones made up of red fleshy scales,
to each of which is attached a single ovule enclosed by an integument
and partially invested by an anllus; in Dacrydium the carpellary
leaves are very similar to the foliage leaves — each bears one ovule
with two integuments, the outer of which constitutes an arillus.
Finally in the yew, as a type of the family Taxeae, the ovules occur
singly at the apex of a lateral branch, enclosed when ripe by a con-
spicuous red or yellow fleshy arillus, which serves as an attraction to
animals, and thus aids in the dispersal of the seeds.
It is important to draw attention to some structural features
exhibited by certain cone-scales, in which there is no external sign
indicative of the presence of a carpellary and a seminiferous
Morpho- gcaie. j n Araucaria Cookii and some allied species each
lo * y o* g^fe na8 a sma n pointed projection from its upper face
near the distal end ; the scales of Cunninghamia (China)
are characterized by a somewhat ragged membranous
projection extending across the upper face between the seeds and the
distal end of the scale; in the scales of Athrotaxis (Tasmania) a
prominent rounded ridge occupies a corresponding position. These
projections and ridges may be homologous with the seminiferous
scale of the pines, firs, cedars, &c. The simplest interpretation of the
cone of the Abietineae is that which regards it as a flower consisting
of an axis bearing several open carpels, which in the adult cone may
be very small or large and prominent, the scale bearing the ovules
being regarded as a placental outgrowth from the flat and open carpel.
In Araucaria the cone-scale is regarded as consisting of a flat carpel,
of which the placenta has not grown out into the scale-like structure.
The seminiferous scale of Pinus, &c, is also spoken of sometimes as a
iigular outgrowth from the carpellary leaf. Robert Brown was the
first to give a clear description of the morphology of the Abietineous
cone in which carpels bear naked ovules ; he recognized gymnospermy
as an important distinguishing feature in conifers as well as in
cycads. Another view is to regard the cone as an inflorescence,
each carpellary scale being a bract bearing in its axil a shoot the
axis of which has not been developed; the seminiferous scale is
believed to represent either a single leaf or a fused pair of leaves
belonging to the partially suppressed axillary shoot. In 1869 van
Tieghemlaid stress on anatomical evidence as a key to the morphology
of the cone-scales ; he drew attention to the fact that the collateral
vascular bundles of the seminiferous scale are inversely orientated as
compared with those of the carpellary scale; in the latter the xylem
of each bundle is next the upper surface, while in the seminiferous
scale the phloem occupies that position. The conclusion drawn from
this was tnat the seminiferous scale (fig. 15, B, Sc) is the first and only
leaf of an axillary shoot (b) borne on that side of the shoot, the axis
of which is suppressed, opposite the subtending bract (fig. 15, A, B, C,
Br). Another view is to apply to the seminiferous scale an explana-
tion similar to that suggested by von Mohl in the case of the double
needle of Sciadopitys, and to consider the seed-bearing scale as being
made up of a pair of leaves (fig. 15, A, a, a) of an axillary shoot (6)
fused into one by their posterior margins (fig. 1 5, A) . The latter view
receives support from abnormal cones in which carpellary scales
subtend axillary shoots, of which the first two leaves (fig. 15, C, P, Z 1 )
are often harder and browner than the others; forms have been
described transitional between axillary shoots, in which the leaves are
separate, and others in which two of the leaves are more or less
completely fused. In a young cone the seminiferous scale appears as
a hump of tissue at the base or in the axil of the carpellary scale, but
Celakovsk^, a strong supporter of the axillary-bud theory, attaches
little or no importance to this kind of evidence, regarding the present
manner of development as being merely an example of a short cut
adopted in the course of evolution, and replacing the original pro-
duction of a branch in the axil of each carpellary scale. Eichler, one
of the chief supporters of the simpler view, does not recognize in the
inverse orientation of the vascular bundles an argument in support
of the axillary-bud theory, but points out that the seminiferous scale,
being an outgrowth from the surface of the carpellary scale, would,
like outgrowths from an ordinary leaf, naturally have its bundles
inversely orientated. In such cone-scales as show little or no
external indication of being double in origin, e.g. Araucaria (fig. 15, D)
Sequoia, &c, there are always two sets of bundles; the upper set,
having the phloem uppermost, as in the seminiferous scale of Abies
or Pinus, are regarded as belonging to the outgrowth from the
carpellary scale and specially developed to supply the ovules.
Monstrous cones are fairly common ; these in some instances lend
support to the axillary-bud theory, and it has been said that this
theory owes its existence to evidence furnished by abnormal cones.
It is difficult to estimate the value of abnormalities as evidence
bearing on morphological interpretation ; the chief danger lies
perhaps in attaching undue weight to them, but there is also a risk
of minimizing their importance. Monstrosities at least demonstrate
possible lines of development, but when the abnormal forms of growth
m various directions are fairly evenly balanced, trustworthy de-
ductions become difficult. The occurrence of buds in the axils of
carpellary scales may, however, simply mean that buds, which are
(C and D after Worsddl.)
Fig. 15. — Diagrammatic treatment of:
A, Double needle of Sciadopitys (a, a, leaves; b, shoot; Br, bract).
B, seminiferous scale as leaf of axillary shoot (b, shoot ; Sc, semi-
niferous scale; Br, bract).
C, seminiferous scale as fused pair of leaves (J 1 , P, I s , first, second
and third leaves; b, shoot; Br, bract),
D, cone-scale of Araucaria (n, nucellus; *', integument; x,
xylem).
usually undeveloped in the axils of sporophylls, occasionally afford
evidence of their existence. Some monstrous cones lend no support
to the axillary-bud theory. In Larix the axis of the cone often
continues its growth ; similarly in Cephalotaxus the cones are often
Sroliferous. (In rare cases the proliferated portion produces male
owers in the leaf-axils.) In Larix the carpellary scale may become
leafy, and the seminiferous scale may disappear. Androgynous
cones may be produced, as in the cone of Pinus rigida (fig. 16), in
which the lower part bears stamens and the upper portion carpellary
and seminiferous scales. An interesting case has been figured by
Masters, in which scales of a cone of Cupressus Lawsoniana bear
ovules on the upper surface and stamens on the lower face. One
argument that has been adduced in support of the axillary bud theory
is derived from the Palaeozoic type CordaiUs, in
which each ovule occurs on an axis borne in the
axil of a bract. The whole question is still un-
solved, and perhaps insoluble. It may be that
the interpretation of the female cone of the
Abietineae as an inflorescence, which finds favour
with many botanists, cannot be applied to the
cones of Agathis and Araucaria. Without ex-
pressing any decided opinion as to the morpho-
logy of the double cone-scale of the Abietineae,
preference may be felt in favour of regard-
ing the cone-scale of the Araucarieae as a
simple carpellary leaf bearing a single ovule. A
discussion of this question may be found in a
paper on the Araucarieae by Seward and Ford, _ " ..
published in the Transactions of the Royal Society * lG \ J? — Ab Z
of London (1906). CordaiUs is an extinct type normal Cone of
which in certain respects resembles Ginkgo, cycads ^?? u \t % ** * a {
and the Araucarieae, but its agreement with true (After Masters.)
conifers is probably too remote to justify our attri-
buting much weight to the bearing of the morphology of its
female flowers on the interpretation of that of the Coniferae. The
greater simplicity of the Eichler theory may prejudice us in its
favour; but, on the other hand, the arguments advanced in favour
of the axillary-bud theories are perhaps not sufficiently cogent to
lead us to accept an explanation based chiefly on the uncertain
evidence of monstrosities.
A pollen-grain when first formed from its mother-cell consists of
a single cell ; in this condrtion it may be carried to the nucellus of
the ovule (e.g. Taxus, Cupressus, &c), or more usually Mk ^
(Pinus, Larix, &c.) it reaches maturity before the dehis- ™™"
cence of the microsporangium. The nucleus of the jjJaMW.
microspore divides and gives rise to a small cell within ^hm^/"
the large cell, a second small cell is then produced ; this mpanam
is the structure of the ripe pollen -grain in some conifers (Taxus, Sec.).
The large cell grows out as a pollen-tube; the second of the two
small cells (body-cell) wanders into the tube, followed by the nucleus
of the first small cell (stalk-cell). In Taxus the body-cell eventually
divides into two, in which the products of division are of unequal size,
the larger constituting the male generative cell, which fuses with the
nucleus of the egg-cell. In Juniperus the products of division of the
GYMNOSPERMS
761
body-cell are equal, and both function as male generative cells. In
the AbieHneae cell-formation in the pollen-grain ib carried farther.
Three small cells occur inside the cavity of the microspore; two of
them collapse and the third divides into two, forming a stalk-cell and
a larger body-cell. The latter ultimately divides in the apex of the
pollen-tube into two non-motile generative cells. Evidence has lately
been adduced of the existence of numerous nuclei in the pollen-tubes
of the Araucarieae, and it seems probable that in this as in several
other respects this family is distinguished from other members of the
Coniferales. The precise method of fertilization in the Scots Pine
was followed by V. H. Blackman, who also succeeded in showing that
the nuclei of the sporophyte generation contain twice as many
chromosomes as the nuclei of the garaetophyte. Other observers
have in recent years demonstrated a similar relation in other genera
between the number of chromosomes in the nuclei of the two genera-
tions. The ovule is usually surrounded by one integument, which
projects beyond the tip of the nucellus as a wide-open lobed funnel,
which at the time of pollination folds inwards, and so assists in bring-
ing the pollen-grains on to the nucellus. In some conifers (e.g.
Taxus, Cephalotaxus, Dacrydiutn, &c.) the ordinary integument is
partially enclosed by an arillus or second integument. It is held by
some botanists (Celakovsktf) that the seminiferous scale of the
A bietineae is homologous with the arillus or second integument of the
Taxaceae, but this view is too strained to gam general acceptance.
In Araucaria and Saxegothaea the nucellus itself projects beyond the
open micropyle and receives the pollen-grains direct. During the
growth of the cell which forms the megaspore the greater part of the
nucellus is absorbed, except the apical portion, which persists as a
cone above the megaspore ; the partial disorganization of some of the
cells in the centre of the nucellar cone forms an irregular cavity, which
may be compared with the larger pollen-chamber of Ginkgo and the
cycads. In each ovule one megaspore comes to maturity, but,
exceptionally, two may be present (e.g. Pinus sytocstris). It has been
shown by Lawson that in Sequoia sempefuirens (Annals of Botany,
1904) and by other workers in the genera that several megaspores
may attain a fairly large size in one prothallus. The megaspore
becomes filled with tissue (prothaHus), and from some of the super-
ficial cells archegonia are produced, usually three to five in number,
but in rare cases ten to twenty or even sixty may be present. In the
genus Sequoia there may be as many as sixty archegonia (Arnoldi and
Lawson) in one megaspore; these occur either separately or in some
parts of the prothalTus they may form groups as in the Cupressineae;
they are scattered through the prothallus instead of being confined
to the apical region as in the majority of conifers. Similarly in the
Araucarieae and in Widdringtonia the archegonia are numerous and
scattered and often sunk in the prothallus tissue. In Libocedrus
decurrens (Cupressineae) Lawson describes the archegonia as varying
in number from 6 to 2±(A nnals of Botany xxi. f 1907) . An archegonium
consists of a large oval egg-cell surmounted by a short neck composed
of one or more tiers of cells, six to eight cells in each tier. Before
fertilization the nucleus of the egg-celidivides and cuts off a ventral
canal-cell ; this cell may represent a second egg-celL The egg-cells
of the archegonia may be in lateral contact {e.g. Cupressineae) or
separated from one another by a few cells of the prothallus, each
ovum being immediately surrounded by a layer of cells distinguished
by their granular contents and large nuclei. During the develop-
ment of the egg-cell, food material is transferred from these cells
through the pitted wall of the ovum. The tissue at the apex of the
megaspore grows slightly above the level of the archegonia, so that
the latter come to fie in a shallow depression. In the process of
fertilization the two male generative nuclei, accompanied by the
pollen-tube nucleus and that of the stalk-cell, pass through an open
pit at the apex of the pollen-tube into the protoplasm of the ovum*
After fertilization the nucleus of the egg divides, the first stages of
karyokinesis being apparent even before complete fusion of the male
and female nuclei has occurred. The result of this is the production
of four nuclei, which eventually take up a position at the bottom of
the ovum and become separated from one another by vertical cell-
walls; these nuclei divide again, and finally three tiers of cells are
produced, four in each tier. In the Abtetineae the ceils of the middle
tier elongate and push the lowest tier deeper into the endosperm ;
the cells of the bottom tier may remain in lateral contact and produce
together one embryo, or they may separate (Pinus,, Juniperus, &c.)
and form four potential embryos. The ripe albu minous seed contains
a single embryo with two or more cotyledons. The seeds of many
conifers are provided with large thin wings, consisting in some genera
(e.g. Pinus) of the upper cell-layers of the seminiferous scale, which
have become detached and, in some cases, adhere loosely to the seed
as a thin membrane; the loose attachment maybe of use to the seeds
when they are blown against the branches of trees, in enabling them to
fall away from the wing and drop to the ground. The seeds of some
genera depend on animals for dispersal, the carpellary scale (Micro-
cackrys) or the outer integument being brightly coloured and
attractive. In some AbiePineae (e.g. Pinus and Picea) — in which the
cone-scales persist for some time after the seeds are ripe — the cones
hang down and so facilitate the fall of the seeds; in Cedrus, Arau-
caria and Abies the scales become detached and fall with the seeds*
leaving the bare vertical axis of the cone on the tree. In all cases,
except some species of Araucaria (sect. Colymbea) the germination is
epigean. The seedling plants of some Conifers (0.;. Araucaria
imbricata) are characterized by a carrot-shaped hypbcotyl, which
doubtless serves as a fdod-reservoir.
The roots of many conifers possess a narrow band of primary
xylem-tracheids with a group of narrow spiral protoxylem-elements
at each end (diarch). A striking feature in the roots of
several genera, excluding the Abtetineae, is the occur- AoMtemy.
rence of thick and somewhat irregular bands of thickening on the
cell-walls of the cortical layer next to the endodermis. These bands,
which may serve to strengthen the central cylinder, have been com-
pared with the netting surrounding the delicate wall of an inflated
balloon. It is not always easy to distinguish a root from a stem;
in some cases (e.g. Sequoia) the primary tetrarch structure is easily
identified in the centre of an old root, but in other cases the orimary
elements are very difficult to recognize. The sudden termination of
the secondary tracheids against the pith-cells may afford evidence
of root-structure as distinct from stem-structure, in which the radial
rows of secondary tracheids pass into the irregularly-arranged
Erimary elements next the pith. The annual rings in a root are often
ss clearly marked than in the stem, and the xykm-elements are
frequently larger and thinner. The primary vascular bundles in a
young conifer stem are collateral, and, like those of a Dicotyledon,
they are arranged in a circle round a central pith and enclosed by a
common endodermis. It is in the nature of the secondary xylem tnat
the Coniferales are most readily distinguished from the Dicotyledons
and Cycadaceae; the wood is homogeneous in structure, consisting
almost entirely of tracheids with circular or polygonal bordered
Fits on the radial walls, more particularly in the late summer wood.
n many genera xylem-parenchyma is present, but never in great
abundance. A few Dicotyledons, e.g. Drimys (Magnoliaceae) closely
resemble conifers in the homogeneous character of the wood, but in
most cases the presence of large spring vessels, wood-fibres and
abundant parenchyma affords an obvious distinguishing feature.
The abundance of petrified coniferous wood in rocks of various
ages has led many botanists to investigate the structure of modern
genera with a view to determining how far anatomical characters
may be used as evidence of generic distinctions. There are a few
well-marked types of wood which serve as convenient standards of
comparison, but these cannot be used except in a few cases to dis-
tinguish individual genera. The genus Pinus serves as an illustration
of wood of a distinct type characterized by the absence of xylem-
parenchyma, except such as is associated with the numerous resin-
canals that occur abundantly in the wood, cortex and medullary
rays; the medullary rays are composed of parenchyma and of
horizontal tracheids with irregular ingrowths from their walls. In
a radial section of a pine stem each ray is seen to consist in the
median part of a few rows of parenchymatous cells with large oval
simple pits in their walls, accompanied above and below by horizontal
tracheids with bordered pits. The pits in the radial walls of the
ordinary xylem-tracheids occur in a single row or in a double row,
of which the pits are not in contact, and those of the two rows are
placed on the same level. The medullary rays usually consist of a
single tier of cells, but in the Pinus type of wood broader medullary
rays also occur and are traversed by horizontal resin-canals. In the
wood of Cypressus, Cedrus, Abies and several other genera, parenchy-
matous cells occur in association with the xylem-tracheids and take
the place of the resin-canals of other types. In the Araucarian type
of wood (Araucaria and Agatkis) the bordered pits, which occur in
two or three rows on the radial walls of the tracheids, are in mutual
contact and polygonal in shape, the pits of the different rows are
alternate and not on the same level; in this type of wood the annual
rings are often much less distinct than in Cupressus, Pinus and other
genera. In Taxus, Torreya (California and the Far East) and Cephalo-
taxus the absence of resin-canals and the presence of spiral thickening-
bands on the tracheids constitute well-marked characteristics. An
examination of the wood of branches, stems and roots of the
same species or individual usually reveals a fairly wide variation in
some of the characters, such as the abundance and size of the
medullary rays, the size and arrangement of pits, the presence of
wood-parenchyma — characters to which undue importance has often
been attached in systematic anatomical work. The phloem consists
of sieve-tubes, with pitted areas on the lateral as well as on the
inclined terminal walls, phloem-parenchyma and, in some genera,
fibres. In the Abtetineae the phloem consists of parenchyma and
sieve-tubes only, but in most other forms tangential rows of fibres
occur in regular alternation with the parenchyma and sieve-tubes,
The characteristic companion-cells of Angiosperms are represented by
phloem-parenchyma cells with albuminous contents; other paren-
chymatous elements of the bast contain starch or crystals of calcium
oxalate. When tracheids occur in the medullary rays of the xylem
these are replaced in the phloem-region by irregular parenchymatous
cells known as albuminous cells. Resin-canals, which occur abund-
antly in the xylem, phloem or cortex, are not found in the wood
of the yew. Cephalotaxus (Taxeae) is also peculiar in having resin-
canals in the pith (cf. Ginkgo). One form of Cepkalotaxus is
characterized by the presence of short tracheids in the pith, in shape
like ordinary parenchyma, but in the possession of bordered pits and
lignified walls agreeing with ordinary xylem-tracheids; it is probable
that these short tracheids serve as reservoirs for storing rattier than
for conducting water. The vascular bundle entering the stem from a
leaf with a single vein passes by a more or less direct course into the
762
GYMNOSPERMS
central cylinder of the item, and does not assume the girdle-like form
characteristic of the cycadean leaf -trace. In species of which the
leaves have more than one vein (e.g. Araucaria imbricate, &c.) the
leaf-trace leaves the stele of the stem as a single bundle which splits
up into several strands in its course through the cortex. In the wood
of some conifers, e.g. Araucaria, the leaf-traces persist for a consider-
able time, perhaps indefinitely, and may be seen in tangential
sections of the wood of old stems. The leaf-trace in the Coniferales
is simple in its course through the stem, differing in this respect from
the double leaf-trace of Ginkgo. A detailed account of the ana-
tomical characters of conifers has been published by Professor
D. P. Penhallow of Montreal and Dr. Gothan of Berlin which
will be found useful for diagnostic purposes. The characters of
leaves most useful for diagnostic purposes are the position of the
stomata, the presence and arrangement of resin-canals, the structure
of the mesophyll and vascular bundles. The presence of hypodermal
fibres is another feature worthy of note, but the occurrence of these
elements is too closely connected with external conditions to be of
much systematic value. A pine needle grown in continuous light
differs from one grown under ordinary conditions in the absence of
hypodermal fibres, in the absence of the characteristic infoldings of
the mesophyll cell-walls, in the smaller size of the resin-canals, &c.
The endodermis in Pinus, Picea and many other genera is usually
a well-defined layer of cells enclosing the vascular bundles, and
separated from them by a tissue consisting in part of ordinary par-
enchyma and to some extent of isodiametric tracheids; but this
tissue, usually spoken of as the pericycle, is in direct continuity with
other stem-tissues as well as the pericycle. The occurrence of short
tracheids in close proximity to the veins is a characteristic of conifer-
ous leaves; these elements assume two distinct forms — (1) the short
isodiametric tracheids (transfusion- tracheids) closely associated with
the veins; (2) longer tracheids extending across the mesophyll at
right angles to the veins, and no doubt functioning as representatives
of lateral veins. It has been suggested that transfusion-tracheids
represent, in part at least, the centripetal xylem, which forms a
distinctive feature of cycadean leaf -bundles; these short tracheids
form conspicuous groups laterally attached to the veins in Cunning'
hamia, abundantly represented in a similar position in the leaves of
Sequoia, and scattered through the so-called pericycle in Pinus,
Picea, &c. It is of interest to note the occurrence of precisely similar
elements in the mesophyll of Lepidodendron leaves. An anatomical
peculiarity in the veins of Pinus and several other genera is the con-
tinuity of the medullary rays, which extend as continuous plates from
one end of the leaf to the other. The mesophyll of Pinus and Cedrus
is characterized by its homogeneous character and by the presence
of infoldings of the cell- walls. In many leaves, e.g. Abies, Tsuga,
Larix, &c, the mesophyll is heterogeneous, consisting of palisade and
spongy parenchyma. In the leaves of Araucaria imbricata, in which
palisade-tissue occurs in both the upper and lower part of the
mesophyll, the resin-canals are placed between the veins; in some
species of Podocarpus (sect. Nageia) a canal occurs below each vein ;
in Tsuga, Torreya, Cephalotaxus, Sequoia, &c, a single canal occurs
below the midrib; in Larix, Abies, &c, two canals run through the
leaf parallel to the margins. The stomata are frequently arranged in
rows, their position being marked by two white bands of wax on the
leaf-surface.
The chief home of the Coniferales is in the northern hemisphere,
where certain species occasionally extend into the Arctic circle
and penetrate beyond the northern limit of dicotyledon-
ous trees. Wide areas are often exclusively occupied by
conifers, which give the landscape a sombre aspect,
suggesting a comparison with the forest vegetation of the Coal
period. South of the tree-limit a belt of conifers stretches across
north Europe, Siberia and Canada. In northern Europe this belt
is characterized by such species as Picea excelsa (spruce), which
extends south to the mountains of the Mediterranean region ; Pinus
sylvestrii (Scottish fir), reaching from the far north to western Spain,
Persia and Asia Minor; Juniperus communis, &c. In north Siberia
Pinus Cembra (Cembra or Arolla Pine) has a wide range; also Abies
sibirica (Siberian silver fir) , Larix sibirica and Juniperus Sabina (savin).
In the North American area Picea alba, P. nigra, Larix americana,
Abies balsamea (balsam fir), Thuja canadensis (hemlock spruce),
Pinus Strobus (Weymouth pine), Thuja occidentalis (white cedar),
Taxus canadensis are characteristic species. In the Mediterranean
region occur Cupressus sempervirens, Pinus Pinea (stone pine),
snecies of juniper, Cedrus atlantica, C. Libani, Callitris quadrivalvis,
Pinus montana, &c. Several conifers of economic importance are
abundant on the Atlantic side of North America — Juniperus Virginia-
na (red cedar, used in the manufacture of lead pencils, and extending
as far south as Florida), Taxodium distichum (swamp cypress),
Pinus rigida (pitch pine), P. mitts (yellow pine), P. taeda,r. fiuustris,
&c. On the west side of the American continent conifers play a still
more striking r6le; amone them are Chamaecyparis nuikaensis,
Picea sitchensis, Libocedrus occur rens, Pseudotsuga Douglasii (Douglas
fir). Sequoia sempervirens, S. gigantea (the only two surviving species
of this generic type are now confined to a few localities in California,
but were formerly widely spread in Europe and elsewhere), Pinus
Couiteri, P. Lambertiana, &c. Farther south, a few representatives
of such genera as Abies, Cupressus, Pinus and juniper are found in
the Mexican Highlands, tropical America and the West Indies. In
DtMtHbu
ttoa.
the far East conifers are richly represented; among them occur
Pinus densiflora,Cryptomeriajaponica, Cephalotaxus, species of Abies,
Larix, Thujopsis, Sciadopitys verticiUata, Pseudolarix Kaempferi,
&c. In the Himalaya occur Cedrus deodara, Taxus, species of
Cupressus, Pinus excelsa, Abies Webbiana, Sec. The continent of
Africa is singularly poor in conifers. Cedrus atlantica, a variety of
Abies Pinsapo, Juniperus thurifera, Callitris quadrivalvis, occur in
the north-west region, which may be regarded as the southern limit
of the Mediterranean region. The greater part of Africa north of the
equator is without any representatives of the conifers; Juniperus
procera flourishes in Somaliland and on the mountains of Abyssinia;
a species of Podocarpus occurs on the Cameroon mountains, and
P. milaniiana is widely distributed in east tropical Africa. Widdring-
tonia Wltytei, a species closely allied to W. juniperoides of the Cedar-
berg mountains of Cape Colony , is recorded from Nyassaland and from
N.E. Rhodesia; while a third species, W. cupressoides, occurs in
Cape Colony. Podocarpus elongata and P. Thunbergii (yellow wood)
form the principal timber trees in the belt of forest which stretches
from the coast mountains of Cape Colony to the north-east of the
Transvaal. Libocedrus tetragona, Fitsroya patagonica, Araucaria
brasiliensis, A. imbricala, Saxe^othaea and others are met with in
the Andes and other regions in South America. Atkrotaxis and
Microcachrys are characteristic Australian types. PhyUodadus
occurs also in New Zealand, and species of Dacrydium, Araucaria,
Agaihis and Podocarpus are represented in Australia, New Zealand
and the Malay regions.
Gnetales. — These are trees or shrubs with simple leaves. The
flowers are dioecious, rarely monoecious, provided with one or two
perianths. The wood is characterized by the presence of vessels in
addition to tracheids. There are no resin-canals. The three existing
genera, usually spoken of as members of the Gnetales, differ from one
another more than is consistent with their inclusion in a single
family; we may therefore better express their diverse characters by
regarding them as types of three separate families — (1 ) Ephedroideae,
genus Ephedra; (2) Welwitschioideae, genus Welwitschia', (3)
Gnetoideae, genus Gnetum. Our knowledge of the Gnetales leaves
much to be desired, but such facts as we possess would seem to
indicate that this group is of special importance as foreshadowing,
more than any other Gymnosperms, the Angiospermous type. In
the more heterogeneous structure of the wood and in the possession
of true vessels the Gnetales agree closely with the higher flowering
plants. It is of interest to note that the leaves of Onetum, while
typically Dicotyledonous in appearance, possess a Gymnospermous
character in the continuous and plate-like medullary rays of their
vascular bundles. The presence of a perianth is a feature suggestive
of an approach to the floral structure of Angiosperras; the prolonga-
tion of the integument furnishes the flowers with a substitute for a
stigma and style. The genus Ephedra, with its prothallus and arche-
gonia, which are similar to those of other Gymnosperms, may be
safely regarded as the most primitive of the Gnetales. In Welwitschia
also the megaspore is filled with prothallus-tissue, but single egg-cells
take the place of archegonia. In certain species of Gnetum described
by Karsten the megaspore contains a peripheral layer of protoplasm,
in which scattered nuclei represent the female reproductive cells;
in Gnetum Gnemon a similar state of things exists in the upper half
of the megaspore, while the lower half agrees with the megaspore of
Welwitschia in being full of prothallus-tissue, which serves merely as
a reservoir of food. Lotsy has described the occurrence of special
cells at the apex of the prothallus of Gnetum Gnemon, which he regards
as imperfect archegonia (fig. 17, C, a) ; he suggests they may represent
vestigial structures pointing back to some ancestral form beyond the
limits of the present group. The Gnetales probably had a separate
origin from the other Gymnosperms; they carry us nearer to the
Angiosperms, but we have as yet no satisfactory evidence that they
represent a stage in the direct line of Angiospermic evolution. It is
not improbable that the three genera of this ancient phylum survive
as types of a blindly-ending branch of the Gymnosperms; but be
that as it may, it is in the Gnetales more than in any other Gymno-
sperms that we find features which help us to obtain a dim prospect
of the lines along which the Angiosperms may have been evolved.
Ephedra. — This genus is the only member of the Gnetales repre-
sented in Europe. Its species, which are characteristic of warm
temperate latitudes, are usually much-branched shrubs. The finer
branches are green, and bear a close resemblance to the stems of
Equisetum and to the slender twigs of Casuarina ; the surface of the
long internodes is marked by fine longitudinal ribs, and at the nodes
are borne pairs of inconspicuous scale-leaves. The flowers are small,
and borne on axillary shoots. A single male flower consists of an
axis enclosed at the base by an inconspicuous perianth formed of two
concrescent leaves and terminating in two, or as many as eight,
shortly stalked or sessile anthers. The female flower is enveloped in
a closely fitting sac-like investment, which must be regarded as a
perianth ; within this is an orthotropous ovule surrounded by a single
integument prolonged upwards as a beak-like micropyle. The flower
may be described as a bud bearing a pair of leaves which become
fused and constitute a perianth, the apex of the shoot forming an
ovule. In function the perianth may be compared with a unilocular
ovary containing a single ovule; the projecting integument, which
at the time of pollination secretes a drop of liquid, serves the same
purpose as the style and stigma of an angiosperm. The megaspore
GYMNOSPERMS
763
is filled with tissue as in typical GymnospertxiB, and from some of the
superficial cells 3 to 5 archegonia are developed, characterized by
long multicellular necks. The archegonia are separated from one
another, as in Pinus, by some of the prothallus-tissue, and the cells
next the egg-cells (tapetal layer) contribute food-material to their
development. After fertilization, some of the uppermost bracts
below each flower become red and fleshy ; the perianth develops into
a woody shell, while the integument remains membranous. In some
species of Ephedra, e.g. E. altissima, the fertilized eggs grow into
tubular proembryos, from the tip of each of which embryos begin to
be developed, but one only comes to maturity. In Ephedra helvetica,
as described by Jaccard, no proembryo or suspensor is formed ; but
the most vigorous fertilized egg, after undergoing several divisions,
becomes attached to a tissue, termed the columella, which serves the
purpose of a primary suspensor ; the columella appears to be formed
by the lignification of certain cells in the central region of the em-
bryo-sac. At a later stage some of the cells in the upper (micropylar)
end of the embryo divide and undergo considerable elongation,
serving the purpose of a secondary suspensor. The secondary wood
of Ephedra consists of tracheids, vessels and parenchyma; the
vessels are characterized by their wide lumen and by the large simple
or slightly-bordered pits on their oblique end-walls.
Gnetum. — This genus is represented by several species, most of
which are climbing plants, both in tropical America and in warm
regions of the Old World. The leaves, which are borne in pairs at
the tumid nodes, are oval in form and have a Dicotyledonous type
of venation. The male and female inflorescences have the form of
simple or paniculate spikes. The spike of an inflorescence bears
whorls of flowers at each node in the axils of concrescent bracts
accompanied by numerous sterile hairs (paraphyses) ; in a male
inflorescence numerous flowers occur at each node, while in a female
inflorescence the number of flowers at each node is much smaller.
A male flower consists of a single angular perianth, through the open
apex of which the flower-axis projects as a slender column terminating
in two anthers. The female nowers, which are more complex in
Fig. 17.— Gnetum Gnemon. (After Lotsy.)
A, Female Flower. a, Imperfect Archegonia.
n, Nucellus. e, Partially developed Megaspore.
$c, Pollen-chamber. F, Fertile half.
i, Integument. S, Sterile half.
p\ Inner Perianth. pt, Pollen-tube.
p', Outer Perianth. z, Zygote.
B, C, Megaspore, z*, Projhallus.
structure, are of two types, complete and incomplete; the latter
occur in association with male flowers in a male inflorescence. A
complete female flower consists of a nucellus (fig. 17, A, n), surrounded
by a single integument (fig. 17, A, *), prolonged upwards as a narrow
tube and succeeded by an inner and an outer perianth (fig. 17, A,
f> f and p"). The whole flower may be looked upon as an adventitious
bud bearing two pairs of leaves; each pair becomes concrescent and
forms a perianth, the apex of the shoot being converted into an
orthotropous ovule. The incomplete female flowers are character-
ized by the almost complete suppression of the inner perianth.
Several embryo-sacs (megaspores) are present in the nucellus of a
young ovule, but one only attains full size, the smaller and partially
developed megaspores (fig. 17, B and C, e) being usually found in close
association with the surviving and fully-grown megaspore. In
Gnetum Gnemon, as described by Lotsy, a mature embryo-sac con-
tains in the upper part a large central vacuole and a peripheral layer
of protoplasm, including several nuclei, which take the place of the
archegonia of Ephedra; the lower part of the embryo-sac, separated
from the upper by a constriction, is full of parenchyma. The upper
part of the megaspore may be spoken of as the fertile half (fig. 17, B
and C, F), and the lower part, which serves only as food-reservoir
for the growing embryo, may be termed the sterile half (fig. 17, B and
C, 5). (Coulter, Bot. Gazette, xlvi., 1908, regards this tissue as belong-
ing to the nucellus.) At the time of pollination the long tubular
integument secretes a drop of fluid at its apex, which holds the
pollen-grains, brought by the wind, or possibly to some extent by
insect agency, and by evaporation these are drawn on to the top of
the nucellus, where partial disorganization of the cells has given rise
to an irregular pollen-chamber (fig. 17, A, pc). The pollen-tube,
containing two generative and one vegetative nucleus, pierces the
wall of the megaspore and then becomes swollen (fig. 17, B and C,
pt) ; finally the two generative nuclei pass out of the tube and fuse
with two of the nuclei in the fertile half of the megaspore. As the
result of fertilization, the fertilized nuclei of the megaspore become
surrounded by a cell-wall, and constitute zygotes, which may attach
themselves either to the wall of the megaspore or to the end of a
pollen-tube (fig. 17, C, z and z') ; they then grow into long tubes or
proembryos, which make their way towards the prothallus (C, z')»
and eventually embryos are formed from the ends of the proembryo
tubes. One embryo only comes to maturity. The embryo of
Gnetum forms an out-growth from the hypocotyl, which serves as a
feeder and draws nounshment from the prothallus. The fleshy outer
portion of the seed is formed from the outer perianth, the woody
shell being derived from the inner perianth. The climbing species
of Gnetum are characterized by the production of several concentric
cylinders of secondary wood and bast, the additional cambium-rings
being products of the pericycle, as in Cycas and Macrozamia. The
structure of the wood agrees in the main with that of Ephedra.
Welwitschia (Tumboa). — This is by far the most remarkable
member of the Gnetalcs, both as regards habit and the form of its
flowers. In a supplement to the systematic work of Engler and
Prantl the well-known name Welwitschia, instituted by Hooker in
1864 in honour of Welwitsch, the discoverer of the plant, is super-
seded by that of Tumboa, originally suggested by Welwitsch. The
genus is confined to certain localities inDamaraland and adjoining
territory on the west coast of tropical South Africa. A well-grown
plant projects less than a foot above the surface of the ground; the
stem, which may have a circumference of more than 12 ft., terminates
in a depressed crown resembling a circular table with a median groove
across the centre and prominent broad ridges concentric with the
margin. The thick tuberous stem becomes rapidly narrower, and
passes gradually downwards into a tap-root. A pair of small strap-
shaped leaves succeed the two cotyledons of the seedling, and persist
as the only leaves during the life of the plant ; they retain the power
of growth in their basal portion, which is sunk in a narrow groove near
the edge of the crown, and the tough lamina, 6 ft. in length, becomes
split into narrow strap-shaped or thong-like strips which trail on the
ground. Numerous circular pits occur on the concentric ridges of the
depressed and wrinkled crown, marking the position of former
inflorescences borne in the leaf-axil at different stages in the growth
of the plant. An inflorescence has the form of a dichotomously-
branched cyme bearing small erect cones; those containing the
female flowers attain the size of a fir-cone, and are scarlet in colour.
Each cone consists of an axis, on which numerous broad and thin
bracts are arranged in regular rows; in the axil of each bract occurs
a single flower; a male flower is enclosed by two opposite pairs of
leaves, forming a perianth surrounding a central sterile ovule en-
circled by a ring of stamens united below, but free distally as short
filaments, each of which terminates in a trilocular anther. The
integument of the sterile ovule is prolonged above the nucellus as a
spirally-twisted tube expanded at its apex into a flat stigma-like
organ. A complete and functional female flower consists of a single
ovule with two integuments, the inner of which is prolonged into a
narrow tubular micropyle, like that in the flower of Gnetum. The
megaspore of Welwitschia is filled with a prothallus-tissue before
fertilization, and some of the prothallus-cells function as egg-cells;
these grow upwards as long tubes into the apical region of the
nucellus, where they come into contact with the pollen-tubes.
After the egg-cells have been fertilized by the non-motile male cells
they grow into tubular proembryos, producing terminal embryos.
The stem is traversed by numerous collateral bundles, which have a
limited growth, and are constantly replaced by new bundles de-
veloped from strands of secondary meristem. One of the best-
known anatomical characteristics of the genus is the occurrence of
numerous spindle-shaped or branched fibres with enormously-
thickened walls studded with crystals of calcium oxalate. Additional
information has been published by Professor Pearson of Cape Town
based on material collected in Damaraland in 1904 and 1906- 1907.
In 1906 he gave an account of the early stages of development ol the
male and female organs and, among other interesting statements in
regard to the general biology of Welwitschia, he expressed the
opinion that, as Hooker suspected, the ovules are pollinated by
insect-agency. In a later paper Pearson considerably extended our
knowledge of the reproduction and gametophyte of this genus.
Authorities. — General: Bentham and Hooker, Genera Plan-
tarum (London, 1862-1883); Engler and Prantl, Die natUrlichen
Pflanzenfamilien (Leipzig, 1889 and 1897); Strasburger, Die
Coniferen und Gnetaceen (jena, 1872); Die Angiospermen und die
Gymnospermen (Jena, 1879); Histologische Beitrage, iv. (Jena, 1892);
Coulter and Chamberlain, Morphology of Spermatophytes (New York,
1 901); Rendle, The Classification of Flowering Plants, vol. i. (Cam-
bridge, 1904) ; " The Origin of Gymnosperms " (A discussion at
the Linnean Society; New Phytologist, vol. v., 1906). Cycadales:
Mettenius, " Beitrage zur Anatomie der Cycadeen," Abh. k. sdchs.
764
GYMNOSTOMACEAE— GYNAECOLOGY
Ges. Wiss. (i860) ; Treub, " Recherche* wr les Cycaddes," Ann.
Bot. Jard. Buitenzorg, ii. (1884) ; Solms-Laubach, " Die Sprossfolge
der Stangeria, &c," Bot. Zeit. xlviii. (1806); Worsdell, " Anatomy
of Macrozamia," Ann. Bot. x. (1896) (also papers by the same
author, Ann. BoL, 1898, Trans. Linn. Soc. v., 1900) ; Scott, " The Ana-
tomical Characters presented by the Peduncle of Cycadaceae," Ann.
Bot. xi. (1897) ; Lang, " Studies in the Development and Morphology
of Cycadean Sporangia, No. I. f " Ann. BoL xi. (1897) ; No. II., Ann.
Bot. xiv. (1900) ; Webber, " Development of the Antherozoids of
Zamia," Bot. Gaz. (1897); Ikeno, " Untersuchunsen fiber die
Entwickelung, &c, bei Cycas revoluta," Journ. Cou. Sci. Japan,
xii. (1898); Wieland, " American Fossil Cycads," Carnegie Institu-
tion Publication (1906) ; Stopes, " Beitrage zur Kenntnis der
Fortpflanzungsorgane der Cycadeen," Flora (1.904); Caldwell,
" Microcycas Calocoma," Bot. Gaz. xliv., 1907 (also papers on
this and other Cycads in the Bot. Gaz., 1907-1909) J Matte, Re-
cherches sur VappareU libero-ligneux des Cycaaacees (Caen, 1904).
Ginkgoales; Hirase, " Etudes sur la fecondation, &c, de Ginkgo
biloba," Journ. Coll. Sci. Japan, xii. (1898); Seward and Gowan,
" Ginkgo biloba," Ann. Bot. xiv. (1900) (with bibliography) ; Ikeno,
" Contribution a l'6tude de la fecondation chez le Ginkgo biloba,"
Ann. Sci. Nat. xiii. (1901); Sprecher, Le Ginkgo biloba (Geneva,
1907). Coniferales: *' Report of the Conifer Conference" (1891)
Journ. R. Hort. Soc. xiv. (1892); Beissner, Handbuch der Nadelholz-
kunde (Berlin, 1891); Masters, "Comparative Morphology of the
Coniferae," Journ. Linn. Soc. xxvii. (1891); ibid. (1896), &c;
Penhallow, " The Generic Charactersof the North American Taxaceae
and Coniferae," Proc. and Trans. R. Soc. Canada, ii. (1896); Black-
man, " Fertilization in Pinus sylvestris," Phil. Trans. (1898) (with
(1904); Engler and Pilger, Das Pflanzenreich, Taxaceae (1903);
Seward and Ford, " The Araucarieae, recent and extinct/ Phil.
Trans. R. Soc. (1906) (with bibliography) ; Lawson, " Sequoia
sempervirens," Annals of Botany (1904); Robertson, " Torreya
Cahfornica," New Phytologist ^1904); Coker,_^' Gametophyte and
Embryo of Taxodium," Bot. Gazette (1903); E. C. Jeffrey, "The
Comparative Anatomy and Phylogeny of the Coniferales, part i.
The Genus Sequoia," Mem. Boston Nat. Hist. Soc. v. No. 10 (1903) ;
Gothan, " Zur Anatomie lebender und fossiler Gymnospermen-
Holzer,"iC. Preuss. Geol. Landes. (Berlin, 1905) (for more recent papers,
seei4n». Bot., New Phylologist } and Bot. Gazette, 1 906-1909). Gnetales:
Hooker, " On Welwitschia mirabilis," Trans. Linn. Soc. xxiv. (1864) ;
Bower, " Germination, &c, inGnetum," Journ. Mic. Sci. xxii. (1882) ;
ibid. (1881); Jaccard, " Recherches embryologiques sur £ Ephedra
helvetica," Diss. Inaug. Lausanne (189 v " " *"*
lungsgeschichte der Gattung Gnetura,
Lotsy, " Contributions to the Life- Hist< .
Bot. Jard. Buitenzorg, xvi. (1899); Land, " Ephedra trifurca," Bot,
Gazette (1904) ; Pearson, " Some observations on Welwitschia mira-
bilis," Phil. Trans. R. Soc. (1906); Pearson, " Further Observations
on Welwitschia," Phil. Trans. R. Soc. vol. 200 (1909). (A. C. Se.)
GYMNOSTOMACEAE, an order of Ciliate Infusoria (q.v.),
characterized by a closed mouth, which only opens to swallow
food actively, and body cilia forming a general or partial invest-
ment (rarely represented by a girdle of membranellae), but not
differentiated in different regions. With the Aspirotrochaceae
(q.v.) it formed the Holotricha of Stein.
GYMPIE, a mining town of March county, Queensland,
Australia, 107 m. N. of Brisbane, and 61 m. S. of Maryborough
by rail. Pop. (1 901) 11,959. Numerous gold mines are worked
in the district, which also abounds in copper, silver, antimony,
cinnabar, bismuth and nickel. Extensive undeveloped coal-beds
lie 40 m. N. at Miva. Gympie became a municipality in 1880.
GYNAECEUM (Gr. yvvaiK&ov, from ywy, woman), that part
in a Greek house which was specially reserved for the women,
in contradistinction to the " andron," the men's quarters;
in the larger houses there was an open court with peristyles
round, and as a rule all the rooms were on the same level; in
smaller houses the servants were placed in an upper storey,
and this seems to have been the case to a certain extent in the
Homeric house of the Odyssey. " Gynaeconitis " is the term
given by Procopius to the space reserved for women in the
Eastern Church, and this separation of the sexes was maintained
in the early Christian churches where there were separate
entrances and accommodation for the men and women, the latter
being placed in the triforium gallery, or, in its absence, either
on one side of the church, the men being on the other, or occasion-
ally in the aisles, the nave being occupied by the men.
GYNAECOLOGY (from Gr. yvrri, yvvaucfc, a woman, and
X670S, discourse), the name given to that branch of medicine
which concerns the pathology and treatment of affections
peculiar to the female sex.
Gynaecology may be said to be one of the most ancient
branches of medicine. The papyrus of Ebers, which is one of
the oldest known works on medicine and dates from 1550 B.C.,
contains references to diseases of women, and it is recorded that
specialism in this branch was known amongst Egyptian medical
practitioners. The Vedas contain a list of therapeutic agents
used in the treatment of gynaecological diseases. The treatises
on gynaecology formerly attributed to Hippocrates (460 B.C.)
are now said to be spurious, but the wording of the famous
oath shows that he was at least familiar with the use of gynaeco-
logical instruments. Diodes Carystius, of the Alexandrian
school (4th century B.C.), practised this branch, and Praxagoras
of Cos, who lived shortly after, opened the abdomen by
laparotomy. While the Alexandrine school represented Greek
medicine, Greeks began to practise in Rome, and in the first
years of the Christian era gynaecologists were much in demand
(Haser). A speculum for gynaecological purposes has been
found in the ruins of Pompeii, and votive offerings of anatomical
parts found in the temples show that various gynaecological
malformations were known to the ancients. Writers who have
treated of this branch are Celsus (50 b.c.-a.d. 7) and Soranus
of Ephesus (a.d. 98-138), who refers in his works to the fact
that the Roman midwives frequently called to their aid practi-
tioners who made a special study of diseases of women. These
midwives attended the simpler gynaecological ailments. This
was no innovation, as in Athens, as mentioned by Hyginus,
we find one Agnodice, a midwife, disguising herself in man's
attire so that she might attend lectures on medicine and diseases
of women. After instruction she practised as a gynaecologist.
This being contrary to Athenian law she was prosecuted, but
was saved by the wives of some of the chief men testifying on
her behalf. Besides Agnodice we have Sotira, who wrote a
work on menstruation which is preserved in the library at
Florence, while Aspasia is mentioned by Aetius as the author
of several chapters of his work. It is evident that during the
Roman period much of the gynaecological work was in the
hands of women. Martial alludes to the " feminae medicae "
in his epigram on Leda. These women must not be confounded
with the midwives who on monuments are always described as
" obstetrices." Galen devotes the sixth chapter of his work
De locis qffectis to gynaecological ailments. During the
Byzantine period may be mentioned the work of Oribasius
(a.d. 325) and Moschion (2nd century a.d.) who wrote a book
in Latin for the use of matrons and midwives ignorant of Greek.
In modern times James Parsons (1705-17 70) published his
Elenchus gynaicopathologicus et obstetricarius, and in 1755 Charles
Perry published his Mechanical account and explication of the
hysterical passion and of all other nervous disorders incident to
the sex, with an appendix on cancers. In the early part of the
19th century fresh interest in diseases of women awakened.
Joseph Recamier (1774-1852) by his writings and teachings
advocated the use of the speculum and sound. This was followed
in 1840 by the writings of Simpson in England and Huguier in
France. In 1845 John Hughes Bennett published his great work
on inflammation of the uterus, and in 1850 Tilt published his
book on ovarian inflammation. The credit of being the first to
perform the operation of ovariotomy is now credited to McDowell
of Kentucky in 1809, and to Robert Lawson Tait (184 5-1899)
in 1883 the first operation for ruptured ectopic gestation.
Menstruation. — Normal menstruation comprises the escape of from
4 to 6 oz. of blood together with mucus from the uterus at intervals
of twenty-eight days (more or less). The flow begins at the age of
puberty, the average age of which in England is between fourteen
and sixteen years. It ceases between forty-five and fifty years of
age, and this is called the menopause or climacteric period, commonly
spoken of as " the change of life." Both the age of puberty and that
of the menopause may supervene earlier or later according to local
conditions. At both times the menstrual flow may be replaced by
haemorrhage from distant organs (epistaxis, haematemesis, hae-
moptysis); this is called vicarious menstruation. Menstruation is
usually but not necessarily coincident with ovulation. The usual
GYNAECOLOGY
765
disorders of menstruation are: (1) amenorrhoea (absence of flow),
(2) dysmenorrhoea (painful flow), (3) Menorrhagia (excessive flow),
(4) metrorrhagia (excessive and irregular flow). Amenorrhoea may
arise from physiological causes, such as pregnancy, lactation, the
menopause; constitutional causes, such as phthisis, anaemia and
chlorosis* febrile disorders, some chronic intoxications, such as
morphinomania, and some forms of cerebral disease; local causes,
which include malformations or absence of one or more of the genital
parts, such as absence of ovaries, uterus or vagina, atresia of vagina,
imperforate cervix, disease of the ovaries, or sometimes imperforate
hymen. The treatment of amenorrhoea must be directed towards the
cause. In anaemia and phthisis menstruation often returns after
improvement in the general condition, with good food and good
sanitary conditions, an outdoor life and the administration of iron
or other tonics. In local conditions of imperforate hymen, imperfor-
ate cervix or ovarian disease, surgical interference is necessary.
Amenorrhoea is permanent when due to absence of the genital parts.
The causes of dysmenorrhoea are classified as follows: (1) ovarian,
due to disease of the ovaries ox Fallopian tubes; (2) obstructive,
due to some obstacle to the flow, as stenosis, flexions and mal-
positions of the uterus, or malformations; (3) congestive, due to
subinvolution, chronic inflammation of the uterus or its lining
membrane, fibroid growths and polypi of the uterus, cardiac or
hepatic disease; (4) neuralgic; (5) membranous. The foremost
place in the treatment of dysmenorrhoea must be given to aperients
and purgatives administered a day or two before the period is ex-
pected. By this means congestion is reduced. Hot baths are useful,
and various drugs such as hyoscyanus, cannabis indica, pheaalgin,
ammonol orphenacetin have been prescribed. Medicinal treatment
is, however, only 1 palliative^ and flexions and malpositions of the
uterus must be corrected, stenosis treated by dilatation, fibroid
growths if present removed, and endometritis when present treated
by local applications or curetting according to its severity. Menor-
rhagia signifies excessive bleeding at the menstrual periods. Consti-
tutional causes are purpura, haemophilia, excessive food and alcoholic
drinks and warm climates; while local causes are congestion and
displacements of the uterus, endometritis, subinvolution, retention
of the products of conception, new growths in the uterus such as
mucous and fibroid polypi, malignant growths, tubo-ovarian inflam-
mation and some ovarian tumours. Metrorrhagia is. a discharge of
blood from the uterus, independent of menstruation. It always
arises from disease of the uterus or its appendages. Local causes are
polypi,' retention of the products of conception, extra uterine gesta-
tion, haemorrhages in connexion with pregnancy, and new growths
in the uterus. In the treatment of both menorrhagia and metror-
rhagia the local condition must be carefully ascertained. When
pregnancy has been excluded, and constitutional causes treated,
efforts should be made to relieve congestion. Uterine haemostatics,
as ergot, ergotin, tincture of hydrastis or hamamelis, are of use,
together with rest in bed. Fibroid polypi and other new growths
must be removed. Irregular bleeding in women over forty years of
age is frequently a sign of early malignant disease, and should on no
account be neglected.
Diseases of the External Genital Organs. — The vulva comprises
several organs and structures grouped together for convenience of
description (see Reproductive System). The affections to which
these structures are liable may be classified as follows: (1) Injuries
to the vulva, either accidental or occurring during parturition;
these are generally rupture of the perinaeum. (2) Vulvitis. Simple
vulvitis is due to want of cleanliness, or irritating discharges, and in
children may result from threadworms. The symptoms are heat,
itching and throbbing, and the parts are red and swollen. The
treatment consists of rest, thorough cleanliness and fomentations.
I nfective vulvitis is nearly always due to gonorrhoea. The symptoms
are the same as in simple vulvitis* with the addition of mucopurulent
yellow discharge and scalding pain on micturition; if neglected,
extension of the disease may result. The treatment consists of rest
in bed, warm medicated baths several times a day or fomentations
of boracic acid. The parts must be kept thoroughly clean and
discharges swabbed away. Diphtheritic vulvitis occasionally occurs,
and erysipelas of the vulva may follow wounds, but since the use of
antiseptics is rarely seen. (3) Vascular disturbances may occur in
the vulva, including varix, haematoma, oedema and gangrene; the
treatment is the same as for the same disease in other parts. (4) The
vulva is likely to be affected by a number of cutaneous affections,
the most important being erythema, eczema, herpes, lichen, tubercle,
elephantiasis, vulvitis prurtginosa, syphilis and kraurosis. These
affections present the same characters as in other parts of the body.
Kraurosis vulvae, first described by LawsonTait in 1875, is an atrophic
change accompanied by pain and a yellowish discharge; the cause
is unknown. Pruritis vulvae is due to parasites, or to irritating
discharges, as leucorrhoea, and is frequent in diabetic subjects. The
hymen may be occasionally imperforate and require incision. Cysts
and painful canmculae may occur on the clitoris. Any part of the
vulva may be the seat of new growths, simple or malignant.
Diseases of the Vagina. — (1) Malformations. The vagina may be
absent in whole or in part or may present a septum. Stenosis of
the vagina may be a barrier to menstruation. (2) Displacements of
the vagina ; (a) cystocele, which is a hernia of the bladder into the
vagina; (b) rectocele, a hernia of the rectum into the vagina. The
cause of these conditions is relaxation of the tissues due to parturition,
The palliative treatment consists in keeping up the parts by the
insertion of a pessary; when this fails operative interference is
called for. (3) Fistulae may form between the vagina aad bladder or
vagina and rectum; they are generally caused by injuries during
parturition or the late stages of carcinoma. Persistent fistulae
require operative treatment. The vagina normally secretes a thin
opalescent acid fluid derived from the lymph serum and the shedding
of squamous epithelium. This fluid normally contains the vagina
bacillus. In pathological conditions of the vagina this secretion
undergoes changes. For practical purposes three varieties of
vaginitis may be described : (a) simple catarrhal vaginitis is due to
the same causes as simple vulvitis, and occasionally in children is
important from a medico-legal aspect when it is complicated by
vulvitis. The symptoms are heat and discomfort with copious
mucopurulent discharge. The only treatment required is rest, with
vaginal douches of warm unirritating lotions such as boracic acid or
subacetate of lead, (b) Gonorrhoeal vaginitis is most common in
adults. The patient complains of pain and burning, pain on passing
water and discharge which is generally green or yellow. The results
of untreated gonorrhoeal vaginitis are serious and far-reaching.
The disease may spread up the genital passages, causing endometritis,
salpingitis and septic peritonitis, or may extend into the bladder,
causing cystitis. Strict rest should be enjoined, douches of carbolic
acid (1 in 40) or of perchloride of mercury (.1 in 2000) should be
ordered morning and evening, the vagina being packed with tam-
pons of iodoform gauze. Saline purgatives and alkaline diuretics
should be given, (c) Chronic vaginitis (leucorrhoea or " the whites ")
may follow acute conditions ana persist indefinitely. The vagina is
rarely the seat of tumours, but cysts are common.
Diseases of the Uterus. — The uterus undergoes important changes
during life, chiefly at puberty and at the menopause. At puberty it
assumes the pear shape characteristic of the mature uterus. At the
menopause it shares in the general atrophy of the reproductive
organs. It is subject to various disorders and misplacements.
(a) Displacements of the Uterus. — The normal position of the uterus,
when the bladder is empty, is that of anteversion. We have there-
fore to consider the following conditions as pathological: ante-
flexion, retroflexion, retroversion, inversion, prolapse and pro-
cidentia. Slight anteflexion or bending forwards is normal; when
exaggerated it gives rise to dysmenorrhoea, sterility and reflex
nervous phenomena. This condition is usually congenital and is
often associated with underdevelopment of the uterus, from which
the sterility results. The. treatment is by dilatation of the canal or
by a plastic operation. Retroflexion is a bending over of the uterus
backwards, and occurs as a complication of retroversion (or dis-
placement backwards). The causes are (1) any cause tending to
make the fundus or upper part of the uterus extra heavy, such as
tumours or congestion, (2) loss of tone of the uterine waifs, (3) ad-
hesions formed after cellulitis, (3) violent muscular efforts, (4)
weakening of the uterine supports from parturition. The symptoms
are dysmenorrhoea, pain on defaecation and constipation from the
fressure of the fundus on the rectum ; the patient is often sterile,
'he treatment is the replacing of the uterus in position, where it can
be kept by the insertion of a pessary ; failing this, operative treat-
ment may be required. Retroversion when pathological is rarer
than retroflexion. It may be the result of inj ury or is associated with
pregnancy or a fibroid. The symptoms are those of retroflexion with
feeling of pain and weight in the pelvis and desire to micturate
followed by retention of urine due to the pressure of the cervix
X'nst the base of the bladder. The uterus must be skilfully re-
ed in position; when pessaries fail to keep it there the operation
bf hysteropexy gives excellent results.
Inversion occurs when the uterus is turned inside out. It is only
possible when the cavity is dilated, either after pregnancy or by a
polypus. The greater number of cases follow delivery and are
acute. Chronic inversions are generally due to the weight of a
polypus. The symptoms are menorrhagia, metrorrhagia and bladder
troubles; on examination a tumour-like mass occupies the vagina.
Reduction of the condition is often difficult, particularly when the
condition has lasted for a long time. The tumour which has caused
the inversion must be excised. Prolapse and procidentia are different
degrees of the same variety of displacement. When the uterus lies
in the vagina it is spoken of as prolapse, when it protrudes through
the vulva it is procidentia. The causes are directly due to increased
intra-abdominal pressure, increased weight of the uterus by fibroids,
violent straining, chronic cough and weakening of the supporting
structures of the pelvic floor, such as laceration of the vagina and
perinaeum. Traction on the uterus from below (asa cervical t u mour)
may be a cause; advanced age, laborious occupations and frequent
pregnancies are indirect causes. The symptoms are a " bearing
clown " feeling, pain and fatigue in walking, trouble with micturition
and defaecation. The condition is generally obvious on exami nation.
As a rule the uterus is easy to replace in position. A rubber ring
pessary will often serve to keep it there. If the perinaeum is very
much torn it may be necessary to repair it. Various operations for
retaining the uterus in position are described, (b) Enlargements of
the Uterus (hypertrophy or hyperplasia). This condition may some-
times involve the uterus as a whole or may be most marked in the
body or in the cervix. It follows chronic congestion or inflammatory
766
GYNAECOLOGY
prolapse, or any condition interfering with the circulation. The
symptoms comprise local discomfort and sometimes dysmenorrhoea,
leucorrhoea or menorrhagia. When the elongation occurs in the
cervical portion the only possible treatment is amputation of the
cervix. Atrophy of the uterus is normal after the menopause. It
may follow the removal of the tubes and ovaries. Some consti-
tutional diseases produce the same result, as tuberculosis, chlorosis,
chronic morphinism and certain diseases of the central nervous
system.
(c) Injuries and Diseases resultant from Pregnancy.— The most
frequent of these injuries is laceration of the cervix uteri, which is
frequent in precipitate labour. Once the cervix is torn the raw
surfaces become covered by granulations and later by cicatricial
tissue, but as a rule they do not unite. The torn lips may become
unhealthy, and the congestion and oedema spread to the body of the
uterus. A lacerated cervix does not usually give rise to symptoms;
these depend on the accompanying endometritis, and include
leucorrhoea, aching and a feeling of weight. Lacerations are to be
felt digitally. As lacerations predispose to abortion the operation of
trachelorraphy or repair of the cervix is indicated. Perforation of
the uterus may occur from the use of the sound in diseased conditions
of the uterine walls. Superinvention means premature atrophy
following parturition. Subinvolution is a condition in which the
uterus rails to return to its normal size and remains enlarged.
Retention of the products of conception may cause irregular
haemorrhages and may lead to a diagnosis of tumour. The uterus
should be carefully explored.
(d) Inflammations Acute and Chronic. — The mucous membrane
lining the cervical canal and body of the uterus is called the en-
dometrium. Acute inflammation or endometritis may attack it.
The chief causes are sepsis following labour or abortion, extension of
a gonorrhoeal vaginitis, or gangrene or infection of a uterine myoma.
The puerperal endometritis following labour is an avoidable disease
due to lack of scrupulous aseptic precautions.
Gonorrhoeal endometritis is an acute form associated with copious
purulent discharge and well-marked constitutional disturbance.
The temperature ranges from 99 ° to 105 ° F., associated with pelvic
pain, and rigors are not uncommon. The tendency is to recovery
with more or less protracted convalescence. The most serious com-
plications are extension of the disease and later sterility. Rest in
bed and intrauterine irrigation, followed by the introduction of
iodoform pencils into the uterine cavity, should be resorted to,
while pain is relieved by hot fomentations and sitz baths. Chronic
endometritis may be the sequela of the acute form, or may be septic
in origin, or the result of chronic congestion, acute retroflection or
subinvolution following delivery or abortion. The varieties are
glandular, interstitial, haemorrhagic and senile. The symptoms are
disturbance of the menstrual function, headache, pain and pelvic
discomfort, and more or less profuse thick ieucorrnoeal discharge.
The treatment consists in attention to the general health, with suit-
able laxatives and local injections, and in obstinate cases curettage
is the most effectual measure. The disease is frequently associated
with adenomatous disease of the cervix, formerly called erosion.
In this disease there is a new formation of glandular elements, which
enlarge and multiply, forming a soft velvety areola dotted with pink
spots. This was formerly erroneously termed ulceration. The
cause is unknown. It occurs in virgins as well as in mothers, but
it often accompanies lacerations of the cervix. The symptoms are
indefinite pain and leucorrhoea. The condition is visible on inspec-
tion with a speculum. The treatment is swabbing with iodized
phenol or curettage. The body of the uterus may also be the seat of
adenomatous disease. Tuberculosis may attack the uterus; this
usually forms part of a general tuberculosis.
(e) New Growths in the Uterus. — The uterus is the most common
seat of new growths. From the researches of von Gurlt, compiled
from the Vienna Hospital Reports, embracing 15,880 cases of tumour,
females exceed males in the proportion of seven to three, and of this
large majority uterine growths account for 25 % . When we consider
its periodic monthly engorgements and the alternate hypertrophy
and involution it undergoes in connexion with pregnancy, we can
anticipate the special proneness of the uterus to new growths.
Tumours of the uterus are divided into benign and malignant.
The benign tumours known as fibroids or myomata are very common.
They are stated by Bayle to occur in 20 % of women over 35 years of
age, but happily in a great number of cases they are small and give
rise to no symptoms. They are definitely associated with the period
of sexual activity and occur more frequently in married women than
in single, in the proportion of two to one (Winckel). It is doubtful if
they ever originate after the menopause. Indeed if uncomplicated
by changes in them they share in the general atrophy of the sexual
organs which then takes place. They are divided according to their
position in the tissues into intramural, subserous and submucous
(the last when it has a pedicle forms a polypus), or as to the part of
the uterus in which they develop into fibroids of the cervix and
fibroids of the body. Intramural and submucous fibroids give
rise to haemorrhage. The menses may be so increased that the
patient is scarcely ever free from haemorrhage. The pressure of the
growth may cause dysmenorrhoea, or pressure on the bladder and
rectum may cause dysuria, retention or rectal tenesmus. The
uterus may be displaced by the weight of the tumour. Secondary
changes take place in fibroids, such as mucous degeneration, fatty
metamorphosis, calcification, septic infection (sloughing fibroid) and
malignant (sarcomatous) degeneration.
The modes in which fibroids imperil life are haemorrhage (the
commonest of all), septic infection, which is one of the most danger*
ous, impaction when it fits the true pelvis so tightly that the tumour
cannot rise, twisting of the pedicle by rotation, leading to sloughing
and intestinal and urinary obstruction. When fibroids are compli-
cated by pregnancy, impaction and consequent abortion may take
place, or a cervical myoma may offer a mechanical obstacle to
delivery or lead to serious post partem haemorrhage. In the treat-
ment of fibroids various drugs (ergot, hamameiis, Hydrastis cana-
densis) may be tried to control the haemorrhage, and repose and the
injection of hot water (120 F.) are sometimes successful, together
with electrical treatment. Surgical measures are needed, however, in
severe recurrent haemorrhage, intestinal obstruction, sloughing and
the co-existence of pregnancy. An endeavour must be made if
possible to enucleate the fibroid, or hysterectomy (removal of the
uterus) may be required. The operation of removal of the ovaries
to precipitate the menopause has fallen into disuse.
(f) Malignant Disease of ike Utems.~-The varieties of malignant
disease met with in the uterus are sarcoma, carcinoma and chorion-
epithelioma malignum. Sarcomata may occur in the body and in the
neck. They occur at an earlier age than carcinomata. Marked
enlargement and haemorrhage are tine symptoms. The differential
diagnosis is microscopic. Extirpation of the uterus is the only
chance of prolonging life. The age at which women are most subject
to carcinoma (cancer) of the uterus is towards the decline of sexual
life. Of 3385 collected cases of cancer of the uterus 1 169 occurred
between 40 and 50, and 856 between 50 and 60. In contradistinction
to fibroid tumours it frequently arises after the •menopause. It may
be divided into cancer of the body and cancer of the neck (cervix).
Cancer of the neck of the uterus is almost exclusively confined to
women who have been pregnant (Bland-Sutton) . Predisposing causes
may be injuries during delivery. The symptoms which induce women
to seek medical aid are haemorrhage, foetid discharge, and later pain
and cachexia. An unfortunate belief amongst the public that the
menopause is associated with irregular bleeding and offensive dis-
charges has prevented many women from seeking medical advice
until too late. It cannot be too widely understood that cancer of
the cervix is in its early stages a purely local disease, and if removed
in this stage usually results in cure. So important is the recognition
of this fact in the saving of human life that at the meeting of the
British Medical Association in April 1009 the council issued for
publication a special appeal to medical practitioners, midwives and
nurses, and directed it to be published in British and colonial medical
and nursing journals. It will be useful to quote here a part of the
appeal directed to midwives and nurses: Cancer may occur at
any age and in a woman who looks quite well, and who may have no
pain, no wasting, no foul discharge and no profuse bleeding. To
wait for pain, wasting, foul discharge or profuse bleeding is to throw
away the chance of successful treatment. The early symptoms of
cancer of the womb are : — (1) bleeding which occurs after the change
of life, (2) bleeding after sexual intercourse or after a vaginal douche,
(3) bleeding, slight or abundant, even in young women, if occurring
between the usual monthly periods, and especially when accompanied
by a bad-smelling or watery blood-tinged discharge, (4) thin watery
discharge occurring at any age." On examination the cervix
presents certain characteristic signs, though these may be modified
according to the variety of cancer present. Hard nodules or definite
loss of substance, extreme friability and bleeding after slight manipu-
lation, are suspicious. Epithelial cancer of the cervix may assume
a proliferating ulcerative type, forming the well-known ''cauliflower"
excrescence. The treatment of cancer of the cervix is free removal
at the earliest possible moment. Cancer of the body of the uterus
is rare before the 45th year. It is most frequent at or subsequent to
the menopause. The majority of the patients are nulliparae (Bland-
Sutton). The signs are fitful haemorrhages after the menopause,
followed by profuse and offensive discharges. The uterus on ex-
amination often feels enlarged. The diagnosis being made, hyster-
ectomy (removal of the uterus) is the only treatment. Cancer of the
body of the uterus may complicate fibroids. Chorion-epithelioma
malignum (deciduoma) was first described in 1889 by Sanger and
Pfeiffer. It is a malignant disease presenting microscopic characters
resembling decidual tissue. It occurs in connexion with recent
pregnancy, and particularly with the variety of abortion termed .
Hydatid mole. In many cases it destroys life with a rapidity un-
equalled by any other kind of growth. It quickly ulcerates and
infiltrates the uterine tissues, forming metastatic growths in the lung
and vagina. Clinically it is recognized by the occurrence after
pregnancy of violent haemorrhages, progressive cachexia and fever
with rigors. Recent suggestions have Deen made as to chorion-
epithelioma being the result of pathological changes in the lutein
tissue of the ovary. The growth is usually primary in the uterus,
but may be so in the Fallopian tubes and in the vagina. A few cases
have been recorded unconnected with pregnancy. The virulence of
chorion-epithelioma varies, but in the present state of our knowledge
immediate removal of the primary growth along with the affected
organ is the only treatment.
Diseases of the Fallopian Tubes. — The Fallopian tubes or oviducts
GYONGYOSI— GYOR
767
are liable to inflammatory affections, tuberculosis, sarcomata,
cancer, chorion-epithelioma and tubal pregnancy. Salpingitis
(inflammation of the oviducts) is nearly always secondary to septic
infection of the genital tract. The chief causes are septic endome-
tritis following labour or abortion, gangrene of a myoma, gonorrhoea,
tuberculosis and cancer of the uterus; it sometimes follows the
specific fevers. When the pus escapes from the tubes into the coelom
it sets up pelvic peritonitis. When the inflammation is adjacent to
the ostium it leads to the matting together of the tubal fimbriae and
glues them to an adjacent organ. This seals the ostium. The
occluded tube may now have an accumulation of pus in it (pyosal-
pinx). When in consequence of the sealing of the ostium the tube
Becomes distended with serous fluid it is termed hydrosalpinx.
Haematosalpinx is a term applied to the non-gravid tube distended
with blood; later the tubes may become sclerosed. Acute septic
salpingitis is ushered in by a rigor, the temperature rising to 103 ,
104 F., with severe pain and constitutional disturbance. The
symptoms may become merged in those of general peritonitis. In
chronic disease there is a history of puerperal trouble followed by
sterility, with excessive and painful menstruation. Acute salpingitis
requires absolute rest, opium suppositories and hot fomentations.
With urgent symptoms removal of the inflamed adnexa must be
resorted to. Chronic salpingitis often renders a woman an invalid.
Permanent relief can only be afforded by surgical intervention.
Tuberculous salpingitis is usually secondary to other tuberculous
infections. The Fallopian tubes may be the seat of malignant
disease. This is rarely primary. By tar the most important of the
conditions of the Fallopian tubes is tubal pregnancy (or ectopic
gestation). It is now known that fertilization of the human ovum
by the spermatozoon may take place even when the ovum is in its
follicle in the ovary, for oosperms have been found in the ovary and
Fallopian tubes as well as in the uterus. Belief in ovarian pregnancy
is of old standing, and had been regarded as possible but unproved,
no case of an early embryo in its membranes in the sac of an ovary
being forthcoming, until the remarkable case published by Dr
Catherine van Tussenboek of Amsterdam in 1899 (Bland-Sutton).
Tubal pregnancy is most frequent in the left tube; it sometimes
complicates uterine pregnancy; rarely both tubes are pregnant.
When the oosperm lodges in the ampulla or isthmus it is called tubal
gestation ; when it is retained in the portion traversing the uterine
wall it is called tubo-uterine gestation. Wherever the fertilized ovum
remains and implants its villi the tube becomes turgid and swollen,
and the abdominal ostium gradually closes. The ovum in this
situation is liable to apoplexy, forming tubal mole. When the
abdominal ostium remains pervious the ovum may escape into the
coelomic cavity (tubal abortion) ; death from shock and haemorr-
hage into the abdominal cavity may result. When neither of these
occurrences has taken place the ovum continues to grow inside the
tube, the rupture of the distended tube usually taking place between
the sixth and the tenth week. The rupture of the tube may be
intraperitoneal or extraperitoneal. The danger is death from
haemorrhage occurring during the rupture, or adhesions may form,
the retained blood forming a haematocele. The ovum may be de-
stroyed or may continue to develop. In rare cases rupture may not
occur, the tube bulging into the peritoneal cavity; and the foetus
may break through the membranes and lie free among the intestines,
where it may die, becoming encysted or calcified. The tubal placenta
possesses foetal structures, the true decidua forming in the uterus.
The signs suggestive of tubal pregnancy before rupture are missed
periods, pelvic pains and the presence of an enlarged tube. When
rupture takes place it is attended in both varieties with sudden and
severe pain and more or less marked collapse, and a tumour may or
may not be felt according to the situation of the rupture. There is a
general " feeling of something having given way." If diagnosed
before rupture, the sac must be removed by abdominal section. In
intraperitoneal rupture immediate operation affords the only chance
of saving life. In extraperitoneal rupture the foetus may occasion-
ally remain alive until full term and be rescued by abdominal section,
if the condition is recognized, or a false labour may take place,
accompanied by death of the foetus.
Diseases of the Ovaries and Parovarium. — The ovaries undergo
striking changes at puberty,, and again at the menopause, after which
there is a gradual shrinkage. One or both may fee absent or mal-
formed, or they are subject to displacements, being either un-
descended, contained in a hernia or prolapsed. Either of these
conditions, if a source of pain, may necessitate their removal. The
ovary is also subject to haemorrhage or apoplexy. Acute inflam-
mations (oophorites) are constantly associated with salpingitis or
other septic conditions of the genital tract or with an attack of
mumps. The relation of oophoritis to mumps is at present unknown.
Acute oophoritis may culminate in abscess but more usually
adhesions are formed. The surgical treatment is that of pyosalpinx.
Chronic inflammation may follow acute or be consequent on pelvic
cellulitis. Its constant features are more or less pain followed by
sterility. The ovary may be the seat of tuberculosis, which is
generally secondary to other lesions. Suppuration and abscess of
the ovary also occur. Perioophoritis, or chronic inflammation in
the neighbourhood, may also involve the gland. The cause of
cirrhosis of the ovaries is unknown, though it may be associated with
cirrhotic liver. The change is met with in women between 20 and
40 years of age, the ovaries being in a shrunken, hard, wrinkled con-
dition. Under ovarian neuralgia are grouped indefinite painful
symptoms occurring frequently in neurotic and alcoholic subjects,
and often worse during menstruation. The treatment, whether local
or operative, is usually unsatisfactory. The ovary is frequently the
seat of tumours, dermoids and cysts. Cysts may be simple, unilocular
or multilobular, and may attain an enormous size. The largest on
record was removed by Dr Elizabeth Reifsnyder of Shanghai, and
contained 100 litres of fluid, and the patient recovered. The opera-
tion is termed ovariotomy. Dermoid cysts containing skin, bones,
teeth and hair, are of frequent growth in the ovary, and have attained
the weight of from 20 to 40 kilogrammes. In one case a girl weighed
27 kilogrammes and her tumour 44 kilogrammes (Keen). Papillo-
matous cysts also occur in the ovary. Parovarian and Gartnerian
cysts are found, and adenomata form 20% of ail ovarian cysts.
Occasionally the tunic of ^peritoneum surrounding the ovary becomes
distended with serous fluid. This is termed ovarian hydrocele.
Ovarian fibroids occur, and malignant disease (sarcoma and carcin-
oma) is fairly frequent, sarcoma being the most usual ovarian tumour
occurring before puberty. Carcinoma of the ovary is rarely primary,
but it is a common situation for secondary cancer to that of the
breast, gall-bladder or gastro-intestinal tract. The treatment of all
rapidly-growing tumours of the ovary is removal.
Diseases of the Pekic Peritoneum and Connective Tissue.— Women
are excessively liable to peritoneal infections. (1) Septic infection
often follows acute salpingitis and may give rise to pelvic peritonitis
(perimetritis), which may be adhesive, serous or purulent. It may
follow the rupture of ovarian or dermoid cysts, rupture of the
uterus, extra uterine pregnancy or extension from pyosalpinx. The
symptoms are severe pain, fever, 103 ° F. and higher, marked consti-
tutional disturbances, vomiting, restlessness, even delirium. The
abdomen is fixed and tympanitic. Its results are the formation of
adhesions causing abnormal positions of the organs, or chronic
peritonitis may follow. The treatment is rest in bed, opium, hot
stupes to the abdomen and quinine. (2) Epithelial infections take
place in the peritoneum in connexion with other malignant growths.
(3) Hydroperitoneum, a collection of free fluid in the abdominal
cavity, may be due to tumours of the abdominal viscera or to
tuberculosis of the peritoneum. (4) Pelvic cellulitis (parametritis)
signifies the inflammation of the connective tissue between the folds
of the broad ligament (mesometrium) . The general causes are septic
changes following abortion, delivery at term (especially instrumental
delivery), following operations on the uterus or salpingitis. The
symptoms are chillfollowed by severe intrapelvic pain and tension*
fever ioo° to 102° F. There may be nausea and vomiting, diarrhoea,
rectal tenseness and dysuria. If consequent on parturition the
lochia cease or become offensive. On examination there is tender-
ness and swelling in one flank and the uterus becomes fixed and
immovable in the exudate as if embedded in plaster of Paris. The
illness may go to resolution if treated by rest, opium, hot stupes or
icebags and glycerine tampons, or may go on to suppuration forming
pelvic abscess, which signifies a collection of pus between the layers
of the broad ligament. The pus in a oelvic abscess may point and
escape through the walls of the vagina, rectum or bladder. It
occasionally points in the groin. If the pus can be localized an
incision should be made and the abscess drained. The tumours
which arise in the broad ligament are haematocele, solid tumours (as
myomata, lipomata and sarcomata), and echinnococcus colonies
(hydatids).
Bibliography. — Albutt, Playfair and Eden, System of Gynae-
cology (1906) ; McNaughton Jones, Manual of Diseases of Women
04); Bland-Sutton and Giles, Diseases of Women (1906); C.
:kyer, " Lutein Cysts in association with Chorio-Epithelioma,"
(19c
Loc!
Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (January, 1905) ; W. Stewart
McKay, History of Ancient Gynaecology; Hart and Barbour, Diseases
of Women; Howard Kelly, Operative Gynaecology. (H. L. H.)
GYttNGYttSI, ISTVAN [Stephen] (1620-1704), Hungarian,
poet, was born of poor but noble parents in 1620. His abilities
early attracted the notice of Count Ferencz Wessel6nyi, who in
1640 appointed him to a post of confidence in Fulek castle. Here
he remained till 1653, when he married and became an assessor
of the judicial board. In 168 1 he was elected as a representative
of his county at the diet held at Soprony (Oedenburg). From
1686 to 1693, and again from 1700 to his death in 1704, he was
deputy lord-lieutenant of the county of Gomor. Of his literary
works the most famous is the epic poem Murdnyi Venus (Caschau,
1664), in honour of his benefactor's wife Maria Szecsi, the heroine
of Murany. Among his later productions the best known are
Rfasa-Koszorti, or Rose- Wreath (1690), Kemcny-Jdnos (1693),
Cupidd (1695), Palinodia (1695) and Chariklia (1700).
The earliest edition of his collected poetical works is by^Dugonics
(Pressburg and Pest, 1796); the best modern selection is that of
Toldy, entitled Gyongydsi Istvdn vdiogatott poStai munkdi (Select
poetical works of Stephen Gyongydsi, 2 vols., 1864-1865).
GY&R (Ger. Raab), a town of Hungary, capital of a county of
the same name, 88 m. W. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (iooo)
768
GYP— GYPSUM
27,758. It is situated at the confluence of the Raab with the
Danube, and is composed of the inner town and three suburbs.
Gyor is a well-built town, and is the seat of a Roman Catholic
bishop. Amongst its principal buildings are the cathedral,
dating from the 12th century, and rebuilt in 1630-1654; the
bishop's palace; the town hall; the Roman Catholic seminary
for priests and several churches. There are manufactures of
cloth, machinery and tobacco, and an active trade in grain and
horses. Twenty miles by rail W.S.W. of the town is situated
Csorna, a village with a Premonstratensian abbey, whose archives
contain numerous valuable historical documents.
GyQr is one of the oldest towns in Hungary and occupies the
site of the Roman Arabona. It was already a place of some
importance in the 10th century, and its bishopric was created
in the nth century. It was a strongly fortified town which
resisted successfully the attacks of the Turks, into whose hands
it fell by treachery in 1594, but they retained possession of it
only for four years. Montecucculi made Gyor a first-class
fortress, and it remained so until 1783, when it was abandoned.
At the beginning of the 19th century, the fortifications were
re-erected, but were easily taken by the French in 1809, and
were again stormed by the Austrians on the 28th of June 1849.
About n. m. S.E. of Gyor on a spur of the Bakony Forest
lies the famous Benedictine abbey of Pannonhalma (Ger. St
Martinsberg; Lat. Mons Sancti Martini), one of the oldest and
wealthiest abbeys of Hungary. It was founded by King St
Stephen, and the original deed from 1001 is preserved in the
archives of the abbey. The present building is a block of
palaces, containing a beautiful church, some of its parts dating
from the 12th century, and lies on a hill 1200 ft. high. The
church has a tower 130 ft. high. In the convent there are a
seminary for priests, a normal school, a gymnasium and a
library of 120,000 vols. The chief abbot has the rank of a
bishop, and is a member of the Upper House of the Hungarian
parliament, while in spiritual matters he is subordinate immedi-
ately to the Roman curia.
GYP, the pen name of Sibyixe Gabbielle Marie Antoinette
Riqueti de Mirabeau, Comtesse de Martel de Janville (1850-
) French writer, who was born at the chateau of Koetsal in
the Morbihan. Her father, who was the grandson of the vicomte
de Mirabeau and great-nephew of the orator, served in the Papal
Zouaves, and died during the campaign of i860. Her mother,
the comtesse de Mirabeau, in addition to some graver composi-
tions, contributed to the Figaro and the Vie parisienne, under
various pseudonyms, papers in the manner successfully developed
by her daughter. Under the pseudonym of " Gyp " Madame
de Martel, who was married in 1869, sent to the Vie parisienne,
and later to the Revue des deux mondes, a large number of social
sketches and dialogues, afterwards reprinted in volumes. Her
later work includes stories of a more formal sort, essentially
differing but little from the shorter studies. The following list
includes some of the best known of Madame de Mattel's publica-
tions, nearly seventy in number: Petit Bob (1882); Autour du
manage (1883); Ce que femme vent (1883); Le Monde a
cdte (1884); Sans voiles (1885); Autour du divorce (1886);
Dans le train (1886); Mademoiselle Loulou (1888); Bob au salon
(1888-1889); V Education d'un prince (1890); Passionette
(1891); OhS! la grande vie (1891); JJne Election a Tigre-sur-mer
(1890), an account of " Gyp's " experiences in support of a
Boulangist candidate; Mariage civil (1892); Ces bons docteurs
(1892); Du haul en bas (1893); Mariage de chiffon (1894);
Lews dmes (1895); Le Cosur oVAriane (1895); Le Bonheur de
Ginette (1896); Totote (1897); Lune de miel (1898);. Israel
(1898); UEntrevue (1899); ^ Pays des champs (1900); Trop de
chic (1900); Le Friquet (1901); La FSe (1002); Un Mariage chic
(1003); tin Menage dernier cri (1903); Maman (1904); Le
Cmur de Pierrette (1905). From the first " Gyp," writing of a
society to which she belonged, displayed all the qualities which
have given her a distinct, if not pre-eminent, position among
writers of her class. Those qualities included an intense faculty
of observation, much skill in innuendo, a mordant wit combined
with some breadth of humour, and a singular power of animating
ordinary dialogues without destroying the appearance of reality.
Her Parisian types of the spoiled child, of the precocious school-
girl, of the young bride, and of various masculine figures in the
gay world, have become almost classical, and may probably
survive as faithful pictures of luxurious manners in the 19th
century. Some later productions, . inspired by a violent anti-
Semitic and Nationalist bias, deserve little consideration. An
earlier attempt to dramatize Autour du mariage was a failure,
not owing to the audacities which it shares with most of its
author's works, but from lack of cohesion and incident. More
successful was Mademoiselle £ve (1895), but indeed " Gyp's"
successes are all achieved without a trace of dramatic faculty.
In 1901 Madame de Martel furnished a sensational incident in the
Nationalist campaign during the municipal elections in Paris.
She was said to have been the victim of a kidnapping outrage
or piece of horseplay provoked by her political attitude, but
though a most circumstantial account of the outrages committed
on her and of her adventurous escape was published, the affair
was never clearly explained or verified.
GYPSUM, a common mineral consisting of hydrous calcium
sulphate, named from the Gr. ybyfos, a word used by Theo-
phrastus to denote not only the raw mineral but also the pro-
duct of its calcination, which was employed in ancient times, as
it still is, as a plaster. When crystallized, gypsum is of ten called
selenite, the o-ektjvtrtjs of Dioscorides, so named from aekfyri,
" the moon," probably in allusion to the soft moon-like reflection
of light from some of its faces, or, according to a legend, because
it is found at night when the moon is on the increase. The
granular, marble-like gypsum is termed alabaster (q.v.).
Gypsum crystallizes in the monoclinic system; the habit of the
crystals being usually either prismatic or tabular; in the latter
case the broad planes are parallel to the faces of the clmopinacoid.
The crystals may become lenticular by curvature of certain
faces. In the characteristic type represented in fig. 1, / repre-
sents the prism, I the hemi-pyramid and P the clinopinacoid.
Twins are common, as in
fig. 2, forming in some cases
arrow-headed and swallow-
tailed crystals. Cleavage is
perfect parallel to the clino-
pinacoid, yielding thin plates,
often diamond-shaped, with
pearly lustre; these flakes ,
are usually flexible, but may
be brittle, as in the gypsum
of Montmartre. Two other
cleavages are recognized, but
they are imperfect. Crystals
of gypsum, when occurring
in clay, may enclose much muddy matter; in other cases a
large proportion of sand may be mechanically entangled in
the crystals without serious disturbance of form; whilst
certain crystals occasionally enclose cavities with liquid and
an air-bubble. Gypsum not infrequently becomes fibrous.
This variety occurs in veins, often running through gypseous
marls, with the fibres disposed at right angles to the direction
of the vein. Such gypsum when cut and polished has a pearly
opalescence, or satiny sheen, whence it is called satin-spar (q.v.).
Gypsum is so soft as to be scratched even by the finger-nail
(H* 15 to 2). Its specific gravity is about 2-3. The mineral is
slightly soluble in water, one part of gypsum being soluble,
according to G. K. Cameron, in 372 parts of pure water at 26 C.
Waters percolating through gypseous strata, lifee the Keuper
marls, dissolve the calcium sulphate and thus become per-
manently hard or " selenitic." Such water has special value for
brewing pale ale, and the water used by the Burton breweries is
of this character; hence the artificial dissolving of gypsum in
water for brewing purposes is known as " burtonization,"
Deposits of gypsum are formed in boilers using selenitic water.
Pure gypsum is colourless or white, but it is often tinted,
especially in the alabaster variety , grey,, yellow or pink. Gypsum
crystallizes with two molecules of water, equal to about 21 % by
Fig* 1.
Fig. 2.
GYROSCOPE AND GYROSTAT
769
weight, and consequently has the formula CaS0 4 -2H 2 0. By
exposure to strong heat all the water may be expelled, and the
substance then has the composition of anhydrite (q.v.). When
the calcination, however, is conducted at such a temperature
that only about 75% of the water is lost, it yields a white
pulverulent substance, known as " plaster of Paris," which may
readily be caused to recombine with water, forming a hard
cement. The gypsum Quarries of Montmartre, in the north of
Paris, were worked in Tertiary strata, rich in fossils. Gypsum is
largely quarried in England for conversion into plaster of Paris,
whence it is sometimes known as " plaster stone," and since
much is sent to the Staffordshire potteries for making moulds it
is also termed " potter's stone." The chief workings are in the
Keuper marls near Newark in Nottinghamshire, Fauld in
Staffordshire and CheUaston in Derbyshire. It is also worked in
Permian beds in Cumberland and Westmorland, and in Purbeck
strata near Battle in Sussex.
Gypsum frequently occurs in association with rock-salt, having
been deposited in shallow basing of salt water. Much of the
calcium in sea-water exists as sulphate; and on evaporation of a
drop of sea- water under the microscope this sulphate is deposited
as acicular crystals of gypsum. In salt-lagoons the deposition
of the gypsuin is probably effected in most cases by means of
micro-organisms. Waters containing sulphuretted hydrogen, on
exposure to the air in the presence of Hmestone, may yield gypsum
by the formation of sulphuric acid and its interaction with the
calcium carbonate. In volcanic; districts gypsum is produced by
the action of sulphuric acid, resulting from the oxidation of
sulphurous vapours, on lime*bearing minerals, like labradorite
and augite, in the volcanic rocks: hence gypsum is common
around solfataras. Again, by the oxidation of iron-pyrites
and the action of the resulting sulphuric acid on limestone or
on shells, gypsum may be formed; whence it$ origin in most
clays. Gypsum is also formed in some cases by the hydration of
anhydrite, the change being accompanied by an increase of
volume to the extent of about 60%. Conversely gypsum may,
under certain conditions, be dehydrated or reduced to anhydrite.
Some of the largest known crystals of selenite have been found
in southern Utah, where they occur in huge geodes, or crystal-
lined cavities, in deposits from the old salt-lakes. Fine crystals,
sometimes curiously bent, occur in the Permian rocks of Fried-
richroda, near Gotha, where there is a grotto called the Marien-
glashohle, close to Rheinhardsbrunn. Many of the best localities
for selenite are in the New Red Sandstone formation (Trias and
Permian), notably the salt-mines of Hall and Hallein, near
Salzburg, and of Bex in Switzerland. Excellent crystals, usually
of a brownish colour arranged in groups, are often found in the
brine-chambers and the launders used in salt-works. Selenite
also occurs in fine crystals in the sulphur-bearing marls of
Girgenti and other Sicilian localities; whilst in Britain very bold
crystals are yielded by the Kimeridge clay of Shot over Hill near
Oxford. Twisted crystals and rosettes of gypsum found in the
Mammoth Cave, Kentucky, have been called " oulopholites "
(ofaos, " woolly "; «co\e6$, " cave ").
In addition to the use of gypsum in cement-making, the
mineral finds application as an agricultural agent in dressing
land, and it has also been used in the manufacture of porcelain
and glass. Formerly it was employed, in the form of thin
cleavage-plates, for glazing windows, and seems to have been,
with mica, called lapis specularis. It is still known in Germany
as Marienglas and Fraueneis. Delicate cleavage-plates of
gypsum are used in microscopic petrography for the deter-
mination of certain optical constants in the rock-forming
minerals. (F. W. R.*)
GYROSCOPE AND GYROSTAT. These are scientific models
or instruments designed to illustrate experimentally the
dynamics of a rotating body such as the spinning-top, hoop and
bicycle, and also the precession of the equinox and the rotation of
the earth.
The gyroscope (Gr. ydpos, ring, vkovcIv, to see) may be dis-
tinguished from the gyrostat (yvpos, and ^roru6$, stationary)
as an instrument in which the rotating wheel or disk is mounted
in gimbals so that the principal axis of rotation always passes
through a fixed point (fig. 1). It can be made to imitate the
motion of a spinning-top of which the point is placed in a smooth
agate cup as in Maxwell's dynamical top (figs. 2, 3). (Collected
Works, i. 248.) A bicycle wheel, with a prolongation of the
axle placed in a cup, can also be made to serve (fig. 4).
The gyrostat is an instrument designed by Lord Kelvin
{Natural Philosophy, § 345) to illustrate the more corn-
Fig. 1. Fig. 2.
plicated state of motion of a spinning body when free to wander
about on a horizontal plane, like a top spun on the pavement, or
a hoop or bicycle on the road. It consists essentially of a massive
fly-wheel concealed in a metal casing, and its behaviour on a
table, or with various modes of suspension or support, described
in Thomson and Tait, Natural Philosophy, serves to illustrate
the curious reversal of the ordinary laws of statical equilibrium
due to the gyrostatic domination of the interior invisible fly-
wheel, when rotated rapidly (fig. 5).
The toy shown in figs. 6 and 7, which can be bought for a
shilling, is acting as a gyro-
scope in fig. ,6 and a gyrostat
in fig. 7. ,
The gyroscope, as repre-
sented in figs, 2 and 3 by Max-
well's dynamical top, is pro-
vided with screws by which
the centre pf gravity can be
brought into coincidence with
the point of support. It can
Fig. 3.
Fig. 4.
then be used to illustrate Poinsot's theory of the motion of a
body under no force, the gyroscope being made kinetically
unsymmetrical by a setting of the screws. The discussion of
this movement is required for JacobFs theorems on the allied
motion of a top and of a body under no force (Poinsot, ThSorie
nouvelle de la rotation des corps, Paris, 1857; Jacobi, Werke, ii.
Note B, p. 476).
To imitate the movement of the top the centre of gravity is
displaced from the point of support so as to give a preponderance.
When the motion takes place in the neighbourhood of the down-
ward vertical, the bicycle wheel can be made to serve again
xn. 25
77©
mounted as in fig. 8 by a stalk in the prolongation of the axle,
suspended from a universal joint at O; it can then be spun by
hand and projected in any manner.
The first practical application* of the gyroscopic principle was
invented and carried out (1744) by Serson, with a spinning top
GYROSCOPE AND GYROSTAT" '
Fig. 6.
Fig. 5.
Fig. 7.
with a polished upper plane surface for giving an artificial
horizon at sea, undisturbed by the motion of the ship, when the
real horizon was obscured. The instrument has been perfected
by Admiral Georges Ernest Fieuriais (fig. 9), and is interesting
theoretically as
S 1h showing the cor-
^*T - rection required
practically for the
rotation of the
earth. Gilbert's
barogyroscope is
devised for the
same purpose of
showing the earth's
rotation; a de-
scription of it, and
of the latest form
employed by F6ppl,
is given in the
Ency. d. math.
Wiss. 9 1904, with
bibliographical
references in the
XI article "Mechanics
Fig. 8. of Physical Appar-
atus." The rota-
tion of the fly-wheel is maintained here by an electric motor, as
devised by G.M. Hopkins, and described in the Scientific A merican,
1878. To demonstrate the rotation of the earth by the constancy
in direction of the axis of a gyroscope is a suggestion that has often
been made; by E. Sang in 1836, and
others. The experiment was first
carried out with success by Foucault in
18 5 1, by a simple pendulum swung in
the dome of the Pantheon, Paris, and
lit has been repeated frequently
(MSmoires sur le pendule, 1889).
A gyroscopic fly-wheel will pre-
serve its original direction in space
only when left absolutely free in all directions, as required
in the experiments above. If employed in steering, as of a
torpedo, the gyroscope must act through the intermediary of a
light relay; but if direct-acting, the reaction will cause pre-
cession of the axis, and the original direction is lost.
The gyrostatic principle, in which one degree of freedom is
suppressed in the axis, is useful for imparting steadiness and
stability in a moving body; it is employed by Schlick to mitigate
the rolling of a ship and to maintain the upright position of
Brennan's monorail car.
Lastly, as an application of gyroscopic theory, a stretched
chain of fly-wheels in rotation was employed by Kelvin as a
mechanical model of the rotary polarization of light in an electro-
magnetic field; the apparatus may be constructed of bicycle
wheels connected by short links, and suspended vertically.
Theory of the Symmetrical Top.
1. The physical constants of a given symmetrical top, expressed
in C.G.S. units, which are employed in the subsequent formulae,
are denoted by M, h, C and A. M is the weight in grammes (g)
as given by the number of gramme weights which equilibrate the
top when weighed in a balance ; h is the distance OG in centimetres
(cm.) between G the centre of gravity and O the point of support,
and MA may be called the preponderance in g.-cm.; Mik and M
can be measured by. a spring balance holding up in a horizontal
position the axis OC in fig. 8 suspended at O. Then gMh (dyne-cm.
or ergs) is the moment of gravity about O when the axis OG is
horizontal, gMh sin being the moment when the axis OG makes
an angle with the vertical, and g a 98i (cm./s*) on the average;
C is the moment of inertia of the top about OG, and A about any
axis through O at right angles to OG, both measured in g-cm.*.
To measure A experimentally, swing the top freely about O in
small plane oscillation, and determine the length, / cm., of the
equivalent simple pendulum; then
(1) J-A/M*. A-MW.
Next make the top, or this simple pendulum, perform small
conical revolutions, nearly coincident with the downward vertical
position of equilibrium, and measure ft, the mean angular velocity
of the conical pendulum in radians / second; and T its period in
seconds; then
(2)
4 ,rVT*»»*-*/J-*M*/A;
and /«»/2r is the number of revolutions per second, called the
frequency ,T =2* In is the period of a revolution, in seconds.
2. In the popular explanation of the steady movement of the
top at a constant inclination to the vertical, depending on the com-
position of angular velocity, such as given in Perry's SimMd
Spinning Tops, or Worthington's Dynamics of Rotation, JJJJJJJ ^
it is asserted that the moment of gravity is always t ^ 0iomm
generating an angular velocity about an axis OB per- ^^
Smdicular to the vertical plane COC' through the axis of the top
C; and this angular velocity, compounded with the resultant
angular velocity about an axis OI, nearly coincident with OC' f
causes the axes OI and OC' to keep taking up a new position by
moving at right angles to the plane COC, at a constant precessional
angular velocity, say p. rad./sec., round the vertical OC (fig. 4).
If, however, the axis OC is prevented from taking up this pre-
cessional velocity, the top at once falls down ; thence all the in-
genious attempts— for instance, in the swinging cabin of the Bessemer
ship — to utilise the gyroscope as a mechanical directive agency
have always resulted in failure (Engineer, October 1874), unless
restricted to actuate a light relay, which guides the mechanism, as
in steering a torpedo.
An experimental verification can be carried out with the gyro-
scope in fig. 1 ; so long as the vertical spindle is free to rotate in
its socket, the rapidly rotating wheel will resist the impulse of
tapping on the gimbal by moving to one side; but when the pinch
screw prevents the rotation of the vertical spindle in the massive
pedestal, this resistance to the tapping at once disappears, provided
the friction of the table prevents the movement of the pedestal;
and if the wheel has any preponderance, it falls down.
Familiar instances of the same principles are observable in the
movement of a hoop, or in the steering of a bicycle; it is essential
that the handle of the bicycle should be free to rotate to secure
the stability of the movement.
The bicycle wheel, employed as a spinning top, in fig. 4, can also
be held by the stalk, and will thus, when rotated rapidly, convey
a distinct muscular impression of resistance to change of direction,
if brandished.
3. A demonstration, depending on the elementary principles of
dynamics, of the exact conditions required for the nu,,^ M tMf
axis OC of a spinning top to spin steadily at a constant ^^VT^L
inclination B to the vertical OC, is given here before pro- f§ot^ttbo
ceeding to the more complicated question of the general cemdkkm
motion, when 0, the inclination of the axis, is varying o/ ^^_,
by nutation. motioa.
It is a fundamental principle in dynamics that if OH is
a vector representing to scale the angular momentum of a system,
and if Oh is the vector representing the axis of the impressed couple
or torque, then OH will vary so that the velocity of H is represented
to scale by the impressed couple Oh, and if the top is moving freely
about O, Oh is at right angles to the vertical plane COC, and
(1)
Oh = gMh sin 0.
GYROSCOPE AND GYROSTAT
771
In the case of the steady motion of the top, the vector OH lies
in the vertical plane COC', in OK suppose (fig. 4), and has a com-
ponent OC— G about the vertical and a component OC'— G', sup-
pose, about the axis OC; and G'-CR, if R denotes the angular
velocity of the top with which it is spun about OC'.
If ft denotes the constant precessional angular velocity of the
vertical plane COC, the components of angular velocity and momen-
tum about OA are m sin and Am sin 0, OA being perpendicular
to OC' in the plane COC; so that the vector OK has the com-
ponents
(2) OC -G', and C'K -Am sin 0,
and the horizontal component
(3) OC -OC sin 0-C'K cos 9
— G' sin —Am sin cos 0. -
The velocity of K being equal to the impressed couple Oh,
(4) Mh sin -M.CK - sin 0.(G'm - Am«cos 0),
and dropping the factor sin 0,
(5) A^ l cos0-G'M-f-«MA=o,orAM , cos0-CRM-fA» , -o,
the condition for steady motion.
Solving this as a quadratic in m» the roots Mit Ms are given by
(6) «,j*-;^'[i*V(i-^cost)];
and the minimum value of G'— CR for real values of m is given by
(7) 4^-c«<>.£|=2V(cos«) :
for a smaller value of R the top cannot spin steadily at the inclina-
tion to the upward vertical.
Interpreted geometrically in fig. 4
?8) M=gM*sin0/CK«An*/K^, and/i-CK/Asin0-KM/A,
so
(o) KM.KN-AW,
that K lies on a hyperbola with OC, OC as asymptotes.
s
4. Suppose the top or gyroscope, instead of moving freely about
the point O, is held in a ring or frame which is corn-
er* ' petted to rotate about the vertical axis OC with con-
**»«/ stant angular velocity m; then if N denotes the couple
*Jb»mv» °* resiC ^ on °f tne frame keeping the top from falling,
Mrrv ~ acting in the plane COC , equation (4) 5 3 becomes modified
into
fMAsm0-N=M.CK = sin0 (G'm-Am*cos0),
I -sin (Am* cos -G'm+*MA)
* A sin cos 0(m —mi) (m — mi) ;
and hence, as m increases through Ms and nu the sign of N can be
determined, positive or negative, according as the tendency of the
axis is to fall or rise.
When G' — CR is large, m is large, and
(3) Mi^sMfc/G'-AwVCR,
the same for all inclinations, and this is the precession observed in
the spinning top and centrifugal machine of fig. 10. This is true
___ ^___^_____ accurately when the axis OC is
js£. ^ horizontal, and then it agrees with
*^ ^ the result of the popular explanation
of § 2.
If the axis of the top OC is point-
ing upward, the precession is in the
same direction as the rotation, and
an increase of m from mi makes N
negative, and the top rises; con-
versely a decrease of the procession m
causes the axis to fall (Perry, Spinning
Tops, p. 4^
If the axis points downward, as in
the centrifugal machine with upper
support, the precession is in the oppo-
site direction to the rotation, and to
make the axis approach the vertical
position the precession must be re-
duced.
This is effected automatically in the
Weston centrifugal machine (fig. 10)
used for the separation of water and
molasses, by the friction of the indiarubber cushions above the
support ; or else the spindle is produced downwards below the
drum a short distance, and turns in a hole in a weight
resting on the bottom of the case, which weight is dragged
Fig.
Centri-
fugal
machine.
round until
ntil the spindle is upright ; this second arrangement
is more effective when a liquid is treated in the drum, and
wave action is set up [The Centrifugal Machine, C. A. Matthey).
Similar considerations apply to the stability of the whirling
bowl in a cream-separating machine.
We can write equation (1)
(4) N-(A*«sin0-M.CK-(A«n»-KM.KN) sm0/A,
so that N is negative or positive, and the axis tends to rise or fall
according as K moves to the Inside or outside of the hyperbola of free
motion. Thus a tap on the axis tending to hurry the precession is
equivalent to an impulse couple giving an increase to CK, and will
make K move to the interior of the hyperbola and cause the axis to
rise; the steering of a bicycle may be explained in this way; but Ki
will move to the exterior of the hyperbola, and so the axis will fall
in this second more violent motion.
Friction on the point of the top may be supposed to act like a tap
in the direction opposite to the precession; and so the axis of a top
spun violently rises at first and up to the vertical position, but falls
away again as the motion dies out. Friction considered as acting in
retarding the rotation may be compared to an impulse couple tending
to reduce OC, and so make K and Ki both move to the exterior of the
hyperbola, and the axis falls in both cases. The axis may rise or fall
according to the direction of the frictional couple, depending on the
shape of the point ; an analytical treatment of the varying motion is
very intractable ; a memoir by E. G. Gallop may be consulted in the
Trans, Camb. Phil. Soc., 1903.
The earth behaves in precession like a large spinning top, of which
the axis describes a circle round the pole of the ecliptic of mean
angular radius 0, about 23 J °, in a period of 26,000 years, so that
R/m —26000X365 ; and the mean couple producing precession is
(5) CRm sin0-CR* sin 23I 726000X365,
one 12 millionth part of JCR*, the rotation energy of the earth.
5. If the preponderance is absent, by making the C.G coincide
with O, and if Am is insensible compared with G',
(1) N- -G'm sin0,
the formula which suffices to explain most gyroscopic action.
Thus a carriage running round a curve experiences, in consequence
of the rotation of the wheels, an increase of pressure Z on the outer
track, and a diminution Z on the inner, giving a couple,
if a is the gauge,
(2) Za-G'M,
tending to help the centrifugal force to upset the train;
and if c is the radius of the curve, b of the wheels, C their
moment of inertia, and v the velocity of the train,
(3) #*-W«. G'-C*/6,
(4) Z-CtFVtffc(dynes),
so that Z is the fraction CfMab of the centrifugal force Mt^/c, or the
fraction C/M/r of its transference of weight, with h the height of the
centre of gravity of the carriage above the road. A Brennan carriage
on a monorail would lean over to the inside of the curve at an angle a,
given by
(6) tan a =G'm/*M* =G'vtgMhc.
The gyroscopic action of a dynamo, turbine, and other rotating
machinery on a steamer, paddle or screw, due to its rolling and pitch-
ing, can be evaluated in a similar elementary manner ( Worthington,
Dynamics of Rotation), and Schlick's gyroscopic apparatus is intended
to mitigate the oscillation.
6. If the axis OC in fig. 4 is inclined at an angle a to the vertical,
the equation (2) § 4 becomes
(1 ) N - sin (Am*cos -G'm) +gMh sin (a -0).
Suppose, for instance, that OC is parallel to the earth's axis,
and that the frame is fixed in the meridian; then a is the co-latitude,
and m is the angular velocity of the earth, the square of which may
be neglected ; so that, putting N = 0, a — — E,
(2) gUh sin E-G'm sin (a-E)-o,
Qyro-
railway
wheel*.
(3)
tan E=-
G m sin a ^^ o> .
.j i , /ti ■ eg i k/l sin a.
gmh+ G'm cos a ptth
This is the theory of Gilbert's barogyroscope, described in Appell's
MScaniquf rationnelle, ii. 387: it consists essentially of a rapidly
rotated fly-wheel, mounted on knife-edges by an axis
perpendicular to its axis of rotation and pointing east and *"• osr ° m
west; spun with considerable angular momentum G', ty ro9G °P 9 *
and provided with a slight preponderance MA, it should tilt to an
angle E with the vertical, and thus demonstrate experimentally the
rotation of the earth.
In Foucault's gyroscope (Comptes rendus, 1852; Perry, p. 105)
the preponderance is made zero, and the axis points to ^^
the pole, when free to move in the meridian. Foucaafa
Generally, if constrained to move in any other plane, By****** 9 *
the axis seeks the position nearest to the polar axis, like a dipping
needle with respect to the magnetic pole. (A gyrostatic working
model of the magnetic compass, by Sir W. Thomson. British Associa-
tion Report, Montreal, 1884. A. S. Chessin, St Louis Academy
of Science, January 1902.)
A spinning top with a polished upper plane surface will provide
an artificial horizon at sea, when the real horizon is obscured.
The first instrument of this kind was constructed by
Serson, and is described in the Gentleman's Magazine, j^****
vol. xxiv., 1754; also by Segner in his Specimen theoriae aori * oa '
turbinum (Halae, 1755). The inventor was sent to sea by the Ad-
miralty to test his instrument, but he was lost in the wreck of the
" Victory," 1 744. A copy of the Serson top, from the royal collection,
is now in the Museum of King's College, London. Troughton's
Nautical Top (1819) is intended for the same purpose.
The instrument is in favour with French navigators, perfected by
772
GYROSCOPE AND GYROSTAT
Admiral Fleuriais (fig. p); but it must be noticed that the horizon
given by the top is inclined to the true horizon at the angle E given
by equation (3) above; and if pi is the precessional angular velocity
as given by (3) 1 4, and T — 2v//i, its period in seconds,
t*\ ^-p_j* ^.. Tcoslat _r>_ Tcoslat
(4) tonE-ejcosUt-^g^,orE-— J;— ,
if E is expressed in minutes, taking M-2W86400; thus making
the true latitude E nautical miles to the south of that given by
the top (Rome maritime, 1890; CompUs rendus, 1896).
This can be seen by elementary consideration of the theory above,
for the velocity of the vector OC of the top due to the rotation of the
earth is
(5) mOC' cos lat-fMA sin E-/H.OC sin E,
. p u « -. r» T cos lat
sin E—^coslat, E- a — .
Mi 8t
in which 8r can be replaced by 25, in practice; so that the Fleuriais
gyroscopic horizon is an illustration of the influence of the rotation of
the earth and of the need for its
allowance.
7. In the ordinary treatment of
the general theory of the gyro-
Buhf*8 *cope> the motion is
eoortlmmto referred t to two **« ° f
AjMfe*. rectangular axes; the
*"*"- one 0*, Oy, Os fixed
in space, with Os vertically up-
ward; and the other OX, OY,
OZ fixed in the rotating wheel
with OZ in the axis of figure
OC.
The relative position of the two
P sets of axes is given by means of
1 Euler's unsymmetrical angles 0,
4, ^, such that the successive turning of the axes Ox, Oy, Os
through the angles (i.) $ about Os, (ii.) about OE, (iii.) <t> about
OZ, brings them into coincidence with OX, OY. OZ, as shown in
fig. ii, representing the concave side of a spherical surface.
The component angular velocities about OD, OE, OZ are
(i) ^sin0, §, #+^cos0;
so that, denoting the components about OX, OY, OZ by P, Q, R,
(2) P - 6 cos *+J; sin sin $,
■■ -0 sin ^-j-J sin cos <t> f
ft- f+*co#0.
Consider, for instance, the motion of a fly-wheel of preponderance
MA, and equatorial moment of inertia A, of which the axis OC is
held in a light ring ZCX at a constant angle 7 with OZ, while OZ is
held by another ring sZ, which constrains it to move round the
vertical Os at a constant inclination with constant angular velocity
M, so that
(3) * m °t w-m; .
U) P -m un sin $, -*» «in cos $, R -$ +m cos 0. #
With CXF a quadrant, the components of angular velocity and
momentum about OF, OY, are
(5) P cos 7-R sin 7, Q, and A(P cos 7— R sin 7). AQ,
so that, denoting the components of angular momentum of the
fly-wheel about OC, OX, OY, OZ by K or G\ h u ht, *«,
(6) hi — A(P cos 7 — R sin 7) cos 7+ K sin 7,
7) *«- AQ,
(8) As-—A(Pcos7— Rsin7) sin7-f-Kcos7;
and the dynamical equation
(9)
^-WHWP-N,
with K constant, and with preponderance downward
(10) N -f MA cos sY sin 7 "gMh sin 7 sin cos £,
duces to
J'
redu
( ll ) A-nf sin 7+ Am* sin 7 sin* sin <t> cos <t>
■o.
+Aj*" cos 7 sin cos cos 0— (Kp-f jMA) sin cos £
The position of relative equilibrium is given by
/ \ ^ j • ^ KM+gMft— A/i»cos7cos0
(ia) cos »-o, end stn 4~ ^ T %^ j£. ^ a e .
For small values of m the equation becomes
( ! 3) A 3jf * n 7-(K**+*MA) sin cos $-0,
so that ♦— Jx rives the position of stable equilibrium, and the period
of a small oscillation is 2W{A sin 7/(K*i-r-{MA) sin 0).
In the general case, denoting the penods of vibration about
4 -»!*■,— }*\ and the sidelong position of equilibrium by 2*-/(fii, *j, or
Mi), we shall find
(I ^ " l, -fri& *MA+Km-Am'cos(7-0)}.
(15) ^-ysr^^MA-KM+A^' cos (7+0)},
(16) *i-*i »i/m sin0.
The first integral of (11) gives
(17) IA (^) 'sin 7+|A^« sin 7 sin* sin* +
— A#»* cos 7 sin cos sin 4+(Kp+gMh) sin sin $— H — o,
and putting tan (1*"H$) ~z t this reduces to
(18)
i-«*
where Z is a quadratic in s*, so that s is a Jacobian elliptic function
of /, and we have
(19) tan (br+W -C(tn, dn, nc, or cn)n*,
according as the ring ZC performs complete revolutions, or oscillates
about a sidelong position of equilibrium, or oscillates about the
stable position of equilibrium <f> = * J*-.
Suppose Os is parallel to the earth's axis, and m is the diurnal
rotation, the square of which may be neglected, then if Gilbert's
barogyroscope of § 6 has the knife-edges turned in azimuth to make
an angle with E. and W., so that OZ lies in the horizon at an
angle E.0.N., we must put 7- $*"» cos?* — sin a sin 0; and putting
4> — Jt— S+E, where 5 denotes the angle between Zs and the vertical
plane Z? through the zenith ?,
(20) sin cos 6 =cos a, sin sin 8 —sin a cos 0;
so that equations (9) and (10) for relative equilibrium reduce to
(21) /MA sin E-KQ«KMsin0cos4»Kjisin0sin (5 — E),
and will change (3) | 6 into
(22)
«.*« p - Km s * n tt c °g ff
tanE "^MA+KMCOsa»
a multiplication of (3) f 6 by cos (Gilbert, CompUs rendus, 1882).
Changing the sign of K or h and E and denoting the revolu-
tions/second of the gyroscope wheel by F, then in the preceding
notation, T denoting the period of vibration as a simple pendulum.
Km sin a cos F sin e cos
(23)
tan E =
gMA-K/tcosa 86400 A/T*C-F cos a'
so that the gyroscope would reverse if it were possible to make
ring movable about an axis fixed in the pendulum, in the vertical
plane of motion.
As the pendulum falls away to an angle with the upward vertical,
and the axis of the fly-wheel makes an angle <t> with the vertical plane
of motion, the three components of angular momentum are
(24) hi - K cos 4, ht - A0+K sin *, h% = A*,
where h% is the component about the axis of the ring and K of the
fly-wheel about its axis: and if L, M', N denote the components of
the couple of reaction of the ring, L may be ignored, while N is zero,
with P-o, Q -0,44-0, so that
(25) M'-*, . -A*+K*cos*
(26) o-At-M-A^-Krfcos 4>.
For the motion of the pendulum, including the fly-wheel,
(27) MK«-*MHsin0-M'
=gMH sin 0— Atf— K& cos 4>.
If and <t> remain small,
(28) Aj-Kf, A* = K(0-a),
(29) (MK»+A)0+(K*/A) (*_ a ) -gMH0=.O;
so that the upright position will be stable if K , >fMHA, or the
rotation energy of the wheel greater than }A/C times the energy
acquired by the pendulum in falling between the vertical and
horizontal position; and the vibration will synchronize with a simple
pendulum of length
(30) (MK»+A)/[(KVfA) -MH].
This gyroscopic pendulum may be supposed to represent a ship
among waves, or a carriage on a monorail, and so affords an explana-
tion of the gyroscopic action essential in the apparatus of Schlick
and Brennan.
8. Careful scrutiny shows that the steady motion of a
top is not steady absolutely; it reveals a small nutation OemenU
superposed, so that a complete investigation requires motion oi
a return to the equations of unsteady motion, and for the tto top,
small oscillation to consider them in a penultimate form.
In the general motion of the top the vector OH of resultant angular
momentum is no longer compelled to lie in the vertical plane COC'
(fig. a), but since the axis Oh of the gravity couple is always hori-
zontal, H will describe a curve in a fixed horizontal plane through C.
The vector OC of angular momentum about the axis will be constant
in length, but vary in direction; and OK will be the component
angular momentum in the vertical plane COC, if the planes through
C and C perpendicular to the lines OC and OC' intersect in the line
KH ; and if KH is the component angular momentum perpendicular
to the plane COC, the resultant angular momentum OH has the
three components OC, C'K, KH, represented in Euler's angles by
(1) KH - AdB/dt t C'K- A sin 0#/<fc, OC'-G'.
Drawing KM vertical and KN parallel to OC, then
(2) KM«Ad*Afc, KN-CR-Acos0#/rf/-(C-A)R+Adf/il
so that in the spherical top, with C«A, KN =Ad4>/dL
GYROSCOPE AND GYROSTAT
773
The velocity of H is in the direction KH perpendicular to the plane
COC', and equal to gh/lh sin 9 or A» s sin $, so that if a point in the
axis OC at a distance An* from O is projected on the horizontal plane
through C in the point P on CK, the curve described by P, turned
forwards through a right angle, will be the hodograph of H ; this is
expressed by
(3) AMn9e&+W~iAnhun9e* -%(&*)
where /»■" is the vector CH ; and so the curve described by P and
the motion of the axis of the top is derived from the curve described
by H by a differentiation.
Resolving the velocity of H in the direction CH,
(4) d. CH/<&= A»* sin 9 sin KCH -Arfsia* KH/CH,
(5) d.lC¥Pldt~A*nhm6de/dt.
and integrating
(6) JCH» ~ A«»*(E-<x>8 0),
(7) JOH« - A%*(F cos 0) t
(8) JC'H* - AV(D-cos $),
where D, E, F are constants, connected by
(9) F-E+GV2AW*«D+G'V2A«iA
Then
(10) KH*-OH*-OK*,
(n) OK'sin* 0=CC*=G*-2GG' cos 0+G*
(12) A«sin» *(<»/«»)* -2AV(F- cos 0) sin»0- G*+2GG'cos*-G*;
and putting cos 6=s,
(13) (37) f -2tf (F-*) (i-* 1 ) - (G^GG's+G^/A*
U
=2**(E-s) (i-rf) - (G' - G«) f /A«
(i-#)- (G -G'*)VA»,
=2*>(D-*) ,
s»2n* Z suppose.
Denoting the roots of Z =-0 by s u sj, *,, we shall have them arranged
in the order
(14) «i>l>si>*>sa>-l.
(15) (*/«»-3#<fr*) (*r*) (*-*«).
(16) wi-f**N(2Z),
an elliptic integral of the first kind, which with
(17) ■"■•V r *r*'*-£ii'
can be expressed, when normalized by the factor V (*i-*i)/a, by the
inverse elliptic function in the form
(18) mi "
im fz j(zr* 9 )dz
-sn" 1 A/£ZiS-cn-t A/SZi-dii-* a/*-^-.
V«r-2« V 2»-Zs V21-21
(19) s-s»-(«i-ss)sn'mt, zi-s^Ofe-s^cn 2 */,
2 l -«=(gi-«a)dri*m/
(20) 2 =* Stsn*mf -f-Sacn*m/.
Interpreted dynamically, the axis of the top keeps time with the
beats of a simple pendulum of length
(21) L =//*(*-*.),
suspended from a point at a height \{ti+z%)l above O, in such a
manner that a point on the pedulum at a distance
(22) . i(*i-*«)/=/VL
from the point of suspension moves so as to be always at the same
level as the centre of oscillation of the top.
The polar co-ordinates of H are denoted by p, w in the horizontal
plane through C ; and, resolving the velocity of H perpendicular to
(23) pd«/dt -Ai* sin* cos KCH.
(24) fMmjdt = An 8 sin 9 . CK
=A*'(G'-Gcos0)
/.a ifG'-Gzdl C (G f -Gg)/2An dz
an elliptic integral, of the third kind, with pole at «=E; and then
(26) --+ - KCH - tan-*KH/CH
_ A ,A sin Bdejdt „ - V(2Z)
which determines ^.
Otherwise, from the geometry of fig. 4,
(27) CK sin 9 -OC-OC' cos 0,
(28) A sin* foty/d* - G-G' cos 9,
f~*\ l C G-G'z dt . fG-G' dt , a fG+.G' fl
(29) *-Jy^X-UT^X + UTTTX'
the sum of two elliptic integrals of the third kind, with pole at e = =*= 1 ;
and the relation in (25) (26) shows the addition of these two integrals
into a single integral, with pole at * = E.
The motion of a sphere, rolling and spinning in the interior of a
spherical bowl, or on the top of a sphere, is found to be of die same
character as the motion of the axis of a spinning top about a fixed
point.
The curve described by H can be identified as a Poinsot herpolhode,
that is, the curve traced out by rolling a quadric surface with centre
fixed at O on the horizontal plane through C; and Darboux has
shown also that a deformable hyperboloid made of the generating
lines, with O and H at opposite ends of a diameter and one generator
fixed in OC, can be moved so as to describe the curve H ; the tangent
plane of the hyperboloid at H being normal to the curve of H; and
then the other generator through O will coincide in the movement with
OC', the axis of the top; thus the Poinsot herpolhode curve H is also
the trace made by rolling a line of curvature on an ellipsoid confocal
to the hyperboloid of one sheet, on the plane through C.
Kirchhoff's Kinetic Analogus asserts also that the curve of H is
the projection of a tortuous elastica, and that the spherical curve of
C is a hodograph of the elastica described with constant velocity.
Writing the equation of the focal ellipse of the Darboux hyper-
boloid through H, enlarged to double scale so that O is the centre,
(30) *l*+?IP++lo-i,
with a*+\, fP+\, X denoting the squares of the semiaxes of a con-
focal ellipsoid, and X changed into m and y for a confocal hyper-
boloid of one sheet and of two sheets.
(31) X>0>/*> -0*>v> -a*,
then in the deformation of the hyperboloid, X and v remain constant
at H; and utilizing the theorems of solid geometry on confocal
quadrics, the magnitudes may be chosen so that
(32) rf+A+JH-M+r = OH* = i#(F-*) -pHOC?,
(33) « 2 +M-itf(*i-*)-A*-w 2 ,
(34) *+#■-**<*-«) -^-rf.
(35) /* = ***(*•- s)-i*-pA
(36) Pi , <0<p t *<p*<pA
(37) F-ti+sj+Ji,
(38) X-2 M +v=#s, X-v-#,
/ M \ X-u I+g li-v 1-9
V39; X-y 2 • X-u 2
with s=cos 0, 9 denoting the angle between the generating lines
through H ; and with OC =5, OC =*©, the length k nas been chosen
so that in the preceding equations
(40) • i/t-G/zA* 57*-G7aA»;
and 5, B\ k may replace G, G*, 2A»; then
while from (33-39)
- (42)
2Z 4(q»+ M )(fll+ M ) M
which verifies that KH is the perpendicular from O on the tangent
plane of the hyperboloid at H, and so proves Darboux's theorem.
Planes through O perpendicular to the generating lines cut off a
constant length HQ=6, HO' =6', so the line of curvature described
by H in the deformation of the hyperboloid, the intersection of the
fixed confocal ellipsoid X and hyperboloid of two sheets v, rolls on a
horizontal plane through C and at the same time on a plane through
C perpendicular to OC'.
Produce the generating line HQ to meet the principal planes of the
confocal system in V, T, P; these will also be fixed points on the
generator; and putting
(43) (HV, HT, HP,)/HQ = D/(A, B, C,)
then '
(44) A^+B^+C^-D*
is a quadric surface with the squares of the semiaxes given by
HV. HQ, HT. HQ, HP. HQ, and with HQ the normal line at H, and
so touching the horizontal plane through C; and the direction
cosines of the normal being
(45) */HV, y/HT, s/HP,
(46) A**«+BY+C*2» = EW,
the line of curvature, called the polhode curve by Poinsot, being the
intersection of the quadric surface (44) with the ellipsoid (46).
There is a second surface associated with (44), which rolls on the
plane through C, corresponding to the other generating line HQ'
through H, so that the same line of curvature rolls on two planes at a
constant distance from O, 5 and 6' ; and the motion of the top is
made up of the combination. This completes the statement of
Jacobi's theorem (Werke, ii. 480) that the motion of a top can be
resolved into two movements of a body under no force.
Conversely, starting with Poinsot's polhode and herpolhode given
in (44) (4.6), the normal plane is drawn at H, cutting the principal
axes of the rolling quadric in X, Y, Z; and then
{47) . a«+u-*.OX, /3Mvi=y.OY, p=*.OZ,
this determines the deformable hyperboloid of which one generator
through H is a normal to the plane through C; and the other
generator is inclined at an angle 0, the inclination of the axis of the
top, while the normal plane or the parallel plane through O revolves
with angular velocity df/di.
The curvature is useful in drawing a curve of H ; the diameter of
curvature D is given by
77+
GYROSCOPE AND GYROSTAT
(48) D-^-Jg^f, ^ = K! j*K N -
The curvature is zero and H passes through a point of inflexion when
C comes into the horizontal plane through C; ^ will then be
stationary and the curve described by C will be looped.
In a state of steady motion, z oscillates between two limits zj and z»
which are close together; so putting Zi =Zi the coefficient of z in Z is
(49) 2Zi«i+z* 8 = -*+■&& =
. , (OMcosg+ONHOM+ONcosgh
I+ ' 0KO5N '
(So)
(Si)
2ZiZj =
. OM»+ON'
*~20M.0N'
With Zi=»«j, k
the axis is
OM'+ON»_ A
___ MN«
OM.OM 0M7JN-
Jt; and the number of beats per second of
, * OM*-gQM . ON cos $ +ON*
2(Zr*l) - AU Ax! a
«o, K
/ M \ w = n >zi-zt _ MN »
&> 7 ? \~3 v(0M.0l4)Sr v
beating time with a pendulum of length
The wheel making R/2ir revolutions per second,
beats/second ,MN __. n = C
revolutions/second = V (OM . ON) R S'
(54)
MN
from (8) (9) § 3; and the apsidal angle is
1 -ON
'•'"HIT'
/e^ i* A M .n , ON . 2V(0M.0N)
(55) **ji=Kn m ^"V (OM.OM) MN
and the height of the equivalent conical pendulum X is given by
, ., X g »» OM KC OL
(56) r"5?"?"ofr"inr"oc h
if OR drawn at right angles to OK cuts KC in R, and RL is drawn
horizontal to cut the vertical CO in L; thus if OC' represents I to
scale, then OL will represent X.
9. The gyroscope motion in fig. 4 comes to a stop when the rim of
the wheel touches the ground ; and to realize the motion when the
axis is inclined at a greater angle with the upward vertical, the stalk
is pivoted in fig. 8 in a lug screwed to the axle of a bicycle hub,
fastened vertically in a bracket bolted to a beam. The wheel can
now be spun by hand, and projected in any manner so as to produce
a desired gyroscopic motion, undulating, looped, or with cusps if the
stalk of the wheel is dropped from rest.
As the principal part of the motion takes place now in the neigh-
bourhood of the lowest position, it is convenient to measure the angle
$ from the downward vertical, and to change the sign of z and G.
Equation (18) § 8 must be changed to
(2) Z - (z-F) (i-z 2 )-(G*-*GG / z+G'*)/2A'n«
= (z-D) (i-*HG-G'*)V*AW
= (z-E) (i-**)-(G'-G«)V2AW
=(zr-z) (z-z*) (z-zi),
(3) i>z 8 >z>zi>-i,D,E>z 1 ,
(4) zi+to+z* - F = D-G'f/2 A a n* « E-G»/aAW f
and expressed by the inverse elliptic function
(5) --•^K-^VS-*^'
(6) z =zasn*m*-f zscn 2 mf, *c* = (zr-Zj)/(zi-Zi).
Equation (25) and (29) § 8 is changed to
-c i TG'-Gz dt j f G'-GE dt Gt
(7) «-*J T^"X"*J "TE" X~5A'
/en / fG'*-G dt « f G'+G dt t fG'-G dt
while ^ and © change places in (26).
The Jacobian elliptic parameter of the third elliptic integral in (7)
can be given by v, where
where / is a real fraction,
(n)
■ , ^:- ctt - , ^= dn " , >T^
with respect to the comoduius «'.
Then, with z»E, and
(12) 2Z K — |(G'-GE)/A»}\
if II denotes the apsidal angle of ©, and T the time of a single beat
of the axle, up or down,
(13)
n+:
GT
. f z, V(-aZ E ) dz
Jzt i-B W
-fcf+Kzn/K',
in accordance with the theory of the complete elliptic integral of the
third kind.
I nterpreted geometrically on the def ormable hyperboloia, flattened
in the plane of the focal ellipse, if OQ is the perpendicular from the
centre on the tangent HP, AOQ=am/K', ana the eccentric angle of
P, measured from the minor axis, is am(i-/)K', the eccentricity of
the focal ellipse being the comoduius «'.
A point L is taken in QP such that
QL/OA=zn/K',
QV, QT, QP=OA(zs, zc, zd)/K';
mT = K, m/n - V (zr-zO/2 - OAJk,
GT G . k „ _QH„
(20)
iH-#-tan-
(14)
?*>■
and wit
(16)
(17)
(18)
By choosing for / a simple rational fraction, such as }, }, J, J,
. . . an algebraical case of motion can be constructed (Annals of
Mathematics, 1904).
Thus with G'-GE=o, we have E=»zi or zt, never %%; /*oori;
and P is at A or B on the focal ellipse; and then
(19) ©-- pf,f-G/aA,
i »V(aZ)
2p{z-E)>
(21) sintfexp W+^)*=*V[(-zr-z.)(«i)J+V[(zr-z) (z-z,)],
«.» *+%*■ hZf-Zi _ G _/>_ G'
% *HT f \"7""53R « 2G5J f0r
(22) sin 9 exp(^+^)*»*V[(-Zi-«8)(z-Zi)]+V[(Zf-z)(z-Zi)],
r i+ziz» / -zi-z» _ G _£_ G'
zi+zi* \ 2 5SS » 2Anza*
Thus Zi=o in (22) makes G'=o; so that if the stalk is held out
horizontally and projected with angular velocity %p about the vertical
axis OC without giving any spin to the wheel, the resulting motion
of the stalk is like that of a spherical pendulum, and given by
(23) sin $ exp (*+tf)*-»*/ (%£> cosfl)+ -J /sin^-2 jjsco**),
=* sin oV (sec a cos0) +V [(sec a -f-cos B) (cos a -cos*)],
if the axis falls in the lowest position to an angle a with the down-
ward vertical.
With zj*»o in (21) and zj=- cos 0, and changing to the upward
vertical measurement t the motion is given by
(24) sin eV ««»*V i**0[V(i-cos 0cos 6) -HV (cos coa6-co&$)],
and the axis rises from the horizontal position to a series of cusps ;
and the mean precessional motion is the same as in steady motion
with the same rotation and the axis horizontal.
The special case of /*i may be stated here; it is found that
(25)
(26)
(27)
'exp
jX«sin «exp(*-£<)»=(L- 1 +«
+t(L- !+«+*)
J
(28) L = l{i- K )+\pln,
so that p =0 and the motion is made algebraical by taking L =■}(!-*)•
The stereoscopic diagram of fig. 12 drawn by T. I. Dewar shows
these curves for *« Jf, l» an< * I (cusps).
10. So far the motion of the axis OC' of the top has alone been
considered ; for the specification of any point of the body, Euler's
third angle <f> must be introduced, representing the angular displace-
ment of the wheel with respect to the stalk. This is given by
(i) S+~4f-*.
w aB V A/ * + A(i+cos0)'
"Ti V W R+ A(i-cos^)-
It will simplify the formulas by cancelling a secular term if we
make C = A, and the top is then called a. spherical top; OH becomes
the axis of instantaneous angular velocity, as well as of resultant
angular momentum.
When this secular term is restored in the general case, the axis
01 of angular velocity is obtained by producing Q'H to I, making
, v HI A-C HI A-C
GYROSCOPE AND GYROSTAT
775
andtften the lour vector components OC, OK, KH, HI rive a re-
sultant vector Ql 9 representing the angular velocity «, such that
(4) oi7q'i=<o/r.
The point I .is then fixed on the generating line Q'H of the de-
formable hypenboloid, and the other generator through I will cut
the fixed generator OC at the opposite system in a fixed point O',
Fig. 12.
such that 10' is of constant length, and may be joined up by a link,
which constrains I to move on a sphere.
In the spherical top then,
"31
depending on the two elliptic integrals of the third kind, with pole
at s = =Fi; and measuring from the downward vertical, tneir
elliptic parameters are: —
, v( 4 zy -* Kf -
(6)
(7)
(8)
Vi-
dn" 1
V2 J^ V( 4 Z) ■K+( I -/t)K<»
(9) (-/>>K'=/;:^$r
. /— i— gi _. / i-fst
= sn^'v/— — -— =cn l \ L _
-was-
vh=t f
. Then if r' = K+(i— /')K't is the parameter corresponding to
s = D, we find
: (io) . /-A-/*, /-/.+A
(n) »=»!+i>2, t»'=»i-o a :
The most symmetrical treatment of the motion of any point fixed
in the top will be found in Klein and Sommerfeld, iheorie des
Kreisels, to which the reader is referred for details ; four new
functions, a, fi, y, 5, are introduced, defined in terms of Euler's
a = ^ cos h$ exp }<
0=t sin i0 exp ■
y=i sin [0 exp
5 =■ cos \0 exp i
*-*)»,
Next Klein takes two functions or co-ordinates X and A, defined by
(l6 ) x=*±22=I±£,,
' r—z x—y%
and A the same function of X, Y, Z, so that **, A play the part of
stereographic representations of the same point (*, y, z) or (a, Y, Z)
on a sphere of radius r, with respect to poles in which the sphere
is intersected by Oa and 0Z„
These new functions are shown to be connected by the bilinear
relation
in accordance with the annexed scheme of transformation of co-
ordinates —
where
(18)
H
H
Z
*
a 2
P
2aj&
1?
7*
P
2yb
r
<*7
#
°*+lh
a- *+?
r=-«.
H-X+Yi, H = -X+Yi, Z = -Z;
and thus the motion in space of any point fixed in the body defined
by A is determined completely by means of a, fi, y, 5 ; and in the
case of the symmetrical top these functions are elliptic transcendants,
to which Klein has given the name of multiplicative elliptic functions ;
and
(19) ad =cos* J0, fiy = —sin* §0,
aft — fiy » 1 , a£ +fiy « cos 0,
V(— 40/378)= sin 6;
while, for the motion of a point on the axis, putting A =0, or 00 ,
(20) x =0/5 = i tan J0£*«, or X = a/7 = — * cot \OeM t
and
(21) o£ = \i sin 0«*», a7 — J* sin 0*M,
giving orthogonal projections on the planes GKH, CHK; and
the vectorial equation in the plane GKH of the herpolhode of H
for a spherical top.
When /1 and ft in (9) are rational fractions, these multiplicative
elliptic functions can be replaced by algebraical functions, qualified
by factors which are exponential functions of the time /; a series
of quasi-algebraical cases of motion can thus be constructed, which
become purely algebraical when the exponential factors are can-
celled by a suitable arrangement of the constants.
Thus, for example, with /*=o, /' = i,/i = i, /j=J, as in (24) §9,
where P and P' are at A and B on the focal ellipse, we have lor the
spherical top
(23) (1 -f-cos 0) exp (*+ *-g/)*
= V (sec/?— cos0) V (cos 0— cos 0) +*(V*ec fi+ V cos£) V cos0,
(24) (I -cos 0) exp (0-^-g / /)«
= V (sec /J— cos 0) V (cos 0— cos0) -K(V sec 0— V cos fi) V cos0,
(25) fl. 5' -*V (2 sec fi) =*=«V (2 cos fi) ;
and thence a, fi, y, & can be inferred.
The physical constants of a given symmetrical top have been
denoted in § 1 by M, h, A, C, and/, n, T ; to specify a given state of
general motion we have G, G' or CR, D, E, or F, which may be
called the dynamical constants; or k, », w, »i, v%, or/, f, /1, /j, the
analytical constants; or the geometrical constants, such as a, fi,
5, a', k of a given articulated hyperboloid.
There is thus a triply infinite series of a state of motion; the
choice of a typical state can be made geometrically on the hyper-
boloid, flattened in the plane of the local ellipse, of which k is the
ratio of the semiaxes a and fi, and am(i —/) K f is the eccentric ancle
from the minor axis of the point of contact P of the generator HQ,
so that two analytical constants are settled thereby; and the point
H may be taken arbitrarily on the tangent line PQ, and HQ' is then
the other tangent of the focal ellipse; in which case 9 and 0% are
the angles between the tangents HQ, HQ', and between the focal
distances HS, HS', and V will be HS.HSC while HQ, HQ' are «, 5'.
776
GYROSCOPE AND GYROSTAT
As H is moved along the tangent line HQ, a series of states of
motion can be determined, and drawn with accuracy.
II. Equation (5) § 3 with slight modification will serve with the
same notation for the steady rolling motion at a constant inclination
a to the vertical of a body of revolution, such as a disk, hoop, wheel,
cask, wine-glass, plate, dish, bowl, spinning top, gyrostat, or bicycle,
on a horizontal plane, or a surface of revolution, as a coin in a
conical lamp-shaae.
The point O is now the intersection of the axis GC' with the
vertical through the centre B of the horizontal circle described by
the centre of gravity, and through the centre M of the horizontal
circle described by r, the point of contact (fig. 13). Collected into
a particle at G, the
R-boay swings round
the vertical OB as
a conical pendu-
lum, of height AB
or GL equal to
f/^*=X, and GA
would be the. di-
rection of the
thread, of tension
gM(GA/GL) dynes.
The reaction with
the. plane at P will
be an equal parallel
force; and its
moment round G
witt provide the
couple which
causes the velocity
of the vector of
angular momen-
tum appropriate
to the steady
motion; and this
moment will be
gM.Gtn dyne-cm. or ergs, if the reaction at P cuts GB in m.
Draw GR perpendicular to GK to meet the horizontal AL in R, and
draw RQC'K perpendicular to the axis Gs, and KC perpendicular
to LG.
The velocity of the vector GK of angular momentum is /* times
the horizontal component, and
(1 ) horizontal component /A/x sin a = KC/KC',
so that
(2) gM.Gm = Am 4 sin a(KC/KC),
A KC 1
(3) n=KT?fcG«=GQ.G«.
The instantaneous axis of rotation of the case of a gyrostat would be
OP; drawing GI parallel to OP, and KK' parallel to OG, making
tan K'GC' = (A/C) tan IGC'i; then if GK represents the resultant
angular momentum, KTC will represent the part of it due to the
rotation of the fly-wheel. Thus in the figure for the body rolling
as a solid, with the fly-wheel clamped, the points m and Q move
to the other side of G. The gyrostat may be supposed swung round
the vertical at the end of a thread PA' fastened at A' where Pw
produced cuts the vertical AB, and again at the point where it
crosses the axis GO. The discussion of the small oscillation super-
posed on the state of steady motion requisite for stability is given
m the next paragraph.
12. In the theoretical discussion of the general motion
j!T °* a SY 1108 *** rolling on a horizontal plane the safe and
aotioa ?\ shortest plan apparently is to write down the most general
a gyrostat ^^^xXons of motion, and afterwards to introduce any
722*°* special condition.
p Drawing through G the centre of gravity any three
rectangular axes G*, Gy, Gs, the notation employed is
the components of linear velocity of G ;
the components of angular velocity about the axes ,
the components of angular momentum;
the components of angular velocity of the co-ordinate
axes;
the co-ordinates of the point of contact with the hori-
zontal plane;
the components of the reaction of the plane;
the direction cosines of the downward vertical,
0u 0«i 0'i,
*, y, z,
X, Y, Z,
a, 0, 7,
The geometrical equations, expressing that the point of contact is
at rest on the plane, are
(1) *-ry+gs=o,
(2) i>— pz+rx=*o t
(3) w-qx+py**o.
The dynamical equations are
(4) du/dt-diV +fcw =ga+X/M,
(5) dvldt -0iu/+M = g/5-f- Y/M ,
(6) dw/dt-ftu+Biv **gy+Z/M,
and
' (7) dhi/dt-ejfa+etht^yZ-zY,
' (8) dhi/dt-eihi+0*hi=zX-xZ,
(9) dhildt -fcfa +6x1* - *Y -yX.
In the special case of the gyrostat where the surface is of revcfa-
tion round Gs, and the body is kinetically symmetrical about Gs,
we take Gy horizontal and Gzx through the point of contact so that
y**o; and denoting the angle between G* and the downward
vertical by (fig. 13)
(10) o*sln 0, 0*0, t*=cos0.
The components of angular momentum are
(11) hi=Rp, k*=Aq f ft,=0+K,
where A, C denote the moment of inertia about G*, Gs, and K »
the aagular momentum of a fly-wheel fixed in the interior with its
axis parallel to Gs; K is taken as constant during the motion.
The axis Gs being fixed in the body,
(12) 0i=/>, 0%=q = -a$ldt, t =*pcot0.
With y=o, (1), (2), (3) reduce to
(13) . u*=-qz, v=p$—rx, w~qx;
and, denoting the radius of curvature of the meridian curve of the
rolling surface by p,
(14) ^=pcos02?~-gpcos0, 2*-
so that
(15)
— psm
02j=0psin0;
du
(16)
"3/ §*-S*Asin*,
>x— g*p cos0.
The dynamical equations (4) . . . (9) can now be reduced to
( 18 ) M = ~~dt z ~~P z cot *+^(*""* ^ n 9 )+i* x cot * ~£ s" 1 •»
(19) ^ 9 ^ff~ m £p m ~PQ.( x +* co * *— P s * n 0)+qr/>CQ8 0,
(20) jj= Sgs+flKs-p cos 0)+pH-prx-g cos $,
(21) — V-4«*
(22)
(23)
-sY=Ag-A^cot*+2*„
-*X-*Z =A^+Ap«cot O-ph*,
* Y -t- c l" c «&
Eliminating Y between (19) and (23),
(24 * (^+^)%-^^P^^^^^-fi^e)^qrxficos0^€^
(A) (m + **) ^~* j 4*~"**<* + * cot 6 ~ p sin $ )+ r *f> c 08 * -°-
Eliminating Y between (19) and (21)
™ (£■•*) SMHI* «*•+■&
—pqz(x+zcot0-psm$)-\-qrz P cos6=o f
< B > -«4+(ft+')J+H*-*»-jf-'
+pz(x +z cot — p sin $) — rzp cos 9 =0.
In the special case of a gyrostat rolling on the sharp edge of a
circle passing through G, s=o, p»o, (A) and (B) reduce to
(27) J+* cot *~X-3f A~ ;
ton *h l dh_^»_ CM* L
a differential equation of a hypeiyeometric series,. of the form of
Legendre's zonal harmonic of fractional order n % given by
(29) »(n+i)=CMx7A(M**+C). -
For a sharp point, x=o, p=o, and the previous equations are
obtained of a spinning top.
The elimination of X and Z between (18) (20) (22), expressed
symbolically as
(30) (22) -2(i8)+*(2o) «o,
gives
(Q (u+*+*}%-Pm+{M + *y cat ° +ptx '
+<?p(* cos d— z sin 0) —prx(x+z cot 0) — g (x cos 0— z sin 0) =Q,
and this combined with (A) and (B) will lead to an equation the
integral of which is the equation of energy.
13. The equations (A) (B) (C) are intractable in this general form;
but the restricted case may be considered when the axis moves in
steady motion at a constant inclination a to the vertical; and the
stability is secured if a small nutation of the axis can be superposed.
It is convenient to put p=*Qsind, so that Q is the angular
velocity of the plane G«c about the vertical; (A) (B) (C) become
GYROSCOPE AJtfD GYROSTAT
•777
(A*)
(B*)
(C*)
-xsan
.dO
-**■*
-Qx(x sin - 2Z cot 6 -f> sin* 0)+rxp coa d=*o t
»£+(^*)-«+*°(m+')«»<
+Qi ain 0(x-p sin 0) - rap cos 0=0,
(m +xI+ *) S+*«* °» *~* 8in # > - ^S 8 * 11 *
-Qrx(x sin 0+£ cos 0)-g (x cos 0-s sin 0) «o.
N The steady motion and nutation superposed may be expressed by
(i) 0—a-r-L, sin 0«sin a+L cos a, cos 0—cos a-L sin a,
0- M +N,r-R+Q,
where L, N, Q are small terms, involving a factor «•'*, to express
the periodic nature of the nutation; and then if a, c denote the
mean value of x, s, at the point of contact
{2) x—a+Lp cos a, s-c-Lp sin a,
(3) * sin 0+s cos0—a sin a+ccos a+L(acos a-c sin a),
(4) x cos 0-s sin 0— a cos a-c sin a-L (a sin a-fc cos a-p).
Substituting these values in (C*) with dqfdt--<P9ldfi=n ,t U
and ignoring products of the small terms, such as L', LN, . * .
(C") ({ft +* t + c *) L»*-G*+N) (^5+^) (sb a+L cos «)
+0**+2/iN) ( jri+c**-2Lpi5 sin a) (sin a cos a+L cos a)
+0*'+2mN) [ac-Lp(a sin a-c sin a)] (sin 1 a+L sin 2a)
-G*+N)(R+Q) (a+Lp cos a) [a sin a+ c cosa+L(a cosa~csin «)J
-g(a cos a-c sin a)+gL(a sm a+c cos a-p)»o,
which is equivalent to
(5) -M"-3J L -sin«+M , (]5|+c 1 )sinaco8a
+M* 4tf sin* a-jiRa(a sin a+c cos a)-g(a cos a-c sin a) — o,
the condition of steady motion ; and
(6) DL+EQ+FN-o,
where
(7) D - (]jr+<» , +*) n *-J» C! M" K c 08 •- *mV sin 1 a cos a
+M* (|rr+c , l cos *~i£p(a sin a-c cos a) sin*a
+M*&c ntt 2a-jiRp cos a(a sin a+C cos a)
-7*Ra(a cos a-c sin a)+f(a sin a+c cos a-p),
E« - M|ff sin *-pa(a sin a+c cos a),
_ CR+K . , /A , A . _
F«" ri — 8ina+2M(fi+c , j sin a cos a
+2pac 801* a-Ra(a sin a+c cos a).
With the same approximation (A*) and (B*) are equivalent to
(A**) ( i U+ ai ) r a* sm tt T -*<*(« sin a +2$ cos a-p sin* a)
+Rapcosa«o t
(B«) ^+(A + ^ 8ino N_CR+K +2 ^A +< ,J C08o
+/ic sin a (a-p sin a)-Rcp cos a*»o.
The elimination of L, Q, N will lead to an equation for the deter-
mination of »*, and n* must be positive for the motion to be stable.
If b is the radius of the horizontal circle described by G in steady
motion round the centre B,
(10) b - v/n = (cP-aR)//i - c sin a - aR/u,
and drawing GL vertically upward of length X =*glii % % the height of thje
equivalent conical pendulum, the steady motion condition may be
written
(11) (CR+K)j» sin 0-/1* sin a cos a«-gM(a cos a-c sin a)
+M(a*c sin a-pRa) (a sin a+c cos a)
■■jMl&X-^a sin a+c cos a) -a cos a+c sin a]
~*M. PT,
LG produced cuts the plane in T.
Interpreted dynamically, the left-hand side of this equation
represents the velocity of the vector of angular momentum about
G, so that the right-hand side represents the moment of the applied
force about G, in this case the reaction of the plane, which is parallel
to GA, and equal to gM.GA/GL; and so the angle AGL must be
less than the angle of friction, or slipping will take place.
Spinning upright, with a«o,a»o,we find F«*o, Q=o, and
(*)
(9)
(12)
(13)
(H)
CR+K
+**(&+*) - Kc P= >
$+*)»'
CR+K
■M* (M+ Cl ) +MR*-f(«-P>.
(^+')'"-*( £! ^ £ + r »)-'(b+-)<-"-
Thus for a top spinning upright on a rounded point, with K-o,
the stability requires that
(15) R>2*'VU(c-p)}/(#+cp) f
where k, k' are the radii of gyration about the axis Gs, and a ;
pendicular axis at a distance c from G ; this reduces to the 1
case of § 3 (7) when p*»o.
Generally, with a=o, but a^o, the condition (A) and (B) becomes
(16) (|£+o»)£-2Mac-Rap,
so that, eliminating Q/L,
the condition when a coin or platter is rolling nearly flat on the table.
Rolling along in a straight path, with o=}t, co, m-o, E«=o;
and
(18) N/L-(CR+K)/A,
(19) D-(^+«')«»+ t (^),
N D (CT +a *) ^+«(^>
(20)
<•■> <M- a P > {<&**)'»%++
Thus with
requires
K-o, and rolling with velocity V-Ro, stability
¥>
n -.
a-p
>^
fl-
or the body must have acquired velocity greater than attained by
rolling down a plane through a vertical height J (dr-p) A/C.
On a sharp edge, with p—o, a thin uniform disk or a thin ring
requires
(23) V*/2g>ot6 or a/8.
The gyrostat can hold itself upright on the plane without advance
when K=o, provided
(24) K*/AM-g(a-p) is positive.
For the stability of the monorail carriage of § 5 (6), ignoring the
rotary inertia of the wheels by putting C— o, and replacing K by G'
the theory above would require
05) £(<*+?)><*•
For further theory and experiments consult Routh, Advanced
Rigid Dynamics , chap, v., ana Thomson and Tait, Natural Philo-
sophy, f 345; also Bourlet, TraiU des bicycles (analysed in Appell,
Micaniqw rationneUe, il. 297, and Carvalfo, Journal de Vicole poly-
technique, 1900); Whipple, Quarterly Journal of Mathematics, vol.
xxx., for mathematical theories of the bicycle, and other bodies.
14. Lord Kelvin has studied theoretically and experi- avrnaiatio
mentally the vibration of a chain of stretched gyrostats 2T?
(Proc. London Moth. Soc. % 1875; J. Perry, Spinning Tops. *""•
tor a diagram). Suppose each gyrostat to be equivalent dynamically
to a fly-wheel of axial length 2a, and that each connecting link is a
light cord or steel wire of length 2/, stretched to a tension T.
Denote by x, y the components of the slight displacement from the
central straight line of the centre of a fly-wheel ; and let p, q, 1 denote
the direction cosines of the axis of a fly-wheel, and r, s, 1 the direction
cosines of a link, distinguishing the different bodies by a suffix.
Then with the previous notation and to the order of approximation
uired,
i) Bi^-4qldl t ^^dpldt,
2) hi=A0 u ht=A0 tt ht=K t
to be employed in the dynamical equations
(3) ^A-MA-L,...
in which Mi and dJh can be omitted.
For the *th fly-wheel
(4) -Afr+Kjfr-Tafok -*0+Ta(ttr*n.i),
(5) A# fc +K4*---Ta(/)jrffc)-Ta(/>r-riH.i) ;
and for the motion of translation
(6) M**-T(r H i-r*), Mjfc-Tfok+m*);
while the geometrical relations are
(7) **+i-** • a(pt+i +pk) +2/rfc+i,
(8) ytfT-y* - aiqt+i +q k ) +2/5^.
Putting
(9) x+yi^Wfp+qi^Qftr+sim^
xii. 25 a
requ
S
• 77 8
GYROSCOPE And gyrostat
these three pairs of equations may be replaced by the three equations
(10) AeVK**i+2Tatf*-Ta(»* f i-H r *) =o,
(11) Mafc-Tfafcfi-^fc)*©,
(12) w^-wr^C^i+ttfc^Kfi^o.
For a vibration of circular polarization assume a solution
(13) «b **. **-0U P, Q) exp (nt+kc)i,
so that c/n is the time-lag between the vibration of one fly-wheel
and the next ; and the wave velocity is
(14) U = 2(o+/)n/^
Then
(16)
(17) L(e*-i)-Pa(**-f i)-2Qfc«' «o,
leading, on elimination of L, P, Q, to
, QX (2 Tg+ Kn-An») (i-Mwyn-Mfid 1
< l8 > «»< mi 2Ta+Kn-An'+W '
: , v . ,. Mn» 2Ta(a+/)+K*tf-A»y
(19) 2 smHc 1 2ta-fK4-A^-r-Mn»^
With K=-0, A=o, this reduces to Lagrange's condition in the
vibration of a string of beads.
P(-An*+K»+2Ta)-QTa(eri+i) s -0, *
-LMn*-QT(e«-i)=o, *
Putting
(20)
(21)
(22)
(23)
■M/2(G+/) f
*K/2(a+J),
oA/2(fl+0,
Jc = (*+/)n/U,
equation (19) can be written
(24 {sin (a+ /)n/U)*
the mass per unit length of the
chain,
the gyrostatic angular momentum
per unit length,
the transverse moment of inertia
per unit length*
Ta+Ktil-atitt
< 2 5> I smia+fwu j'
T T+(«n-an«) (i-HM)+pn»g(o-h|) '
"7 T+(*c»-a*»)//a ;
jus chain of such gyrostatic links,, wit
with a and / in-
In a continuous
finitesimal,
(26) ^-7S I+ Tq^OT
for the vibration of helical nature like circular polarization.
Changing the sign of n for circular polarization in the opposite
direction
In this way a mechanical model is obtained of the action of a mag*
netized medium on polarized light, k representing the equivalent of
the magnetic field, while a may be ignored as insensible (J. Larmor,
Proc. bind. Math. Soc., 1890; Aether and Matter, Appendix E).
We notice that U* in (26) can be positive, and the gyrostatic
chain stable, even when T is negative, and the chain is supporting
a thrust, provided *n is large enough, and the thrust does^ not
(28) («n-aii 2 )(l+//a); |
while U* in (27) will not be positive and the straight chain will be
unstable unless the tension exceeds
(29) («»+***) (1 +//<*).
15. Gyrostat suspended by a Thread. — In the discussion of the
small vibration of a single gyrostat fly-wheel about the vertical
position when suspended by a single thread of length 2/* b, the
suffix k can be omitted in the preceding equations of 5 I4t and we
can write
(1) A£-Ka*+To8-Ta<r=o,
(2) M#+T<r=o, with T=gM,
^ (3) w-aZ&-bv=o.
1 Assuming a periodic solution of these equations J
(4) w, 8, * - (L, P, Q) exp nti %
and eliminating L, P, Q, we obtain
(5) (-An*+Kn+gMa) (g-n*b)-gMn*a* =0,
and the frequency of a vibration in double beats per second is
n/2x, where n is a root of this quartic equation.
For upright spinning on a smooth horizontal plane, take b = 00 and
change the sign of a, then
(6) An*-Kn+gMa=o,
so that the stability requires
(7) K«>4gAMo.
Here A denotes the moment of inertia about a diametral axis
through the centre of gravity; when the point of the fly-wheel is
held in a small smooth cup, 6=0, and the condition becomes
(8) (A+Ma*)nMCn+gMa «o,
requiring for stability, as before in § 3,
(9) K»>4g(A+Ma*)Ma.»
For upright spinning inside a spherical surface of radius b t the
sigp of a must be clanged to obtain the condition, at the lowest
point, as in the gyroscopic horizon* of Fleuriais.
For a gyrostat spinning upright on the summit of a sphere of
radius 6, the signs of a and b must be changed im (5X or else the
sign of g, which amounts to the same thing,.
Denoting the components of horizontal displacement of the point
of the fly-wheel by £, ij, then
6r«£, bs=th 6»-$-hft *=X (suppose),
83
w=oflH-X.
If the point is forced to take the motion (£, if, |) by comp— cuts
of force X, Y, Z, the equations of motion become
-A8+K*= Ya-Z
A?+Kfr- - Xa+2
M*-X +Yi, M(f-t)-
A2MC&+gM<&+Ma0«Ma*ft '
(A+Ma l )^K^+gMa8i+MaX-Ma»f.
Thus if the point of the gyrostat is made to take the periodic
motion given by X =- R exp ntt, ?«o, the forced vibration of the axis
is given by «a»P exp nti, where
(17) PKA+MaV+Kn+gMaHRMaA* «o;
and so the effect may be investigated on the Fleuriais gytosoopic
horizon of the motion of the ship.
Suppose the motion X is due to the suspension of the gyrostat from
a point on the axis of a second gyrostat suspended from a fixed point*
Distinguishing the second gyrostat by a suffix, then X~6fli, if fr
denotes the distance between the points of suspension of the two
gyrostats; and the motion of the second gyrostat influenced by the
reaction of the first, is given by
(18) (Ai+M,W)*r-KAf
- -*(Mi*i+ M&)fA-&(X+YtT
= -g(M l k l +Mb)a i -Mb(ati±'k);
so that, in the small vibration, ,
(19) * \ -(^-r-MiW^-r-Kiii+^CM^+Mft) j «M*&(aP+R),
(20) R{-(Ai+MiAi*-hM^)«^+Ki»-h«(M A+M^J-PMnW -o.
Eliminating the ratio of P to R, we obtain
(21) {-(A+Mtf)n*+Kn+ ff Ma}
Xl-(A l +M l ^+M6«)rf+kifi+g(Mife+M*)}-M%VJ«-o,
a quartic for n, giving the frequency »/2x of a fundamental vibration.
Change the sign of g for the case of the gyrostats spinning upright,
one on the top of the other, and so realize the gyrostat on the top of a
gyrostat described by Maxwell.
In the gyrostatic chain of § 14, the tension T may change to a
limited pressure, and U* may still be positive, and the motion
stable; and so a motion is realized of a number of spinning tops,
superposed in a column.
16. The Flexure Joint. — In Lord Kelvin's experiment the gyrostats
are joined up by equal light rods and short lengths of elastic wire
with rigid attachment to the rod and case of a gyrostat, so as to keep
the system still, and free from entanglement and twisting due to
pivot friction of the fly-wheels.
When this gyrostatic chain is made to revolve with angular
velocity n in relative equilibrium as a plane polygon passing through
Os the axis of rotation, each gyrostatic case moves as tf its axis
produced was attached to Os by a flexure joint. The instantaneous
axis of resultant angular velocity bisects the angle x-0, if the axis
of the case makes an angle with Os, and, the components of
angular velocity being n about Os, and -n about the axis, the re-
sultant angular velocity is 2n cos J(ir-0)=2n sin $0; and the com-
ponents of this angular velocity are
(1) -2» sin J0 sin *0* -n(i-cos 0), along the axis, and
(2) -2» sin |0 cos 40 = -n sin 0, perpendicular to the axis of the
case. The flexure joint behaves like a pair of equal bevel wheels
engaging.
The component angular momentum in the direction Ox is therefore
(3) L «= -An sin cos - Cn(i-<x>s 0) sin 0-r-K sin 0,
and Ln is therefore the couple acting on the gyrostat.
If a denotes the angle which a connecting link makes with Os, and
T denotes the constant component of the tension of a Knk parallel to
O2, the couple acting is
(4) Ta cos 0*(tan afc+i-f tan o*)-2Ta sin 0*,
which is to be equated to Ln, so that
(5) - AnHin 0* cos 0*~Cn(i-cos 0*) sin 0*+Kn sin 0*
-Ta cos 0*(tan a*+i+tan ft jk) +2Ta sin 0*«o.
In addition
(6) Mn*xt+T(tan o^ i-tan o t ) - o,
with the geometrical relation
(7) Xk+i-Xk-a(sin 0**i+ sin 0*)-2/ sin o^i =0.
When the polygon is nearly coincident with Os, these equations
can be replaced oy
GYTHIUM— GYULA-FEHERVAR
779
&
(-Afi«+K»+2Ta)0»-Ta(an-i+a*) «<>,
M*fe»+T(a*+i-«*)-o v
(id) **n -Xk-a($bn +0k) — 2lau -o,
and the rest of the solution proceeds as before in § 14, putting
(11) **.**, a*« (L, P, Q) exp c#.
A half wave length of the curve of gyrostats is covered when
ch — *•, so that t/c is the number of gyrostats in a half wave, which is
therefore of wave length 2v(a+l)/c.
A plane polarized wave is given when exp cki is replaced by
exp (nt+ch)i, and a wave circularly polarized when u% a, <r of { 14
replace this x, B, a.
Gyroscopic Pendulum. — The elastic flexure joint is useful for
supporting a rod, carrying a fly-wheel, like a gyroscopic pendulum.
Expressed by Euler s angles, 9, 4, ft the. kinetic energy is
(12) T- JA(*+ sin*^)+JC'(i -cos*)»^+iC(*+* cos*)*,
where A refers to rod and gyroscope about the transverse axis at the
point of support, C' refers to rod about its axis of length, and C refers
to the revolving fly-wheel.
The elimination of y between the equation of conservation of
angular momentum about the vertical, viz.
(13) A sin*0^-C'(i -cos*) costy+C(^+^cos 9) cosfl^G, a con-
stant, and the equation of energy, viz.
(14) T— gM*cos0»H, a constant, with $ measured from the
downward vertical, and
(15) ^+ycosf»R, a constant, will lead to an equation for
d$/dt, or dz/dt, in terms of cos or z, the integral of which is of hyper-
elliptic character^ except when A=C.
In the suspension of fig. 8, the motion given by <£ is suppressed in
the stalk, and for the fly-wheel 4> gives the rubbing angular velocity
of the wheel on the stalk; the equations are now
(16) T - |A(*+sin* Bp) + JC cos« #^+JCR»-H+gMA cos 9,
(17) A sin^+C cos« 0^+CR cos *»G,
and the motion is again of hyperelliptic character, except when
A«C',orC'=o. To realize a motion given completely by the elliptic
function, the suspension of the stalk must be made by a smooth ball
and socket, or else a Hooke universal joint.
Finally, there is the case of the general motion of a top with a
spherical rounded point on a smooth plane, in which the centre of
gravity may be supposed to rise and fall in a vertical line. Here
(18) T = KA+M**sin**)#+lAsin*0^+iCR* = H-*M* cos*,
with 9 measured from the upward vertical, and
(19) A sin*^+Cft cos0«G,
where A now refers to a transverse axis through the centre of gravity.
The elimination of pleads to an equation for z, « cos 9, of the form
=£.
with the arrangement
(21) «, *4>/>t2>z>z«> -/>**;
so that the motion is hyperelliptic.
Authorities. — In addition to the references in the text the follow*
ing will be found useful: — AsL Notices, vol. i.; Comf>tes renins t
Sept. 1852 j Paper by Professor Magnus translated in Taylor's
Foreign Scientific Memoirs, n.s., pt. 3, p. 210; AsL Notices, xiii.
Sept. 1852 j Paper by Professor Magnus translated in Taylor's
Foreign Scientific Memoirs, n.s., pt. 3, p. 210; Ast. Notices, xiii.
221-248; Theory of Foucault's Gyroscope Experiments, by the
Rev. Baden Powell, F.R.S.; AsL Notices, vol. xv.; articles by
Major J. G. Barnard in Silliman's Journal, 2nd ser., vols. xxiv.
and xxv.; E. Hunt on " Rotatory Motion,'* Proc. Phil. Soc. Glasgow,
vol. iv. ; J. Clerk Maxwell, " On a Dynamical Top," Trans. R.SM.
vol. xxi.; Phil. Mag. 4th ser. vols. 7, 13, i±; Proc. Royal Irish
Academy, vol. viii. ; Sir William Thomson on " Gyrostat, Nature,
xv. 297; G. T. Walker, "The Motion of a Celt," Quar. Jour.
Math., 1896; G. T. Walker, Math. Ency. iv. 1, xi. 1 ; Gallop^ Proc.
Camb. Phil. Soc. xii. 82, pt. 2, 1903, "Rise of a Top"; Price's
Infinitesimal Calculus, vol. iv. ; Worms, The Earth and its Mechanism ;
Routh, Rigid Dynamics; A. G. Webster, Dynamics (1904); H.
Crabtree, Spinning Tops and Gyroscopic Motion (1900). For a com-
plete list of the mathematical works on the subject of the Gyroscope
and Gyrostat from the outset, Professor Cayley's Report to the
British Association (1862) on the Progress of Dynamics should be con-
sulted. Modern authors will be found cited in Klein and Sommerfeld,
Theorie des Kreisds (1897), and in the Encyclopaedic der mathe-
tnatischen Wissenschaften. (G. G.)
GYTHITJM, the harbour and arsenal of Sparta, from which it
was some 30 m. distant. The town lay at the N. W. extremity of
the Laconian Gulf, in a small but fertile plain at the mouth of the
Gythius. Its reputed founders were Heracles and Apollo, who
frequently appear on its coins: the former of these names may
point to the influence of Phoenician traders, who, we know,
visited the Laconian shores at a very early period. In classical
times it was a community of perioeci, politically dependent on
Sparta, though doubtless with a municipal life of its own. In
4SS B.C., during the first Peloponnesiaa War, it was burned
by the Athenian admiral Tolmides. In 370 B.C. Epaminondas
besieged it unsuccessfully for three days. Its fortifications were
strengthened by the tyrant Nabis, but in 195 B.C. it was invested
and taken by Titus and Lucius Quintius Flamininus, and,
though recovered by Nabis two or three years later, was re-
captured immediately after his murder (192 B.C.) by Philopoemen
and Aulus Atilius and remained in the Achaean League until its
dissolution in 146 B.C. Subsequently it formed the most im-
portant of the Eleutherokconian towns, a group of twenty-four,
later eighteen, communities leagued together to maintain their
autonomy against Sparta and declared free by Augustus. The
highest officer of the confederacy was the general (orparrryos),
who was assisted by a treasurer (ra/iias), while the chief
magistrates of the several communities bore the title of ephors
(tyopot).
Pausanias(iii. 21 f.) has left us a description of the town as it
existed in the reign of Marcus Aurelius, the agora, the Acropolis,
the island of Cranae (Marathonisi) where Paris celebrated his
nuptials with Helen, the Migonium or precinct of Aphrodite
Migonitis (occupied by the modern town of Marathonisi or
Gythium), and the hill Larysium (Koumaro) rising above it.
The numerous remains extant, of which the theatre and the
buildings partially submerged by the sea are the most note-
worthy, all belong to the Roman period.
The modern town is a busy and flourishing port with a good
harbour protected by Cranae, now connected by a mole with the
mainland: it is the capital of the prefecture (po/xos) of Aataavudj
with a population in 1907 of 61,522.
See G. Weber, De Gytheo el Lacedaemoniorum rebus navalibus
(Heidelberg, 1833) ; W. M. Leake. Travels in the Morea, i. 244 foil. ;
E. Curtius, Peloponnesos^. 267 foil. Inscriptions: Le Bas-Foucart,
Voyage arcteologiquc, ii. Nos. 238-248 f. ; Collitz-Bechtel, Sammluni
d. gnech. Dialekt-Inschriften, lii. Nos. 4562-4573; British School
Annual, x. 179 foil. Excavations: 'A. Zxtfis, IIporrocA riji 'Ap*«
•Eroipdat, 1891, 69 foil. (M. N. T.)
GYULA-FEH&RVAr (Ger. Karlsburg) , a town of Hungary, in
Transylvania, in the county of Als6-Feh6r, 73 m. S. of Kolozsv&r
by rail. Pop. ( 1900) r 1 , 507. It is situated on the right bank of
the Maros, on the outskirts of the Transylvanian Erzgebirge or
Ore Mountains, and consists of the upper town, or citadel, and
the lower town. Gyula-Fehe' rvar is the seat of a Roman Catholic
bishop, and has a fine Roman Catholic cathedral, built in the
nth century in Romanesque style, and rebuilt in 1443 by
John Hunyady in Gothic style. It contains among other tombs
that of John Hunyady. Near the cathedral is the episcopal
palace, and in the same part of the town is the Batthyaneum,
founded by Bishop Count Batthy&ny in 1794. It contains a
valuable library with many incunabula and old manuscripts,
amongst which is one of the Nibdungtnlied, an astronomical
observatory, a collection of antiquities, and a mineral collection.
Gyula-Fehe'rv&r carries on an active trade in cereals, wine and
cattle.
Gyula-Fehe" rv&r occupies the site of the Roman colony A pulum.
Many Roman relics found here, and in the vicinity, are preserved
in the museum of the town. The bishopric was founded in the
nth century by King Ladislaus I. (1078-1095). In the 16th
century, when Transylvania separated from Hungary, the town
became the residence of the Transylvanian princes. From this
period dates the castle, and also the buildings of the university,
founded by Gabriel Bethlen, and now used as barracks. After
the reversion of Transylvania in 1 713 to the Habsburg monarchy
the actual strong fortress was built in 17 16-173 5 by the emperor
Charles VI., whence the German name of the town.
78b
H— HAAKON
HThe eighth symbol in the Phoenician alphabet, as in its
descendants, has altered less in the course of ages than
most alphabetic symbols. From the beginning of
Phoenician records it has consisted of two uprights
connected by transverse bars, at first either two or three in
number. The uprights are rarely perpendicular and the cross
bars are not so precisely arranged as they are in early Greek and
Latin inscriptions. In these the symbol takes the form of two
rectangles £7 out of which the ordinary H develops by the
omission of the cross bars at top and bottom. It is very excep-
tional for this letter to have more than three cross bars^ though
as many as five are occasionally found in N.W. Greece. Within
the same inscription the appearance of the letter often varies
oonsiderably as regards the space between and the length of
the uprights. When only one bar is found it regularly crosses*
the uprights about the middle. In a few cases the rectangle,
is closed at top and bottom but has no middle cross bar 0.
The Phoenician name for the letter was Heth (H€t). According
to Semitic scholars it had two values, (i) a glottal spirant, a very
strong h> (2) an unvoiced velar spirant like the German ch in ach.
The Greeks borrowed it with the value of the ordinary aspirate
and with the name fyr*,. Very early in their history, however,
most of the Greeks of Asia Minor lost the aspirate altogether,
and having then no further use for the symbol with this value
they adopted it to represent the long i-sound, which was not
originally distinguished by a different symbol from the short
sound (see E). With this, value its name has always been ^xa,
in Greek, The alphabet of the Asiatic Greeks was gradually
adopted elsewhere. In official documents at Athens H repre-
sented the rough breathing or aspirate ' till 403 B.C.; henceforth
it was used for 1/. The Western Greeks, however, from whom the
Romans obtained their alphabet, retained their aspirate longeij
than those of Asia Minor, and hence the symbol came to the
Romans with the value not of a long vowel out of the aspirate,
which it still preserves. The Greek aspirate was itself the first;
or left-hand half of this letter t~ , while the smooth breathing *
was the right-band portion -I. At Tarentum H is found foe
H in inscriptions. The Roman aspirate was, however, a very
slight sound which in some words where it was etymologically
correct. disappeared at an early date.. Thus the cognatp worp^
of kindred languages show that the Lat. anser " goose " ought
to begin with h, but nowhere is it so found. In none of the
Romance languages is there any trace of initial or medial h f
which shows that vulgar Latin had ceased to h^ve the aspirate
by 240 B.C. The Roman, grammarians were guided to its
presence by the Sabine forms where/ occurred; as the Sabines
said fasena (sand), it was recognised that the Roman form ought
to be harma, and so for haedus (goat), hordeum (barley), &c.
Between vowels h was lost very early, for ne-heme (no man) is
throughout the literature nemo, bi-himus (two. winters old)
bitnus. In the Ciceronian age greater attention was paid ; to
reproducing the Greek aspirates in borrowed words, and .this
led to absurd mistakes in Latin words, mistakes which v were
satirized by Catullus in his epigram (84) upon Arrius, who said
chammoda for cammada and hinsidias for insidias. In Um^rian
k was often lost, and also used without etymological value to
mark length, as in comohota (=Lat. conmoia), a practice to
which there are some doubtful parallels in Latin.
In English the history of h is very similar to that in Latin.
While the parts above the glottis are in position to produce a
vowel, an aspirate is produced without vibration of the vocal
chords, sometimes, like the pronunciation of Arrius, with con-
siderable effort as a reaction against the tendency to " drop the
h's." Though h survives in Scotland, Ireland and America as
well as in the speech of cultivated persons, the sound in most of
the vulgar dialects is entirely lost. Where it is not ordinarily
lost, it disappears in unaccented syllables, as " Give it 'itn " and
the like. Where it is lost, conscious attempts to restore it on
the part of uneducated speakers lead to absurd misplacements
of h and to its restoration in Romance words when it never was
pronounced, as humble (now recognized as standard English),
humour and even honour. ,(P, Gx.)
HAAG, CARL (1820- ), a naturalized British painter,
court painter to the duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, was born
in Bavaria, and was trained in the academies at Nuremburg
and Munich. He practised first as an illustrator and as a painter,
in oil, of portraits and architectural subjects; but after he
settled in England, in 1847, he devoted himself to water colours,
and was elected associate of the Royal Society of Painters in
Water Colours in 1850 and member in 1853. He travelled
much, especially in the East, and made a considerable reputation
by his firmly drawn and carefully elaborated paintings of
Eastern subjects. Towards the end of his professional career
Carl Haag quitted England and returned to Germany.
See A History of the " Old Water-Colour " Society, now the Royal
Society of Painters in Water Colours, by John Lewis Roget (2 vols.,
London, 1891).
HAAKON (Old Norse Hdkon), the name of several kings of
Norway, of whom the most important are the following: —
Haakon I., surnamed " the Good " (d. 961), was the youngest
son of Harald Haarfager. He was fostered by King Aethelstan
of England, who brought him up in the Christian religion, and on
the news of his father's death in 933 provided him with ships and
men for an expedition against his half-brother Erik, who had
been proclaimed king. On his arrival in Norway Haakon gained
the support of the landowners by promising to give up the rights
of taxation claimed by his father over inherited real property.
Erik fled, and was killed a few years later in England. His sons
allied themselves with the Danes, but were invariably defeated
by Haakon, who was successful in everything he undertook
except in his attempt to introduce Christianity, which aroused
an opposition he did not feel strong enough to face. He was
killed at the battle of Pitje in 961, after a final victory over
Erik's sons. So entirely did even his immediate circle ignore his
religion that a court skald composed a poem on his death repre-
senting his welcome by the heathen gods into Valhalla.
Haakon IV., surnamed " the Old " (1204-1263); 'was declared
to be the son of Haakon III., who died shortly bef ore,the former's
birth in 1204. A year later the child was placed under the
protection of King Inge, after whose death in 12 17 he was chosen
Jung; though until 1223 the church refused to recognize him,
on the ground of illegitimacy, and the Pope's dispensation for
his coronation was not gained until much later. In the earlier
part of his reign much of the royal power was in the hands of
Earl Skule, who intrigued against the king until 1239, when he
proceeded to* open hostility and was put to death. From this
time onward Haakon's reign was marked by more peace and
prosperity than Norway had known for many years, until in
1263 a dispute with the Scottish king concerning the Hebrides,
a Norwegian possession, induced Haakon to undertake an
expedition to the west of Scotland. A division of his army
seems to have repulsed a large Scottish force at Largs (though
the later Scottish accounts claim this battle as a victory), and,
having won back the Norwegian possessions in Scotland, Haakon
was wintering in the Orkneys, when he was taken ill and died
on the 1 5th of December 1 263 . A great part of his fleet had been
scattered and destroyed by storms. The most important event
in his reign was the voluntary submission of the Icelandic
commonwealth. Worn out by internal strife fostered by
Haakon's emissaries, the Icelandic chiefs acknowledged the
Norwegian king as overlord in 1 262 . Their example was followed
by the colony of Greenland.
Haakon VII. (1872- ), the second son of Frederick VTIL,
king of Denmark, was born on the 3rd of August 1872, and was
usually known as Prince Charles of Denmark. When in 1905
Norway decided to separate herself from Sweden the Norwegians
HAARLEM— HAARLEM LAKE
781
offered their crown to Charles, who accepted it and took the name
of Haakon VII., being crowned at Trondhjem in June 1906.
The king married Maud, youngest daughter of Edward VII.,
king of Great Britain, their son, Prince Olav, being born in 1903.
HAARLEM, a town of Holland in the province of North
Holland, on the Spaarne, having a junction station xi m. by
rail W. of Amsterdam. It is connected by electric and steam
tramways with Zandvoort, Leiden, Amsterdam and Alkmaar.
Pop. (1900) 65,189. Haarlem is the seat of the governor of the
province of North Holland, and of a Roman Catholic and a
Jansenist bishopric. In appearance it is a typical Dutch town,
with numerous narrow canals and quaintly gabled houses. Of
the ancient city gates the Spaarnewouder or Amsterdam gate
alone remains. Gardens and promenades have taken the place
of the old ramparts, and on the south the city is bounded by the
Frederiks and the Flora parks, between which runs the find
avenue called the Dreef, leading to the Haarlemmer Hout of
wood. In the Frederiks Park is a pump-room supplied with
a powerful chalybeate water from a spring, the Wilhelmina-
bron, in the Haarlemmer Polder not far distant, and in connexion
with this there is an orthopaedic institution adjoining. In the
great market place in the centre of the city are gathered together
the larger number of the most interesting buildings, including
the quaint old Fleshers' Hall, built by Lieven de Key iri 1603,
and now containing the archives; the town hall; the old
Stadsdoelen, where the burgesses met in arms; the Greote Kerk,
or Great Church; and the statue erected in 1856 to Laurens
Janszoon Koster, the printer. The Great Church, dedicated to
St Bavo, with a lofty tower (255 ft.), is one of the most famous
in Holland, and dates from the end of the x 5th and the beginning
of the f 6th centuries. Its great length (460 ft.) and the height
and steepness of its vaulted cedar-wood roof (1538) are very
impressive. The choir-stalls and screen (1510) are' finely carved,
and of further interest are the ancient pulpit sounding-board
(1432), some old stained glass, and the small models of ships,
copies dating from 1638 of yet earner models originally presented
by the Dutch-Swedish Trading Company. The church organ
' was long considered the largest and finest in existence. It was
constructed by Christian Mttller in 1738, and has 4 keyboards,
64 registers and 5000 pipes, the largest of which is 15 in. in
diameter and 32 ft. long. Among the monuments in the church
are those of the poet Willem Bilderdyk (d. 1831) and the engineer
Frederik Willem Conrad (d. 1808), who designed the sea-sluices
at Katwyk. In the* belfry are the damiaatj&s, small bells pre-
sented to the town, according to tradition, by William I., count
. of Holland (d. 1 222) , the crusader. The town hah was originally
a palace of the counts of Holland, begun in the tdth century,
2nd some old 13th-century beams still remain; but the building
was remodelled in the beginning of the r 7th century. It contains
a collection of antiquities (including some beautiful goblets)
and a picture gallery which, though small, is celebrated for its
fine collection of paintings b^ Frans Hals. The town library
contains several incunabula and an interesting collection of early
Dutch literature. At the head of the scientific institutions of
Haarlem may be placed the Dutch Society of Sciences (Hol-
landsche Maatschappij van Wetenschappen) , founded in 1752,
which possesses valuable collections in botany, natural history
and geology. Teyler's Stichting (i.e. foundation), enlarged in
modern times, was instituted by the will of Pieter Teyier van
der Hulst (d. 1 778), a wealthy merchant, for the study of theology,
natural science and art, and has lecture-theatres, a large library,
and a museum containing a physical and a geological cabinet, as
well as a collection of paintings, including many modern pictures,
and a valuable collection of drawings and engravings by old
masters. The Dutch Society for the Promotion of Industry
(Nederlaandsche Maatschappij Ur Bevordermg van Nijverheid),
founded in 1777, has its seat in the Pavilion Welgeiegen, a villa
on the south side of the Frederiks Park, built by the Amsterdam
banker John Hope in 1778, and afterwards acquired :by Louis
Bonaparte, king of Holland. The colonial museum and the
museum of industrial art were established in this villa by the
society in 1871 and 1877 respectively. Besides these there
are a museum of ecclesiastical antiquities, chiefly relating to
the bishopric of Haarlem; the old weigh-house (1598) and the
orphanage for girls (1608), originally an almshouse for old men,
both built by the architect Lieven de Key of Ghent.
The staple industries of Haarlem have been greatly modified
in the course of time. Cloth weaving and brewing, which once
flourished exceedingly, declined in the beginning of the x6th
century. A century later, silk, lace and damask weaving were
introduced by French, refugees, and became very important
industries. But about- the dose of the 18th century this remark-
able prosperity .had also come to an. end, and it was not till after
the Belgian revolution of 1 830-1831 that Haarlem began to
develop the manufactures in which it is now chiefly engaged.
Cotton manufacture, dyeing, printing, bleaching, brewing,
type-founding, and the manuf actureof tram and railway carriages
are among the mote important of its industries. One of the
printing establishments has the reputation of being the oldest
in the Netherlands, and publishes the oldest Dutch paper, De
Opragte Haarlemmer Courant. Market-gardening, especially
horticulture, is extensively practised in the vicinity, so that
Haarlem is the seat of a large trade in Dutch bulbs, especially
hyacinths, tulips, fritillaries, spiraeas and japonicas.
Haarlem, which was a prosperous place in the middle of the
1 2th century, received its first town charter from William II.,
count of Holland and king of the Romans, in 1245. It played
a considerable part in the wars of Holland with' the Frisians.
In 1492 it was captured by the insurgent peasants of North
Holland, was re-taken by the duke of Saxony ,< the imperial
stadholder, and deprived of its privileges. In 1572 Haarlem
joined the revolt Of the Netherlands against Spain, but on the
13th of July 15^3, after a seven months' siege, was forced to
surrender to Alva's son Frederick, who exacted terrible vengeance.
In 1577 it was again captured by William of Orange and perman-
ently incorporated in the United Netherlands.
See Karl Hefrel, Sadie und GUden (Leipzig, 1891) ; Allan, Geschde-
denis en bcsckrtjving van Haarlem (Haarlem, 1871-1888).
HAARLEM LAKE (Dutch Harlemmer Meet), a commune of
the province of North Holland, constituted by the law of the
16th of July 1855. ft has an area of about 46,000 acres, and
its population increased from 7237 in i860 to 16,62 r in 1900.
As its name indicates, the commune was formerly a iake, which
fe said to have been a relic of a northern arm of the Rhine which
passed through the district in the time of the Romans. In 153 1
the Haarlemmer Meer had an area of 6430 acres, and in its
vicinity were three smaller sheets of water — the Leidsche -Meer
or Leiden Lake, the Spiering Meer, and the OuaeMeer or bid
Lake, with a united area of about 7600 acres. The four lakes
were formed into one by successive inundations, whole villages
disappearing in the process, and by 1647 the new Haarlem Lake
had an area of about 37,000 acres, which "a century later had
increased to over 42,000 acres. As early as 1643 J an Adriaans-
zoon Leegh water proposed to endike and drain the lake; and
similar schemes, among which those of Nikolaas Samuel Cruquius
in 1742 and of Baron van Lijnden van Hemmen isi 1820 are
worthy of special mention, were brought forward from time to
time. But it was not till a furious hurricane in November 1836
drove the waters as far as the gates of Amsterdam, and another
on Christmas Day sent them in the opposite direction to sub-
merge the streets of Leiden, that, the mind of the nation was
seriously turned to the matter. In August 1837 the king ap-
pointed a royal commissibn of inquiry; the scheme proposed
by the commission received the sanction of the Second Chamber
in March 1839, and in the following May the .work was begun.
A canal was first dug round the lake for the reception of the water
and the accommodation, cf the great traffic which had previously
been carried on. This canal was 38 m. in length, 123-146 ft.
wide, and 8 ft. deep, and the earth which was taken out of it
was used to build a dike from 30 to 54 yds. breiad containing
the lake. The area enclosed by the canal was rather more than
70 sq. m^ and the average depth of the lake 13 it. i£ in., and as
the water had nb natural outfall it was calculated that probably
1000 million tons would have to be raised hjr mechanical means.
782
HAASE, F.— HABAKKUK
This amount was 200 million tons in excess of that actually
discharged. Pumping by steam-engines began in 1848, and the
lake was dry by the 1st of July 1852. At the first sale of the
highest lands along the banks on the 16th of August 1853, about
£28 per acre was paid; but the average price afterwards was
less. The whole area of 42,096 acres recovered from the waters
brought in 9,400,000 florins, or about £780,000, exactly covering
the cost of the enterprise; so that the actual cost to the nation
was only the amount of the interest on the capital, or about
£368,000. The soil is of various kinds, loam, clay, sand and
peat; most of it is sufficiently fertile, though in the lower
portions there are barren patches where the scanty vegetation
is covered with an ochreous deposit. Mineral springs occur
containing a very high percentage (3*245 grams per litre) of
common salt; and in 1893 a company was formed for working
them. Corn, seeds, cattle, butter and cheese are the principal
produce. The roads which traverse the commune are bordered
by pleasant-looking farm-houses built after the various styles
of Holland, Friesland or Brabant. Hoofddorp, Venneperdorp
or Nieuw Vennep, Abbenes and the vicinities of the pumping-
stations are the spots where the population has clustered most
thickly. The first church was built in 1855; in 1877 there were
seven. In 1854 the city of Leiden laid claim to the possession of
the new territory, but the courts decided in favour of the nation.
HAASE, FRIEDRICH (1827- ), German actor, was bom on
the 1 st of November 1827, in Berlin, the son of a valet to King
Frederick William IV., who became his godfather. He was
educated for the stage under Ludwig Tieck and made his first
appearance in 1846 in Weimar, afterwards acting at Prague
(1840-1851) and Karlsruhe (1852-1855). From i860 to 1866
he played in St Petersburg, then was manager of the court
theatre in Coburg, and in 1869 (and again in 1 882-1 883) visited
the United States. He was manager of the Stadt Theater in
Leipzig from 1870 to 1876, when he removed to Berlin, where he
devoted his energies to the foundation and management of the
Deutsches Theater. He finally retired from the stage in 1898.
Haase's aristocratic appearance and elegant manner fitted him
specially to play high comedy parts. His chief r61es were those
of Rocheferrier in the Partie Piquet; Richelieu; Savigny in
Derfeiner Diplomat, and der Fiirst in Der geheime Agent. He
is the author of Ungeschminkte Brief e and Was ich erlebte 1846-
1808 (Berlin, 1898).
See Simon, Friedrich Haase (Berlin, 1898).
HAASE, FRIEDRICH GOTTLOB (1808- 1867), German
classical scholar, was born at Magdeburg on the 4th of January
1808. Having studied at Halle, Greifswald and Berlin, he
obtained in 1834 an appointment at Schulpforta, from which
he was suspended and sentenced to six years 9 imprisonment for
identifying himself with the Burschenschaften (students' associa-
tions). Having been released after serving one year of his
sentence, he visited Paris, and on his return in 1840 he was
appointed professor at Breslau, where he remained till his
death on the 16th of August 1867. He was undoubtedly
one of the most successful teachers of his day in Germany, and
exercised great influence upon all his pupils.
He edited several classic authors: Xenophon (A<uu&aipovl<op
voXirtla, 1833); Thucydides (1840); Velleius Paterculus (1858);
Seneca the philosopher (2nd ed., 1872, not yet superseded); and
Tacitus (1855), the introduction to which is a masterpiece of Latinity.
His Vorlesungen uber lateinische Sprachwissenschajt was published
after his death by F. A. Eckstein and H. Peter (1874-1880). See
C. Bursian, Geschtchle der klassischen PhUologiein Deutschland (1883) ;
G. Fickert, Friderici HaasU memoria (1868), with a list of works;
T. Oelsner in RUbezahl (Sthlesische Provinzialbl&tter), vii. Heft 3
(Breslau f 1868).
HAAST, SIR JOHANN FRANZ JULIUS VON (1824-1887),
German and British geologist, was born at Bonn on the 1st of
May 1824. He received his early education partly in that town
and partly in Cologne, and then entered the university at Bonn,
-where he made a special study of geology and mineralogy. In
< 1858 he started for New Zealand to report on the suitability
' of the colony for German emigrants. He then became acquainted
with Dr von Hochstetter, and rendered assistance to him in the
preliminary geological survey which von Hochstetter had under-
taken. Afterwards Dr Haast accepted offers from the govern-
ments of Nelson and Canterbury to investigate the geology of
those districts, and the results of his detailed labours greatly
enriched our knowledge with regard to the rocky structure,
the glacial phenomena and the economic products. He dis-
covered gold and coal in Nelson, and he carried on important
researches with reference to the occurrence of Dinornis and other
extinct wingless birds (Moas). His Geology of the Provinces of
Canterbury and Westland, N.Z., was published in 1879. He
was the founder of the Canterbury museum at Christchurch,
of which he became director, and which he endeavoured to
render the finest collection in the southern hemisphere. He
was surveyor-general of Canterbury from 1861 to 1871, and
professor of geology at Canterbury College. He was elected
F.R.S. in 1867; and he was knighted for his services at the
time of the colonial exhibition in London in 1887. He died at
Wellington, N.Z., on the 15th of August 1887.
HABABS (Az-Hibbehs), a nomadic pastoral people of Hamitic
stock, living in the coast region north-west of Massawa. Physic-
ally they are Beja, by language and traditions Abyssinians.
They were Christians until the 19th century, but are now
Mahommedans. Their sole wealth consists in cattle.
HABAKKUK, the name borne by the eighth book of the Old
Testament " Minor Prophets." It occurs twice in the book
itself (i. 1, iii. 1) in titles, but nowhere else in the Old Testament.
The meaning of the name is uncertain. If Hebrew, it might be
derived from the root pan (to embrace) as an intensive term
of affection. It has also been connected more plausibly with
an Assyrian plant name, feambai&ku (Delitzsch, Assyrisches
Handwdrterbuch, p. 281). The Septuagint has 'A/i0axo6/i. Of
the person designated, no more is known than may be inferred
from the writing which bears his name. Various legends are
connected with him, of which the best known is given in the
Apocryphal story of "Bel and the Dragon" (v. 33-39); but
none of these has any historic value. 1
The book itself falls into three obvious parts, viz. (1) a dialogue
between the prophet and God (i. 2-ii. 4); (2) a series of five
woes pronounced on wickedness (ii. 5— ii. 20); (3) a poem
describing the triumphant manifestation of God (iii.). There is
considerable difficulty in regard to the interpretation of (1), on
which that of (2) will turn; while (3) forms an independent
section, to be considered separately.
In the dialogue, the prophet cries to God against continued
violence and injustice, though it is not clear whether this is done
within or to Israel (i. 2-4). The divine answer declares that God
raises up the Chaldaeans, whose formidable resources are invincible
(i. 5-1 1 ). The prophet thereupon calls God's attention to the
tyranny which He apparently allows to triumph, and declares
his purpose to wait till an answer is given to his complaint
(i. 1 2-ii. 2). God answers by demanding patience, and by
declaring that the righteous shall live by his faithfulness (ii. 3-4).
The interpretation of this dialogue which first suggests itself
is that the prophet is referring to wickedness within the nation,
which is to be punished by the Chaldaeans as a divine instrument;
in the process, the tyranny of the instrument itself calls for
punishment, which the prophet is bidden to await in patient
fidelity. On this view of the dialogue, the subsequent woes will
be pronounced against the Chaldaeans, and the date assigned to
the prophecy will be about 600 B.C., i.e. soon after the battle of
Carchemish (605 B.C.), when the Chaidaean victory over Egypt
inaugurated a period of Chaidaean supremacy which lasted till
the Chaldaeans themselves were overthrown by Cyrus in 538 B.C.
Grave objections, however, confront this interpretation, as is
admitted even by such recent defenders of it as Davidson and
Driver. Is it likely that a prophet would begin a complaint
against Chaidaean tyranny (admittedly central in the prophecy)
by complaining of that wickedness of his fellow-countrymen which
seems partly to justify it ? Are not the terms of reference in
1 These legends are collected in Hastings, D. B. vol. ii. p. 272.
He is the watchman of Is. xxi. 6 (cf. Hab. ii. 1); the son of the
Shunammite (2 Kings iv. 16) ; and is miraculously lifted by his hair
to carry his own dinner to Daniel in the lions' den (supra).
HABAKKUK
783
i. 2 f. and 1. 12 f. too similar for the supposition that two
distinct, even contradictory, complaints are being made (cf.
" wicked " and " righteous " in i. 4 and i. 13, interchanged
in regard to Israel, on above theory) ? And if i. 5-1 1 is a genuine
prophecy of the raising up of the Chaldaeans, whence comes that
long experience of their rule required to explain the detailed
denunciation of their tyranny? To meet the last objection,
Davidson supposes i. 5-1 1 to be really a reference to the past,
prophetic in form only, and brings down the whole section to a
later period of Chaldaean rule, " hardly, one would think, before
the deportation of the people under Jehoiachin in 597 " (p. 49).
Driver prefers to bisect the dialogue by supposing i. 2-1 1 to
be written at an earlier period than i. 12 f. (p. 57). The other
objections, however, remain, and have provoked a variety of
theories from Old Testament scholars, of which three call for
special notice. ( i)The first of these, represented by Giesebrecht ,*
Nowack and Wellhausen, refers i. 2-4 to Chaldaean oppression of
Israel, the same subject being continued in i. 12 f. Obviously,
the reference to the Chaldaeans as a divine instrument could not
then stand in its present place, and it is accordingly regarded as
a misplaced earlier prophecy. This is the minimum of critical
procedure required to do justice to the facts. (2) Budde, followed
by Cornill, also regards i. 2-4 as referring to the oppression of
Israel by a foreign tyrant, whom, however, he holds to be Assyria.
He also removes i. 5-1 1 from its present place, but makes it
part of the divine answer, following ii. 4. On this view, the
Chaldaeans are the divine instrument for punishing the tyranny
of the Assyrians, to whom the following woes will therefore refer.
The date would fall between Josiah's reformation (621) and his
death (609). This is a plausible and even attractive theory;
its weakness seems to lie in the absence of any positive evidence
in the prophecy itself, as is illustrated by the fact that even
G. A. Smith, who follows it, suggests " Egypt from 608-605 "
as an alternative to Assyria (p. 124). (3) Marti (1904) abandons
the attempt to explain the prophecy as a unity, and analyses
it into three elements, viz. (a) The original prophecy by
Habakkuk, consisting of i. 5-10, 14 f., belonging to the year 605,
and representing the emergent power of the Chaldaeans as a
divine scourge of the faithless people; (b) Woes against the
Chaldaeans, presupposing not only tyrannous rule over many
peoples, but the beginning of their decline and fall, and therefore
of date about 540 B.C. (ii. 5-19) ; (e) A psalm of post-exilic origin,
whose fragments, i. 2-4, 12 a, 13, ii. 1-4, have been incorporated
into the present text from the margins on which they were
written, its subject being the suffering of the righteous. Each
of these three theories* encounters difficulties of detail; none
can be said to have secured a dominant position. The great
variety of views amongst competent critics is significant of the
difficulty of the problem, which can hardly be regarded as yet
solved; this divergence of opinion perhaps points to the im-
possibility of maintaining the unity of chs. i. and ii., and throws
the balance of probability towards some such analysis as that
of Marti, which is therefore accepted in the present article.
In regard to the poem which forms the third and dosing
chapter of the present book of Habakkuk, there is much more
general agreement. Its most striking characteristic lies in
the superscription (" A prayer of Habakkuk the prophet, set
to Shigionoth "), the subscription (" For the chief musician, on
my stringed instruments "), and the insertion of the musical
term " Selah " in three places (v. 3, 9, 13). These liturgical
notes make extremely probable the supposition that the poem
has been taken from some collection like that of our present
book of Psalms, probably on the ground of the authorship
asserted by the superscription there attached to it. It cannot,
however, be said that the poem itself supports this assertion,
1 Followed by Peake in The Problem of Suffering, pp. if., 151 f.,
to whose appendix (A) reference may be made for further details
of recent criticism.
' For the less probable theories of Rothstein, Lauterburg, Happel
and Peiser (amongst others), cf. Marti's Commentary, pp. 328 f. and
&J2. Stevenson (The Expositor, 1902) states clearly the difficulties
for those who regard ch. i. as a unity. He sees two independent
sections, 2-4+12-13, and 5-11 + 14-17.
which carries no more intrinsic weight than the Davidic titles
of the Psalms. The poem begins with a prayer that God will
renew the historic manifestation of the exodus, which inaugurated
the national history and faith; a thunderstorm moving up from
the south is then described, in which God is. revealed (3-7) ;
it is asked whether this manifestation, whose course is further
described, is against nature only (8-1 1) ; the answer is given that
it is for the salvation of Israel against its wicked foes (12-15);
the poet describes the effect in terror upon himself (16) and
declares his confidence in God, even in utter agricultural adversity
(17-19). As Wellhausen says (p. 171): " The poet appears to
believe that in the very act of describing enthusiastically the
ancient deed of deliverance, he brings home to us the new; we
are left sometimes in doubt whether he speaks of the past to
suggest the new by analogy, or whether he is concerned directly
with the future, and simply paints it with the colours of the past."
In any case, there is nothing in this fine poem to connect it with
the conception of the Chaldaeans as a divine instrument. It is the
nation that speaks through the poet (cf. v. 14), but at what
period of its post-exilic history we have no means of inferring,.
Our estimate of the theological teaching of this book will
naturally be influenced by the particular critical theory which
is adopted. The reduction of the book to four originally inde-
pendent sections requires that the point of each be stated
separately. When this is done, it will, however, be found that
there is a broad unity of subject, and of natural development
in its treatment, such as to some extent justifies the instinct or
the judgment of those who were instrumental in effecting the
combination of the separate parts. (1) The poem (in.), though
possibly latest in date/ claims first consideration, because it
avowedly moves in the circle of primitive ideas, and supplicates
a divine intervention, a direct and immediate manifestation
of the transcendent God. He is conceived as controlling or
overcoming the forces of nature; and though an earlier
mythology has supplied some of the ideas, yet, as with the
opening chapters of Genesis, they axe transfigured by the moral
purpose which animates them, the purpose to subdue all things
that could frustrate the destiny of God's anointed (v. 13). The
closing verses strike that deep note of absolute dependence on
God, which is the glory of the religion of the Old Testament
and its chief contribution to the spirit of the Gospels. (2) The
prophecy of the Chaldaeans as the instruments of the divine
purpose involves a different, yet related, conception of the divine
providence. The philosophy of history, by which Hebrew
prophets could read a deep moral significance into national
disaster and turn the flank of resistless attack, became one of
the most important elements in the nation's faith. If the world-
powers were hard as flint in their dealings with Israel, the people
of God were steeled to such moral endurance that each clash of
their successive onsets kindled some new flame of devotion.
Through the Chaldaeans God worked a work which required
centuries of life and literature to disclose its fulness (i. 5). (3)
When we turn from this view of the Chaldaeans to the denuncia-
tion of their tyranny in" taunt-songs " (ii. 5-20), we have simply
a practical application of the doctrine of divine government.
God being what He is, at once moral and all-powerful, the
immoral life is doomed to overthrow, whether the immorality
consist in grasping rapacity, proud self-aggrandizement, cruel
exaction, exulting triumph or senseless idolatry. (4) Yet,
because the doom so often tarries, there arises the problem of
the suffering of the innocent and the upright. How can God
look down with tolerance that seems favour On so much that
conflicts with His declared will and character? This is the great
problem of Israel, finding its supreme expression for all time in
the book of Job (q.v.). In that book the solution of the problem
of innocent suffering lies hidden from the sufferer, even to the
end, for he is not admitted with the reader to the secret of the
prologue; it is the practical solution of faithfulness resting on
faith which is offered to us. So here, with the principle of ii. 4,
" the righteous shall live by his faithfulness. ,, The different
application of these words in the New Testament to " faith "
* Earlier, however, than Ps. Ixxvii. 17-20, which is drawn from it.
7 8 4
HABDALA— HABEAS CORPUS
is well known (Rom. i. 17; Gal. iii. 11; Heb. z. 38) though the
difference is apt to be exaggerated by those who forget how much
of the element of "W: lies in Paul's conception of vUrrts.
In G. A. Smith's words, " as Paul's adaptation, ' the just shall
live by faith/ has become the motto of evangelical Christianity,
so we may say that Habakkuk's original of it has been the motto
and the fame of Judaism: * the righteous shall live by his
faithfulness.' "
The Hebrew text of this impressive and varied book is unfor-
tunately corrupt in many places; even so cautious a critic as Driver
accepts or favourably notices eighteen textual emendations in the
three chapters, and suspects the text in at least seven other cases.
For the interpretation of the book in detail, the English reader will
find Driver's commentary (1906) the most useful.
References to earlier literature will be found in the following note-
worthy studies of recent date: Davidson. " Nahum, Habakkuk
and Zephaniah," in Cambridge Bible (1896); Nowack, Die kleinen
Propheten (Hdkr.) (1897!; Wellhausen, Die kleinen Propheten*
(1898); G. A. Smith, r ' The Book of the Twelve Prophets," in
The Expositor's Bible, vol. ii. (1898); Driver, article " Habakkuk "
in Hastings' Dictionary of the "
Budde, article " Habakkuk " i
(iqoi),; Stj
Expositor (
t, vol. ii. pp. 269-272 (1900);
Budde, article " Habalckuk " in Ency. BiMica, vol. ii., c. 1021-1928
(1 901); Stevenson, "The Interpretation of Habakkuk, ,r in The
the Old Testament
Habakkuk "; Martf, Dodekapn m
" Minor Prophets," vol. ii., in Century Bible (1906); Duhm, Das
Buch Habakkuk (Text, Ubersetzung und Erklarung), 1906 (regards
the book as a unity belonging to the time of Alexander the Great).
Max L. Margolis discusses the anonymous Greek version of Habakkuk
iii. in a volume of Old Test, and Semitic Studies: in Memory of
William Rainey Harper (Chicago, 1908). (H. W. R.*)
HABDALA (lit. "separation"), a Hebrew term chiefly
appropriated to ceremonies at the conclusion of Sabbath and
festivals, marking the separation between times sacred and
secular. On the Saturday night the ceremony consists of three
items: (a) benediction over a cup of wine (common to many
other Jewish functions); (b) benediction over a lighted taper,
of which possibly the origin is utilitarian, as no light might be
kindled on the Sabbath day, but the rite may be symbolical;
and (c) benediction over a box of sweet-smelling spices. The
origin of the latter has been traced to the bowl of burning spice
which in Talmudic times was introduced after each meal. But
here too symbolic ideas must be taken into account. Both the
light and the spices would readily fit into the conception of the
Sabbath " Over-soul " of the mystics. (I. A.)
HABEAS CORPUS, in English law, a writ issued out of the
High Court of Justice commanding the person to whom it is
directed to bring the body of a person in his custody before that
or some other court for a specified purpose.
There are various forms of the writ, of which the most famous
is that known as habeas corpus ad subjiciendum, the well-estab-
lished remedy for violation of personal liberty. From the earliest
records of the English law no free man could be detained in
custody except on a criminal charge or conviction or for a civil
debt. That right is expressed in the Great Charter in the
words: " Nullus liber homo capiatur vel imprisonetur aut
dissaisietur aut utlagetur, aut exuletur aut aliquo modo destruatur
nee super cum ibimus nee super eum mittcmus, nisi per legale
judicium parium suorum, vel per legem terrae" 1 The writ is a
remedial mandatory writ of right existing by the common law,
i.e. it is one of the extraordinary remedies — such as mandamus,
certiorari and prohibitions, which the superior courts may grant.
While " of right," it is not " of course," and is granted only on
application to the High Court or a judge thereof, supported by a
sworn statement of facts setting up at least a probable case of
illegal confinement. It is addressed to the person in whose
custody another is detained, and commands him to bring his
prisoner before the court immediately after the receipt of
the writ, together with the day and cause of his being taken and
detained, to undergo and receive (ad subjiciendum et recipiendum)
whatsoever the court awarding the writ " may consider of
concerning him in that behalf."
It is often stated that the writ is founded on the article of
the Great Charter already quoted; but there are extant instances
> See Hallam, Const, Hist vol. i., c. vii. (12th ed.) p. 384.
of the issue of writs of habeas corpus before the charter. Other
writs having somewhat similar effect were in use at an early
date, e.g. the writ de odio et olid, used as early as the 12th century
to prevent imprisonment on vexatious appeals of felony, and the
writ of mainprise (de irumucaptione) , long obsolete if not abolished
in England but which it was attempted to use in India so late
a* 1870. In the case of imprisonment on accusation of crime the
writ issued from the court of king's bench (or from the chancery),
and on its return the court judged of the legality of the imprison-
ment, and discharged the prisoner or admitted him to bail or
remanded him to his former custody according to the result of
the examination.
By the time of Charles I. the writ was fully established as the
appropriate process for checking illegal imprisonment by inferior
courts or by public officials. But it acquired its full and present
constitutional importance by legislation.
In Darners case (1627) the judges held that the command
of the king was a sufficient answer to a writ of habeas corpus.
The House of Commons thereupon passed resolutions to the
contrary, and after a conference with the House of Lords the
measure known as the Petition of Right was passed (1627, 3 Car. I.
c L) which, inter alia, recited (s. 5) that, contrary to the Great
Charter and the good laws and statutes of the realm, divers of
the king's subjects had of late been imprisoned without any
cause shown, and when they were brought up on habeas corpus ad
subjiciendum, and no cause was shown other than the special
command of the king signified by the privy council, were never-
theless remanded to prison, and enacted " that no freeman in
any such manner as is before mentioned be imprisoned or
detained." The Petition of Right was disregarded in Selden's
case (2629), when it was successfully returned to a habeas corpus
that Selden and others were committed by the king's special
command " for notable contempts against the king and his
government and for stirring up sedition against. him." 2 This
led to legislation in 1640 by which, after abolishing the Star
Chamber, the right to a habeas corpus was given to test the
legality of commitments by command or warrant of the king or
the privy council. •
The reign of Charles II. was marked by further progress
towards securing the freedom of the subject from wrongful
imprisonment. Lord Clarendon was impeached, inter alia,
for causing many persons to be imprisoned against law and to
be conveyed in custody to places outside England. In 1668
a writ of habeas corpus was issued to test the legality of an
imprisonment in Jersey. Though the authority of the courts
had been strengthened by the Petition of Right and the act of
1640, it was still rendered insufficient by reason of the insecurity
of judicial tenure, the fact that only the chancellor (a political
as well as a legal officer) and the court of king's bench had
undoubted right to issue the writ, and the inability or hesitation
of the competent judges to issue the writ except during the legal
term, which did not cover more than half the year. A series of
bills was passed through the Commons between 1668 and 1675,
only to be rejected by the other House. In Jenkes's case (1676)
Lord Chancellor Nottingham refused to issue the writ in vacation
in a case in which a man had been committed by the king in
council for a speech at Guildhall, and could get neither bail nor
trial. In 1679, but rather in consequence of Lord Clarendon's
arbitrary proceedings 4 than of Jenkes's case, a fresh bill was
introduced which passed both Houses (it is said the upper House
by the counting of one stout peer as ten) and became the famous
Habeas Corpus Act of 1679 (31 Car. II. c. 2). The passing of
the act was largely due to the experience and energy of Lord
Shaftesbury, after whom it was for some time called. The act,
while a most important landmark in the constitutional history
of England, in no sense creates any right to personal freedom,
but is essentially a procedure act for improving the legal mechan-
ism by means of which that acknowledged right may be enforced. *
* Hallam, Const. Hist. vol. ii., c. viii. (12th ed.) p. 2.
* Ibid. c. ix. (12th ed.) p. 98.
* Ibid. vol. iii., c. xiii. (12th ed.) p. 12.
* Dicey, Law of the Constitution (6th ed.), p. 217.
HABEAS CORPUS
78.5
It declares no principles and defines no rights, but is for practical
purposes worth a hundred articles guaranteeing constitutional
liberty. 1
In the manner characteristic of English legislation the act
is limited to the particular grievances immediately in view and
is limited to imprisonment for criminal or supposed criminal
matters, leaving untouched imprisonment on civil process 6r by
private persons. It recites that great delays have been used by
sheriffs and gaolers in making returns of writs of habeas corpus
directed to them; and for the prevention thereof, and the more
speedy relief of all persons imprisoned for criminal or supposed
criminal matters, it enacts in substance as follows: (1) When a
writ of habeas corpus is directed to a sheriff or other person in
charge of a prisoner, he must within 3, 10 or 20 days, according
to the distance of the place of commitment, bring the body of his
prisoner to the court, with the true cause of his detainer or
imprisonment — unless the commitment was for treason or felony
plainly expressed in the warrant of commitment. (2) If any
person be committed for any crime — unless for treason or felony
plainly expressed in the warrant — it shall be lawful for such
person or persons (other than persons convicted or in execution
by legal process) in time of vacation, to appeal to the lord chan-
cellor as a judge, who shall issue a habeas corpus returnable
immediately, and on the return thereof shall discharge the
prisoner on giving security for his appearance before the proper
court — unless the party so committed is detained upon a legal
process or under a justice's warrant for a non-bailable offence.
Persons neglecting for two terms to pray for a habeas corpus
shall have none in vacation. (3) Persons set at large on habeas
corpus shall not be recommitted for the same Offence unless by
the legal order and process of the court having cognizance of
the case. (4) A person committed to prison for treason or felony
shall, if he requires it, in the first week of the next term or the
first day of the next session of oyer and terminer, be indicted
in that term or session or else admitted to bail, unless it appears
on affidavit that the witnesses for the crown are not ready;
and if he is not indicted and tried in the second term or session
after commitment, or if after trial he is acquitted) he shall he
discharged from imprisonment. (5) No inhabitant of England
(except persons contracting, or, after conviction for felony,
electing to be transported) shall be sent prisoner to Scotland,
Ireland, Jersey, &c, or any place beyond the seas. Stringent
penalties are provided for offences against the act. A judge
delaying habeas corpus forfeits £500 to the party aggrieved.
Illegal imprisonment beyond seas renders the offender liable in
an action by the injured party to treble costs and damages to
the extent of not less than £500, besides subjecting him to the
penalties of praemunire and to other disabilities. " The great
rank of those who were likely to offend against this part of the
statute was," says Hallam, " the cause of this unusual severity."
Indeed as early as 1591 the judges had complained of tlie>
difficulty of enforcing the writ in the case of imprisonment at
the instance of magnates of the realm. The effect of the act
was to impose upon the judges under severe sanction the duty
of protecting personal liberty in the case of criminal charges
and of securing speedy trial upon such charges when legally
framed; and the improvement of their tenure of office at the
revolution, coupled with the veto put by the Bill of Rights on
excessive bail, gave the judicature the independence and authority
necessary to enable them to keep the executive within the law
and to restrain administrative development of the scope or
penalties of the criminal law; and this power of the judiciary to
control the executive, coupled with the limitations on the rignt
to set up " act of state " as an excuse for infringing individual
liberty is the special characteristic of English constitutional
law. '
It is to be observed that neither at common law nor under the
act of 1679 was the writ the appropriate remedy in the case of a
person convicted either on indictment or summarily. It properly
applied to persons detained before or without trial or sentence;
and for convicted persons the proper remedy was by writs of
1 Dicey, Law of the Constitution (6th ed.), p. 195.
error or certiorari to which a writ of habeas corpus might be used
as ancillary.
As regards persons imprisoned for debt or on civil process the
writ was available at common law to test the legality of the
detention: but the practice in these cases is unaffected by the
act of 1679, and is of no present interest, since imprisonment
on civil process is almost abolished. As regards persons in
private custody, e.g. persons not sui juris detained by those not
entitled to their guardianship or lunatics, or persons kidnapped,
habeas corpus ad subjiciendum seems not to have been the
ordinary common law remedy. The appropriate writ for such
cases was that known as de homine replegiando. The use of this
writ in most if not all criminal cases was forbidden in 1553; but
it was used in the 17th century in a case of kidnapping (Designy's
case, 1682), and against Lord Grey for abducting his wife's
sister (1682), and in the earl of Banbury's case to recover his
wife (1704). Thelatest recorded instance of its use is Trebilcock's
case (173$), in which a ward sought to free himself from the
custody of his guardian.
Since that date the habeas corpus ad subjiciendum has been used
in cases of illegal detention in private custody. In 1 758 questions
arose as to its application to persons in naval or military custody,
including pressed men, which led to the introduction of a bill
in parliament and to the consultation by the House of Lords of
the judges (see Wilmot's Opinions, p. 77). In the same year the
writ was used to release the wife of Earl Ferrers from his custody
and maltreatment, and was unsuccessfully applied for by John
Wilkes to get back his wife, who was separated from him by
mutual agreement. But perhaps the most interesting instances
of that period are the case of the negro Somerset (1771), who was
released from a claim to hold him as a slave in England: and
that of the Hottentot Venus (1S10), where an alien woman on
exhibition in England was brought before the court by Zachary
Macaulay in order to ascertain whether she was detained against
her will.
The experience of the 18th century disclosed defects in the
procedure for obtaining liberty iti cases not covered by the act
of 1679. But it was not till 1$ 16 that further legislation was
passed lor more effectually, securing the liberty of the subject.
The act of 1816 (56 Geo. III. c. 100), does not touch cases covered
by the act of 1679. It enacts (1) that a writ of habeas corpus
shall be issued in vacation time in favour of a person restrained
of his liberty otherwise than for some criminal or supposed
criminal matter (except persons imprisoned for debt or by dvil
process); (2) that though the return to the writ be good and
sufficient in law, the judge shall examine into the truth of the
facts set forth in such return, and if they appear doubtful the
prisoner shall be bailed; (3) that the writ shall run to any port,
harbour, road, creek or bay on the coast of England, although
not within the body of any county. The last clause was intended
to meet doubts on the applicability of habeas corpus in cases of
illegal detention on board ship, which had been raised owing to
a case of detention on a foreign ship in an English port.
It will appear from the foregoing statement that the issue
and enforcement of the writ rests on the common law as
strengthened by the acts of 1627, 1640, 1679 *&<* i&*6 9 and subject
also to the regulations as to procedure contained in the Crown
Office Rules, 1 906. The effect of the statutes is to keep the courts
always open for the issue of the writ. It is available to put an
end to all forms of illegal detention in public or private custody.
In the case of the Canadian prisoners (1839) it was used to obtain
the release of persons sentenced in Canada for participating in
the rebellion of 1837, who were being conveyed throughout
England in custody on their way to imprisonment in another
part of the empire, and it is matter of frequent experience for
the courts to review the legality of commitments under the
Extradition Acts and the Fugitive Offenders Act 1881 , of fugitives
from the justice of a foreign state or parts of the king's dominions
outside the British Islands.
In times of public danger it has occasionally been thought
necessary to " suspend " the Habeas Corpus Act 1679 by special
and temporary legislation. This was done in 1794 (by an act
786
HABERDASHER
annually renewed until 1801) and again in 181 7, as to persons
arrested and detained by his majesty for conspiring against his
person and government. The same course was adopted in
Ireland in 1866 during a Fenian rising. It has been the practice
to make such acts annual and to follow their expiration by an
act of indemnity. In cases where martial law exists the use of the
writ is ex hypothesi suspended during conditions amounting to a
state of war within the realm or the British possession affected
{e.g. the Cape Colony and Natal during the South African War),
and it would seem that the acts of courts martial during the
period are not the subject of review by the ordinary courts.
The so-called " suspension of the Habeas Corpus Act " bears a
certain similarity to what is called in Europe " suspending the
constitutional guarantees " or " proclaiming a state of siege,"
but " is not in reality more than suspension of one particular
remedy for the protection of personal freedom."
There are various other forms of the writ according to the purpose
for which it is granted. Thus habeas corpus ad respondendum is used
to bring up a prisoner confined by the process of an inferior court
in order to charge him in another proceeding (civil or criminal) in
the superior court or some other court. As regards civil proceedings,
this form of the writ is now rarely used, owing^ to the abolition of
arrest on mesne process and the restriction of imprisonment for debt,
or in execution of a civil judgment. The right to issue the writ
depends on the common law, supplemented by an act of 1802. It
is occasionally used for the purpose of bringing a person in custody
for debt or on a criminal charge before a criminal court to be charged
in respect of a criminal proceeding: but the same result may be
obtained by means of an order of a secretary of state, made under
s. 1 1 of the Prison Act 1898, or by the written order of a court of
criminal jurisdiction before which he is required to take his trial on
indictment (Criminal Law Amendment Act 30 & 31 Vict. c. 35, s.
10).
Other forms are ad satisfaciendum; ad faciendum et recipiendum,
to remove intoa superior court proceedings under which the defendant
is in custody: ad testificandum, where a prisoner is required as a
witness, issued under an act of 1804(8. 11), which is in practice
replaced by orders under s. II of the Prison Act 1898 (supra) or the
order of a judge under s. 9 of the Criminal Procedure Act 1853:
and ad deliberandum et recipias, to authorize the transfer from one
custody to another for purposes of trial, which is in practice super-
seded by the provisions of the Prison Acts 1865, 1871 and 1898,
and the Criminal Law Amendment Act 1867 (supra).
The above forms are now of little or no importance; but the
procedure for obtaining them and the forms of writ are included in
the Crown Office Rules 1906.
Ireland.— The common law of Ireland as to the writs of habeas
corpus is the same as that in England. The writ has in past times
been issued from the English court of king's bench into Ireland;
but does not now so issue. The acts of 1803 and 18 16 already
mentioned apply to Ireland. The Petition of Right is not in terms
applicable to Ireland. The Habeas Corpus Act 1679 does not apply
to Ireland; but its equivalent is supplied by an act of 1781-1782
of the Irish parliament (21 & 22 Geo. III. c. 11). Sec. 16 contains a
provision empowering the chief governor and privy council of Ireland
by a proclamation under the great seal of Ireland to suspend the act
during such time only as there shall be an actual invasion or rebellion
in Ireland; and it is enacted that during the currency of the pro-
clamation no judge or justices shall bail or try any person charged
with being concerned in the rebellion or invasion without an order
from the lord lieutenant or lord deputy and senior of the privy
council. In Ireland by an act of 1881 the Irish executive was given
an absolute power of arbitrary and preventive arrest on suspicion of
treason or of an act tending to interfere with the maintenance of
law and order: but the warrant of arrest was made conclusive.
This act continued by annual renewals until 1906, when it expired.
Scotland.-~The writ of habeas corpus is unknown to Scots law, nor
will it issue from English courts into Scotland. Under a Scots act
of 1 70 1 (c. 6) provision is made for preventing wrongous imprison-
ment and against undue delay in trials. It was applied to treason
felony in 1848. The right to speedy trial is now regulated by s. 43
of the Criminal Procedure Scotland Act 1887. These enactments
are as to Scotland equivalent to the English Act of 1679. Under the
Court of Exchequer Scotland Act 1856 (19 & 20 V. c. 56) provision
is made for bringing before the court of session persons and proceed-
ings before inferior courts and public officers — which is analogous
to the powers to issue habeas corpus in such cases out of the English
court of exchequer (now the revenue side of the king's bench
division).
British Possessions, — The act of 1679 expressly applies to Wales,
Berwickon-Tweed, Jersey and Guernsey, and the act of 1816 also
extends to the Isle of Man. The court of king's bench has also issued
the writ to the king's foreign dominions beyond seas, e.g. to St
Helena, and so late as 1861 to Canada (Anderson's case 1861, 30
L.J.Q.B. 129). In consequence of the last decision it was provided
by the Habeas Corpus Act 1862 that no writ of habeas corpus should
issue out of England by authority of any court or judge " into any
colony or foreign dominion of the crown where the crown has a law-
fully established court of justice having authority to grant or issue
the writ and to ensure its due execution in the 'colony* or do-
minion " (25 & 26 V. c. 20). The expression " foreign dominion "
is meant to apply to places outside the British Islands, and does not
include the Isle of Man or the Channel Islands (see re Brown [1864],
33 L.J.Q.B. 193.).
In Australasia and Canada and in most if not all the British
possessions whose law is based on the common law, the power to
issue and enforce the writ is possessed and is freely exercised by
colonial courts, under the charters or statutes creatine and regulating
the courts. The writ is freely resorted to in Canada, and in 1905,
1906, two appeals came to the privy council from the dominion, one
with reference to an extradition case, the other with respect to the
right to expel aliens.
Under the Roman-Dutch law as applied in British Guiana the
writ was unknown and no similar process existed (2nd report of
West Indian law commissioners). But by the Supreme Court
Ordinance of 1893 that court possesses (inter alia) all the authorities,
powers and functions belonging to or incident to a superior court of
record in England, which appears to include the power to issue the
writ of habeas corpus. Under the Roman-Dutch law as applied to
South Africa free persons appear to have a right to release under a
writ de libero homtne exhibendo, which closely resembles the writ of
habeas corpus, and the procedure described as " manifestation "
used in the kingdom of Aragon (Hal lam, Middle Ages, vol. iL, c. iv.).
The writ of habeas corpus has not been formally adopted or the
Habeas Corpus Acts formally extended to South Africa ; but in the
Cape Colony, under the charter of justice and colonial legislation,
the supreme court on petition grants a remedy equivalent to that
obtained in England by writ of habeas corpus; and the remedy is
sometimes so described (Koke v. Balie, 1879, 9 Buchanan, 45, fa,
arising out of a rising in Griqualand). During and after the South
African War of 1 899-1 902 many attempts were made by this pro-
cedure to challenge or review the sentences of courts martial; see
re Fourie (ioooj, 18 Cape Rep. 8.
The laws of Ceylon being derived from the Roman- Dutch law, the
writ of habeas corpus is not indigenous: but, under s. 49 of the
Supreme Court Ordinance 1889, the court or a judge has power to
frant and issue " mandates in the nature of writs of habeas corpus."
'he chartered high courts in India have power to issue and enforce
the writ of habeas corpus. The earliest record of its use was in 1775,
when it was directed to Warren Hastings. It has been used to test
the question whether Roman Catholic religious orders could enter
India, and in 1870 an attempt was made thereby to challenge the
validity of a warrant in the nature of a lettre de cachet issued by the
viceroy (Ind. L. Rep. 6 Bengal, 392, 456, $98), and it has also been
applied to settle controversies between Hindus and missionaries as
to the custody of a young convert (R. v. Vaughan, 1870, 5 Bengal,
418), and between a Mahommedan husband and his mother-in-law
as to the custody of a girl-wife (Khatija Bibi, 1870, 5 Bengal, 557).
United States.-* Before the Declaration of Independence some
of the North American colonies had adopted the act of 1679;
and the federal and the other state legislatures of the United
States have founded their procedure on that act. The common
law as to the writ of habeas corpus has been inherited from
England, and has been generally made to apply to commitments
and detentions of all kinds. Difficult questions, unknown to
English law, have arisen from the peculiar features of the
American state-system. Thus the constitution provides that
" the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended
unless when, in cases of rebellion or invasion, the public safety
may require it "; and it has been the subject of much dispute
whether the power of suspension under this provision is vested
in the president or the congress. The weight of opinion seems
to lean to the latter alternative. Again, conflicts have arisen
between the courts of individual states and the courts of the
union. It seems that a state court has no right to issue a habeas
corpus for the discharge of a person held under the authority
of the federal government. On the other hand, the courts of the
union issue the writ only in those cases in which the power is
expressly conferred on them by the constitution.
Authorities.— Paterson, Liberty of the Subject (1877); Short
and Mellor, Crown Practice (1890); American: Church on Habeas
Corpus (2nd ed. 1893). (W. F. C)
HABERDASHER* a name for a tradesman who sells by retail
small articles used in the making or wearing of dress, such as
sewing cottons or silks, tapes, buttons, pins and needles and the
like. The sale of such articles is not generally carried on alone,
and a " haberdashery counter " usually forms a department of
HABINGTON— HABSBURG, HOUSE OF
787
drapers' shops. The word, found in Chaucer, and even earlier
(1311), is of obscure origin; the suggestion that it is connected
with an Icelandic haprtask, " haversack/' is, according to the
New English Dictionary, impossible. H aperies occurs in an early
Anglo-French customs list, which includes articles such as were
sold by haberdashers, but this word may itself have been a
misspelling of " haberdash." The obscurity of origin has left
room for many conjectures such as that of Minsheu that " haber-
dasher " was perhaps merely a corruption of the German Habt
ihr das? " Have you that?" or Habe das, Hen, " Have that, sir,"
used descriptively for a general dealer in miscellaneous wares.
The Haberdashers' Company is one of the greater Livery
Companies of the City of London. Originally a branch of the
mercers, the fraternity took over the selling of " small wares,"
which included not only articles similar to those sold as " haber-
dashery " now, but such things as gloves, daggers, glass, pens,
lanterns, mousetraps and the like. They were thus on this side
connected with the Milliners. On the other hand there was
early a fusion with the old gild of the " Hurers," or cap makers,
and the hatters, and by the reign of Henry VII. the amalgama-
tion was complete. There were long recognized two branches of
the haberdashers, the haberdashers of " small wares," and the
haberdashers of hats (see further Livery Companies). The
haberdashers are named, side by side with the capettarii, in
the White Book (Liber Albus) of the city of London (see Muni-
tnenta GUdhaUae Londiniensis, ed. H. T. Riley, Rolls Series,
12, 1859-1862), and a haberdasher forms one of the company of
pilgrims in the Canterbury Tales (Prologue, 361).
HABINGTON, WILLIAM (1605- 1654), English poet, was born
at Hendlip Hall, Worcestershire, on the 4th of November 1605.
He belonged to a well-known Catholic family. His father,
Thomas Habington (1 560-1647), an antiquary and historical
scholar, had been implicated in the plots on behalf of Mary
queen of Scots; his uncle, Edward Habington, was hanged in
1586 on the charge of conspiring against Elizabeth in connexion
with Anthony Babington; while to his mother, Mary Habington,
was attributed the revelation of the Gunpowder Plot. The poet
was sent to the college at St Omer, but, pressure being brought
to bear on him to induce him to become a Jesuit, he removed to
Paris. He married about 1632 Lucy, second daughter of Sir
William Herbert, first Baron Powys. This lady he had addressed
in the volume of lyrical poems arranged in two parts and entitled
Castara, published anonymously in 1634. In 1635 appeared a
second edition enlarged by three prose characters, fourteen new
lyrics and eight touching elegies on his friend and kinsman,
George Talbot. The third edition (1640) contains a third part
consisting of a prose character of " A Holy Man " and twenty-
two devotional poems. Habington's lyrics are full of the far-
fetched " conceits " which were fashionable at court, but his
verse is quite free from the prevailing looseness of morals.
Indeed his reiterated praises of Castara's virtue grow wearisome.
He is at his best in his reflective poems on the uncertainty of
human life and kindred topics. He also wrote a Historic of
Edward the Fourth (1640), based on notes provided by his father;
a tragi-comedy, The Queene of Arragon (1640), published without
his consent by his kinsman, the earl of Pembroke, and revived
at the Restoration; and six essays on events in modern history,
Observations upon History (1641). Anthony a Wood insinuated
that during the Commonwealth the poet" did run with the times,
and was not unknown to Oliver the usurper." He died on the
30th of November 1654.
The works of Habington have not been collected. The Queene of
Arragon was reprinted in Dodsley VOld Plays," vol.ix.(i825) ; Castara
was edited by Charles Elton (1812), and by E. Arber with a compact
and comprehensive introduction (1870) for his 4I English Reprints."
HABIT (through the French from Lat. habitus, from habere,
to have, hold, or, in a reflective sense, to be in a certain condition;
in many of the English senses the French use habitude, not habit),
condition of body or mind, especially one that has become
permanent or settled by custom or persistent repetition, hence
custom, usage. In botany and zoology the term is used both
in the above sense of instinctive action of animals and tendencies
of plants, and also of the manner of growth or external appear-
ance of a plant or animal. From the use of the word for external
appearances comes its use for fashion in dress, and hence as a
term for a lady's riding dress and for the particular form of
garment adopted by the members of a religious order, like
" cowl " applied as the mark of a monk or nun.
HABITAT (a French word derived from habiter, Lat. habitare,
to dwell), in botany and zoology, the term for the locality in
which a particular species of plants or animals thrives.
HABSBURG, or Hapsburg, the name of the famous family
from which have sprung the dukes and archdukes of Austria
from 1282, kings of Hungary and Bohemia from 1526, and
emperors of Austria from 1 804. They were also Roman emperors
and German kings from 1438 to 1806, and kings of Spain from
1 516 to 1700, while the minor dignities held by them at different
times are too numerous to mention.
The name Habsburg, a variant of an older form, Habichtsburg
(hawk's castle), was taken from the castle of Habsburg, which
was situated on the river Aar not far from its junction with the
Rhine. The castle was built about 1020 by Werner, bishop of
Strassburg, and his brother, Radbot, the founder of the abbey
of Muri. These men were grandsons of a certain Guntram, who,
according to some authorities, is identical with a Count Guntram
who flourished during the reign of the emperor Otto the Great,
and whose ancestry can be traced back to the time of the Mero-
vingian kings. This conjecture, however, is extremely pro-
blematical. Among Radbot's sons was one Werner, and Werner
and his son Otto were called counts of Habsburg, Otto being
probably made landgrave of upper Alsace late in the 1 ith or
early in the 12th century. At all events Otto's son Werner
(d. 1 167), and the latter's son Albert (d. 1109), held this dignity,
and both landgraves increased the area of the Habsburg lands.
Albert became count of Zurich and protector of the monastery
of Sackingen, and obtained lands in the cantons of Unterwalden
and Lucerne; his son Rudolph, having assisted Frederick of
Hohenstaufen, afterwards the emperor Frederick II., against
the emperor Otto IV., received the county of Aargau. Both
counts largely increased their possessions in the districts now
known as Switzerland and Alsace, and Rudolph held an influential
place among the Swabian nobility. After his death in 1232 his
two sons, Albert and Rudolph, divided his lands and founded
the lines of Habsburg-Habsburg and Habsburg-Laufenburg.
Rudolph's descendants, counts of Habsburg-Laufenburg, were
soon divided into two branches, one of which became extinct
in 1408 and the other seven years later. Before this date,
however, Laufenburg and some other districts had been sold to
the senior branch of the family, who thus managed to retain
the greater part of the Habsburg lands.
Rudolph's brother Albert (d. 1239), landgrave of Alsace,
married Hedwig of Kyburg (d. 1260), and from this union there
was born in 12 18 Rudolph, the founder of the greatness of the
house of Habsburg, and the first of the family to ascend the
German throne. Through his mother he inherited a large part
of the lands of the extinct family of Zahringen; he added in
other ways to his possessions, and was chosen German king in
September 1273, Acting vigorously in his new office, he defeated
and killed his most formidable adversary, Ottakar II., king of
Bohemia, in 1278, and in December 1282 he invested his sons,
Albert and Rudolph, with the duchies of Austria and Styria,
which with other lands had been taken from Ottakar. This
was an event of supreme moment in the history of the Habsburgs,
and was the first and most important stage in the process of
transferring the centre of their authority from western to eastern
Europe, from the Rhine to the Danube. On Rudolph's death
in July 1 291 the German crown passed for a time away from the
Habsburgs, but in July 1298 it was secured by his son, Albert,
whose reign, however, was short and uneventful. But before
1308, the year of Albert's death, the long and troubled connexion
of the Habsburgs with Bohemia had already begun. In 1306
Wenceslas III., the last Bohemian king of the Pfemyslide
dynasty, was murdered. Seizing the opportunity and declaring
that the vacant kingdom was an imperial fief, King Albert
788
HABSBURG, HOUSE OF
bestowed it upon his eldest son, Rudolph, and married this prince
to Elizabeth, widow of Wenceslas II. and stepmother o!
Wenceslas III. But Rudolph diedin 1307 , and his father's attempt
to keep the country in his own hands was ended by his murder
in 1308.
Albert's successor as German king was Henry of Luxemburg
(the emperor Henry VII.), and this election may be said to
initiate the long rivalry between the houses of Habsburg and
Luxemburg. But the immediate enemy of the Habsburgs
was not a Luxemburg but a Wittelsbach. Without making any
definite partition, Albert's five remaining sons spent their time
in governing their lands until 13 14, when one of them, Frederick
called the Fair, forsook this comparatively uneventful occupation
and was chosen by a minority of the electors German king in
succession to Henry VII. At the same time the Wittelsbach
duke of Bavaria, Louis, known to history as the emperor Louis
the Bavarian, was also chosen. War was inevitable, and the
battle of Mllhldorf, fought in September 1322, sealed the fate
of Frederick. Louis was victorious: his rival went into an
honourable captivity, and the rising Habsburg sun underwent a
temporary eclipse.
For more than a century after Frederick's death in 1330 the
Habsburgs were exiles from the German throne. But they were
not inactive. In 1335 his two surviving brothers, Albert and
Otto, inherited Carinthia and part of Carniola by right of theif
mother, Elizabeth; in 1363 Albert's son Rudolph received
Tirol; and during the same century part of Istria, Trieste and
other districts were acquired. All King Albert's six sons had
died without leaving male issue save Otto, whose family became
extinct in 1344, and Albert, the ancestor of all the later Habs-
burgs. Of Albert's four sons two also left no male heirs, but
the remaining two, Albert III, and Leopold III., were responsible
for a division of the family which is of some importance. By
virtue of a partition made upon their brother Rudolph's death
in 1365 Albert and his descendants ruled over Austri^ while
Leopold and his sons took Styria, Carinthia and Tirol, Alsace
remaining undivided as heretofore.
Towards the middle of the 15th century the German throne
had been occupied for nearly a hundred years by members of
the Luxemburg family. The reigning emperor Sigismund, who
was also king of Hungary and Bohemia, was without sons, and
his daughter Elizabeth was the wife of Albert of Habsburg, the
grandson and heir of Duke Albert IIL, who had died in 1395.
Sigismund died in December 1437, leaving his two kingdoms to
his son-in-law, who was crowned king of Hungary in January
1438 and king of Bohemia in the following June. Albert was
also chosen and crowned German king in succession to Sigismund,
thus beginning the long and uninterrupted connexion of his
family with the imperial throne, a connexion which lasted until
the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806. He did not,
however, enjoy his new dignities for long, as he died in October
1439 while engaged in a struggle with the Turks. Albert left
no sons, but soon after his death one was born to him, called
Ladislaus, who became duke of Austria and king of Hungary and
Bohemia. Under the guardianship of his kinsman, the emperor
Frederick III., the young prince's reign was a troubled one, and
when he died unmarried in 1457 his branch of the family became
extinct, and Hungary and Bohemia passed away from the
Habsburgs, who managed, however, to retain Austria.
Leopold III., duke of Carinthia and Styria, who was killed
in 1386 at the battle of Sempach, had four sons, of whom two
only, Frederick and Ernest, left male issue. Frederick and
his only son, Sigismund, confined their attention mainly to Tirol
and Alsace, leaving the larger destinies of the family in the hands
of Ernest of Carinthia and Styria (d. 1424) and his sons, Frederick
and Albert and after the death of King Ladislaus in 1457 these
two princes and their cousin Sigismund were the only repre-
sentatives of the Habsburgs. In February 1440 Frederick of
Styria was chosen German king in succession to his kinsman
Albert. He was a weak and incompetent ruler, but a stronger
and abler man might have shrunk from the task of administering
his heterogeneous and unruly realm. Although very important
in the history of the house of Habsburg, Frederick's long reign
was a period of misfortune, and the motto which he assumed,
A.E.I.O.U. (Austria* est imperare orbi universe), seemed at the
time a particularly foolish boast. He acted as guardian both
to Ladislaus of Hungary, Bohemia and Austria, and to Sigismund
of Tirol, and in all these countries his difficulties were increased
by the hostility of his brother Albert. Having disgusted the
Tirolese he gave up the guardianship of their prince in 1446,
while in Hungary and Bohemia he did absolutely nothing to
establish the authority of his ward; in 1452 the Austrians
besieged him in Vienna Neustadt and compelled him to surrender
the person of Ladislaus, thus ending even his nominal authority.
When the young king died in 1457 the Habsburgs lost Hungary
and Bohemia, but they retained Austria, which, after some
disputing, Frederick and Albert divided between themselves,
the former taking lower and the latter upper Austria. This
arrangement was of short duration. In 1461 Albert made war
upon his brother and forced him to resign lower Austria, which,
however, he recovered after Albert's death in December 1463.
Still more unfortunate was the German king in Switzerland. For
many years the Swiss had chafed under the rule of the Habs-
burgs; during the reign of Rudolph I. they had shown signs of
resentment as the kingly power increased; and the struggle which
had been carried on for nearly two centuries had been almost
uniformly in their favour. It was marked by the victory of
Morgarten over Duke Leopold I. in 131 5, and by that of Sempach
over Leopold III. in 1386, by the conquest of Aargau at the
instigation of the emperor Sigismund early in the 15th century,
and by the final struggle for freedom against Frederick IIL and
Sigismund of Tirol. Taking advantage of some dissensions
among the Swiss, the king saw an opportunity to recover his
lost lands, and in 1443 war broke out. But his allies, the men
of Ziirich, were defeated, and when in August 1444 some French
mercenaries, who had advanced to his aid, suffered the same
fate at St Jakob, he was compelled to give up the struggle. A
few years later Sigismund became involved in a war with the
same formidable foemen; he too was worsted, and the " Per-
petual Peace" of 1474 ended the rule of the Habsburgs in
Switzerland. This humiliation was the second great step in
the process of removing the Habsburgs from western to eastern
Europe. In 1453, just ^fter his coronation as emperor at Rome,
Frederick legalized the use of the title archduke, which had been
claimed spasmodically by the Habsburgs since 1361. This title
is now peculiar to the house of Habsburg.
The reverses suffered by the Habsburgs during the reign of
Frederick IIL were many and serious, but an improvement
was at hand. The emperor died in August 1 493 , and was followed
on the imperial throne by his son Maximilian I., perhaps the
most versatile and interesting member of the family. Before
his father's death Maximilian had been chosen German king,
or king of the Romans, and had begun to repair the fortunes of
his house. He had married Mary, daughter and heiress of
Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy; he had driven the Hun-
garians from Vienna and the Austrian archduchies, which
Frederick had, perforce, allowed them to occupy; and he had
received Tirol on the abdication of Sigismund in 1490. True
it is that upon Mary's death in 1482 part of her inheritance, the
rich and prosperous Netherlands, held that her husband's
authority was at an end, while another part, the two Burgundies
and Artois, had been seized by the king of France; nevertheless,
after a protracted struggle the German king secured almost the
whole of Charles the Bold's lands for his son, the archduke
Philip, the duchy of Burgundy alone remaining in the power of
France after the conclusion of the peace of Senlis in 1493-
Maximilian completed his work by adding a piece of Bavaria,
Gorz and then Gradiska to the Habsburg lands.
After Sigismund's death in 1496 Maximilian and Philip were
the only living male members of the family. Philip married
Joanna, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, and died
in 1506 leaving two sons, Charles and Ferdinand. Charles
succeeded his father in the Netherlands; he followed one grand-
father, Ferdinand, as king of Spain in 1516, and when the other,
HABSBURG, HOUSE OF
789
Maximilian, died in 15x9 he became the emperor Charles V.,
and succeeded to all the hereditary lands of the Habsburgs.
But provision had to be made for Ferdinand, and in 152 1 this
prince was given the Austrian archduchies, Austria, Styria,
Carinthia and Carniola; in the same year he married Anne,
daughter of Wladislaus, king of Hungary and Bohemia, and
when his childless brother-in-law, King Louis, was killed at the
battle of Mohacs in August 1526 he claimed the two kingdoms,
both by right of his wife and by treaty. After a little trouble
Bohemia passed under his rule, but Hungary was more recal-
citrant. A long war took place between Ferdinand and John
Zapolya, who was also crowned king of Hungary, but in 1538 a
treaty was made and the country was divided, the Habsburg
prince receiving the western and smaller portion. However, he
was soon confronted with a more formidable foe, and he spent
a large part of his subsequent life in defending his lands from the
attacks of the Turks.
The Habsburgs had now reached the summit of their power.
The prestige which belonged to Charles as head of the Holy
Roman Empire was backed by the wealth and commerce of the
Netherlands and of Spain, and by the riches of the Spanish
colonies in America. In Italy he ruled over Sardinia, Naples
and Sicily, which had passed to him with Spain, and the duchy
of Milan, which he had annexed in 1535; to the Netherlands
he had added Friesland, the bishopric of Utrecht, Groningen
and Gelderland, and he still possessed Franche-Comtl and the
fragments of the Habsburg lands in Alsace and the neighbour-
hood. Add to this Ferdinand's inheritance, the Austrian arch-
duchies and Tirol, Bohemia with her dependent provinces, and
a strip of Hungary, and the two brothers had under their sway
a part of Europe the extent of which was great, but the wealth
and importance of which were immeasurably greater. Able
to scorn the rivalry of the other princely houses of Germany, the
Habsburgs saw in the kings of the house of Valois the only
foemen worthy of their regard.
When Charles V. abdicated he was succeeded as emperor, not
by his son Philip, but by his brother Ferdinand. Philip became
king of Spain, ruling also the Netherlands, Franche-Comt6,
Naples, Sicily, Milan and Sardinia, and the family was definitely
divided into the Spanish and Austrian branches. For Spain and
the Spanish Habsburgs the 17th century was a period of loss and
decay, the seeds of which were sown during the reign of Philip II.
The northern provinces of the Netherlands were lost practically
in 1609 and definitely by the treaty of Westphalia in 1648;
Roussillon and Artois were annexed to France by the treaty of
the Pyrenees in 1659, while Franche-Comt6 and a number of
towns in the Spanish Netherlands suffered a similar fate by
the treaty of Nijmwegen in 1678. Finally Charles II., the last
Habsburg king of Spain, died childless in November 1700, and
his lands were the prize of the War of the Spanish Succession.
The Austrian Habsburgs fought long and valiantly for the
kingdom of their kinsman, but Louis XIV. was too strong for
them, and by the peace of Rastatt Spain passed from the
Habsburgs to the Bourbons. However, the Austrian branch of
the family received in 1 714 the Italian possessions of Charles II.,
except Sicily, which was given to the duke of Savoy, and also
the southern Netherlands, which are thus often referred to as
the Austrian Netherlands; and retained the duchy of Mantua,
which it had seized in 1708.
Ferdinand I., the founder of the line of the Austrian Habs-
burgs, arranged a division of his lands among his three sons before
his death in 1564. The eldest, Maximilian II., received Austria,
Bohemia and Hungary, and succeeded his father as emperor;
he married Maria, a daughter of Charles V., and though
he had a large family his male line became extinct in 1619.
The younger sons were Ferdinand, ruler of Tirol, and Charles,
archduke of Styria. The emperor Maximilian II. left five sons,
two of whom, Rudolph and Matthias, succeeded in turn to the
imperial throne, but, as all the brothers were without male
issue, the family was early in the 17 th century threatened with
a serious crisis. Rudolph died in 161 2, the reigning emperor
Matthias was old and ill, and the question of the succession to
the Empire, to the kingdoms of Hungary and Bohemia, and to
the hereditary lands of the Habsburgs became acute. Turning
to the collateral branches of the family, the sons of the archduke
Ferdinand were debarred from the succession owing to their
father's morganatic marriage with Philippine Welser, and the
only hope of the house was in the sons of Charles of Styria.
To prevent the Habsburg monarchy from falling to pieces the
emperor's two surviving brothers renounced their rights, and
it was decided that Ferdinand, a son of Charles of Styria, should
succeed his cousin Matthias. The difficulties which impeded
the completion of this scheme were gradually overcome, and
the result was that when Matthias died in 1619 the whole of
the lands of the Austrian Habsburgs was united under the rule
of the emperor Ferdinand II. Tirol, indeed, a few years later
was separated from the rest of the monarchy and given to the
emperor's brother, the archduke Leopold, but this separation
was ended when Leopold's son died in 1665.
The arbitrary measures which followed Ferdinand's acquisition
of the Bohemian crown contributed to the outbreak of the
Thirty Years' War, but in a short time the Bohemians were
subdued, and in 1627, following a precedent set in 1547, the
emperor declared the throne hereditary in the house of Habsburg.
The treaty of Westphalia which ended this war took compara-
tively little from the Habsburgs, though they ceded Alsace to
France; but the Empire was greatly weakened, and its ruler was
more, than ever compelled to make his hereditary lands in the
east of Europe the base of his authority, finding that he derived
more strength from his position as archduke of Austria than
from that of emperor. Ferdinand IIL succeeded his father
Ferdinand II., and during the long reign of the former's son,
Leopold I., the Austrian, like the Spanish, Habsburgs were on
the defensive against the aggressive policy of Louis XIV., and
in addition they had to withstand the assaults of the Turks.
In two ways they sought to strengthen their position. The
unity of the Austrian lands was strictly maintained, and several
marriages kept up a close and friendly connexion with Spain.
A series of victories over the sultan during the later part of the
17th century rolled back the tide of the Turkish advance, and
the peace of Karlowitz made in 1699 gave nearly the whole of
Hungary to the Habsburgs. Against France Austria was less suc-
cessful, and a number of humiliations culminated in x 714 in the
failure to secure Spain, to which reference has already been, made.
The hostility of Austria and France, or rather of Habsburg
and Bourbon, outlived the War of the Spanish Succession. In
1 71 7 Spain conquered Sardinia, which was soon exchanged by
Austria for Sicily; other struggles and other groupings of the
European powers followed, and in 1735, by tie treaty of Vienna,
Austria gave up Naples and Sicily and received the, duchies of
Parma and Piacenza. These surrenders were doubtless inevit-
able, but they shook the position of the house of Habsburg in
Italy. However, a domestic crisis was approaching which threw
Italian affairs into the shade. Charles VI., who had succeeded
his brother, Joseph I., as emperor in 171 i, was without sons, and
his prime object in life was to secure the succession of his elder
daughter, Maria Theresa, to the whole of his lands and dignities.
But in 1 713, four years before the birth of Maria Theresa, he had
first issued the famous Pragmatic Sanction, which declared that
the Habsburg monarchy was indivisible and that in default of
male heirs a female could succeed to it. Then after the death of
his only son and the birth of Maria Theresa the emperor bent
all his energies to securing the acceptance of the Pragmatic
Sanction. Promulgated anew in 1724, it was formally accepted
by the estates of the different Habsburg lands; in 173 1 it was
guaranteed by the imperial diet. By subordinating every other
interest to this, Charles at length procured the assent of the
various powers of Europe to the proposed arrangement; he
married the young princess to Francis Stephen, duke of Lorraine,
afterwards grand-duke of Tuscany, and when he died on the
20th of October 1740 he appeared to have realized his great
ambition. With the emperor's death the house of Habsburg,
strictly speaking, became extinct, its place being taken by the
house of Habsburg-Lorraine, which sprang from the union of
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HABSBURG, HOUSE OF
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Maria Theresa and Francis Stephen; and it is interesting to note
that the present Habsburgs are only descended in the female
line from Rudolph I. and Maximilian I.
Immediately after the death of Charles the Pragmatic Sanction
was forgotten. A crowd of claimants called for various parts of
the Habsburg lands; Frederick the Great, talking less but acting
more, invaded and conquered Silesia, and it seemed likely that
the dissolution of the Habsburg monarchy would at no long
interval follow the extinction of the Habsburg race. A Wittels-
bach prince, Charles Albert, elector of Bavaria, the emperor
Charles VII., and not Francis Stephen, was chosen emperor in
January 1742, and by the treaty of Breslau, made later in the
same year, nearly all Silesia was formally surrendered to Prussia.
But the worst was now over, and when in 1748 the peace of
Aix-la-Chapelle, which practically confirmed the treaty of
Breslau, had cleared away the dust of war, Maria Theresa and
her consort were found to occupy a strong position in Europe.
In the first place, in September 1745, Francis had been chosen
emperor; then the imperial pair ruled Hungary and Bohemia,
although the latter kingdom was shorn of Silesia; in spite of
French conquests the Austrian Netherlands remained in their
hands; and in Italy Francis had added Tuscany to his wife's
heritage, although Parma and Piacenza had been surrendered
to Spain and part of Milan to the king of Sardinia. The diplo-
matic volte-face and the futile attempts of Maria Theresa to
recover Silesia which followed this treaty belong to the general
history of Europe.
The emperor Francis I. died in 1765 and was succeeded by his
son Joseph II., an ambitious and able prince, whose aim was
to restore the Habsburgs and the Empire to their former great
positions in Europe, and whose pride did not prevent him from
learning from Frederick the Great, the despoiler of his house.
His projects, however, including one of uniting Bavaria with
Austria, which was especially cherished, failed completely, and
when he died in February 1790 he left his lands in a state of
turbulence which reflected the general condition of Europe.
The Netherlands had risen against the Austrians, and in January
1790 had declared themselves independent; Hungary, angered
by Joseph's despotic measures, was in revolt, and the other parts
of the monarchy were hardly more contented. But the 18th
century saw a few successes for the Habsburgs. In 1 7 1 8 a success-
ful war with Turkey was ended by the peace of Passarowitz,
which advanced the Austrian boundary very considerably to the
east, and although by the treaty of Belgrade, signed twenty-one
years later, a large part of this territory was surrendered, yet a
residuum, the banate of Temesvar, was permanently incor-
porated with Hungary. The struggle over the succession to
Bavaria, which was concluded in 1779 by the treaty of Teschen,
was responsible for adding Innviertel, or the quarter of the
Inn, to Austria; the first partition of Poland brought eastern
Galicia and Lodomeria, and in 1777 the sultan ceded Bukovina.
Joseph II. was followed by his brother, Leopold II., who restored
the Austrian authority in the Netherlands, and the latter by his
son Francis II., who resigned the crown of the Holy Roman
Empire in August 1806, having two years before taken the title
of emperor of Austria as Francis I.
Before the abdication of the emperor Francis in 1806 Austria
had met and suffered from the fury of revolutionary France,
but the cessions of territory made by her at the treaties of
Campo Formio (1797), of Lun6ville (1801) and of Pressburg
(1805) were of no enduring importance. This, however, cannot
be said for the treaties of Paris and of Vienna, which in 1814
and 1815 arranged the map of Europe upon the conclusion of
the Napoleonic wars. These were highly favourable to the
Habsburgs. In eastern and central Europe Austria regained
her former position, the lands ceded to Bavaria and also eastern
Galicia, which had been in the hands of Russia since 1809, being
restored; she gave up the Austrian Netherlands, soon to be
known as Belgium, to the new kingdom of the Netherlands,
and acquiesced in the arrangement which had taken from her
the Breisgau and the remnant of the Habsburg lands upon the
Rhine. In return for these losses Austria became the dominant
power in Italy. A mass of northern Italy, including her former
possessions in Milan and the neighbourhood, and also the lands
recently forming the republic of Venice, was made into the
kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia, and this owned the emperor of
Austria as king. Across the Adriatic Dalmatia was added to
the Habsburg monarchy, the population of which, it has been
estimated, was increased at this time by over four millions.
The illiberal and oppressive character of the Austrian rule
in Italy made it very unpopular; it was hardly less so in Hungary
and Bohemia, and the advent of the year 1848 found the subject
kingdoms eager to throw off the Habsburg yoke. The whole
monarchy was quickly in a state of revolution, in the midst of
which the emperor Ferdinand, who had succeeded his father
Francis in 1835, abdicated, and his place was taken by his
young nephew Francis Joseph. The position of the Habsburg
monarchy now seemed desperate. But it was strong in its
immemorial tradition, which was enough to make the efforts of
the Frankfort parliament to establish German unity under
Prussian hegemony abortive; it was strong also in the general
loyalty to the throne of the imperial army; and its counsels were
directed by statesmen who knew well how to exploit in the
interests of the central power the national rivalries within the
monarchy. With the crushing of the Hungarian revolt by the
emperor Nicholas I. of Russia in 1849 the monarchy was freed
from the most formidable of its internal troubles; in 1850 the
convention of Olmtitz restored its influence in Germany.
Though the status quo was thus outwardly re-established, the
revolutions of 1848 had really unchained forces which made its
maintenance impossible. In Germany Prussia was steadily pre-
paring for the inevitable struggle with Austria for the mastery;
in France Napoleon III. was preparing to pose as the champion
of the oppressed nationalities which had once more settled down
sullenly under the Habsburg yoke. The alliance of the French
emperor and the king of Sardinia, and the Italian war of 1859
ended in the loss of Lombardy to the Habsburgs. Seven years
later the crushing defeat of Koniggr&tz not only ended their long
rule in Italy, based on the tradition of the medieval empire, by
leading to the cession of Venetia to the new Italian kingdom,
but led to their final exclusion from the German confederation,
soon to become, under the headship of Prussia, the German
empire.
By the loss of the predominance in Germany conceded to it
by the treaties of Vienna, and by the shifting of its " centre
of gravity'' eastward, the Habsburg monarchy, however,
perhaps gained more than it lost. One necessary result, indeed,
was the composition (Ausgleich) with Hungary in 1867, by which
the latter became an independent state (Francis Joseph being
crowned king at Pest in June 1867) bound to the rest of the
monarchy only by the machinery necessary for the carrying out
of a common policy in matters of common interest. This at
least restored the loyalty of the Hungarians to the Habsburg
dynasty; it is too soon yet to say that it secured permanently
the essential unity of the Habsburg monarchy. By the system
of the Dual Monarchy the rest of the Austrian emperor's
dominions (Cis-Leithan) were consolidated under a single central
government, the history of which has been mainly that of the
rival races within the empire struggling for political predomin-
ance. Since the development of the constitution has been
consistently in a democratic direction and the Slavs are in a
great majority, the tendency has been for the German element —
strong in its social status and tradition of predominance — to
be swamped by what it regards as an inferior race; and a con-
siderable number of Austrian " Germans " have learned to look
not to their Habsburg rulers, but to the power of the German
empire for political salvation. The tendency eastwards of the
monarchy was increased when in 1878 the congress of Berlin
placed Bosnia and Herzegovina under Austrian rule. Old
ambitions were now revived at the expense of the Ottoman
empire, the goal of which was the port of Salonica; and not the
least menacing aspect of the question of the near East has been
that the rivalry of Italy and the Habsburg monarchy has been
transferred to the Balkan peninsula. Yet, in spite of internal
792
dissensions arising out of questions fundamentally insoluble, and
in spite of the constant threat of external complications that may
lead to war, the Habsburg monarchy as the result of the changes
in the 19th and 20th centuries is seemingly stronger than ever.
The shadow of universal claims to empire and sonorous but
empty titles have vanished, but so have the manifold rivalries
and entanglements which accompanied the Habsburg rule in
Italy and the Netherlands and Habsburg preponderance in
Germany. The monarchy is stronger because its sphere is more
defined; because as preserving the pax Romana among the
jostling races of eastern Europe, it is more than ever recognized
as an essential element in the maintenance of European peace,
and is recognized as necessary and beneficial even by the
ambitious and restless nationalities that chafe under its rule.
A few words must be said about the cadet branches of the
Habsburg family. When, in 1765, Francis I. died and Joseph II.
became emperor, the grand-duchy of Tuscany passed by special
arrangement not to Joseph, but to his younger brother Leopold.
Then in 1791, after Leopold had succeeded Joseph as emperor,
he handed over the grand-duchy to his second son, Ferdinand
(1 760-1824). In 1801 this prince was deposed by Napoleon and
Tuscany was seized by France. Restored to the Habsburgs in
the person of Ferdinand in 1814, it remained under his rule, and
then under that of his son Leopold (1797-1870), until the rising
of 1859, when the Austrians were driven out and the grand-duchy
was added to the kingdom of Sardinia. A similar fate attended
the duchy of Modena, which had passed to the Habsburgs
through the marriage of its heiress Mary Beatrice of Este (d. 1829)
with the archduke Ferdinand (1754-1806), brother of the
emperor Leopold II. From 1 8 14 to 1 846 this duchy was governed
by Ferdinand's son, Duke Francis IV., and from 1846 to 1859
by his grandson, Francis V. This family became extinct on the
death of Francis V. in 1875.
In addition to his successor Francis II., and to Ferdinand,
grand-duke of Tuscany, the emperor Leopold II. had eight sons,
five of whom, including the archduke John (1782-1859), who
saw a good deal of service during the Napoleonic Wars and was
chosen regent (Reichsverweser) of Germany in 1848, have now
no living male descendants. Thus the existing branches of the
family are descended from Leopold's five other sons. The
descendants of Leopold, the dispossessed grand-duke of Tuscany,
were in 1009 represented by his son, Ferdinand (b. 1835), who
still claimed the title of grand-duke of Tuscany, and his son and
grandsons; by the numerous descendants of the archduke
Charles Salvator (1830-1892); and by the archduke Louis
Salvator (b. 1847), a great traveller and a voluminous writer.
The grand-duke's fourth son was the archduke John Nepomuck
Salvator, who, after serving in the Austrian army, resigned all
his rights and titles and under the name of Johann Orth took
command of a sailing vessel. He is supposed to have been
drowned off the coast of South America in 1891, but reports of
his continued existence were circulated from time to time after
that date. Of the emperor Leopold's other sons the archduke
Charles, perhaps the most distinguished soldier of the family,
left four sons, including Albert, duke of Tcschen (1817-1895),
who inherited some of his father's military ability. Charles's
family was in 1909 represented by his grandsons, the sons of the
archduke Charles Ferdinand (1818-1874). The archduke Joseph
(1 776-1847), palatine of Hungary, was represented by agrandson,
Joseph Augustus (b. 1872), and the archduke Rainer (1783-
1853), viceroy of Lombardy-Venetia, by a son Rainer (b. 1827),
and by several grandsons.
The eldest and reigning branch of the family was in 1909
represented by the emperor Francis Joseph, whose father was
the archduke Francis Charles (1802-1878), and whose grandfather
was the emperor Francis H. Francis Joseph's only son Rudolph
died in 1889; consequently the heir to the Habsburg monarchy
was the emperor's nephew Francis Ferdinand (b. 1863), the
eldest of the three sons of his brother Charles Louis (1833-1896).
In 1875 Francis Ferdinand inherited the wealth of the Este
family and took the title of archduke of Austria-Este; in 1900
he contracted a morganatic marriage with Sophia, countess of
HACHETTE, J. N. P..
Chotek, renouncing for his sons the succession to the monarchy.
Thus after Francis Ferdinand this would pass to the sons of his
brother, the archduke Otto (1 865-1 906). One of the emperor's
three brothers was Maximilian, emperor of Mexico from 1863
to 1867.
With the exception of Charles V. the Habsburgs have produced
no statesmen of great ability, while several members of the
family have displayed marked traces of insanity. Nevertheless
they secured, and for over 350 years they kept, the first place
among the potentates of Europe; a dignity in origin and theory
elective becoming in practice hereditary in their house. This
position they owe to some extent to the tenacity with which
they have clung to the various lands and dignities which have
passed into their possession, but they owe it much more to a
series of fortunate marriages and opportune deaths. The union
of Maximilian and Mary of Burgundy, of Philip the Handsome
and Joanna of Spain, of Ferdinand and Anna of Hungary and
Bohemia; the death of Ottakar of Bohemia, of John, the only
son of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, of Louis of Hungary and
Bohemia — these are the corner-stones upon which the Habsburg
monarchy has been built.
For the origin and early history of the Habsburgs see G. de Roo,
Annates rerum ab Austriacis Habsburgicae gentis principibus a
Rudolpho I. usque ad Carolum V. qestarum (Innsbruck, 1C92, fol.);
M. Herrgott, Genealogia diplomattca augustae gentis Habsburgicae
(Vienna, 1737-1738); E. M. Fiirst von Lichnowsky, Geschichte des
Hauses Habsburk (Vienna, 1 836-1 844); A. Schulte, Geschichte der
Habsburger in aen^ ersten drei Jahrhunderten (Innsbruck, 1887);
T. von Liebenau, Die Anfange des Hauses Habsburg, (Vienna, 1883) ;
W. Merz, Die Habsburg (Aarau, 1806) ; W. Gisi, Der Ursprung der
Hduser Zdhringen und Habsburz (1888) ; and F. Weihrich, Stammtafel
zur Geschichte des Hauses Habsburg (Vienna, 1893), For the history
of the Habsburg monarchy see Langl, Die Habsburgund die denk-
wurdigen Stdtten ihrer Umgebung (Vienna, 1895) » and E. A. Freeman,
Historical Geography of Europe (1881). Two English books on the
subject are J. Gilbart-Smith, The Cradle of the ttapsburgs (1007);
and A. R. and E. Cblquhoun, The Whirlpool of Europe, Austria-
Hungary and the Hapsburgs (1906). (A. W. H.*)
HACHETTE, JEAN NICOLAS PIERRE (1769-1834), French
mathematician, was born at Mezieres, where his father was a
bookseller, on the 6th of May 1769. For his early education
he proceeded first to the college of Charleville, and afterwards
to that of Reims, in 1788 he returned to Mezieres, where he
was attached to the school of engineering as draughtsman to
the professors of physics and chemistry. In 1793 he became
professor of hydrography at Collioure and Port-Vendre. While
there he sent several papers, in which some questions of naviga-
tion were treated geometrically, to Gaspard Monge, at that time
minister of marine, through whose influence he obtained an
appointment in Paris. Towards the close of 1794, when the
Ecole Polytechnique was established, he was appointed along
with Monge over the department of descriptive geometry.
There he instructed some of the ablest Frenchmen of the day,
among them S. D. Poisson, F. Arago and A. Fresnel. Accom-
panying Guy ton de Morveau in his expedition, earlier in the
year, he was present at the battle of Fleurus, and entered
Brussels with the French army. In 1816, on the accession of
Louis XVIII., he was expelled from his chair by government.
He retained, however, till his death the office of professor in the
faculty of sciences in the £cole Normale, to which he had been
appointed in 1810. The necessary royal assent was in 1823
refused to the election of Hachette to the Acad6mie des Sciences,
and it was not till 1831, after the Revolution, that he obtained
that honour. He died at Paris on the 16th of January 1834.
Hachette was held in high esteem for his private worth, as well
as for his scientific attainments and great public services. His
labours were chiefly in the field of descriptive geometry, with its
application to the arts and mechanical engineering. It was left
to him to develop the geometry of Monge, and to him also is due
in great measure the rapid advancement which France made soon
after the establishment of the ficole Polytechnique in the
construction of machinery .
Hachette's principal works are his Deux Supplements & la Giomitrie
descriptive de Monge (181 1 and 1818); Elements de g4omitrie a
trots dimensions (18 17); Collection des ipures de geomHrie, &c.
HACHETTE, JEANNE— HACKETT, H. B.
(1795 and 1817); Applications de gSomitrie descriptive (1817);
Trait* de giomttrie descriptive, &c. (1832); Trait* eHmentaire des
machines (181 1); Correspondence sur VEcoU Pdy technique (1804-
1815). He also contributed many valuable papers to the leading
scientific journals of his time.
For a list of Hachette's writings see the Catalogue of Scientific
Papers of the Royal Society of London ; also F. Araro, (Envrcs (1855) ;
and Silvestre, Notice sur J. N. P. Hachette (BruxeUes, 1836).
HACHETTE, JEANNE, French heroine. Jeanne Laine, or
Fouxquet, called Jeanne Hachette, was born about 1454. We
have no precise information about her family or origin. She is
known solely for her act of heroism which on the 37 th of June
147 a saved Beauvais when it was on the point of being taken
by the troops of Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy. The town
was defended by only 300 men-at-arms, commanded by Louis de
Balagny. The Burgundians were making an assault, and one of
their number had actually planted a flag upon the battlements,
when Jeanne, axe in hand, flung herself upon him, hurled him
into the moat, tore down the flag, and revived the drooping
courage of the garrison. In gratitude for this heroic deed,
Louis XI. instituted a procession in Beauvais called the Proces-
sion of the Assault, and married Jeanne to her chosen lover
Colin Pilon, loading them with favours.
See Georges Valla t, Jeanne Hachette (Abbeville, 1898).
HACHETTE, LOUIS CHRISTOPHB FRANCOIS (1800-1864),
French publisher, was born at Rethel in the Ardennes on the
5th of May 1800. After studying three years at a normal school
with the view of becoming a teacher, he was in 1822 on political
grounds expelled from the seminary. He then studied law, but
in 1826 he established in Paris a publishing business for the issue
of works adapted to improve the system of school instruction,
or to promote the general culture of the community. He
published manuals in various departments of knowledge, dic-
tionaries of modern and ancient languages, educational journals,
and French, Latin and Greek classics annotated with great
care by the most eminent authorities. Subsequently to 1850 he,
in conjunction with other partners, published a cheap railway
library, scientific and miscellaneous libraries, an illustrated
library for the young, libraries of ancient literature, of modern
foreign literature, and of modern foreign romance, a series of
guide-books and a series of dictionaries of universal reference.
In 1855 he also founded Le Journal pour kms } a publication with
a circulation of 1 50,000 weekly. Hachette also manifested great
interest in the formation of mutual friendly societies among the
working classes, in the establishment of benevolent institutions,
and in other questions relating to the amelioration of the poor,
on which subjects he wrote various pamphlets; and he lent the
weight of his influence towards a just settlement of the question
of international literary copyright. He died oh the 31st of
July 1864.
HACHURB (French for ** hatching "), the term for the con-
ventional lines used in hill or mountain shading upon a map
(q.v.) to indicate the slope of the surface, the depth of shading
being greatest where the slope is steepest. The method is less
accurate than that of contour lines, but gives an indication of
the trend and extent of a range or mountain system, especially
upon small-scale maps.
HACIENDA (O. Span. facienda f from the Latin, meaning
" things to be done "), a Spanish term for a landed estate.
It is commonly applied in Spanish America to a country estate,
on which stock-raising, manufacturing or mining may be carried
on, usually with a dwelling-house for the owner's residence upon
it. It is thus used loosely for a country house.
HACKBERRY, a name given to the fruit of Celtis occidentalism
belonging to the natural botanical order Ulmaceae, to which
also belongs the elm ( Ulmus), It is also known under the name
of "sugar-berry," " beaver-wood " and "nettle-tree." The
hackberry tree is of middle size, attaining from 60 to 80 ft. in
height (though sometimes reaching 130 ft.), and with the aspect
of an elm. The leaves are ovate in shape, with a very long taper
point, rounded and usually very oblique at the base, usually
glabrous above and soft-pubescent beneath. The soft filmy
flowers appear early in the spring before the expansion of the
793
leaves. The fruit is oblong, about half to three-quarters of an
inch long, of a reddish or yellowish colour when young, turning
to a dark purple in autumn. This tree is distributed through
the deep shady forests bordering river banks from Canada
(where it is very rare) to the southern states. The fruit lias a
sweetish and slightly astringent taste, and is largely eaten in the
United States. The seeds contain an oil like that of almonds.
The bark is tough and fibrous like hemp, and the wood is heavy,
soft, fragile and coarse-grained, and is used for making fences
and furniture. The root has been used as a dye for linens.
HACKENSACK, a town and the county-seat of Bergen county,
New Jersey, U.S.A., on the Hackensack river, 13 m. N. of Jersey
City. Pop. (1890), 6004; (1900), 0443, of whom 2009 were foreign-
born and 5x5 were negroes; (estimated, 1006), 11,469. It is
served by the New York, Susquehanna & Western, and the New
Jersey & New York railways, both being controlled by the Erie
Company; and indirectly by the West Shore (at Bogota, J m.
S.E.). Electric lines connect Hackensack with Newark, Passaic
and Paterson, and with New York ferries. The town extends
from the low bank of the river W. to the top of a ridge, about
40 ft. higher up, from which there are good views to the S. and
E. Hackensack is principally a residential town, though there
are a number of manufacturing establishments in and near it.
Silk and silk goods and wall-paper are the principal manu-
factures. In 1905 the value of the town's factory product was
$1,488,358, an increase of 00*3% since 1000. There are an
historic mansion-house and an interesting old Dutch church,
both erected during the 18th century; and a monument marks
the grave of General Enoch Poor (1736-1780), an officer in the
War of Independence, who was born at Andover, Mass., entered
the Continental Army from New Hampshire, and took part in
the campaign against Burgoyne, in the battle of Monmouth
and in General Sullivan's expedition against the Iroquois.
Hackensack was settled by the Dutch about 1640, and was named
after the Hackensack Indians, a division of the Unami Dela-
wares, who lived in the valleys of the Hackensack and Passaic
rivers, and whose best-known chief was Oritany, a friend of the
whites. Hackensack is coextensive with the township of New
Barbadoes, first incorporated with considerably larger territory
in 1693.
HACKRT, JOHN (1592-1670), bishop of Lichfield and Coventry,
was born in London and educated at Westminster and Trinity
College, Cambridge. On taking his degree he was elected a
fellow of his college, and soon afterwards wrote the comedy of
Loiola (London, 1648), which was twice performed before James
I. He was ordained in 161 8, and through the influence of John
Williams (1 582-1650) became rector in 1621 of Stoke Hammond,
Bucks, and Kirkby Underwood, Lincolnshire. In 1623 he was
chaplain to James, and in 1624 Williams presented him to the
livings of St Andrew's, Holborn, and Cheam, Surrey. When the
so-called "root-and-branch bill" was before parliament in
1641, Hacket was selected to plead in the House of Commons
for the continuance of cathedral establishments. In 1645 his
living of St Andrew's was sequestered, but he was allowed to
retain the rectory of Cheam. On the accession of Charles II. his
fortunes improved; he frequently preached before the king,
and in 1661 was consecrated bishop of Lichfield and Coventry.
His best-known book is the excellent biography of his patron,
Archbishop Williams, entitled Scrinia reserata: a Memorial
offered to the great Deservings of John Williams, D.D. (London,
1693).
HACKETT, HORATIO BALCH (1808-187 5), American biblical
scholar, was born in Salisbury, Massachusetts, on the 27th of
December 1 808. He was educated at Phillips- Andover Academy,
at Amherst College, where he graduated as valedictorian in 1830,
and at Andover Theological Seminary, where he graduated in
1834. He was adjunct professor of Latin and Greek Languages
and Literature at Brown University in 183 5-1 838 and professor
of Hebrew Literature there in 1838-1839, was ordained to the
Baptist ministry in 1839 — he had become a Baptist at Andover
as the result of preparing a paper on baptism in the New Testa-
ment and the Fathers — and in 1839*1868 he was professor of
794
Biblical literature and interpretation in Newton Theological
Institution where hi* most important work was the introduction
of the modern German methods of Biblical criticism, which he had
learned from Moses Stuart at Andover and with which he made
himself more familiar in Germany (especially under Tholuck at
Halle) in 1841. He travelled in Egypt and Palestine in 1852,
and in 1858-1859 in Greece, becoming proficient in modern
Greek. From 1870 until his death in Rochester, New York,
on the and of November 1875, he was professor of Biblical
literature and New Testament exegesis in the Rochester Theo-
logical Seminary. He was a great teacher but a greater critical
and exegetical scholar.
He wrote Christian Memorials of the War (1864); an English
version of Winer's Grammar of the Chaldee Language (1844) ; Exercises
in Hebrew Grammar (1847); and various articles on the Semitic
language and literature in periodicals; but his best-known work was
in general commentary on the Bible and translation, and in the special
text study of the New Testament. Under these two headings fall :
Illustrations of Scripture; suggested by a Tour through the Holy Land
(1855); the American revision, with Ezra Abbot, of Smith's Diction-
ary of the Bible, to the British edition of which he had contributed
about thirty articles; Commentary on the Original Text of the Acts
of the Apostles (1853; and edition, 1858), for many years the best
English commentary; Notes on the Greek Text of the Epistle of Paul
to Philemon, and a Revised Version of Philemon, both published in
1 860; the English versions, in Schaff's edition of Lange's Com-
mentaries, of van Ootterzcc's Philemon and Braune's Philippians;
and for the American Bible Union Version of the Bible he translated
the books of Ruth and Judges, and aided T. J. Conant in editorial
revision ; and he was one of the American translators for the English
Bible revision.
See Memorials of Horatio Balch Hackett (Rochester, N.Y., 1876),
edited by G. H. Whittemore.
HACKETT, JAMES HENRY (1800-1871), American actor,
was born in New York. After an unsuccessful entry into busi-
ness, in 1826 he went on the stage, where he soon established
a reputation as a player of eccentric character parts. As Falstaff
he was no less successful in England than in America. At various
times he went into management, and he was the author of Notes
and Comments on Shakespeare (1863).
His son, James Kxtsltas Hackett (1869- ), born at
Wolfe Island, Ontario, and educated at the College of the City
of New York, also became an actor. He came into prominence
at the Lyceum in Daniel Frohman's company, and afterwards
had considerable success in romantic parts. As a manager he
stood outside the American syndicate of theatres, and organized
several companies to play throughout the United States. In
1807 he married Mary Mannering, the Anglo-American actress.
HACKLANDBR, FRIEDRICH WILHBLM VON (1816-1877),
Gorman novelist and dramatist, was born at Burtscheid near
Aix-la-Chapelle on the 1st of November 1816. Having served
an apprenticeship in a commercial house, he entered the Prussian
artillery, but, disappointed at not finding advancement, returned
to business. A soldier's life had a fascination for him, and he
made his dtbut as an author with Bilder aus dem SoldaUnleben
im Friedtn (1841). After a journey to the east, he was appointed
secretary to the crown prince of Wurttemberg, whom he accom-
panied on his travels. Wacktstubenabtnieuer, a continuation of
his first work, appeared in 1845, and it was followed by Bilder
aus dem SMateukbeu im Kriege (1849-1850). As a result of a
tour in Spain in 1854, appeared Ein Winter in Spanien (1855).
In 1857 he founded, in conjunction with Edmund von Zoller, the
illustrated weekly, Vber Land und Meer* In 1859 Hackl&nder
was appointed director of royal parks and public gardens at
Stuttgart, and in this post did much towards the embellishment
of the city. In 1850 he was attached to the headquarters staff
of the Austrian army during the Italian war; in 1861 he was
raised to an hereditary knighthood in Austria; in 1S64 he retired
into private life, and died on the 6th of July 1877, Hacklander's
literary talent is confined within narrow limits. There is much
in his works of lively, adventurous and even romantic description,
but the character-drawing is feeble and superficial.
Hackl&tuter was a voluminous writer; the most complete edition
of hi* works is the third, published at Stuttjrart in i$ro, in 60 volumes.
There is aI>o ** good select ion in 30 volumes ( 1 #81 V Among his novels,
A\im**J«w oV**k kirn 11351); Emgen Stwtried 11852); Krieg und
HACKETT, J. Hi— HADAD
Frieden (1859} » and the comedies Der geheime Agent (1850) and
Magnetische Kuren (1851) may be specially mentioned. His auto-
biography appeared in 1878 under the title, Der Roman meines Lebens
(2 vols.). See H. Morning, Erinnerungen an P. W. Hackldnder
(1878).
HACKNEY, a north-eastern metropolitan borough oi London,
England, bounded W. by Stoke Newington and Islington, and
S. by Shoreditch, Bethnal Green and Poplar, and extending N.
and £. to the boundary of the county of London. Pop. (1901),
219,272. It is a poor and populous district, in which the main
thoroughfares are Ringsland Road, continued N. as Stoke
Newington Road and Stamford Hill; Mare Street, continued
N.W. as Clapton Road to join Stamtord Hill; and Lea Bridge
Road running N.E. towards Walthamstow and Low Leyton.
The borough includes the districts of Clapton in the north,
Homerton in the east, and Dalston and part of Kingsland in
the west. On the east lies the open flat valley of the Lea, which
flows in several branches, and is bordered, immediately outside
the confines of the borough, by the extensive reservoirs of the
East London water-works. In these low lands lie the Hackney
Marshes (338 acres; among several so-called marshes in the Lea
valley), and the borough also contains part of Victoria Park
and a number of open spaces collectively called the Hackney
Commons, including Mill Fields, Hackney Downs, London Fields,
&c. The total area of open spaces exceeds 500 acres. The
tower of the ancient parish church of St Augustine, with the
chapel of the Rowe family, still stands, and is the only historic
building of importance. Among institutions are the German
hospital, Dalston, Metropolitan hospital, Kingsland Road, and
Eastern Fever hospital, Homerton; and the Hackney polytechnic
institute, with which is incorporated the Sir John Cass institute.
Cass (1666-1718), a merchant of the city of London, also a
member of parliament and sheriff, bequeathed £1000 for the
foundation of a free school; in 1732 the bequest was increased
in accordance with an unfinished codicil to his will; and the
income provided from it is now about £6000, some 250 boys and
girls being educated. The parliamentary borough of Hackney
comprises north, central and south divisions, each returning one
member; and the northern division includes the metropolitan
borough of Stoke Newington. The metropolitan borough of
Hackney includes part of the Hornsey parliamentary division of
Middlesex. The borough council consists of a mayor, 10 alder-
men and 60 councillors. Area, 3288*9 acres.
In the 13th century the name appears as Hackenaye or
Hacquenye, but no certain derivation is advanced. Roman
and other remains have been found in Hackney Marshes. In
1290 the bishop of London was lord of the manor, which was
so held until 1550, when it was granted to Thomas, Lord
Wentworth. In 1697 it came into the hands of the Tyssen family.
Extensive property in the parish also belonged to the priory
of the Knights Hospitallers of St John of Jerusalem at Clerken-
well. From the 16th to the early 19th century there were many
fine residences in Hackney. The neighbourhood of Hackney
had at one time an evil reputation as the haunt of highwaymen.
HACKNEY (from Fr. haquenie, Lat. equus> an ambling horse
or mare, especially for ladies to ride; the English " hack " is
simply an abbreviation), originally a riding-horse. At the
present day, however, the hackney (as opposed to a thorough-
bred) is bred for driving as well as riding (see Horse: Breeds).
From the biring-out of hackneys, the word came to be associated
with employment for hire (so " a hack," as a general term for
" drudge "), especially in combination, e.g. hackney-chair,
hackney-coach, hackney-boat. The hackney-coach, a coach
with four wheels and two horses, was a form of hied public
conveyance (see Carriage).
HADAD, the name of a Syrian deity, is met with in the Old
Testament as the name of several human persons; it also occurs
in compound forms like Benhadad and Hadadezer. The divinity
primarily denoted by it is the storm-god who was known also
as Ramman, Bir and Dadda. The Syrian kings of Damascus
seem to have habitually assumed the title of Benhadad, or son
of Hadad (three of this name are mentioned in Scripture), just
as a series of Egyptian monarchs are known to have been
HADDINGTON* EARLS OF— HADDINGTON
795
accustomed to call themselves sons of Amon-Ra. The word
Hadadrimmon, for which the inferior reading Hadarrimmon is
found in some MSS. in the phrase " the mourning of (or at)
Hadadrimmon " (Zech. zii. n), has been a subject of much
discussion. According to Jerome and all the older Christian
interpreters, the mourning for something that occurred at a
place called Hadadrimmon (Mazimianopolis) in the valley of
Megiddo is meant, the event alluded to being generally held to
be the death of Josiah (or, as in the Targum, the death of Ahab
at the hands of Hadadrimmon) ; but more recently the opinion
has been gaining ground that Hadadrimmon is merely another
name for Adonis (q.v.) or Tammuz, the allusion being to the
mournings by which the Adonis festivals were usually accom-
panied (Hitzig on Zech. xii. u, Isa. xvii. 8; Movers, Phonizier, i.
196). T. K. Cheyne (Encycl. Bibl. s.v.) points out that the
Septuagint reads simply Rimmon, and argues that this may be
a corruption of Migdon (Megiddo), in itself a corruption of
Tammuz-Adon. He would render the verse, " In that day
there shall be a great mourning in Jerusalem, as the mourning
of the women who weep for Tammuz-Adon " (Adon means lord).
HADDINGTON, EARL OP, a Scottish title bestowed in 1627
upon Thomas Hamilton, earl of Melrose (1563-1637). Thomas,
who was a member of the great family of Hamilton, being a son
of Thomas Hamilton of Priestfield, was a lawyer who became a
lord of session as Lord Drumcairn in 1592. He was on very
friendly terms with James VI., his legal talents being useful to
the king, and he was one of the eight men who, called the Oc-
tavians, were appointed to manage the finances of Scotland in
1596. Having also become king's advocate in 1596, Hamilton
was entrusted with a large share in the government of his country
when James went to London in 1603; in 161 2 he was appointed
secretary of state for Scotland, and in 1613 he was created Lord
Binning and Byres. In 1616 he became lord president of the
court of session, and three years later was created earl of Melrose,
a title which he exchanged in 1627 for that of earl of Haddington.
After the death of James I. the earl resigned his offices of president
of the court of session and secretary of state, but he served
Charles I. as lord privy seal. He died on the 29th of May 1637.
Haddington, who was both scholarly and wealthy, left a large
and valuable collection of papers, which is now in tie Advocates'
library at Edinburgh. James referred familiarly to his friend
as Tarn o' the Cow gate, his Edinburgh residence being in this
street.
The earPs eldest son Thomas, the 2nd earl (1600-1640), was
a covenanter and a soldier, being killed by an explosion at Dun-
glass castle on the 30th of August 1640. His sons, Thomas (d.
1645) and John (d. 1669), became respectively the 3rd and
4th earls of Haddington, and John's grandson Thomas (1679^
1735) succeeded his father Charles (c. 1650-1685), as 6th earl
in 1685, although he was not the eldest but the second son.
This curious circumstance arose from the fact that when Charles
married Margaret (d. 1700), the heiress of the earldom of Rothes,
it was agreed that the two earldoms should be left separate;
thus the eldest son John became earl of Rothes while Thomas
became earl of Haddington. Thomas was a supporter of George
I. during the rising of 1715, and was a representative peer for
Scotland from 17 16 to 1734. He died on the 28th of November
I735-
The 6th earl was a writer, but in this direction his elder son,
Charles, Lord Binning (1697-1732), is perhaps more celebrated.
After fighting by his father's side at Sheriffmuir in 1715 and
serving as member of parliament for St Germans, Binning died
at Naples on the 27th of December 1 732. His eldest son, Thomas
(c. 1720-1794), became the 7th earl in 1735, and the latter's
grandson Thomas (1780-1858) became the 9th earl in 1828.
The 9th earl had been a member of parliament from 1802 to
1827, when he was made a peer of the United Kingdom as Baron
Melros of Tyninghame, a title which became extinct upon his
death. In 1834 he became lord-lieutenant of Ireland under
Sir Robert Peel, leaving office in the following year, and in Peel's
second administration (1841-1846) he served as first lord of the
admiralty and then as lord privy seal. When he died without
sons on the 1st of December 1858 the earldom passed to his
kinsman, George Baillie (1802-1870), a descendant of the
6th earl. This nobleman took the name of Baillie-Hamilton,
and his son George (b. 1827) became nth earl of Haddington
in 1870.
See State Papers of Thomas, Earl of Melrose, published by the
Abbotsford Club in 1837, and Sir W. Fraser, Memorials of the Earls
of Haddington (1889).
HADDINGTON, a royal, municipal and police burgh, and
county town of Haddingtonshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901), 3993.
It is situated on the Tyne, 18 m. £. of Edinburgh by the North
British railway, being the terminus of a branch line from Long-
niddry Junction. Five bridges cross the river, on the right bank
of which lies the old and somewhat decayed suburb of Nungate,
interesting as having contained the Giffordgate, where John
Knox was born, and where also are the ruins of the pre-Reforma-
tion chapel of St Martin. The principal building in the town is
St Mary's church, a cruciform Decorated edifice in red sandstone,
probably dating from the 13th century. It is 210 ft. long,
and is surmounted by a square tower 90 ft. high. The nave,
restored in 1892, is used as the parish church, but the choir and
transepts are roofless, though otherwise kept in repair. In a
vault is a fine monument in alabaster, consisting of the re-
cumbent figures of John, Lord Maitland of Thirlestane (1545-
1595), chancellor of Scotland, and his wife. The laudatory
sonnet composed by James VI. is inscribed on the tomb. In the
same vault John, duke of Lauderdale (1616-1682), is buried.
In the choir is the tombstone which Carlyle erected over the grave
of his wife, Jane Baillie Welsh (1801-1866), a native of the town.
Other public edifices include the county buildings in the Tudor
style, in front of which stands the monument to George, 8th
marquess of Tweeddale (1787-1876), who was such an expert
and enthusiastic coachman that he once drove the mail from
London to Haddington without taking rest; the corn exchange,
next to that of Edinburgh the largest in Scotland; the town
house, with a spire 150 ft. high, in front of which is a monument
to John Home, the author of Douglas; the district asylum to
the north of the burgh; the western district hospital; the
Tenterfield home for children; the free library and the Knox
Memorial Institute. This last-named building was erected in
1879 to replace the old and famous grammar school, where John
Knox, William Dunbar, John Major and possibly George
Buchanan and Sir David Lindsay were educated. John Brown
(17 22-1 787), a once celebrated dissenting divine, author of the
Self-Interpreting Bible, ministered in the burgh for 36 years
and is buried there; his son John the theologian (1754-183 2),
and his grandson Samuel (181 7-1 856), the chemist, noted
for his inquiries into the atomic theory, were natives. Samuel
Smiles (181 2-1904), author of Character, Self -Help and other
works, was also born there, and Edward Irving was for years
mathematical master in the grammar school. In Hardgate
Street is " Bothwell Castle," the town house of the earl of Both-
well, where Mary Queen of Scots rested on her way to Dunbar.
The ancient market cross has been restored. The leading
industries are the making of agricultural implements, manu-
factures of woollens and sacking, brewing, tanning and coach-
building, besides corn mills and engineering works.
The burgh is the retail centre for a large district, and its grain
markets, once the largest in Scotland, are still of considerable
importance. Haddington was created a royal burgh by David I.
It also received charters from Robert Bruce, Robert II. and
James VI. In 1139 it was given as a dowry to Ada, daughter
of William de Warenne, earl of Surrey, on her marriage to Prince
Henry, the only son of David I. It was occasionally the residence
of royalty, and Alexander II. was born there in 1198. Lying in
the direct road of the English invaders, the town was often
ravaged. It was burned by King John in 1216 and by Henry
III. in 1244. Fortified in 1548 by Lord Grey of Wilton, the
English commander, it was besieged next year by the Scots and
French, who forced the garrison to withdraw. So much slaughter
had gone on during that period of storm and stress that it was
long impossible to excavate in any direction without coming
79 6
HADDINGTONSHIRE
on human remains. The town has suffered much periodically
from floods. One of the most memorable of these occurred on
the 4th of October 1775, when the Tyne rose 8 ft. 9 in. above its
bed and inundated a great part of the burgh. An inscription in
the centre of the town records the event and marks the point to
which the water rose.
There are many interesting places within a few miles of Haddington.
Five miles E. is Whittingehame House, and 5 m. N.E. is the thriving
On a hill near Drem, 3I m. N. by W., are traces of a Romano- British
settlement, and the remains 01 the priest's house of the Knights
Templars, to whom the barony once belonged. On the coast is the
pretty village of Aberlady on a fine bay, and in the neighbourhood
are some of the finest golf links in Scotland, such asLuffness, Gullane,
Archerneld and Muirfield. On Gosford Bay is Gosford House, an
1 8th<entury mansion, the seat of the earl of Wemyss. At Gladsmuir,
3) m. W. of Haddington, alleged by some to have been the birthplace
of George Heriot, Principal Robertson was minister and wrote most
of his History of Scotland. Of the old seat of the Douglases at
Longniddry few traces remain, and in the chapel, now in ruins, at
the eastern end of the village, John Knox is said to have preached oc-
casionally. At Gifford, 4 m. to the S., John Witherspoon (1 722-1 794),
president of the^College of New Jersey (Princeton) , and Charles Nisbet
(1736-1804), president of Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pennsylvania,
were born. A little to the south of Gifford are Yester House, a seat
of the marauess of Tweeddale, finely situated in a park of old trees,
and the ruins of Yester Castle. The cavern locally known as Hob-
goblin Hall is described in Marmion, and is associated with all
kinds of manifestations of the black art. Lennoxlove, 1) m. to the
S., a seat of Lord Blantyre, was originally called Lethington, and
for a few centuries was associated with the Maitlands. Amisfield,
adjoining Haddington on the N.E., is another seat of the earl of
Wemyss.
HADDINGTONSHIRE, or East Lothian, a south-eastern
county of Scotland, bounded N. by the Firth of Forth, N.E. by
the North Sea, E., S.E. and S. by Berwickshire, and S.W. and
W, by Edinburghshire. It covers an area of 171,011 acres, or
367 sq. m. Its sea-coast measures 41 m. The Bass Rock and
Fidra Isle belong to the shire, and there are numerous rocks and
reefs off the shore, especially between Dunbar and Gullane Bay.
Broadly speaking, the northern half of the shire slopes gently
to the coast, and the southern half is hilly. Several of the peaks
of the Lammermuirs exceed 1500 ft., and the more level tract
is broken by Traprain Law (734) in the parish of Prestonkirk,
North Berwick Law (61 a), and Garleton Hill (590) to the north
of the county town, The only important river is the Tyne, which
rises to the south-east of Borthwick in Mid-Lothian, and, taking
a generally north-easterly direction, reaches the sea just beyond
the park of Tynninghame House, after a course of 28 m., for the
first 7 m. of which it belongs to its parent shire. It is noted for
a very fine variety of trout, and salmon are sometimes taken
below the linn at East Linton. The Whiteadder rises in the
parish of Whittingehame, but, flowing towards the south-east,
leaves the shire and at last joins the Tweed near Berwick. There
are no natural lakes, but in the parish of Stenton is found
Pressmennan Loch, an artificial sheet of water of somewhat
serpentine shape, about 2 m. in length, with a width of some
400 yds., which was constructed in 1819 by damming up the
ravine in which it lies. The banks are wooded and picturesque,
and the water abounds with trout.
Geolofv* — The higher ground in the south, including the Lammer-
muir Huis, is formed by shales, greywackes and grits of Ordovician
and Silurian age; a narrow belt of the former lying on the north-
western side of the latter, the strike being S.W. to N.E. The granitic
mass of Priestlaw and other felsitic rocks have been intruded into
these strata. The lower Old Red Sandstone has not been observed
in this county, but the younger sandstones and conglomerates fill
up ancient depressions in the Silurian and Ordovician, such as that
running northward from Oldhamstocks towards Dunbar and the
valley of Lauderdale. A faulted-in tract of the same formation,
about 1 m. in breadth, runs westward from Dunbar to near Gifford.
Carboniferous rocks form the remainder of the county. The Calci-
ferous Sandstone series, shales, thin limestones and sandstones, is
exposed on the south-eastern coast; but between Gifford and North
Berwick and from Aberlady to Dunbar it is represented by a great
thickness of volcanic rocks consisting of tuffs and coarse breccias
in the lower beds, and of porphyritic and andesitic lavas above.
These rocks are well exposed on the coast, in the Garleton Hilb
and Traprain Law ; the latter and North Berwick Law are volcanic
necks or vents. The Carboniferous Limestone series which succeeds
the Calciferous Sandstone consists of a middle group of sandstones,
shales, coals and ironstones, with a limestone group above and
below. The coal-field is synclinal in structure, Port Seton being
about the centre ; it contains ten seams of coal, and the area covered
by it is some 30 sq. m. Glacial boulder clay lies over much of the
lower ground, and ridges of gravel and sand flank the hills and form
extensive sheets. Traces of old raised sea-beaches are found at
several points along the coast. At North Berwick, Tynninghame and
elsewhere there are stretches of blown sand. Limestone is worked
at many places, and hematite was formerly obtained from the
Garleton Hills.
Climate and Agriculture. — Though the county is exposed to
the full sweep of the east wind during March, April and May,
the climate is on the whole mild and equable. The rainfall is
far below the average of Great Britain, the mean for the year
being 25 in., highest in midsummer and lowest in spring. The
average temperature for the year is 47 ° -5 F., for January 38
and for July 59°. Throughout nearly the whole of the 19th
century East Lothian agriculture was held to be the best in
Scotland, not so much in consequence of the natural fertility
of the soil as because of the enterprise of the cultivators, several
of whom, like George Hope of Fenton Barns (1811-1876),
brought scientific farming almost to perfection. Mechanical
appliances were adopted with exceptional alacrity, and indeed
some that afterwards came into general use were first employed
in Haddington. Drill sowing of turnips dates from 1734. The
threshing machine was introduced by Andrew Meikle (1710-
181 1) in 1787, the steam plough in 1862, and the reaping machine
soon after its invention, while tile draining was first extensively
used in the county. East Lothian is famous for the richness of
its grain and green crops, the size of its holdings (average 200
acres) and the good housing of its labourers. The soils vary.
Much of the Lammermuirs is necessarily unproductive, though
the lower slopes are cultivated, a considerable tract of the land
being very good. In the centre of the shire occurs a belt of
tenacious yellow clay on a tilly subsoil which is not adapted for
agriculture. Along the coast the soil is sandy, but farther inland
it is composed of rich loam and is very fertile. The land about
Dunbar is the most productive, yielding a potato — the "Dunbar
red " — which is highly esteemed in the markets. Of the grain
crops oats and barley are the principal, and their acreage is
almost a constant, but wheat, after a prolonged decline, has
experienced a revival. Turnips and potatoes are cultivated
extensively, and with marked success, and constitute nearly
all the green crops raised. Although pasture-land is below the
average, live-stock are reared profitably. About one-sixteenth
of the total area is under wood.
Other Industries. — Fisheries are conducted from Dunbar,
North Berwick, Port Seton and Prestonpans, the catch consisting
chiefly of cod, haddock, whiting and shellfish. Fireclay as well
as limestone is worked, and there are some stone quarries, but
the manufactures are mainly agricultural implements, pottery,
woollens, artificial manures, feeding-stuffs and salt, besides
brewing. Coal of a very fair quality is extensively worked at
Tranent, Ormiston, Macmerry and near Prestonpans, the coal-
field having an area of about 30 sq. m. Limestone is found
throughout the greater part of the shire. A vein of hematite
of a peculiarly fine character was discovered in 1866 at Garleton
Hill, and wrought for some years. Ironstone has been mined
at Macmerry.
The North British Company possess the sole running powers
in the county, through which is laid their main line to Berwick
and the south. Branches are sent off at Drem to North Berwick,
at Longniddry to Haddington and also to Gullane, at Smeaton
(in Mid-Lothian) to Macmerry, and at Ormiston to Gifford.
Population and Government. — The population was 37>377
in 1 891, and 38,665 in 1901, when 459 persons spoke Gaelic and
English, and 7 spoke Gaelic only. The chief towns are Dunbar
(pop. in 1901, 3581), Haddington (3993), North Berwick (2899),
Prestonpans (2614) and Tranent (2584). The county, which
returns one member to Parliament, forms part of the sheriffdom
of the Lothians and Peebles, and there is a resident sheriff-
substitute at Haddington, who sits also at Dunbar, Tranent
HADDOCK— HADEN, SIR F. S.
797
and North Berwick. The shire is under school-board jurisdiction,
and besides high schools at Haddington and North Berwick,
some of the elementary schools earn grants for higher educa-
tion. The county council spends a proportion of the " residue "
grant in supporting short courses of instruction in technical
subjects (chiefly agriculture), in experiments in the feeding of
cattle and the growing of crops, and in defraying the travelling
expenses of technical students.
History. — Of the Celts, who were probably the earliest in-
habitants, traces are found in a few place names and circular
camps (in the parishes of Garvald and Whittinghame) and hill
forts (in the parish of Bolton). After the Roman occupation,
of which few traces remain, the district formed part of the Saxon
kingdom of Northumbria until 1018, when it was joined to
Scotland by Malcolm II. It was comparatively prosperous till
the wars of Bruce and Baliol, but from that period down to the
union of the kingdoms it suffered from its nearness to the Border
and from civil strife. The last battles fought in the county
were those of Dunbar (1650) and Prestonpans (1745).
See J. Miller, History of Haddington (1844) ; D. Croal, Sketches of
last Lothian (Haddington, 1873); John Martine, Reminiscences of
the County of Haddington (Haddington, 1890, 1894); Dr Wallace
East Lothian (Haddington, 1873); John Martine, Reminiscences of
the County of Haddington (Haddington, 1890, 1894); Dr W
James, Writs and Charters of Haddington (Haddington, 1898)
HADDOCK (Gadus aeglefenus), a fish which differs from the
cod in having the mental barbel very short, the first anal fin
with 22 to 25 rays, instead of 17 to 20, and the lateral line dark
instead of whitish; it has a large blackish spot above each
pectoral fin — associated in legend with the marks of St Peter's
finger and thumb, the haddock being supposed to be the fish
from whose mouth he took the tribute-money. It attains to a
weight of 15 lb. and is one of the most valuable food fishes of
Europe, both fresh and smoked, the " finnan haddie " of Scotland
being famous. It is common round the British and Irish coasts,
and generally distributed along the shores of the North Sea,
extending across the Atlantic to the coast of North America.
HADDON HALL, one of the most famous ancient mansions in
England. It lies on the left bank of the river Wye, 2 m. S.E. of
Bakewell in Derbyshire. It is not now used as a residence, but
the fabric is maintained in order.- The building is of stone and
oblong in form, and encloses two quadrangles separated by the
great banqueting-hall and adjoining chambers. The greater part
is of two storeys, and surmounted by battlements. To the south
and south-east lie terraced gardens, and the south front of the
eastern quadrangle is occupied by the splendid ball-room or
long gallery. At the south-west corner of the mansion is the
chapel; at the north-east the Peveril tower. The periods of
building represented are as follows. Norman work appears in
the chapel (which also served as a church for the neighbouring
villagers), also in certain fundamental parts of the fabric, notably
the Peveril tower. There are Early English and later additions
to the chapel; the banqueting-hall, with the great kitchen
adjacent to it, and part of the Peveril tower are of the 14th
century. The eastern range of rooms, including the state-room,
are of the 15th century; the western and north-western parts
were built shortly after 1500. The ball-room is of early 17th-
century construction, and the terraces and gardens were laid
out at this time. A large number of interesting contemporary
fittings are preserved, especially in the banqueting-hall and
kitchen; and many of the rooms are adorned with tapestries
of the 1 6th and 17th centuries, some of which came from the
famous works at Mortlake in Surrey.
A Roman altar was found and is preserved here, but no trace
of Roman inhabitants has been discovered. Haddon was a
manor which before the Conquest and at the time of the Domes-
day Survey belonged to the king, but was granted by William
the Conqueror to William Peverel, whose son, another William
Peverel, forfeited it for treason on the accession of Henry II.
Before that time, however, the manor of Haddon had been
granted to the family of AveneH, who continued to hold it
until one William Avenell died without male issue and his
property was divided between his two daughters and heirs, one
of whom married Richard Vernon, whose successors acquired
the other half of the manor in the reign of Edward III. Sir
George Vernon, who died in 1 561, was known as the " King of
the Peak " on account of his hospitality. His daughter Dorothy
married John Manners, second son of the earl of Rutland, who
is said to have lived for some time in the woods round Haddon
Hall, disguised as a gamekeeper, until he persuaded Dorothy
to elope with him. On Sir George's death without male issue
Haddon passed to John Manners and Dorothy, who lived in the
Hall. Their grandson John Manners succeeded to the title of
earl of Rutland in 1641, and the duke of Rutland is still lord of
the manor.
See Victoria County History, Derbyshire: S. Rayner, History and
Antiquities of Haddon Hall (1836-1837); Haddon Hall, History and
Antiquities of Haddon Hall (1867) ; G. le Blanc Smith, Haddon, the
Manor, the Hall, Us Lords and Traditions (London, 1906).
HADEN, SIR FRANCIS SEYMOUR (1818-1910), English
surgeon and etcher, was born in London on the 16th of September
1 818, his father, Charles Thomas Haden, being a well-known
doctor and amateur of music. He was educated at University
College school and University College, London, and also studied
at the Sorbonne, Paris, where he took his degree in 1 840. He was
admitted as a member of the College of Surgeons in London in
1842. Besides his many-sided activities in the scientific world,
during a busy and distinguished career as a surgeon, he followed
the art of original etching with such vigour that he became not
only the foremost British exponent of that art but was the
principal cause of its revival in England. By his strenuous
efforts and perseverance, aided by the secretarial ability of Sir
W. R. Drake, he founded the Royal Society of Painter-Etchers
and Engravers. As president he ruled the destinies of that
society with a strong hand from its first beginnings in 1880. In
1 843-1 844, with his friends Duval, Le Cannes and Col. Guibout,
he had travelled in Italy and made his first sketches from nature.
Haden attended no art school and had no art teachers, but in
1845, 1846, 1847 and 1848 he studied portfolios of prints belonging
to an old second-hand dealer named Love, who had a shop in
Bunhill Row, the old Quaker quarter of London. These port-
folios he would carry home, and arranging the prints in chrono-
logical order, he studied the works of the great original engravers,
Dtirer, Lucas van Leyden and Rembrandt. These studies,
besides influencing his original work, led to his important mono-
graph on the etched work of Rembrandt. By lecture and book,
and with the aid of the memorable exhibition at the Burlington
Fine Arts Club in 1877, he endeavoured to give a just idea of
Rembrandt's work, separating the true from the false, and giving
altogether a nobler idea of the master's mind by taking away from
the list of his Works many dull and unseemly plates that had long
been included in the lists. His reasons are founded upon the
results of a study of the master's works in chronological order,
and are clearly expressed in his monograph, The Etched Work of
Rembrandt critically reconsidered, privately printed in 1877,
and in The Etched Work of Rembrandt True and False (1895).
Notwithstanding all this study of the old masters of his art,
Haden 's own plates are perhaps more individual than any artist's,
and are particularly noticeable for a fine original treatment of
landscape subjects, free and open in line, clear and well divided
in mass, and full of a noble and dignified style of his own. Even
when working from a picture his personality dominates the plate,
as for example in the large plate he etched after J. M. W. Turner's
" Calais Pier," which is a classical example of what interpretative
work can do in black and white. Of his original plates, more
than 250 in number, one of the most notable was the large
" Breaking up of the Agamemnon." An early plate, rare and
most beautiful, is " Thames Fisherman." " Mytton Hall " is
broad in treatment, and a fine rendering of a shady avenue of
yew trees leading to an old manor-house in sunlight. " Sub
Tegmine " was etched in Greenwich Park in 1859; and " Early
Morning — Richmond," full of the poetry and freshness of the
hour, was done, the artist has said, actually at sunrise. One of
the rarest and most beautiful of his plates is " A By-Road in
Tipperary "; " Combe Bottom " is another; and " Shere Mill
Pond " (both the small study and the larger plate), " Sunset in
79 8
HADENDOA— HADLEY* A, T.
Ireland," " Penton Hook," "Grim Spain" and "Evening
Fishing, Longparish," are also notable examples of his genius.
A catalogue of his works was begun by Sir William Drake and
completed by Mr N. Harrington (1880). During later years
Haden began to practise the sister art of mezzotint engraving,
with a measure of the same success that he had already achieved
in pure etching and in dry-point. Some of his mezzotints are:
" An Early Riser," a stag seen through the morning mists,
" Grayling Fishing " and " A Salmon Pool on the Spey." He
also produced some remarkable drawings of trees and park-like
country in charcoal.
Other books by Haden not already mentioned are — £tudes &
Veau forte (Paris, 1865); About Etching (London, 1878-1879);
The Art of the Painter- Etcher (London, 1890); The Relative
Claims of Etching and Engraving to rank as Fine Arts and to
be represented in the Royal Academy (London, 1883); Address
to Students of Winchester School of Art (Winchester, 1888);
Cremation: a Pamphlet (London, 1875); and The Disposal of
the Dead, a Plea for Legislation (London, 1888). As the last
two indicate, he was an ardent champion of a system of " earth
to earth "burial.
Among numerous distinctions he received the Grand Prix,
Paris, in 1889 and 1900, and was made a member of the Institut
de France, Acad&nie des Beaux-Arts and SociSte* des Artistes
Fransais. He was knighted in 1894, and died on the 1st of
June 1910. He married in 1847 a sister of the artist J. A. M.
Whistler; and his elder son, Francis Seymour Haden (b. 1850),
had a distinguished career as a member of the government in Natal
from 1881 to 1893, being made a C.M.G. in 1890. (C.H.*)
HADENDOA (from Beja Hada, chief, and endowa, people), a
nomad tribe of Africans of " Hamitic " origin. They inhabit
that part of the eastern Sudan extending from the Abyssinian
frontier northward nearly to Suakin. They belong to the Beja
people, of which, with the Bisharin and the Ababda, they are
the modern representatives. They are a pastoral people, ruled
by a hereditary chief who is directly responsible to the (Anglo-
Egyptian) Sudan government. Although the official capital of
the Hadendoa country is Miktinab, the town of Fillik on an
affluent of the Atbara is really their headquarters. A third of
the total population is settled in the Suakin country. Osman
Digna, one of the best-known chiefs during the Madhia, was a
Hadendoa, and the tribe contributed some of the fiercest of the
dervish warriors in the wars of 1883-98. So determined were
they in their opposition to the Anglo-Egyptian forces that the
name Hadendoa grew to be nearly synonymous with " rebel."
But this was the result of Egyptian misgovernment rather than
religious enthusiasm; for the Hadendoa are true Beja, and
Mahommedans only in name. Their elaborate hairdressing
gained them the name of " Fuzzy-wuzzies " among the British
troops. They earned an unenviable reputation during the wars
by their hideous mutilations of the dead on the battlefields.
After the reconquest of the Egyptian Sudan (1896-98) the
Hadendoa accepted the new order without demur.
See Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, edited by Count Gleichen (London,
1905) ; Sir F. R. Wingate, Mahdism and the Egyptian Sudan (London,
1891); G. Sergi, Africa: Anthropology of the Hamitic Race (1897);
A. H. Keane, Ethnology of the Egyptian Sudan (1884).
HADERSLEBEN (Dan. Haderslev), a town of Germany, in
the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein, 31 m. N. from
Flensburg. Pop. (1905) 9289. It lies in a pleasant valley on the
Hadersleben fjord, which is about 9 m. in length, and com-
municates with the Little Belt, and at the junction of the
main line of railway from Woyens with three vicinal lines. The
principal buildings are the beautiful church of St Mary, dating
from the 13th century, the theological seminary established in
1870, the gymnasium and the hospital. The industries include
iron-founding, tanning, and the manufacture of machines,
tobacco and gloves. The harbour is only accessible to small
vessels.
Hadersleben is first mentioned in 1228, and received municipal
rights from Duke Waldemar II. in 1 292. It suffered considerably
during the wars between Schleswig and Holstein in the 15th
century. In November 1864 it passed with Schleswig to Prussia.
Two Danish kings, Frederick II. and Frederick III., were born
at Hadersleben.
See A. Sach, Der Ursprung der Stadt Hadersleben (Hadersleben,
1892).
HADING, JANE (1850- ), French actress, whose real name
was Jeanne Alfredine Tr6fouret, was born on the 25th of
November 1859 at Marseilles, where her father was an actor at
the Gymnase. She was trained at the local Conservatoire and
was engaged in 1873 for the theatre at Algiers, and afterwards
for the Khedivial theatre at Cairo, where she played, in turn,
coquette, soubrette and inginue parts. Expectations had been
raised by her voice, and when she returned to Marseilles she sang
in operetta, besides acting in Ruy Bias. Her Paris d£but was
in La Chaste Suzanne at the Palais Royal, and she was again
heard in operetta at the Renaissance. In 1883 she had a great
success at the Gymnase in Le Maitre de forges. In 1884 she
married Victor Koning (1842-1894), the manager of that theatre,
but divorced him in 1887. In 1888 she toured America with
Coquelin, and on her return helped to give success to Lavedan's
Prince d 9 Aurec y at the Vaudeville. Her reputation as one of the
leading actresses of the day was now established not only in
France but in America and England. Her later repertoire
included Le Demi-monde, Capus's La Chdtelaine, Maurice
Donnay's Retour de Jerusalem, La Princesse Georges by Dumas
fils, and fimile Bergerat's Plus que reine.
HADLEIGH, a market town in the Sudbury parliamentary
division of Suffolk, England; 70 m. N.E. from London, the
terminus of a branch of the Great Eastern railway. Pop. of
urban district (1 901), 3245. It lies pleasantly in a well-wooded
country on the small river Brett, a tributary of the Stour. The
church of St Mary is of good Perpendicular work, with Early
English tower and Decorated spire. The Rectory Tower, a
turreted gate-house of brick, dates from c. 1495. Th e gild-hall
is a Tudor building, and there are other examples of this period.
There are a town-hall and corn exchange, and an industry in the
manufacture of matting and in malting. Hadleigh was one of
the towns in which the woollen industry was started by Flemings,
and survived until the 18th century. Among the rectors of
Hadleigh several notable names appear, such as Rowland Taylor,
the martyr, who was burned at the stake outside the town in
1555, and Hugh James Rose, during whose tenancy of the rectory
an initiatory meeting of the leaders of the Oxford Movement
took place here in 1833.
Hadleigh, called by the Saxons Heapde-leag, appears in
Domesday Book as Hetlega. About 885 ^Ethelflaed, lady of the
Mercians, with the consent of iEthelred her husband, gave
Hadleigh to Christ Church, Canterbury. The dean and chapter
of Canterbury have held possession of it ever since the Dissolution.
In the 17th century Hadleigh was famous for the manufacture
of cloth, and in 161 8 was sufficiently important to receive
incorporation. It was constituted a free borough under the title
of the mayor, aldermen and burgesses of Hadleigh. In 1635, * n
a list of the corporate towns of Suffolk to be assessed for ship
money, Hadleigh is named as third in importance. In 1636,
owing to a serious visitation of the plague, 200 families were
thrown out of work, and in 1687 so much had its importance
declined that it was deprived of its charter. An unsuccessful
attempt to recover it was made in 1701. There is evidence of
the existence of a market here as early as the 13th century.
James I., in his charter of incorporation, granted fairs on Monday
and Tuesday in Whitsun week, and confirmed an ancient fair
at Michaelmas and a market on Monday.
HADLEY, ARTHUR TWINING (1856- ), American poli-
tical economist and educationist, president of Yale University,
was born in New Haven, Connecticut, on the 23rd of April
1856. He was the son of James Hadley, the philologist, from
whom, as from his mother — whose brother, Alexander Catlin
Twining (1801-1884), was an astronomer and authority on con-
stitutional law — he inherited unusual mathematical ability.
He graduated at Yale in 1876 as valedictorian, having taken
prizes in English, classics and astronomy; studied political
HADLEY, J.— HADRAMUT
science at Yale (1876-1877) and at Berlin (1878-1879); was
a tutor at Yale in 1879-1883, instructor in political science in
1883-1886, professor of political science in 1886-1891, professor
of political economy in 1 891-1899, and dean of the Graduate
School in 1892-1895; and in 1899 became president of Yale
University — the first layman to hold that office. He was
commissioner of the Connecticut bureau of labour statistics
in 1 885-1 887. As an economist he first became widely known
through his investigation of the railway question and his study
of railway rates, which antedated the popular excitement as to
rebates. His Railroad Transportation, its History and Laws
(1885) became a standard work, and appeared in Russian (1886)
and French (1887); he testified as an expert on transportation
before the Senate committee which drew up the Interstate
Commerce Law; and wrote on railways and transportation for
the Ninth and Tenth Editions (of which he was one of the
editors) of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, for Lalor's Cyclopaedia
of Political Science, Political Economy, and Political History of
the United Stales (3 vols., 1 881-1884), for The American Railway
(1888), and for The Railroad Gazette in 1 884-1 891, and for other
periodicals. His idea of the broad scope of economic science,
especially of the place of ethics in relation to political economy
and business, is expressed in his writings and public addresses.
In 1907-1908 he was Theodore Roosevelt professor of American
History and Institutions in the university of Berlin.
Among his other publications are: Economics: an Account of the
Relations between Private Property and Public Welfare (1896); The
Education of the American Citizen (1901); The Relations between
Freedom and Responsibility in the Evolution of Democratic Government
(1903, in Yale Lectures on the Responsibilities of Citizenship);
Baccalaureate Addresses (1907) ; and Standards of Public Morality
(1907)) being the Kennedy Lectures for 1906.
HADLEY, JAMES (1821-1872), American scholar, was born
on the 30th of March 182 1 in Fairfield, Herkimer county, New
York, where his father was professor of chemistry in Fairfield
Medical College. At the age of nine an accident lamed him for
life. He graduated from Yale in 1842, having entered the
Junior class in 1840; studied in the Theological Department of
Yale, and in 1 844-1 845 was a tutor in Middlebury College.
He was tutor at Yale in 1845-1848, assistant professor of Greek
in 1848-1851, and professor of Greek, succeeding President
Woolsey, from 185 1 until his death in Hew Haven on the 14th
of November 1872. As an undergraduate he showed himself an
able mathematician, but the influence of Edward Elbridge
Salisbury, under whom Hadley and W. D. Whitney studied
Sanskrit together, turned his attention toward the study of
language. He knew Greek, Latin, Sanskrit, Hebrew, Arabic,
Armenian, several Celtic languages and the languages of modern
Europe; but he published little, and his scholarship found scant
outlet in the college class-room. His most original written work
was an essay on Greek accent, published in a German version
in Curtius's Studien zur griechischen und lateinischen Grammatik.
Hadley's Greek Grammar (i860; revised by Frederic de Forest
Allen, 1884) was based on Curtius's Schul grammatik (1852, 1855,
1857, 1859), and long held its place in American schools. Hadley
was a member of the American Committee for the revision of the
New Testament, was president of the American Oriental Society
(1871-1872), and contributed to Webster's dictionary an essay
on the History of the English Language. In 1873 were published
his Introduction to Roman Law (edited by T. D. Woolsey) and
his Essays, Philological and Critical (edited by W. D. Whitney).
See the memorial by Noah Porter in The New Englander, vol.
xxxii. (Jan. 1873), pp. 35-55; and the sketch by his son, A. T.
Hadley, in Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences,
vol. v. (1905), pp. 247-254-
HADLEY, a township of Hampshire county, Massachusetts,
U.S.A., on the Connecticut river, about 20 m. N. of Springfield,
served by the Boston & Maine railway. Pop. (1900), 1789;
(1905, state census), 1895 ; (1910) 1999. Area, about 20 sq. m.
The principal villages are Hadley (or Hadley Center) and North
Hadley. The level country along the river is well adapted to
tobacco culture, and the villages are engaged in the manufacture
of tobacco and brooms. Hadley was settled in 1659 by members
799
of the churches in Hartford and Wethersfield, Connecticut, who
were styled " Strict Congregationalists " and withdrew from these
Connecticut congregations because of ecclesiastical and doctrinal
laxity there. At first the town was called Norwottuck, but within
a year or two it was named after Hadleigh in England, and was
incorporated under this name in 1661 . Hopkins Academy (181 5)
developed from Hopkins school, founded here in 1664. The
English regicides Edward Whalley and his son-in-law William
Goffe found a refuge at Hadley from 1664 apparently until
their deaths, and there is a tradition that Goffe or Whalley in
1675 led the people in repelling an Indian attack. From 1675
to 1 7 13 Hadley, being in almost constant danger of attack from
the Indians, was protected by a palisade enclosure and by
stockades around the meeting-house. From Hadley, Hatfield
was set apart in 1670, South Hadley in 1753, and Amherst in
1759.
See Alice M. Walker, Historic Hadley (New York, 1906); and
Sylvester Judd, History of Hadley (Northampton, 1863; new ed. f
1905).
HADRAMUT, a district on the south coast of Arabia, bounded
W. by Yemen, E. by Oman and N. by the Dahna desert. The
modern Arabs restrict the name to the coast between Balhaf
and Sihut, and the valley of the Wadi Hadramut in the interior;
in its wider and commonly accepted signification it includes also
the Mahra and Gara coasts extending eastwards to Mirbat;
thus defined, its limits are between 14 and x8° N. and 47 30'
to 55 E., with a total length of 550 m. and a breadth of 150 m.
The coastal plain is narrow, rarely exceeding 10 m. in width,
and in places the hills extend to the seashore. The principal ports
are Mukalla and Shihr, both considerable towns, and Kusair and
Raida, small fishing villages; inland there are a few villages near
the foot of the hills, with a limited area of cultivation irrigated by
springs or wells in the hill torrent beds. Behind the littoral plain a
range of mountains, or rather a high plateau, falling steeply to the
south and more gently to the north, extends continuously from the
Yemen highlands on the west to the mouth of the Hadramut valley,
from which a similar range extends with hardly a break to the border
of Oman. Its crest-line is generally some 30 m. from the coast, and
its average height between 4000 and 5000 ft. A number of wadis or
ravines cutting deeply into the plateau run northward to the main
Wadi Hadramut, a broad valley lying nearly east and west, with a
total length from its extreme western heads on the Yemen highlands
to its mouth near Sihut of over 500 m. Beyond the valley and
steadily encroaching on it lies the great desert extending for 300 m.
to the borders of Nejd. The most westerly village in the main valley
is Shabwa, in ancient days the capital, but now almost buried by
the advancing desert. Lower down the first large villages are Henfin
and Ajlania, near which the wadis *Amd, Duw&n and el \Ain unite,
forming the W. Kasr. In the W. Duw&n and its branches are the
villages of Haura, el Hajren, Kaidun and al Khureba. Below Haura
for some 60 m. there is a succession of villages with fields, gardens
and date groves; several tributaries join on either side, among which
the W. bin Ali and W. Adim from the south contain numerous
villages. The principal towns are Shibam, al Ghurfa, Saiyun,
Tariba, el Ghuraf, Tarim, formerly the chief place, \Ainat and ei
Kasm. Below the last-named place there is little cultivation or
settled population. The shrines of Kabr S&lih and Kabr Hud are
looked on as specially sacred, and are visited by numbers of pilgrims.
The former, which is in the Wadi Ser about 20 m. N.W. of Shibam,
was explored by Theodore Bent in 1894; the tomb itself is of no
interest, but in the neighbourhood there are extensive ruins with
Himyaritic inscriptions on the stones. Kabr Hud is in the main
valley some distance east of Kasm; not far from it is Bir Borhut,
a natural grotto, where fumes of burning sulphur issue from a number
of volcanic vents; al-Masudi mentions it in the 10th century as an
active volcano. Except after heavy rain, there is no running water
in the Hadramut valley, the cultivation therefore depends on
artificial irrigation from wells. The principal crops are wheat,
millet, indigo, dates and tobacco; this latter, known as Hamumi
tobacco, is of excellent quality.
Hadramut has preserved its name from the earliest times;
it occurs in Genesis as Hazarmaveth and Hadoram, sons of
Joktan; and the old Greek geographers mention Adramytta and
Chadramotites in their accounts of the frankincense country.
The numerous ruins discovered in the W. Duw&n and Adim, as
well as in the main valley, are evidences of its former prosperity
and civilization.
The people, known as Hadrami (plural Hadarim), belong
generally to the south Arabian stock, claiming descent from
Ya'rab bin Kahtan. There is, however, a large number of
8oo
HADRIA— HADRIAN
Seyyids of descendants of the Prophet, and of townsmen of
northern origin, besides a considerable class of African or mixed
descent. Van den Berg estimates the total population of
Hadramut (excluding the Mahra and G&ra) at 150,000, of which
he locates 50,000 in the valley between Shibam and Tarim,
35,000 in the W. Duwftn and its tributaries, and 25,000 in
Mukalla, Shihr and the coast villages, leaving 50,000 for the non-
agricultural population scattered over the rest of the country,
probably an excessive estimate.
The Seyyids, descendants of, Qosain, grandson of Mahomet,
form a numerous and highly respected aristocracy. They are
divided into families, the chiefs of which are known as Munsibs,
who are looked on as the religious leaders of the people, and
are even in some cases venerated as saints. Among the leading
families are the Sheikh Abu Bakr of Ain&t, the el-Aidrus of Shihr
and the Sakkftf of Saiyun. They do not bear arms, nor occupy
themselves in trade or manual labour or even agriculture;
though owning a large proportion of the land, they employ
slaves or hired labourers to cultivate it. As compared with the
other classes, they are well educated, and are strict in their
observance of religious duties, and owing to the respect due to
their descent, they exercise a strong influence both in temporal
and spiritual affairs.
The tribesmen, as in Arabia generally, are the predominant
class in the population; all the adults carry arms; some of the
tribes have settled towns and villages, others lead a nomadic life,
keeping, however, within the territory which is recognized as
belonging to the tribe. They are divided into sections or families,
each headed by a chief or abu (lit. father), while the head of the
tribe is called the mukaddam or sultan; the authority of the
chief depends largely on his personality: he is the leader in
peace and in war, but the tribesmen are not his subjects; he
can only rule with their support. The most powerful tribe at
present in Hadramut is the Kaiti, a branch of the Y&fa tribe
whose settlements lie farther west. Originally invited by the
Seyyids to protect the settled districts from the attacks of
marauding tribes, they have established themselves as practically
the rulers of the country, and now possess the coast district with
the towns of Shihr and Mukalla, as well as Haura, Hajren and
Shib&m in the interior. The head of the family has accumulated
great wealth, and risen to the highest position in the service of
the nixam of Hyderabad in India, as Jamadar, or commander
of an Arab levy composed of his tribesmen, numbers of whom go
abroad to seek their fortune. The Kathiri tribe was formerly
the most powerful; they occupy the towns of Saiyun, Tarim
and el-Ghuraf in the richest part of the main Hadramut valley.
The chiefs of both the Kaiti and Kathiri are in political relations
with the British government, through the resident at Aden (?.*.).
The % Amudi in the W. Duwftn, and the Nahdi, Awftmir and
Tamimi in the main valley, are the principal tribes possessing
permanent villages; the Saibftn, Hamumi and Manahil occupy
the mountains between the main valley and coast.
The townsmen are the free inhabitants of the towns and
villages as distinguished from the Seyyids and the tribesmen:
they do not carry arms, but are the working members of the
community, merchants, artificers, cultivators and servants,
and are entirely dependent on the tribes and chiefs under whose
protection they live. The servile class contains a large African
element, brought over formerly when the slave trade flourished
on this coast; as in all Mahommedan countries they are well
treated, and often rise to positions of trust.
As already mentioned, a large number of Arabs from Hadramut
go abroad; the Kaiti tribesmen take service in India in the
irregular troops of Hyderabad; emigration on a large scale has
also gone on, to the Dutch colonies in Java and Sumatra, since
the beginning of the 10th century. According to the census of
t$$5, quoted by Van den Berg in his Report published by the
government of the Dutch East Indies in i836\ the number of
Arabs in those colonies actually born in Arabia was 2500, while
those born in the colonies exceeded 20,000; nearly all of the
former are from the towns in the Hadramut valley between
Shiblm and Tarim. Mukalla and Shihr have a considerable
trade with the Red Sea and Persian Gulf ports, as well as with
the ports of Aden, Dhafar and Muscat; a large share of this is
in the hands of Parsee and other British Indian traders who
have established themselves in the Hadramut ports. The
principal imports are wheat, rice, sugar, piece goods and hard-
ware. The exports are small; the chief items are honey, tobacco
and sharks' fins. In the towns in the interior the principal
industries are weaving and dyeing.
The Mahra country adjoins the Hadramut proper, and extends
along the coast from Sihut eastwards to the east of Kamar Bay,
where the Gara coast begins and stretches to Mirbat. The sultan of
the Mahra, to whom Sokotra also belongs, lives at Kishin, a poor
village consisting of a few scattered houses about 30 m. west of Ras
Fartak. Sihut is a similar village 20 m. farther west. The mountains
rise to a # height of 4000 ft. within a short distance of the coast,
covered in places with trees, among which are the myrrh- and
frankincense-bearing shrubs. These gums, for which the coast was
celebrated in ancient days, are still produced; the best quality is
coast, of which el-Hafa is the principal port of export for frankin-
cense; 9000 cwt. is exported annually to Bombay.
Ruins of Sabaean buildings were found by J. T. Bent in the neigh-
bourhood of Dhafar, and a remarkable cove or small harbour was
discovered at Khor Rori, which he identified with the ancient port
of Moscha.
Authorities.— L. Van den Berg, Le Hadramut et Us colonies
arabes (Batavia, 1885); L. Hirsch, Reise in Sudarakien (Leiden,
1897); J. T. Bent, Southern Arabia (London, 1895); A. von Wrede,
Reise in Hadhramut (Brunswick, 1870) ; H. J. Carter, Trans. Bombay
As. Soc. (1845), 47-51 ; Journal R.G.S. (1837). (R. A. W.)
HADRIA [mod. Atri (q,v.)], perhaps the original terminal
point of the Via Caecilia, Italy. It belonged to the Praetutii.
It became a colony of Rome in 290 B.C. and remained faithful
to Rome. The coins which it issued (probably during the Punic
Wars), are remarkable. The crypt of the cathedral of the
modern town was originally a large Roman cistern; another
forms the foundation of the ducal palace; and in the eastern
portion of the town there is a complicated system of underground
passages for collecting and storing water.
See Notizie degli scavi (1902), 3. (T. As.)
HADRIAN (Publius Aelius Hadrianus), Roman emperor
a.d. 117-138, was born on the 24th of January a.d. 76, at
Italica in Hispania Baetica (according to others, at Rome),
where his ancestors, originally from Hadria in Picenum, had
been settled since the time of the Scipios. On his father's death
in 85 or 86 he was placed under the guardianship of two fellow-
countrymen, his kinsman Ulpius Trajanus (afterwards the
emperor Trajan), and Caelius Attianus (afterwards prefect of
the praetorian guard). He spent the next five years at Rome,
but at the age of fifteen he returned to his native place and
entered upon a military career. He was soon, however, recalled
to Rome by Trajan, and appointed to the offices of decemvir
stlitibus judicandis, praefectus feriarum Lalinarum, and sevir
turmae equiium Romanorum. About 95 he was military tribune
in lower Moesia. In 97 he was sent to upper Germany to convey
the congratulations of the army to Trajan on his adoption by
Nerva; and, in January of the following year, he hastened to
announce the death of Nerva to Trajan at Cologne. Trajan,
who had been set against Hadrian by reports of his extravagance,
soon took him into favour again, chiefly owing to the goodwill
of the empress Plotina, who brought about the marriage of
Hadrian with (Vibia) Sabina, Trajan's great-niece. In 101
Hadrian was quaestor, in 105 tribune of the people, in 106
praetor. He served with distinction in both Dacian campaigns;
in the second Trajan presented him with a valuable ring which
he himself had received from Nerva, a token of regard which
seemed to designate Hadrian as his successor. In 107 Hadrian
was kgotus praetorius of lower Pannonia, in 108 consul sujectus,
in in archon at Athens, legaius in the Parthian campaign (113-
1 17), in 1 17 consul designatus for the following year, in 119 consul
for the third and last time only for four months. When Trajan,
owing to a severe illness, decided to return home from the East,
he left Hadrian in command of the army and governor of Syria.
On the 9th of August 117, Hadrian, at Antioch, was informed
HADRIAN
801
of his adoption by Trajan, and, on the nth, of the death of the
latter at Selinus in CiHcia. According to Dio Cassius (lxix. i)
the adoption was entirely fictitious, the work of Plotina and
Attianus, by whom Trajan's death was concealed for a few days
in order to facilitate the elevation of Hadrian. Whichever may
have been the truth, his succession was confirmed by the army
and the senate. He hastened to propitiate the former by a
donative of twice the usual amount, and excused his hasty
acceptance of the throne to the senate by alleging the impatient
zeal of the soldiers and the necessity of an imperator for the
welfare of the state.
Hadrian's first important act was to abandon as untenable
the conquests of Trajan beyond the Euphrates (Assyria, Meso-
potamia and Armenia), a recurrence to the traditional policy
of Augustus. The provinces were unsettled, the barbarians
on the borders restless and menacing, and Hadrian wisely judged
that the old limits of Augustus afforded the most defensible
frontier. Mesopotamia and Assyria were given back to the
Parthians, and the Armenians were allowed a king of their own.
From Antioch Hadrian set out for Dacia to punish the Roxolani,
who, incensed by a reduction of the tribute hitherto paid them,
had invaded the Danubian provinces. An arrangement was
patched up, and while Hadrian was still in Dacia he received
news of a conspiracy against his life. Four citizens of consular
rank were accused of being concerned in it, and were put to death
by order of the senate before he could interfere. Hurrying back
to Rome, Hadrian endeavoured to remove the unfavourable
impression produced by the whole affair and to gain the goodwill
of senate and people. He threw the responsibility for the
executions upon the prefect of the praetorian guard,, and swore
that he would never punish a senator without the assent of the
entire body, to which he expressed the utmost deference and
consideration. Large sums of money and games and shows
were provided for the people, and, in addition, all the arrears
of taxation for the last fifteen years (about £10,000,000) were
cancelled and the bonds burnt in the Forum of Trajan. Trajan's
scheme for the " alimentation " of poor children was carried out
upon a larger scale under the superintendence of a special official
called praejeclus alimentorum.
The record of Hadrian's journeys 1 through all parts of the
empire forms the chief authority for the events of his life down
to his final settlement in the capital during his last years. They
can only be briefly touched upon here. His first great journey
probably lasted from 1 2 1 to 1 26. After traversing Gaul he visited
the Germanic provinces on the Rhine, and crossed over to
Britain (spring, 122), where he built the great rampart from
the Tyne to the Solway, which bears his name (see Britain:
Roman). He returned through Gaul into Spain, and then
proceeded to Mauretania, where he suppressed an insurrection.
A war with the Parthians was averted by a personal interview
with their king (123). From the Parthian frontier he travelled
through Asia Minor and the islands of the Aegean to Athens
(autumn, 125), where he introduced various political and com-
mercial changes, was initiated at the Eleusinia, and presided
at the celebration of the greater Dionysia. After visiting Central
Greece and Peloponnesus, he returned by way of Sicily to Rome
(end of 126). The next year was spent at Rome, and, after a
visit to Africa, he set out on his second great journey (September
128). He travelled by way of Athens, where he completed and
dedicated the buildings (see Athens) begun during his first
visit, chief of which was the Olympieum or temple of Olyrnpian
Zeus, on which occasion Hadrian himself assumed the name of
CHympius. In the spring of 129 he visited Asia Minor and Syria,
where he invited the kings and princes of the East to a meeting
(probably at Samosata). Having passed the winter at Antioch,.
he set out for the south (spring, 130). He ordered Jerusalem
to be rebuilt (see Jerusalem) under the name of Aelia Capitolina,
and made his way through Arabia to Egypt, where he restored
1 The chronology of Hadrian's journeys — indeed, of the whole
reign — is confused and obscure. In the above the article by von
Rohden in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencyclop&die has been followed.
Weber's (see Bibliog.) is the most important discussion. I
the tomb of Pompey at Pelusium with great magnificence.
After a short stay at Alexandria he took an excursion up the
Nile, during which he lost his favourite Antinous. On the 21st
of November 130, Hadrian (or at any rate his wife Sabina)
heard the music which issued at sunrise from the statue of
Memnon at Thebes (see Memnon). From Egypt Hadrian
returned through Syria to Europe (his movements are obscure),
but was obliged to hurry back to Palestine (spring, 133) to give
his personal attention (this is denied by some historians) to the
revolt of the Jews, which had broken out (autumn, 131, or
spring, 132) after he had left Syria. The founding of a Roman
colony on the site of Jerusalem (Dio Cass. brix. 12) and the
prohibition of circumcision (Spartianus, Hadrianus, 14) are said
to have been the causes of the war, but authorities differ con-
siderably as to this and as to the measures which followed the
revolt (see art. Jews; also E. Schurer, Hist, of the Jewish People,
Eng. tr., div. 1, vol. ii. p. 288; and S. Krauss in Jewish Encyc.
s.v. " Hadrian "), which lasted till 135. Leaving the conduct
of affairs in the hands of his most capable general, Julius Severus,
in the spring of 134 Hadrian returned to Rome. The remaining
years of his life were spent partly in the capital, partly in his
villa at Tibur. His health now began to fail, and it became
necessary for him to choose a successor, as he had no
children of his own. Against the advice of his relatives and
friends he adopted L. Ceionius Commodus under the name of
L. Aelius Caesar, who was in a feeble state of health and
died on the 1st of January 138, before he had an opportunity
of proving his capabilities. Hadrian then adopted Arrius
Antoninus (see Antoninus Pros) on condition that he should
adopt M. Annius Verus (afterwards the emperor Marcus Aurelius)
and the son of L. Aelius Caesar, L. Ceionius Commodus (after-
wards the emperor Commodus). Hadrian died at Baiae on the
10th of July 138.
He was without doubt one of the most capable emperors
who ever occupied the throne, and devoted his great and varied
talents to the interests of the state. One of his chief objects was
the abolition of distinctions between the provinces and the
mother country, finally carried out by Caracalla, while at the
same time he did not neglect reforms that were urgently called
for in Italy. Provincial governors were kept under strict super-
vision; extortion was practically unheard of; the jus Latii was
bestowed upon several communities; special officials were
instituted for the control of the finances; and the emperor's
interest in provincial affairs was shown by his personal assumption
of various municipal offices. New towns were founded and old
ones restored; new streets were laid out, and aqueducts, temples
and magnificent buildings constructed. In Italy itself the ad-
ministration of justice and the finances required special attention.
Four legati juridici (or simply juridici) of consular rank were
appointed for Italy, who took over certain important judicial
functions formerly exercised by local magistrates (cases of
fideicommissa, the nomination of guardians). The judicial
council (consiliarii Augusti, later called consistorium) , composed
of persons of the highest rank (especially jurists), became a
permanent body of advisers, although merely consultative.
Roman law owes much to Hadrian, who instructed Salvius
Julianus to draw up an edictum perpetuum, to a great extent the
basis of Justinian's Corpus juris (see M. Schanz, Geschichte der
romischen Liter atur, iii. p. 167). In the administration of
finance, in addition to the remission of arrears already mentioned,
a revision of claims was ordered to be made every fifteen years,
thereby anticipating the " indictions " (see Calendar; Chron-
ology). Direct collection of taxes by imperial procurators was
substituted for the system of farming, and a special official
(advocatus jisci) was instituted to look after the interests of the
imperial treasury. The gift of " coronary gold " {aurum coro-
narium), presented to the emperor on certain occasions, was
entirely remitted in the case of Italy, and partly in the case of the
provinces. The administration of the postal service throughout
the empire was taken over by the state, and municipal officials
were relieved from the burden of maintaining the imperial posts.
Humane regulations as to the treatment of slaves were strictly
xii. 26
802
HADRIAN'S WALL— HADRUMETUM
enforced; the master was forbidden to put his slave to death,
but was obliged to bring him before a court of justice; if he
ill-treated him it was a penal offence. The sale of slaves (male
and female) for immoral and gladiatorial purposes was forbidden;
the custom of putting all the household to death when their
master was murdered was modified. The public baths were kept
under strict supervision; the toga was ordered to be worn in
public by senators and equites on solemn occasions; extravagant
banquets were prohibited; rules were made to prevent the
congestion of traffic in the streets. In military matters Hadrian
was a strict disciplinarian, but his generosity and readiness to
share their hardships endeared him to the soldiers. He effected
a material and moral improvement in the conditions of service
and mode of life, but in other respects he does not appear to
have introduced any important military reforms. During his
reign an advance was made in the direction of creating an organ-
ized body of servants at the disposal of the emperor by the
appointment of equites to important administrative posts,
without their having performed the mUUiae equestres (see
Equites). Among these posts were various procuratorships
(chief of which was that of the imperial fisc), and the offices ab
epistulis, a rationibus and a libellis (secretary, accountant,
receiver of petitions). The prefect of the praetorian guard was
now the most important person in the state next to the emperor,
and subsequently became a supreme judge of appeal. Among the
magnificent buildings erected by Hadrian mention may be made
of the following: In the capital, the temple of Venus and Roma;
his splendid mausoleum, which formed the groundwork of the
castle of St Angelo; the pantheon of Agrippa; the Basilica
Neptuni; at Tibur the great villa 8 m. in extent, a kind of epi-
tome of the world, with miniatures of the most celebrated places
in the provinces. Athens, however, was the favourite site of
his architectural labours; here he built the temple of Olympian
Zeus, the Panhellenion, the Pantheon, the library, a gymnasium
and a temple of Hera.
Hadrian was fond of the society of learned men — poets,
scholars, rhetoricians and philosophers — whom he alternately
humoured and ridiculed. In painting, sculpture and music he
considered himself the equal of specialists. The architect
Apollodorus of Damascus owed his banishment and death to his
outspoken criticism of the emperor's plans. The sophist
Favorinus was more politic; when reproached for yielding too
readily to the emperor in some grammatical discussion, he replied
that it was unwise to contradict the master of thirty legions.
The Athenaeum (q.v.) owed its foundation to Hadrian. He was
a man of considerable intellectual attainments, of prodigious
memory, master of both Latin and Greek, and wrote prose and
verse with equal facility. His taste, however, was curious; he
preferred Cato the elder, Ennius and Caelius Antipater to Cicero,
Virgil and Sallust, the obscure poet Antimachus to Homer and
Plato. As a writer he displayed great versatility. He composed
an autobiography, published under the name of his freedman
Phlegon; wrote speeches, fragments of two of which are preserved
in inscriptions (a panegyric on his mother-in-law Matidia, and
an address to the soldiers at Lambaesis in Africa). In imitation
of Antimachus he wrote a work called Catachannae, probably a
kind of miscellanea. The Latin and Greek anthologies contain
about a dozen epigrams under his name. The letter of Hadrian
to the consul Servianus (in Vopiscus, Vita Saturnini, 8) is no
longer considered genuine. Hadrian's celebrated dying address
to his soul may here be quoted: —
" Animula vagula, blandula,
Hospes comesque corporis,
Quae nunc abibis in loca
Pallid ula, rigida, nudula;
Nee, ut soles, dabis jocos?"
The character of Hadrian exhibits a mass of contradictions,
well summed up by Spartianus (14. 11). He was grave and gay,
affable and dignified, cruel and gentle, mean and generous, eager
for fame yet not vain, impulsive and cautious, secretive and open.
He hated eminent qualities in others, but gathered round him the
most distinguished men of the state; at one time affectionate
towards his friends, at another he mistrusted and put them to
death. In fact, he was only consistent in his inconsistency
(semper in omnibus varius). Although he endeavoured to win
the popular favour, he was more feared than loved. A man of
unnatural passions and grossly superstitious, he was an ardent
lover of nature. But, with all his faults, he devoted himself so
indefatigably to the service of the state, that the period of his
reign could be characterized as a " golden age."
The chief ancient authorities for the reign of Hadrian are: the
life by Aelius Spartianus in the Scriptores historiae Augustae (see
Augustan History and bibliography) ; the epitome of Dio Cassius
(lxix.) by Xiphilinus; Aurelius Victor, Epit. 14, probably based on
Marius Maximus; Eutropius viii. 6; Zonaras xi. 23; Suidas, s.v.
'ABpuw&s: and numerous inscriptions and coins. The autobio-
graphy was used by both Dio Cassius and Marius Maximus. Modern
authorities: C. Merivale, Hist, of the Romans under the Empire, ch.
lxvi. ; H. Schiller, Geschichte der rcHnischen Kaiserzeit, i. 2, p. 602
(1883); J. B. Bury, The Student's Roman Empire (1893), where a
concise table of the journeys is given ; P. von Rohden, s.v. " Aelius "
(No. 64) in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencyclopddie, i. I (1894); J- DQrr,
Die Reisen des Kaisers Hadrian (1881) ; F. Gregorovius, The Emperor
Hadrian (Eng. tr. by Mary £. Robinson, 1898); A. Hausrath,
Neutestamentltehe Zeitgeschichte, iii. (1874); W. Schurz, De muta-
tionibus in imperio orainando ab imp. Hoar, factis, i, (Bonn, 1883) ;
J. Plew, Queltenuntersuchungen zur Geschichte des Kaisers Hadrian
(Strassburg, 1890); O. T. Schulz, " Leben des Kaisers Hadrian,"
duellenanalysen [of Spartianus' Vita] (1904.); £. Kornemann,
Kaiser Hadrian und der letzte grosse Historiker von Re
W. Weber, Untersuchungen zur Geschichte des Kaisers Haarianus
m (1905);
Haarianus
(1908) ; H. F. Hitzig, Die Stellune Kaiser Hadrians in der rbmischen
Rechtsgeschichte (1892); C. Schultess, Bauten des Kaisers Hadrian
(1898); G. Doublet, Notes sur les auvres litUraires de Vempheur
Hadrien (Toulouse, 1893); J. B. Lightfoot, Apostolic Fathers, ii. 1,
seq.;
histories <
Aelius Caesar, see Class. Quart.] 1908, i. (T. K. ; J. H. F.)
HADRIAN'S WALL, the name usually given to the remains of
the Roman fortifications which defended the northern frontier of
the Roman province of Britain, between the TyneandtheSolway.
The works consisted of (1) a continuous defensive rampart with a
ditch in front and a road behind; (2) various forts, blockhouses
and towers along the rampart; and (3) an earthwork to the south
of it, generally called the Vallum, of uncertain use. The defensive
wall was probably first erected by Hadrian about a.d. 122 as a
turf wall, and rebuilt in stone by Septimius Severus about a.d.
208. See further Britain: Roman.
HADRUMETUM, a town of ancient Africa on the southern
extremity of the sinus Neapolitanus (mod. Gulf of Hammamet)
on the east coast of Tunisia. The site is partly occupied by the
modern town of Susa (q.v.). The form of the name Hadru-
metum varied much in antiquity; the Greeks called it 'Adpbfxrjs*
*A5pfyu7p-os, 'ASpa/iimp, 'AflpA/tfp-os: the Romans Adrumetum,
Adrimetum t H adrumetum, Hadrymetum, &c; inscriptions and
coins gave Hadrumetum. The town was originally a Phoenician
colony founded by Tyrians long before Carthage (Sallust,
Jug. 19). It became subject to Carthage, but lost none of its
prosperity. Often mentioned during the Punic Wars, it was
captured by Agathocles in 310, and was the refuge of Hannibal
and the remnants of his army after the battle of Zama in 202.
During the last Punic War it gave assistance to the Romans;
after the fall of Carthage in 146 it received an accession of
territory and the title of civitas libera (Appian, Punica t xciv. ;
C.I.L. i. p. 84). Caesar landed there in 46 B.C. on his way to
the victory of Thapsus (De bello Afric. iii.; Suetonius, Div.
Jul. lix.).
In the organization of the African provinces Hadrumetum
became a capital of the province of Byzacena. Its harbour was
extremely busy and the surrounding country unusually fertile.
Trajan made it a Latin colony under the title of Colonic
Concordia Ulpia Trajana Augusta Frugifera Hadrumetina; a
dedication to the emperor Gordian the Good, found by M.
Cagnat at Susa in 1883 gives these titles to the town, and at
the same time identifies it with Susa. Quarrels arose between
Hadrumetum and its neighbour Thysdrus in connexion with
the temple of Minerva situated on the borders of their respective
territories (Frontinus, Gr0f»atici,ed.Lachmannus,p.57) ;Vespasian
HAECKEL
803
when pro-consul of Africa had to repress a sedition among its
inhabitants (Suetonius, Vesp. iv.; Tissot, Fastes de la prov.
d'Afrique, p. 66); it was the birthplace of the emperor Albinus.
At this period the metropolis of Byzacena was after Carthage
the most important town in Roman Africa. It was the seat of a
bishopric, and its bishops are mentioned at the councils of 258,
348, 393 and even later. Destroyed by the Vandals in 434 it was
rebuilt by Justinian and renamed Justinianopolis (Procop. De
aedif. vi. 6). The Arabic invasion at the end of the 7th century
destroyed the Byzantine towns, and the place became the haunt
of pirates, protected by the Kasbah (citadel); it was built on
the substructions of the Punic, Roman and Byzantine acropolis,
and is used by the French for military purposes. The Arabic
geographer Bakri gave a description of the chief Roman
buildings which were standing in his time (Bakri, Descr. de
VAfrique, tr. by de Slane, p. 83 et seq.). The modern town of
Susa, despite its commercial prosperity, occupies only a third of
the old site.
In 1863 the French engineer, A. Daux, discovered the jetties
and the moles of the commercial harbour, and the line of the
military harbour (Cothon); both harbours, which were mainly
artificial, are entirely silted up. There remains a fragment of
the fortifications of the Punic town, which had a total length
of 6410 metres, and remains of the substructions of the Byzantine
acropolis, of the circus, the theatre, the water cisterns, and of
other buildings, notably the interesting Byzantine basilica
which is now used as an Arab cafe* (Kahwat-el-Kubba). In the
ruins there have been found numerous columns of Punic in-
scriptions, Roman inscriptions and mosaic, among which is one
representing Virgil seated, holding the Aeneid in his hand;
another represents the Cretan labyrinth with Theseus and the
Minotaur (He>on de Villefosse, Revue de I'Afrique francaise,
v., December 1887, pp. 384 and 394; Comptes rendus de VAcad.
des Inscr. el Belles-Lettres, 1892, p. 318; other mosaics, ibid,,
1896, p. 578; Revue archtol., 1897). In 1904 Dr Carton and the
abt>6 Leynaud discovered huge Christian catacombs with several
miles of subterranean galleries to which access is obtained by a
small vaulted chamber. In these catacombs we find numerous
sarcophagi and inscriptions painted or engraved of the Roman
and Byzantine periods {Comptes rendus de VAcad. des Inscr. et
Belles-Lettres, 1904- 1907; Carton and Leynaud, Les Caiacombes
d'Hadrumete, Susa, 1905). We can recognize also the Punic and
Pagan-Roman cemeteries (C. R. de VAcad. des Inscr. et Belles-
Lettres, 1887; Bull. arch&ol. du ComitS, 1885, p. 149; 1903,
p. 157). The town had no Punic coins., but under the Roman
domination there were coins from the time of the Republic.
These are of bronze and bear the name of the city in abbrevia-
tions, Hadr or Hadrvm accompanying the head of Neptune
or the Sun. We find also the names of local duumvirs. Under
Augustus the coins have on the obverse the imperial effigy, and
on the reverse the names and often the effigies of the pro-consuls
who governed the province, P. Quintiiius Varus, L. Volusius
Saturninus and Q. Fabius Maximus Africanus. After Augustus
the mint was finally closed.
Authorities.— A. Daux, Recherches sur Vorigine et V emplacement
des emporia pheniciens dans le Zeugis et le Byzacium (Pans, 1869);
Ch. Tissot, Gtographie compared de la province romaine d'Afrique, ii.
p. 149; Cagnat, Explorations archeol. en Tunisie (2nd and 3rd fasc.,
1885) ; Lud. Miiller, Numismatique de VAfrique ancienne, ii. p. 51 ;
M. Palat, in the Bulletin arch, du ComttS des travaux historiaues
(1885), pp. 121 and 150; Revue archiologique (1884 and 1897) ; Bulletin
des anttquiUs africaines (1884 and 1885); Bulletin de la Sociiti
archeclogique de Sousse (first published in 1903); Atlas archSol. de
Tunisie (4th fascicule, with the plan of Hadrumetum). (E. B.*)
HAECKEL, ERNST HEINRICH (1834- ), German biologist,
was born at Potsdam on the 16th of February 1834. He studied
medicine and science at Wurzburg, Berlin and Vienna, having
for his masters such men as Johannes Miiller, R. Virchow and
R. A. Kdlliker, and in 1857 graduated at Berlin as M.D. and
M. Ch. At the wish of his father he began to practise as a doctor
in fehat city, but his patients were few in number, one reason
being that he did not wish them to be many, and after a short
time he turned to more congenial pursuits. In 1861, at the
instance of Carl Gegenbaur, he* became Privatdozent at Jena;
in the succeeding year he was chosen extraordinary professor
of comparative anatomy and director of the Zoological Institute
in the same university; in 1865 he was appointed to a chair
of zoology which was specially established for his benefit. This
last position he retained for 43 years, in spite of repeated invita-
tions to migrate to more important centres, such as Strassburg
or Vienna, and at Jena he spent his life, with the exception of
the time he devoted to travelling in various parts of the world,
whence in every case he brought back a rich zoological harvest.
As a field naturalist Haeckel displayed extraordinary power
and industry. Among his monographs may be mentioned those
on Radiolaria (1862), Siphonophora (1869), Monera (1870) and
Calcareous Sponges (1872), as well as several Challenger reports,
viz. Deep-Sea Medusae (1881), Siphonophora (1888), Deep-Sea
Keratosa (1889) and Radiolaria (1887), the last being accompanied
by 140 plates and enumerating over four thousand new species.
This output of systematic and descriptive work would alone have
constituted a good life's work, but Haeckel in addition wrote
copiously on biological theory. It happened that just when he
was beginning his scientific career Darwin's Origin of Species
was published (1859), and such was the influence it exercised
over him that he became the apostle of Darwinism in Germany.
He was, indeed, the first German biologist to give a whole-
hearted adherence to the doctrine of organic evolution and to
treat it as the cardinal conception of modern biology. It was he
who first brought it prominently before the notice of German men
of science in his first memoir on the Radiolaria, which was com-
pletely pervaded with its spirit, and later at the congress of
naturalists at Stettin in 1863. Darwin himself has placed on
record the conviction that Haeckel's enthusiastic propagandism
of the doctrine was the chief factor of its success in Germany.
His book on General Morphology (1866), published when he was
only thirty-two years old, was called by Huxley a suggestive
attempt to work out the practical application of evolution to
its final results; and if it does not take rank as a classic, it will
at least stand out as a landmark in the history of biological
doctrine in the 19th century. Although it contains a statement
of most of the views with which HaeckeTs name is associated,
it did not attract much attention on its first appearance, and
accordingly its author rewrote much of its substance in a more
popular style and published it a year or two later as the Natural
History of Creation (NatUrliche Schopfungsgeschichte), which was
far more successful. In it he divided morphology into two
sections — tectology, the science of organic individuality; and
promorphology, which aims at establishing a crystallography of
organic forms. Among other matters, he laid particular stress
on the " fundamental biogenetic law " that ontogeny re-
capitulates phylogeny, that the individual organism in its
development is to a great extent an epitome of the form-modifica-
tions undergone by the successive ancestors of the species in the
course of their historic evolution. His well-known " gastraea "
theory is an outcome of this generalization. He divided the
whole animal creation into two categories — the Protozoa or
unicellular animals, and the Metazoa or multicellular animals,
and he pointed out that while the former remain single-celled
throughout their existence, the latter are only so at the beginning,
and are subsequently built up of innumerable cells, the single
primitive egg-cell (ovum) being transformed by cleavage into a
globular mass of cells (morula), which first becomes a hollow
vesicle and then changes into the gastrula. The simplest multi-
cellular animal he conceived to resemble this gastrula with its
two primary layers, ectoderm and endoderm, and the earliest
hypothetical form of this kind, from which the higher animals
might be supposed to be actually descended, he called the
" gastraea." This theory was first put forward in the memoir
on the calcareous sponges, which in its sub-title. was described as
an attempt at an analytical solution of the problem of the origin
of species, and was subsequently elaborated in various Studies
on the Gastraea Theory (1873-1884). Haeckel, again, was the
first to attempt to draw up a genealogical tree (Stammbaum)
exhibiting the relationship between the various orders of animals
804
HAEMATITE— HAEMATOCELE
with regard both to one another and their common origin. His
earliest attempt in the General Morphology was succeeded by
many others, and his efforts in this direction may perhaps be
held to culminate in the paper he read before the fourth Inter-
national Zoological Congress, held at Cambridge in 1898, when
he traced the descent of the human race in twenty-six stages
from organisms like the still-existing M oner a, simple structureless
masses of protoplasm, and the unicellular Protista, through the
chimpanzees and the Pithecanthropus erectus, of which a few fossil
bones were discovered in Java in 1894, and which he held to be
undoubtedly an intermediate form connecting primitive man
with the anthropoid apes.
Not content with the study of the doctrine of evolution in its
zoological aspects, Haeckel also applied it to some of the oldest
problems of philosophy and religion. What he termed the in-
tegration of his views on these subjects he published under the
title of Die Weltrdtsel (1899), which in 1901 appeared in English
as The Riddle of the Universe. In this book, adopting an un-
compromising monistic attitude, he asserted the essential unity
of organic and inorganic nature. According to his " carbon-
theory," which has been far from achieving general acceptance,
the chemico-physical properties of carbon in its complex albu-
minoid compounds are the sole and the mechanical cause of the
specific phenomena of movement which distinguish organic from
inorganic substances, and the first development of living proto-
plasm, as seen in the M oner a, arises from such nitrogenous
carbon-compounds by a process of spontaneous generation.
Psychology he regarded as merely a branch of physiology, and
psychical activity as a group of vital phenomena which depend
solely on physiological actions and material changes taking place
in the protoplasm of the organism in which it is manifested.
Every living cell has psychic properties, and the psychic life
of multicellular organisms is the sum-total of the psychic
functions of the cells of which they are composed. Moreover,
just as the highest animals have been evolved from the simplest
forms of life, so the highest faculties of the human mind have been
evolved from the soul of the brute-beasts, and more remotely
from the simple cell-soul of the unicellular Protozoa. As a
consequence of these views Haeckel was led to deny the im-
mortality of the soul, the freedom of the will, and the existence
of a personal God.
Haeckel's literary output was enormous, and at the time of the
celebration of his sixtieth birthday at Jena in 1894 he had
produced 42 works with 13,000 pages, besides numerous scientific
memoirs. In addition to the works already mentioned, he
wrote Freie Wissenschaft und freie Lehre (1877) in reply to a
speech in which Virchow objected to the teaching of the doctrine
of evolution in schools, on the ground that it was an unproved
hypothesis; Die systetnatische Phylogenie (1894), which has been
pronounced his best book; Anthropogenic (1874, 5th and enlarged
edition 1003), dealing with the evolution of man; Vber unsere
gegenwdrtige Kenntnis vom Ursprung des Menschen (1898,
translated into English as The Last Link, 1898); Der Kampf
urn den Entorickelungsgedanken (1905, English version, Last
Words on Evolution, 1906); Die Lebenswunder (1904), a supple-
ment to the Riddle of the Universe; books of travel, such as
Indische Reisebriefe (1882) and Aus Insulinde (1901), the fruits
of journeys to Ceylon and to Java; Kunstformen der Natur
(1004), with plates representing beautiful marine animal forms;
and WanderbUder (1905), reproductions of his oil-paintings and
water-colour landscapes.
There are biographies by W. Bdlsche (Dresden, 1900, translated
into English by Joseph McCabe, with additions, London, 1906) and
by Brvitenbach (Odenkirchen, 1904). See also Walther May, Ernst
Haeckel; Versuch einer Chronih seines Lebens und Werkens (Leipzig,
1909).
HAEMATITE, or Hematite, a mineral consisting of ferric
oxide (FciOO, named from the Greek word 'aljia, " blood," in
allusion to its typical colour, whence it is called also red iron ore.
When crystallized, however, haematite often presents a dark
colour, even iron-black; but on scratching the surface, the
powder of the streak shows the colour of dried blood. Haematite
crystallizes in the rhombohedral system, and is isomorphous
Fig. 1.
SI!
Fig. 2.
^
with corundum (AI2O1). The habit of the crystals may be
rhombohedral, pyramidal or tabular, rarely prismatic. In fig. 1
the crystal, from Elba, shows a combination of the fundamental
rhombohedron (R), an obtuse rhom-
bohedron (s), and the hexagonal bi-
pyramid (»). Fig. 2 is a tabular
crystal in which the basal pinacoid
(0) predominates. Haematite has no
distinct cleavage, but may show, in
consequence of a lamellar structure,
a tendency to parting along certain
planes.
Crystallized haematite, such as
that from the iron-mines of Elba, presents a steel-grey or iron-
black colour, with a brilliant metallic lustre, sometimes beauti-
fully iridescent. The splendent surface has suggested for this
mineral such names as specular iron ore, looking-glass ore, and
iron glance (fer oligiste of French writers). The hardness of the
crystallized haematite is about 6, and the specific gravity 52.
The so-called " iron roses " (Eisenrosen) of Switzerland are
rosette-like aggregates of hexagonal
tabular crystals, from fissures in the
gneissose rocks of the Alps. Specular
iron ore occurs in the form of brilliant
metallic scales on many lavas, as at
Vesuvius and Etna, in the Auvergne and the Eifel, and notably
in the Island of Ascension, where the mineral forms beautiful
tabular crystals. It seems to be a sublimation-product formed
in volcanoes by the interaction of the vapour of ferric chloride
and steam.
Specular haematite forms a constituent of certain schistose
rocks, such as the Brazilian itabirite. In the Marquette district
of Michigan (Lake Superior) schistose specular ore occurs in
important deposits, associated with a jasper rock, in which the
ore alternates with bands of red quartzite. Micaceous iron ore
consists of delicate steel-grey scales of specular haematite,
unctuous to the touch, used as a lubricant and also as a pigment.
It is worked in Devonshire under the name of shining ore. Very
thin laminae of haematite, blood-red by transmitted light,
occur as microscopic enclosures in certain minerals, such as
carnallite and sun-stone, to which they impart colour and lustre.
Much haematite occurs in a compact or massive form, often
mammillary, and presenting on fracture a fibrous structure.
The reniform masses are known as kidney ore. Such red ore is
generally neither so dense nor so hard as the crystals. It often
passes into an earthy form, termed soft red ore, and when mixed
with more or less clay constitutes red ochre, ruddle or reddle
(Ger. Rdtel).
The hard haematite is occasionally cut and polished as an
ornamental stone, and certain kinds have been made into beads
simulating black pearls. It was worked by the Assyrians for
their engraved cylinder-seals, and was used by the gnostics for
amulets. Some of the native tribes in the Congo basin employ
it as a material for axes. The hard fibrous ore of Cumberland
is known as pencil ore, and is employed for the burnishers used
by bookbinders and others. Santiago de Compostela in Spain
furnishes a considerable supply of haematite burnishers.
Haematite is an important ore of iron (q.v.), and is extensively
worked in Elba, Spain (Bilbao), Scandinavia, the Lake Superior
region and elsewhere. In England valuable deposits occur in
the Carboniferous Limestone of west Cumberland (Whitehaven
district) and north Lancashire (Ulverston district). The hard
ore is siliceous, and fine crystallized specimens occur in associa-
tion with smoky quartz. The ore is remarkably free from
phosphorus, and is consequently valued for the production of pig-
iron to be converted into Bessemer steel. (F. W. R.*)
HAEMATOCELE (Gr. ai/Aa, blood, and 1^X17, tumour), the
medical term for a localized collection of blood in the tunica
vaginalis or cord. It is usually the result of a sudden blow or
severe strain, but may arise from disease. At first it forms a
smooth, fluctuating, opaque swelling, but later becomes hard
and firm. In chronic cases the walls of the tunica vaginalis
HAEMOPHILIA— HAEMORRHOIDS
805
undergo changes. The treatment of a case seen soon after the
injury is directed towards keeping the patient at rest, elevating
the parts, and applying an evaporating lotion or ice-bag. In
chronic cases it may be necessary to lay open the cavity and
remove the coagulum.
HAEMOPHILIA, the medical term for a condition of the
vascular system, often running in families, the members of which
are known as " bleeders," characterized by a disposition towards
bleeding, whether with or without the provocation of an injury
to the tissue. When this bleeding is spontaneous it comes from
the mucous membranes, especially from the nose, but also from
the mouth, bowel and bronchial tubes. Slight bruises are apt
to be followed by extravasations of blood into the tissues; the
swollen joints (knee especially) of a bleeder are probably due,
in the first instance, to the escape of blood into the joint cavity
or synovial membrane. It is always from the smallest vessels
that the blood escapes, and may do so in such quantities as to
cause death in a few hours.
HAEMORRHAGE (Gr. atpa, blood, and InryvbvojL, to burst),
a general term for any escape of blood from a blood-vessel (see
Blood). It commonly results from injury, as the tearing or
cutting of a blood-vessel, but certain forms result from disease,
as in scurvy and purpura. The chief varieties of haemorrhage
are arterial, venous and capillary. Bleeding from an artery is
of a bright red colour, and escapes from the end of the vessel
nearest the heart in jets synchronous with the heart's beat.
Bleeding from a vein is of a darker colour; the flow is steady,
and the bleeding is from the distal end of the vessel. Capillary
bleeding is a general oozing from a raw surface. By extravasation
of blood is meant the pouring out of blood into the areolar tissues,
which become boggy. This is termed a bruise or ecchytnosis.
Epistaxis is a term given to bleeding from the nose. Haemal-
emesis is vomiting of blood, the colour of which may be altered
by digestion, as is also the case in melaena, or passage of blood
with the faeces, in which the blood becomes dark and tarry-
looking from the action of the intestinal fluids. Haemoptysis
denotes an escape of blood from the air-passages, which is usually
bright red and frothy from admixture with air. Haematuria
means passage of blood with the urine.
Cessation of bleeding may take place from natural or from
artificial means. Natural arrest of haemorrhage arises from
(1) the coagulation of the blood itself, (2) the diminution of the
heart's action as in fainting, (3) changes taking place in the cut
vessel causing its retraction and contraction. In the surgical
treatment of haemorrhage minor means of arresting bleeding
are: cold, which is most valuable in general oozing and local
extravasations; very hot water, 130 to 160 F., a powerful
haemostatic; position, such as elevation of the limb, valuable
in bleeding from the extremities; styptics or astringents,
applied locally, as perchloride of iron, tannic acid and others,
the most valuable being suprarenal , extract. In arresting
haemorrhage temporarily the chief thing is to press directly
on the bleeding part. The pressure to be effectual need not be
severe, but must be accurately applied. If the bleeding point
cannot be reached, the pressure should be applied to the main
artery between the bleeding point and the heart. In small
blood-vessels pressure will be sufficient to arrest haemorrhage
permanently. In large vessels it is usual to pass a ligature round
the vessel and tie it with a reef-knot. Apply the ligature, if
possible, at the bleeding point, tying both ends of the cut vessel.
If this cannot be done, the main artery of the limb must be
exposed by dissection at the most accessible point between the
wound and the heart, and there ligatured.
Haemorrhage has been classified as — (1) primary, occurring
at the time of the injury; (2) reactionary, or within twenty-four
hours of the accident, during the stage of reaction; (3) secondary,
occurring at a later period and caused by faulty application of a
ligature or septic condition of the wound. In severe haemor-
rhage, as from the division of a large artery, the patient may
collapse and death ensue from syncope. In this case stimulants
and strychnine may be given, but they should be avoided until
it is certain the bleeding has been properly controlled, as they
tend to increase it. "Transfusion of blood directly from the vein
of a healthy person to the blood-vessels of the patient, and
infusion of saline solution into a vein, may be practised (see
Shock). In a congenital condition known as haemophylia (q.v.)
it is difficult to stop the flow of blood.
The surgical procedure for the treatment of an open wound
is — (1) arrest of haemorrhage; (2) cleansing of the wound and
removal of any foreign bodies; (3) careful apposition of its
edges and surfaces — the edges being best brought in contact
by sutures of aseptic silk or catgut, the surfaces by carefully
applied pressure; (4) free drainage, if necessary, to prevent
accumulation either of blood or serous effusion; (5) avoidance
of sepsis; (6) perfect rest of the part. These methods of treat-
ment require to be modified for wounds in special situations and
for those in which there is much contusion and laceration. When
a special poison has entered the wound at the time of its infliction
or at some subsequent date, it is necessary to provide against
septic conditions of the wound itself and blood-poisoning of the
general circulation.
HAEMORRHOIDS, or Hemorrhoids (from Gr. al/xa, blood,
and few, to flow), commonly called piles, swellings formed by the
dilatation of veins of the lowest part of the bowel, or of those
just outside the margin of its aperture. The former, internal
piles, are covered by mucous membrane; the latter, external piles,
are just beneath the skin. As the veins of the lining of the bowel
become dilated they form definite bulgings within the bowel,
and, at last increasing in size, escape through the anus when a
motion is being passed. Growing still larger, they may come
down spontaneously when the individual is standing or walking,
and they are apt to be a grave source of pain or annoyance.
Eventually they may remain constantly protruded — nevertheless,
they are still internal piles because they arise from the interior
of the bowel. Though a pile is sometimes solitary, there are
usually several of them. They are apt to become inflamed, and
the inflammation is associated with heat, pain, discharge and
general uneasiness; ulceration and bleeding are also common
symptoms, hence the term " bleeding piles." The external pile
is covered by the thin dark-coloured skin of the anal margin.
Severe pressure upon the large abdominal veins may retard the
upward flow of blood to the heart and so give rise to piles;
this is apt to happen in the case of disease of the liver, malignant
and other tumours, and pregnancy. General weakness of the
constitution or of the blood-vessels and habitual constipation
may be predisposing causes of piles. The exciting cause may be
vigorous straining at stool or exposure to damp, as from sitting
on the wet ground. Piles are often only a symptom, and in their
treatment this fact should be kept in view; if the cause is
removed the piles may disappear. But in some cases it may
be impossible to remove the cause, as when a widely-spreading
cancerous growth of the rectum, or of the interior of the pelvis
or abdomen, is blocking the upward flow of blood in the veins.
Sometimes when a pile has been protruded, as during defaecation,
it is tightly grasped by spasmodic contraction of the circular
muscular fibres which guard the outlet of the bowel, and it then
becomes swollen, engorged and extremely painful; the strangu-
lation may be so severe that the blood in the vessels coagulates
and the pile mortifies. This, indeed, is nature's attempt at
curing a pile, but it is distressing, and, as a rule, it is not entirely
successful.
The palliative treatment of piles consists in obtaining a daily
and easy action of the bowels, in rest, cold bathing, astringent
injections, lotions and ointments. The radical treatment consists
in their removal by operation, but this should not be contemplated
until palliative treatment has failed. The operation consists in
drawing the pile well down, and strangling the vessels entering
and leaving its base, either by a strong ligature tightly applied,
by crushing, or by cautery. Before dealing with the pile the anus
is vigorously dilated in order that the pile may be dealt with with
greater precision, and also that the temporary paralysis of the
sphincter muscle, which follows the stretching, may prevent the
occurrence of painful and spasmodic contractions subsequently.
The ligatures by which the base of the piles are strangulated
8o6
HAEMOSPORIDIA
slough off with the pile in about ten days, and in about ten days
more the individual is, as a rule, well enough to return to his
work. If, for one reason or another, no operation is to be under-
taken, and the piles are troublesome, relief may be afforded by
warm sponging and by sitz-baths, the pile being gently dried
afterwards by a piece of soft linen, smeared with vaseline,
and carefully returned into the bowel. Under surgical advice,
cocaine or morphia may be brought in contact with the tender
parts, either in the form of lotion, suppository or ointment.
In operating upon internal piles it is undesirable to remove all the
external piles around the anus, lest the contraction of the
circumferential scar should cause permanent narrowing of the
orifice. If, as often happens, blood clots in the vein of an external
pile, the small, hard, tender swelling may be treated with anodyne
fomentations, or it may be rendered insensitive by the ether
spray and opened by a small incision, the clot being turned
out. (E. O .*)
HAEMOSPORIDIA, in zoology, an order of Ectospora, which
although comparatively few in number and very inconspicuous
in size and appearance, have of late years probably attracted
greater attention and been more generally studied than any
other Sporozoa; the reason being that they include the organ-
isms well known as malarial parasites. In spite, however, of
much and careful recent research — to a certain extent, rather,
as a result of it — it remains the case that the Haemosporidia are,
in some respects, the group of the Ectospora about which our
knowledge is, for the time being, in the most unsatisfactory
condition. Such important questions, indeed, as the scope and
boundaries of the group, its exact origin and affinities, the rank
and interclassification of the forms admittedly included in it,
are answered quite differently by different workers. For example,
one well-known Sporozoan authority (M. Ltihe) has recently
united the two groups, Haemosporidia and Haemoflagellates,
bodily into one, while others (e.g. Novy and McNeal) deny
that there is any connexion whatever between " Cytozoa " and
Trypanosomes. Again, the inclusion or exclusion of forms like
Piroplasma and Halteridium is also the subject of much discus-
sion. The present writer accepts here the view that the Haemo-
sporidia are derived from Haemoflagellates which have developed
a grcgariniform (Sporozoan) phase at the expense, largely or
entirely, of the flagelliform one. The not inconsiderable differ-
ences met with among different types are capable of explanation
on the ground that certain forms have advanced farther than
others along this particular line of evolution. In other words,
it is most probable that the Haemosporidia are to be regarded
as comprising various parasites which represent different stages
intermediate between, on the one side, a Flagellate, and on the
other, a typical chlamydospore-forming Ectosporan parasite.
While, however, it is easy enough sharply to separate off all
Haemosporidia from other Ectospora, it is a very difficult matter
to define their limits on the former side. Two principal criteria
which a doubtful haemal parasite might very well be required
to satisfy in order to be considered as a Haemosporidian rather
than a Haemoflagellate are (a) the occurrence of schizogony
during the " corpuscular " phase in the Vertebrate host, and (b)
the formation of many germs (" sporozoites ") from the zygote;
so long as these conditions were complied with, the present
writer, at all events, would not feel he was countenancing any
protozoological heresy in allowing for the possibility of a Flagel-
late (perhaps trypaniform) phase or features being present at
some period or other in the life-cycle. 1 To render this article
complete, however, one or two well-known parasites, hitherto
referred to this order, must also be mentioned, which, judged
by the above (arbitrary) standard, are, it may be, on the Haemo-
flagellate side of the dividing line (e.g. Halteridium, according to
Schaudinn).
The chief characters which distinguish the Haemosporidia
from other Ectospora are the following. They are invariably
blood parasites, and for part or all of the trophic period come into
intimate relation with the cellular elements in the blood. There
1 Compare, for example, the flagellated granules of certain
Coccidia, which point unmistakably to a Flagellate ancestry.
is always an alternation of hosts and of generations, an In-
vertebrate being the definitive host, in which sexual conjugation
is undergone and which is to be regarded as the primary one,
a Vertebrate being the intermediate or secondary one. The
zygote or sporont is at first capable of movement and known as
an ookinete. No resistant spores (chlamydospores) are formed,
the ultimate germs or sporozoites always being free in the oocyst
and not enclosed by sporocysts.
To Sir E. Ray Lankester is due the honour of discovering
the first Haemosporidian, a discovery which did not take place
until after most of the other kinds of Sporozoa were known.
In 1871 this author described the parasite of the frog, which he
later termed Drepanidium ranarum. The next discovery was
the great and far-reaching one of Laveran, who in 1883 described
all the characteristic phases of the malarial parasite which are
met with in human blood. While regarding the organism as the
cause of the disease, Laveran did not at once recognize its animal
and Sporozoan nature, but considered it rather as a vegetable,
and termed it Oscittaria malariae. As in the case of the Trypano-
somes, we owe to Danilewsky (1885-1889) the first serious
attempts to study the comparative anatomy and life-history of
these parasites, from a zoological point of view. Danilewsky
first named them Haemosporidia, and distinguished between
Haemocytoeoa and Leucocytozoa. To the brilliant researches of
R. Ross and Grassi in the closing years of the 19th century is
due the realization of the essential part played by the gnat or
mosquito in the life-cycle and transmission of the parasites;
and to MacCallum belongs the credit of first observing the true
sexual conjugation, in the case of a Halteridium. Since then,
thanks to the labours of Argutinsky and Schaudinn, our know-
ledge of the malarial parasites has steadily increased. Until
quite recently, however, very little was known about the Haemo-
sporidia of cold-blooded Vertebrates ; but in 1903 Siegel and
Schaudinn demonstrated that the same role is performed in
their case by a leech or a tick, and since then many new forms
have been described.
The Haemosporidia are widely distributed and of very general
occurrence among the chief classes of Vertebrates. Among In-
vertebrates they are apparently limited to blood-
sucking insects, ticks and leeches. 1 As already stated,
the universal habitat of the parasites in the Vertebrate
is the blood; as a result, of course, they are to be met -^
with in the capillaries of practically all the important
organs of the body; and it is to be noted that while certain
phases (e.g. growing trophozoites, mature gametocytes) are found
in the peripheral circulation, others (e.g. schizogonous " rosettes,"
young gametocytes) occur in the internal organs, liver, kidneys,
&c, where the circulation is sluggish. The relation of the para-
sites to the blood-cells varies greatly. Most attack, probably
exclusively, the red blood corpuscles (haematids); a few, how-
ever, select the leucocytes, and are therefore known as Leuco-
cytozoa. In the case of Mammalian and Avian forms (malarial
parasites) Schaudinn and Argutinsky have shown that the
trophic and schizogonic phases are not really endoglobular but
closely attached to the corpuscle, hollowing out a depression
or space into which they nestle; the gametocytes, on the
other hand, are actually intercellular. Forms parasitic in cold-
blooded Vertebrates, on the contrary, are always, so far as is
known, endoglobular when in relation with the corpuscles; and
the same is apparently the case with the Mammalian parasite,
Piroplasma. Although in no instance so far described is the
parasite actually intranuclear (as certain Coccidia are), in one or
two cases (e.g. Karyolysus of lizards and certain species of
Haemogregarina) it reacts markedly upon the nucleus and soon
causes its disintegration. While many Haemosporidia (e.g.
malarial parasites, with the exception of Halteridium) remain in
connexion with the same corpuscle throughout the whole period
of growth and schizogony, the new generation of merozoites
first being set free from the broken-down cell, others (the Haemo-
1 A possible exception is a doubtful species of Haemogregarina,
which has been described from the walls of the blood-vessels of an
Annelid.
HAEMOSPORIDIA
807
gregarines, broadly speaking, and also Halteridium) leave
one corpuscle after a short time, wander about free in the
plasma, and then seek out another; and this may be repeated
until the parasite is ready for schizogony, which generally occurs
in the corpuscle.
As in the case of Trypanosomas (q.v.) f normally — that is to say,
when in an accustomed, tolerant host, and under natural con-
ditions — Haemosporidia are non-pathogenic and do not give
rise to any ill- effects in the animals harbouring them. When,
however, the parasites gain an entry into the blood of man or
other unadapted animals, 1 they produce, as is well known,
harmful and often very serious effects. There are three recog-
nized types of malarial fever, each caused by a distinct form and
characterized by the mode of manifestation. Two, the so-called
benign fevers, are intermittent; namely, tertian and quartan
fever, in which the fever recurs every second and third day
respectively. This is due to the fact that schizogony takes
different lengths of time in the two cases, 48 hours in the one,
72 in the other; the height of the fever-period coincides with the
break-down of the corpuscle at the completion of the process, and
the liberation of great numbers of merozoites in the blood.
The third type is the dangerous aestivo-autumnal or pernicious
malaria, in which the fever is irregular or continuous during long
periods.
A very general symptom is anaemia, which is sometimes
present to a marked extent, when it may lead to a fatal termina-
tion. This is the result of the very considerable destruction of
the blood-corpuscles which takes place, the haemoglobin of which
is absorbed by the parasites as nutriment. A universal feature
connected with this mode of nutrition is the production, in the
cytoplasm of the parasite, of a brown pigment, termed melanin;
this does not represent reserve material, but is an excreted bye-
product derived from the haemoglobin. These pigment-grains
are at length liberated into the blood-stream and become de-
posited in the various organs, spleen, liver, kidneys, brain,
causing pronounced pigmentation.
Another type of fever, more acute and more generally fatal, is
that produced by forms belonging to the genus Piroplasma, in
cattle, dogs, horses and other domestic animals in different
regions of the globe; and recently Wilson and Chowning have
stated that the " spotted fever of the Rockies " is a human
piroplasmosis caused by P. hominis. The disease of cattle is
known variously as Texas-fever, Tristeza, Red-water, Southern
cattle-fever, &c. In this type of illness the endogenous multipli-
cation of the parasites is very great and rapid, and brings about
an enormous diminution in the number of healthy red blood
corpuscles. Their sudden destruction results in the liberation of
large quantities of haemoglobin in the plasma, which turns
deep-red in colour; and hence haemoglobinuria, which occurs
only rarely in malaria, is a constant symptom in piroplasmosis.
The parasite of pernicious malaria, here termed Laverania
malariae, will serve very well as a type of the general life-cycle
(fig. 1). Slight differences shown by the other malarial parasites
(Plasmodium) will be mentioned in passing, but the
ofttMUto- ma * n divergences which other Haemosporidian types
biMtoty. exhibit are best considered separately. With the bite
of an infected mosquito, the minute sickle-like sporo-
zoites are injected into the blood. They rapidly penetrate into
the blood corpuscles, in which they appear as small irregular,
more or less amoeboid trophozoites. A vacuole next arises in
the cytoplasm, which increases greatly in size, and gives rise to
the well-known, much discussed ring-form of the parasite, in
which it resembles a signet-ring, the nucleus forming a little
thickening to one side. Some authorities (e.g. Argutinsky) have
regarded this structure as being really a greatly distended
vesicular nucleus, and, to a large extent, indeed, an artifact,
resulting from imperfect fixation; but Schaudinn considers it is
a true vacuole, and explains it on the ground of the rapid nutrition
1 For an interesting account of the biological relations between
parasites and their hosts, and the penalty Man pays for his roving
propensities, the reader should see Lankester's article in the Quarterly
Review, July 1904.
and growth. Later on this vacuole disappears, and the grains
of pigment make their appearance. The trophozoite is now
large and full-grown, and has become rounded and ready for
schizogony. The nucleus of the schizont divides several times
(more or less directly, by simple or multiple fission) to form a
number of daughter-nuclei, which take up a regular position
near the periphery. Around these the cytoplasm becomes seg-
mented, giving rise to the weD-known corps en rosace. Eventu-
ally the merozoites, in the form of little round uninuclear bodies,
are liberated from the now broken-down corpuscle, leaving behind
a certain amount of residual cytoplasm containing the pigment
grains. Besides the difference in the time taken by the complete
process of schizogony in the various species (see above), there are
distinctions in the composition of the rosettes. Thus, in Lave-
rania, the number of merozoites formed is very variable; in
Plasmodium vivax (the tertian parasite) there are only few (9 to 1 2)
merozoites, but in P. malariae (the quartan form) they are more
numerous, from 12 to 24. The liberated merozoites proceed to
infect fresh blood corpuscles and a new endogenous cycle is
started.
After asexual multiplication has gone on for some time, sexual
forms become developed. According to Schaudinn, the stimulus
which determines the production of gametocytes instead of
schizonts is the reaction of the host (at the height of a
fever period) upon the parasites. A young trophozoite which
is becoming a gametocyte is distinguished from one which
gives rise to a schizont by its much slower rate of growth,
and the absence of any vacuoles in its cytoplasm. The
gametocytes themselves are characterized by their peculiar
shape, like that of a sausage, whence they are very generally
known as "crescents." Male and female gametocytes are
distinguished (roughly) by the arrangement of the pigment-
grains; in the former, they are fairly evenly scattered throughout
the cytoplasm, but in the megagametocytes the pigment tends
to be aggregated centrally, around the nucleus. As they become
full-grown and mature, however, the gametocytes lose their
crescentic form and assume that of an oval, and finally of a
sphere. At the same time, they are set free from the remains
of the blood corpuscle. The spherical stage is practically the
limit of development in the Vertebrate host , although, sometimes,
the nucleus of the microgametocyte may proceed to division.
The " crescents " of the pernicious parasite afford a very
important diagnostic difference from the gametocytes of both
species of Plasmodium, which have the ordinary, rounded shape
of the schizonts. In the case of the latter, points such as their
slower growth, their less amoeboid character, and their size
furnish the means of distinction.
When a gnat or mosquito sucks blood, all phases of the parasite
in the peripheral circulation at that point may succeed in passing
into the insect. If this occurs all trophic and schizogonic
phases are forthwith digested, and the survival of the sexual
phases depends entirely upon whether the insect is a gnat or
mosquito. Only in the latter case can further development of
the gametocytes go on; in other words, only the genus Anopheles,
and not the genus Culex, furnishes specific hosts for the malarial
parasites. This is a biological fact of considerable importance
in connexion with the prophylactic measures against malaria.
In the stomach of an Anopheles, the gametocytes quickly
proceed to gamete-formation. The nucleus of the microgameto-
cyte divides up, and the daughter-nuclei pass to the periphery.
The surface of the body grows out into long, whip-like processes,
of which there are usually 6 to 8 (probably the typical number
is 8); each is very motile, in this respect strongly resembling
a flagellum. This phase may also develop in drawn blood,
which has, of course, become suddenly cooled by the exposure;
and it seems evident that it is the change in temperature, from
the warm to the cold-blooded host, which brings about the
development of the actual sexual elements. Earlier observers
regarded the phase just described as representing another
parasite altogether, of a Flagellate nature — whence the well-
known term, Polymitvs-form; and even more recent workers,
such as Labb6 who connected it with the malarial parasite,
8o8
HAEMOSPORIDIA
Q
©gg 10. " SCHIZOGONY
failed to appreciate its true significance, and con-
sidered it rather as a degeneration-appearance.
The micro-gametes soon liberate themselves from
the residual cytoplasm of the parent and swim
away in search of a megagamete; each is a very
slender, wavy filament, composed largely of chrom-
atic substance. The finer details of structure of
the microgamete of a malarial parasite cannot be
said, however, to be thoroughly known, and it is
by no means impossible that its structure is really
trypaniform, as, according to Schaudinn's great
work, is the case with the merozoites and
sporozoites.
The megagametocyte becomes a megagamete
directly after a process of maturation, which
consists in the expulsion of a certain amount of
nuclear substance. The actual conjugation is quite
similar to the process in Coccidia, and the resulting
zygote perfectly homologous. In the present case,
however, the zygote does not at once secrete an
oocyst, with a thick resistant wall; on the contrary,
it changes its shape, and becomes markedly gre-
gariniform and active, and is known for this
reason as an ookinete. The ookinete passes through
the epithelial layer of the stomach, the thinner and
more pointed end leading the way, and comes to
rest in the connective tissue forming the outer layer
of the stomach- wall (fig. 2). Here it becomes
rounded and cyst-like, and grows considerably;
for only a thin, delicate cyst-membrane is secreted,
which does not impede the absorption of nutriment.
Meanwhile, the nucleus has divided into several,
From Lankester's Treatise on Zoology.
Fig. 2. — Stomach of a mosquito,
with cysts of Haemosporidia. (After
Ross.)
From Lankester's Treatise on Zoology.
Fig. 1. — Diagram of the complete life-cycle of the parasite of pernicious malaria,
Laverania malariae, Gr. et Fel. The stages on the upper side of the dotted line are
those found in human blood ; below the dotted line are seen the phases through which
the parasite passes in the intermediate host, the mosquito. Plan and arrangement
chiefly after Neveu-Lemaire ; details of the figures founded on those of Grassi,
Schaudinn (Leuckart's Zoologische Wandtafeln), Ross and others.
IX., a and b, Spherical gametocytes;
in the male (IX. a) the nucleus has
divided up.
X., a and b, Formation of gametes;
in the male (X. a) the so-called
oeSy Oesophagus.
st, Stomach.
cy t Cysts.
Mt, Malpighian
tubules.
int, Intestine.
I.-V. and 6-10 show the schizogony.
VI. -XI I., The sexual generation.
XIII., The motile zygote.
XIV.-XIX., Sporogony.
I.-IIL, Young amoebulae in blood-
corpuscles.
IV., Older, actively amoeboid tropho-
zoite.
V., Still older, less amoeboid tropho-
zoite.
6, Mature schizont.
7, Schizont, with nucleus dividing
up.
8, Young rosette stage.
9, Fully formed rosette stage.
10, Nlerozoites free in the blood by
breaking down of the corpuscle.
VI., Young indifferent gametocyte.
VII., a, Male crescent.
VII., b, Female crescent.
VI II., a and 6, The gametocytes becom-
ing oval.
flagella or male gametes (fl) are
thrown out, one of them is seen
detached; in the female (X. b) a
portion of the nucleus has been
expelled.
XL, A male gamete penetrating a
female gamete at a cone of re-
ception formed near the nucleus.
XII., zygote with two pronuclei in
proximity.
XIII., Zygote in the motile stage
(vermicule or ookinete).
XIV., Encysted zygote (oocyst).
XV., Commencing multiplication of the
nuclei in the oocyst.
XVI., Oocyst with numerous sporo-
blasts.
around each of which the cytoplasm becomes seg-
mented. Each of these segments (" blastophores,"
" zoidophores ") is entirely comparable to a sporo-
blast in the Coccidian oocyst, the chief difference
being that it never forms a spore; moreover the
segments or sporoblasts in the oocyst of a malarial
parasite are irregular in shape and do not become
completely separated from one another, but
remain connected by thin cytoplasmic strands.
Repeated multiplication of the sporoblast-nuclei
next takes place, with the result that a great
number of little nuclei are found all round the
periphery. A corresponding number of fine cyto-
plasmic processes grow out from the surface, each
carrying a nucleus with it, and in this manner a
XVII., Commencing for-
mation of sporo-
zoites.
XVIII., Full-grown oocyst
crammed with ripe
sporozoites; on one
side the cyst has burst
and the sporozoites
are escaping.
XIX., Free sporozoites,
snowing their changes
of form.
n, Nucleus of the parasite.
p y Melanin pigment.
fl y " Flagella.'*
sp. bl. f Sporoblasts.
r. n., Residual nuclei.
r. p., Residual protoplasm.
HAEMOSPORIDIA
809
huge number of slender, slightly sickle-shaped germs or sporo-
zoites (" blasts," " zoids," &c.) are formed. Each oocyst may
contain from hundreds to thousands of sporozoites.
When the sporogony (which lasts about 10 days) is completed,
the oocyst ruptures and the sporozoites are set free into the
body-cavity, leaving behind a large quantity of residual cyto-
plasm, including pigment grains, &c. The sporozoites are
carried about by the blood-stream; ultimately, however,
apparently by virtue of some chemotactic attraction, they
practically all collect in the salivary glands, filling the secretory
cells and also invading the ducts. When the mosquito next
bites a man, numbers of them are injected, together with the
minute drop of saliva, into his blood, where they begin a fresh
endogenous cycle.
There is only one other point with regard to the life-history
that need be mentioned. With the lapse of time all trophic and
schizogonic (asexual) phases of the parasite in the blood die off.
But it has long been known that malarial patients, apparently
quite cured, may suddenly exhibit all the symptoms again,
without having incurred a fresh infection. Schaudinn has
investigated the cause of this recurrence, and finds that it is
due to the power of the megagametocytes, which are very
resistant and long-lived, to undergo a kind of parthenogenesis
under favourable conditions and give rise to the ordinary asexual
schizonts, which in turn can repopulate the host with all the other
phases. Microgametocytes, on the other hand, die off in time
if they cannot pass into a mosquito.
Various types of form are to be met with among the Haemo-
sporidia. In one, characteristic of most (though not of absolutely
all) parasites of warm-blooded Vertebrates, the tropho-
zoites are of irregular amoeboid shape; hence this section
is generally known as the Haemamoebidae. In another
type, characteristic of the parasites of cold-blooded
Inlhelift' Vertebrates, the body possesses a definite, vermiform, i.e.
arch when gregariniform shape, which is retained during the intra-
known. corpuscular as well as during the free condition; this
section comprises the Haemogregarinidae. Allied to this
latter type of form are the trophozoites of Piroplasma, which are
normally pear-shaped ; they differ, however, in being very minute,
and, moreover, exhibit considerable polymorphism, rod-like (so-
called bacillary) and ring-forms being of common occurrence. It is
important to note that in a certain species of Haemogregarina (fig. 3)
Compara-
tive Mor-
phology;
variations
bodies. Schaudinn was the first to notice this character, in Piro-
tolasma cants, and his observation has since been confirmed by Luhe. 1
Moreover, Brumpt has also noticed nuclear dimorphism in the
ookinete of a species of Haemogregarina in a leech (as the Inverte-
brate host) — a highly important observation.
As regards the life-history, the endogenous (schizogonous) cycle
is known in many cases. Sometimes schizogony takes the primitive
form of simple binary (probably) longitudinal fission ; this is the
case in Piroplasma (fig. 4) and also in Haemogregarina bigemina just
referred to. From tnis result the pairs of individuals ("twins")
so often found in the corpuscles. In addition, however, at any rate
in Piroplasma, it is probable that multiple division (more allied to
ordinary schizogony) also takes place; such is the case, according
to Laveran, in P. equi, and the occurrence at times of four parasites
in a corpuscle, arranged in a cruciform manner, is most likely to be
thus explained. Labbe* has described schizogony in Halleridium
OOO00Q
g a. 1. j.
From Lankester's Treatise on Zoology.
Fig. 4. — Development and schizogony of Piroplasma bigeminum
in the blood-corpuscles of the ox. (After Laveran and Nicolle.)
form.
a, Youngest
b, Slightly older.
c and d y Division of the nucleus.
e and/, Division of the body of
the parasite.
g, h, i, j t Various forms of the
twin parasite.
k and /, Doubly infected cor-
puscles.
a b c. d. e f
From Lankester's Treatise on Zoology.
Fig. 3. — Haemogregarina bigemina, Laveran, from the blood of blennies
(After Laveran, magnified about 1800 diameters.)
a,
b,
c,
The form of the parasite
found free in the blood-
plasma.
Parasite within a blood-cor-
puscle, preparing for division ;
the nucleus has already
divided.
The parasite has divided into
two rounded corpuscles,
which assume the form of
the free parasite, as seen in
d, e and /.
N, Nucleus of the blood - cor-
puscle.
n, Nucleus of the parasite. The
outline of the blood-corpuscle
is indicated by a thick black
line.
danilewskyi as taking place in a rather peculiar manner; the parasite
becomes much drawn-out and halter-like, and the actual division is
restricted to its two ends, two clumps of merozoites being formed,
at first connected by a narrow strand of unused cytoplasm, which
subsequently disappears. Some doubt, however, attaches to this
account, as no one else appears to have seen the process. For the
rest, schizogony takes place more or less in the customary way,
allowing for variations in the mode of arrangement of the merozoites.
It remains to be noted that in Karyolysus lacertarum, according to
Labb€, two kinds of schizont are developed, which give rise, respec-
tively, to micromerozoites and megamerozoites, in either case
enclosed in a delicate cytocyst. This probably corresponds to
an early sexual differentiation (such as is found among certain
Coccidia (q.v.), the micromerozoites producing eventually micro-
gametocytes, the others megagametocytes.
It has now been recognized for some time that the sexual
(exogenous) part of the life-cycle of all the Haemamoebidae takes
place in an Invertebrate (Insectan) host, and is fundamentally
similar to that above described in those cases where it has
been followed. In contradistinction to the malarial parasites,
this host, in the Avian forms (Haemoproteus and Halleridium)?
is a species of Culex and not of Anopheles; in other words,
gamete-formation, conjugation and subsequent sporozoite-
formation in these cases will only go on in the former. On
the other hand, in the case of the Haemogregarines, it was
thought until quite lately that the entire life-history, including
conjugation and sporogony, went on in the Vertebrate host;
and only in 1902 Hintze described what purported to be the
the young trophozoites markedly resemble Piroplasma in their
pyriform appearance ; and a further point of agreement between the
two forms is mentioned below. Lastly there is the Avian genus
Halleridium, the trophozoites of which are characteristically bean-
shaped or reniform. True Haemogregarines also differ in other slight
points from " Haemamoebae." Thus the young endoglobular tropho-
zoite does not exhibit a ring ( vacuolar) phase ; and the cytoplasm
never contains, at any period, the characteristic melanin pigment
above noted. In some species of Haemogregarina the parasite, while
intracorpuscular, becomes surrounded by a delicate membrane,
the cytocyst ; on entering upon an active, " free " period, the
cytocyst is ruptured and left behind with the remains of the corpuscle.
A very interesting cytological feature is the occurrence, in one or
two Haemosporidia, of nuclear dimorphism, i.e. of a larger and
smaller chromatic body, probably comparable to the trophic and
kinetic nuclei of a Trypanosome, or of the " Leishman- Donovan "
complete life-history of LankestereUa (Drepanidium) ranarum
undergone in the frog. This view was rendered obsolete by
the work of Siegel and Schaudinn, who demonstrated the
occurrence of an alternation of hosts and of generations
in the case of Haemogregarina stepanovi, parasitic in a
tortoise, and in Karyolysus lacertarum; the Invertebrate
hosts, in which, in both cases, the sexual process is undergone,
being respectively a leech (Placobdella) and a tick (Ixodes). With
this discovery tne main distinction (as supposed) between the
Haemosporidia of warm and of cold-blooded Vertebrates vanished.
It was further acknowledged by Schaudinn (under whom Hintze
1 This does away with one of the principal reasons on account of
which some authorities consider Piroplasma (Leishmania) donovani
as quite distinct from other Piroplasmata (see Trypanosomes).
2 It must not be forgotten that one species of Halteridium (H.
[Trypanomorpha] noctuae) is said to have well-marked trypaniform
phases in its life-cycle; these are preferably considered under
Trypanosomes (q.v.), and therefore, to avoid repetition, are only
thus alluded to here. Whether H. danilewskyi also becomes trypani-
form in certain phases, and how far it really agrees with the criteria
of a Haemosporidian above postulated, are matters which are not
yet definitely known.
xn. 26 a
8io
HAEMOSPORIDIA
had worked) that the latter had been misled by Coccidian cysts and
spores, which he took for those of Lankestereua. The gametogony
and sporogony of Haemogregarina sUpanovi in the leech agree in
essential particulars with the process above described. The micro-
Sametes are extremely minute, and the sporozoites, which are
eveloped in the salivary glands, where the motile ookinetes finally
come to rest, are extremely " spirochaetiform " — the full
significance of this latter fact being, perhaps, not
appreciated.
Christophers recently described some remarkable
phases which he regarded as belonging to the cycle of
Haemogregarina gerbiUi (one of the few Mammalian
Haemogregarines known) in a louse (Haematopinus).
In a private communication, however, the author
states that he has probably mistaken phases in the
development of an ordinary gregarine parasite in
the louse for part of the life-cycle of this Haemo-
gregarine.
The Mammalian parasite Piroplasma is the one about
whose life-history our knowledge is most vague.
Besides the typical and generally occurring forms, wm . «„*.«,.
others have also been observed in the blood, but it & and c7'<5ider "trophozoite
is doubtful how far these are to be looked upon as <j an d e \ Sporulation,
have been mentioned above. Some authorities would include
Lover ania in the genus Plasmodium, as differing only specifically
from the other two forms. It has, moreover, been suggested by
Sergent that all three are merely different phases of the same parasite,
predominating at different seasons; this idea cannot be regarded,
nowever, as in any way proved so far. From what is known of the
From Lankester's Treatise on Zoology. f *
Fig. 5. — Haemoproteus danilewskyi, Kruse (parasite of variousjbirds). X about
1200. a, b, c and /from the chaffinch ; d and e from the lark. (After Labbe\)
a,
Young trophozoite in a blood-
corpuscle.
d,
e,
normal ; for instance, Bowhill and Le Doux have
described, in various species, a phase in which a long,
slender pseudopodial-like outgrowth is present, with a
swelling at the distal end. It is, moreover, quite
uncertain which are the sexual forms, comparable to
gametocytes. Doflein regards large pear-shaped forms as such
(megaeametocytes?), which become spherical when maturing;
and Nocard and Motas have figured amoeboid, irregular forms,
with the nucleus fragmented ana possessing flagella-like processes
(possibly microgametes ?). The Invertebrate host is well known to
be, in the case of all species, a tick; thus bovine piroplasmosis
(P. bigeminum) in America is conveyed by Rhipieephalus annulatus
(Boophilus bovis), canine piroplasmosis (P. canis) in South Africa
by Haemaphysalis leachi (arid perhaps Dermaeentor rcticulatus),
and so on. The manner in which the infection is transmitted by
the tick varies greatly. In some cases (e.g. P. bigcminum and P.
canis) only the generation subsequent to that which receives the
infection (by feeding on an infected ox) can transmit it back again
to another ox; in other words, true hereditary infection of the ova
in the mother-tick is found to occur. The actual period in the life of
the daughter-tick at which it can convey the infection apparently
varies. On the other hand, in the case of East African coast-fever,
Theiler found that hereditary infection does not occur, the same
generation transmitting the parasite (P. parvum) at different periods
of life. Little is certainly known regarding the phases of the parasite
which are passed through in the tick. Lignieres has observea a kind
of multiple fission in the stomach, several very minute bodies,
consisting mostly of chromatin, being formed, which may serve for
endogenous reproduction. Koch has published an account of certain
curious forms of P. bigeminum, in which the body is produced into
many stiff, ray-like processes, giving the appearance of a star;
according to him fusion of such forms takes place, and the resulting
zygote becomes rounded, perhaps transitional to the pear-shaped
forms.
The classification and nomenclature of the Haemosporidia are
in a very unsettled condition. For an account of the various systems
f7 ft**— and modifications hitherto adopted, the article of Minchin
tjon (see under Sporozoa : Bibliography) should be consulted.
With the realization that the life-history in the case of the
" Haemamoebae " and the Haemogregarines is fundamentally
similar in type, the chief reason for grouping them as distinct sub-
orders has disappeared. It is most convenient to regard them as
separate, but closely allied families, the Plasmodidae (" Haem-
amoebidae ") and the Haemogregarinidae. The Piroplasmata, on the
other hand, constitute another family, which is better placed in a
distinct section or sub-order. In addition there are, as already
noted, two or three genera whose systematic position must be con-
sidered as quite uncertain. One is the well-known Halteridium of
Labbe\ parasitic in various birds; the type-species is H. danilewskyi
(Gr. and Fel.). Another is the much-debated parasite of white
blood-corpuscles (leucocytes), originally described in birds by
Danilewsky under the name of Leucocytozoon, a form of which has
been recently observed in Mammals.
In conclusion, the chief members of the above-mentioned families
may be enumerated.
Fam. Plasmodidae (" Haemamoebidae ").
Genus Laverania, Gr. and Fel. (syn. Haemamoenas, Ross), for L.
malariae, Gr. and Fel. (synn. L. s. Plasmodium, s. " Haemamoeba"
8k. , praecox s. immaculatum, &c), the parasite of pernicious malaria.
Genus Plasmodium, March, and Celh (syn. " Haemamoeba ") for
P. vivax and P. malariae, the tertian and auartan parasite, respec-
tively. There is also a form known in apes, P. kochi. Genus Haemo-
proteus, Kruse (syn. Proteosoma), iorH. danilewskyi (syn. Proteosoma
grassi, Plasmodium praecox, &c), parasitic in numerous birds.
Recently, another form has been described, from reptiles, which
Castellani and Willey have termed Haemocystidium simondi.
Remarks. — The distinguishing characters of the malarial parasites
Precocious sporulation with few
merozoites.
Sporulation of a full-grown
schizont, with numerous mero-
zoites.
Gametocyte.
Nucleus of blood-corpuscle.
Nucleus of parasite.
Pigment.
Merozoites.
P,
mz,
r.p, Residual protoplasm.
morphology and mode of manifestation of these forms, the differences
between Laverania and the two soecies of Plasmodium are consider-
ably more pronounced than those between P. vivax and P. malariae;
if the latter are to be considered as distinct species, the first-named
is probably generically distinct. Liihe, it may be noted, in his recent
comprehensive account of the Haematozoa, also takes this view.
Lastly* whatever be the correct solution of the above problem,
there is certainly not sufficient justification for including the Avian
genus Haemoproteus, as also only a species of Plasmodium, which is
done by some. Its different Vertebrate habitat, and also the fact
that its Insectan definitive host is Culex and not Anopheles, differ-
entiate it sharply from Laverania and Plasmodium.
Fam. Haemogregarinidae. — The different genera are characterized
a,
h. i *•
From Lankester's Treatise on Zoology.
Fig. 6. — Haemogregarina stepanovi, Danilewsky (par. Emys and
Cistudo), phases of the schizogony, (a-e and j after Laveran; f-i
after Borner.) Xiooo to 1200 diameters.
which the parasite grows
into the (J-shapexl Haemo-
gregarine without increase of
body-mass.
j, Commencement of sporula-
tion; the nucleus hasjdivided
into eight nuclei, and the
body of the parasite is
beginning to divide up into
as many merozoites within a
blood-corpuscle.
N, Nucleus of the blood-cor-
puscle,
n, Nucleus of the parasite.
Blood-corpuscle with young
trophozoite.
b, Older trophozoite.
c, Full-grown trophozoite, ready
to leave the corpuscle.
d and e, Trophozoites free in the
blood-plasma, showing
changes of form.
f-i, Trophozoites, still within the
blood-corpuscle (not drawn),
showing the structure of the
nucleus, the coarse chroma-
toid granules in the proto-
plasm and the manner in
chiefly by their size relative to the blood-corpuscles, and their dis-
position in the latter. Here, again, it has been suggested to unite
the various types all in one genus, Haemogregarina, but this seems at
least premature when it is remembered how little is known in most
cases of the life-cycle, which may prove to exhibit important
divergences.
Genus Haemogregarina, Danilewsky (syn. Danilewskya, Labb6).
HAETZER
811
The body of the parasite exceeds the blood-corpuscle in length,
when adult, and is bent upon itself, like a (J* A very great number
of species are known, mostly from reptiles and fishes; among them
may be mentioned H. stepanovi (fig. 6), from Emys and Cistudo,
whose sexual-cycle in a leech has been worked out by Siegel (see
above), H. delagei, from Raja, H. bigemina, from blennies, and H.
simondi, from soles. Recently one or two Mammalian forms have
been observed, H. gerbiUi, from an Indian rat (GerbiUus), and H.
jaculi, from the jerboa.
Genus Lankesterella, Labbe" (syn. Drepanidium, Lankester). The
parasite is not more than three-quarters the length of the corpuscle.
L. ranarum from Rana is the type-species ; another, recently described
by Fantham, is L. tritonis, from the newt.
Genus Karyolysus, Labbe\ The parasite does not exceed the cor-
puscle in length; the forms included in this genus, moreover,
From Lankester*s Treatise on Zoology.
Fig. 7. — Karyolysus lacertarum (Danil.), in the blood-corpuscles of
Lacerta muralis, showing the effects of the parasite upon the nucleus
of the corpuscle. In c and d the nucleus is broken up. N, Nucleus
of the corpuscle; n, nucleus of the parasite, seen as a number of
masses of chromatin, not enclosed by a distinct membrane. (After
Marceau.)
although not actually intranuclear, have a marked karyolytic and
disintegrating action upon the nucleus of the corpuscle. The type-
species is the well-known K. lacertarum, of lizards; another is K.
(Haemogregarina) viperini, from Tropidonotus.
In the section of the Piroplasmata there is only the genus Piro-
flasma, Patton (synn. Babesia, Starcovici, Pyrosoma, Smith and
Kilborne), the principal species of which are as follows: P. bi-
geminum, the cause of Texas cattle-fever, tick-fever (Rinder- malaria)
of South Africa, and P. bonis, causing haemoglobinuria of cattle in
Southern Europe; there is some uncertainty as to whether these two
are realty distinct ; P. cants, P. oris and P. equi associated, respec-
tively, with those animals. Lately, a very small form, P. parvum,
has been described by Theiler in Rhodesia, which causes East-
African coast-fever; and another, P. muris, has been observed in
white rats by Fantham.
Bibliography. — (The older literature is enumerated in most
treatises on Sporozoa — see bibliography under Sporozoa). P.
Argutinsky, " Malariastudien," Arch, mikr. Anal. 59, p. 315, pis.
18-21 (1901), and op. cit. 61, p. 331, pi. 18 (1902); A. Balfour,
" Haemogregarine of Mammals, J. Trop. Med. 8, jp. 24.1, 8 figs.
(1905) ; C. A. Bentley, " Leucocytozoan of the Dog, B.M. J.
(1905), 1, pp. 088 and 1078; N. Berestneff, " Ober einen neuen
Blutparasiten der indischen Frosche," Arch. Protistenk. 2, p. 343,
pi. 8 (1903); " Uber das ' Leucocytozoan ' danilewskyi," op. cit. 3,
p. 376, pi. 15 (1004); A. Billet, Contribution a l'etude du palu-
disme et de son hSmatozoaire en Alge'rie," Ann. Inst. Pasteur, 16,
p. 186 (1902) ; (Notes on various Haemogregarines), C. R. Soc. Biol.
(1905); Bowhill and C le Doux, "Contribution to the Study of
1 Piroplasmosis cants,* " op. cit. 4, p. 217, pi. 11 (1904); E. Brumpt
and C. Lebailly, " Description de quelques nouvelles especes de
trypanosomes et d , h6mogregarines, M &c, C. R. Ac. Sci. 139, p. 613
(1904) ; A. Castellani and A. Willey, " Observations on the Haema-
tozoa of Vertebrates in Ceylon," Spolia Zeylan. 2, p. 78, 1 pi. (1904),
and Q. J. Micr. Sci. 40, p. 383, pi. 24 (1905) ; S. R. Christophers,
" Haemogreearina gerbtui, Sci. Mem. India, 18, 15 pp., 1 pi. (1905);
H. B. Fantham, tT Lankesterella tritonis, n. sp., &c., tool. Am.
29. P- 257, 17 figs. (1905); " Piroplasma muris** &c., Q. J. Micr.
Sci. 50, p. 493, pi. 28 (1906) ; C. Graham-Smith, " A new Form of
Parasite found in the Red Blood-Corpuscles of Moles," /. Hyg. 5,
p. 453, pis. 13 and 14 (1Q05) ; R. Hintze, " Lebensweise und Ent-
ung von Lankesterella minima," Zool. Jahrb. Anat. 15, p. 693,
Forschungsreise nach Ostafrika," Deutsch. med. Wochenschr., 1905,
p. 1865, 24 figs. ; A. Labbe\ " Recherches sur lea parasites endo-
globulaires du sang des vertSbreV' Arch. zool. exp. (3) ii. p. 55,
10 pis. (1894); A. Laveran, "Sur quelques h£mogregarines des
ophidiens," C. R. Ac. Sci.
_ 135. P- 1036, 13 figs. (1902); " Sur une
Haemamoeba d'une melange \Parus major)" C. R. Soc. Biol. 54,
p. 1 121, 10 figs. (1902); " Sur la piroplasmose bovine bacilliforme,"
C. R. Ac. Set. 138, p. 648, 18 figs. (1903); " Contribution a I'&ude
de Haemamoeba ziemanni," C. R. Soc. Btol. 55, p. 620, 7 figs. (1903) ;
" Sur une hemogregarine des fferboises," C. R. Ac. Sci. 141, p. 295,
9 figs. (1905); (On different Haemogregarines) C. R. Soc. Btol. 59,
pp. 175, 176, with figs. (1905); " Haemocytozoa. Essai de classifica-
tion," Bull. Inst. Pasteur, 3, p. 809 (1905); Laveran and F. Mesnii,
" Sur les he'matozoaires des poissons marins," C. R. Ac. Sci. 135,
p. 567 (1902) ; " Sur quelques protozoaires parasites d'une tortue
d'Asie," t.c. p. 609, 14 figs. (1902) ; Laveran and Negre, " Sur un
protozoaire parasite de Hyalomma aegyptium," C. R. Soc. Biol. 58,
p. 964, 6 figs. (1905) ; (for various earlier papers by these authors,
reference should be made to the C. R. Ac. Sci. and C. R. Soc. Biol.
for previous years) ; C. Lebailly (On Piscine Haemogregarines)
C. R. Ac. Sci. 139, p. 576 (1904), and C. R. Soc. Biol. 59, p. 304
(1905); J. Lignieres, "Sur la * Tristeza,' " Ann. Inst. Pasteur, 15,
p. 121, pi. 6 (1901); "La Piroplasmose bovine; nouvelles re-
cherches, &c, Arch, parasit. 7, p. 398, pi. 4 (1903); M. Luhe, "Die
im Blute schmarotzenden Protozoen, in Mense's Handbuch der
Tropenkrankheiten (Leipzig, 1906), 3, 1 ; F. Marceau, " Note sur le
Karyolysus lacertarum. Arch, parasitol. 4, p. 135, 46 figs. (1901);
W. MacCallum, " On the Haematozoan Infection of Birds," J. Exp.
Med. 3, p. 117, pi. 12 (1898); G. Mauser, " Die Malaria perniciosa,"
. de Hyalomma . . . dans l'infection h&nogregarinienne," op.
cit. 58, p. 1045 (1905) ; Norcard and Motas, " Contribution a l'6tude
de la piroplasmose canine," Ann. Inst. Pasteur, 16, p. 256, pis. 5
and ' ~ ~ ~ -...-.
Centrbl. 6, p. 675 (18^9); " Studien ttber krankheitserregende
Protozoen — II. Plasmodium vivax," Arb. Kais. Gesundheitsamte, 19,
von Haemogrezartna, &c., Arch. Protistenk. 2, p. 339, 7 figs. (1903);
P. L. Simond, " Contribution a l'etude des h^matozoaires endo-
globulaires des reptiles," Ann. Inst. Pasteur, 15, p. J19, I pi. (190 1) ;
T. Smith and F. Kilborne, " Investigations into the Nature, Causation
and Prevention of Texas Cattle Fever," Rep. Bureau Animal In-
dustry, U.S.A., 9 and io, p. 177, pis. (1893); A. Theiler, "The
Piroplasma bigeminum of the Immune Ox," J. Army Med. Corps, 3,
pp. 469, 590, 1 pi. (1904) ; J. Vassal, " Sur une h&natozoaire
(H. M. W6.)
HAETZER, or Hetzer, LUDWIG (d. 1529), Swiss divine,
was born in Switzerland, at Bischofszell, in Thurgau. He
studied at Freiburg-im-Breisgau, and began his career in a
chaplaincy at Wadenswil, on the Lake of Zurich. At this time
his attachment to the old faith was tempered by a mystical turn,
and by a devotion to the prophetical writings of the Old Testa-
ment, which he studied in the original. By 1523 we find him
in Zurich, where he published, at first anonymously and in
Latin (Judicium Det), later with his name and in German
(Sept. 24, 1523), a small tract against the religious use of images,
and bearing the motto attached to all his subsequent works,
" O Got erldsz die (or dein) Gefangnen " (" O God, set the
prisoners free "). An attempt to give effect to the teaching of
this (frequently reprinted) tract was followed by a public religious
disputation, of which Haetzer drew up the official account.
In 1524 he brought out a tract on the conversion of the Jews,
and published a German version of Johann Bugenhagen's
brief exposition of the epistles of St Paul (Ephesians to Hebrews) ;
in the dedication (dated Zurich, June 29, 1524) he undertakes
to translate Bugenhagen's comment on the Psalter. He then
went to Augsburg, bearing Zwingli's introduction to Johann
Frosch. Here he came for a time under the influence of Urbanus
Regius, and was for a short time the guest of Georg Regel.
Returning to Zurich, he was in intercourse with leading Ana-
baptists (though his own position was simply the disuse of infant
baptism) till their expulsion in January 1525. Again resorting
to Augsburg, and resuming work as corrector of the press for
his printer Silvan Ottmar, he pushed his views to the extreme
of rejecting all sacraments, reaching something like the mystical
standpoint of the early Quakers. He was expelled from Augs-
burg in the autumn of 1525, and made his way through Constance
to Basel, where Oecolampadius received him kindly. He trans-
lated into German the first treatise of Oecolampadius on the
Lord's Supper (in which the words of institution are taken
figuratively), and proceeding to Zurich in November, published
8l2
HAFIZ
his version there in February 1526, with a preface disclaiming
connexion with the Anabaptists. His relations with Zwingli
were difficult; returning to Basel he published (July 18, 1526)
his translation of Malachi, with Oecolampadius's exposition,
and with a preface reflecting on Zwingli. This he followed by
a version of Isaiah xxxvi.-xxxvii. He next went to Strassburg,
and was received by Wolfgamg Capito. At Strassburg in the
late autumn of 1526 he fell in with Hans Dengk or Denck, who
collaborated with him in the production of his opus magnum,
the translation of the Hebrew Prophets, A lie Propheten nach
hebraischer Sprach vertuetscht. The preface is dated Worms,
3 April 1527; and there are editions, Worms, 13 April 1527,
folio; Augsburg, 22 June 1527, folio; Worms, 7 Sept. 1527,
16 ; and Augsburg, 1528, folio. It was the first Protestant
version of the prophets in German, preceding Luther's by five
years, and highly spoken of by him. Haetzer and Denck now
entered on a propagandist mission from place to place, with
some success, but of short duration. Denck died at Basel in
November 1527. Haetzer was arrested at Constance in the
summer of 1528. After long imprisonment and many examina-
tions he was condemned on the 3rd of February 1529 to die by
the sword, and the sentence was executed on the following day.
His demeanour on the scaffold impressed impartial witnesses,
Hans Zwick and Thomas Blaurer, who speak warmly of his
fervour and courage. The Dutch Baptist Martyrology describes
him as " a servant of Jesus Christ." The Moravian Chronicle
says " he was condemned for the sake of divine truth." His
papers included an unpublished treatise against the essential
deity of Christ, which was suppressed by Zwingli; the only
extant evidence of his anti-trinitarian views being contained
in eight quaint lines of German verse preserved in Sebastian
Frank's Chronica. The discovery of his heterodox Chris tology
(which has led modern Unitarians to regard him as their proto-
martyr) was followed by charges of loose living, never heard of
in his lifetime, and destitute of evidence or probability.
See Breitinger, " Anecdota quaedam de L. H." in Museum Hel-
veticum (1746), parts 21 and 23; Wallace, Antitrinitarian Biography
(1850); Dutch Martyrology (Hanserd Knollys Society) (1856); Th.
Keim, in Hauck's ReaUncyklopadie (1899). (A. Go.*)
HAFIZ. Shams-ud-din Mahommed, better known by his
takhallus or nom de plume of Hafiz, was one of the most
celebrated writers of Persian lyrical poetry. He was born at
Shiraz, the capital of Fars, in the early part of the 8th century
of the Mahommedan era, that is to say, in the 14th of our own.
The exact date of his birth is uncertain, but he attained a ripe
old age and died in 791 a.h. (a.d. 1388). This is the date
given in the chronogram which is engraved on his tomb, although
several Persian biographers give a different year. Very little
is actually known about his life, which appears to have been
passed in retirement in Shiraz, of which he always speaks in
terms of affectionate admiration. He was a subject of the
Muzaffar princes, who ruled in Shiraz, Yazd, Kirman and Ispahan,
until the dynasty was overthrown by Timur (Tamerlane). Of
these princes his especial patrons were Shah Shuja and Shah
Mansur. He early devoted himself to the study of poetry and
theology, and also became learned in mystic philosophy, which
he studied under Shaik Mahmud 'Attar, chief of an order of
dervishes. Hafiz afterwards enrolled himself in the same order
and became a professor of Koranic exegesis in a college which
his friend and patron Haji Kiwam-ud-din, the vizier, specially
founded for him. This was probably the reason of his adopting
the sobriquet of Hafiz (" one who remembers "), which is technic-
ally applied to any person who has learned the Koran by heart.
The restraints of an ascetic life seem to have been very little to
Hafiz's taste, and his loose conduct and wine-bibbing propensities
drew upon him the severe censure of his monastic colleagues.
In revenge he satirizes them unmercifully in his verses, and seldom
loses an opportunity of alluding to their hypocrisy. Hafiz's
fame as a poet was soon rapidly spread throughout the Mahom-
medan world, and several powerful monarchs sent him presents
and pressing invitations to visit them. Amongst others he was
invited by Mahmud Shah Bahmani, who reigned in the south
of India. After crossing the Indus and passing through Lahore
he reached Hurmuz, and embarked on board a vessel sent for
him by the Indian prince. He seems, however, to have been a
bad sailor, and, having invented an excuse for being put ashore,
made the best of his way back to Shiraz. Some biographies
narrate a story of an interview between Hafiz and the invader
Timur. The latter sent for him and asked angrily, " Art thou
he who was so bold as to offer my two great cities Samarkand
and Bokhara for the black mole on thy mistress's cheek?"
alluding to a well-known verse in one of his odes. " Yes, sire,"
replied Hafiz, " and it is by such acts of generosity that I have
brought myself to such a state of destitution that I have
now to solicit your bounty." Timur was so pleased at his ready
wit that he dismissed the poet with a handsome present. Un-
fortunately for the truth of this story Timur did not capture
Shiraz till a.d. 1393, while the latest date that can be assigned
to Hafiz's death is 1391. Of his private life little or nothing is
known. One of his poems is said to record the death of his wife,
another that of a favourite unmarried son, and several others
speak of his love for a girl called Shakh i Nabat, " Sugar-cane
branch," and this is almost all of his personal history that can
be gathered from his writings. He was, like most Persians,
a Shi'ite by religion, believing in the transmission of the office
of Imam (head of the Moslem Church) in the family of Ali,
cousin of the prophet, and rejecting the Hadith (traditional say-
ings) of Mahomet, which form the Sunna or supplementary code
of Mahommedan ceremonial law. One of his odes which contains
a verse in praise of Ali is engraved on the poet's tomb, but is
omitted by Sudi, the Turkish editor and commentator, who
was himself a rigid Sunnite. Hafiz's heretical opinions and
dissipated life caused difficulties to be raised by the ecclesiastical
authorities on his death as to his interment in consecrated
ground. The question was at length settled by Hafiz's own
works, which had then already begun to be used, as they are now
throughout the East, for the purposes of divination, in the same
manner as Virgil was employed in the middle ages for the divina-
tion called Sortes VirgUianae. Opening the book at random
after pronouncing the customary formula asking for inspiration,
the objectors hit upon the following verse — " Turn not away
thy foot from the bier of Hafiz, for though immersed in sin, he
will be admitted into Paradise." He was accordingly buried
in the centre of a small cemetery at Shiraz, now included in an
enclosure called the Hafiziyeh.
His principal work is the Diwan, that is, a collection of short
odes or sonnets called ghazals, and consisting of from five to
sixteen baits or couplets each, all the couplets in each ode having
the same rhyme in the last hemistich, and the last couplet always
introducing the poet's own nom de plume. The whole of these
are arranged in alphabetical order, an arrangement which
certainly facilitates reference but makes it absolutely impossible
to ascertain their chronological order, and therefore detracts
from their value as a means of throwing light upon the growth
and development of his genius or the incidents of his career.
They are often held together by a very slender thread of con-
tinuous thought, and few editions agree exactly in the order of
the couplets. Still, a careful study of them, especially from the
point of view indicated by the Sufiistic system of philosophy,
will always show that a single idea does run throughout the
whole. The nature of these poems has been the subject of much
discussion in the West, some scholars seeing in their anacreontic
utterances nothing but sensuality and materialism, while others,
following the Oriental school, maintain that they are wholly
and entirely mystic and philosophic. Something between the two
would probably be nearer the truth. It must be remembered
that Hafiz was a professed dervish and Sufi, and that his ghazals
were in all probability published from a takia, and arranged
with at least a view to Sufiistic interpretation. At the same
time it is ridiculous to suppose that the glowing imagery, the
gorgeous and often tender descriptions of natural beauties, the
fervent love passages, and the roystering drinking songs were
composed in cool blood or with deliberate ascetic purpose. The
beauty of Hafiz's poetry is that it is natural. It is the outcome
HAG— HAGENAU
813
of a fervent soul and a lofty genius delighting in nature and
enjoying life; and it is the poet's misfortune that he lived in an
age and amongst a people where rigid conventionality demanded
that his free and spontaneous thoughts should be recast in an
artificial mould.
Besides the Diwdn, Hafiz wrote a number of other poems; the
Leipzig edition of his works contains 573 ghazals (forming theDito&n),
42 kip as or fragments, 69 rubaHySt or tetrastics, 6 masnaviydt or
poems in rhyming couplets, 2 kasatd, idylls or panegyrics, and 1
mukkammes or poem in five-line strophes. Other editions contain
several tarjV-band or poems with a refrain. The whole Diwdn was
translated into English prose by H. Wilbcrforce Clarke in 1891,
with introduction and exhaustive commentary and bibliography;
a few rhyming versions of single poems by Sir William Jones, J.
Nott, J. Hindley, Falconer, &c, are to be found scattered through
the pages of the Oriental Miscellany and other periodicals, and a fine
edition containing a verse rendering of the principal poems by H.
Bicknell appeared in 187$. Other selections by S. Robinson (1875),
A. Rogers (1889), J. H. M r Carthy (1893), and Gertrude L. Bell (1897).
The principal German versions are by von Hammer Purgstall (18 12),
which gave the first impulse to Goethe's Westdstlicher Dvwan ; a
rhyming and rhythmical translation of a large portion of H&fiz's
works by Vincenz von Rosenzweig of Vienna (Vienna, 1858), which
contains also the Persian text and notes; Der Diwan des Schems-
eddin Muhammed Hafis, by G. H. F. Nesselmann (Berlin, i860, in
which the rhyming system of the original is imitated. Besides tnese,
the reader may consult d'Herbelot, BibHothequc orientate, article
41 Hafiz"; Sir William Ouseley's Oriental Collections (1797-1798);
A Specimen of Persian Poetry, or Odes of Hafiz, by John Richardson
(London, 1802); Biographical Notices of Persian Poets, by Sir Gore
Ouseley (Oriental Translation Fund, 1846); and an excellent article
by Professor E. B. Cowell in Macmillaris Magazine (No. 177, July
1874); J. A. Vullers, Vitae poUarum Persicorum (1839, translated
from Daulatshah) ; S. Robinson, Persian Poetry for English Readers
(1883). The best edition of the text is perhaps that edited by Her-
mann Brockhaus of Leipzig (1 854-1 856), which is based on the re-
cension of the Turkish editor Sudi, and contains his commentary
in Turkish on the first eighty ghazals. See also H. Eth6 in Grundriss
der iranischen PhUologie, ii. (Strassburg, 1896); P. Horn, Geschichte
der persischen Literatur (Leipzig, 1901). (E. H. P.)
HAG. (1) (Probably a shortened form of the O. Eng. hcegtesse,
hegtes, cognate with Ger. Hexe f witch, Dutch hecse), a word
common during the 16th and 17th centuries for a female demon
or evil spirit, and so particularly applied to such supernatural
beings as the harpies and fairies of classical mythology, and also
to witches. In modern usage the word is generally used of a
hideous old woman whose repulsive exterior is accompanied by
malice or wickedness. The name is also used of an eel-like
parasitic fish, Myxine glutinosa, allied to the lamprey.
(2) A word common in Scottish and northern English dialects
for an enclosed piece of wood, a copse. This is the same word
as " hedge " (see Hedges) and " haw." " Hag " also means " to
cut," and is used in Scotland of an extent of woodland marked
out for felling, and of a quantity of felled wood. This word
is also used of a cutting in the peat of a " moss " or " bog,"
and hence applied to the small plots of firm ground or heather
in a bog; it is common in the form " moss-hags."
HAGEDORN, FRIEDRICH VON (1708-1754), German poet,
was born on the 23rd of April 1708 at Hamburg, where his father,
a -man of scientific and literary taste, was Danish minister.
He was educated at the gymnasium of Hamburg, and later
(1726) became a student of law at Jena. Returning to Hamburg
in 17 29, he obtained the appointment of unpaid private secretary
to the Danish ambassador in London, where he lived till 1731.
Hagedorn's return to Hamburg was followed by a period of great
poverty and hardship, but in 1733 he was appointed secretary
to the so-called " English Court " (Englischer Hof) in Hamburg,
a trading company founded in the 13th century. He shortly
afterwards married, and from this time had sufficient leisure
to pursue his literary occupations till his death on the 28th of
October 1754. Hagedorn is the first German poet who bears
unmistakable testimony to the nation's recovery from the
devast ation wrought by the Thirty Years' War. He is eminently
a social pdet . His light and graceful love-songs and anacreontics,
with their undisguised joie de vivre, introduced a new note into
the German lyric; his fables and tales in verse are hardly inferior
in form and in delicate persiflage to those of his master La
Fontaine, and his moralizing poetry re-echoes the philosophy
of Horace. He exerted a dominant influence on the German
lyric until late in the 18th century.
The first collection of Hagedorn's poems was published at Ham-
burg shortly after his return from Jena in 1729, under the title
Vet such einiger Gedichte (reprinted by A. Sauer, Heilbronn, 1883).
In 1738 appeared Versuch in poetischen Fabeln und Erzahlungen;
in 1742 a collection of his lyric poems, under the title Samnuune
neuer Oden und Lieder; and his Moralische Gedichte in 1750. A
collection of his entire works was published at Hamburg after his
death in 1757. The best is J. J[. Eschenburg's edition (5 vols.,
Hamburg, 1800). Selections of his poetry with an excellent intro-
duction in F. Muncker's Anakreontiker und preussisch-patriotische
Lyriker (Stuttgart, 1894). See also H. Schuster, F. von Hagedorn
und seine Bedeutung fur die deutsche Literatur (Leipzig, 1882); W.
Eigenbrodt, Hagedorn und die Erzdhlung in Keimversen (Berlin,
1884).
HAGEN, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH VON DER (1780-1856),
German philologist, chiefly distinguished for his researches in
Old German literature, was born at Schmiedeberg in Branden-
burg on the 19th of February 1780. After studying law at
the university of Halle, he obtained a legal appointment in the
state service at Berlin, but in 1806 resigned this office in order
to devote himself exclusively to letters. In 18 10 he was appointed
professor extraordinarius of German literature in the university
of Berlin; in the following year he was transferred in a similar
capacity to Breslau, and in 182 1 returned to Berlin as professor
ordinarius. He died at Berlin on the nth of June 1856.
Although von der Hagen's critical work is now entirely out of
date, the chief merit of awakening an interest in old German
poetry belongs to him.
His principal publications are the Nibelungenlied, of which he
issued four editions, the first in 18 10 and the last in 1842; the
Minnesinger (Leipzig, 1 838-1 856, /l vols, in 5 parts); Lieder der
altern Edda (Berlin, 1812); Gottfried von Strassburg (Berlin, 1823);
a collection of Old German tales under the title Gesamtabenteuer
(Stuttgart, 1850. 3 vols.) and Das Heldenbuch (Leipzig, 1855). He
also published uber die altesten Darstellungen der Faustsage (Berlin,
1844) ; and from 1835 he edited Das neue Jahrbuch der Berlinischen
Gesellschaft f&r deutsche Sprache und Altertumskunde. His corre-
rndence with C. G. Heyne and G. F. Benecke was published by
Dziatzko (Leipzig, 1893).
HAGEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Westphalia. Pop. ( 1905) , 77, 498. It lies amid well- wooded hills
at the confluence of the Ennepe with the Volme, 15 m. N.E.
of Elberfeld, on the main line to Brunswick and Berlin, and at
the junction of important lines of railway, connecting it with the
principal towns of the Westphalian iron district. It has five
Evangelical churches, a Roman Catholic church, ah Old Catholic
church, a synagogue, a gymnasium, realgymnasium, and a
technical school with special classes for machine-building. There
are also a museum, a theatre, and a prettily arranged municipal
park. Hagen is one of the most flourishing commercial towns
in Westphalia, and possesses extensive iron and steel works,
large cotton print works, woollen and cotton factories, manu-
factures of leather, paper, tobacco, and iron and steel wares,
breweries and distilleries. There are large limestone quarries
in the vicinity and also an alabaster quarry.
HAGENAU, a town of Germany, in the imperial province of
Alsace-Lorraine, situated in the middle of the Hagenau Forest,
on the Moder, and on the railway from Strassburg to Weissen-
burg, 10 m. N.N.E. of the former city. Pop. (1905) , 18,500. It
has two Evangelical and two ancient Catholic churches (one
dating from the 12th, the other from the 13th century), a
gymnasium, a public library, a hospital, and a theatre. The
principal industries are wool and cotton spinning, and the
manufacture of porcelain, earthenware, boots, soap, oil, sparkling
wines and beer. There is also considerable trade in hops and
vegetables. Hagenau is an important military centre and has
a large garrison, including three artillery battalions.
Hagenau dates from the beginning of the tath century, and
owes its origin to the erection of a hunting lodge by the dukes
of Swabia. The emperor Frederick I. surrounded it with walls
and gave it town rights in 1 1 54. On the site of the hunting lodge
he founded an imperial palace, in which were preserved the
jewelled imperial crown, sceptre, imperial globe, and sword of
Charlemagne. Subsequently it became the seat of the Landvogt
8i 4
HAGENBACH— HAGGAI
of Hagenau, the imperial advocatus in Lower Alsace. Richard
of Cornwall, king of the Romans, made it an imperial city in
1357, In 164H it came into the possession of France, and in
\()1S Louis XIV, caused the fortifications to be razed. In 1675
it wit* rnpturcd by imperial troops, but in 1677 it was retaken
by the Frenrh and nearly all destroyed by fire. In 187 1 it fell,
with (he rcni of Alsace-Lorraine, into the possession of Germany,
HAOBMBACH, KARL RUDOLF (1801*1874), German church
historian, was born on the 4th of March 1801 at Basel, where his
father wis a practising physician. His preliminary education was
riM clvcd at a I'cstalozzian school, and afterwards at the gym-
mtftlum, whence in due course he passed to the newly reorganized
local university. He early devoted himself to theological studies
and the service of the church, while at the same time cherishing
rind developing broad M humanistic " tendencies which found
expression In many ways and especially in an enthusiastic
admiration for the writings of Herder. The years 1820-1823
were spent first at Bonn, where G. C. F. Lttckc (1701-X85S)
exerted a powerful Influence on his thought, and afterwards at
tierlln, where Hrhlclcrmacher and Ncnnder became his masters.
Returning In iHjj to Hanoi, where W. M. L. de Wette had re-
cently been appointed to a theological chair, he distinguished
himself greatly by his trial-dissertation, Observations historico-
hrrmtnrutit'M tin a Ori^nis mcthodum interprekndat sacrae
SvrlpiHfHf\ In tftJ4 he became professor extraordinarius, and
In tMjQ professor ordinarius of theology. Apart from his
academic labours In connexion with the history of dogma and
of the church, he lived a life of great and varied usefulness as a
theologian, a preacher and a citiien;' and at his "jubilee"
in 1873, not only the university and town of Basel but also the
various churches of Switzerland united to do him honour. He
tiled at Basel on the 7th of June 1874.
Hagenbach was a voluminous author in many departments,
but he is specially distinguished as a writer on church history.
Though neither so learned and condensed as the contributions
of Gicselcr* nor so original and profound as those of Ncander,
his lecture* are clear, attractive and free from narrow sectarian
prejudice, In dogmatics, while avowedly a champion of the
" mediation theology " (VtrmiUtiHntstkwlogU), based upon the
fundamental conceptions of Herder and Schleiermacher, he was
much less revolutionary than were many others of his school.
He nought to maintain the old confessional documents, and to
make the objective prevail over the purely subjective manner
of viewing theological questions. But he himself was aware
that in the endeavour to do so he was not always successful,
and that his delineations of Christian dogma often betrayed a
vacillating and uncertain hand.
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NAQENUCIvU CAUL vt&u- V wiUlssnimol collector and
vfc*Wr, *** Kvrn at lUmburg in 1S44* 1* *£*$ his father
|HUv)tt*ed *M»e «*fe a*d a l\\Ur bear brought to Hamburg
bx a * SaW* * atst «uKM\|uen;ly ao$uir*\i many o;hcr wiid a r . ;ir ..i k
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which in 1891 awarded Hagenbeck the diploma of the Academy.
Most of the wild animals exhibited in music-halls and other
popular places of entertainment throughout the world have
come from Hagenbeck's collection at Stellingen, near Hamburg.
HAGERSTOWN, a city and the county-seat of Washington
county, Maryland, U.S.A., near Antietam Creek, about 86 m.
by rail W.N.W. from Baltimore. Pop. (1890), 10,118; (1900),
I3»59 J » of whom 1277 were negroes; (1910, census), 16,507.
Hagerstown is served by the Baltimore & Ohio, the Western
Maryland, the Norfolk & Western, and the Cumberland Valley
railways, and by an interurban electric line. It lies in a fertile
valley overlooked by South Mountain to the E. and North
Mountain, more distant, to the W. The city is the seat of Kee
Mar College (1852; non-sectarian) for women. Hagerstown
is a business centre for the surrounding agricultural district,
has good water power, and as a manufacturing centre ranked
third in the state in 1905, its factory products being valued in
that year at $3,026,901, an increase of 66*3% over their value
in 1900. Among the manufactures are flour, shirts, hosiery,
gloves, bicycles, automobiles, agricultural implements, print
paper, fertilizers, sash, doors and blinds, furniture, carriages,
spokes and wheels. The municipality owns and operates its
electric lighting plant. Hagerstown was laid out as a town in
1762 by Captain Jonathan Hager (who had received a patent
to 200 acres here from Lord Baltimore in 1739), and was incor-
porated in 1 791 . It was an important station on the old National
(or Cumberland) Road. General R. £. Lee concentrated his
forces at Hagerstown before the battle of Gettysburg.
HAG-FISH, Glutinous Hag, or Borer (Myxme), a marine
fish which forms with the lampreys one of the lowest orders of
vertebrates (Cyclostotnota). Similar in form to a lamprey, it is
usually found within the body of dead cod or haddock, on the
flesh of which it feeds after having buried itself in the abdomen.
When caught, it secretes a thick glutinous slime in such quantity
that it is commonly believed to have the power of converting
water into glue. It is found in the North Atlantic and other
temperate seas of the globe, being taken in some localities in
large numbers, e.g. off the east coast of Scotland and the west
coast of California (see Cyclostomata).
HAGGADAt or 'Agada (literally " narrative "), includes the
more homiletic elements of rabbinic teaching. It is not logically
distinguishable from the halakha (q.v.) y for the latter or forensic
element makes up with the haggada the Midrash (q.v.), but,
being more popular than the halakha, is often itself styled the
Midrash. It may be described as the poetical and ethical element
as contrasted with the legal element in the Talmud (q.v.), but
the two elements are always closely connected. From one point
of view the haggada, amplifying and developing the contents
of Hebrew scripture in response to a popular religious need, may
be termed a rabbinical commentary on the Old Testament,
containing traditional stories and legends, sometimes amusing,
sometimes trival, and often beautiful. The haggada abounds
in parables. The haggadic passages of the Talmud were collected
in the Eye of Jacob, a very popular compilation completed. by
Jakob ibn IJabib in the 16th century.
HAGGAI, in the Bible, the tenth in order of the " minor
prophets," whose writings are preserved in the Old Testament.
The name Haggai Old, Gr. 'Ayycuos, whence Aggeus in the Eng-
lish version of the Apocrypha) perhaps means " born on the
feast day," "festive." But Wellhausen 1 is probably right in
taking the word as a contraction for Qagariah (" Yahweh hath
girded "), just as Zaccai (Zacchaeus) is known to be a contraction
of Zechariah.
The book of Haggai contains four short prophecies delivered
between the hist day of the sixth month and the twenty-fourth
■ day of the ninth month — that is, between September and
December — of the second year of Darius the king. The king in
question must be Darius Hystaspis (521-485 B.C.). The language
of the prophet in ii. 3 suggests the probability that he was himself
one of those whose memories reached across the seventy years
ot the captivity, and that his prophetic work began in <
I l In Bleek's £MMiMf 9 4th ed., p. 434-
HAGGAI
8i5
old age. This supposition agrees well with the shortness of the
period covered by his book, and with the fact that Zechariah,
who began to prophesy in the same autumn and was associated
with Haggai's labours (Ezra v. 1), afterwards appears as the
leading prophet in Jerusalem (Zech. vii. 1-4). We know nothing
further of the personal history of Haggai from the Bible. Later
traditions may be read in Carpzov's Introductio, pars 3, cap. xvi.
Epiphanius (Vitae prophetarum) says that he came up from
Babylon while still young, prophesied the return, witnessed the
building of the temple and received an honoured burial near
the priests. Haggai's name is mentioned in the titles of several
psalms in the Septuagint (Psalms cxxxvii., cxlv.-cxlviii.) [and
other versions, but these titles are without value, and moreover
vary in MSS. Eusebius did not find them in the Hexaplar
Septuagint. 1
In his first prophecy (i. i-n) Haggai addresses Zerubbabel
and Joshua, rebuking the people for leaving the temple unbuilt
while they are busy in providing panelled houses for themselves.
The prevalent famine and distress are due to Yahweh's indigna-
tion at such remissness. Let them build the house, and Yahweh
will take pleasure in it and acknowledge the honour paid to Him.
The rebuke took effect, and the people began to work at the
temple, strengthened by the prophet's assurance that the Lord
was with them (i. 12-15). In a second prophecy (ii. 1-9) delivered
in the following month, Haggai forbids the people to be dis-
heartened by the apparent meanness of the new temple. The
silver and gold are the Lord's. He will soon shake all nations
and their choicest gifts will be brought to adorn His house.
Its glory shall be greater than that of the former temple, and in
this place He will give peace. A third prophecy (ii. 10-19)
contains a promise, enforced by a figure drawn from the priestly
ritual, that God will remove famine and bless the land from the
day of the foundation of the temple onwards. Finally, in ii.
20-23, Zerubbabel is assured of God's special love and protection
in the impending catastrophe of kingdoms and nations to which
the prophet had formerly pointed as preceding the glorification
of God's house on Zion. In thus looking forward to a shaking
of all nations Haggai agrees with earlier prophecies, especially
Isa. xxiv.-xxvii., while his picture of the glory and peace of the
new Zion and its temple is drawn from the great anonymous
prophet who penned Isa. lx and lxvi. The characteristic
features of the book are the importance assigned to the person-
ality of Zerubbabel, who, though a living contemporary, is
marked out as the Messiah; and the almost sacramental
significance attached to the temple. The hopes fixed on Zerub-
babel, the chosen of the Lord, dear to Him as His signet ring
(cf. Jer. xxii. 24), are a last echo in Old Testament prophecy
of the theocratic importance of the house of David. In the book
of Zechariah Zerubbabel has already fallen into the background
and the high priest is the leading figure of the Judean com-
munity. 1 The stem of David is superseded by the house of
Zadok, the kingship has yielded to the priesthood, and the
extinction of national hopes gives new importance to that strict
organization of the hierarchy for which Ezekiel had prepared
the way by his sentence of disfranchisement against the non-
Zadokite priests.
The indifference of the Jews to the desolate conditions of their
sanctuary opens up a problem of some difficulty. It is strange
that neither Haggai nor his contemporary Zechariah mentions
or implies any return of exiles from Babylon, and the suggestion
has accordingly been made that the return under Cyrus described
in Ezra i.-iv. is unhistorical, and that the community addressed
by Haggai consisted of the remnant that had been left in
Jerusalem and its neighbourhood after the majority had gone
into exile or fled to Egypt (Jer. xliii.). Such a remnant, amongst
whom might be members of the priestly and royal families,
would gather strength and boldness as the troubles of Babylon
1 See the note on Ps. cxlv. 1 in Field's Hexapla ; Kohler, Wets-
sagungen Haggai's, 32 ; Wright, Zechariah and his Prophecies, xix.
■ After the foundation of the temple Zerubbabel disappears from
history and lives only in legend, which continued to busy itself with
his story* as we see from the apocrypf ~
bourg, Hist, de la Palestine, chap. i.).
his story, as we see from the apocryphal book of Esdras (cf. Deren-
increased and her vigilance was relaxed, and might receive from
Babylon and other lands both refugees and some account at
least of the writings of Ezekiel and the Second Isaiah. Stimulated
by such causes and obtaining formal permission from the Persian
government, they would arise as a new Israel and enter on a
new phase of national life and divine revelation.
In spite, however, of the plausibility of this theory, it seems
preferable to adhere to the story of Ezra i.-iv. Apart from the
weighty objections that the Edomites would have frustrated such
a recrudescence of the remnant Jews as has been described, it
must be remembered that the main stream of Jewish life and
thought had been diverted to Babylon. Thence, when the
opportunity came under Cyrus, some 50,000 Jews, the spiritual
heirs of the best elements of the old Israel, returned to found the
new community. With them were all the resources, and the
only people they found at Jerusalem were hostile gentiles and
Samaritans. Full of enthusiasm, they set about rebuilding
the temple and realizing the glowing promises about the
prosperity and dominance of Zion that had fallen from the lips
of the Second Isaiah (xlix. 14-26, xlv. 14). Bitter disappoint-
ment, however, soon overcame them, the Samaritans were
strong enough to thwart and hinder their temple-building, and
it seemed as though the divine favour was withdrawn. Apathy
took the place of enthusiasm, and sordid worries succeeded to
high hopes. " The like collapse has often been experienced in
history when bands of religious men, going forth, as they thought,
to freedom and the immediate erection of a holy commonwealth,
have found their unity wrecked and their enthusiasm dissipated
by a few inclement seasons on a barren and hostile shore." 8
From this torpor they were roused by tidings which might well
be interpreted as the restoration of divine favour. Away in the
East Cyrus had been succeeded in 529 B.C. by Cambyses, who had
annexed Egypt and on whose death in 522 a Magian impostor,
Gaumata, had seized the throne. The fraud was short-lived,
and Darius I. became king and the founder of a new dynasty.
These events shook the whole Persian empire; Babylon and
other subject states rose in revolt, and to the Jews it seemed that
Persia was tottering and that the Messianic era was nigh. It
was therefore natural that Haggai and Zechariah should urge
the speedy building of the temple, in order that the great king
might be fittingly received.
It is sometimes levied as a reproach against Haggai that he
makes no direct reference to moral duties. But it is hardly fair
to contrast his practical counsel with the more ethical and
spiritual teaching of the earlier Hebrew prophets. One thing
was needful — the temple. " Without a sanctuary Yahweh would
have seemed a foreigner to Israel. The Jews would have thought
that He had returned to Sinai, the holy mountain; and that they
were deprived of the temporal blessings which were the gifts of a
God who literally dwelt in the midst of his people." Haggai
argued that material prosperity was conditioned by zeal in
worship; the prevailing distress was an indication of divine anger
due to the people's religious apathy. Haggai's reproofs touched
the conscience of the Jews, and the book of Zechariah enables
us in some measure to follow the course of a religious revival
which, starting with the restoration of the temple, did not confine
itself to matters of ceremony and ritual worship. On the other
hand, Haggai's treatment of his theme, practical and effective
as it was for the purpose in hand, moves on a far lower level than
the aspirations of the prophet who wrote the closing chapters
of Isaiah. To the latter the material temple is no more than a
detail in the picture of a work of restoration eminently ideal
and spiritual, and he expressly warns his hearers against attaching
intrinsic importance to it (Isa. lxvi. 1). To Haggai the temple
appears so essential that he teaches that while it lay waste, the
people and all their works and offerings were unclean (Hag. ii. 14).
In this he betrays his affinity with Ezekiel, who taught that it
is by the possession of the sanctuary that Israel is sanctified
(Ezek. xxxvii. 28). In truth the new movement of religious
thought and feeling which started from the fall of the Hebrew
state took two distinct lines, of which Ezekiel and the anonymous
* G. A. Smith, Minor Prophets, ii. 235.
8i6
HAGGARD— HAGIOLOGY
authors of I*a, xl.-lxvi. arc the respective representatives.
While the latter developed their great picture of Israel the
mediatorial nation , the systematic and priestly mind of Ezekiel
had shaped a more material conception of the religious vocation
of Israel in that picture of the new theocracy where the temple
and its ritual occupy the largest place, with a sanctity which is
set in express contrast to the older conception of the holiness of
the city of Jerusalem (cf. Ezck. xliii. 7 »eq. with Jer. xxxi. 40,
Isa, iv, 5), and with a supreme significance for the religious life of
the people which is expressed in the figure of the living waters
issuing from under the threshold of the house (Ezek. xlvii.). It was
the conception of Ezekiel which permanently influenced the citizens
of the new Jerusalem, and took final shape in the institutions of
Ezra. To this consummation, with its necessary accompaniment
in the extinction of prophecy, the book of Haggai already points.
AUTHOKITIKH.— The elaborate and valuable German commentary
of A. KtihW (Krlangen, i860) forms the first part of his work on
tht* Naehexilische Propheten. Keinke's Commentary (Munater, 1868)
in the work of a scholarly Roman Catholic. Haggai has generally
In-tin treated in works on all the prophets, as by Ewald (2nd cd.,
1868; Hug. trans., vol. Hi.. 1878); or along with the other minor
prophets, as by Hitzig (3rd ed., by H. Steincr. Leipzig, 1881), Keil
'1866, 3rd ed., 1888, hng. trans., Edinburgh, 1868), and Pusey
RnHenmOlIc r's Scholia. The learned commentary of Marckius may
be siKH'liilly mentioned. On the place of Haggai in the history of
Old Test anient prophecy, see Duhm, Theologie der Propheten (Bonn,
1875); A. \\. Davidson, The Theology of the Old Testament (1904);
A. F. Kirk|Mitriek, The Doctrine of the Prophets: G. A. Smith, The
Book of the Twelve Prophets, vol. 2 (1903); Tony Andrec, Le Prophkte
Aggie \ Ed. Meyer, Entstehung des Judentums (1896).
(W. R.S.; A.J. G.)
HAGGARD, HENRY RIDER (1856- ), English novelist,
was born at Hradenham Hall, Norfolk, on the 22nd of June 1856.
When he was nineteen he went to South Africa as secretary to
Sir Henry Hulwer, governor of Natal. At the time of the first
annexation of the Transvaal (1877), he was on the staff of the
special commissioner, Sir Theophilus Shepstone; and he sub-
sequently became a master of the high court of the Transvaal.
He married in 1870 a Norfolk heiress, Miss Margitson, but
returned to the Transvaal in time to witness its surrender to the
Boers and the overthrow of the policy of his former chief.
He returned to England and read for the bar, but soon took to
literary work; he published Cetywayo and his White Neighbours
( i88i), written in defence of Sir T. Shepstone's policy. This was
followed by the novels Dawn (1884), The Witch's Head (1885),
which contains an account of the British defeat at Isandhlwana;
and in 1886 King Solomon's Mines, suggested by the Zimbabwe
ruins, which first made him popular. She (1887), another
fantastic African story, was also very successful, a sequel, Ayesha,
of the Return of She, being published in 1005. The scene of Jess
(1887) and of Allan Quatermoin (1888) was also laid in Africa.
In 1805 he unsuccessfully contested the East Norfolk parlia-
mentary division in the Unionist interest; he showed great
interest in rural and agricultural questions, being a practical
gardener and farmer on his estate in Norfolk. In his Rural
England (a vols., 1002) he exposed the evils of depopulation in
country districts. In 1005 he was commissioned by the colonial
office to inquire into the Salvation Army settlements at Fort
Romie, S. California* and Fort Amity, Colorado, with a view to
the establishment of similar colonies in South Africa. His
report on the subject was first published as a blue book, and
afterwards, in an enlarged form, as The Poor and the Land (1005),
with suggestions for a scheme of national land settlement in
Great Britain itself.
His other tiook* include Maiwa's Revenge (1888). Mr Meeson's Will
f 1888), ( W<»wW \>Hiinti h* l\i\ ^i8S8), Cleopatra u88gh Eric Brighttyts
(lSi)0, Ike World's /V,*it \t8go\ a romance of Helen of Troy,
written with Mr Andrew l.un*; XaJa the Lily ii&>-^« Montezuma s
l\iH£kte' U804\ The People of the Mist {i&&* Joan Flaste (i8o5>.
Heart of the World li&xtl. />r Theme u8q8\ .4 Fanner's Year (i8qq>,
The Sew South Afrua uq»o>. Lvsbeth. A Tale %>f the Dutch (tool).
Steiia Fre^ehus uoa\0, A (iaraVner's Year (igo5\ A Farmer's Year
(l^gg, revised ed„ i*wo\ The Way of the Spirit \,iw*>)«
HAGGIS, a dish consisting of a calf's, sheep's or other animal's
heart, liver and lungs, and also sometimes of the smaller
intestines, boiled in the stomach of the animal with seasoning
of pepper, salt, onions, &c, chopped fine with suet and oatmeaL
It is considered peculiarly a Scottish dish, but was common in
England till the 18th century. The derivation of the word is
obscure. The Fr. hachis, English " hash," is of later appearance
than " haggis." It may be connected with a verb " to hag,"
meaning to cut in small pieces, and would then be cognate
ultimately with " hash."
HAGIOLOGY (from Gr. fryaw, saint, Xtryos, discourse), that
branch of the historical sciences which is concerned with the
lives of the saints. If hagiology be considered merely in the
sense in which the term has come to be understood in the later
stages of its development, Le. the critical study of hagiographic
remains, there would be no such science before the 17th century.
But the bases of hagiology may fairly be said to have been laid
at the time when hagiographic documents, hitherto dispersed,
were first brought together in to collections. The oldest collection
of this kind, the owcryaryi) r&v hpxduav uaprvpluv of Eusebius,
to which the author refers in several passages in his writings
{Hist. Eccl., v. proem 2; v. 20, 5), and which has left more than
one trace in Christian literature, is unfortunately lost in its
entirety. The Martyrs of Palestine, as also the writings of
Theodore t, Palladius and others, on the origins of the monastic
life, and, similarly, the Dialogues of St Gregory (Pope Gregory I.),
belong to the category of sources rather than to that of hagiologic
collections. The In gloria martyrum and In gloria confessorum
of Gregory of Tours are valuable for the sources used in their
compilation. The most important collections are those which
comprise the Acts of the Martyrs and the lives of saints, arranged
in the order of the calendar. In the Greek Church these are
called menologies (from Gr. urjv, month, X070S, discourse), and
their existence can be traced back with certainty to the 9th
century (Theodore of Studium, Epist. i. 2). One of them, the
menology of Metaphrastes, compiled in the second half of the
10th century, enjoyed a universal vogue (see Symeon Meta-
phrastes) . The corresponding works in the Western Church are
the passionaries or legendaries, varieties of which are dispersed
in libraries and have not been studied collectively. They
generally draw from a common source, the Roman legendary,
and the lives of the local saints, i.e. those specially honoured in
a church, a province or a country. One of the best known is
the Austrian legendary (De magno legendario Austriaco in the
Analecta Bollandiana, xvii. 24-264). From the menologies
and legendaries various compilations were made: in the Greek
Church, the Synaxaria (see Synaxarium); in the Western
Church, abridgments and extracts such as the Speculum historiale
of Vincent de Beauvais; the Legenda aurea of Jacobus de
Voragine; the Sanctorale of Bernard Guy [d. 133 1 ] (see L.
Dclisle, Notice sur les manuscrits de Bernard Guy, Paris, 1879);
the Sanctilogium of John of Tynemouth (c. 1366), utilized by
John Capgrave, and published in 15 16 under the name of Nova
legenda Angliae (new edition by C. Horstman, Oxford, 1901);
and the Catalogus sanctorum of Petrus de Natalibus (c. 1375),
published at Vicenza in 1493, and many times reprinted. The
Sanctuarium of B. Mombritius, published at Milan about 1480,
is particularly valuable because it gives a faithful reproduction
of the ancient texts according to the manuscripts. One of the
most zealous collectors of lives of saints was John Gielemans of
Brabant (d. 1487), whose work is of great value (Bollandists,
De codicibus kagiographicis Iohannis Gielemans, Brussels, 1895),
and with him must be associated Anton Geens, or Gentius, of
Groenendael, who died in 1543 (Analecta BoUandiana, vi. 31-34)-
Hagiology entered on a new development with the publication
of the Sanctorum priscorum patrum vitae (Venice and Rome,
I S5 I ~i56o) of Aloysius Lipomanus (Lippomano), bishop of
Verona. As a result of the co-operation of humanist scholars
a great number of Greek hagiographic texts became for the first
time accessible to the West in a Latin translation. The
Carthusian, Laurentius Surius, carried on the work of Lippomano,
completed it, and arranged the materials strictly in the order
HAGIOSCOPE— HAGUE, THE
817
of the calendar (De probatis sanctorum hi$toriis y Cologne, 1570-
1 57S)- What prevents the work of Surius from being regarded
as an improvement upon Lippomano's is that Surius thought
it necessary to retouch the style of those documents which
appeared to him badly written, without troubling himself about
the consequent loss of their documentary value.
The actual founder of hagiologic criticism was the Flemish
Jesuit, Heribcrt Rosweyde (d. 1629), who, besides his important
works on the martyrologies (see Majrtyrology), published the
celebrated collection of the Vitae patrutn (Antwerp, 161 5), a
veritable masterpiece for the time at which it appeared. It was
he, too, who conceived the plan of a great collection of lives of
saints, compiled from the manuscripts and augmented with
notes, from which resulted the collection of the Acta sanctorum
(see Bollandists). This last enterprise gave rise to others of
a similar character but less extensive in scope.
Dom T. Ruinart collected the best Acta of the martyrs in his
Acta martyrum sincera (Paris, 1689). The various religious orders
collected the Ada of their saints, often increasing the lists beyond
measure. The best publication of this kind, the Acta sanctorum
ordinis S. Benedicti (Paris, 1668-1701) of d'Achery and Mabillon,
does not entirely escape this reproach. Countries, provinces and
dioceses also had their special nagiographic collections, conceived
according to various plans and executed with more or less historical
sense. Of these, the most important collections are those of O.
Caietanus, Vitae sanctorum Siculorum (Palermo, 1657); G. A.
Lobineau, Vie des saints de Bretagne (Rennes, 1725); and J. H.
Ghesquiere, Acta sanctorum Belgii (Brussels and Tongerloo, 1783-
1 794). The principal lives of the German saints are published in the
Monumenta Germaniae, and a special section of the Serif tores rerum
Merovingicarum is devoted to the lives of the saints. For Scotland
and Ireland mention must be made of T. Messingham's Florilegium
insulae sanctorum (Paris, 1624) ; I. Colgan's Acta sanctorum veteris
et maioris Scotiae seu Hiberniae (Louvain, 1645-1647); John
Pinkerton's Vitae antiauae sanctorum . . . (London, 1789, of which
a revised and enlargecf edition was published by W. M.Metcalfe at
Paisley in 1889, under the title of Ltves of the Scottish Saints) ; W. J.
Rees's Lives of the Cambro- British Saints (Llandovery, 1853); Acta
sanctorum Hiberniae (Edinburgh, 1888); Whitley Stokes's Lives
of Saints from the Book of Lismore (Oxford, i8qo) ; and J. O'Hanlon's
Lives of the Irish Saints (Dublin, 1875-1904). Towards the 13th
century vernacular collections of lives of saints began to increase.
This literature is more interesting from the linguistic than from
the hagiologic point of view, and comes rather within the domain
of the philologist.
The hagiogpaphy of the Eastern and the Greek church also has
been the subject of important publications. The Greek texts are
very much scattered. Of them, however, may be mentioned J. B.
Malou's " Symeonis Metaphrastae opera omnia " (Patrologia Graeca,
114, 115, 116) and Theophilos Ioannu, Mmj^ela 6.yu>Xoyuc6. (Venice,
1884). For Syriac, there are S. E. Assemani's Acta sanctorum
martyrum orientalium (Rome, 1748) and P. Bedjan's Acta martyrum
et sanctorum (Paris, 1 890-1 897); for Armenian, the acts of
martyrs and lives of saints, published in two volumes by the
Mechitharist community of Venice in 1874; for Coptic, Hyvernat's
Les Actes des martyrs de VEgypte (Paris, 1886); for Ethiopian, K.
Conti Rossini's Scriptores Aethiopici, vitae sanctorum (Paris, 1904
seq.) ; and for Georgian, Sabinin's Paradise of the Georgian Church
(St Petersburg, 1882).
In addition to the principal collections must be mentioned the
innumerable works in which the hagiographic texts have been sub-
jected to detailed critical study.
To realize the present state of hagiology, the Bibliotheca hagio-
graphica, both Latin and Greek, published by the Bollandists, and
the Bulletin ha^iographique, which appears in each number of the
A nalecta Bollandiana (see Bollandists) , must be consulted. Thanks
to the combined efforts of a great number of scholars, the classi-
fication of the hagiographic texts has in recent years made notable
progress. The cnticism of the sources, the study of literary styles,
and the knowledge of local history now render it easier to discrimi-
nate in this literature between what is really historical and what is
merely the invention of the genius of the people or of the imagina-
tion of pious writers (see H. Delehaye, LesLdgendes hagiographtques,
2nd ed., pp. 12 1- 141, Brussels, 1906). " Though the lives of saints,"
says a recent historian, " are filled with miracles and incredible
stories, they form a rich mine of information concerning the life and
customs of the people. Some of them are ' memorials of the best
men of the time written by the best scholars of the time,' " (C. Gross,
The Sources and Literature of English History, p. 34, London, 1900).
(H. De.)
HAGIOSCOPE (from Gr. fryios, holy, and aKxnc&v, to see),
in architecture, an opening through the wall of a church in an
oblique direction, to enable the worshippers in the transepts or
other parts of the church, from which the altar was not visible,
to see the elevation of the Host. As a rule these hagioscopes,
or " squints " as they are sometimes called, are found on one or
both sides of the chancel arch. In some cases a series of openings
has been cut in the walls in an oblique line to enable a person
standing in the porch (as in Bridgewater church, Somerset) to
see the altar; in this case and in other instances such openings
were sometimes provided for an attendant, who had to ring the
Sanctus bell when the Host was elevated. Though rarely met
with on the continent of Europe, there are occasions where they
are found, so as to enable a monk in one of the vestries to follow
the service and communicate with the bell-ringers.
HAGONOT, a town of the province of Bulacan, Luzon,
Philippine Islands, on Manila Bay and on the W. branch and the
delta of the Pampanga Grande river, about 25 m. N. W. of Manila.
Pop. (1003), 21,304. Hagonoy is situated in a rich agricultural
region, producing rice, Indian corn, sugar and a little coffee.
Alcohol is made in considerable quantities from the fermented
juice of the nipa palm, which grows in the neighbouring swamps,
and from the leaves of which the nipa thatch is manufactured.
There is good fishing. The women of the town are very skilful in
weaving the native fabrics. The language is Tagalog. Hagonoy
was founded in 1581.
HAGUE, THE (in Dutch, 's Gravenhage, or, abbreviated, den
Haag; in Fr. La Haye; and in Late Lat. Haga Comitis),
the chief town of the province of South Holland, about 2J nu
from the sea, with a junction station 9 J m. by rail S.\V. by S.
of Leiden. Steam tramways connect it with the seaside villages
of Scheveningen, Kykduin and 's Gravenzande, as well as with
Delft, Wassenaar and Leiden, and it is situated on a branch of
the main canal from Rotterdam to Amsterdam. Pop. (1900),
212,211. The Hague is the chief town of the province, the usual
residence of the court and diplomatic bodies, and the seat of
the government, the states-general, the high council of the
Netherlands, the council of state, the chamber of accounts and
various other administrative bodies. The characteristics of the
town are quite in keeping with its political position; it is as'
handsome as it is fashionable, and was rightly described by de
Amicis in his Olanda as half Dutch, half French. The Hague has
grown very largely in modern times, especially on its western
side, which is situated on the higher and more sandy soil, the
south-eastern half of the town comprising the poorer and the
business quarters. The main features in a plan of the town are
its fine streets and houses and extensive avenues and well-
planted squares; while, as a city, the neighbourhood of an
attractive seaside resort, combined with the advantages and
importance of a large town, and the possession of beautiful and
wooded surroundings, give it a distinction all its own.
The medieval-looking group of government buildings situated
in the Binnenhof (or "inner court ")> their backs reflected in the
pretty sheet of water called the Vyver, represent both historically
and topographically the centre of the Hague. On the opposite
side of the Vyver lies the parallelogram formed by the fine
houses and magnificent avenue of trees of the Lange Voorhout,
the Kneuterdyk and the Vyverburg, representing the fashionable
kernel of the city. Close by lies the entrance to the Haagsche
Bosch, or the wood, on one side of which is situated the deer-
park, and a little beyond on the other the zoological gardens
(1862). Away from the Lange Voorhout the fine Park Straat
stretches to the " 1813 Plein " or square, in the centre of which
rises the large monument (1869) by Jaquet commemorating the
jubilee of the restoration of Dutch independence in 1 8 13 . Beyond
this is the Alexander Veld, used as a military drill ground, and
close by is the entrance to the beautiful road called the Scheven-
ingensche Weg, which leads through the " little woods " to
Scheveningen. Parallel to the Park Straat is the busy Noord-
einde, in which is situated the royal palace. The palace was
purchased by the States in 1595, rebuilt by the stadtholder
William III., and extended by King William I. in the beginning
of the 19th century. In front of the building is an equestrian
statue of William I. of Orange by Count Nieuerkerke (1845),
and behind are the gardens and extensive stables. The Binnen-
hof, which has been already mentioned, was once surrounded by
8i8
HAHN
a moat, and is still entered through ancient gateways. The
oldest portion was founded in 1249 by William II., count of
Holland, whose son, Florens V., enlarged it and made it his
residence. Several centuries later the stadtholders also lived
here. The fine old hall of the knights, built by Florens, and now
containing the archives of the home office, is the historic chamber
in which the states of the Netherlands abjured their allegiance to
Philip II. of Spain, and in front of which the grey-headed states-
man Johan van Oldenbarneveldt was executed in 16 19. Close
by on the one side are the courts of justice, and on the other
the first and second chambers of the states-general, containing
some richly painted ceilings and the portraits of various stadt-
holders. Government offices occupy the remainder of the build-
ings, and in the middle of the court is a fountain surmounted by
a statuette of William II. , count of Holland ( 1 2 2 7-1 2 56) . In the
adjoining Buitenhof, or " outer court," is a statue of King
William II. (d. 1849), and the old Gevangen Poort, or prison gate
(restored 1875), consisting of a tower and gateway. It was
here that the brothers Cornelis and Jan de Witt were killed by
the mob in 1672. On the opposite side of the Binnenhof is the
busy square called the Plein, where all the tram-lines meet.
Round about it are the buildings of the ministry of justice and
other government buildings, including one to contain the state
archives, the large club-house of the Witte Societeit, and the
Mauritshuis. The Mauritshuis was built in 1633-1644 by Count
John Maurice of Nassau, governor of Brazil, and contains the
famous picture gallery of the Hague. The nucleus of this collec-
tion was formed by the princes of Orange, notably by the
stadtholder William V. (1748-1806). King William I. did much
to restore the losses caused by the removal of many of the
pictures during the French occupation. Other artistic collections
in the Hague are the municipal museum {Gernsente Museum), con-
taining paintings by both ancient and modern Dutch artists, and
some antiquities; the fine collection of pictures in the Steengracht
gallery, belonging to Jonkheer Steengracht; the museum
Meermanno-Westreenianum, named after Count Meermann and
Baron Westreenen (d. 1850), containing some interesting MSS.
and specimens of early typography and other curiosities; and
the Mesdag Museum, containing the collection of the painter
H. W. Mesdag (b. 1831) presented by him to the state. The
royal library (1798) contains upwards of 500,000 volumes,
including some early illuminated MSS., a valuable collection of
coins and medals and some fine antique gems. In addition
to the royal palace already mentioned, there are the palaces of
the queen-dowager, of the prince of Orange (founded about 1720
by Count Unico of Wassenaar Twiekels) and of the prince von
Wied, dating from 1825, and containing some good early Dutch
and Flemish masters. There are numerous churches of various
denominations in the Hague as well as an English church, a
Russian chapel and two synagogues, one of which is Portuguese.
The Groote Kerk of St James (15th and 16th centuries) has a fine
vaulted interior, and contains some old stained glass, a carved
wooden pulpit (1550), a large organ and interesting sepulchral
monuments, and some escutcheons of the knights of the Golden
Fleece, placed here after the chapter of 1456. The Nieuwe Kerk,
or new church (first half 17th century), contains the tombs of
the brothers De Witt and of the philosopher Spinoza. Spinoza
is further commemorated by a monument in front of the house
in which he died in 1677. The picturesque town hall (built in
1565 and restored and enlarged in 1882) contains a historical
picture gallery. The principal other buildings are the provincial
government offices, the royal school of music, the college of art,
the large building (1874) of the society for arts and sciences, the
ethnographical institute of the Netherlands Indies with fine
library, the theatres, civil and military hospitals, orphanage,
lunatic asylum and other charitable institutions; the fine
modern railway station (1892), the cavalry and artillery and
the infantry barracks, and the cannon foundry. The chief
industries of the town are iron casting, copper and lead smelting,
cannon founding, the manufacture of furniture and carriages,
liqueur distilling, lithographing and printing.
The Hague wood has been described as the city's finest
ornament. It is composed chiefly of oaks and alders and magnifi-
cent avenues of gigantic beech-trees. Together with the Haarlem
wood it is thought to be a remnant of the immense forest which
once extended along the coast. At the end of one of the avenues
which penetrates into it from the town is the large summer club-
house of the Witte Societeit, under whose auspices concerts are
given here in summer. Farther into the wood are some pretty
little lakes, and the famous royal villa called the Huis ten Bosch,
or " house in the wood." This villa was built by Pieter Post for
the Princess Amelia of Solms, in memory of her husband the
stadtholder, Frederick Henry of Orange (d. 1647), and wings
were added to it by Prince William IV. in 1748. The chief room
is the Orange Saloon, an octagonal hall 50 ft. high, covered with
paintings by Dutch and Flemish artists, chiefly of incidents in
the life of Prince Frederick. In this room the International
Peace Conference had its sittings in the summer of 1899. The
collections in the Chinese and Japanese rooms, and the grisailles
in the dining-room painted by Jacobus de Wit (1695-1754),
are also noteworthy.
The history of the Hague is in some respects singular. In
the 13th century it was no more than a hunting-lodge of the counts
of Holland, and though Count Floris V. (b. 1 254-1 296) made it
his residence and it thus became the seat of the supreme court of
justice of Holland and the centre of the administration, and
from the time of William of Orange onward the meeting-place of
the states-general, it only received the status of a town, from
King Louis Bonaparte, early in the 19th century.
In the latter part of the 17th and the first half of the 18th
century the Hague was the centre of European diplomacy.
Among the many treaties and conventions signed here may be
mentioned the treaty of the Triple Alliance (January 23, 1688)
between England, Sweden and the Netherlands; the concert of
the Hague (March 31, 17 10) between the Emperor, England and
Holland, for the maintenance of the neutrality of the Swedish
provinces in Germany during the war of the northern powers
against Sweden; the Triple Alliance (January 4, 171 7) between
France, England and Holland for the guarantee of the treaty of
Utrecht; the treaty of peace (Feb. 17, 17 17) between Spain, Savoy
and Austria, by which the first-named acceded to the principles
of the Triple Alliance; the treaty of peace between Holland and
France (May 16, 1795); the first " Hague Convention," the out-
come of the " peace conference " assembled on the initiative of the
emperor Nicholas II. of Russia (July 27, 1899), and the series of
conventions, the results of the second peace conference (June 15-
October 18, 1907). The international court of arbitration or
Hague Tribunal was established in 1899 (see Europe: History;
Arbitration, International). The Palace of Peace designed
to be completed in 1913 as the seat of the tribunal, on the Sche-
veningen avenue, is by a French architect, L. M. Cordonnier, and
A. Carnegie contributed £300,000 towards its cost.
HAHN, AUGUST (1 792-1863), German Protestant theologian,
was born on the 27th of March 1792 at Grossosterhausen near
Eisleben, and studied theology at the university of Leipzig.
In 1 819 he was nominated professor exiraordinarius of theology
and pastor of Altstadt in Konigsberg, and in 1820 received a
superintendency in that city. In 1822 he became professor
ordinarius. In 1826 he removed as professor of theology to
Leipzig, where, hitherto distinguished only as editor of Bar-
desanes, Marcion (Marcion's Evangelium in seiner ursprUnglichen
Geslalt, 1823), and Ephraem Syrus, and the joint editor of a
Syrische Chrestomathie (1824), he came into great prominence as
the author of a treatise, De rationalismi qui dicitur vera indole et
qua cum naturalismo contineatur ratione (1827), and also of an
Offene Erkl&rung an die Evangelische Kirche zunachst in Sachsen
u. Preussen (1827), in which, as a member of the school of E. W.
Hengstenberg, he endeavoured to convince the rationalists
that it was their duty voluntarily and at once to withdraw from
the national church. In 1833 Hahn's pamphlet against K. G.
Bretschneider (Uber die Lage des Christenthums in unset er Zeil,
1832) having attracted the notice of Friedrich Wilhelm HI., he
was called to Breslau as theological professor and consistorial
councillor, and in 1843 became " general superintendent " of
HAHNEMANN— HAIDA
819
the province of Silesia. He died at Breslau on the 13th of May
1863. Though uncompromising in his " supra-naturalism," he
did not altogether satisfy the men of his own school by his own
doctrinal system. The first edition of his Lehrbuch des christ-
lichen Glaubens (1828) was freely characterized as lacking in
consistency and as detracting from the strength of the old
positions in many important points. Many of these defects,
however, he is considered to have remedied in his second edition
(1857). Among his other works are his edition of the Hebrew
Bible (1833), his Bibliothek der Symbole und Glaubensregeln
der apostolisch-katholischen Kirche (1842; 2nd ed. 1877) and
Predigten (1852).
His eldest son, Heinrich August Hahn (1821-1861), after
studying theology at Breslau and Berlin, became successively
Privatdozent at Breslau (1845), professor ad interim (1846) at
Konigsberg on the death of Heinrich Havernick, professor
extraordinarius (1851) and prof essor ordinarius (i860) at Greifs-
wald. Amongst his published works were a commentary on
the Book of Job (1850), a translation of the Song of Songs (1852),
an exposition of Isaiah xl.-lxvi. (1857) and a commentary on the
Book of Ecclesiastes (i860).
See the articles in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopddie, and the
Allgemeine deutschc Biographic.
HAHNEMANN, SAMUEL CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH (1755-
1843), German physician and founder of " homoeopathy," was
born at Meissen in Saxony on the 10th of April 1755. He was
educated at the " elector's school " of Meissen, and studied
medicine at Leipzig and Vienna, taking the degree of M.D. at
Erlangen in 1779. After practising in various places, he settled
in Dresden in 1784, and thence removed to Leipzig in 1789. In
the following year, while translating W. Cullen's Materia medica
into German, he was struck by the fact that the symptoms pro-
duced by quinine on the healthy body were similar to those of
the disordered states it was used to cure. He had previously felt
dissatisfied with the state of the science of medicine, and this
observation led him to assert the truth of the " law of similars,"
similia similibus curantur or curentur — i.e. diseases are cured
(or should be treated) by those drugs which produce symptoms
similar to them in the healthy. He promulgated his new
principle in a paper published in 1796 in C. W. Huf eland's
Journal, and four years later, convinced that drugs in much
smaller doses than were generally employed effectually exerted
their curative powers, he advanced his doctrine of their potenti-
zation or dynamization. In 18 10 he published his chief work,
Organon der rationellen Heilkunde, containing an exposition of his
system, which he called homoeopathy (q.v.), and in the following
years appeared the six volumes of his Reine Arzneimittellehre,
which detailed the symptoms produced by "proving" a large
number of drugs, i.e. by systematically administering them to
healthy subjects. In 182 1 the hostility of established interests,
and especially of the apothecaries, whose services were not
required under his system, forced him to leave Leipzig, and at
the invitation of the grand-duke of Anhalt-Cothen he went
to live at Cothen. Fourteen years later he removed to Paris,
where he practised with great success until his death on the
2nd of July 1843. Statues were erected to his memory at
Leipzig in 1851 and at Cothen in 1855. He also wrote, in
addition to the works already mentioned, Fragmenta de viribus
medicatneniorum positivis (1805) and Die chronischen Krankheiten
(1828-1830).
See the article Homoeopathy ; also Albrecht, Hahnemann's Leben
und Werken (Leipzig, 1875); Bradford, Hahnemann's Life and
Letters (Philadelphia, 1895).
HAHN-HAHN, IDA, Countess von (1805-1880), German
author, was born at Tressow, in Mecklenburg-Schwerin, on
the 22nd of June 1805, daughter of Graf (Count) Karl Friedrich
von Hahn (1 782-1857), well known for his enthusiasm for the
stage, upon which he squandered a large portion of his fortune.
She married in 1826 her wealthy cousin Count Adolf von Hahn-
Hahn. With him she had an extremely unhappy life, and in
1829 her husband's irregularities led to a divorce. The countess
travelled, produced some volumes of poetry indicating true
lyrical feeling, and in 1838 appeared as a novelist with Aus der
Gesellschaft, a title which, proving equally applicable to her
subsequent novels, was retained as that of a series, the book
originally so entitled being renamed Ida Schbnholm. For
several years the countess continued to produce novels bearing a
certain subjective resemblance to those of George Sand, but less
hostile to social institutions, and dealing almost exclusively
with aristocratic society. The author's patrician affectations
at length drew upon her the merciless ridicule of Fanny Lewald
in a parody of her style entitled Diogena (1847), and this and the
revolution of 1848 together seem to have co-operated in inducing
her to embrace the Roman Catholic religion in 1850. She
justified her step in a polemical work entitled Von Babylon nach
Jerusalem (1851), which elicited a vigorous reply from H. Abeken.
In 1852 she retired into a convent at Angers, which she, however,
soon left, taking up her residence at Mainz where she founded a
nunnery, in which she lived without joining the order, and
continued her literary labours. For many years her novels were
the most popular works of fiction in aristocratic circles; many
of her later publications, however, passed unnoticed as mere
party manifestoes. Her earlier works do not deserve the neglect
into which they have fallen. If their sentimentalism is some-
times wearisome, it is grounded on genuine feeling and expressed
with passionate eloquence. Ulrich and Gr&fin Faustine, both
published in 1841, mark the culmination of her power; but
Sigismund Forster (1843), Cecil (1844), Sibylle (1846) and Maria
Regina (i860) also obtained considerable popularity. She died'
at Mainz on the 12th of January 1880.
Her collected works, Gesammelte Werke, with an introduction by
O. von Schaching, were published in two series, 45 volumes in all
(Regensburg, 1003-1904). See H, Keiter, Gr&fin Hahn-Hahn
(Wurzburg, undated); P. Haffner, Grdfin Ida Hahn-Hahn, eine
psychologische Studic (Frankfort, 1880); A. Jacoby, Ida Grdfin
Hahn-Hahn (Mainz, 1894).
HAI (930-1038), Jewish Talmudical scholar, was born in 939.
He was educated by his father Sherira, gaon of Pombeditha
(Pumbedita), whom he afterwards assisted in his work. They
were cast into prison for a short time by the caliph Qadir, and
subsequently on Sherira's death Hai was appointed gaon in
his place (998). This office he held till his death on the 28th of
March 1038. He is famous chiefly for his answers to problems
of ritual and civil law. He composed important treatises on
Talmudic law and the Mishnah; many poems are also attributed
to him on doubtful authority. In his responsa he laid stress on
custom and tradition provided no infringement of the law
were involved, and was essentially conservative in theology.
He had considerable knowledge not only of religious movements
within the Jewish body, but also of Mahommedan theology and
controversial method, and frequently consulted theologians of
other beliefs.
See Steinschneider, Hebr. Vbersetz. p. 910, and article in Jewish
Encyclopedia, vi. 153.
HAIBAK, a town and khanate of Afghan Turkestan. The
valley of Haibak, which is 3100 ft. above sea level, is fertile and
richly cultivated. The town, which is famed in Persian legend,
consists now of only a couple of streets, containing many Hindu
shops and a small garrison. The inhabitants call themselves
Jagatais, a Turki race, though now generally mixed with Tajiks
and speaking Persian. In the neighbourhood of Haibak are
some very typical Buddhist ruins. Haibak derives its import-
ance from its position on the main line of communication between
Kabul and Afghan Turkestan.
HAIDA, a tribe of North American Indians of Skittagetan
stock. They still occupy their original home, the Queen Char-
lotte islands, British Columbia. They are skilful seamen,
making long fishing expeditions in cedarwood canoes. They
are noted for their carving and basket-work. They formerly
made raids on the coast tribes. Slavery was hereditary, the
slaves being prisoners of war. The population, some 7000 in
the middle of the 19th century, is now reduced to a few hundreds.
See Handbook of American Indians (Washinrton. 1907). For
" Haida Texts and Myths," see Bull.29 Smithsonian Inshtutnn Burn*
Amer. Ethnol. (1905).
820
HAIDINGER— HAILES
HAID1NGER, WILHELM KARL, Ritter von (1795-1871),
Austrian mineralogist, geologist and physicist, was born at Vienna
on the 5th of February 1795. His father, Karl Haidinger,
contributed largely to the development of mineralogical science
in the latter half of the 18th century. Having studied at the
normal school of St Anne, and attended classes at the university,
Wilhelm, at the age of seventeen, joined Professor F. Mohs at
Gratz, and five years later accompanied the professor to Freiberg
on the transfer of his labours to the mining academy of that
town.
In 1822 Haidinger visited France and England with Count
Breunner, and, journeying northward, took up his abode in
Edinburgh. He translated into English, with additions of his
own, Mohs's Grundriss der Mineralogie, published at Edinburgh
in three volumes under the title Treatise on Mineralogy (1825).
After a tour in northern Europe, including the Scandinavian
mining districts, he undertook the scientific direction of the
porcelain works at Elbogen, belonging to his brothers. In 1840
he was appointed counsellor of mines (Bergrat) at Vienna in the
place of Professor Mohs, a post which included the charge of the
imperial cabinet of minerals. He devoted himself to the re-
arrangement and enrichment of the collections, and the museum
became the first in Europe. Shortly after (1843) Haidinger
commenced a series of lectures on mineralogy, which was given
to the world under the title Handbuch der bestimmenden Minera-
logie (Vienna, 1845; tables, 1846). On the establishment of the
imperial geological institute, he was chosen director (1849);
and this important position he occupied for seventeen years.
He was elected a member of the imperial board of agriculture and
mines, and a member of the imperial academy of sciences of
Vienna. He organized the society of the Freunde der Natur-
wissenschaften. As a physicist Haidinger ranked high, and he
was one of the most active promoters of scientific progress in
Austria. He was the discoverer of the interesting optical
appearances which have been called after him " Haidinger's
brushes." Knighted in 1865, the following year he retired to his
estate at Dornbach near Vienna, where he died on the 19th of
March 187 1.
In addition to the works already named, Haidinger published
Anfangsgrunde der Mineralogie (Leipzig, 1829); Geognostische Vber-
sichtskarte der dsterreich. Monarchic (Vienna, 1847); Bemerkungen
Uber die Anordnun^ der kleinsten Theilchen in ChristaUen (Vienna,
1853); Interferensltnien am Glimmer (Vienna, 1855); Verzleichun-
een von Augit und Amphibol (Vienna, 1855). He also edited the
Naturwissenschaftliche Abhandlungen (Vienna, 1847); the Berichte
-Uber die Mittheilungen von Freunden der Naturwissenschaften
in Wien (Vienna, 1847-1851); and the Jahrbuch of the Vienna K.
K. Geologische Reichsanstalt (1850), &c. Some of his papers will
be found in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
(vol. x.) and of the Wernerian Society (1 822-1 82 j), Edinburgh
Phil. Journal, Brewster's Journal of Science, and Poggendorff's
Annalen. (H. B. Wo.)
HAIDUK (also written Hayduk, Heiduc, Heyduke and Hey-
duquc), a term which appears originally to have meant " robber "
or " brigand," a sense it retains in Servia and some other parts
of the Balkan Peninsula. It is probably derived from the
Turkish haidud, " marauder," but its origin is not absolutely
certain. Most of the European races with which the Turks came
into close contact during the 1 5th and 16th centuries seem to have
adopted it as a loan-word, and it appears in Magyar as hajdH
(plural kajduk), in Serbo-Croatian, Rumanian, Polish and Cech
as hajduk, in Bulgarian as hajdutin and in Greek as xaiToforp.
By the beginning of the 17 th century its use had spread north
and west as far as Sweden and Great Britain. In Hungary it
was applied to a class of mercenary foot-soldiers of Magyar stock.
In 1605 these haiduks were rewarded for their fidelity to the
Protestant party (see Hungary: History) with titles of nobility
and territorial rights over a district situated on the left bank
of the river Theiss, known thenceforward as the Haiduk region.
This was enlarged in 1876 and converted into the county of
Hajdu (Ger. Hajduken). HajdH is also a common prefix in
Hungarian place-names, e.g. Hajdu-Szoboszl6, Hajdu-Namas.
In Austria-Hungary, Germany, Poland, Sweden and some other
countries, haiduk came to mean an attendant in a court of law,
or a male servant, dressed in Hungarian semi-military costume.
It is also occasionally used as a synonym for " footman " or
" lackey."
HAIFA, a town of Palestine at the foot of Mt. Carmel, on the
south of the Bay of Acre. It represents the classical Sycaminum,
but the present town is entirely modern. It has developed since
about 1890 into an important port, and is connected by railway
with Damascus. The population is estimated at 12,000 (Mos-
lems 6000, Christians 4000, Jews 1500, Germans 500; the last
belong for the greater part to the Unitarian sect of the
" Templars," who have colonies also at Jaffa and Jerusalem).
The exports (grain and oil) were valued at £178,738 in 1000.
Much of the trade that formerly went to Acre has been attracted
to Haifa. This port is the best natural harbour on the Palestine
coast,
HAIK (an Arabic word, from hak t to weave), a piece of cloth,
usually of coarse hand-woven wool, worn by Arabs, Moors and
other Mahommedan peoples. It is generally 6 to 6J yds. long,
and about 2 broad. It is either striped or plain, and is
worn equally by both sexes, usually as an outer covering; but
it is often the only garment of the poorer classes. By women the
" haik " is arranged to cover the head and, in the presence of
men, is held so as to conceal the face. A thin." haik " of silk,
like a veil, is used by brides at their marriage.
HAIL (O. Eng. hcegl and hagol, * cf . the cognate Teutonic hagel,
as in German, Dutch, Swedish, &c; the Gr. icaxXqf, pebble, is
probably allied), the name for rounded masses or single pellets
of ice falling from the clouds in a shower. True hail has a con-
centric structure caused by the frozen particles of moisture first
descending into a warm cloud, whence they are carried upwards
on an ascending current of heated air into a cold stratum where
the fresh coating of water vapour deposited in the cloud is frozen.
The hailstone descends again, receives a fresh coating, is carried
up once more, refrozen, and again descends. Thus the hailstone
grows until the current is no longer strong enough to support it
when it falls to the ground. At times masses of hail are frozen
together, and a very sudden cooling will sometimes result in the
formation of ragged masses of ice that fall with disastrous
results. Hail must be distinguished from the frozen snow,
" soft -hail " or " graupel," that often falls at the rear of a spring
cyclone, since true hail is almost entirely a summer phenomenon,
and falls most frequently in thunderstorms which are produced
under the conditions that are favourable to the formation of
hail, i.e. great heat, a still atmosphere, the production of strong
local convection currents in consequence, and the passage of
a cold upper drift.
HAILES, DAVID DALRYMPLE, Lord (1726-1792), Scottish
lawyer and historian, was born at Edinburgh on the 28th of
October 1726. His father, Sir James Dalrymple, Bart., of
Hailes, in the county of Haddington, auditor-general of the
exchequer of Scotland, was a grandson of James, first Viscount
Stair; and his mother, Lady Christian Hamilton, was a daughter
of Thomas, 6th earl of Haddington. David was the eldest of
sixteen children. He was educated at Eton, and studied law at
Utrecht, being intended for the Scottish bar, to which he was
admitted shortly after his return to Scotland in 1748. As a
pleader he attained neither high distinction nor very extensive
practice, but he rapidly established a well-deserved reputation
for sound knowledge, unwearied application and strict probity;
and in 1766 he was elevated to the bench, when he assumed the
title of Lord Hailes. Ten years later he was appointed a lord of
justiciary. He died on the 29th of November 1792. He was
twice married, and had a daughter by each wife. The baronetcy
to which he had succeeded passed to the son of his brother John,
provost of Edinburgh. Another brother was Alexander
Dalrymple (173 7-1 808), the first admiralty hydrographer, who
distinguished himself in the East India Company's service and
as a geographer. Lord Hailes's younger daughter married Sir
144 Hail," a call of greeting or salutation, a shout to attract
attention, must, of course, be distinguished. This word represents
the Old Norwegian heill, prosperity, cognate with O. Eng. h&l,
whence »• hale," " whole," and hod, whence " health, M " heal. ?,,
HAILSHAM— HAINAN
821
James Fergusson; and their grandson, Sir Charles Dalrymple,
1st Bart. (cr. 1887), M.P. for Bute from 1868 to 1885, afterwards
came into Lord Hailes's estate and took his family name.
Lord Hailes's most important contribution to literature was
the Annals of Scotland, of which the first volume, " From the
accession of Malcolm III., surnamed Canmore, to the accession of
Robert I.," appeared in 1776, and the second, " From the acces-
sion of Robert I., surnamed Bruce, to the accession of the house
of Stewart," in 1779. It is, as Dr Johnson justly described this
work at the time of its appearance, a " Dictionary " of carefully
sifted facts, which tells all that is wanted and all that is known,
but without any laboured splendour of language or affected
subtlety of conjecture. The other works of Lord Hailes include
Historical Memoirs concerning the Provincial Councils of the
Scottish Clergy (1769); An Examination of some of the Arguments
for the High Antiquity of Regiam Majestatem (1769); three
volumes entitled Remains of Christian Antiquity (" Account of
the Martyrs of Smyrna and Lyons in the Second Century,"
1776; " The Trials of Justin Martyr, Cyprian, &c," 1778;
" The History of the Martyrs of Palestine, translated from
Eusebius," 1780); Disquisitions concerning the Antiquities of the
Christian Church (1783) ; and editions or translations of portions
of Lactantius, Tertullian and Minucius Felix. In 1786 he pub-
lished An Inquiry into the Secondary Causes which Mr Gibbon
has assigned for the Rapid Growth of Christianity (Dutch transla-
tion, Utrecht, 1793), one of the most respectable of the very
many replies which were made to the famous 15th and 16th
chapters of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire.
A " Memoir " of Lord Hailes is prefixed to the 1808 reprint of his
Inquiry into the Secondary Causes,
HAILSHAM, a market-town in the Eastbourne parliamentary
division of Sussex, England, 54 m. S.S.E. from London by the
London, Brighton & South Coast railway. Pop. (1901), 4*97-
The church of St Mary is Perpendicular. The picturesque
Augustinian priory of Michelham lies 2 m. W. by the Cuckmere
river; it is altered into a dwelling house, but retains a gate-
house, crypt and other portions of Early English date. There
was also a Premonstratensian house at Otham, 3 m. S., but the
remains are scanty. Hailsham has a considerable agricultural
trade, and manufactures of rope and matting are carried on.
HAINAN, or, as it is usually called in Chinese, K'iung-chow-fu,
a large island belonging to the Chinese province of Kwang-tung,
and situated between the Chinese Sea and the Gulf of Tong-king
from 20 8' to 17 52' N., and from 108 32' to 11 1° 15' E. It
measures 160 m. from N.E. to S.W., and the average breadth
is about 90 m. The area is estimated at from 1200 to 1400 sq.
m., or two-thirds the size of Sicily. From the peninsula of Lei-
chow on the north it is separated by the straits of Hainan,
which have a breadth of 15 or 20 m.
With the exception of a considerable area in the north, and
broad tracts on the north-east and north-west sides, the whole
island is occupied by jungle-covered mountains, with rich valleys
between. The central range bears the name of Li-mou shan or
Wu-tchi shan (the Five-Finger Mountain), and attains a height
of 6000 or 7000 ft. Its praises are celebrated in a glowing ode
by Ch'iu, a native poet. The island appears to be well watered,
and some of its rivers are not without importance as possible
highways of commerce; but the details of its hydrography are
very partially ascertained. A navigable channel extends in an
irregular curve from the bay of Hoi-how (Hai-K'ow) in the north
to Tan-chow on the west coast. Being exposed to the winter
monsoon, the northern parts of the island enjoy much the same
sort of temperate climate as the neighbouring provinces of the
mainland, but in the southern parts, protected from the monsoon
by the mountain ranges, the climate is almost or entirely tropical.
Snow falls so rarely that its appearance in 1684 is reported in
the native chronicles as a remarkable event. Earthquakes are a
much more familiar phenomenon, having occurred, according to
the same authority, in 1523, 1526, 1605, 1652, 1677, 1681, 1684,
1702, 1704, 1725, 1742, 1816, 1817 and 1822. Excellent timber
of various kinds — eagle-wood, rose-wood, liquidambar, &c. —
is one of the principal products of the island, and has even
been specially transported to Peking for imperial purposes. The
coco palm flourishes freely even in the north, and is to be found
growing in clumps with the Pinus sinensis. Rice, cotton, sugar,
indigo, cinnamon, betel-nuts, sweet potatoes, ground-nuts and
tobacco are all cultivated in varying quantities. The aboriginal
inhabitants collect a kind of tea called t'ien cha, or celestial tea,
which looks like the leaves of a wild camellia, and has an earthy
taste when infused. Lead, silver, copper and iron occur in the
Shi-lu shan or " stone-green-hill "; the silver at least was worked
till 1850. Gold and lapis lazuli are found in other parts of the
island.
The ordinary cattle of Hainan are apparently a cross between
the little yellow cow of south China and the zebu of India.
Buffaloes are common, and in the neighbourhood of Nanlu at
least they are frequently albinos. Horses are numerous but small.
Hogs and deer are both common wild animals, and of the latter
there are three species, Cervus Eldi f Cervus hippelaphus and
Cervus vaginalis. Among the birds, of which 172 species are
described by Mr Swinhoe in his paper in The Ibis (1870), there are
eagles, notably a new species SpUornis Rutherfordi, buzzards,
harriers, kites, owls, goatsuckers and woodpeckers. The Upupa
ceylonensis is familiar to the natives as the " bird of the Li
matrons," and the Palaeornis javanica as the " sugar-cane bird."
Hainan forms a f u or department of the province of Kwang-
tung, though strictly it is only a portion of the island that is
under Chinese administration, the remainder being still occupied
by unsubjugated aborigines. The department contains three
chow and ten hien districts. K'iung-chow-hien, in which the
capital is situated; Ting-an-hien, the only inland district;
Wen-ch'ang-hien, in the north-east of the island; Hui-t'ung-
hien, Lo-hui-hien, Ling-shu-hien, Wan-chow, Yai-chow (the
southmost of all), Kan-en-hien Ch'ang-hwa-hien, Tan-chow,
Lin-kao-hien and Ch'eng-mai-hien. The capital K'iung-chow-fu
is situated in the north about 10 li (or 3 m.) from the coast on
the river. It is a well-built compact city, and its temples and
examination halls are in good preservation. Carved articles in
coco-nuts and scented woods are its principal industrial product.
In 1630 it was made the seat of a Roman Catholic mission by
Benoit de Mathos, a Portuguese Jesuit, and the old cemetery
still contains about 113 Christian graves. The port of K'iung-
chow-fu at the mouth of the river, which is nearly dry at low
water, is called simply Hoi-how, or in the court dialect Hai-K'ow,
i.e. seaport. The two towns are united by a good road, along
which a large traffic is maintained partly by coolie porters but
more frequently by means of wheel-barrows, which serve the
purpose of cabs and carts. The value of the trade of the port
has risen from £670,600 in 1 809 to £7 19,333 in 1904. In the same
year 424 vessels, representing a tonnage of 312,554, visited the
port. This trade is almost entirely with the British colony of
Hong-Kong, with which the port is connected by small coasting
steamers, but since 1893 it has had regular steamboat com-
munication with Haiphong in Tongking. The population of
K'iung-chow, including its shipping port of Hoi-how, is estimated
at 52,000. The number of foreign residents in 1900 was about
30, most of them officials or missionaries.
The inhabitants of Hainan may be divided into three classes,
the Chinese immigrants, the civilized aborigines or Shu-li and
the wild aborigines or Sheng-li. The Chinese were lor the most
part originally from Kwang-si and the neighbouring provinces,
and they speak a peculiar dialect, of which a detailed account by
Mr Swinhoe was given in The Phoenix, a Monthly Magazine for
China, 6*c. (1870). The Shu-li as described by Mr Taintor are
almost of the same stature as the Chinese, but have a more
decided copper colour, higher cheek-bones and more angular
features, while their eyes are not oblique. Their hair is long,
straight and black, and their beards, if they have any, are very
scanty. They till the soil and bring rice, fuel, timber, grass-cloth,
&c, to the Chinese markets. The Sheng-li or Li proper, called
also La, Le or Lauy, are probably connected with the Laos of
Siam and the Lolos of China. Though not gratuitously aggres-
sive, they are highly intractable, and have given great trouble
to the Chinese authorities. Among themselves they carry on
822
HAINAU— HAINICHEN
deadly feuds, and revenge is a duty and an inheritance. Though
they are mainly dependent on the chase for food, their weapons
are still the spear and the bow, the latter being made of wood and
strung with bamboo. In marriage no avoidance of similarity
of name is required. The bride's face is tattooed according to a
pattern furnished by the bridegroom. Their funeral mourning
consists of abstaining from drink and eating raw beef, and they
use a wooden log for a coffin. When sick they sacrifice oxen.
In the spring-time there is a festival in which the men and
women from neighbouring settlements move about in gay
clothing hand in hand and singing songs. The whole population
of the island is estimated at about 2\ millions. At its first
conquest 23,000 families were introduced from the mainland.
In 1300 the Chinese authorities assign 166,257 inhabitants; in
1370, 291,000; in 1617, 250,524; and in 1835, 1,350,000.
It was in in B.C. that Lu-Po-Teh, general of the emperor Wu-
ti, first made the island of Hainan subject to the Chinese, who
divided it into the two prefectures, Tan-urh or Drooping Ear
in the south, so-called from the long ears of the native " king,"
and Chu-yai or Pearl Shore in the north. During the decadence
of the elder branch of the Han dynasty the Chinese supremacy
was weakened, but in a.d. 43 the natives were led by the success
of Ma-yuan in Tong-king to make a new tender of their allegiance.
About this time the whole island took the name of Chu-yai. In
a.d. 627 the name of K'iung-chow came into use. On its con-
quest by the generals of Kublai Khan in 1278 the island was
incorporated with the western part of the province of Kwang-
tung in a new satrapy, Hai-peh Hai-nan Tao, i.e. the circuit north
of the sea and south of the sea. It was thus that Hai-nan-Tao,
or district south of the sea or strait, came into use as the name of
the island, which, however, has borne the official title of K'iung-
chow-fu, probably derived from the Kiung shan or Jade Moun-
tains, ever since 1370, the date of its erection into a department
of Kwang-tung. For a long time Hainan was the refuge of the
turbulent classes of China and the place of deportation for
delinquent officials. It was there, for example, that Su-She or
Su-Tung-po was banished in 1097. From the 15th to the 19th
century pirates made the intercourse with the mainland danger-
ous, and in the 17th they were considered so formidable that
merchants were allowed to convey their goods only across the
narrow Hainan Strait. Since 1863 the presence of English men-
of-war has put an end to this evil. According to the treaty of
Tientsin, the capital K'iung-chow and the harbour Hoi-how
(Hai-Kow) were opened to European commerce; but it was not
till 1876 that advantage was taken of the permission.
HAINAU (officially Haynau), a town of Germany, in the
Prussian province of Silesia, on the Schnelle Deichsa and the
railway from Breslau to Dresden, 12 m. N.W. of Liegnitz. Pop.
10,500. It has an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church,
manufactories of gloves, patent leather, paper, metal ware
and artificial manures, and a considerable trade in cereals. Near
Hainau the Prussian cavalry under Blucher inflicted a defeat on
the French rearguard on the 26th of May 18 13.
HAINAUT (Flem. Henegovwen, Ger. Hennegau), a province
of Belgium formed out of the ancient county of Hainaut. Modern
Hainau t is famous as containing the chief coal and iron mines
of Belgium. There are about 1 50,000 men and women employed
in the mines, and about as many more in the iron and steel works
of the province. About 1880 these numbers were not more than
half their present totals. The principal towns of Hainaut are
Mons, the capital, Charleroi, Tournai, Jumet and La Louviere.
The province is watered by both the Scheldt and the Sambre,
and is connected with Flanders by the Charleroi-Ghent canal.
The area of the province is computed at 930,405 acres or
1453 S< 1' m - ^ n IQ °4 tne population was 1,192,967, showing an
average of 821 per square mile.
Under the successors of Clovis Hainaut formed part, first
of the kingdom of Metz, and then of that of Lotharingia. It
afterwards became part of the duchy of Lorraine. The first to
bear the title of count of Hainaut was Reginar " Long-Neck "
(c. 875), who, later on, made himself master of the duchy of
Lorraine and died in 916. His eldest son inherited Lower
Lorraine, the younger, Reginar II., the countehip of Hainaut,
which remained in the male line of his descendants, all named
Reginar, until the death of Reginar V. in 1036. His heiress,
Richildis, married en secondes noces Baldwin VI. of Flanders,
and, by him, became the ancestress of the Baldwin (VI. of
Hainaut) who in 1 204 was raised by the Crusaders to the empire
of Constantinople. The emperor Baldwin's elder daughter
Jeanne brought the countship of Hainaut to her husbands
Ferdinand of Portugal (d. 1233) an d Thomas of Savoy (d. 1259).
On her death in 1244, however, it passed to her sister Margaret,
on whose death in 1279 it was inherited by her grandson,
John of Avesnes, count of Holland (d. 1304). The countship of
Hainaut remained united with that of Holland during the 14th
and 15th centuries. It was under the counts William I. " the
Good " (1304-133 7), whose daughter Philippa married Edward
III. of England, and William II. (133 7-1345) that the communes
of Hainaut attained great political importance. Margaret, who
succeeded her brother William II. in 1345, by her marriage
with the emperor Louis IV. brought Hainaut with the rest of
her dominions to the house of Witteisbach. Finally, early in
the 15th century, the countess Jacqueline was dispossessed by
Philip the Good of Burgundy, and Hainaut henceforward shared
the fate of the rest of the Netherlands.
Authorities. — The Chronicon Hanoniense or Chronica Honnoniae
of Giselbert of Mons (d. 1223-1225), chancellor of Count Baldwin V.,
covering the period between 1040 and 1105, is published in Pertz,
Monum. Germ. (Hanover, i8do, &c). The Chronicon Hanoniense,
ascribed to Baldwin, count of Avesnes (d. 1289), and written between
1278 and 1281, was published under the title Hist, genealogica
comitum Hannoniae, &c, at Antwerp (1691 and 1693) and Brussels
(1722). The Annals of Jacques de Guise (b. 1334 ;'d. 1399) were
published by de Fortia d' Urban under the title, Histoire de Hai-
nault par Jacques de Guyse, in 19 vols. (Paris, 1 826-1 838); C.
Delacourt, " Bibliographic de l'hist. du Hainaut," in the Annales
du cercle arcJUologique de Mons, vol. v. (Mons, 1864); T. Bernier,
Diet, gtograph. historique, Ore, de Hainault (Mons, 1891). See also
Ulysse Chevalier, Repertoire des sources s.v.
HAINBURG, or Haimburg, a town of Austria, in Lower
Austria, 38 m. E.S.E of Vienna by rail. Pop. (1000), 5134.
It is situated on the Danube, only 2\ m. from the Hungarian
frontier, and since the fire of 1827 Hainburg has been much
improved, being now a handsomely built town. It has one of
the largest tobacco manufactories in Austria, employing about
2000 hands, and a large needle factory. It occupies part of the
site of the old Celtic town Carnuntum (q.v.) . It is still surrounded
by ancient walls, and has a gate guarded by two old towers.
There are numerous Roman remains, among which may be
mentioned the altar and tower at the town-house, on the latter
of which is a statue, said to be of Attila. A Roman aqueduct
is still used to bring water to the town. On the neighbouring
Hainberg is an old castle, built of Roman remains, which appears
in German tradition under the name of Heimburc; it was wrested
from the Hungarians in 1042 by the emperor Henry III. At the
foot of the same hill is a castle of the 1 2th century, where Ottakar
of Bohemia was married to Margaret of Austria in 1252; earlier
it was the residence of the dukes of Babenberg. Outside the
town, on an island in the Danube, is the ruined castle of R6thel-
stein or Rothenstein, held by the Knights Templars. Hainburg
was besieged by the Hungarians in 1477, was captured by
Matthias Corvinus in 1482, and was sacked and its inhabitants
massacred by the Turks in 1683.
HAINICHEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony,
on the Kleine Striegis, 15 m. N.E. of Chemnitz, on the rail-
way to Rosswein. Pop. (1905), 7752. It has two Evangelical
churches, a park, and commercial and technical schools.
Hainichen is a place of considerable industry. Its chief manu-
facture is that of flannels, baize, and similar fabrics; indeed
it may be called the centre of this industry in Germany. The
special whiteness and excellence of the flannel made in Hainichen
are due to the peculiar nature of the water used in the manu-
facture. There are also large dye-works and bleaching estab-
lishments. Hainichen is the birthplace of Gellert, to whose
memory a bronze statue was erected in the market-place in 1865.
The Gellert institution for the poor was erected in 181 5.
HAI-PHONG— HAIR
823
HAI-PHONG, a seaport of Tongking, French Indo-China, on
the Cua-Cam, a branch of the Song-koi (Red river) delta. The
population numbers between 21,000 and 22,000, of whom 12,500
are Annamese, 7500 Chinese (attracted by the rice trade of the
port) and 1 200 Europeans. It is situated about 20 m. from the
Gulf of Tongking and 58 m. E. by S. of Hanoi, with which it
communicates by river and canal and by railway. It is the
second commercial port of French Indo-China, is a naval station,
and has government and private ship-building yards. The
harbour is accessible at all times to vessels drawing 19 to 20 ft.,
but is obstructed by a bar. Hai-phong is the seat of a resident
who performs the functions of mayor, and the residency is the
chief building of the town. A civil tribunal, a tribunal of com-
merce and a branch of the Bank of Indo-China are also among
its institutions. It is the headquarters of the river steamboat
service (Messageries fiuviales) of Tongking, which plies as far
as Lao-kay on the Song-koi, to the other chief towns of Tongking
and northern Annam, and also to Hong-kong. Cotton-spinning
and the manufacture of cement are carried on.
HAIR (a word common to Teutonic languages), the general
term for the characteristic outgrowth of the epidermis forming
the coat of mammals. The word is also applied by analogy to
the filamentous outgrowths from the body of insects, &c, plants,
and metaphorically to anything of like appearance.
For anatomy, &c. of animal hair see Skin and Exoskeleton;
Fibres and allied articles; Fur, and Leather.
Anthropology. — The human hair has an important place
among the physical criteria of race. While its general structure
and quantity vary comparatively little, its length in individuals
and relatively in the two sexes, its form, its colour, its general
consistency and the appearance under the microscope of its
transverse section show persistent differences in the various races.
It is the persistence of these differences and specially in regard
to its colour and texture, which has given to hair its ethnological
importance. So obvious a racial differentiation had naturally
long ago attracted the attention of anthropologists. But it was
not until the 19th century that microscopic examination showed
the profound difference in structure between the hair character-
istic of the great divisions of mankind. It was in 1863 that Dr
Pruner-Bey read a paper before the Paris Anthropological
Society entitled " On the Human Hair as a Race Character,
examined by aid of the Microscope." This address established
the importance of hair as a racial criterion. He demonstrated
that the structure of the hair is threefold: —
(1) Short and crisp, generally termed " woolly," elliptical or
kidney-shaped in section, with no distinguishable medulla or
pith. Its colour is almost always jet black, and it is character-
istic of all the black races except the Australians and aborigines
of India. This type of hair has two varieties. When the hairs
are relatively long and the spiral of the curls large, the head has
the appearance of being completely covered, as with some of
the Melanesian races and most of the negroes. Haeckel has
called this " eriocomous " or " woolly " proper. In some negroid
peoples, however, such as the Hottentots and Bushmen, the hair
grows in very short curls with narrow spirals and forms little
tufts separated by spaces which appear bare. The head looks as
if it were dotted over with pepper-seed, and thus this hair has
gained the name of " peppercorn-growth." Haeckel has called it
" lophocomous " or " crested." Most negroes have this type of
hair in childhood and, even when fully grown, signs of it around
the temples. The space between each tuft is not bald, as was at
one time generally assumed. The hair grows uniformly over
the head, as in all races.
2. Straight, lank, long and coarse, round or nearly so in section,
with the medulla or pith easily distinguishable, and almost
without exception black. This is the hair of the yellow races,
the Chinese, Mongols and Indians of the Americas.
3. Wavy and curly, or smooth and silky, oval in section, with
medullary tube but no pith. This is the hair of Europeans,
and is mainly fair, though black, brown, red or towy varieties
are found.
There is a fourth type of hair describable as " frizzy." It is
easily distinguishable from the Asiatic and European types, but
not from the negroid wool. It is always thick and black, and
is characteristic of the Australians, Nubians, and certain of the
Mulattos. Generally hair curls in proportion to its flatness.
The rounder it is the stiffer and lanker. These extremes are
respectively represented by the Papuans and the Japanese.
Of all hair the woolly type is found to be the most persistent, as
in the case of the Brazilian Cafusos, negro and native hybrids.
Quatrefages quotes the case of a triple hybrid, " half negro,
quarter Cherokee, quarter English," who had short crisp furry-
looking hair.
Wavy types of hair vary most in colour: almost the deepest
hue of black being found side by side with the most flaxen and
towy. Colour varies less in the lank type, and scarcely at all
in the woolly. The only important exception to the uniform
blackness of the negroid wool is to be found among the Wochuas,
a tribe of African pigmies whose hair is described by Wilhelm
Junker (Travels in Africa, iii. p. 82) as " of a dark, rusty brown
hue." Fair hair in all its shades is frequent among the popula-
tions of northern Europe, but much rarer in the south. According
to Dr John Beddoe there are sixteen blonds out of every hundred
Scotch, thirteen out of every hundred English, and two only out
of a hundred Italians. The percentage of brown hair is 75%
among Spaniards, 39 among French and 16 only in Scandinavia.
Among the straight-haired races fair hair is far rarer; it is,
however, found among the western Finns. Among those races
with frizzy hair, red is almost as common as among those with
wavy hair. Red hair, however, is an individual anomaly associ-
ated ordinarily with freckles. There are no red-haired races.
A certain correlation appears to exist between the nature of
hair and its absolute or relative length in the two sexes. Thus
straight hair is the longest (Chinese, Red Indians), while woolly
is shortest. Wavy hair holds an intermediate position. In the
two extremes the difference of length in man and woman is
scarcely noticeable. In some lank-haired races, men's tresses
are as long as women's, e.g. the Chinese pigtail, and the hair of
Redskins which grows to the length sometimes of upwards of
9 ft. In the frizzy-haired peoples, men and women have equally
short growths. Bushwomen, the female Hottentot and negresses
have hair no longer than men's. It is only in the wavy, and now
and again in the frizzy types, that the difference in the sexes is
marked. Among European men the length rarely exceeds 12 to
16 in., while with women the mean length is between 25 and
30 in. and in some cases has been known to reach 6 ft. or more.
The growth of hair on the body corresponds in general with
that on the head. The hairiest races are the Australians and
Tasmanians, whose heads are veritable mops in the thickness
and unkempt luxuriance of the locks. Next to them are the
Todas, and other hill-tribesmen of India, and the Hairy Ainu
of Japan. Traces, too, of the markedly hairy race, now extinct,
supposed to be the ancestor of Toda and Ainu alike, are to be
found here and there in Europe, especially among the Russian
peasantry. The least hairy peoples are the yellow races, the
men often scarcely having rudimentary beards, e.g. Indians of
America and the Mongols. Negroid peoples may be said to be
intermediate, but usually incline to hairlessness. The wavy-
haired populations hold also an intermediate position, but
somewhat incline to hairiness. Among negroes especially no
rule can be formulated. Bare types such as the Bushmen and
western negroes are found contiguous to hairy types such as the
inhabitants of Ashantee. Neither is there any rule as to baldness.
From statistics taken in America it would seem that it is ten times
less frequent among negroes than among whites between the ages
of thirty-three and forty-five years, and thirty times less between
twenty-one and thirty-two years. Among Mulattos it is more
frequent than among negroes but less than among whites. It
is rarer among Redskins than among negroes. The lanugo or
downy hairs, with which the human foetus is covered for some
time before birth and whicfc is mostly shed in the womb, and the
minute hairs which cover nearly every part of the adult human
body, may be regarded as rudimentary remains of a complete
hairy covering in the ancestors of mankind. The Pliocene, or
824
HAIR-TAIL—HAITI
at all events Miocene precursor of man, was a furred creature.
The discovery of Egyptian mummies six thousand years old or
more has proved that this physical criterion remains unchanged,
and that it is to-day what it was so many scores of centuries
back. Perhaps, then, the primary divisions of mankind were
distinguished by hair the same in texture and colour as that which
characterizes to-day the great ethnical groups. The wavy type
bridges the gulf between the lank and woolly types, all in turn
derived from a common hair-covered being. In this connexion
it is worth mention, as pointed out by P. Topinard, that though
the regions occupied by the negroid races are the habitat of the
anthropoid apes, the hair of the latter is real hair, not wool.
Further in the eastern section of the dark domain, while the
Papuan is still black and dolichocephalic, his presumed pro-
genitor, the orang-utan, is brachycephalic with decidedly red
hair. Thus the white races are seen to come nearest the higher
apes in this respect, yellow next, and black farthest removed.
No test has proved, on repeated examination, to be a safer
one of racial purity than the quality of hair, and Pruner-Bey goes
so far as to suggest that " a single hair presenting the average
form characteristic of the race might serve to define it." At any
rate a hair of an individual bears the stamp of his origin.
See Dr Pruner-Bey in Memoires de la socUU d'antkropologie, ii.
P. A. Brown, Classification of Mankind by the Hair; P. Topinard,
L Homme dans la nature (1891), chap. vi.
Commerce. — Hair enters into a considerable variety of manu-
factures. Bristles are the stout elastic hairs obtained from the backs
of certain breeds of pigs. The finest qualities, and the greatest
quantities as well, are obtained from Russia, where a variety of pig
is reared principally on account of its bristles. The best and most
costly bristles are used by shoemakers, secondary qualities being
employed for toilet and clothes-brushes, while inferior qualities are
worked up into the commoner kinds of brushes used by painters and
for many mechanical purposes. For artists' use and for decorative
painting, brushes or pencils of hair from the sable, camel, badger,
polecat, &c, are prepared. The hair of various animals which is
too short for spinning into yarn is utilized for the manufacture of
felt. For this use the hair of rabbits, hares, beavers and of several
other rodents is largely employed, especially in France, in making
the finer qualities of felt hats. Cow hair, obtained from tanneries,
is used in the preparation of roofing felts, and felt for covering
boilers or steam- pipes, and for other similar purposes. It is also
largely used by plasterers for binding the mortar of the walls and
roots of houses ; and it is to some extent being woven up into coarse
friezes, horse-cloths, railway rugs and inferior blankets. The tail
hair of oxen is also of value for stuffing cushions and other up-
holstery work, for which purpose, as well as for making the official
wijjs of law officers, barristers, &c, the tail and body hair of the yak
or Tibet ox is also sometimes imported into Europe. The tail and
mane hair of horses is in great demand for various purposes. The
long tail hair is especially valuable for weaving into hair-cloth, mane
hair and the short tail hair being, on the other hand, principally
prepared and curled for stuffing the chairs, sofas and couches which
are covered with the cloth manufactured from the lone hair. The
horse hair used in Great Britain is principally obtained from South
America, Germany and Russia, and its sorting, cleaning and work-
ing up into the various manufactures dependent on the material
are industries of. some importance. In addition to the purposes
already alluded to, horse nair is woven into crinoline for ladies'
bonnets, plaited into fishing lines, woven into bags for oil and cider
pressors, and into straining cloths for brewers, &c, and for numerous
other minor uses. The manufactures which arise in connexion with
human hair are more peculiar than important, although occasionally
fashions arise which cause a large demand for human hair. The
fluctuations of such fashions determine the value of hair; but at all
times long tresses are of considerable value. Grey, light, pale and
auburn hair are distinguished as extra colours, ana command much
higher prices than the common shades. The light-coloured hair is
chiefly obtained in Germany and Austria, and the south of France
is the principal source of the darker shades. In the south of France
the cultivation and sale of heads of hair by peasant girls is a common
practice; and hawkers attend fairs for the special purpose of engag-
ing in this traffic. Hair 5 and even 6 ft. long is sometimes obtained.
Scarcely any of the * 4 raw material " is obtained in the United King-
dom except in the form of ladies' " combings." Bleaching of hair
by means of peroxide of hydrogen is extensively practised, with the
view of obtaining a supply of golden locks, or of preparing white
hair for mixing to match grey shades ; but in neither case is the
result very successful. Human hair is worked up into a great
variety of wigs, scalps, artificial fronts, frizzets and curls, all for
supplementing the scanty or failing resources of nature. The plait-
ing of human hair into articles of jewellery, watch-guards, &c, forms
a distinct branch of trade.
HAIR-TAIL (Trichiurus), a marine fish belonging to the
Acanthopterygii scombriformes, with a long band-like body
terminating in a thread-like tail, and with strong prominent
teeth in both jaws. Several species are known, of which one,
common in the tropical Atlantic, not rarely reaches the British
Islands.
HAITI [Haiti, Hayti, San Domingo, or Hispaniola], an
island in the West Indies. It lies almost in the centre of the
chain and, with the exception of Cuba, is the largest of the group.
Its greatest length between Cape Engano on the east and Cape
des Irois on the west is 407 m., and its greatest breadth between.
Cape Beata on the south and Cape Isabella on the north 160 m.
The area is 28,000 sq. m., being rather less than that of Ireland.
From Cuba, 70 m. W.N.W., and from Jamaica, 130 m. W.S.W.,
it is separated by the Windward Passage; and from Porto Rico,
60 m. E., by the Mona Passage. It lies between 17 37' and
20 o' N. and 68° 20' and 74 28' W. From the west coast
project two peninsulas. The south-western, of which Cape
Tiburon forms the extremity, is the larger. It is 150 m. long
and its width varies from 20 to 40 m. Columbus landed at Mole
St Nicholas at the point of the north-western peninsula, which
is 50 m. long, with an average breadth of 40 m. Between these
lies the Gulf of Gonaive, a triangular bay, at the apex of which
stands the city of Port-au-Prince. The island of Gonaive,
opposite the city at a distance of 27 m., divides the entrance to
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Port-au-Prince into two fine channels, and forms an excellent
harbour, 200 sq. m. in extent, the coral reefs along the coast
being its only defect. On the north-east coast is the magnificent
Bay of Samana, formed by the peninsula of that name, a
mountain range projecting into the sea; its mouth is protected
by a coral reef stretching 8Jm. from the south coast. There is
however, a good passage for ships, and within lies a safe and
beautiful expanse of water 300 sq. m. in extent. Beyond Samana,
with the exception of the poor harbour of Santo Domingo, there
are no inlets on the east and south coasts until the Bays of Ocoa
and Neyba are reached. The south coast of the Tiburon peninsula
has good harbours at Jacmel, Bainet, Aquin and Les Cayes or
Aux Cayes. The only inlets of any importance between Aux
Cayes and Port-au-Prince are Jeremie and the Bay of Baraderes.
The coast line is estimated at 1250 m.
Haiti is essentially a mountainous island. Steep escarpments,
leading to the rugged uplands of the interior, reach almost every-
where down to the shores, leaving only here and there a few strips
of beach. There are three fairly distinct mountain ranges, tne
northern, central and southern, with parallel axes from E. to W. ;
while extensive and fertile plains lie between them. The northern
range usually called the Sierra de Monti Cristi, extends from Cape
Samana on the east to Cape Fragata on the west. It has a mean
elevation of 3000 ft., culminating in the Loma Diego Campo (3855
ft.l, near the centre of the range. The central ran^e runs from
Cape Engano to Cape St Nicholas, some 400 m. in an oblique direction
from E. to W. Towards the centre of the island it broadens and
forms two distinct chains; the northern, the Sierra del Cibao, con-
stituting the backbone of Haiti ; the southern curving first S.W.,
then N.W., and reaching the sea near St Marc. In addition to these
there are a number of secondary crests, difficult to trace to the back-
bone of the system, since the loftiest peaks are usually on some
lateral ridge. Such for instance is Loma Tina (10,300 ft.) the highest
HAITI
825
elevation on the island, which rises as a spur N.W. of the city of
Santo Domingo. In the Sierra del Cibao, the highest summit is the
Pico del Yaqui (9700 ft.)* The southern range runs from the Bay of
Neyba due W. to Cape Tiburon. Its highest points are La Selle
{8900 ft.) and La Hotte (7400 ft.). The plain of Seybo or Los Llanos
is the largest of the Haitian plains. It stretches eastwards from
the river Ozama for 95 m. and has an average width of 16 m. It is
perfectly level, abundantly watered, and admirably adapted for the
rearing of cattle. But perhaps the grandest is the Vega Real, or
Royal Plain, as it was called by Columbus, which lies between the
Cibao and Monti Cristi ranges. It stretches from Samana Bay to
Manzanillo Bay, a distance of 140 m., but is interrupted in the centre
by a range of hills in which rise the rivers which drain it. The
northern part of this plain, however, is usually known as the Valley
of Santiago. Most of the large valleys are in a state of nature, in
part savanna, in part wooded, and all very fertile.
There are four large rivers. The Yaqui, rising in the Pico del Yaqui,
falls, after a tortuous north-westerly course through the valley of
Santiago, into Manzanillo Bay; its mouth is obstructed by shallows,
and it is navigable only for canoes. The Neyba, or South Yaaui,
also rises in the Pico del Yaqui and flows S. into the Bay of Neyba.
In the mountains within a few miles from the sources of these rivers,
rise the Yuna and the Artibonite. The Yuna drains the Vega Real,
-flows into Samana Bay, and is navigable by light-draught vessels
for some distance from its mouth. The Artibonite flows through
the valley of its name into the Gulf of Gonaive. Of the smaller
rivers the Ozama, on which the city of Santo Domingo stands, is the
most important. The greatest lake is that of Enriqiullo or Xaragua,
at a height of 300 ft. above sea-level. It is 27 m. long by 8 m.
broad and very deep. Though 25m. from the sea its waters are salt,
and the Haitian negroes call it Etang Sale". After heavy rains it
occasionally forms a continuous sheet of water with another lake
called Azuey, or Etang Saumatre, which is 16 m. long by 4 m.
broad ; on these occasions the united lake has a total length of 60 m.
and is larger than the Lake of Geneva. Farther S. is the Icoten
de Limon, 5 m. long by 2 m. broad, a fresh-water lake with no visible
outlet. Smaller lakes are Rincon and Miragoane. There are no
active volcanoes, but earthquakes are not infrequent.
Geology. — The geology of Haiti is still very imperfectly known,
and large tracts of the island have never been examined by a geolo-
gist. It is possible that the schists that have been observed in some
parts of the island may be of Pre-cretaceous age, but the oldest
rocks in which fossils have yet been found belong to the Cretaceous
System, and the geological sequence is very similar to that of
Jamaica. Excluding the schists of doubtful age, the series begins
with sandstones and conglomerates, containing pebbles of syenite,
granite, diorite, &c; and these are overlaid By marls, clays and
limestones containing Hippurites. Then follows a series 01 sand-
stones, clays and limestones with occasional seams of lignite,
evidently of shallow-water origin. These are referred by R. T. Hill to
the Eocene, and they are succeeded by chalky beds which were laid
down in a deeper sea and which probably correspond with the Mont-
pelier beds of Jamaica (Oligocene) . Finally, there are limestones and
marls composed largely of corals and molluscs, which are probably
of very late Tertiary or Post-tertiary age. Until, however, the
island has been more thoroughly examined, the correlation of the
various Tertiary and Post-tertiary deposits must remain doubtful.
Some of the beds which Hill has placed in the Eocene have been
referred by earlier writers to the Miocene, Tippenhauer describes
extensive eruptions of basalt of Post-pliocene age.
Fauna and Flora. — The fauna is not extensive. The agouti is the
largest wild mammal. Birds are few, excepting water-fowl and
pigeons. Snakes abound, though few are venomous. Lizards are
numerous, and insects swarm in the low parts, with tarantulas,
scorpions and centipedes. Caymans are found in the lakes and
rivers, and the waters teem with fish and other sea food. Wild cattle,
hogs and dogs, descendants of those brought from Europe, roam at
large on the plains and in the forests. The wild hogs furnish much
sport to the natives, who hunt them with dogs trained for the
purpose.
In richness and variety of vegetable products Haiti is not excelled
by any other country in the world. All tropical plants and trees
grow in perfection, and nearly all the vegetables and fruits of tem-
perate climates may be successfully cultivated in the highlands.
Among indigenous products are cotton, rice, maize, tobacco, cocoa,
ginger, native indigo (indigo marron or sauyage), arrowroot, manioc
or cassava, pimento, banana, plantain, pine-apple, artichoke, yam
and sweet potato. Among the important plants and fruits are sugar-
cane, coffee, indigo (called indigo franc, to distinguish it from the
native), melons, cabbage, lucerne, guinea grass and the breadfruit,
mango, caimite, orange, almond, apple, grape, mulberry and fig.
Most of the imported fruits have degenerated from want of care,
but the mango, now spread over nearly the whole island, has become
almost a necessary article of food; the bread-fruit has likewise
become common, but is not so much esteemed. Haiti is also rich
in woods, especially in cabinet and dye woods ; among the former are
mahogany, manchineel, satinwood, rosewood, cinnamon wood
(Canella alba), yellow acoma (Sideroxylon mastichodendron) and
gri-gri; and among the latter are Brazil wood, logwood, fustic and
sassafras. On the mountains are extensive forests of pine and a
species of oak; and in various parts occur the locust, iron wood,
cypress or Bermuda cedar, palmetto and many kinds of palms.
Climate. — Owing to the great diversity of its relief Haiti presents
a wider range of climate than any other part of the Antilles. The
yearly rainfall is abundant, averaging about 120 in., but the wet
and dry seasons are clearly divided. At Port-au-Prince the rainy
season lasts from April to October, but varies in other parts of the
island, so that there is never a season when rain is general. The
mountain districts are constantly bathed in dense mists and heavy
dews, while other districts are almost rainless. Owing to its sheltered
position the heat at Port-au-Prince is greater than elsewhere. In
summer the temperature there ranges between 8o° and 05 ° F. and
in winter between 70 and 8o° F. Even in the highlands the mercury
never falls below 45 ° F. Hurricanes are not so frequent as in the
Windward Isles, but violent gales often occur. The prevailing winds
are from the east.
The Republic of Haili. — Haiti is divided into two parts, the
negro republic of Haiti owning the western third of the island,
while the remainder belongs to Santo Domingo (q.v.) or the
Dominican Republic. Between these two governments there
exists the strongest political antipathy.
Although but a small state, with an area of only 10,204 sq. m.,
the republic of Haiti is, in many respects, one of the most
interesting communities in the world, as it is the earliest and
most successful example of a state peopled, and governed on a
constitutional model, by negroes. At its head is a president
assisted by two chambers, the members of which are elected
and hold office under a constitution of 1889. This constitution,
thoroughly republican in form, is French in origin, as are also
the laws, language, traditions and customs of Haiti. In practice,
however, the government resolves itself into a military despotism,
the power being concentrated in the hands of the president.
The Haitians seem to possess everything that a progressive
and civilized nation can desire, but corruption is spread through
every portion and branch of the government. Justice is venal,
and the police are brutal and inefficient. Since 1869 the Roman
Catholic has been the state religion, but all classes of society
seem to be permeated with a thinly disguised adherence to the
horrid rites of Voodoo (g.z>.)> although this has been strenuously
denied. The country is divided into 5 dtparletnettis, 23 arron-
dissemenls and 67 communes. Each diparlement and arrondisse-
menl is governed by a general in the army. The army numbers
about 7000 men, and the navy consists of a few small vesseb.
Elementary education is free, and there are some 400 primary
schools; secondary education is .mainly in the hands of the
church. The Sisters of Charity and the Christian Brothers have
schools at Port-au-Prince, where there is also a lyceum, a medical
and a law school. The children of the wealthier classes are
usually sent to France for their education. The unit of money
is the gourde, the nominal value of which is the same as the
American dollar, but it is subject to great fluctuations. The
revenue is almost entirely derived from customs, paid both on
imports and exports. There being a lack of capital and enter-
prise, the excessive customs dues produce a very depressed con-
dition of trade. Imports are consequently confined to bare
necessaries, the cheapest sorts of dry and fancy goods, matches,
flour, salt beef and pork, codfish, lard, butter and similar pro-
visions. The exports are coffee, cocoa, logwood, cotton, gum,
honey, tobacco and sugar. The island is one of the most fertile
in the world, and if it had an enlightened and stable government,
an energetic people, and a little capital, its agricultural possi-
bilities would seem to be endless. Communications are bad;
the roads constructed during the French occupation have
degenerated into mere bridle tracks. There is a coast service
of steamers, maintained since 1863, and 26 ports are regularly
visited every ten days. Foreign communication is excellent,
more foreign steamships visiting this island than any other in
the West Indies. A railway from Port-au-Prince runs through
the Plain of Cul de Sac for 28 m. to Manneville on the Etang
Saumatre, another runs from Cap Haitien to La Grande Riviere,
15 m. distant.
The people are almost entirely pure-blooded negroes, the
mulattoes, who form about 10% of the population, being a
rapidly diminishing and much-hated class. The negroes are a
kindly, hospitable people, but ignorant and lazy. They have
826
HAITI
a passion for dancing weird African dances to the accompaniment
of the tom-tom. Marriage is neither frequent nor legally
prescribed, since children of looser unions are regarded by the
state as legitimate. In the interior polygamy is frequent. The
people generally speak a curious but not unattractive patois
of French origin, known as Creole. French is the official
language, and by a few of the educated natives it is written and
spoken in its purity. On the whole it must be owned that, after
a century of independence and self-government, the Haitian
people have made no progress, if they have not actually shown
signs of retrogression. The chief towns are Port-au-Prince
(pop. 75,000), Cap Haitien (29,000), Les Cayes (25,000), Gonalve
(18,000), and Port de Paix (10,000). Jeremie was the birthplace
of the elder Dumas. The ruins of the wonderful palace of Sans-
Souci and of the fortress of La Ferrtere, built by King Henri
Christophe (1807-1825), can be seen near Millot, a town 9 m.
inland from Cap Haitien. Plaisance (25,000), Gros Morne
(22,000) and La Croix des Bouquets (20,000) are the largest
towns in the interior. The entire population of the republic
is about 1,500,000.
History. — The history of Haiti begins with its discovery by
Columbus, who landed from Cuba at Mole St Nicholas on the
6th of December 1492. The natives called the country Haiti
(mountainous country) , and Quisquica (vast country) . Columbus
named it Espagnola (Little Spain), which was latinized into
Hispaniola. At the time of its discovery, the island was inhabited
by about 2,000,000 Indians, who are described by the Spaniards
as feeble in intellect and physically defective. They were,
however, soon exterminated, and their place was supplied (as
early as 151 2) by slaves imported from Africa, the descendants
of whom now possess the land. Six years after its discovery
Columbus had explored the interior of the island, founded the
present capital, and had established flourishing settlements
at Isabella, Santiago, La Vega, Porto Plata and Bonao. Mines
had been opened up, and advances made in agriculture. Sugar
was introduced in 1506, and in a few years became the staple
product. About 1630, a mixed company of French and English,
driven by the Spaniards from St Kitts, settled on the island of
Tortuga, where they became formidable under the name of
Buccaneers. They soon obtained a footing on the mainland of
Haiti, and by the treaty of Ryswick, 1697, the part they occupied
was ceded to France. This new colony, named Saint Dominique,
subsequently attained a high»degree of prosperity, and was in a
flourishing state when the French Revolution broke out in 1789.
The population was then composed of whites, free coloured
people (mostly mulattoes) and negro slaves. The mulattoes
demanded civil rights, up to that time enjoyed only by the
whites; and in 1791 the National Convention conferred on them
all the privileges of French citizens. The whites at once adopted
the most violent measures, and petitioned the home government
to reverse the decree, which was accordingly revoked. In
August 1791, the plantation slaves broke out into insurrection,
and the mulattoes threw in their lot with them. A period of
turmoil followed, lasting for several years, during which both
parties were responsible for acts of the most revolting cruelty.
Commissioners were sent out from France with full powers to
settle the dispute, but although in 1793 they proclaimed the
abolition of slavery, they could effect nothing. To add further
to the troubles of the colony, it was invaded by a British force,
which, in spite of the climate and the opposition of the colonists,
succeeded in maintaining itself until driven out in 1798 by
Toussaint l'Ouverture. By treaty with Spain, in 1795, France
had acquired the title to the entire island.
By 1 801, Toussaint l'Ouverture, an accomplished negro of
remarkable military genius, had succeeded in restoring order.
He then published, subject to the approval of France, a form of
constitutional government, under which he was to be governor
for life. This step, however, roused the suspicions of Bonaparte,
then first consul, who determined to reduce the colony and restore
slavery. He sent out his brother-in-law, General Leclerc, with
25,000 troops; but the colonists offered a determined, and often
ferocious, resistance. At length, wearied of the struggle, Leclerc
proposed terms, and Toussaint, induced by the most solemn
guarantees on the part of the French, laid down his arms. He
was seized and sent to France, where he died in prison in 1803.
The blacks, infuriated by this act of treachery, renewed the
struggle, under Jean Jacques Dessalines (1 758-1806), with a
barbarity unequalled in previous contests. The French, further
embarrassed by the appearance of a British fleet, were only too
glad to evacuate the island in November 1803.
The opening of the following year saw the declaration of
independence, and the restoration of the aboriginal name of
Haiti. Dessalines, made governor for life, inaugurated his rule
with a bloodthirsty massacre of all the whites. In October
1804, he proclaimed himself emperor and was crowned with
great pomp; but in 1806 his subjects, growing tired of his
tyranny, assassinated him. His position was now contended for
by several chiefs, one of whom, Henri Christophe (1 767-1820),
established himself in the north, while Alexandre Sabes Petion
(1 770-1818) took possession of the southern part. The Spaniards
re-established themselves in the eastern part of the island,
retaining the French name, modified to Santo Domingo. Civil
war now raged between the adherents of Christophe and Petion,
but in 1 8 10 hostilities were suspended. Christophe declared
himself king of Haiti under the title of Henry I. ; but his cruelty
caused an insurrection, and in 1820 he committed suicide. P6tion
was succeeded in 181 8 by General Jean Pierre Boyer (1 776-1850),
who, after Christophers death, made himself master of all the
French part of the island. In 182 1 the eastern end of the island
proclaimed its independence of Spain, and Boyer, taking ad-
vantage of dissensions there, invaded it, and in 1822 the dominion
of the whole island fell into his hands. Boyer held the presidency
of the new government, which was called the republic of Haiti,
until 1843, when he was driven from the island by a revolution.
In 1844 the people at the eastern end of the island again asserted
their independence. The republic of Santo Domingo was
established, and from that time the two political divisions have
been maintained. Meanwhile in Haiti revolution followed re-
volution, and president succeeded president, in rapid succession.
Order, however, was established in 1849, when Soulouque, who
had previously obtained the presidency, proclaimed himself
emperor, under the title of Faustin I. After a reign of nine
years he was deposed and exiled, the republic being restored
under the mulatto president Fabre Geffrard. His firm and
enlightened rule rendered him so unpopular that in 1867 he was
forced to flee to Jamaica. He was succeeded by Sylvestre
Salnave, who, after a presidency of two years, was shot. Nissage-
Saget (1870), Dominique (1874), and Boisrond-Canal (1876)
followed, each to be driven into exile by revolution. The next
president, Salomon, maintained himself in office for ten years,
but he too was driven from the country and died in exile. Civil
war raged in 1888- 1889 between Generals Legitime and Hip-
polyte, and the latter succeeded in obtaining the vacant pre-
sidency. He ruled with the most absolute authority till his
death in 1896. General Tiresias Simon Sam followed and ruled
till his flight to Paris in 1902. The usual civil war ensued, and
after nine months of turmoil, order was restored by the election
of Nord Alexis in December 1902.
Alexis' administration was unsuccessful, and was marked by
many disturbances, culminating in his expulsion. In 1904 there
was an attack by native soldiery on the French and German
representatives, and punishment was exacted by these powers.
In December 1904 ex-president Sam, his wife and members of
his ministry were sentenced to long terms of imprisonment for
fraudulently issuing bonds. In December 1907 a conspiracy
against the government was reported and the ringleaders were
sentenced to death. But in January 1908 the revolution spread,
and Gonalve and St Marc and other places were reported to be
in the hands of the insurgents. Prompt measures were taken,
the rising was checked, and Alexis announced the pardon of
the revolutionaries. In March, however, this pacific policy was
reversed by a new ministry; some suspects were summarily
executed, and the attitude of the government was only modified
when the powers sent war-ships to Port-au-Prince. In September
HAJIPUR— HAKE, T. G.
the criminal court at the capital sentenced to death, by default,
a large number of persons implicated in the risings earlier in the
year, and in November revolution broke out again. General
Antoine Simon raised his standard at Aux Cayes. Disaffection
was rife among the government troops, who deserted to him in
great numbers. On the 2nd of December Port-au-Prince was
occupied without bloodshed by the revolutionaries, and Alexis
took to flight, escaping violence with some difficulty, and finding
refuge on a French ship. General Simon then assumed the
presidency. At the end of April 1010 Alexis died in Jamaica,
in circumstances of some obscurity; it had just been discovered
that a plot was on foot to depose Simon, and further trouble was
threatened.
Authorities. — B. Edwards, Hist. Survey of the Island of S.
Domingo (London, 1 801); Jordan, Geschichte der Inset Haiti (Leipzig,
1846) ; Linstant Pradin, Recueil etntral des lois et actes du gouverne-
tnent d'Haiti (Paris, 1851-1865); Monte y Tejada, Historia de
Santo Domingo (Havana, 1853); Saint Amand, Hist, des revolutions
d'Haiti (Paris, 1859); Sam. Hazard, Santo Domingo, Past and
Present (London, 1873), with bibliography; Sir Spencer St John,
Haiti, or the Black Republic (London, 1889); L. Gentil Tippenhauer,
Die Insel Haiti (Leipzig, 1893) ; Marcelin, Haiti, Hudes economiques,
sociales, et politiques; and Haiti, ses guerres civiles, leurs causes
(Paris, 1893); Hesketh Pritchard, Where Black Rules White
(London, 1900). For geology, see W. M. Gabb, " On the Topo-
graph y and Geology of Santo Domingo," Trans. Amer, Phil, Soc 9
Philadelphia, new series, vol. xv. (1881), pp. 49-259, with map;
L. G. Tippenhauer, Die Insel Haiti (Leipzig, 1893) ; see also several
articles by L. G. Tippenhauer in Peterm. Mitt. 1899 and 1901. A
comparison with the Jamaican succession will be found in R. T.
Hill, " The Geology and Physical Geography of Jamaica," Bull.
Mus. Comp. Zoc4. f Harvard, vol. xxxiv. (1899).
HAJIPUR, a town of British India, in the MuzafTarpur district
of Bengal, on the Gandak, just above its confluence with the
Ganges opposite Patna. Pop. (1001), 21,398. Hajipur figures
conspicuously in the history of the struggles between Akbar
and his rebellious Afghan governors of Bengal, being twice
besieged and captured by the imperial troops, in 1572 and 1574.
Within the limits of the old fort is a small stone mosque, very
plain, but of peculiar architecture, and attributed to Haji Ilyas,
its traditional founder (c. 1350). Its command of water traffic
in three directions makes the town a place of considerable
commercial importance. Hajipur has a station on the main
line of the Bengal and North-western railway.
HAJJ or Hadj, the Arabic word, meaning literally a " setting
out," for the greater pilgrimage of Mahommedans to Mecca,
which takes place from the 8th to the 10th of the twelfth month
of the Mahommedan year; the lesser pilgrimage, called umrah
or omra, may be made to the mosque at Mecca at any time other
than that of the hajj proper, and is also a meritorious act. The
term hajji or hadji is given to those who have performed the
greater pilgrimage. The word hajj is sometimes loosely used of any
Mahommedan pilgrimage to a sacred place or shrine, and is also
applied to the pilgrimages of Christians of the East to the Holy
Sepulchre at Jerusalem (see Mecca; Mahommedan Religion).
HAJJI KHALIFA [in full Mustafa ibn 'Abdallah Katib
Chelebl H&jjl Khalifa] (ca. 1 599-1658), Arabic and Turkish
author, was born at Constantinople. He became secretary to
the commissariat department of the Turkish army in Anatolia,
was with the army in Bagdad in 1625, was present at the siege
of Erzerum, and returned to Constantinople in 1628. In the
following year he was again in Bagdad and Hamad an, and in
1633 at Aleppo, whence he made the pilgrimage to Mecca (hence
his title Hajji). The following year he was in Erivan and then
returned to Constantinople. Here he obtained a post in the
head office of the commissariat department, which afforded
him time for study. He seems to have attended the lectures of
great teachers up to the time of his death, and made a practice
of visiting bookshops and noting the titles and contents of all
books he found there. His largest work is the Bibliographical
Encyclopaedia written in Arabic. In this work, after five chapters
dealing with the sciences generally, the titles of Arabian, Persian
and Turkish books written up to his own time are arranged in
alphabetical order. With the titles are given, where possible,
short notes on the author, his date, and sometimes the intro-
827
ductory words of his work. It was edited by G. Flugel with
Latin translation and a useful appendix (7 vols. Leipzig, 1835-
1858). The text alone of this edition has been reproduced at
Constantinople (1893).
Hajj! Khalifa also wrote in Turkish: a chronological conspectus
of general history (translated into Italian by G. R. Carli, Venice,
1697); a history of the Turkish empire from 1594 to 1655 (Con-
stantinople, 1870); a history of the naval wars of the Turks
(Constantinople, 1729; chapters 1-4 translated by J. Mitchell,
London, 1831); a general geography published at Constantinople,
1732 (Latin trans, by M. Norberg, London and Gotha, 1818 ; German
trans, of part by J. von Hammer, Vienna, 181 2; French trans, of
part by V. de St Martin in his Geography of Asia Minor \ vol. 1).
For his life see the preface to Fltigel s edition; list of his works
in C. Brockelmann's Gesch. d. arabischen Literatur (Berlin, 1002),
vol. iL, pp. 428-429. (G. W. T.)
HAKE, EDWARD (fl. 1579), English satirist, was educated
under John Hopkins, the part-author of the metrical version of
the Psalms. He resided in Gray's Inn and Barnard's Inn,
London. In the address " To the Gentle Reader " prefixed to
his Newes out of Powles Churchyard . . . Otherwise entitled
Syr Numtnus (2nd ed., 1579) he mentions the " first three yeeres
which I spent in the Innes of Channcery, being now about a
dosen of yeeres passed." In 1585 and 1586 he was mayor of
New Windsor, and in 1588 he represented the borough in parlia-
ment. His last work was published in 1604. He was protected
by the earl of Leicester, whose policy it was to support the Puritan
party, and who no doubt found a valuable ally in so vigorous
a satirist of error in clerical places as was Hake. Newes out of
P aules Churchyard*, A Trappe for Syr Monye, first appeared
in 1567, but no copy of this impression is known, and it was
re-issued in 1579 with the title quoted above. The book takes
the form of a dialogue between Bertulph and Paul, who meet in
the aisles of the cathedral, and is divided into eight " satyrs,"
dealing with the corruption of the higher clergy and of judges,
the greed of attorneys, the tricks of physicians and apothecaries,
the sumptuary laws, extravagant living, Sunday sports, the
abuse of St Paul's cathedral as a meeting-place for business and
conversation, usury, &c. It is written in rhymed fourteen-sy liable
metre, which is often more comic than the author intended. It
contains, amid much prefatory matter, a note to the " carping
and scornefull Sicophant," in which he attacks his enemies with
small courtesy and much alliteration. One is described as a
" carping careless cankerd churle."
He also wrote a translation from Thomas a Kempts, The Imitation,
or Following of Christ (1567, 1568); A Touchstone for this Time
Present (1574), a scurrilous attack on the Roman Catholic Church,
followed by a treatise on education ; A Commemoration of the . .
Raigne of . . . Elizabeth (1575), enlarged in 1578 to A Joyfull Con-
tinuance of ike Commemoration, &c. ; and of Gala's Kingdom, and this
Unhelping Age (1604), a collection of pieces in prose and verse, in
which the author inveighs against the power of gold. A bibliography
of these and of Hake s other works was compiled by Mr Charles
Edmonds for his edition in 1872 of the Newes (Isham Reprints,
No. 2, 1872).
HAKE, THOMAS GORDON (1800-1895), English poet, was
born at Leeds, of an old Devonshire family, on the 10th of March
1809. His mother was a Gordon of the Huntly branch. He
studied medicine at St George's hospital and at Edinburgh and
Glasgow, but had given up practice for many years before his
death, and had devoted himself to a literary life. In 1839 he
published a prose epic Votes, republished in Ainsworth's magazine
as ValdarnOj which attracted the attention of D. G. Rossetti.
In after years he became an intimate member of the circle of
friends and followers gathered round Rossetti, who so far
departed from his usual custom as to review Hake's poems in
the Academy and in the Fortnightly Review. In 187 1 he published
Madeline; 1872, Parables and Tales; 1883, The Serpent Play;
1890, New Day Sonnets; and in 1892 his Memoirs of Eighty
Years. Dr Hake's works had much subtlety and felicity of
expression, and were warmly appreciated in a somewhat restricted
literary circle. In his last published verse, the sonnets, he shows
an advance in facility on the occasional harshness of his earlier
work. He was given a Civil List literary pension in 1893, and
died on the nth of January 1895.
828
HAKE— HAKLUYT
HAKB (Mer luteins vulgaris), a fish which differs from the cod
in having only two dorsal fins and one anal. It is very common
on the coasts of Europe and eastern North America, but its flesh
is much less esteemed than that of the true Gadi. Specimens
4 ft. in length are not scarce. There are local variations in the
use of " hake " as a name; in America the " silver hake "
{Merluccius btiinearis), sometimes called "whiting," and
" Pacific hake " (Merluccius productus) are also food -fishes of
inferior quality.
HAKKA5 (" Guests/' or " Strangers "), a people of S.W.
China, chiefly found in Kwang-Tung, Fu-Kien and Formosa.
Their origin is doubtful, but there is some ground for believing
that they may be a cross between the aboriginal Mongolic
element of northern China and the Chinese proper. According
to their tradition, they were in Shantung and northern China
as early as the 3rd century B.C. In disposition, appearance
and customs they differ from the true Chinese. They speak
a distinct dialect. Their women, who are prettier than the pure
Chinese, do not compress their feet, and move freely about in
public. The Hakkas are a most industrious people and furnish
at Canton nearly all the coolie labour employed by Europeans.
Their intelligence is great, and many noted scholars have been
of Hakka birth. Hung Sin-tsuan, the leader in the Taiping
rebellion, was a Hakka. In Formosa they serve as intermediaries
between the Chinese and European traders and the natives.
From time immemorial they seem to have been persecuted by
the Chinese, whom they regard as " foreigners," and with whom
their means of communication is usually " pidgin English."
The earliest persecution occurred under the " first universal
emperor " of China, Shi-Hwang-ti (246-210 B.C.). From this
time the Hakkas appear to have become wanderers. Sometimes
for generations they were permitted to live unmolested, as under
the Han dynasty, when some of them held high official posts.
During the Tang dynasty (7th, 8th, and 9th centuries) they
settled in the mountains of Fu-kien and on the frontiers of
Kwang-Tung. On the invasion of Kublai Khan, the Hakkas
distinguished themselves by their bravery on the Chinese side.
In the 14th century further persecutions drove them into
Kwang-Tung.
See " An Outline History of the Hakkas," China Review (London,
1873-1874), vol. ii.; Pitou, "On the Origin and History of the
Hakkas, 16.; Dyer Ball, Easy Lessons in the Hakka Dialect (1884),
Things Chinese (London, 1893); Schaub, " Proverbs in Daily Use
among the Hakkas," in China Review (London, 1894-1895), vol. xxi.;
Rov. J. Ed kins, China's Place in Philology; Girard de Kialle, Rev.
rf. anthrop. (Tan. and April, 1885); G. Taylor, " The Aborigines of
Formosa, China Review, xiv. p. 198 seq., also xvi. No. 3, " A Ramble
through Southern Formosa."
HAKLUYT, RICHARD (c. 1553-1616), British geographer,
was born of good family in or near London about 1553. The
Hakluyts were of Welsh extraction, not Dutch as has been
supposed. They appear to have settled in Herefordshire as
early as the 13th century. The family seat was Eaton, 2 m.
S.R. of Leominster. Hugo Hakelute was returned M.P. for
that borough in 1304/5. Richard went to school at West-
minster, where he was a queen's scholar; while there his future
bent was determined by a visit to his cousin and namesake,
Richard Hakluyt of the Middle Temple. His cousin's discourse,
illustrated by " certain bookes of cosmographie, an universall
mappc, and the Bible," made young Hakluyt resolve to "pro-
secute that knowledge and kind of literature." Entering Christ
Church, Oxford, in 1570, " his exercises of duty first performed,"
he fell to his intended course of reading, and by degrees perused
all the printed or written voyages and discoveries that he could
find. He took his B.A. in 15734- It is probable that,
shortly after taking his M.A. (1577), he began at Oxford the first
public lectures in geography that " shewed both the old im-
perfectly composed and the new lately reformed mappes, globes,
sphcares, and other instruments of this art." That this was not
in London is certain, as we know that the first lecture of the
kind was delivered in the metropolis on the 4th of November
1588 by Thomas Hood.
Hakluyt s first published work was his Divers Voyages touching
the Discoveric of America (London, 1582, 4to.). This brought
him to the notice of Lord Howard of Effingham, and so to that
of Sir Edward Stafford, Lord Howard's brother-in-law; accord-
ingly at the age of thirty, being acquainted with " the chiefest
captaines at sea, the greatest merchants, and the best mariners
of our nation," he was selected as chaplain to accompany
Stafford, now English ambassador at the French court, to
Paris (1583). In accordance with the instructions of Secretary
Walsingham, he occupied himself chiefly in collecting information
of the Spanish and French movements, and " making diligent
inquirie of such things as might yield any light unto our westerne
discoverie in America." The first-fruits of Hakluyt's labours
in Paris are embodied in his important work entitled A particular
discourse concerning Westerne discoveries written in the yere 1584,
by Richarde Hackluyt of Oxforde, at the requeste and direction of
the righte worshipfull Mr Walter Raghly before the comynge home
of his twoo barkes. This long-lost MS. was at last printed in 1877.
Its object was to recommend the enterprise of planting the
English race in the unsettled parts of North America. Hakluyt 's
other works consist mainly of translations and compilations,
relieved by his dedications and prefaces, which last, with a few
letters, are the only material we possess out of which a biography
of him can be framed. Hakluyt revisited England in 1584,
laid before Queen Elizabeth a copy of the Discourse " along with
one in Latin upon Aristotle's Politicks" and obtained, two days
before his return to Paris, the grant of the next vacant prebend
at Bristol, to which he was admitted in 1586 and held with his
other preferments till his death.
While in Paris Hakluyt interested himself in the publication
of the MS. journal of Laudonnidre, the Histoire notable de la
Florida, edited by Bassanier (Paris, 1586, 8vo.). This was
translated by Hakluyt and published in London under the title
of A notable historic containing foure voyages made by certayne
French captaynes into Florida (London, 1587, 4*0.). The same
year De orbe novo Petri Martyr is Anglerii decades octo illustratae
labore ei industria Richardi Hackluyti saw the light at Paris.
This work contains the exceedingly rare copperplate map dedi-
cated to Hakluyt and signed F. G. (supposed to be Francis
Gualle) ; it is the first on which the name of " Virginia " appears.
In 1588 Hakluyt finally returned to England with Lady
Stafford, after a residence in France of nearly five years. In 1 589
he published the first edition of his chief work, The PrincipaU
Navigations, Voiages and Discoveries of the English Nation
(foL, London, 1 vol.). In the preface to this we have the
announcement of the intended publication of the first terrestrial
globe made in England by Molyneux. In 1 598-1600 appeared
the final, reconstructed and greatly enlarged edition of The
Principal Navigations, Voyages, Traffiques and Discoveries of
the English Nation (fol., 3 vols.). Some few copies contain an
exceedingly rare map, the first on the Mercator projection made
in England according to the true principles laid down by Edward
Wright. Hakluyt's great collection, though but little read, has
been truly called the " prose epic of the modern English nation."
It is an invaluable treasure of material for the history of
geographical discovery and colonization, which has secured for its
editor a lasting reputation. In 1601 Hakluyt edited a translation
from the Portuguese of Antonio Galvano, The Discoveries of
the World (4 to., London). In the same year his name occurs as
an adviser to the East India Company, supplying them with
maps, and informing them as to markets. Meantime in 1590
(April 20th) he had been instituted to the rectory of Withering-
sett-cum-Brockford, Suffolk. In 1602, on the 4th of May, he
was installed prebendary of Westminster, and in the following
year he was elected archdeacon of Westminster. In the licence
of his second marriage (30th of March 1604) he is also described
as one of the chaplains of the Savoy, and his will contains a
reference to chambers occupied by him there up to the time of
his death; in another official document he is styled D.D. In
1605 he secured the prospective living of James Town, the
intended capital of the intended colony of Virginia. This
benefice he supplied, when the colony was at last established in
1607, by a curate, one Robert Hunt. In 1606 he appears as one
HAKODATJ&— HALBERSTADT
829
of the chief promoters of the petition to the king for patents
to colonize Virginia. He was also a leading adventurer in the
London or South Virginia Company. His last publication was
a translation of Fernando de Soto's discoveries in Florida,
entitled Virginia richly valued by the description of Florida her
next neighbour (London, 1609, 4to). This work was intended
to encourage the young colony of Virginia; to Hakluyt, it has
been said, " England is more indebted for its American possession
than to any man of that age." We may notice that it was at
Hakluyt's suggestion that Robert Parke translated Mendoza's
History of China (London, 1 588-1 589) and John Pory made his
version of Leo Africanus (A Geographical History of Africa,
London, 1600). Hakluyt died in 161 6 (November 23rd) and
was buried in Westminster Abbey (November 26th) ; by an error
in the abbey register his burial is recorded under the year 1626.
Out of his various emoluments and preferments (of which the
last was Gedney rectory, Lincolnshire, in 161 2) he amassed a
small fortune, which was squandered by a son. A number of
his MSS., sufficient to form a fourth volume of his collections
of 1 598-1600, fell into the hands of Samuel Purchas, who inserted
them in an abridged form in his Pilgritnes (1625-1626, fol.).
Others are preserved at Oxford (Bib. Bod. MS. Seld. B. 8). which
consist chiefly of notes gathered from contemporary authors.
Besides the MSS. or editions noticed in the text (Divers Voyages
(1582); Particuler Discourse (1584); Laudonniere's Florida (1587);
Peter Martyr, Decades (1587) ; Principal Navigations (1589 and 1598-
1600); Galvano's Discoveries (1601); De Soto's Florida record, the
Virginia richly valued (1609* &c), we may notice the Hakluyt
Society's London edition of the Divers Voyages in 1850, the edition
of the Particuler Discourse, by Charles Deane in the Collections of
the Maine Historical Society (Cambridge, Mass., 1870, with an intro-
duction by Leonard Woods); also, among modern issues of the
Principal Navigations, those of 1809 (5 vols., with much additional
matter), and of 1 903-1905 (Glasgow, 12 vols.). # The new title-page
issued for the first volume of the final edition of the Principal
Navigations, in 1599, merely cancelled the former 1598 title with its
reference to the Cadiz expedition of 1596; but from this has arisen
the mistaken supposition that a new edition was then (1599) published.
Hakluyt's Galvano was edited for the Hakluyt Society by Admiral
C. R. D. Bethune in 1862. This Society, which was founded
in 1846 for printing rare and unpublished voyages and travels,
includes the Glasgow edition of the Principal Navigations in its
extra series, as wellas C. R. Beazley's edition of Carpini, Rubruquis,
and other medieval texts from Hakluvt (Cambridge, 1903, I vol.).
Reckoning in these and an issue of Purchas'sPt/grtm^by the Glasgow
publisher of the Hakluvt of 1 903-1 905, the society has now published
or " fathered "150 vols. See also Voyages of the Elizabethan Seamen
to America, being Select Narratives from the Principal Navigations, by
E. J. Payne (Oxford, 1880; 1893; new edition by [C.R. Beazley, 1907).
For Hakluyt's life the dedications of the 1589 and 1598 editions
of the Principal Navigations should be especially consulted; also
Winter Jones s introduction to the Kakluyt Society edition of the
Divers Voyages; Fuller's Worthies of England, "Herefordshire";
Oxford Univ. Reg. (Oxford Hist. Soc), ii„ iii. 39; Historical MSS.
Commission, 4th report, appendix, p. 614, the last giving us the
Towneley MSS. referring to payments (prizes?) awarded to Hakluyt
when at Oxford, May 12th and June 4th, 1575. (C. H. C. ; C. R. B.)
HAKODATE, a town on the south of the island of Yezo,
Japan, for many years regarded as the capital of the island
until Sapporo was officially raised to that rank. Pop. (1903)
84,746. Its position, as has been frequently remarked, is not
unlike that of Gibraltar, as the town is built along the north-
western base of a rocky promontory (1157 ft. in height) which
forms the eastern boundary of a spacious bay, and is united to
the mainland by a narrow sandy isthmus. The summit of the
rock, called the Peak, is crowned by a fort. Hakodate is one of
the ports originally opened to foreign trade. The Bay of Hako-
date, an inlet of Tsugaru Strait, is completely land-locked, easy
of access and spacious, with deep water almost up to the shore,
and good holding-ground. The Russians formerly used Hakodate
as a winter port. The staple exports are beans, pulse and peas,
marine products, sulphur, furs and timber; the staple imports,
comestibles (especially salted fish), kerosene and oil-cake. The
town is not situated so as to profit largely by the development of
the resources of Yezo, and as a port of foreign trade its out-
look is indifferent. Frequent steamers connect Hakodate and
Yokohama and other ports, and there is daily communication
with Aomori, 56 m. distant, whence there is rail-connexion with
Tokyo. Hakodate was opened to American commerce in 1854.
In the civil war of 1868 the town was taken by the rebel fleet,
but it was recovered by the mikado in 1869.
HAL, a town of Brabant, Belgium, about 9 m. S.W. of Brussels,
situated on the river Senne and the Charleroi canal. Pop. (1904)
13,541. The place is interesting chiefly on account of its fine
church of Notre Dame, formerly dedicated to St Martin. This
church, a good example of pure Gothic, was begun in 1341 and
finished in 1409. Its principal ornament is the alabaster altar,
by J. Mone, completed in 1533. The bronze font dates from
1446. Among the monuments is one in black marble to the
dauphin Joachim, son of Louis XI., who died in 1460. In the
treasury of the church are many costly objects presented by
illustrious personages, among others by the emperor Charles V,,
King Henry VIII. of England, Charles the Bold of Burgundy,
and several popes. The church is chiefly celebrated, however,
for its miraculous image of the Virgin. Legend says that during
a siege the bullets fired into the town were caught by her in the
folds of her dress. Some of these are still shown in a chest that
stands in a side chapel. In consequence of this belief a great
pilgrimage, attended by many thousands from all parts of
Belgium, is paid annually to this church. The hdtel de ville
dates from 16 16 and has been restored with more than ordinary
good taste.
HALA, or Haixa (formerly known as Murtazabad ), a town of
British India in Hyderabad district, Sind. Pop. (1901) 4985.
It has long been famous for its glazed pottery and tiles, made
from a fine clay obtained from the Indus, mixed with powdered
flints. The town has also a manufacture of susis or striped
trouser-cloths.
HALAESA, an ancient town on the north coast of Sicily,
about 14 m. E. of Cephaloedium [Cefalu], to the east of the
modern Castel di Tusa, founded in 403 B.C. by Archonides,
tyrant of Herbita, whose name it sometimes bore: we find, e.g.
Halaisa Archonida on a coin of the time of Augustus (Corp*
inscrip. Lot. x., Berlin, 1883, p. 768), It was the first town to
surrender to the Romans in the First Punic War, and was granted
freedom and immunity from tithe. It became a place of some
importance in Roman days, especially as a port, and entirely
outstripped its mother city. Halaesa is the only place in Sicily
where an inscription dedicated to a Roman governor of the
republican period (perhaps in 93 B.C.) has come to light. (T. As.)
HALAKHA, or Halacha (literally " rule of conduct "), the
rabbinical development of the Mosaic law; with the haggada.
it makes up the Talmud and Midrash (q.v.). As the haggada
is the poetic, so the halakha is the legal element of the Talmud
(q.v.), and arose out of the faction between the Sadducees, who
disputed the traditions, and the Pharisees, who strove to prove
their derivation from scripture. Among the chief attempts to
codify the halakha were the Great Rules (Halakhoth Gedoloth)
of Simon Kayyara (9th century), based on the letters written by
the Gaonim, the heads of the Babylonian schools, to Jewish
inquirers in many lands, the work of Jacob Alfassi (1013-1103),
the Strong Hand of Maimonides (1180), and the Table Prepared
(Shulhan Aruch) of Joseph Qaro (1565), which from its practical
scope and its clarity as a work of general reference became the
universal handbook of Jewish life in many of its phases. (I. A.)
HALBERSTADT, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Saxony, 56 m. by rail N.W. of Halle, and 29 S.W. of Magde-
burg. It lies in a fertile country to the north of the Hare
Mountains, on the Holzemme, at the junction of railways to
Halle, Goslar and Thale. Pop. (1905) 45,534. The town has
a medieval appearance, many old houses decorated with beautiful
wood-carving still surviving. The Gothic cathedral (now Pro-
testant), dating from the 13th and 14th centuries, is remarkable
for the majestic impression made by the great height of the
interior, with its slender columns and lofty, narrow aisles. The
treasure, preserved in the former chapter-house, is rich in
reliquaries, vestments and other objects of medieval church
art. The beautiful spires, which had become unsafe, were
rebuilt in 1890-189 5. Among the other churches the only one
of special interest is the Liebfrauenkirche (Church of OurXady).
8 3 o
HALBERT
a basilica, with four towers, in the later Romanesque style,
dating from the 12th and 13th centuries and restored in 1848,
containing old mural frescoes and carved figures. Remarkable
among the other old buildings are the town-hall, of the 14th
century and restored in the 17th century, with a crypt, and the
Petershof, formerly the episcopal palace, but now utilized as
law courts and a prison. The principal educational establish-
ment is the gymnasium, with a library of 40,000 volumes. Close
to the cathedral lies the house of the poet Gleim (9.0.), since 1899
the property of the municipality and converted into a museum.
It contains a collection of the portraits of the friends of the
poet-scholar and some valuable manuscripts. The principal
manufactures of the town are sugar, cigars, paper, gloves,
chemical products, beer and machinery. About a mile and a half
distant are the Spiegelsberge, from which a fine view of the
surrounding country is obtained, and the Klusberge, with pre-
historic cave-dwellings cut out in the sandstone rocks.
The history of Halberstadt begins with the transfer to it, by
Bishop Hildegrim I,, in 820 of the see founded by Charlemagne at
Seligenstadt. At the end of the 10th century the bishops were
granted by the emperors the right to exercise temporal jurisdiction
over their see, which became one of the most considerable of the
ecclesiastical principalities of the Empire. As such it survived the
introduction of the Reformation in 1542; but in 1566, on the death
of Sigismund of Brandenburg (also archbishop of Madgeburg from
1552 to 1566), the last Catholic bishop, the chapter from motives
of economy elected the infant Henry Julius of Brunswick-Luneburg.
In 1589 he became duke of Brunswick, and two years later he
abolished the Catholic rites in Halberstadt. The see was governed
by lay bishops until 1648, when it was formally converted by the
treaty of Westphalia into a secular principality for the elector of
Brandenburg. By the treaty of Tilsit in 1807 it was annexed to
the kingdom of Westphalia, but came again to Prussia on the
downfall of Napoleon.
The town received a charter from Bishop Arnulf in 998. In
1113 it was burnt by the emperor Henry V., and in 11 79 by Henry
the Lion. During the Thirty Years' War it was occupied alternately
by the Imperialists and the Swedes, the latter of whom handed it
over to Brandenburg.
See Lucanus, Der Dom zu Halberstadt (1837), Wegweiser durch
Halberstadt (2nd ed., 1866) and Die Liebfrauenkirche tu Halberstadt
(1872); Scheffer, Insckriften und Legenden halberstadtischer Bauten
(1864); Schmidt, Urkundenbuch der Stadt Halberstadt (Halle, 1878);
and Zschiesche, Halberstadt, sonst undjeUi (1882).
HALBERT, Halberd or Halbard, a weapon consisting of an
axe-blade balanced by a pick and having an elongated pike-head
at the end of the staff, which was usually about 5 or 6 ft. in
length. The utility of such a weapon in the wars of the later
middle ages lay in this, that it gave the foot soldier the means
of dealing with an armoured man on horseback. The pike could
do no more than keep the horseman at a distance. This ensured
security for the foot soldier but did not enable him to strike a
mortal blow, for which firstly a long-handled and secondly a
powerful weapon, capable of striking a heavy cleaving blow,
was required. Several different forms of weapon responding
to these requirements are described and illustrated below; it
will be noticed that the thrusting pike is almost always combined
with the cutting-bill hook or axe-head, so that the individual
billman or halberdier should not be at a disadvantage if caught
alone by a mounted opponent, or if his first descending blow
missed its object. It will be noticed further that, concurrently
with the disuse of complete armour and the development of
firearms, the pike or thrusting element gradually displaces the
axe or cleaving element in these weapons, till at last we arrive
at the court halberts and partizans of the late 16th and early
17th centuries and the so-called " halbert " of the infantry
officer and sergeant in the 18th, which can scarcely be classed
even as partizans.
Figs. 1-6 represent types of these long cutting, cut and thrust
weapons of the middle ages, details being omitted for the sake of
clearness. The most primitive is the voulge (fig. 1), which is
simply a heavy cleaver on a pole, with a point added. The next
form, the gisarme or guisarme (fig. 2), appears in infinite variety
but is always distinguished from voulges, &c. by the hook,
which was used to pull down mounted men, and generally
resembles the agricultural bill-hook of to-day. The glaive
(fig. 3 is late German) is a broad, heavy, slightly curved sword-
blade on a stave; it is often combined with the hooked gisarme
as a glaive-gisarme (fig. 4, Burgundian, about 1480). A gisarme-
voulge is shown in fig. 5 (Swiss, 14th century).
The weapon best known to Englishmen is the bill, which was
originally a sort of scythe-blade, sharp on the concave side
(whereas the glaive has
the cutting edge on the
convex side), but in its
best-known form it should
be called a bill-gisarme
(fig. 6). The partisans t ranr
seurs and halberts proper
developed naturally from
the earlier types. The 'I
feature common to all,
as has been said, is the
combination of spear and axe. In
predominates, as the examples (fig.
century; fig. 11, Swiss, middle 16th century; and fig. 12,
court halbert of the same period as fig. n) show.
partisan the pike is the more important, the axe-heads being
reduced to little more than an ornamental feature. A south
German specimen (fig. 9, 161 5) shows how this was compensated
by the broadening of the spear-head, the edges of which in such
weapons were sharpened. Fig. 8, a service weapon of simple
form, merely has projections on either side, and from this
developed the ranseur (fig. 7), a partizan with a very long and
narrow point, like the blade of a rapier, and with fork-like pro-
jections intended to act as "sword-breakers," instead of the
atrophied axe-heads of the partizan proper.
The halbert played almost as conspicuous a part in the military
history of Middle Europe during the 15th and early 16th centuries
as the pike. But,
even in a form A
distinguishable f\
from the voulge /W
and the glaive, it ^i|ll_
dates from the >n Vf*
id y
it 1
early part of the [| ^
13 th century, and
for many genera-
tions thereafter
was the special Figs. 7-12.
weapon of the
Swiss. Fauchet, in his Origines des dignilez, printed in 1600,
states that Louis XI. of France ordered certain new weapons
of war called haUebardes to be made at Angers and other places in
1475. The Swiss had a mixed armament of pikes and halberts
at the battle of Morat in 1476. In the 15th and 16th cen-
turies the halberts became larger, and the blades were formed
in many varieties of shape, often engraved, inlaid, or pierced
in open work, and exquisitely finished as works of art. This
weapon was in use in England from the reign of Henry VII.
to the reign of George III., when it was still carried (though in
shape it had certainly lost its original characteristics, and had
become half partizan and half pike) by sergeants in the guards
and other infantry regiments. It is still retained as the symbol
of authority borne before the magistrates on public occasions
in some of the burghs of Scotland. The Lochaber axe may be
called a species of halbert furnished with a hook on the end of
the staff at the back of the blade. The godendag (Fr. godendart)
is the Flemish name of the halbert in its original form.
The derivation of the word is as follows. The O. Fr. hallebarde,
of which the English " halberd," " halbert," is an adaptation,
was itself adapted from the M.H.G. helmbarde, mod. Hellebarde;
the second part is the O.H.G. barta or parta } broad-axe, probably
the same word as Bart, beard, and so called from its shape;
the first part is either helm, handle, cf. " helm," tiller of a ship,
the word meaning " hafted axe," or else helm, helmet, an axe
for smiting the helmet. A common derivation was to take the
word as representing a Ger. halb-barde, half -axe; the early
German form shows this to be an erroneous guess.
HALDANE, J. A.— HALDEMAN
831
HALDANE, JAMES ALEXANDER (1768-1851), Scottish
divine, the younger son of Captain James Haldane of Airthrey
House, Stirlingshire, was born at Dundee on the 14th of July
1768. Educated first at Dundee and afterwards at the high
school and university of Edinburgh, at the age of seventeen he
joined the " Duke of Montrose " East Indiaman as a midship-
man. After four voyages to India he was nominated to the
command of the "Melville Castle" in the summer of 1793;
but having during a long and unexpected detention of his ship
begun a careful study of the Bible, and also come under the
evangelical influence of David Bogue of Gosport, one of the
founders of the London Missionary Society, he abruptly resolved
to quit the naval profession for a religious life, and returned to
Scotland before his ship had sailed. About the year 1796 he
became acquainted with the celebrated evangelical divine,
Charles Simeon of Cambridge, in whose society he made several
tours through Scotland, endeavouring by tract-distribution
and other means to awaken others to some of that interest in
religious subjects which he himself so strongly felt. In May
1797 he preached his first sermon, at Gilmerton near Edinburgh,
with encouraging success. In the same year he established a
non-sectarian organization for tract distribution and lay preach-
ing called the " Society for the Propagation of the Gospel at
Home." During the next few years he made repeated missionary
journeys, preaching wherever he could obtain hearers, and
generally in the open air. Not originally disloyal to the Church
of Scotland, he was gradually driven by the hostility of the
Assembly and the exigencies of his position into separation.
In 1799 he was ordained as pastor of a large Independent con-
gregation in Edinburgh. This was the first congregational church
known by that name in Scotland. In 1801 a permanent building
replaced the circus in which the congregation had at first met.
To this church he continued to minister gratuitously for more
than fifty years. In 1808 he made public avowal of his conversion
to Baptist views. As advancing years compelled him to withdraw
from the more exhausting labours of itineracy and open-air
preaching, he sought more and more to influence the discussion
of current religious and theological questions by means of the
press. He died on the 8th of February 1851.
His son, Daniel Rutherford Haldane (1824-1887), by his
second wife, a daughter of Professor Daniel Rutherford, was a
prominent Scottish physician, who became president of the
Edinburgh College of Physicians.
Among J. A. Haldane's numerous contributions to current theo-
logical discussions were: The Duly of Christian Forbearance in
Regard to Points of Church Order (181 1); Strictures on a Publication
upon Primitive Christianity by Mr John Walker (18 19); Refutation
of Edward Irving' s Heretical Doctrines respecting the Person and
Atonement of Jesus Christ. His Observations on universal Pardon,
&c, was a contribution to the controversy regarding the views of
Thomas Erskine of Linlathen and Campbell of Row; Man's Re-
sponsibility (1842) is a reply to Howard Hinton on the nature and
extent of the Atonement. He also published : Journal of a Tour
in the North; Early Instruction Commended (1801); Viewsfof the
Social Worship of the First Churches (1805) ; The Doctrine and Duty
of Self-Examination (1806); The Doctrine of the Atonement (1845);
Exposition of the Epistle to the Galatians (1848).
HALDANE, RICHARD BURDON (1856- ), British states-
man and philosopher, was the third son of Robert Haldane of
Cloanden, Perthshire, a writer to the signet, and nephew of
J. S. Burdon-Sanderson. He was a grand-nephew of the Scottish
divines J. A. and Robert Haldane. He was educated at Edin-
burgh Academy and the universities of Edinburgh and Gottingen,
where he studied philosophy under Lotze. He took first-class
honours in philosophy at Edinburgh, and was Gray scholar and
Ferguson scholar in philosophy of the four Scottish Universities
(1876). He was called to the bar in 1879, and so early as 1890
became a queen's counsel. In 1885 he entered parliament as
liberal member for Haddingtonshire, for which he was re-elected
continuously up to and including 1910. He was included in
1905 in Sir H. Campbell-Bannerman's cabinet as secretary for
war, and was the author of the important scheme for the re-
organization of the British army, by which the militia and the
volunteer forces were replaced by a single territorial force.
Though always known as one of the ablest men of the Liberal
party and conspicuous during the Boer War of 1899- 190 2 as
a Liberal Imperialist, the choice of Mr Haldane for the task of
thinking out a new army organization on business lines had
struck many people as curious. Besides being a chancery
lawyer, he was more particularly a philosopher, conspicuous for
his knowledge of Hegelian metaphysics. But with German philo-
sophy he had also the German sense of thoroughness and system,
and his scheme, while it was much criticized, was recognized
as the best that could be done with a voluntary army. Mr
Haldane's chief literary publications were: Life of Adam Smith
(1887); Education and Empire (1902); The Pathway to Reality
(1903). He also translated, jointly with J. Kemp, Schopen-
hauer's Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung {The World as Will and
Idea, 3 vols., 1883-1886).
HALDANE, ROBERT (1764-1842), Scottish divine, elder
brother of J. A. Haldane (q.v.), was born in London on the
28th of February 1764. After attending classes in the Dundee
grammar school and in the high school and university of Edin-
burgh in 1780, he joined H.M.S. " Monarch," of which his uncle
Lord Duncan was at that time in command, and in the following
year was transferred to the " Foudroyant," on board of which,
during the night engagement with the " Pegase," he greatly
distinguished himself. Haldane was afterwards present at the
relief of Gibraltar, but at the peace of 1783 he finally left the
navy, and soon afterwards settled on his estate of Airthrey, near
Stirling. He put himself under the tuition of David Bogue of
Gosport and carried away deep impressions from his academy.
The earlier phases of the French Revolution excited his deepest
sympathy, a sympathy which induced him to avow his strong
disapproval of the war with France. As his over-sanguine visions
of a new order of things to be ushered in by political change
disappeared, he began to direct his thoughts to religious subjects.
Resolving to devote himself and his means wholly to the advance-
ment of Christianity, his first proposal for that end, made in
1796, was to organize a vast mission to Bengal, of which he was
to provide the entire expense; with this view the greater part
of his estate was sold, but the East India Company refused to
sanction the scheme, which therefore had to be abandoned.
In December 1797 he joined his brother and some others in the
formation of the " Society for the Propagation of the Gospel at
Home," in building chapels or " tabernacles " for congregations,
in supporting missionaries, and in maintaining institutions for
the education of young men to carry on the work of evangeliza-
tion. He is said to have spent more than £70,000 in the course of
the following twelve years (1798-1810). He also initiated a
plan for evangelizing Africa by bringing over native children
to be trained as Christian teachers to their own countrymen.
In 1 8 16 he visited the continent, and first at Geneva and after-
wards in Montauban (181 7) he lectured and interviewed large
numbers of theological students with remarkable effect; among
them were Malan, Monod and Merle d'Aubigne. Returning to
Scotland in 18 19, he lived partly on his estate of Auchengray
and partly in Edinburgh, and like his brother took an active part,
chiefly through the press, in many of the religious controversies
of the time. He died on the 12th of December 1842.
In 1816 he published a work on the Evidences and Authority of
Divine Revelation, and in 1819 the substance of his theological
prelections in a Commentaire sur VEpttre aux Romains. Among
his later writings, besides numerous pamphlets on what was known
as " the Apocrypha controversy," are a treatise On the Inspiration
of Scripture (1828), which has passed through many editions, and
a later Exposition of the Epistle to the Romans (1835), which has been
frequently reprinted, and has been translated into French and
German.
See Memoirs of R. and J. A. Haldane, by Alexander Haldane
(1852).
HALDEMAN, SAMUEL STEHMAN (181 2-1880), American
naturalist and philologist, was born on the 12th of August 181 2
at Locust Grove, Pa. He was educated at Dickinson College,
and in 185 1 was appointed professor of the natural sciences in
the university of Pennsylvania. In 1855 he went to Delaware
College, where he filled the same position, but in 1869 he
returned to the university of Pennsylvania as professor of
832
HALDIMAND— HALE, J. P.
comparative philology and remained there till his death, which
occurred at Chickies, Pa., on the ioth of September 1880. His
writings include Freshwater Univalve Mollusca of the United
States (1840); Zoological Contributions (1842-1843); Analytic
Orthography (i860); Tours of a Chess Knight (1864); Penn-
sylvania Dutch, a Dialect of South German with an Infusion of
English (1872); Outlines of Etymology (1877); and Word-
Building (1881).
HALDIMAND, SIR FREDERICK (1718-1791), British general
and administrator, was born at Yverdun, Neuchatel, Switzerland,
on the nth of August 17 18, of Huguenot descent. After serving
in the armies of Sardinia, Russia and Holland, he entered
British service in 1754, and subsequently naturalized as an
English citizen. During the Seven Years' War he served in
America, was wounded at Ticonderoga (1758) and was present at
the taking of Montreal (1760). After filling with credit several
administrative positions in Canada, Florida and New York,
In 1778 he succeeded Sir Guy Carlcton (afterwards Lord Dor-
chester) as governor-general of Canada. His measures against
French sympathizers with the Americans have incurred
extravagant strictures from French-Canadian historians, but he
really showed moderation as well as energy. In 1785 he re-
turned to London. He died at his birthplace on the 5th of
June I7QI.
Hi* life has been well written by Jean Mcllwraith in the " Makers
of Canada " series (Toronto, IQ04). His Correspondence and Diary
fill 2h2 volumes in the Canadian Archives, and are catalogued in
the Annual Reports (1884-1889).
HALE, EDWARD EVERETT (1822-1909), American author,
was bom in Boston on the 3rd of April 1822, son of Nathan Hale
{1784-1864), proprietor and editor of the Boston Daily Advertiser,
nephew of Edward Everett, the orator and statesman, and grand-
nephew of Nathan Hale, the martyr spy. He graduated from
Harvard in 1830; was pastor of the church of the Unity,
Worcester, Massachusetts, in 1846-1856, and of the South
Congregational (Unitarian) church, Boston, in 1856-1899; and
in 1003 became chaplain of the United States Senate. He died
at Roxbury (Boston), Massachusetts, on the ioth of June 1909.
His forceful personality, organizing genius, and liberal practical
theology, together with his deep interest in the anti-slavery
movement (especially in Kansas), popular education (especially
Chautauqua work), and the working-man's home, were active
in raising the tone of American life for half a century. He was
a constant and voluminous contributor to the newspapers and
magazines. He was an assistant editor of the Boston Daily
Advertiser, and edited the Christian Examiner, Old and New
(which he assisted in founding in i860; in 1875 it was merged in
Scribner } s Magazine), Lend a Hand (founded by him in 1886 and
merged in the Charities Review in 1807), and the Lend a Hand
Record; and he was the author or editor of more than sixty
books fiction, travel, sermons, biography and history.
He first came into notice as a writer in 1850, when he con-
tributed the short story " My Double and How He Undid Me "
to the Atlantic Monthly, He soon published in the same
periodical other stories, the best known of which was " The
Man Without a Country " (1863), which did much to strengthen
the Union cause in the North, and in which, as in some of his
other non-romantic tales, he employed a minute realism which
has led his readers to suppose the narrative a record of fact.
The two stories mentioned, and such others as " The Rag-Man
and the Rag- Woman ,% and " The Skeleton in the Closet/' gave
him a prominent position among the short -story writers of
America. The story Ten Times One is Ten (iS;o). with its hero
Harry Wadsworth, and its motto, first enunciated in i860 in his
Lowell Institute lectures, " Look up and not down, look forward
and not hack, look out and not in, and lend a hand," led to the
formation among young people of " Lend-a-Hand Clubs,'*
* % Look-up Legions 1% and " Harry Wadsworth Clubs," Out of
the romantic Waldensian story In His Same {xS^s) there
similarly grew several other organizations for religious work,
«uch as " King % s Daughters," and " King's Sons/*
Auhhm his othor books anr Ko«m* amd Seb*aska 11854^; The
Intern ropers vl$<** x ; W« Lev<; Bess* uw 0:*er Stones 1,1870);
Sybaris and Other Homes (1871); Philip Nolan's Friends (1876), his
best-known novel, and a sequel to The Man Without a Country; The
Kingdom of God (1880); Christmas at NarraganseU (1885); East
and West, a novel (1892); For Fifty Years (poems, 1893); Ralph
Waldo Emerson (1899); We, the People (1903J; Prayers Offered in
the Senate of the United States (1904)," and Tarry-at-Home Travels
(1906). He edited Lingard's History of England (1853), and con-
tributed to Winsor's Memorial History of Boston (1880-1881), and
to his Narrative and Critical History of America (1886-1889). With
his son, Edward Everett Hale, Jr., he published Franklin in France
(2 vols., 1887-1888), based largely on original research. The most
charming books of his later years were A New England Boyhood
(1893), James Russell Lowell and His Friends (1899), and Memories
of a Hundred Years (1902).
A uniform and revised edition of his principal writings, in ten
volumes, appeared in 1 899-1901.
HALE, HORATIO (181 7-1896), American ethnologist, was
born in Newport, New Hampshire, on the 3rd of May 181 7. He
was the son of David Hale, a lawyer, and of Sarah Josepha Hale
(1 790-1879), a popular poet, who, besides editing Godey's Lady's
Magazine for many years and publishing some ephemeral books,
is supposed to have written the verses " Mary had a little lamb,"
and to have been the first to suggest the national observance of
Thanksgiving Day. The son graduated in 1837 at Harvard,
and during 1 838-1 842 was philologist to the United States
Exploring Expedition, which under Captain Charles Wilkes sailed
around the world. Of the reports of that expedition Hale
prepared the sixth volume, Ethnography and Philology (1846),
which is said to have " laid the foundations of the ethnography
of Polynesia." He was admitted to the Chicago bar in 1855,
and in the following year removed to Clinton, Ontario, Canada,
where he practised his profession, and where on the 28th of
December 1896 he died. He made many valuable contributions
to the science of ethnology, attracting attention particularly by
his theory of the origin of the diversities of human languages
and dialects — a theory suggested by his study of " child-
languages," or the languages invented by little children. He
also emphasized the importance of languages as tests of mental
capacity and as " criteria for the classification of human groups."
He was, moreover, the first to discover that the Tutelos of Virginia
belonged to the Siouan family, and to identify the Cherokee
as a member of the Iroquoian family of speech. Besides writing
numerous magazine articles, he read a number of valuable papers
before learned societies. These include: Indian Migrations as
Evidenced by Language (1882); The Origin of Languages and the
Antiquity of Speaking Man (1886); The Development of Language
(1888); and Language as a Test of Mental Capacity: Being an
Attempt to Demonstrate the True Basis of Anthropology (1891).
He also edited for Brinton's " Library of Aboriginal Literature,"
the Iroquois Book of Riles (1883).
HALE, JOHN PARKER (1806-1873), American statesman, was
born at Rochester, New Hampshire, on the 31st of March 1806.
He graduated at Bowdoin College in 1827, was admitted to the
New Hampshire bar in 1830, was a member of the state House of
Representatives in 1832, and from 1834 to 1841 was United
States district attorney for New Hampshire. In 1843-1845 he
was a Democratic member of the national House of Repre-
sentatives, and, though his earnest co-operation with John
Quincy Adams in securing the repeal of the " gag rule " directed
against the presentation to Congress of anti-slavery petitions
estranged him from the leaders of his party, he was renominated
without opposition. In January 1845, however, he refused in
a public statement to obey a resolution (28th of December 1844)
of the state legislature directing him and his New Hampshire
associates in Congress to support the cause of the annexation
of Texas, a Democratic measure which Hale regarded as being
distinctively in the interest of slavery. The Democratic State
convention was at once reassembled, Hale was denounced, and
his nomination withdrawn. In the election which followed Hale
ran independently, and, although the Democratic candidates
were elected in the other three congressional districts of the
state, his vote was large enough to prevent any choice (for which
a majority was necessary) in his own. Hale then set out in the
face of apparently hopeless odds to win over his state to the anti-
slavery cause. The remarkable canvass which he conducted
HALE, SIR M.— HALE, NATHAN
833
is known in the history of New Hampshire as the " Hale Storm
of 1845." The election resulted in the choice of a legislature
controlled by the Whigs and the independent Democrats, he
himself being chosen as a member of the state House of Repre-
sentatives, of which in 1846 he was speaker. He is remembered,
however, chiefly for his long service in the United States Senate,
of which he was a member from 1847 to 1853 and again from
1855 to 1865. At first he was the* only out-and-out anti-slavery
senator, — he alone prevented the vote of thanks to General Taylor
and General Scott for their Mexican war victories from being made
unanimous in the Senate (February 1848) — but in 1849 Salmon
P. Chase and William H. Seward, and in 1851 Charles Sumner
joined him, and the anti-slavery cause became for the first time
a force to be reckoned with in that body. In October 1847 he had
been nominated for president by the Liberty party, but he
withdrew in favour of Martin Van Buren, the Free Soil candidate,
in 1848. In 1851 he was senior counsel for the rescuers of the
slave Shadrach in Boston. In 185a he was the Free Soil can-
didate for the presidency, but received only 156,149 votes. In
1850 he secured the abolition of flogging in the U.S. navy,
and through his efforts in 1862 the spirit ration in the navy was
abolished. He was one of the organizers of the Republican
party, and during the Civil War was an eloquent supporter of
the Union and chairman of the Senate naval committee. From
1865 to 1869 he was United States minister to Spain. He died at
Dover, New Hampshire, on the 19th of December 1873. A
statue of Hale, presented by his son-in-law William Eaton
Chandler (b. 1835), U.S. senator from New Hampshire in
1 887-1901, was erected in front of the Capitol in Concord, New
Hampshire, in 2892.
HALE, SIR MATTHEW (1609-1676), lord chief justice of
England, was born on the 1st of November 1609 at Alderley
in Gloucestershire, where his father, a retired barrister, had a
small estate. His paternal grandfather was a rich clothier of
Wotton-under-Edge; on his mother's side he was connected
with the noble family of the Poyntzes of Acton. Left an orphan
when five years old, he was placed by his guardian under the
care of the Puritan vicar of Wotton-under-Edge, with whom he
remained till he attained his sixteenth year, when he entered
Magdalen Hall, Oxford. At Oxford, Hale studied for several
terms with a view to holy orders, but suddenly there came a
change. The diligent student, at first attracted by a company
of strolling players, threw aside his studies, and plunged care-
lessly into gay society. He soon decided to change hi9 profession ;
and resolved to trail a pike as a soldier under the prince of
Orange in the Low Countries. Before going abroad, however,
Hale found himself obliged to proceed to London in order to give
instructions for his defence in a legal action which threatened
to deprive him of his patrimony. His leading counsel was the
celebrated Serjeant Glanville (1586-1661), who, perceiving in the
acuteness and sagacity of his youthful client a peculiar fitness
for the legal profession, succeeded, with much difficulty, in
inducing him to renounce his military for a legal career, and on
the 8th of November 1629 Hale became a member of the honour-
able society of Lincoln's Inn.
He immediately resumed his habits of intense application.
The rules which he laid down for himself, and which are still
extant in his handwriting, prescribe sixteen hours a day of close
application, and prove, not only the great mental power, but
also the extraordinary physical strength he must have possessed,
and for which indeed, during his residence at the university,
he had been remarkable. During the period allotted to his
preliminary studies, he read over and over again all the year-
books, reports, and law treatises in print, and at the Tower of
London and other antiquarian repositories examined and care-
fully studied the records from the foundation of the English
monarchy down to his own time. B>ut Hale did not confine
himself to law. He dedicated no small portion of his time to
the study of pure mathematics, to investigations in physics and
chemistry, and even to anatomy and architecture; and there
can be no doubt that this varied learning enhanced considerably
the value of many of his judicial decisions.
Hale was called to the bar in 1637, and almost at once found
himself in full practice. Though neither a fluent speaker nor
bold pleader, in a very few years he was at the head of his
profession. He entered public life at perhaps the most critical
period of English history. Two parties were contending in
the state, and their obstinacy could not fail to produce a most
direful collision. But amidst the confusion Hale steered a middle
course, rising in reputation, and an object of solicitation from
both parties. Taking Pomponius Atticus as his political model,
he was persuaded that a man, a lawyer and a judge could best
serve his country and benefit his countrymen by holding aloof
from partisanship and its violent prejudices, which are so apt
to distort arid confuse the judgment. But he is best vindicated
from the charges of selfishness and cowardice by the thoughts
and meditations contained in his private diaries and papers,
where the purity and honour of his motives are clearly seen. It
has been said, but without certainty, that Hale was engaged as
counsel for the earl of Strafford; he certainly acted for Arch-
bishop Laud, Lord Maguire, Christopher Love, the duke of
Hamilton and others. It is also said that he was ready to plead
on the side of Charles I. had that monarch submitted to the
court. The parliament having gained the ascendancy, Hale
signed the Solemn League and Covenant, and was a member
of the famous assembly of divines at Westminster in 1644; but
although he would undoubtedly have preferred a Presbyterian
form of church government, he had no serious objection to the
system of modified Episcopacy proposed by Usher. Consistently
with his desire to remain neutral, Hale took the engagement to
the Commonwealth as he had done to the king, and in 1653,
already serjeant, he became a judge in the court of common pleas.
Two years afterwards he sat in Cromwell's parliament as one of
the members for Gloucestershire. After the death of the pro-
tector, however, he declined to act as a judge under Richard
Cromwell, although he represented Oxford in Richard's parlia-
ment. At the Restoration in 1660 Hale was very graciously
received by Charles II., and in the same year was appointed
chief baron of the exchequer, and accepted, with extreme
reluctance, the honour of knighthood. After holding the office
of chief baron for eleven years he was raised to the higher dignity
of lord chief justice, which he held till February 1676, when his
failing health compelled him to resign. He retired to his native
Alderie^, where he died on the 25th of December of the same
year. He was twice married and survived all his ten children
save two. '
As' a judge Sir Matthew Hale discharged hi9 duties with
resolute independence and careful diligence. His sincere piety
made him the intimate friend of Isaac Barrow, Archbishop
Tillotson, Bishop Wttkins and Bishop' Stillmgfieet, as well
as of the Nonconformist leader, Richard Baxter. He is charge-
able, however, with the condemnation and execution of two poor
women tried before him for witchcraft in 1664, a kind of judicial
murder then falling under disuse. He is also reproached with
having hastened the execution of a soldier for whom he had
reason to believe a pardon was preparing.
Of Hale's legal works the only two of importance are his Historia
placitorum coronae, or History of the Pleas of the Crown (1736);
and the History of the Common Law of England, with an Analysis
of the Law, &c* (17 13). Among his numerous religious writings the
Contemplations, Moral and Divine, occupy the first place. Others are
The Primitive Origination of Man (1077); Of the Nature of True
Religion, &c. (1684) ; A Brief Abstract of the Christian Religion (1688).
One of his most popular works is the collection of Letters of Advice
to hie Children and Grandchildren'. He also wrote an Essay touching
the Gravitation or Nongravitation, of Fluid Bodies {1673) ; Difficiles
Nugae, or Observations touching the Torricellian Experiment &c.
O675); and a translation of the Life of Pomponius Atticus, by
Cornelius Nepos (1677). His efforts in poetry were inauspicious.
He left his valuable collection of MSS. and records to the library of
Lincoln's Inn. His life has been written by G* Burnet; (1682); by
LB. Williams (1835); by H.. Roscoe, in his Lives of Eminent
wyers, in 1838; by Lord Campbell, in his Lives of the Chief
Justices, in 1849; and by E. Foss in his Lives of the Judges (1848-
1870)*
HALE, NATHAN (1756-1776), American hero of the War of
Independence, was born at Coventry, Conn., and educated
xn. 27
834
HALE, W. G.— HALES, STEPHEN
at Yale, then becoming a school teacher. He joined a Con-
necticut regiment after the breaking out of the war, and served
in the siege of Boston, being commissioned a captain at the
opening of 1776. When Heath's brigade departed for New York
he went with them, and the tradition is that he was one of
a small and daring band who captured an English provision
sloop from under the very guns of a man-of-war. But on the
2ist of September, having volunteered to enter the British lines to
obtain information concerning the enemy, he was captured in his
disguise of a Dutch school-teacher and on the 22nd was hanged.
The penalty was in accordance with military law, but young
Hale's act was a brave one, and he has always been glorified
as a martyr. Tradition attributes to him the saying that he
only regretted that he had but one life to lose for his country;
and it is said that his request for a Bible and the services of a .
minister was refused by his captors. There is a fine statue of
Hale by Macmonnies in New York.
See H. P. Johnston, Nathan Hale (1901).
HALE, WILLIAM GARDNER (1840- ), American classical
scholar, was born on the 9th of February 1849 in Savannah,
Georgia. He graduated at Harvard University in 1870, and
took a post-graduate course in philosophy there in 1874-1876;
studied classical philology at Leipzig and G&ttingen in 1876-
1877; was tutor in Latin at Harvard from 1877 to 1880, and
professor of Latin in Cornell University from 1880 to 1892,
when he became professor of Latin and head of the Latin depart-
ment of the University of Chicago. From 1894 to 1899 fle was
chairman and in 189 5-1 896 first director of the American School
of Classical Studies at Rome. He is best known as an original
teacher on questions of syntax. In The Cum-Constructions:
Their History and Functions, which appeared in Cornell Uni-
versity Studies in Classical Philology (1888-1889; and in
German version by Neizert in 1891), he attacked Hoffmann's
distinction between absolute and relative temporal clauses as
published in Laieiniscke Zeitpartikeln (1874); Hoffmann replied
in 1891, and the best summary of the controversy is in Wetsel's
Der Streit zwischen Hoffmann und Hale (1892). Hale wrote also
The Sequence of Tenses in Latin (1887-1888), The Anticipatory
Subjunctive in Greek and Latin (1894), and a Latin Grammar
(1903), to which the parts on sounds, inflection and word-
formation were contributed by Carl Darling Buck.
HALEBID, a village in Mysore state, southern India; pop.
(1001), 1524. The name means " old capital," being the site of
Dorasamudra, the capital of the Hoysala dynasty founded early
in the nth century. In 13x0 and again in 1326 it was taken
and plundered by the first Mahommedan invader of southern
India. Two temples, still standing, though never completed
and greatly ruined, are regarded as the finest examples of the
elaborately carved Chalukyan style of architecture.
HALES, or Hayles, JOHN (d. 1571), English writer and
politician, was a son of Thomas Hales of Hales Place, Halden,
Kent. He wrote his Highway to Nobility about 1543, and was
the founder of a free school at Coventry for which he wrote
Introductions ad grammaticam. In political life Hales, who was
member of parliament for Preston, was specially concerned with
opposing the enclosure of land, being the most active of the
commissioners appointed in 1548 to redress this evil; but he
failed to carry several remedial measures through parliament.
When the protector, the duke of Somerset, was deprived of his
authority in 1550, Hales left England and lived for some time
at Strassburg and Frankfort, returning to his own country on
the accession of Elizabeth. However he soon lost the royal
favour by writing a pamphlet, A Declaration of the Succession of
the Crowne Itnperiall of Inglande, which declared that the recent
marriage between Lady Catherine Grey and Edward Seymour,
earl of Hertford, was legitimate, and asserted that, failing direct
heirs to Elizabeth, the English crown should come to Lady
Catherine as the descendant of Mary, daughter of Henry VII.
The author was imprisoned, but was quickly released, and died
on the 28th of December 1571. The Discourse of the Common
Weal, described as " one of the most informing documents
of the age," and written about 1549, has been attributed
to Hales. This has been edited by E. Lamond (Cambridge,
1893).
Hales is often confused with another John Hales, who was
clerk of the hanaper under Henry VIII. and his three immediate
successors.
HALES, JOHN (1 584-1656), English scholar, frequently
referred to as " the ever memorable," was born at Bath on the
19th of April 1584, and was educated at Corpus Christi College,
Oxford. He was elected a fellow of Merton in 1605, and in 1612
he was appointed public lecturer on Greek. In 16*13 he was
made a fellow of Eton. Five years later he went to Holland, as
chaplain to the English ambassador, Sir Dudley Carleton, who
despatched him to Dort to report upon the proceedings of the
synod then sitting. In 16 19 he returned to Eton and spent his
time among his books and in the company of literary men,
among whom he was highly reputed for his common sense, his
erudition and his genial charity. Andrew Marvell called him
" one of the clearest heads and best-prepared breasts in Christen-
dom." His eirenical tract entitled Schism and Schismaticks
(1636) fell into the hands of Archbishop Laud, and Hales,
hearing that he had disapproved of it, is said to have written to
the prelate a vindication of his position. This led to a meeting,
and in 1639 Hales was made one of Laud's chaplains and also a
canon of Windsor. In 1642 he was deprived of his canonry by
the parliamentary committee, and two years later was obliged
to hide in Eton with the college documents and keys. In 1649
he refused to take the "Engagement" and was ejected from his
fellowship. He then retired to Buckinghamshire, where he found
a home with Mrs Salter, the sister of the bishop of Salisbury
(Brian Duppa), and acted as tutor to her son. The issue of the
order against harbouring malignants led him to return to Eton.
Here, having sold his valuable library at great sacrifice, he lived
in poverty until his death on the 19th of May 1656.
His collected works (3 vols,) were edited by Lord Hailes, and
published in 1765.
HALES, STEPHEN (1677-1761), English physiologist, chemist
and inventor, was born at Bekesboume in Kent on the 7 th or
17th of September 1677, the jfifth (or sixth) son of Thomas Hales,
whose father, Sir Robert Hales, was created a baronet by
Charles II. in 1670. In June 1696 he was entered as a pensioner
of Benet (now Corpus Christi) College, Cambridge, with the view
of taking holy orders, and in February 1703 was admitted to a
fellowship. He received the degree of master of arts in 1703
and of bachelor of divinity in 171 1. One of his. most intimate
friends was William Stukeley (1687-1765) with whom he studied
anatomy, chemistry, &c In 1 708-1 709 Hales was presented
to the perpetual curacy of Teddington in Middlesex, where he
remained all his life, notwithstanding that he was subsequently
appointed rector of Porlock in Somerset, and later of Faringdon
in Hampshire. In 171 7 he was elected fellow of the Royal
Society, which awarded him the Copley medal in 1739. In 1 732
he was named one of a committee for establishing a colony in
Georgia, and the next year he received the degree of doctor of
divinity from Oxford. He was appointed almoner to the princess-
dowager of Wales in 1750. On the death of Sir Hans Sloane in
1753, Hales was chosen foreign associate of the French Academy
of Sciences. He died at Teddington on the 4th of January 1761.
Hales is best known for his Statical Essays. The first volume,
Vegetable Staticks (1727), contains an account of numerous
experiments in plant-physiology — the loss of water in plants by
evaporation, the rate of growth of shoots and leaves, variations
in root-force at different times of the day, &c Considering it
very probable that plants draw " through their leaves some
part of their nourishment from the air," he undertook experi-
ments to show in " how great a proportion air is wrought into
the composition of animal, vegetable and mineral substances ";
though this " analysis of the air " did not lead him to any
very clear ideas about the composition of the atmosphere, in the
course of his inquiries he collected gases over water in vessels
separate from those in which they were generated, and thus used
what was to all intents and purposes a " pneumatic trough." The
second volume (1733) on Haemostaticks,. containing experiments
HALESOWEN— HALfiVY, L.
835
on the " force of the blood " in various animals, its rate of
flow, the capacity of the different vessels, &c, entitles him to foe
regarded as one of the originators of experimental physiology*
But he did not confine his attention to abstract inquiries. The
quest of a solvent for calculus in the bladder and kidneys was
pursued by him as by others at the period, and he devised a form
of forceps which, on the testimony of John Ranby (1 703-1 773),
sergeant-surgeon to George II., extracted stones with " great
«ase and readiness. " His observations of the evil effect of vitiated
air caused him to devise a u ventilator " (a modified organ-
bellows) by which fresh air could be conveyed into gaols,
hospitals, ships'-holds, &c; this apparatus was successful in
reducing the mortality in the Savoy prison, and it was introduced
into France by the aid of H. L. Duhamel du Monceau. Among
other things Hales invented a " sea-gauge " for sounding, and
processes for distilling fresh from sea water, for preserving corn
from weevils by fumigation with brimstone, and for salting
animals whole by passing brine into their arteries. His Adnumi-
Hon to the Drinkers of Gin, Brandy, fire, published anonymously
in 1734, has been several times reprinted.
HALESOWEN, a market town in the Oldbury parliamentary
division of Worcestershire, England, on a branch line of the
Great Western and Midland railways, 6£ m. W.S.W. of Birming-
ham. Pop. (1001), 4057. It lies in a pleasant country among
the eastern foothills of the Lickey Hills. There are extensive
iron and steel manufactures. The church of SS Mary and John
the Baptist has rude Norman portions; and the poet William
Shenstone, buried in 1763 in the churchyard, has a memorial
in the church. His delight in landscape gardening is exemplified
in the neighbouring estate of the Leasowes, which was his
property. There is a grammar school founded in 1652, and in
the neighbourhood is the Methodist foundation of Bourne
College (1883). Close to the town, on the river Stour, which
rises in the vicinity, are slight ruins of a Premonstratensian abbey
of Early English date. Within the parish and 2 m. N.W. of
Halesowen is Cradley, with iron and steel works, fire-clay works
and a large nail and chain industry.
HALEVI, JUDAH BEN SAMUEL (c. 1085-c. 1 140), the greatest
Hebrew poet of the middle ages* was born in Toledo c. 1085,
and died in Palestine after 1 140. In his youth he wrote Hebrew
love poems of exquisite fancy, and several of his Wedding Odes
are included in the liturgy of the Synagogue. The mystical
connexion between marital affection and the love of God had,
in the view of older exegesis, already expressed itself in the
scriptural Song of Songs and Judah Halevi used this book as his
model. In this aspect of his work he found inspiration also in
Arabic predecessors. The second period of his literary career
was devoted to more serious pursuits. He wrote a philosophical
dialogue in five books, called the Cuzari, which has been trans-
lated into English by Hirschfeld. This book bases itself on the
historical fact that the Crimean Kingdom of the Khazars adopted
Judaism, and the Hebrew poet-philosopher describes what he
conceives to be the steps by which the Khazar king satisfied
himself as to the claims of Judaism. Like many other medieval
Jewish authors, Judah Halevi was a physician. His real fame
depends on his liturgical hymns, which are the finest written in
Hebrew since the Psalter, and are extensively used in the
Septardic rite. A striking feature of his thought was his devotion
to Jerusalem. To the love of the Holy City he devoted his
noblest genius, and he wrote some memorable Odes to Zion, which
have been commemorated by Heine, and doubly appreciated
recently under the impulse of Zionism (q.v.). He started for
Jerusalem, was in Damascus in 11 40, and soon afterwards died.
Legend has it that he was slain by an Arab horseman just as he
arrived within sight of what Heine called his " Woebegone poor
darling, Desolation's very image, — Jerusalem."
Excellent English renderings of some of Judah Halevi's poems
may be read in Mrs H. Lucas's The Jewish Year, and Mrs K. N.
Solomon's Songs of Exile. (I. A.)
HALfiVY, JACQUES FRANCOIS FROMENTAL fiLIE (1799-
1862), French composer, was born on the 27th of May 1799, at
Paris, of a Jewish family. He studied at the Paris Conservatoire
under Berton and Cherubini, and in 1819 gained the grand prix
de Rome with his cantata Herminie. In accordance with the
conditions of his scholarship he started for Rome, where he
devoted himself to the study of Italian music, and wrote an
opera and various minor works. In 1827 his opera L' Artisan was
performed at the Theatre Feydeau in Paris, apparently without
much success. Other works of minor importance, and now
forgotten, followed, amongst which Manon Lescaut, a ballet,
produced in 1 830, deserves mention. In 1834 the Opera-Comique
produced Ludovic, the score of which had been begun by Herold
and had been completed by Halevy. In 1835 HaleVy composed
the tragic opera La Juive and the comic opera V&dair, and on
these works his fame is mainly founded. The famous air of
Eleazar and the anathema of the cardinal in La Juive soon became
popular all over France. V Eclair is a curiosity of musical
literature. It is written for two tenors and two soprani, without
a chorus, and displays the composer's mastery over the most
refined effects of instrumentation and vocalization in a favourable
light. After these two works he wrote numerous operas of
various' genres, amongst which only La Reine de Chypre, a
spectacular piece analyzed by Wagner in one of his Paris letters
(1841), and La Tempesta, in three acts, written for Her Majesty's
theatre, London (1850), need be mentioned. In addition to his
productive work Halevy also rendered valuable services a6 a
teacher. He was professor at the Conservatoire from 1827 till
his death — some of the most successful, amongst the younger
composers in France, such as Gounod, Victor Mass&and Georges
Bizet, the author of Carmen, being amongst his pupils. He was
maestro al cembalo at the Theatre Italien from 1827 to 1829;
then director of singing at the Opera House in Paris until 1845,
and in 1836 he succeeded Reicha at the Institut de France.
Hal6vy also tried his hand at literature. In 1857 he became
permanent secretary to the Academie des Beaux Arts, and there
exists an agreeable volume of Souvenirs et portraits from his pen.
He died at Nice, on the 17th of March 1862.
HALfiVY, LUDOVIC (1834-1008), French author, was born
in Paris on the 1st of January 1834. His father, Leon Halevy
(1802-1883), was a clever and versatile writer, who tried almost
every branch of literature — prose and verse, vaudeville, drama,
history — without, however, achieving decisive success in any.
His uncle, J. F. Fromental E. HaleVy (?.».), was for many years
associated with the opera; hence the double and early connexion
of Ludovic Hatevy with the Parisian stage. At the age of six
he might have been seen playing in that Foyer de la danse with
which he was to make his readers so familiar, and, when a boy
of twelve, he would often, of a Sunday night, on his way back
to the College Louis le Grand, look in at the Odeon, where he
had free admittance, and see the first act of the new play. At
eighteen he joined the ranks of the French administration and
occupied various posts, the last being that of secr6taire-redacteur
to the Corps L6gislatif . In that capacity he enjoyed the special
favour and friendship of the famous duke of Moray, then pre-
sident of that assembly. In 1865 Ludovic Halevy's increasing
popularity as an author enabled him to retire from the public
service. Ten years earlier he had become acquainted with the
musician Offenbach, who was about to start a small theatre of
his own in the Champs filysees, and he wrote a sort of prologue,
Entrez, messieurs, mesdames, for the opening night. Other little
productions followed, Ba-ta-clan being the most noticeable
among them. They were produced tinder the pseudonym of
Jules ServiSres. The name of Ludovic Halevy appeared for the
first time on the bills on the xst of January 1856. Soon after-
wards the unprecedented run of Orphie aux enfers, a musical
parody, written in collaboration with Hector Cr6mieux, made
his name famous. In the spring of i860 he was commissioned
to write a play for the manager of the Vari£t6s in conjunction
with another vaudevillist, Lambert Thiboust . The latter having
abruptly retired from the collaboration, Hal6vy was at a loss
how to carry out the contract, when on the steps of the theatre
he met Henri Meilhac(i 831-1897), then comparatively a stranger
to him. He proposed to Meilhac the task rejected by Lambert
Thiboust, and the proposal was immediately accepted. Thus
836
HALFPENNY— HALFWAY COVENANT
began a connexion which was to last over twenty years, and
which proved most fruitful both for the reputation of the two
authors and the prosperity of the minor Paris theatres. Their
joint works may be divided into three classes: the opirettes,
the farces, the comedies. The opirettes afforded excellent
opportunities to a gifted musician for the display of his peculiar
humour. They were broad and lively libels against the society
of the time, but savoured strongly of the vices and follies they
were supposed to satirize. Amongst the most celebrated works
of the joint authors were La Belle Htlcne (1864), Bar be Bleue
(1866), La Grande Duchesse de Gerolstein (1867), and La Plrichole
(1868). After 1870 the vogue of Parody rapidly declined. The
decadence became still more apparent when Offenbach was no
longer at hand to assist the two authors with his quaint musical
irony, and when they had to deal with interpreters almost
destitute of singing powers. They wrote farces of the old type,
consisting of complicated intrigues, with which they cleverly
interwove the representation of contemporary whims and social
oddities. They generally failed when they attempted comedies
of a more serious character and tried to introduce a higher sort
of emotion. A solitary exception must be made in the case of
Frou-frou (1869), which, owing perhaps to the admirable talent
of Aimee Desclee, remains their unique succes de larmes.
Meilhac and Hal6vy will be found at their best in light sketches
of Parisian life, Les Sonnettes, Le Roi Candaule, Madame attend
Monsieur, Toto chez Tata. In that intimate association between
the two men who had met so opportunely on the perron des
variiUs, it was often asked who was the leading partner. The
question was not answered until the connexion was finally severed
and they stood before the public, each to answer for bis own
work. It was then apparent that they had many gifts in common .
Both had wit, humour, observation of character. Meilhac had
a ready imagination, a rich and whimsical fancy; Halevy had
taste, refinement and pathos of a certain kind. Not less clever
than his brilliant comrade, he was more human. Of this he gave
evidence in two delightful books, Monsieur et Madame Cardinal
(1873) and Les Petit es Cardinal, in which the lowest orders of
the Parisian middle class are faithfully described. The pompous,
pedantic, venomous Monsieur Cardinal will long survive as the
true image of sententious and self-glorifying immorality. M.
Halevy's peculiar qualities are even more visible in the simple
and striking scenes of the Invasion, published soon after the
conclusion of the Franco-German War, in Criquette (1883) and
L'Abbt Constantin (1882), two novels, the latter of which went
through innumerable editions. Zola had presented to the public
an almost exclusive combination of bad men and women; in
L'Abbt Constantin all are kind and good, and the change was
eagerly welcomed by the public. Some enthusiasts still main-
tain that the Abbe* will rank permanently in literature by the side
of the equally chimerical Vicar of Wakefield. At any rate, it
opened for M. Ludovic Halevy the doors of the French Academy,
to which he was elected in 1884.
Halevy remained an assiduous frequenter of the Academy,
the Conservatoire, the Comedie Francaise, and the Society of
Dramatic Authors, but, when he died in Paris on the 8th of May
1908, he had produced practically nothing new for many years.
His last romance, Kari Karl, appeared in 1892.
The Thidtre of MM. Meilhac and Halevy was published in 8 vols.
(1900-1902).
HALFPENNY, WILLIAM, English 18th-century architectural
designer — he described himself as " architect and carpenter."
He was also known as Michael Hoare; but whether his real name
was William Halfpenny or Michael Hoare is uncertain. His books,
of which he published a score, deal almost entirely with domestic
architecture, and especially with country houses in those Gothic
and Chinese fashions which were so greatly in vogue in the middle
of the 1 8th century. His most important publications, from the
point of view of their effect upon taste, were New Designs for
Chinese Temples, in four parts ( 1750-17 5 2); Rural Architecture
in the Gothic Taste (1752); Chinese and Gothic Architecture
Properly Ornamented (1752); and Rural Architecture in the
Chinese Taste (17 50-1 752). These four books were produced in
collaboration with John Halfpenny, who is said to have been his
son. New Designs for Chinese Temples is a volume of some
significance in the history of furniture, since, having been pub-
lished some years before the books of Thomas Chippendale and
Sir Thomas Chambers, it disproves the statement so often made
that those designers introduced the Chinese taste into this
country. Halfpenny states distinctly that ' ' the Chinese manner ' '
had been " already introduced here with success." The work
of the Halfpennys was by no means all contemptible. It is
sometimes distinctly graceful, but is marked by little originality.
HALF-TIMBER WORK, an architectural term given to those
buildings in which the framework is of timber with vertical studs
and cross pieces filled in between with brickwork, rubble masonry
or plaster work on oak laths; in the first two, brick nogging or
nogging are the terms occasionally employed (see Carpentry).
Sometimes the timber structure is raised on a stone or brick
foundation, as at Ledbury town hall in Herefordshire, where the
lower storey is open on all sides; but more often it is raised on
a ground storey, either in brick or stone, and in order to give
additional size to the upper rooms projects forward, being carried
on the floor joists. Sometimes the masonry or brickwork rises
through two or three storeys and the half-brick work is confined
to the gables. There seems to be some difference of opinion as
to whether the term applies to the mixture of solid walling with
the timber structure or to the alternation of wood posts and the
filling in, but the latter definition is that which is generally
understood* The half-timber throughout England is of the most
picturesque description, and the earliest examples date from
towards the close of the 15th century. In the earliest example,
Newgate House, York (c. 1450), the timber framing is raised
over the ground floor. The finest specimen is perhaps that of
Moreton Old Hall, Cheshire (1570), where there is only a stone
foundation about 12 in. high, and the same applies to Bramall
Hall, near Manchester, portions of which are very early. Among
other examples are Speke Hall, Lancashire; Park Hall, Shrop-
shire (1553T1558); Hall i' th* Wood, Lancashire (1591); St
Peter's Hospital, Bristol (1607); the Ludlow Feather's Inn
(1610); many of the streets at Chester and Shrewsbury; the
Sparrowe's Home, Ipswich; and Staple Inn, Holborn, from
which in recent years the plaster coat which was put on many
years ago has been removed, displaying the ancient woodwork.
A similar fate has overtaken a very large number of half-timber
buildings to keep out the driving winds; thus in Lewes nearly
all the half-timbered houses have had slates hung on the timbers,
others tiles, the greater number having been covered with plaster
or stucco. Although there are probably many more half-timber
houses in England than on the continent of Europe, in the north
of France and in Germany are examples in many of the principal
towns, and in some cases in better preservation than in England.
They are also enriched with carving of a purer and better type,
especially in France; thus at Chartres, Angers, Rouen, Caen,
Lisieux, Bayeux, St L6 and Beauvais, are many extremely fine
examples of late Flamboyant and early Transitional examples.
Again on the borders of the Rhine in all the small towns most of
the houses are in half-timber work, the best examples being at
Bacharach, Rhense and Boppart, Far more elaborate examples,
however, are found in the vicinity of the Harz Mountains;
the supply of timber from the forests there being very abundant ;
thus at Goslar, Wernigerode and Quedlingburg there is an
endless variety, as also farther on at Gelnhausen and Hameln,
the finest series of all being at Hildesheim. In Bavaria at
Nuremberg, Rothenburg and Dinkelsbuhl, half-timber houses
dating from the 16th century are still well preserved; and
throughout Switzerland the houses constructed in timber and
plaster are the most characteristic features of the country.
HALFWAY COVENANT, an expedient adopted in the Con-
gregational churches of New England between 1657 and 1662.
Under its terms baptized persons of moral life and orthodox
belief might receive the privilege of baptism for their children and
other church benefits, without the full enrolment in membership
which admitted them to the communion of the Lord's Supper.
See Congregationalism: American.
; HALHEI>— HALICARNASSUS
«37
HALHED, NATHANIEI, BRA33EY (1 751-1830), English
Orientalist and philologist, was born at Westminster on the 25th
of May 1 751. He was educated at Harrow, where he began his
intimacy with Richard Brinsley Sheridan (see Shekddan
Family) continued after he entered Christ Church, Oxford,
where, also, he made the acquaintance of Sir William Jones,
the famous Orientalist, who induced him to study Arabic
Accepting a writership in the service of the East India Company,
Halhed went out to India, and here, at the suggestion of Warren
Hastings, by whose orders it had been compiled, translated the
Gentoo code from a Persian version of the original Sanskrit.
This translation was published in 1776 under the title A Code
of Gentoo Laws. In 1778 he published a Bengali grammar, to
print which he set up, at Hugli, the first press in India. It is
claimed for him that he was the first writer to call attention to
the philological connexion of Sanskrit with Persian, Arabic,
Greek and Latin. In 1785 he returned to England, and from
1 790-1 70s was M.P. for Lymington, Hants. For some time he
was a disciple of Richard Brothers (q.v), and his unwise speech
in parliament in defence of Brothers made it impossible for him
to remain in the House, from which he resigned in 1795. He
subsequently obtained a home appointment under the East
India Company. He died in London on the 18th of February
1830.
His collection of Oriental manuscripts was purchased by the
British Museum, and there is an unfinished translation by him of the
MahabhSrata in the library of the Asiatic Society of Bengal.
HALIBURTON, THOMAS CHANDLER (1706-1865), British
writer, long a judge of Nova Scotia, was born at Windsor, Nov*
Scotia, in 1796, and received his education there, at King's
College. He was called to the bar in 1820, and became a member
of the House of Assembly. He distinguished himself as a barrister,
and in 1828 was promoted to the bench as a chief -justice of
the common pleas. In 1829 he published An Historical and
Statistical Account of Nova Scotia. But it is as a brilliant
humourist and satirist that he is remembered, in connexion
with his fictitious character " Sam Slick." In 1835 he con-
tributed anonymously to a local paper a series of letters
professedly depicting the peculiarities of the genuine Yankee.
These sketches, which abounded in clever picturings of national
and individual character, drawn with great satirical humour,
were collected in 1837, and published under the title of The
Clockmaker, or Sayings and Doings of Samuel Slick of Slickville.
A second series followed in 1838, and a third in 1840. The
Attache, or Sam Slick in England (1843-1844), was the result
of a visit there in 1841. His other works include: The Old
Judge, or Life in a Colony (1843); The Letter Bag of the
Great Western (1839) ; Rule and Misrule of the English in America
(1851); Traits of American Humour (1852); and Nature and
Human Nature (1855).
» Meanwhile he continued to secure popular esteem in his
judicial capacity. In 1840 he was promoted to be a judge of the
supreme court; but within two years he resigned his seat on
the bench, removed to England, and in 1859 entered parliament
as the representative of Launceston, in the Conservative interest.
But the tenure of his seat for Launceston was brought to an end
by the dissolution of the parliament in 1865, and he did not again
offer himself to the constituency. He died on the 27th of August
of the same year, at Gordon House, Isleworth, Middlesex.
A memoir of Haliburton, by F. Blake Crofton, appeared in 1889.
HALIBUT, or Holibut (Hippoglossus vulgaris), the largest
of all flat-fishes, growing to a length of 10 ft. or more, specimens
of 5 ft. in length and of 100 lb. in weight being frequently exposed
for salejn the markets. Indeed, specimens under 2 ft. in length
are very rarely caught, and singularly enough, no instance is
known of a very young specimen having been obtained. Small
ones are commonly called " chicken halibut." The halibut is
much more frequent in the higher latitudes of the temperate
zone than in its southern portion; it is a circumpolar species,
being found on the northern coasts of America, Europe and
Asia, extending in the Pacific southwards to California. On the
British coasts it keeps at some distance from the shore, and is
generally caught in from 50 to 1 50 fathoms. Its flesh is generally
considered coarse, but it is white and firm, and when properly
served is excellent for the table. The name is derived from
" holy " (M.E. holy), and recalls its use for food on holy
days.
HALICARNASSUS (mod. Budrum), an ancient Greek city on
the S.W. coast of Caria, Asia Minor, on a picturesque and
advantageous site on the Ceramic Gulf or Gulf of Cos. It
originally occupied only the small island of Zephyria close to the
shore, now occupied by the great castle of St Peter, built by the
Knights of Rhodes in 1404; but in course of time this island
was united to the mainland and the city extended so as to
incorporate Salmacis, an older town of the Leleges and Carians.
About the foundation of HaMcarnassus various traditions were
current; but they agree in the main point as to its being a
Dorian colony, and the figures on its coins, such as the head of
Medusa, Athena and Poseidon, or the trident, support the
statement that the mother cities were Troezen and Argos. The
inhabitants appear to have accepted as their legendary founder
Anthes, mentioned by Strabo, and were proud of the title of
Antheadae. At an early period Halicarnassus was a member
of the Doric Hexapolis, which included Cos, Cnidus, Lindus,
Camirus and Ialysus; but one of the citizens, Agasicles, having
taken home the prize tripod which he had won in the Triopian
games instead of dedicating it according to custom to the
Triopian Apollo, the city was cut off from the league. In the
early 5th century Halicarnassus was under the sway of Artemisia,
who made herself famous at the battle of Salamis. Of Pisindalis,
her son and successor, little is known; but Lygdamis, who next
attained to power, is notorious for having put to death the poet
Panyasis and caused Herodotus, the greatest of Halicarnassians,
to leave his native city (c. 457 B.C.). In the 5th century B.C.
Halicarnassus and other Dorian cities of Asia were to some
extent absorbed by the Delian League, but the peace of Antalcidas
in 387 made them subservient to Persia; and it was under
Mausolus, a Persian satrap who assumed independent authority,
that Halicarnassus attained its highest prosperity. Struck by
the natural strength and beauty of its position, Mausolus removed
to Halicarnassus from Mylasa, increasing the population of
the city by the inhabitants of six towns of the Leleges. He was
succeeded by Artemisia, whose military ability was shown in
the stratagem by which she captured the Rhodian vessels
attacking her city, and whose magnificence and taste have been
perpetuated by the " Mausoleum," the monument she erected
to her husband's memory (seeMAUSOLUs) . One of her successors,
Pixodarus, tried to ally himself with the rising power of Macedon,
and is said to have gained the momentary consent of the young
Alexander to wed his daughter. The marriage, however, was
forbidden by Philip. Alexander, as soon as he had reduced Ionia,
summoned Halicarnassus, where Memnon, the paramount satrap
of Asia Minor, had taken refuge with the Persian fleet, to sur-
render; and on its refusal took the city after hard fighting and
devastated it, but not being able to reduce the citadel, was
forced to leave it blockaded. He handed the government of
the city back to the family of Mausolus, as represented by Ada,
sister of the latter. Not long afterwards we find the citizens
receiving the present of a gymnasium from Ptolemy, and building
in his honour a stoa or portico; but the city never recovered
altogether from the disasters of the siege, and Cicero describes
it as almost deserted. The site is now occupied in part by the
town of Budrum; but the ancient walls can still be traced round
nearly all their circuit, and the position of several of the temples,
the theatre, and other public buildings can be fixed with
certainty.
From the ruins of the Mausoleum sufficient has been recovered
by the excavations carried out in 1857 by C. T. Newton to
enable a fairly complete restoration of its design to be made.
The building consisted of five parts — a basement or podium,
a pteron or enclosure of columns, a pyramid, a pedestal and a
chariot group. The basement, covering an area of 114 ft. by 92,
was built of blocks of greenstone and cased with marble. Round
the base of it Were probably disposed groups of statuary. The
838
HALICZ— HALIFAX, ist EARL OF
pteron consisted (according to Pliny) of thirty-six columns of
the Ionic order, enclosing a square cella. Between the columns
probably stood single statues. From the portions that have
been recovered, it appears that the principal frieze of the pteron
represented combats of Greeks and Amazons. In addition to
these, there are also many life-size fragments of animals, horse-
man, &a, belonging probably to pedimental sculptures, but
formerly supposed to be parts of minor friezes. Above the
pteron rose the pyramid, mounting by 24 steps to an apex or
pedestal. On this apex stood the chariot with the figure of
Mausolus himself and an attendant. The height of the statue
of Mausolus in the British Museum is 9 ft. 9$ in. without the
plinth. The hair rising from the forehead falls in thick waves
on each side of the face and descends nearly to the shoulder;
the beard is short and close, the face square and massive, the
eyes deep set under overhanging brows, the mouth well formed
with settled calm about the lips. The drapery is grandly com-
poHed. All sorts of restorations of this famous monument have
been proposed. The original one, made by Newton and Pullan,
Is obviously in error in many respects; and that of Oldfield,
though to be preferred for its lightness (the Mausoleum was said
anciently to be " suspended in mid-air "), does not satisfy the
conditions postulated by the remains. The best on the whole is
that of the veteran German architect, F. Adler, published in
1 goo; but fresh studies have since been made (see below).
Src C. T. Newton and R. P. Pullan, History of Discoveries at
Ilalicarnassus (1862-1863); J. Fergussoo, The Mausoleum at
Ilalicarnassus restored (1862); E. Old fie Id, "The Mausoleum," in
Artkatohiia (1895); F. Adlcr, Mausoleum zu Halikarnass (1000);
J. P. Six In Joum. Hell. Studies (1905); W. B. Dinsmoor, in Amer.
JowtHs of Arck (1908) ; J. J. Stevenson, A Restoration of the Mauso-
leum of Ilalicarnassus (1909); J- B. K. Prcedy, " The Chariot
Group of the Mausoleum,*' in Journ. Hell. Stud., 1910. (D. G. H.)
HALICZ, a town of Austria, in Galicia, 70 m. by rail S.S.E.
of Lcmbcrg. Pop. ( 1 000) , 4809. It is situated at the confluence
of the Luckow with the Dniester and its principal resources are
the recovery of salt from the neighbouring brine wells, soap-
making and the trade in timber. In the neighbourhood are the
ruins of the old castle, the seat of the ruler of the former kingdom
from which Galicia derived its Polish name. Halicz, which is
mentioned in annals as early as 1 113, was from 1x41 to 1255 the
residence of the princes of that name, one of the principalities
into which western Russia was then divided. The town was
then much larger, as is shown by excavations in the neighbour-
hood made during the 19th century, and probably met its
doom during the Mongol invasion of 1240. In 1349 it was
incorporated in the kingdom of Poland.
HALIFAX. CHARLES MONTAGUE, Earl of (1661-1715),
English statesman and poet, fourth son of the Hon. George
Montague, fifth son of the first earl of Manchester, was born at
Uorton, Northamptonshire, on the 16th of April 1661. In his
fourteenth year he was sent to Westminster school, where he
was chosen king's scholar in 1677, and distinguished himself
in the composition of extempore epigrams made according to
custom upon theses appointed for king's scholars at the time of
election, In 1670 he entered Trinity College, Cambridge, where
he acquired a solid knowledge of the classics and surpassed all
his contemporaries at the university in logic and ethics. Latterly,
however, he preferred to the abstractions of Descartes the
practical philosophy of Sir Isaac Newton; and he was one of
the small band of students who assisted Newton in forming the
Philosophical Society of Cambridge. But it was his facility in
verse-writing, and neither his scholarship nor his practical
ability, that first opened up to him the way to fortune. His
clever but absurdly panegyrical poem on the death of Charles IL
secured for him the notice of the earl of Dorset, who invited him
to town and introduced him to the principal wits of the time;
and in to$; his joint authorship with Prior of the Himd and
/\?'$/*** frtiiutvrW I* ti* St+rv of M* C***try M<>*$e and Ike
0;v Jt#«>*j*\ a parody of Dryden's political poem* not only
increased his literary reputation but directly helped him to
political influence.
In t*v$o, through the patronage of the earl of Dorset % he entered
parliament as member for Maldon, and sat in the convention
which resolved that William and Mary should be declared king
and queen of England. About this time he married the countess-
dowager of Manchester, and it would appear, according to
Johnson, that it was still his intention to take orders; but after
the coronation he purchased a clerkship to the council. On
being introduced by Earl Dorset to King William, after the
publication of his poetical Epistle occasioned by his Majesty's
Victory in Ireland, he was ordered to receive an immediate
pension of £500 per annum, until an opportunity should present
itself of " making a man of him." In 1691 he was chosen
chairman of the committee of the House of Commons appointed
to confer with a committee of the Lords in regard to the bill for
regulating trials in cases of high treason; and he displayed in
these conferences such tact and debating power that he was
made one of the commissioners of the treasury and called to the
privy council. But his success as a politician was less due to
his oratorical gifts than to his skill in finance, and in this respect
he soon began to manifest such brilliant talents as completely
eclipsed the painstaking abilities of Oodolphin. Indeed it may
be affirmed that no other statesman has initiated schemes which
have left a more permanent mark on the financial history of
England. Although perhaps it was inevitable that England
should sooner or later adopt the continental custom of lightening
the annual taxation in times of war by contracting a national
debt, the actual introduction of the expedient was due to
Montague, who on the 15th of December 1692 proposed to raise
a million of money by way of ldata. Previous to this the Scotsman
William Paterson (q.v.) had submitted to the government his
plan of a national bank, and when in the spring of 1694 the
prolonged contest with France had rendered another large
loan absolutely necessary, Montague introduced a bill for the
incorporation of the Bank of England. The bill after some
opposition passed the House of Lords in May, and immediately
after the prorogation of parliament Montague was rewarded by
the chancellorship of the exchequer. In 1695 he was trium-
phantly returned for the borough of Westminster to the new
parliament, and succeeded in passing his celebrated measure
to remedy the depreciation which had taken place in the currency
on account of dishonest manipulations. To provide for the
expense of recoinage, Montague, instead of reviving the old tax
of hearth money, introduced the window tax, and the difficulties
caused by the temporary absence of a metallic currency were
avoided by the issue for the first time of exchequer bills. His
other expedients for meeting the emergencies of the financial
crisis were equally successful, and the rapid restoration of public
credit secured him a commanding influence both in the House
of Commons and at the board of the treasury; but although
Godolphin resigned office in October 1696, the king hesitated
for some time between Montague and Sir Stephen Fox as his
successor, and it was not till 1697 that the former was appointed
first lord. In 1697 he was accused by Charles Duncombe, and
in 1698 by a CoL Granville, of fraud, but both charges broke
down, and Duncombe was shown to have been guilty of extreme
dishonesty himself. In 1698 and 1699 he acted as one of the
council of regency during the king's absence from England.
With the accumulation of his political successes his vanity and
arrogance became, however, so offensive that latterly they
utterly lost him the influence he had acquired by his adminis-
trative ability and his masterly eloquence; and when his power
began to be on the wane he set the seal to his political overthrow
by conferring the lucrative sinecure office of auditor of the
exchequer on his brother in trust for himself should he be
compelled to retire from power. This action earned him the
offensive nickname of " Filcher," and for some time afterwards,
in attempting to lead the House of Commons, he had to submit
to constant mortifications, often verging on personal insults.
After the return of the king in 1699 he resigned his offices in the
government and succeeded his brother in the auditorship.
On the accession of the Tories to power he was removed in
1701 to the House of Lords by the title of Lord Halifax. In the
same year he was impeached for malpractices along with Lord
HALIFAX, 2nd EARL— HALIFAX, wr MARQUESS
839
Somers and the earls of Portland and Oxford, but all the charges
were dismissed by the Lords; and in 1703 a second attempt
to impeach him was still more unsuccessful. He continued out of
office during the reign of Queen Anne, but in 1706 he was named
one of the commissioners to negotiate the union with Scotland;
and after the passing of the Act of Settlement in favour of the
house of Hanover, he was appointed ambassador to the elector's
court to convey the insignia of order of the garter to George I.
On the death of Anne (1714) he was appointed one of the council
of regency until the arrival of the king from Hanover; and after
the coronation he received the office of first lord of the treasury
in the new ministry, being at the same time created earl of
Halifax and Viscount Sunbury . He died on the 1 9th of May 1 7 1 5
and left no issue. He was buried in the vault of the Albemarle
family in Westminster Abbey. His nephew George (d. 1739)
succeeded to the barony, and was created Viscount Sunbury
and earl of Halifax in 1715.
Montague's association with Prior in the travesty of Dryden's
Hind and Panther has no doubt largely aided in preserving his
literary reputation; but he is perhaps indebted for it chiefly
to his subsequent influential position and to the fulsome flattery
of the men of letters who enjoyed his friendship, and who, in
return for his liberal donations and the splendid banqueting
which they occasionally enjoyed at his villa on the Thames,
" fed him," as Pope says, " all day long with dedications."
Swift says he gave them nothing but " good words, and good
dinners." That, however, his beneficence to needy talent, if
sometimes attributable to an itching ear for adulation, was at
others prompted by a sincere appreciation of intellectual merit,
is sufficiently attested by the manner in which he procured from
Godolphin a commissionership for Addison, and also by his
life-long 1 intimacy with Newton, for whom he obtained the
mastership of the mint. The small fragments of poetry which
he left behind him, and which were almost solely the composition
of his early years, display a certain facility and vigour of diction,
but their thought and fancy are never more than commonplace,
and not unfrequently in striving to be eloquent and impressive
he is only grotesquely and extravagantly absurd. In adminis-
trative talent he was the superior of all his contemporaries,
and his only rival in parliamentary eloquence was Somers;
but the skill with which he managed measures was superior
to his tact in dealing with men, and the effect of his brilliant
financial successes on his reputation was gradually almost
nullified by the affected arrogance of his manner and by the
eccentricities of his sensitive vanity. So eager latterly was his
thirst for fame and power that perhaps Marlborough did not
exaggerate when he said that " he had no other principle but
his ambition, so that he would put all in distraction rather than
not gain his point."
Among the numerous notices of Halifax by contemporaries may
be mentioned the eulogistic reference which concludes Addison s
account of the "greatest of English poets"; the dedications by
Steel to the second volume of the Spectator and to the fourth of the
Toiler ; Pope's laudatory mention of him in the epilogue to his
Satires and in the preface to the Iliad, and his portrait of him as
14 Full-blown Bufo in the Epistle to Arbuthnot. Various allusions
to him are to be found in Swift's works and in Marlborough's Letters.
See also Burnet's History of his Own Times; The Parliamentary
History; Howell's State Trials; Johnson's Lives of the Poets; and
Macau lay's History of England. His Miscellaneous Works were
published at London in 1704; his Life and Miscellaneous Works in
1715; and his Poetical Works, to which also his " Life " is attached,
in 1716. His poems were reprinted in the 9th volume of Johnson's
English Poets.
HALIFAX, GEORGE MONTAGU DUNK, 2ND Earl of (1716-
1771), son of George Montagu, 1st earl of Halifax (of the second
creation), was born on the 5th or 6th of October 17 16, becoming
earl of Halifax on his father's death in 1739. Educated at Eton
and at Trinity College, Cambridge, he was married in 1741 to
Anne Richards (d. 1753), a kdy who had inherited a great
fortune from Sir Thomas Dunk, whose name was taken by
Halifax. After having been an official in the household of
Frederick, prince of Wales, the earl was made master of the buck-
hounds, and in 1 748 he became president of the Board of Trade.
While filling this position he helped to found Halifax, the capital
of Nova Scotia, which was named after him, and in several
ways he rendered good service to trade, especially with North
America. About this time he sought to became a secretary of
state, but in vain, although he was allowed to enter the cabinet
in 1757. In March 1761 Halifax was appointed lord-lieutenant
of Ireland, and during part of the time which he held this office
he was also first lord of the admiralty. He became secretary
of state for the northern department under the earl of Bute in
October 1762, retaining this post under George Grenville and
being one of the three ministers to whom George III. entrusted
the direction of affairs. He signed the general warrant under
which Wilkes was arrested in 1763, for which action he was
mulcted in damages by the courts of law in 1769, and he* was
mainly responsible for the exclusion of the name of the king's
mother, Augusta, princess of Wales, from the Regency Bill of
1765. With his colleagues the earl left office in July 1765,
returning to the cabinet as lord privy seal under his nephew,
Lord North, in January 1770. He had just been transferred to
his former position of secretary of state when he died on the 8th
of June 1 77 1. Halifax, who was lord-lieutenant of Northamp-
tonshire and a lieutenant-general in the army, showed some
disinterestedness in money matters, but was very extravagant.
He left no children, and his titles became extinct on his death
Horace Walpole speaks slightingly of the earl, and says he and
his mistress, Mary Anne Faulkner, " had sold every employment
in his gift."
See the Memoirs of his secretary, Richard Cumberland (1807).
HALIFAX, GEORGE SAVILE, ist Marquess of (1633-1695),
English statesman and writer, great-grandson of Sir George
Savile of Lupset and Thornhill in Yorkshire (created baronet
in 161 1), was the eldest son of Sir William Savile, 3rd baronet,
who distinguished himself in the civil war iri the royalist cause
and who died in 1644, and of Anne, eldest daughter of Lord
Keeper Coventry. He was thus nephew of Sir William Coventry,
who is said to have influenced his political opinions, and of
Lord Shaftesbury, afterwards his most bitter opponent, and
great-nephew of the earl of Strafford; by his marriage with
the Lady Dorothy Spencer, he was brother-in-law to Lord
Sunderland. He entered public life with all the advantages of
lineage, political connexions, great wealth and estates, and
uncommon abilities. He was elected member of the Convention
parliament for Pontefract in 1660, and this was his only appear-
ance in the Lower House. A peerage was sought for him by the
duke of York in 1665, but was successfully opposed by Clarendon,
on the ground of his " ill-reputation amongst men of piety and
religion," the real motives of the chancellor's hostile attitude
being probably Savile's connexion with Buckingham and
Coventry. The honours were, however, only deferred for a short
time and were obtained after the fall of Clarendon on the 31st
of December 1667, 1 when Savile was created Baron Savile of
Eland and Viscount Halifax.
He supported zealously the anti-French policy formulated in
the Triple Alliance of January 1668. He was at this time in
favour at court, was created a privy councillor in 1672, and,
while ignorant of the disgraceful secret clauses in the treaty of
Dover, was chosen envoy to negotiate terms of peace with Louis
XIV. and the Dutch at Utrecht. His mission was still further
deprived of importance by Arlington and Buckingham, who
were in the king's counsels, and who anticipated his arrival and
took the negotiations out of his hands; and though he signed
the compact, he had no share in the harsh terms imposed upon
the Dutch, and henceforth became a bitter opponent of the
policy of subservience to French interests and of the Roman
Catholic claims.
He took an active part in passing through parliament the
great Test Act of 1 673* and forfeited in consequence his friend-
ship with James. In 1674 he brought forward a motion for
1 Col. State Papers, Dom. (Nov. 1667-Sep. 1668), p. 106.
* Lords' Journals, 12, p. 567; Savile Correspondence, ed. by W. D.
Cooper, p. 136; " Character of a Trimmer," in Life of Sir G. Savile,
by H. C. Foxcroft, ii. 316.
840
HALIFAX; ist MARQUESS
disarming "popish recusants/' and supported one by Lord
Carlisle for restricting the marriages in the royal family to
Protestants; but he opposed the bill introduced by Lord Danby
(see Leeds, ist Duke of) in 1675, which imposed a test oath
on officials and members of parliament, speaking " with that
quickness, learning and elegance that are inseparable from all
his discourses/' and ridiculing the multiplication of oaths, since
" no man would ever sleep with open doors . . . should all
the town be sworn not to rob;" He was now on bad terms with
Danby, and a witty sally at that minister's expense caused his
dismissal from the council in January 1676. In 1678 he took
an active part in the investigation of the "Popish Plot," to
which he appears to have given excessive credence, but opposed
the bill which was passed on the 30th of October 1678, to exclude
Roman Catholics from the House of Lords.
In 1679, as a consequence of the fall of Danby, he became a
member of the newly constituted privy council. With Charles,
who had at first " kicked at his appointment," he quickly became
a favourite, his lively and " libertine " (i.e. free or sceptical)
•conversation being named by Bishop Burnet as his chief attrac-
tion for the king. His dislike of the duke of York and of the
Romanist tendencies of the court did not induce him to support
the rash attempt of Lord Shaftesbury to substitute the illegiti-
mate duke of Monmouth for James in the succession. He feared
Shaftesbury's ascendancy in the national councils and foresaw
nothing but civil war and confusion as a result of his scheme.
He declared against the exclusion of James, was made an earl
in 1679, and was one of the " Triumvirate " which now directed
public affairs. He assisted in passing into law the Habeas
Corpus Bill. According to Sir. W. Temple he showed great
severity in putting into force the laws against the Roman
Catholics, but this statement is considered a misrepresentation. 1
In 1680 he voted against the execution of Lord Stafford.
Meanwhile (1679) his whole policy had been successfully
directed towards uniting all parties with the object of frustrating
Shaftesbury's plans. Communications were opened with the
prince of Orange, and the illness of the king was made the
occasion for summoning James from Brussels. Monmouth was
compelled to retire to Holland, and Shaftesbury was dismissed.
On the other hand, while Halifax was so far successful, James
was given an opportunity of establishing a new influence at the
•court. It was with great difficulty that his retirement to Scotland
was at last effected; the ministers lost the confidence and
support of the " country party," and Halifax, fatigued and ill,
at the sjose of this year, retired to Rufford Abbey, the country
home of the Saviles since the destruction of Thornhill Hall in
1648, and for some time took little part in affairs. He returned in
September 1680 on the occasion of the introduction of the
Exclusion Bill in the Lords. The debate which followed, one
of the most famous in the whole annals of parliament, became a
duel of oratory between Halifax and his uncle Shaftesbury, the
finest two speakers of the day, watched by the Lords, the
Commons at the bar, and the king, who was present. It lasted
seven hours. Halifax spoke sixteen times, and at last, regardless
of the menaces of the more violent supporters of the bill, who
closed round him, vanquished his opponent. The rejection of
the bill by a majority of 33 was attributed by all parties entirely
to the eloquence of Halifax. His conduct transformed the
allegiance to him of the Whigs into bitter hostility, the Commons
immediately petitioning the king to remove him from his councils
for ever, while any favour which he might have regained with
James was forfeited by his subsequent approval of the regency
scheme.
He retired to Rufford again in January 1681, but was present
at the Oxford parliament, and in May returned suddenly to
public life and held for a year the chief control of affairs. The
arrest of Shaftesbury on the 2nd of July was attributed to his
influence, but in general, during the period of Tory reaction,
he seems to have urged a policy of conciliation and moderation
upon the king. He opposed James's return from Scotland and,
about this time (Sept.), made a characteristic but futile attempt
1 Foxcroft i. 160, where Hallam is quoted to this effect.
to persuade the duke to attend the services of the Church of
England and thus to end all difficulties. He renewed relations
with the prince of Orange, who in July paid a visit to England
to seek support against the French designs upon Luxemburg.
The influence of Halifax procured for the Dutch a formal
assurance from Charles of his support; but the king informed
the French ambassador that he had no intention of fulfilling
his engagements, and made another secret treaty with Louis.
Halifax opposed in 1682 James's vindictive prosecution of the
earl of Argyll, arousing further hostility in the duke, while the
same year he was challenged to a duel by Monmouth, who
attributed to him his disgrace.
His short tenure of power ended with the return of James in
May. Outwardly he still retained the king's favour and was
advanced to a marquisate (Aug. 17) and to the office of
lord privy seal (Oct. 25). Being still a member of the
administration he must share responsibility for the attack now
made upon the municipal franchises, a violation of the whole
system of representative government, especially as the new
charters passed his office. In January 1684 he was one of the
commissioners " who supervise all things concerning the city
and have turned out those persons who are whiggishly inclined "
(N. LuttrelPs Diary, i. 295). He made honourable but vain
endeavours to save Algernon Sidney and Lord Russell. " My
Lord Halifax," declared Tillotson in his evidence before the
later inquiry, " showed a very compassionate concern for my
Lord Russell and all the readiness to serve them that could be
wished."' The Rye-House Plot, in which it was sought to
implicate them, was a disastrous blow to his policy, and in
order to counteract its consequences he entered into somewhat
perilous negotiations with Monmouth, and endeavoured to
effect his reconciliation with the king. On the 1 2th of February
1684, he procured the release of his old antagonist, Lord Danby.
Shortly afterwards his influence at the court revived. Charles
was no longer in receipt of his French pension and was beginning
to tire of James and Rochester. The latter, instead of becoming
lord treasurer, was, according to the epigram of Halifax which
has become proverbial, " kicked upstairs," to the office of lord
president of the council. Halifax now worked to establish
intimate relations between Charles and the prince of Orange and
opposed the abrogation of the recusancy laws. In a debate in
the cabinet of November 1684, on the question of the grant of
a fresh constitution to the New England colonies, he urged with
great warmth " that there could be no doubt whatever but that
the same laws which are in force in England should also be
established in a country inhabited by Englishmen and that an
absolute government is neither so happy nor so safe as that
which is tempered by laws and which sets bounds to the authority
of the prince," and declared that he could not " live under a king
who should have it in his power to take, whenever he thought
proper, the money he has in his pocket." The opinions thus
expressed were opposed by all the other ministers and highly
censured by Louis XIV., James and Judge Jeffreys.
At the accession of James he was immediately deprived of all
power and relegated to the presidency of the council. He showed
no compliance, like other Lords, with James's Roman Catholic
preferences. He was opposed to the parliamentary grant to the
king of a revenue for life; he promoted the treaty of alliance
with the Dutch in August 1685; he expostulated with the king
on the subject of the illegal commissions in the army given to
Roman CathoKcs; and finally, on his firm refusal to support the
repeal of the Test and Habeas Corpus Acts, he was dismissed,
and his name was struck out of the list of the privy council
(Oct. 1685). He corresponded with the prince of Orange,
conferred with Dykveldt, the latter's envoy, but held aloof
from plans which aimed at the prince's personal interference in
English affairs. In 1687 he published the famous Letter to a
Dissenter, in which he warns the Nonconformists against being
beguiled by the " Indulgence " into joining the court party,
sets in a clear light the fatal results of such a step, and reminds
them that under their next sovereign their grievances would in
2 Hist. MSS. Comm. House of Lords MSS. 1689-1690, p. 287.
HALIF4
all probability be satisfied by the law. The tract,
received general and unqualified admiration, must
amongst the few known writings which have a*
immediately altered the course of history* Copies tc
of 20,000 were circulated through the kingdom, and
was convinced of the wisdom of remaining faithful V
traditions and liberties. He took the popular side o
of the trial of the bishops in June 1686, visited
Tower, and led the cheers with which the verdict 0/
was received in court; but the same month he.
signing the invitation to William, and publicly.
share in the prince's plans* On the contrary 1
court and refused any credence to the report tha
to James was supposititious. After the landii
was present at the council called by James
November. He urged the king to grant larg>
his speech, in contrast to the harsh and ov
of the Hydes, was " the most tender and
ever was heard." He accepted the mission
and Godolphin to treat with William a'
succeeded in obtaining moderate terms fro
negotiations, however, were abortive, for
first resolved on flight. In the crisis whi/
country was left without a government, I
He presided over the council of Lords whw
immediate measures to maintain public <
of James to London on the 16th of Nove
at Faversham, Halifax repaired to William- ,
forth attached himself unremittingly to his cause. *«-.
1 7th he carried with Lords Delamere and Shrewsbury a message
from William to the king advising his departure from London,
and, after the king's second flight, directed the proceedings of
the executive. On the meeting of the convention on the 22nd
of January 1689, he was formally elected speaker of the House
of Lords. He voted against the motion for a regency (Jan.
20), which was only defeated by two votes. The moderate
and comprehensive character of the settlement at the revolution
plainly shows his guiding hand, and it was finally through his
persuasion that the Lords yielded to the Commons and agreed
to the compromise whereby William and Mary were declared
joint sovereigns. On the 13th of February in the Banqueting
House at Whitehall, he tendered the crown to them in the name
of the nation, and conducted the proclamation of their accession
in the city.
At the opening of the new reign he had considerable influence,
was made lord privy seal, while Danby his rival was obliged to
content himself with the presidency of the council, and con-
trolled the appointments to the new cabinet which were made on
a " trimming " or comprehensive basis. His views on religious
toleration were as wide as those of the new king. He championed
the claims of the Nonconformists a^ against the high or rigid
Church party, and he was bitterly disappointed at the miscarriage
of the Comprehension Bill. He thoroughly approved also at
first of William's foreign policy; but, having excited the hostility
of both the Whig and Tory parties, he now became exposed to
a series of attacks in parliament which finally drove him from
power. He was severely censured, as it seems quite unjustly,
for the disorder in Ireland, and an attempt was made to. impeach
him for his conduct with, regard to the sentences on the Whig
leaders. The inquiry resulted in his favour; but notwithstand-
ing, and in spite of the king's continued support, he determined
to retire. He had already resigned the speakership of the House
of Lords, and he now (Feb. 8, 1600) quitted his place in
the cabinet. He still nominally retained his seat in the privy
council, but in parliament he became a bitter critic of the
administration; and the rivalry of Halifax (the Black Marquess)
with Danby, now marquess of Carmarthen (the White Marquess)
threw the former at this time into determined opposition. He
disapproved of William's total absorption in European politics,
and his open partiality for his countrymen. In January 1691
Halifax had an interview with Henry Bulkeley, the Jacobite
agent, and is said to have promised " to do everything that lay
IF AX
843
X
/*
^
«-7
'adies' college, several convents, a Presbyterian theological
&e and Dalhousie University, with faculties of arts, law,
& $ie and science. Established by charter in 1818 by the
a £ £)alhousie, then lieutenant governor, and reorganized
3 £ £ '£,has since become much the most important seat of
5 3 C ^ Ve maritime provinces. Other prominent buildings
* & S* S^o ^f* House, the provincial parliament and library,
4? P * ©* |?* tnolic cathedral. St Paul's church (Anglican)
S 3 "5 ©" § £ *.$*nd though not striking architecturally, is
60s SSS'SS^ memorial tablets and the graves of celebrated
5^2°*3 l^ 1 contains. The city is the seat of the
**""~** ) ~~ *»"*-•• ' Prince Edward Island, and
Cornwallis as a rival
__ g in Cape Breton, it was named
8 1- ^dent of the board of trade and
as
IN* 3 I? e 3£ »,, ff if -o S «• Sdent °* the board of trade a
S r £ * » § § S I S E S M * * * superseded Annapolis
borough
from
Mm * £ o P a Northern
^ffffJS^the
*§P
principles as tu* ^ .
which chiefly influenced his p**,.
differed essentially from those of both p*.w^
with regard to the Whigs or Tories was thus by nece&nu,
tinuaUy changing. Measures, too, which in certain circumstances
appeared to him advisable, when the political scene had changed
became unwise or dangerous. Thus the regency scheme, which
Halifax had supported while Charles still reigned, was opposed
by him with perfect consistency at the revolution. He readily
accepted for himself the character of a " trimmer," desiring, he
said, to keep the boat steady, while others attempted to weigh
it down perilously on one side or the other; and he concluded
his tract with these assertions: " that our climate is a Trimmer
between that part of the world where men are roasted and the
other where they are frozen; that our Church is a Trimmer
between the frenzy of fanatic visions and the lethargic ignorance
of Popish dreams; that our laws are Trimmers between the
excesses of unbounded power and the extravagance of liberty
not enough restrained; that true virtue hath ever been thought
a Trimmer, and to have its dwelling in the middle between two
extremes; that even God Almighty Himself is divided between
His two great attributes, His Mercy and His Justice. In such
company, our Trimmer is not ashamed of his name. . . ." l
His powerful mind enabled him to regard the various political
problems of his time from a height and from a point of view
similar to that from which distance from the events enables us
to consider them at the present day; and the superiority of his
vision appears sufficiently from the fact that his opinions and
judgments on the political questions of his time are those which
for the most part have ultimately triumphed and found general
acceptance. His attitude of min*^ was curiously modern. 2
Reading, writing and arithmetic, he thinks, should be taught to
all and at the expense of the state. His opinions again on the
constitutional relations of the colonies to the mother country,
already cited, were completely opposed to those of his own
period. For that view of his character which while allowing him
the merit of a brilliant political theorist denies him the qualities
of a man of action and of a practical politician, there is no solid
basis. The truth is that while his political ideas are founded
upon great moral or philosophical generalizations, often vividly
1 Character of a Trimmer, conclusion.
2 Saviliana quoted by, Fo*croft i. 115,
xii. 27 a
842
HALIFAX, ist MARQUESS
recalling and sometimes anticipating the broad conceptions of
Burke, they are at the same time imbued with precisely those
practical qualities which have ever been characteristic of English
statesmenship, and were always capable of application to actual
conditions. He was no star-gazing philosopher, with thoughts
superior to the contemplation of mundane affairs. He had no
taste for abstract political dogma. He seems to venture no
further than to think that "men should live in some competent
state of freedom/* and that the limited monarchical and
aristocratic government was the best adapted for his country.
" Circumstances," he writes in the Rough Draft of a New Model
at Sea, " must come in and are to be made a part of the matter
of which we are to judge; positive decisions are always dangerous,
more especially in politics." Nor was he the mere literary
student buried in books and in contemplative ease. He had
none of the " indecisiveness which commonly renders literary
men of no use in the world " (Sir John Dalrymple) . The incidents
of his career show that there was no backwardness or hesitation
in acting when occasion required. The constant tendency of
his mind towards antithesis and the balancing of opinions did
not lead to paralysis in time of action. He did not shrink from
responsibility, nor show on any occasion lack of courage. At
various times of crisis he proved himself a great leader. He
returned to public life to defeat the Exclusion Bill. At the
revolution it was Halifax who seized the reins of government,
flung away by James, and maintained public security. His
subsequent failure in collaborating with William is, it is true,
disappointing. But the cause was one that has not perhaps
received sufficient attention. Party government had come to
the birth during the struggles over the Exclusion Bill, and there
had been unconsciously introduced into politics a novel element
of which the nature and importance were not understood or
suspected. Halifax had consistently ignored and neglected
party; and it now had its revenge. Detested by the Whigs and
by the Tories alike, and defended by neither, the favour alone of
the king and his own transcendent abilities proved insufficient
to withstand the constant and violent attacks made upon him
in parliament, and he yielded to the superior force. He seems
indeed himself to have been at last convinced of the necessity
in English political life of party government, for though in his
Cautions to electors he warns them against men "tied to a
party," yet in his last words he declares " If there are two parties
a man ought to adhere to that which he disliked least though in
the whole he doth not approve it; for whilst he doth not list
himself in one or the other party, he is looked upon as such a
straggler that he is fallen upon by both. . . . Happy those that
are convinced so as to be of the general opinions " (Political
Thoughts and Reflections of Parties).
The private character of Lord Halifax was in harmony with
the greatness of his public career. He was by no means the
" voluptuary " described by Macaulay. He was on the contrary
free from self-indulgence; his manner of life was decent and
frugal, and his dress proverbially simple. He was an affectionate
father and husband. " His heart," says Burnet (i. 492-493,
ed. 1833), " was much set on raising his family " — his last concern
even while on his deathbed was the remarriage of his son
Lord Eland to perpetuate his name; and this is probably the
cause of his acceptance of so many titles for which he himself
affected a philosophical indifference. He was estimable in his
social relations and habits. He showed throughout his career
an honourable independence/'and was never seen to worship the
rising sun. In a period when even great men stooped to accept
bribes, Halifax was known to be incorruptible; at a time when
animosities were especially bitter, he was too great a man to
harbour resentments. " Not only from policy," says Reresby
(Mem. p. 231), " (which teaches that we ought to let no man
be our enemy when we can help it), but from his disposition I
never saw any man more ready to forgive than himself." Few
were insensible to his personal charm and gaiety. He excelled
especially in quick repartee; in " exquisite nonsense," and in
spontaneous humour. When quite a young man, just entering
upon political life he is described by Evelyn as " a witty gentle-
man, if not a little too prompt and daring." The latter cha-
racteristic was not moderated by time but remained through life.
He was incapable of controlling his spirit of raillery, from jests
on Siamese missionaries to sarcasms at the expense of the heir
to the throne and ridicule of hereditary monarchy, and his
brilliant paradoxes, his pungent and often profane epigrams
were received by graver persons as his real opinions and as
evidences of atheism; This latter charge he repudiated, assuring
Burnet that he was " a Christian in submission," but that he
could not digest iron like an ostrich nor swallow all that the
divines sought to impose upon the world. ■> .
The speeches of Halifax have not been preserved, and his
political writings on this account have all the greater value.
The Character of a Trimmer (1684 or 1685), the authorship of
which, long doubtful, is now established, 1 was his most ambitious
production, written seemingly as advice to the king and as a
manifesto of his own opinions. In it he discusses the political
problems of the time and their solution on broad principles.
He supports the Test Act and, while opposing the Indulgence,
is not hostile to the repeal of the penal laws against the Roman
Catholics by parliament. Turning to foreign affairs he contem-
plates with consternation the growing power of France and the
humiliation of England, exclaiming indignantly at the sight of
the " Roses blasted and discoloured while lilies triumph and
grow insolent upon the comparison." The whole is a masterly
and comprehensive summary of the actual political situation and
its exigencies; while, when he treats such themes as liberty,
or discusses the balance to be maintained between freedom and
government in the constitution, he rises to the political idealism
of Bolingbroke and Burke. The Character of King Charles II.
(printed 1750), to be compared with his earlier sketch of the king
in the Character of a Trimmer, is perhaps from the literary point
of view the most admirable of his writings. The famous Letter
to a Dissenter (1687) was thought by Sir James Mackintosh to
be unrivalled as a political pamphlet. The Lady's New Year's
Gift: or Advice to a Daughter, refers to his daughter Elizabeth,
afterwards wife of the 3rd and mother of the celebrated 4th earl
of Chesterfield (1688). In The Anatomy of an Equivalent (1688)
he treats with keen wit and power of analysis the proposal to
grant a " perpetual edict " in favour of the Established Church
in return for the repeal of the test and penal laws. Maxims of
State appeared about 1692. The Rough Draft of a New Model
at Sea (c. 1694), though apparently only a fragment, is one of the
most interesting and characteristic of his writings. It opens
with the question: "'What shall we do to be saved in this world? 1
There is no other answer but this, ' Look to your moat.' The
first article of an Englishman's political creed must be that he
believeth in the sea." He discusses the naval establishment,
not from the naval point of view alone, but from the general
aspect of the constitution of which it is a detail, and is thus led
on to consider the nature of the constitution itself, and to show
that it is not an artificial structure but a growth and product
of the natural character. We may also mention Some Cautions
to the electors of the parliament (1694), and Political, Moral and
Miscellaneous Thoughts and Reflections (n.d.), a coDection of
aphorisms in the style of the maxims of La Rochefoucauld,
inferior in style — but greatly excelling the French author in
breadth of view and in moderation. (For other writings
attributed to Halifax, see Foxcroft, Life of Sir G. Savtie, ii.
529 sqq.).
Halifax Was twice married, first in 1656 to the Lady Dorothy
Spencer-— daughter of the ist earl of Sunderland and of Dorothy
Sidney, " Sacharissa " — who died in 1670, leaving a family; and
secondly, in 1672, to Gertrude, daughter of William Pierrepont
of Thoresby, who survived him, and by whom he had one
daughter, Elizabeth, Lady Chesterfield, who seems to have in-
herited a considerable portion of her father's intellectual abilities.
On the death of his son William, 2nd marquess of Halifax, in
August 1700 without male issue, the peerage became extinct,
and the baronetcy passed to the Saviles of Lupset, the whole
1 Foxcroft, ii. 273 et seq., and Hist. MSS. Comm. MSS. of F. W.
Leyborne-Popham, p. 264.
HALIFAX
843
male line of the Savile family ending in the person of Sir George
Savile, 8th baronet, in 1784. Henry Savile, British envoy at
Versailles, who died unmarried in 1687, was a younger brother
of the first marquess. Halifax has been generally supposed to
have been the father of the illegitimate Henry Carey, the poet,
but this is doubtful.
See Life and Letters of Sir George Savile, 1st Marquis of Halifax
(2 vols., 1898), by Miss H. C. Foxcroft, who has collected and made
excellent use of all the material available at that date, including
hitherto unexplored Savile MSS., at Devonshire House, in the
Spencer Archives, in the Longleat and other collections, and who
has edited the works of Halifax and printed a memorandum of
conversations with King William of 1688-1690, left in MS. by Halifax.
Macaulay, in his History of England, misjudged Halifax on some
points, but nevertheless understood and did justice to the greatness
of his statesmanship, and pronounced on him a well-merited and
eloquent eulogy (iv. 545). Contemporary characters of Halifax
which must be accepted with caution are Burnet's in the History of
His Own Times (ed. 1833. vol. i. pp. 49 I "493. and iv. 268), that by the
author of " Savilianal, identified as William Mompesson, and
" Sacellum Apollinare," a panegyric in verse by Elkanah Settle
(1695). , • (P.C.Y.)
HALIFAX, a city and port of entry, capital of the province of
Nova Scotia, Canada. It is situated in 44° 59' N. and 63 35' W.,
on the south-east coast of the province, on a fortified hill, 225 ft.
in height, which slopes down to the waters of Chebucto Bay,
now known as Halifax Harbour. The harbour, which is open all
the year, is about 6 m. long by 1 m. in width, and has excellent
anchorage in all parts; to the north a narrow passage connects
it with Bedford Basin, 6 m. in length by 4 m.,ajad deep enough
for the largest men-of-war. At the harbour mouth lies McNab's
Island, thus forming two entrances; the eastern passage is
only employed by small vessels, though in 1862 the Confederate
cruiser, " Tallahassee," slipped through by night, and escaped
the northern vessels which were watching off the western
entrance. The population in 1901 was 40,832.
The town was originally built of wood, plastered or stuccoed,
but though the wooden houses largely remain, the public buildings
are of stone. Inferior in natural strength to Quebec alone, the
city and its approaches have been fortified till it has become
the strongest position in Canada, and one of the strongest in the
British Empire. Till 1906 it was garrisoned by British troops,
but in that year, with Esquimalt, on the Pacific coast, it was
taken over by the Canadian government, an operation necessitat-
ing a large increase in the Canadian permanent military force.
At the same time, the royal dockyard, containing a dry-dock
6 to ft. in length, and the residences in connexion, were also taken
over for the use of the department of marine and fisheries.
Till 1905 Halifax was the summer station of the British North
American squadron. In that year, in consequence of a. redis-
tribution of the fleet, the permanent North American squadron
was withdrawn; but Halifax is still > visited periodically by
powerful squadrons of cruisers.
Though, owing to the growth of Sydney and other outports,
it no longer monopolizes the foreign trade of the province,
Halifax is still a thriving town, and has the largest export trade
of the Dominion in fish and fish products, the export of fish
alone, in 1004, amounting to over three-fifths that of the entire
Dominion. Lumber (chiefly spruce deals) and agricultural pro-
ducts (especially apples) are also exported in large quantities.
The chief imports are manufactures from Great Britain and
the United States, and sugar, molasses, rum and fruit from the
West Indies. Its industrial establishments include foundries,
sugar refineries, manufactures of furniture and other articles of
wood, a skate factory and rope and cordage works, the produce
of which are all exported. It is the Atlantic terminus of the
Intercolonial, Canadian Pacific and several provincial railways,
and the chief winter port of Canada, numerous steamship lines
connecting it with Great Britain, Europe, the West Indies and
the United States. The public gardens, covering 14 acres, and
Point Pleasant Park, left 'to a great extent in its natural state,
are extremely beautiful. Behind the city is an arm of the sea
(known as the North- West Arm) , 5 m. in length and 1 m. in breadth,
with high, well-wooded shores, and covered in summer with
canoes and sailing craft. The educational institutions include
a ladies' college, several convents, a Presbyterian theological
college and Dalhousie University, with faculties of arts, law,
medicine and science. Established by charter in 1818 by the
earl of Dalhousie, then lieutenant governor, and reorganized
in 1863, it has since become much the most important seat of
learning in the maritime provinces. Other prominent buildings
are Government House, the provincial parliament and library,
and the Roman Catholic cathedral. St Paul's church (Anglican)
dates from 1750, and though not striking architecturally, is
interesting from the memorial tablets and the graves of celebrated
Nova Scotians which it contains. The city is the seat of the
Anglican bishop of Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island, and
of the Roman Catholic bishop of Halifax.
Founded in 1749 by the Hon. Edward Cornwallis as a rival
to the French town of Louisburg in Cape Breton, it was named
after the 2nd earl of Halifax, president of the board of trade and
plantations. In the following year it superseded Annapolis as
capital of the province. Its privateers played a prominent part
in the war of 1812-15 with the United States, and during the
American Civil War it was a favourite base of operations for
Confederate blockade-runners. The federation of the North
American provinces in 1867 lessened its relative importance,
but its merchants have gradually adapted themselves to the
altered conditions.
HALIFAX, a municipal, county and parliamentary borough
in the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 194 m. N.N.W. from
London and 7 m. S.W. from Bradford, on the Great Northern
and the Lancashire & Yorkshire railways. Pop. (1891), 97,714;
(1901) 104,956. It lies in a bare billy district on and above the
small river Hebble near its junction with the Calder. Its appear-
ance is in the main modern, though a few picturesque old nouses
remain. The North Bridge, a fine iron structure, spans the
valley, giving connexion between the opposite higher parts of
the town. The principal public building is the town hall,
completed in 1863 after the designs of Sir Charles Barry; it is
a handsome Palladian building with a tower. Of churches the
•most noteworthy is that of St John the Baptist, the parish church,
a Perpendicular building with lofty western tower. Two earlier
churches are traceable on this side, the first perhaps pre-Norman,
the second of the Early English period. The old woodwork is
fine, part being Perpendicular, but the greater portion dates
from 162 1. All Souls' church was built in 1859 from the designs
of Sir Gilbert Scott, of whose work it is a good example, at the
expense of Mr Edward Akroyd. The style is early Decorated,
and a rich ornamentation is 7 carried out in Italian marble,
serpentine! and alabastef . A graceful tower and spire 236 ft.
high rise at the north-west angle. The Square chapel, erected
by the CongregationaliBts in 1857, is a striking cruciform building
with a tower and elaborate crocketed spire. Both the central
library and museum and the Akroyd museum and art gallery
occupy buildings which were formerly residences, the one of
Sir Francis Crossley (181 7-187 2) and the other of Mr Edward
Akroyd. Among charitable institutions the principal is the
handsome royal infirmary, a Renaissance building: The Heath
grammar school was founded in 1585 under royal charter for
instruction in classical languages. It possessed close scholarships
at Oxford and Cambridge universities. The Waterhouse charity
school occupies a handsome set of buildings forming three sides
of a quadrangle, erected in 1855. Hie Crossley almshouses were
erected and endowed by Sir f rancis and Mr Joseph Crossley,
who also endowed the Crossley orphan home and school.
Technical schools are maintained by the corporation. Among
other public buildings may be noted the Piece-Hall, erected
iir 1799 for the lodgment and sale of piece goods, now used as a
market, a great quadrangular structure occupying more than
two acres; the bonding warehouse, court-house, and mechanics'
institute. There are six parks, of which the People's Park of
12$ acres, presented by Sir Francis Crossley in 1858, is laid out
in ornate style from designs by Sir Joseph Paxton.
Halifax ranks- with Leeds, Bradford and Huddersfield as a
seat of the woollen and worsted manufacture. The manufacture
of carpets is a large industry, one 'establishment employing some
844
HALISAH— HALKETT
5000 bands. The worsted, woollen and cotton industries, and
the iron, steel and machinery manufactures are very ex-
tensive. There are collieries and freestone quarries in the
neighbourhood.
The parliamentary borough returns two members. The
county borough was created in 1888. The municipal borough
is under a mayor, 15 aldermen and 45 councillors. Area,
13,967 acres.
At the time of the Conquest Halifax formed part of the
extensive manor of Wakefield, which belonged to the king, but
in the 13th century was in the hands of John, earl Warrenne
(c. 1 245-1305). The prosperity of the town began with the
introduction of the cloth trade in the 15th century, when there
are said to have been only thirteen houses, which before the end
of the 16th century had increased to 520. Camden, about the
end of the 17th century, wrote that " the people are very in-
dustrious, so that though the soil about it be barren and unprofit-
able, not fit to live on, they have so flourished ... by the
clothing trade that they are very rich and have gained a reputa-
tion for it above their neighbours." The trade is said to have
been increased by the arrival of certain merchants driven from
the Netherlands by the persecution of the duke of Alva. Among
the curious customs of Halifax was the. Gibbet Law, which was
probably established by a prescriptive right to protect the wool
trade, and gave the inhabitants the power of executing any one
taken within their liberty, who, when tried by a jury of sixteen
of the frith-burgesses, was found guilty of the theft of any goods
of the value of more than 13d. The executions took place on
market days on a hill outside the town, the gibbet somewhat
resembling a guillotine. The first execution recorded under this
law took place in 1541, and the right was exercised in Halifax
longer than in any other town, the last execution taking place
in 1650. In 1635 the king granted the inhabitants of Halifax
licence to found a workhouse in a large house given to them for
that purpose by Nathaniel Waterhouse, and incorporated them
under the name of the master and governors. Nathaniel Water-
house was appointed the first master, his successors being elected
every year by the twelve governors from among themselves.
Halifax was a borough by prescription, its privileges growing
up with the increased prosperity brought by the cloth trade,
but it was not incorporated until 1848. Since the Reform Act
of 1832 the burgesses have returned two members to parliament.
In 1607 David Waterhouse, lord of the manor of Halifax,
obtained a grant of two markets there every week on Friday
and Saturday and two fairs every year, each lasting three, days,
one beginning on the 24th of June, the other on the nth of
November. Later these fairs and markets were confirmed with
the addition of an extra market on Thursday to Sir William
Ayloffe,. baronet, who. had succeeded David Waterhouse as lord
of the manor. The market rights were sold to the Markets ,
Company in 1810 and purchased from them by the corporation
in 1853. I
During the -Civil War Halifax was garrisoned by parliament,
«nd a field near it is still called the Bloody Field on account of
an engagement which took place there between the forces of
parliament and the Royalists.
See Victoria County History, "Yorkshire"; T. Wright, The
Antiquities «/ the Town of Halifax (Leeds, 1738); John Watson,
The History and Antiquities of the Parish of Halifax (London, 1775) ;
John Crabtree, A Concise History of the Parish and Vicarage of
Halifax (Halifax and London, 1836).
9ALIJIAH (Hebrew, wh% "untying"), the ceremony by
which a Jewish widow releases her brother-in-law from the
obligation to marry her in accordance, with Deuteronomy xxv.
5-10, and obtains her own freedom to remarry. By the law
of Moses it became obligatory upon the brother of a man
dying childless to take his widow as wife* If he refused, " then
shall his brother's wife come unto him in the presence of the
elders and loose his. shoe from off his foot, and spit in his face,
and shall answer and say, So shall it.be done unto, that man that
will not build up his brother's house." By Rabbinical law the
ceremony was later made more complex. The parties appear
before a court of three elders with two assessors. The place is
usually the synagogue house, or that of the Rabbi, sometimes
that of the widow. After inquiry as to the relationship of the
parties and their status (for if either be a minor or deformed,
balisah cannot take place), the shoe is produced. It is usually
the property of the community and made entirely of leather
from the skin of a " clean " animal. It is of two pieces, the upper
part and the sole, sewn together with leathern threads. It has
three small straps in front, and two white straps to bind it on
the leg. After it is strapped on, the man must walk four cubits
in the presence of the court. The widow then ldosens and
removes the shoe, throwing it some distance, and spits on the
ground, repeating thrice the Biblical formula "So shall it be
done," &c. IJalisah, which is still common among orthodox
Jews, must not take place on the Sabbath, a holiday, or the eve
of either, or in the evening. To prevent brothers-in-law from
extorting money from a widow as a price for releasing her from
perpetual widowhood, Jewish law obliges all brothers at the time
of a marriage to sign a document pledging themselves to submit
to halisa h .wi thout payment. (Compare Levirate).
HALKETT, HUGH, Freiherr von (1 783-1 863), British
soldier and general of infantry in the Hanoverian service, was the
second son of Major-General F. G. Halkett, who had served
many years in the army, and whose ancestors had for several
generations distinguished themselves in foreign services. With
the " Scotch Brigade " which his father had been largely instru-
mental in raising, Hugh Halkett served in India from 1708 to
1 801 . In 1 803 his elder brother Colin was appointed to command
a battalion of the newly formed King's German Legion, and in
this he became senior captain and then major. Under his
brother's command he served with Cathcart's expeditions to
Hanover, Rtigen and Copenhagen, where his bold initiative on
outpost duty won commendation. He was in the Peninsula in
1808-1800, and at Walcheren. At Albuera, Salamanca, &c, he
commanded the 2nd Light Infantry Battalion, K.G.L., in suc-
cession to his brother, and at Venta del Pozo in the Burgos
retreat he greatly distinguished himself. In 1813 he left the
Peninsula and was subsequently employed in the organization
of the new Hanoverian army. He led a brigade of these troops
in Count Wallmoden's army, and bore a marked part in the battle
of Gohrde and the action of Schestedt, where he took with his
own hand a Danish standard. In the Waterloo campaign he
commanded two brigades of Hanoverian militia which were sent
to the front with the regulars, and during the fight with the
Old Guard captured General Cambronne. After the fall of
Napoleon he elected to stay in the Hanoverian service, though
he retained his half-pay lieutenant~colonelcy in the English army.
He rose to be general and inspector-general of infantry. In his
old age he led the Xth Federal Army Corps in the Danish War
of 1 848, and defeated the Danes at Oversee. He had the G .C.H .,
the C.B. and many foreign orders, including the Prussian
order of the Black Eagle and pour le M trite and the Russian
St Anne.
See Knesebeck, Leben des Freiherrn Hugh von Halkett (Stuttgart,
1865).
His brother, SrR Colin Halkett (1774-1856), British soldier,
began his military career in the Dutch Guards and served in
various " companies " for three years, leaving as a captain in
1795. From 1800 to the peace of Amiens he served with the
Dutch troops in English pay in Guernsey. In August 1803
Halkett was one of the first officers assigned to the service of
raising the King's German Legion, and he became major, and
later lieutenant-colonel, commanding the 2nd Light Infantry
Battalion. His battalion was employed in the various expedi-
tions mentioned above, from Hanover to Walcheren, and in 18 n
Colin Halkett succeeded Charles Alten in the command of the
Light Brigade, K.G.L., which he held throughout the Peninsula
War from Albuera to Toulouse. In 18 x 5 Major-General Sir Colin
Halkett commanded the 5th British Brigade of Alten's division,
and at Waterloo he received four wounds. Unlike his brother,
he remained in the British service, in which he rose to
general. At the time of his death he was governor of Chelsea
HALU, BASIL— HALL, CARL
Hs
hospital; He had honorary generals rank in the Hanoverian
service, the G.CB. and G.C.H. S as well as numerous foreign
orders.
For information* about both the Halketts, see Beamish, History
of the King's German Legion (1832).
HALL, BASIL (1788-1844), British naval officer, traveller and
miscellaneous writer, was born at Edinburgh on the 31st of
December 1 788. His father was Sir James Hall of Dungiase, the
geologist. Basil Hall was educated at the High School, Edinburgh,
and in 1802 entered the navy, where he rose to the rank of post-
captain in 181 7, after seeing active service in several fields.
By observing the ethnological as well as the physical peculiarities
of the countries he visited, he collected the materials for a very
large number of scientific papers. In 18 16 he commanded the
sloop " Lyra," which accompanied Lord Amherst's embassy to
China; and he described his cruise in An Account of a Voyage of
Discovery to the West Coast of Corea and the Great Loo-ckvo Island
in the Japan Sea (London, 1818) . In 1820 he held a command on
the Pacific coast of America, and in 1824 published two volumes
of Extracts front a Journal written on the Coasts of Chili, Peru and
Mexico in the Years 1820-21-22. Retiring on half-pay in 1824,
Hall in 1825 married Margaret, daughter of Sir John Hunter, and
in her company travelled (1 827-1828) through the United States*
In 1829 he published his Travels in North America in the Years
1827 and 1828, which was assailed by the American press for its
views of American society. Schloss Hainfeld, or a Winter in
Lower Styria (1836), is partly a romance, partly a description
of a visit paid by the author to the castle of the countess Purg-
stall. Spain and the Seat of War in Spain appeared in 1837.
The Fragments of Voyages and Travels (9 vols.) were issued in
three detachments between 1831 and 1840. Captain Hall was a
fellow of the Royal Societies of London and Edinburgh, and
of the Royal Astronomical, Royal Geographical and Geological
Societies. His last work, a collection of sketches and tales under
the name of Patchwork (1841), had not been long published before
its author became insane, and he died in Haslar hospital, Ports-
mouth, on the nth of September 1844.
HALL, CARL CHRISTIAN (181 2-1888), Danish statesman, son
of the highly respected artisan and train-band colonel Mads Hall,
was born at Christianshavn on the 25th of February 181 2.
After a distinguished career at school and college, he adopted the
law as his profession, and in 1837 married the highly gifted but
eccentric Augusta Marie, daughter of the philologist Peter Oluf
Brdndsted. A natural conservatism indisposed Hall at first to
take any part in the popular movement of 1848, to which almost
all his friends had already adhered; but the moment he was con-
vinced of the inevitability of popular government, he resolutely
and sympathetically followed in the new paths. Sent to the
Rigsforsamlimg of 1848 as member for the first district of Copen*
hagen, a constituency he continued to represent m the Folketmg
till 1881, he immediately took his place in the front rank of
Danish politicians. From the first he displayed rare ability as
a debater, his inspiring and yet amiable personality attracted
hosts of admirers, while his extraordinary tact and temper
disarmed opposition and enabled him to mediate between
extremes without ever sacrificing principles.,
Hall was not altogether satisfied with the fundamental law of
June; but he considered it expedient to make the best use
possible of the existing constitution and to unite the best con-
servative elements of the nation in its defence. The aloofness
and sulkiness of the aristocrats and landed proprietors he
deeply deplored. Failing to rally them, to the good cause he
determined anyhow to organize the great cultivated middle class
into a political party. Hence the " June Union,' 7 whose pro-
gramme was progress and reform in the spirit of the constitution,
and at the same time opposition to the one-sided democratism
and party-tyranny of the Bandevenner or peasant party. The
" Union " exercised an essential influence on the elections of
1852, and was, in fact, the beginning of the national Liberal
party, which found its natural leader in Hall. During the years
1852-1854 the burning question of the day was the connexion
between the various parts' of the' monarchy. Hall was " eider-
dansk" by conviction. He saw in the closest possible union
■between the kingdom and a Schleswig freed from all risk of
German interference the essential condition for Denmark's
independence; but he did not think that Denmark was strong
enough to carry such a policy through unsupported, and he
was therefore inclined to promote it by diplomatic means and
international combinations, and strongly opposed to the Con-
ventions of 1851-185* (See Dknmawl: History), though- he was
among the first, subsequently, to accept them as an established
fact and the future basis for Denmark's policy.
Hall first took office in the Bang administration (12th of
December 1854)' as minister of public worship. In May 1857
he became president of the council' after Andrae, Bang's suc-
cessor, had retired, and in July 1858 he exchanged the ministry
of public worship for the ministry of foreign- affairs, while still
retaining the premiership.
Hall's/ programme, "den Konstitutionelle Helstat," i.e. a
single state with a common constitution, was difficult enough
in a monarchy which included two nationalities, one of which,
to a great extent, belonged to a foreign and hostile jurisdiction.
But as this political monstrosity had already been guaranteed
by the Conventions of 1851-1852, Hall could not rid himselt
of it, and the attempt to establish this' " Helstat " was made
accordingly by the Constitution of the 13 th of November 1863.
The failure of the attempt and its disastrous consequences for
Denmark are described elsewhere. Here it need only be said that
Hall himself soon became aware of the impossibility of the
" Helstat," and his whole policy aimed at making its absurdity
patent to Europe, and substituting for it a constitutional Den-
mark to the Eider which would be in a position to come to terms
with, an independent Holstein. That this was the best thing
possible for Denmark is absolutely indisputable, and "the
diplomatic Seven Years' War" which Hall in the meantime
conducted with all the powers interested in the question is the
most striking proof of his superior statesmanship. Hall knew
that in the last resort the question must be decided not by the
pen but by the sword. But he relied, ultimately, on the pro-
tection of the powers which had guaranteed the integrity of
Denmark by the treaty of London, and if words have any
meaning at all he had the right to expect at the very least the
armed support of Great Britain. 1 Bxit the great German powers
and the force of circumstances proved too strong for him. On
the accession of the new king, Christian IX., Hall resigned rather
than repeal the November Constitution, which gave Denmark
something to negotiate upon in case of need. But he made
matters as easy as he could for his successors in the Monrad
administration, and the ultimate catastrophe need not have
been as serious as it was had his advice, frankly given, been
intelligently followed.
After 1864 Hall bore more than his fair share of the odium
and condemnation which weighed so heavily Upon the national
Liberal party, making no attempt to repudiate responsibility
and refraining altogether from attacking patently unscrupulous
opponents. But his personal popularity suffered not the slightest
diminution, while his clear, almost intuitive, outlook and his
unconquerable faith in the future of his country made him, during
those difficult years, a factor of incalculable importance in the
public life of Denmark. In 1870 he joined the Holstein-
Holsteinborg ministry as minister of public worship, and in
that capacity passed many useful educational reforms, but on
the fall of the administration, in 1873, he retired altogether
from public life. In the summer of 1870 Hall was struck down
by apoplexy, and for the remaining nine years of his life he
was practically bedridden. He died on the 14th of August
1888. In politics Hall was a practical, sagacious " opportunist,"
in the best sense of that much abused word, with an eye
rather for things than for persons. Moreover, he had no very
pronounced political ambition, and was an utter stranger
to that longing for power, which drives so many men of talent
to adopt extreme expedients. His urbanity And ' perfect
1 On this head see the 3rd marquess of Salisbury's Political Essays,
reprinted from the Quarterly Review.
8 4 6
HALL, C. F.— HALL, ISAAC
equilibrium at the very outset incited sympathy, while his wit
and humour made him the centre of every circle within which
he moved.
See Vilhelm Christian Sigurd Tops&e, Polit. Portraetstudier (Copen-
hagen, 1878); Schdller Parelius Vilhelm Birkedal, Personlige Ople-
velser (Copenhagen, 1890-1891), (R. N. B.)
HALL, CHARLES FRANCIS (1821-1871), American Arctic
explorer, was born at Rochester, New Hampshire. After
following the trade of blacksmith he became a journalist in
Cincinnati; but his enthusiasm for Arctic exploration led him
in 1859 to volunteer to the American Geographical Society
to " go in search for the bones of Franklin." With the proceeds
of a public subscription he was equipped for his expedition
and sailed in May i860 on board a whaling vessel. The whaler
being ice-bound, Hall took up his abode in the regions to the
north of Hudson Bay, where he found relics of Frobisher's
16th-century voyages, and living with the Eskimo for two years
he acquired a considerable knowledge^ their habits and lan-
guage. He published an account of these experiences under the
title of Arctic Researches, and Life among the Esquimaux (1864).
Determined, however, to learn more about the fate of the Franklin
expedition he returned to the same regions in 1864, and passing
five years among the* Eskimo was successful in obtaining a
number of Franklin relics, as well as information pointing to the
exact fate of 76 of the crew, whilst also performing some geo-
graphical work of interest. In 1871 he was given command of
the North Polar expedition fitted out by the United States
Government in the " Polaris." Making a remarkably rapid
passage up Smith Sound at the head of Baffin Bay, which was
found to be ice-free, the " Polaris " reached on the 30th of August
the lat. of 82 11', at that time, and until the English expedition
of 1876 the highest northern latitude attained by vessel. The
expedition went into winter quarters in a sheltered cove on the
Greenland coast. On the 24th of October, Hall on his return
from a successful sledge expedition to the north was suddenly
seized by an illness of which he died on the 8th of November.
Capt. S. 0. Buddington (1823-1888) assumed command, and
although the " Polaris " was subsequently lost after breaking
out of the ice, with only part of the crew aboard, the whole were
ultimately rescued, and the scientific results of the expedition
proved to be of considerable importance.
HALL, CHRISTOPHER NEWMAN (1816-1902), English
Nonconformist divine, was born at Maidstone on the 22nd of
May 1816. His father was John Vine Hall, proprietor and
printer of the Maidstone Journal, and the author of a popular
evangelical work called The Sinner's Friend. Christopher was
educated at University College, London, and took the London
B.A. degree. His theological training was gained at Highbury
College, whence he was called in 1842 to his first pastorate at
the Albion Congregational Church, Hull. During the twelve
years of his ministry there the membership was greatly increased,
and a branch chapel and school were opened. At Hull Newman
Hall first began his active work in temperance reform, and in
defence of his position wrote The Scriptural Claims of Teetotalism.
In 1854 he accepted a call to Surrey chapel, London, founded
in 1783 by the Rev. Rowland HilL A considerable sum had
been bequeathed by Hill for the perpetuation of his work on
the expiration of the lease; but, owing to some legal flaw in the
will, the money was not available, and Newman Hall undertook
to raise the necessary funds for a new church. By weekly
offertories and donations the money for the beautiful building
called Christ Church at the junction of the Kennington and
Westminster Bridge Roads was collected, and within four years
of opening (1876) the total cost (£63,000) was cleared. In 1892
Newman Hall resigned his charge and devoted himself to general
evangelical work. Most of his writings are small booklets or
tracts of a distinctly evangelical character. The best known
of these is Come to Jesus, of which over four million copies
have been circulated in forty different languages. Newman Hall
visited the United States during the Civil War, and did much
to promote a friendly understanding between England and
America. A Liberal in politics, and a keen admirer of John
Bright, few preachers of any denomination have exercised so
far-reaching an influence as the " Dissenters' Bishop," as he
came to be termed. He died on the 18th of February 1902.
See his Autobiography (1898); obituary notice in The Congrega~
tional Year Book for 1903.
HALL, EDWARD {c. 1498-1547), English chronicler and
lawyer, was born about the end of the 15th century, being a
son of John Hall of Northall, Shropshire. Educated at Eton
and King's College, Cambridge, he became a barrister and after-
wards filled the offices of common sergeant of the city of London
and judge of the sheriff's court. He was also member of parlia-
ment for Bridgnorth. Hall's great work, The Union of the Noble
and Illustre Famelies of Lancastre and York, commonly called
Hall's Chronicle, was first published in 1542. Another edition
was issued by Richard Grafton in 1548, the year after Hall's
death, and another in 1550; these include a continuation from
1532 compiled by Grafton from the author's notes. In 1809
an edition was published under the supervision of Sir Henry
Ellis, and in 1904 the part dealing with the reign of Henry VEIL
was edited by C. Whibley. The Chronicle begins with the
accession of Henry IV. to the English throne in 1399; it follows
the strife between the houses of Lancaster and York, and with
Grafton's continuation carries the story down to the death of
Henry VIII. in 1547. Hall presents the policy of this king in a
very favourable light and shows his own sympathy with the
Protestants. For all kinds of ceremonial he has all a lawyer's
respect, and his pages are often adorned and encumbered with
the pageantry and material garniture of the story. The value of
the Chronicle in its early stages is not great, but this increases
when dealing with the reign of Henry VII. and is very consider-
able for the reign of Henry VIII. Moreover, the work is not only
valuable, it is attractive. To the historian it furnishes what is
evidently, the testimony of ah eye-witness on several matters
of importance which are neglected by other narrators; and to
the student of literature it has the exceptional interest of being
one of the prime sources of Shakespeare's historical plays.
See J. Gairdner, Early Chroniclers of Europe; England (1879).
HALL, FITZEDWARD (1825-1901), American Orientalist,
was born in Troy, New York, on the 21st of March 1825. He
graduated with the degree of civil engineer from the Rensselaer
Polytechnic Institute at Troy in 1842, and entered Harvard in
the class of 1846; just before his class graduated he left college
and went to India in search of a runaway brother. In January
1850 he was appointed tutor, and in 1853 professor of Sanskrit
and English, in the government college at Benares; and in
1855 was made inspector of public instruction in Ajmere-Merwara
and in 1856 in the Central Provinces. He settled in England
in 1862 and received the appointment to the chair of Sanskrit,
Hindustani and Indian jurisprudence in King's College, London,
and to the librarianship of the India Office. He died at Maries-
ford, Suffolk, on the 1st of February 1001. Hall was the first
American to edit a Sanskrit text, the Vishnupurdna; his library
of a thousand Oriental MSS. he gave to Harvard University.
His works include: in Sanskrit, Atmabodha (1852), S&nkhya-
pr&oochana (1856), Saryasiddhdnta (1859), VasavadaUu (1859),
Sdnkhyas&ra (1862) and Dasarupa (1865); in Hindi, Ballantynes*
Hindi Grammar (1868) and a Reader (1870); on English philology,
~ ~ ' *~ " eking Richard
Adjectives in
w . Philology,
1877), Doctor 'Indoctus (1880).
HALL, ISAAC HOLUSTER (1837-1896), American Orientalist,
was born in Norwalk, Connecticut, on the 12th of December
1837. He graduated at Hamilton College in 1859, was a tutor
there in 1859-1863, graduated at the Columbia Law School in
1865, practised law in New York City until 1875, and in 1875-
1877 taught in the Syrian Protestant College at Beirut, where he
discovered a valuable Syriac manuscript of the Philoxenian
version of a large part of the New Testament, which he published
in part in facsimile in 1884, He worked with General di Cesnola
in classifying the famous Cypriote collection in the Metropolitan
Museum of New York City, and was a curator of that museum
from 1885 until his death in Mount Vernon, New York, on the
HALL, SIR J.— HALL, JOSEPH
847
2nd of July 1896. He was an eminent authority on Oriental
inscriptions. Following the scanty clues given by George Smith
and Samuel Birch, and working on the data furnished by the
di Cesnola collection, he succeeded about 1874 in decipher-
ing an entire Cypriote inscription, and in establishing the
Hellenic character of the dialect and the syllabic nature of the
script.
His work in Cypriote epigraphy is described in his articles in
Scribner's Magazine, vol. 20 (June, 1880), pp. 205-211 and in the
Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. io, No. 2 (1880),
pp. 201-218. He published in facsimile the Antilegomena epistles
(1886), which he deciphered from the W. F. Williams manuscript,
and edited A Critical Bibliography of the Greek New Testament as
Published in America (1884).
HALL, SIR JAMES (1761-1832), Scottish geologist and
physicist, eldest son of Sir John Hall, Bart., was born at Dun-
glass on the 17th of January 1761; and became distinguished
as the first to establish experimental research as an aid to geo-
logical investigation. He was intimately acquainted with James
Hutton and John Playfair, and having studied rocks in various
parts of Europe he was eventually led to accept and to demon-
strate the truth of Hutton 's views with regard to intrusive rocks.
He commenced a series of experiments to illustrate the fusion of
rocks, their vitreous and crystalline characters, and the influence
of molten rocks in altering adjacent strata. He thus assisted
in proving that granitic veins had been injected into overlying
deposits after their consolidation. He studied the volcanic rocks
in Italy and recognized that the old lava flows and the numerous
dikes in Scotland must have had a similar origin. He made
further experiments to illustrate the contortions of rocks. The
results were brought. before the Royal Society of Edinburgh.
He died at Edinburgh on the 23rd of June 1832. He represented
in parliament (1807-1812) the old borough of Michael in Corn-
wall; he also wrote an Essay on the Origin, History and Principles
of Gothic Architecture (18 13).
His eldest son, John Hall (1787-1860), who succeeded him,
was a Fellow of the Royal Society; the second son, Captain
Basil Hall (q.v.), was the distinguished traveller; the third son,
James Hall (1800- 1854), was a painter, art-patron, and a friend
of Sir David Wilkie.
HALL, JAMES (1 793-1868) , American judge and man of letters,
was born at Philadelphia on the 19th of August 1793. After for
some time prosecuting the study of law, he in 181 2 joined the
army, and in the war with Great Britain distinguished himself in
engagements at Lundy's Lane, Niagara and Fort Erie. On
the conclusion of the war he accompanied an expedition against
Algiers, but in 18 18 he resigned his commission, and continued
the study of law at Pittsburg. In 1820 he removed to Shawnee-
town, Illinois, where he commenced practice at the bar and also
edited the Illinois Gazette. Soon after he was appointed public
prosecutor of the circuit, and in 1824 state circuit judge. In 1827
he became state treasurer, and held that office till 183 1, but he
continued at the same time his legal practice and also edited
the Illinois Intelligencer. Subsequently he became editor of the
Western Souvenir, an annual publication, arid of the Illinois
Monthly Magazine, afterwards the Western Monthly Magazine.
He died near Cincinnati on the 5th of July 1868.
The following are his principal works: — Letters from the West,
originally contributed to the Portfolio, and collected and published
in London in 1828; Legends of the West (1832); The Soldier's Bride
and other Tales (1832); The Harpe's Head, a Legend of Kentucky
S
1833); Sketches of the West (2 vols., 1835); Tales of the Border
1835); Notes on the Western States (1838); History of the Indian
'rioes, in conjunction with T. L. M'Keeney (3 vols., 1 838-1 844);
The Wilderness and the War-Path (1845); Romance of Western
History (1857).
HALL, JAMES (1811-1898), American geologist and palaeon-
tologist, was born at Hingham, Massachusetts, on the 12th of
September 181 1. * In early life he became attached to the study
of natural history, and he completed his education at the poly-
technic institute at Troy in New York, where he graduated in
1832, and afterwards became professor of. chemistry and natural
science, and subsequently of geology. In- 1836 he was appointed
one of the geologists on the Geological Survey of the state of
New York, and he was before long charged with the palaeonto-
iogical work. Eventually he became state geologist and director
of the museum of natural history at Albany. His published
papers date from 1836, and include numerous reports on the
geology and palaeontology of various portions of the United
States and Canada. He dealt likewise with physical geology,
and in 1859 discussed the connexion between the accumulation
of sedimentary deposits and the elevation of mountain-chains.
His chief work was the description of the invertebrate fossils of
New York — in which he dealt with the graptolites, brachio-
pods, mollusca, trilobites, echini and crinoids of the Palaeozoic
formations. The results were published in a series of quarto
volumes entitled Palaeontology of New York (1 847-1894), in
which he was assisted in course of time by R. P. Whitfield and
J. M. Clarke. He published also reports on the geology of Oregon
and California (1845), Utah (1852), Iowa (1859) and Wisconsin
(1862). He received the Wollaston medal from the Geological
Society of London in 1858. He was a man of great energy and
untiring industry, and in 1897, when in his eighty-sixth year, he
journeyed to St Petersburg to take part in the International
Geological Congress, and then' joined the excursion to the Ural
mountains. He died at Albany on the 7th of August 1898.
See Life and Work of James Hall, by H. C. Hovey, Amer. Geol.
xxiii., 1899, p. 137 (portraits).
HALL, JOSEPH (1574-1656), English bishop and satirist,
was born at Br is tow park, near Ashby de la Zouch, Leicester-
shire, on the 1st of July 1574. His father, John Hall, was agent
in the town for Henry, earl of Huntingdon, and his mother,
Winifred Bambridge, was a pious lady, whom her son compared
to St Monica. Joseph Hall received his early education at the
local school, and was sent (1589) to Emmanuel College, Cam-
bridge. Hall was chosen for two years in succession to read the
public lecture on rhetoric in the schools, and in 1595 became fellow
of his college. During his residence at Cambridge he wrote his
Virgidemiarum (1597), satires written after Latin models. The
claim he put forward in the prologue to be the earliest English
satirist: —
" 1 first adventure, follow me who list
And be the second English satirist " —
gave bitter offence to John Mars ton, who attacks him in the
satires published in 1598. The archbishop of Canterbury gave
an order (1599) that Hall's satires should be burnt with works
of John Marston, Marlowe, Sir John Davies and others on the
ground of licentiousness, but shortly afterwards Hall's book,
certainly unjustly condemned, was ordered to be " staied at the
press," which may be interpreted as reprieved (see Notes and
Queries, 3rd series, xii. 436). Having taken holy orders, Hall
was offered the mastership of Blundell's school, Tiverton, but
he refused it in favour of the living of Halsted, Essex, to which
he was presented (1601) by Sir Robert Drury. In his parish
he had an opponent in a Mr Lilly, whom he describes as " a
witty and bold atheist." In 1603 he married; and in 1605 he
accompanied Sir Edmund Bacon to Spa, with the special aim,
he says, of acquainting himself with the state and practice of
the Romish Church. At Brussels he disputed at the Jesuit
College on the authentic character of modern miracles, and his
inquiring and argumentative disposition more than once
threatened to produce serious results, so that his patron at
length requested him to abstain from further discussion. His
devotional writings had attracted the notice of Henry, prince
of Wales, who made him one of his chaplains (1608). In 161 2
! Lord Denny, afterwards earl of Norwich, gave him the curacy
of Waltham-Holy-Cross, Essex, and in the same year he received
the degree of D.D. Later he received the prebend of Willenhall
in the collegiate church of Wolverhampton, and in 16 16 he
accompanied James Hay, Lord Doncaster, afterwards earl of
Carlisle, to France, where he was sent to congratulate Louis XIII.
on his marriage, but Hall was compelled by illness to return.
In his absence the king nominated him dean of Worcester, and
in 16 1 7 he accompanied James to Scotland, where he defended
the five points of ceremonial which the king desired to impose
upon the Scots. In the next year he was one of the English
8 4 8
HALL, MARSHALL
deputies at the synod of Dort* In 1624 he refused the see of
Gloucester, but in 1627 became bishop of Exeter.
He took an active part in the Arxninian and Calvinist contro-
versy in the English church. He did his best in his Via media,
The Way of Peace, to persuade the two parties to accept a com-
promise. In spite of his Calvinistic opinions he maintained
that to acknowledge the errors which had arisen in the Catholic
Church did not necessarily imply disbelief in her catholicity,
and that the Church of England having repudiated these errors
should not deny the claims of the Roman Catholic Church on
that account. This view commended itself to Charles I. and
his episcopal advisers, but at the same time Archbishop Laud
sent spies into Hall's diocese to report on the Calvinistic tend-*
encies of the bishop and his lenience to the Puritan and low-
church clergy. Hall says he was thrice down on his knees to
the King to answer Laud's accusations and at length threatened
to " cast up his rochet " rather than submit to them. He was,
however, amenable to criticism, and his defence of the English
Church, entitled Episcopacy by Divine Right (1640), was twice
revised at Laud's dictation. This was followed by An Humble
Remonstrance to the High Court of Parliament (1640 and 1641),
an eloquent and forceful defence of his order, which produced
a retort from the syndicate of Puritan divines, who wrote under
the name of " Smectymnuus," and was followed by a long
controversy to which Milton contributed five pamphlets,
virulently attacking Hall and his early satires.
In 1 64 1 Hall was translated to the see of Norwich, and in the
same year sat on the Lords' Committee on religion. On the
30th of December he was, with other bishops, brought before
the bar of the House of Lords to answer a charge of high treason
of which the Commons had voted them guilty. They were
finally convicted of an offence against the Statute of Praemunire,
and condemned to forfeit their estates, receiving a small main-
tenance from the parliament . They were im mured in the Tower
from New Year to Whitsuntide, when they were released on
finding bail for £5000 each. On his release Hall proceeded to his
new diocese at Norwich, the revenues of which he seems for a
time to have received, but in 1643, when the property of the
" malignants " was sequestrated, Hall was mentioned by name.
Mrs Hall had difficulty in securing a fifth of the maintenance
(£400) assigned to the bishop by the parliament; they were
eventually ejected from the palace, and the cathedral was
dismantled. Hall retired to the village of Higham, near Norwich,
where he spent the time preaching and writing until " he was
first forbidden by man, and at last disabled by God." He bore
his many troubles and the additional burden of much bodily
suffering with sweetness and patience, dying on the 8th of
September 1656. Thomas Fuller says: "He was commonly
called our English Seneca, for the purenesse, plainnesse, and
fulnesse of his style. Not unhappy at Controversies, more happy
at Comments, very good in his Characters, better in his Sermons,
best of all in his Meditations."
Bishop Hall's polemical writings, although vigorous and effective,
were chiefly of ephemeral interest, but many of his devotional
writings have been often reprinted. It is by his early work as the
censor of morals and the unsparing critic of contemporary literary
extravagance and affectations that he is best known, Virgt-
dentidrum. Sixe Bookes. First three Bookes. Of Toothlesse Satyrs.
(1) Poeticall, (2) Academically (3) Morall (1597) was followed by an
amended edition in 1598, and in the same year by Virgidemiarunu
The three last bookes. Of byting Satyres (reprinted 1599). His claim
to be reckoned the earliest English satirist, even in the formal sense,
cannot be justified. Thomas Lodge, in his Fig for Momus (1593),
had written four satires in the manner of Horace, and John Marston
and John Donne both wrbte satires about the same time, although
the publication was in both cases later than that of Virgidemiae.
But if he was not the earliest, Hall was certainly one of the best.
He writes in the heroic couplet, which he manoeuvres with great
ease and smoothness. In the first book of his satires (PoeticaU) he
attacks the writers whose verses were devoted to licentious subjects,
the bombast of Tamburlaine and tragedies built on similar lines, the
laments of the ghosts of the Mirror for Magistrates, the metrical
eccentricities of Gabriel Harvey and Richard Stanyhurst, the
extravagances of the sonneteers, and the sacred poets (Southwell is
aimed at in " Now good St Peter weeps pure Helicon, And both the
Mary's make a music moan "). In Book II. Satire 6 occurs the well-
known description of the trencher-chaplain, who is tutor and hanger-
on in a country manor. Among his otner satirical portraits is that of
the famished gallant, the guest of " Duke Humfray." 1 Book VI.
consists of one long satire on the various vices and follies dealt with
in the earlier books. If his prose is sometimes antithetical and
obscure, his verse \s remarkably free from the quips and conceits
which mar so much contemporary poetry.
He also wrote The King's Prophecie; or Weeping Joy (1603),
a gratulatory poem on the accession of James I. ; Epistles, both the
first and second volumes of which appeared in 1608 and a third in
161 1 ; Characters of Virtues and Vices (1608), versified by Nahum
Tate (1691); Solomons Divine Arts . . . (1609); and, probably
Mundus alter et idem site Terra Australis antehac semper incognita
. . . lustrata (1605? and 1607), by " Mercurius Britannicus, "
translated into Engfish by John Healy (1608) as The Discovery
of a New World or A Description of the South Indies . . . by an
English Mercury. Mundus alter is an excuse for a satirical descrip-
tion of London, with some criticism of the Romish church, its
manners and customs, and is said to have furnished Swift with
hints for Gulliver's Travels. It was not ascribed to him by name
until 1674, when Thomas Hyde, the librarian of the Bodleian,
identified " Mercurius Britannicus " with Joseph Hall. For the
question of the authorship of this pamphlet, and the arguments that
may be advanced in favour of the suggestion that it was written by
Alberico Gentili, see E. A. Petherick, Mundus alter et idem, reprinted
from the Gentleman's Magazine (July 1896). His controversial
writings, not already mentioned, include: — A Common Apology
. . . against the Brownists (1610), in answer to John Robinson's
Censorious Epistle; The Olde Religion: A treatise, wherein is laid
dovme the true state of the difference betwixt the Reformed and the
Romane Church; and the blame of this schisme is cast upon the true
Authors. . .(1628); Columba Noae olivam adferens . . ., a sermon
preached at St Paul's in 1623; Episcopacie by Divine Right (1640);
A Short Answer to the Vindication of Smectymnuus (1641) ; A Modest
Confutation of . . . (Milton's) Animadversions (1642).
His devotional works include : — Holy Observations Lib. I. Some few
of David's Psalmes Metaphrased (1607 and 1609) ; three centuries of
Meditations and Vowes, Divine and Morall (1606, 1607, 1609), edited
by Charles Sayle (iooi); The Arte of Divine Meditation (1607);
Heaven upon Earth, or of True Peace and TranquMUi* of Mind (1606),
reprintecf with some of his letters in John Wesley's Christian Library,
vol. iv. (1819); Occasional Meditations . . . (1630), edited by his
son Robert Hall; Henochisme; or a Treatise showing how to walk
with God (1639), translated from Bishop Hall's Latin by Moses Wall ;
The Devout Soul; or Rides of Heavenly Devotion (1644). often since
reprinted; The Balm of Gilead . . . (1646, 1752); Christ Mysticall;
or the blessed union of Christ and his Members (1647), of which
General Gordon was a student (reprinted from Gordon's copy, 1893) *
Susurrium cum Deo (1659) ; The Great Mysterie of Godliness (1650) ;
Resolutions and Decisions of Divers PracticaU cases of Conscience
(1649, 1650, 1654).
Authorities.— The chief authority for Hall's biography is to be
found in his autobiographical tracts: Observations of some Specialities
of Divine Providence in the Life of Joseph Hall, Bishop of Norwich,
Written with his own hand ; and his Hard Measure, a reprint of which
may be consulted in Dr Christopher Wordsworth's Ecclesiastical
Biography. The best criticism of his satires is to be found in Thomas
Warton's History of English Poetry, vol. iv. pp. 363-409 (ed. Hazlitt,
1871), where a comparison is instituted between Marston and Hall.
In 161 5 Hall published A Recollection of such treatises as have been
. . . published . . . (1615, 1617, 1621); in 1625 appeared his Works
(reprinted 1627, 1628, 1634, 1662). The first complete Works ap-
peared in 1808, edited by the Rev. Josiah Pratt. Other editions are
by Peter Hall (1837) and by Philip Wynter (1863). See also Bishop
Hall, his Life and Times (1826), by Rev. John Jones; Life of Joseph
Hall, by Rev. George Lewis (1886); A. B. Grosart, The Complete
Poems of Joseph Hall. . .with introductions, &c. (1879); Satires,
&c. (Early English Poets, ed. S. W. Singer, 1824). Many of Hall's
works were translated into French, and some into Dutch, and there
have been numerous selections from his devotional works.
HALL, MARSHALL (1700-1857), English physiologist, was
born on the 18th of February 1790, at Basford, near Nottingham,
where his father, Robert HaU, was a cotton manufacturer.
Having attended the Rev. J. Blanchard's academy at Notting-
ham, he entered a chemist's shop at Newark, and in 1809 began
to study medicine at Edinburgh University. In 181 1 he was
elected senior president of the Royal Medical Society; the
following year he took the .M.D. degree, and was immediately
appointed resident house physician to the Royal Infirmary,
Edinburgh. This appointment he resigned ,after two years,
when he visited Paris and its medical schools, and, on a walking
1 The tomb of Sir John Beauchamp (d. 1358) in old St Paul's
was commonly known, in error, as that of Duke Humphrey of Glou-
cester. " To dine with Duke Humphrey " was to go hungry among
the debtors and beggars who frequented " Duke Humphrey's Walk ''
in the cathedral.
HALL, ROBERT
849
tour, those also of Berlin and Gftttingen. In 181 7, when he
settled at Nottingham, he published his Diagnosis, and in 18 18
he wrote the Minuses, a work on the affections denominated
bilious, nervous, &c. The next year he was elected a fellow of
the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and in 1825 he became physician
to the Nottingham general hospital. In i8a6 he removed to
London, and in the following year he published his Commentaries
on the more important diseases of females. In 1830 he issued
his Observations on Blood-letting, founded on researches on the
morbid and curative effects if loss of blood, which were acknow-
ledged by the medical profession to be of vast practical value,
and in 183 1 his Experimental Essay on the Circulation of the
Blood in the Capillary Vessels, in which he showed that the
blood-channels intermediate between arteries and veins serve
the office of bringing the fluid blood into contact with the material
tissues of the system. In the following year he read before the
Royal Society a paper " On the inverse ratio which subsists
between Respiration and Irritability in the Animal Kingdom."
His most important work in physiology was concerned with the
theory of reflex action, embodied in a paper " On the reflex
Function of the Medulla Oblongata and the Medulla Spinalis "
(1832), which was supplemented in 1837 by another " On the True
Spinal Marrow, and the Excito-motor System of Nerves." The
" reflex function " excited great attention on the continent of
Europe, though in England some of his papers were refused
publication by the Royal Society. Hall thus became the
authority on the multiform deranged states of health referable
to an abnormal condition of the nervous system, and he gained
a large practice. His " ready method " for resuscitation in
drowning and other forms of suspended respiration has been the
means of saving innumerable lives. He died at Brighton of a
throat affection, aggravated by lecturing, on the nth of August
A list of his works and details of his " ready method/' &c T are
given in his Memoirs by his widow (London, 1861).
HALL, ROBERT (1764-1831), English Baptist divine, was born
on the 2nd of May 1764, at Ajuesby near Leicester, where his
father, Robert HaJl (1728-1791), a man whose cast of mind in
some respects resembled closely that of the son, was pastor of a
Baptist congregation. Robert was the youngest of a family of
fourteen. While still at the dame's school his passion for books
absorbed the greater part of his time, and in the summer it was
his custom after school hours to retire to the churchyard with
a volume, which he continued to peruse there till nightfall,
making out the meaning of the more difficult words with the
help of a pocket dictionary. From his sixth to his eleventh
year he attended the school of Mr Simmons at Wigston, a village
four miles from Arnesby. There his precocity assumed the
exceptional form of an intense interest in metaphysics, partly
perhaps on account of the restricted character of his father's
library; and before he was nine years of age he had read and
re-read Jonathan Edwards's Treatise on the Will and Butler's
Analogy. This incessant study at such an early period of life
seems, however, to have had an injurious influence on his health.
After he left Mr Simmons's school his appearance was so sickly
as to awaken fears of the presence of phthisis. In order, therefore,
to obtain the benefit of a change of air, he stayed for some time
in the house of a gentleman near Kettering, who with an impro-
priety which Hall himself afterwards referred to as "egregious,"
prevailed upon the boy of eleven to give occasional addresses
at prayer meetings. As his health seemed rapidly to recover,
he was sent to a school at Northampton conducted by the Rev.
John Ryland, where he remained a year and a half, and " made
great progress in Latin and Greek." On leaving school he for
some time studied divinity under the direction of his father,
and in October 1 778 he entered the Bristol academy for the pre-
paration of students for the Baptist ministry. Here the self-
possession which had enabled him in his twelfth year to address
unfalteringly various audiences of grown-up people seems to
have strangely forsaken him; for when, in accordance with the
arrangements of the academy, his turn came to deliver an
address in the vestry of Broadmead chapel, he broke down on
two separate occasions and was unable to finish his discourse.
On the 13th of August 1780 he was set apart to the ministry,
but he still continued his studies at the academy; and in 1781,
in accordance with the provisions of an exhibition which he
held, he entered King's College, Aberdeen, where he took the
degree of master of arts in March 1 785. At the university he was
without a rival of his own standing in any of the classes, dis-
tinguishing himself alike in classics, philosophy and mathematics.
He there formed the acquaintance of Mackintosh (afterwards
Sir James), who, though a year his junior in age, was a year his
senior as a student. While they remained at Aberdeen the two
were inseparable, reading together the best Greek authors,
especially Plato, and discussing, either during their walks by
the sea-shore and the banks of the Don or in their rooms until
early morning, the most perplexed questions in philosophy and
religion.
During the vacation between his last two sessions at Aberdeen,
Hall acted as assistant pastor to Dr Evans at Broadmead chapel,
Bristol, and three months^after leaving the university he was
appointed classical tutor^n the Bristol academy, an office which
he held for more than five years. Even at this period his extra-
ordinary eloquence had excited an interest beyond the bounds
of the denomination to which he belonged, and when he preached
the chapel was generally crowded to excess, the audience includ-
ing many persons of intellectual tastes. Suspicions in regard
to his orthodoxy having in 1789 led to a misunderstanding with
his colleague and a part of the congregation, he in July 1790
accepted an invitation to make trial of a congregation at Cam-
bridge, of which he became pastor in July of the following year.
From a statement of his opinions contained in a letter to the
congregation which he left, it would appear that, while a firm
believer in the proper divinity of Christ, he had at this time
disowned the cardinal principles of Calvinism — the federal
headship of Adam, and the doctrine of absolute election and
reprobation; and that he was 60 far a materialist as to " hold
that man's thinking powers and faculties are the result of a
certain organization of matter, and that after death he ceases
to be conscious till the resurrection." It was during his Cam-
bridge ministry, which extended over a period of fifteen years,
that his oratory was most brilliant and most immediately power-
ful. At Cambridge the intellectual character of a large part of
the audience supplied a stimulus which was wanting at Leicester
and Bristol.
His first published compositions had a political origin. In
1 79 1 appeared Christianity consistent with the Love of Freedom,
in which he defended the political conduct of dissenters against
the attacks of the Rev. John Clayton, minister of Weighhouse,
and gave eloquent expression to his hopes of great political and
social ameliorations as destined to result nearly or remotely
from the subversion of old ideas and institutions in the maelstrom
of the French Revolution. In 1793 he expounded his political
sentiments in a powerful and more extended pamphlet entitled
an Apology for the Freedom of the Press, On account, however,
of certain asperities into which the warmth of his feelings had
betrayed him, and his conviction that he had treated his subject
in too superficial a manner, he refused to permit the publication
of the pamphlet beyond the third edition, until the references of
political opponents and the circulation of copies without his
sanction induced him in 1821 to prepare a new edition, from
which he omitted the attack on Bishop Horsley, and to which
he prefixed an advertisement stating that his political opinions
had undergone no substantial change. His other publications
while at Cambridge were three sermons — On Modern Infidelity
(1801), Reflections on War (1802), and Sentiments proper to the
present Crisis (1803). He began, however, to suffer from mental
derangement in November 1804. He recovered so speedily
that he was able to resume his duties in April 1805, but a recur-
rence of the malady rendered it advisable for him on his second
recovery to resign his pastoral office in March 1806.
On leaving Cambridge he paid a visit to his relatives in
Leicestershire, and then for some time resided at Enderby,
preaching occasionally in, some of the neighbouring villages.
850
HALL, S. C— -HALL
Latterly he ministered to a small congregation in Harvey Lane,
Leicester, from whom at the close of 1806 he accepted a call to
be their stated pastor. In the autumn of 1807 he changed his
residence from Enderby to Leicester, and in 1808 he married the
servant of a brother minister. His proposal of marriage had
been made after an almost momentary acquaintance, and,
according to the traditionary account, in very abrupt and
peculiar terms; but, judging from his subsequent domestic
life, his choice did sufficient credit to his penetration and sagacity.
His writings at Leicester embraced various tracts printed for
private circulation; a number of contributions to the Eclectic
Review, among which may be mentioned his articles on " Foster's
Essays " and on " Zeal without Innovation "; several sermons,
including those On the Advantages of Knowledge to the Lower
Classes <i8io), On the Death of the Princess Charlotte (181 7),
and On the Death of Dr Ryland (1825); and his pamphlet on
Terms of Communion t in which he advocated intercommunion
with all those who acknowledged the " essentials " of Christianity.
In 1 819 he published an edition in one volume of his sermons
formerly printed. On the death of Dr Ryland, Hall was invited
to return to the pastorate of Broadmead chapel, Bristol, and as
the peace of the congregation at Leicester had been to some
degree disturbed by a controversy regarding several cases of
discipline, he resolved to accept the invitation, and removed
there in April 1826. The malady of renal calculus had for many
years rendered his life an almost continual martyrdom, and
henceforth increasing infirmities and sufferings afflicted him.
Gradually the inability to take proper exercise, by inducing
a plethoric habit of body and impeding the circulation, led to a
diseased condition jrff the heart, which resulted in his death on
the 2ist of February 1831. He is remembered as a great pulpit
orator, of a somewhat laboured, rhetorical style in his written
works, but of undeniable vigour in his spoken sermons.
Sec Works of Robert Hall, A.M., with a Brief Memoir of his Life,
by Olinthus Gregory, LL.D., and Observations on his Character as
Preacher by John Foster, originally published in 6 vols. (London,
1832) ; Reminiscences of the Rev. Robert Hall, A.M., by John Greene,
(London, 1832); Biographical Recollections of the Rev. Robert Hall,
by J. W. Morris (1848); Fifty Sermons of Robert Hall from Notes
taken at the time of thetr Delivery, by the Rev. Thomas Grinfield,
M.A. (1843); Reminiscences of College Life in Bristol during the
Ministry of the Rev. Robert Hall, A.M., by Frederick Trestrail (1879).
HULL, SAMUEL CARTER (1800- 1889), English journalist,
was born at Waterford on the 9th of May 1800, the son of an
army officer. In 182 1 he went to London, and in 1823 became
a parliamentary reporter. From 1826 to 1837 he was editor of
a great number and variety of public prints, and in 1839 he
founded and edited The Art Journal. His exposure of the trade
in bogus " Old Masters " earned for this publication a consider-
able reputation. Hall resigned the editorship in 1880, and was
granted a Civil List pension " for his long and valuable services
to literature and art/' He died in London on the 16th of March
1889. His wife, Anna Maria Fielding (1800-1881), became
well known as Mrs S. C. Hall, for her numerous novels, sketches
of Irish life, and plays. Two of the last, The Groves of Blarney
and The French Refugee, were produced in London with success.
She also wrote a number of children's books, and was practically
interested in various London charities, several of which she
helped to found.
HALL, WILLIAM EDWARD (1835-1894), English writer on
international law, was the only child of William Hall, M.D.,
a descendant of a junior branch of the Halls of Dunglass, and
of Charlotte, daughter of William Cotton, F.S.A. He was born
on the 2 and of August 1835, at Leatherhead, Surrey, but passed
his childhood abroad, Dr Hall having acted as physician to the
king of Hanover, and subsequently to the British legation at
Naples. Hence, perhaps, the son's taste in after life for art and
modern languages. He was educated privately till, at the early
age of seventeen, he matriculated at Oxford, where in 1856 he
took his degree with a first class in the then recently instituted
school of law and history, gaining, three years afterwards, the
chancellors prise for an essay upon " the effect upon Spain of the
discovery of the precious metals in America." In i86r he was
called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn, but devoted his time less to
any serious attempt to obtain practice than to the study of Italian
art, and to travelling over a great part of Europe, always bringing
home admirable water-colour drawings of buildings and scenery.
He was an early and enthusiastic member of the Alpine Club,
making several first ascents, notably that of the Lyskamm. He
was always much interested in military matters, and was
under fire, on the Danish side, in the war of 1864. In 1867 he
published a pamphlet entitled " A Plan for the Reorganization
of the Army," and, many years afterwards, he saw as much
as he was permitted to see of the expedition sent for the rescue
of Gordon. He would undoubtedly have made his mark in the
army, but in later life his ideal, which he realized, with much
success, first at Llanfihangel in Monmouthshire, and then at
Coker Court in Somersetshire, was, as has been said, " the English
country gentleman, with cosmopolitan experiences, encyclopaedic
knowledge, and artistic feeling." His travels took him to
Lapland, Egypt, South America and India. He had done good
work for several government offices, in 187 1 as inspector of
returns under the Elementary Education Act, in 1877 by reports
to the Board of Trade upon Oyster Fisheries, in France as well
as in England; and all the time was amassing materials for
ambitious undertakings upon the history of civilization, and of
the colonies. His title to lasting remembrance rests, however,
upon his labours in the realm of international law, recognized
by his election as assocU in 1875, and as membre in 1882, of the
Institut de Droit International. In 1874 he published a thin 8vo
upon the Rights and Duties of Neutrals, and followed it up in
1880 by his magnum opus, the Treatise on International Law,
unquestionably the best book upon the subject in the English
language. It is well planned, free from the rhetorical vagueness
which has been the besetting vice of older books of a similar
character, full of information, and everywhere bearing traces
of the sound judgment and statesmanlike views of its author.
In 1894 Hall published a useful monograph upon a little-explored
topic, " the Foreign Jurisdictions of the British Crown," but
on the 30th of November of the same year, while apparently
in the fullest enjoyment of bodily as well as mental vigour, he
suddenly died. He married, in 1866, Imogen, daughter of
Mr (afterwards Mr Justice) Grove, who died in 1886; and in
1891, Alice, daughter of Colonel Hill of Court Hill, Shropshire,
but left no issue.
See T. E. Holland in Law Quarterly Review,vo\. xi. p. 113; and in
Studies in International Law, p. 302. (T. E. H.)
HALL, or Bad-Hall, a market-place and spa of Austria, in
Upper Austria, 25 m. S. of Linz by rail. Pop. (1900) 984. It
is renowned for its saline springs, strongly impregnated with
iodine and bromine, which are considered very efficacious in
scrofulous affections and venereal skin diseases. Although the
springs are known since the 8th century, Hall attained its actual
importance only since 1855, when the springs became the
property of the government. The number of visitors in 190 1
was 4300.
HALL (generally known as SchwXbisch-Hall, to distinguish
it from the small town of Hall in Tirol and Bad-Hall, a health
resort in Upper Austria), a town of Germany, in the kingdom
of Wiirttemberg, situated in a deep valley on both sides of the
Kocher, and on the railway from Heilbronn to Krailsheim,
35 m. N.E. of Stuttgart. Pop. (1005) 9400- It possesses four
Evangelical churches (of which the Michaeliskirche dates from
the 15th century and has fine medieval carving), a Roman
Catholic church, a handsome town hall and classical and modern
schools. A short distance south from the town is the royal
castle of Komburg, formerly a Benedictine abbey and now used
as a garrison for invalid soldiers, with a church dating from the
1 2th century. The town is chiefly known for its production of
salt, which is converted into brine and piped from Wilhelmsgltick
mine, 5 m. distant. Connected with the salt-works there is a
salt-bath and whey-diet establishment. The industries of the
town also include cotton-spinning, iron founding, tanning, and
the manufacture of soap, starch, brushes, machines, carriages
and metal ware.
HALI^-HALLAM, HENRY
851
Hall was early of importance on account of its salt-mines,
which were held as a fief of the Empire by the so-called Salzgrafen
(Salt-graves), of whom the earliest known, the counts of West-
heim, had their seat in the castle of Hall. Later the town
belonged to the Knights Templars. It was made a free imperial
city in 1 276 by Rudolph of Habsburg. In 1802 it came into the
possession of Wurttemberg.
HALL (O.E. heall, a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Halle),
a term which has two significations in England and is applied
sometimes to the manor house, the residence of the lord of the
manor, which implied a territorial possession,, but more often to
the entrance hall of a mansion. In the latter case it was the one
large room in the feudal castle up to the middle of the 15th
century, when it served as audience chamber, dining-room, and
dormitory. The hall was generally a parallelogram on plan,
with a raised dais at the farther end, a large bow window on one
side, and in one or two cases on both sides. At the entrance end
was a passage, which was separated from the hall by a partition
screen often elaborately decorated, and over which was provided
a minstrels' gallery; on the opposite side of the passage were the
hatches communicating with the serveries. This arrangement
is still found in some of the colleges at Oxford and Cambridge,
such as those of New College, Christchurch, Wadham and
Magdalen, Oxford, and in Trinity College, Cambridge. In
private mansions, however, the kitchen and offices have been
removed to a greater distance, and the great hall is only used for
banquets. Among the more remarkable examples are the halls
of Audley End; Hatfield; Brougham Castle; Hard wick;
Knole Stanway in Gloucestershire; Wollaton, where it is
situated in the centre of the mansion and lighted by clerestory
windows; Burton Agnes in Yorkshire; Canons Ashley, North*
amptonshire; Westwood Park, Worcestershire; Fountains,
Yorkshire; Sydenham House, Devonshire; Cobham, Kent;
Montacute, Somersetshire; Bolsover Castle, Derbyshire (vaulted
and with two columns in the centre of the hall to carry the
vault); Longford Castle, Wiltshire; Barlborough, Derbyshire;
Rushton Hall, Northamptonshire, with a bow window at each
end of the dais and a third bow window at the other end;
Knole, Kent; and at Mayneld, Sussex (with stone arches across
to carry the roof), now converted into a Roman Catholic chapel.
Many of these halls have hammer-beam roofs, the most remark-
able of which is found in the Middle Temple Hall, London, where
both the tie and collar beams have hammer-beams. Of other
halls, Westminster is the largest, being 238 ft. long; followed
by the Banqueting Hall, Whitehall, no ft; Wolsey's Hall,
Hampton Court, 106 ft; the Egyptian Hall at the Mansion
House; the hall at Lambeth, now the library; Crosby Hall;
Gray's Inn Hall; the Guildhall; Charterhouse; and the
following halls of the London City Companies— Clothworkers,
Brewers, Goldsmiths, Fishmongers. The term hall is also given
to the following English mansions: — Haddon, Hard wick,
Apethorpe, Aston, Btickling, Brereton, Burton Agnes, Cobham,
Dingley, Rushton, Kirby, Litford and Wollaton; and it was
the name of some of the earlier colleges at Oxford and Cambridge,
most of which have now been absorbed in other colleges, so that
there remain only St Edmund's Hall, Oxford, and Trinity Hall,
Cambridge.
HALLAM, HENRY (1777-1859), English historian, was the
only son of John Haliam, canon of Windsor and dean of Bristol,
and was born on the 9th of July 1777. He was educated at Eton
and Christ Church, Oxford, where he graduated in 1 799. Called
to the bar, he practised for some* years on the Oxford circuit ;
but his tastes were literary, and when, on the death of his father
in 18 12, he inherited a small estate in Lincolnshire, he gave
himself up wholly to the studies of his life. He had early become
connected with the brilliant band of authors and politicians who
then led the Whig party, a connexion to which he owed his
appointment to the well-paid and easy post of commissioner of
stamps; but in practical politics, for which he was by nature
unsuited, he took no active share. But he was an active sup-
porter of many popular movements — particularly of that which
ended in the abolition of the slave trade; and he was throughout
his entire life sincerely and profoundly attached to the political
principles of the Whigs, both in their popular and in their
aristocratic aspect.
Hallam's earliest literary work was undertaken in connexion
with the great organ of the Whig party, the Edinburgh Review y
where his review of Scott's Dryden attracted much notice. His
first great work, The Vietv of the State of Europe during the
Middle Ages, was produced in 181 8, and was followed nine years,
later by the Constitutional History of England. In 1838-1830/
appeared the Introduction to the Literature of Europe in the I5th r
16th and 17th Centuries. These are the three works on which
the fame of Haliam rests. They at once took a place in English
literature which has never been seriously challenged. A volume
of supplemental notes to his Middle Ages was published in 1848.
These facts and dates represent nearly all the events of Hallam's
career. The strongest personal interest in his life was the
affliction which befell him in the loss of his children, one after
another. His eldest son, Arthur Henry Haliam, — the " A.H.H."*
of Tennyson's In Memoriam, and by the testimony of his con-
temporaries a man of the most brilliant promise,— -died in 1833,
at the age of twenty-two. Seventeen years later, his second
son, Henry Fitzmaurice Haliam, was cut off like his brother
at the very threshold of what might have been a great career.
The premature death and high talents of these young men, and
the association of one of them with the most popular poem of the
age, have made Hallam's family afflictions better known than
any other incidents of his life. He survived wife, daughter and
sons by many years. In 1834 Haliam published The Remains
in Prose and Verse of Arthur Henry Haliam, with a Sketch of his
Life. In 1852 a selection of Literary Essays and Characters
from the Literature of Europe was published. Haliam was a
fellow of the Royal Society, and a trustee of the British Museum,
and enjoyed many other appropriate distinctions. In 1830 he
received the gold medal for history, founded by George IV.
He died on the 2 1st of January 1859.
The Middle Ages is described by Haliam himself as a series
of historical dissertations, a comprehensive survey of the chief
circumstances that can interest a philosophical inquirer during
the period from the 5th to the 15th century. The work consists
of nine long chapters, each of which i&a complete treatise in itself.
The history of France, of Italy, of Spain, of Germany, and of the
Greek and Saracenic empires, sketched in rapid and general
terms, is the subject of five separate chapters.- Others deal
with the great institutional features, of medieval society — the
development of the feudal system, of the ecclesiastical system,
and of the free political system of England. The last chapter
sketches the general state of society, the growth of commerce,
manners, and literature in the middle ages. The book may be
regarded as a general view of early modern history, preparatory
to the more detailed treatment of special lines of inquiry carried
out in his subsequent works, although Hallam's original intention
was to continue the work on the scale on which it had been
begun.
The Constitutional History of England takes up the subject
at the point at which it had been dropped in the View of the
Middle Ages, viz. the accession of Henry VIL, 1 and carries it
down to the accession of George III. Haliam stopped here for
a characteristic reason, which it is impossible not to respect and
to regret. He was unwilling to excite the prejudices of modern
politics which seemed to him to run back through the whole
period of the reign of George III. As a matter of fact they ran
back much farther, as Haliam soon found. The sensitive
impartiality which withheld him from touching perhaps the
most interesting period in the history of the constitution did not
save him from the charge of partisanship. The Quarterly Review
for 1828 contains an article on the Constitutional History, written
by Southey, full of railing and reproach. The work, he says,
is the " production of a decided partisan," who " rakes in the
ashes of long-forgotten and a thousand times buried slanders,
1 Lord Brougham, overlooking the constitutional chapter in the
Middle Ages, censured Haliam for making an arbitrary beginning at
this point, and proposed to write a more complete history himself.
«52
HALLAM,' ROBERT '
for the means of heaping obloquy on all who supported the
established institutions of the country." No accusation made
by a critic ever fell so wide of the mark. Absolute justice is the
standard which Hallam set himself and maintained. His view
of constitutional history was that it should contain only so much
of the political and general history of the time as bears directly
on specific changes in the organization of the state, including
therein judicial as well as ecclesiastical institutions. But while
abstaining from irrelevant historical discussions, Hallam dealt
with statesmen and policies with the calm and fearless impartiality
of a judge. It was his cool treatment of such sanctified names
as Charles, Cranmer and Laud that provoked the indignation of
Southey and the Quarterly, who forgot that the same impartial
measure was extended to statesmen on the other side. If
Hallam can ever be said to have deviated from perfect fairness,
it was in the tacit assumption that the 10th-century theory of
the constitution was the right theory in previous centuries, and
that those who departed from it on one side or the other were
in the wrong. He did unconsciously antedate the constitution,
and it is clear from incidental allusions in his last work that he
did not regard with favour the democratic changes which he
thought to be impending. Hallam, like Macaulay, ultimately
referred all political questions to the standard of Whig con-
stitutionalism. But though his work is thus, like that of many
historians, coloured by his opinions', this was not the outcome
of a conscious purpose, and he was scrupulously conscientious
in collecting and weighing his materials. In this he was helped
by his legal training, and it was doubtless this fact which made
the Constitutional History one of the text-books of English
politics, to which men of all parties appealed, and which, in
spite of all the work of later writers, still leaves it a standard
authority.
Like the Constitutional History, the Introduction to the Literature
of Europe continues one of the branches of inquiry which had
been opened in the View of the Middle Ages. In the first chapter
of the Literature, which is to a great extent supplementary to
the last chapter of the Middle Ages, Hallam sketches the state
of literature in Europe down to the end of the 14th century:
the extinction of ancient learning which followed the fall of the
Roman empire and the rise of Christianity; the preservation
of the Latin language in the services of the church; and the slow
revival of letters, which began to show itself soon after the 7th
century — " the nadir of the human mind "-^-had been passed.
For the first century and a half of his special period he is mainly
occupied with a review of classical learning, and he adopts the
plan of taking short decennial periods and noticing the most
remarkable works which they produced. The rapid growth of
literature in the 16th century compels him to resort to a classifica-
tion of subjects. Thus in the period 1 520-1 550 we have separate
chapters on ancient literature, theology, speculative philosophy
and jurisprudence, the literature of taste, and scientific and
miscellaneous literature; and the subdivisions of subjects is
carried further of course in the later periods. Thus poetry, the
drama and polite literature form the subjects of separate
chapters. One inconvenient result of this arrangement is that
the same author is scattered over many chapters, according as his
works fall within, this category or that period of time. Names
like Shakespeare, Grotius, Bacon, Hobbes appear in half a dozen
different places. The individuality of great authors is thus
dissipated except when it has been preserved by an occasional
sacrifice of the arrangement — and this defect, if it is to be
esteemed a defect, is increased by the very sparing references
to personal history and character with which Hallam was
obliged to content himself. His plan excluded biographical
history, nor is the work, he tells us, to be regarded as one of
reference. It is rigidly an account of the books which would
make a complete library of the period ,* arranged according to the
date of their publication and the nature of their subjects. The
history of institutions like universities and academies, and that
of great popular movements like the Reformation, are of course
1 Technical subjects like painting or English law have been ex-
cluded by Hallam. and history and theology only partially treated.
noticed in their immediate connexion with literary results;
but Hallam had little taste for the spacious generalization which
such subjects suggest. The great qualities displayed in this
work have been universally acknowledged— conscientiousness,
accuracy, judgment and enormous reading. Not the least
striking testimony to Hallam's powers is his mastery over so
many diverse forms of intellectual activity.. In science and
theology, mathematics and poetry, metaphysics and law, he is a
competent and always a fair if not a profound critic. The bent
of his own mind is manifest in his treatment of pure literature
and of political speculation — which seems to be inspired with
stronger personal interest and a higher sense of power than other
parts of his work display. Not less worthy of notice in a literary
history is the good sense by which both his learning and his tastes
have been held in control. Probably no writer ever possessed a
juster view of the relative importance of men and things. The
labour devoted to an investigation is with Hallam no excuse for
dwelling on the result, unless that is in itself important. He turns
away contemptuously from the mere curiosities of literature,
and is never tempted to make a display of trivial erudition.
Nor do we find that his interest in special studies leads him to
assign them a disproportionate place in his general view of the
literature of a period.
Hallam is generally described as a " philosophical historian/ 1
The description is justified not so much by any philosophical
quality in his method as by the nature of his subject and his own
temper. Hallam is a philosopher to this extent that both in
political and in literary history he fixed his attention on results
rather than on persons. His conception of history embraced
the whole movement of society. Beside that conception the
issue of battles and the fate of kings fall into comparative
insignificance. " We can trace the pedigree of princes," he
reflects, " fill up the catalogue of towns besieged and provinces
desolated, describe even the whole pageantry of coronations and
festivals, but we cannot recover the genuine history of mankind."
But, on the other hand, there is no trace in Hallam of anything
like a philosophy of history or society. Wise and generally
melancholy reflections on human nature and political society
are not infrequent in his writings, and they arise naturally and
incidentally out of the subject he is discussing. His object is
the attainment of truth in matters of fact. Sweeping theories
of the movement of society, and broad characterizations of
particular periods of history seem to have no attraction for him.
The view of mankind on which such generalizations are usually
based, taking little account of individual character, was highly
distasteful to him. Thus he objects to the use of statistics
because they favour that tendency to regard all men as mentally
and morally equal which is so unhappily strong in modern times.
At the same time Hallam by no means assumes the tone of the
mere scholar. He is even solicitous to show that his point of
view is that of the cultivated gentleman and not of the specialist
of any order. Thus he tells us that Montaigne is the first French
author whom an English gentleman is ashamed not to have read.
In fact, allusions to the necessary studies of a gentleman meet
us constantly, reminding us of the unlikely erudition of the
schoolboy in Macaulay. Hallam's prejudices, so far as he had
any, belong to the same character. His criticism is apt to
assume a tone of moral censure when he has to deal with certain
extremes of human thought — scepticism in philosophy, atheism
in religion and democracy in politics.
Hallam's style is singularly uniform throughout all his writings.
It is sincere and straightforward, and obviously innocent of any
motive beyond that of clearly expressing the writer's meaning.
In the Literature of Europe there are many passages of great
imaginative beauty. (E. R.)
HALLAM, ROBERT (d. 1417), bishop of Salisbury and
English representative at the council of Constance, was educated
at Oxford, and was chancellor of the university from 1403 to
1405. In the latter year the pope nominated him to be arch-
bishop of York, but the king objected. However, in 1407 he
was consecrated by. Gregory XII. at Siena as bishop of Salis-
bury. At the council of Pisa in 1409 he was one of the English
halle; sir a— halle*
853
representatives. On the 6th of June 141 1 Pope John XXIII. made
Hallam a cardinal, but there was some irregularity, and his title
was not recognized. At the council of Constance (q.v.) , which met
in November 14 14, Hallam was the chief English envoy. There
he at onoe took a prominent position, as an advocate of the cause
of Church reform, and of the superiority of the council to the
pope. In the discussions which led up to the deposition of
John XXIII. on the 29th of May 141 5 he had a leading share.
With the trials of John Hus and Jerome of Prague he had less
concern. The emperor Sigismund, through whose influence
the council had been assembled, was absent during the whole
of 14 16 on a diplomatic mission in France and England; but
when he returned to Constance in January 1417, as the open
ally of the English king, Hallam as Henry's trusted representative
obtained increased importance. Hallam contrived skilfully
to emphasize English prestige by delivering the address of
welcome to Sigismund on his formal reception. Afterwards,
under his master's direction, he gave the emperor vigorous
support in the endeavour to secure a reform of the Church,
before the council proceeded to the election of a new pope. This
matter was still undecided when Hallam died suddenly, on the
4th of September 141 7. After his death the direction of the
English nation fell into less skilful hands, with the result that
the cardinals were able to secure the immediate election of a new
pope (Martin V., elected on the 1 ith of November). It has been
supposed that the abandonhient of the reformers by the English
was due entirely to Hailam's death; but it is more likely that
Henry V., foreseeing the possible need for a change of front,
had given Hallam discretionary powers which the bishop's
successors used with too little judgment. Hallam himself,
who had the confidence of Sigismund and was generally respected
for his straightforward independence, might have achieved a
better result. Hallam was buried in the cathedral at Constance,
where his tomb near the high altar is marked by a brass of
English workmanship.
For the acts of the council of Constance see H. von der Hardt's
Concilium Constantiense, and H. Finke's Acta conciln Constanciensis.
For a modern account see Mandell Creighton's History of the Papacy
(6 vols., London, 1897). (C. L. K.)
HALL& SIR CHARLES (originally Karl Halle) (1810-1895),
English pianist and conductor, German by nationality, was
born at Hagen, in Westphalia, on the nth of April 1819. He
studied under Rink at Darmstadt in 1835, and as early as 1836
went to Paris, wheje for twelve years he lived in constant inter-
course with Cherubini, Chopin, Liszt and other musicians, and
enjoyed the friendship of such great literary figures as Alfred
de Musset and George Sand. He had started a set of chamber
concerts with Alard and Franchomme with great success, and
had completed one series of them when the revolution of 1S48
drove him from Paris, and he settled, with his wife and two
children, in London. His pianoforte recitals, given at first from
1850 in his own house, and from 186 1 in St James's Hall, were an
important feature of London musical life, and it was due in
great measure to them that a knowledge of Beethoven's piano-
forte sonatas became general in English society. At the Musical
Union founded by John Ella, and at the Popular Concerts from
their beginning, Halle* was a frequent performer, and from 1853
was director of the Gentlemen's Concerts in Manchester, where,
in 1857, he started a series of concerts of his own, raising the
orchestra to a pitch of perfection quite unknown at that time
in England. In 1888 he married Madame Norman Neruda
(b. 1839), the violinist, widow of Ludwig Norman, and daughter
of Josef Neruda, members of whose family had long been famous
for musical talent. In the same year he was knighted; and
in 1890 and 1891 he toured with his wife in Australia and else-
where. He died at Manchester on the 25th of October 1895.
Halll exercised an important influence in the musical education
of England; if his pianoforte-playing, by which he was mainly
known to the public in London, seemed remarkable rather for
precision than for depth, for crystal clearness rather than for
^warmth, and for perfect realisation of the written text rather
than for strong individuality, it was at least of immense value
as giving the composer's idea w)t& the utmost fidelity. Those
who were privileged to hear him play in private, like those who
could appreciate the power, beauty and imaginative warmth
of his conducting, would have given a very different verdict;
and they were not wrong in judging Hall6 to be a man of the
widest and keenest artistic sympathies, with an extraordinary
gift of insight into music of every school, as well as a strong sense
of humour. He fought a long and arduous battle for the best
music, and never forgot the dignity of his art. In spite of the
fact that his technique was that of his youth, of the period before
Liszt, the ease and certainty he attained in the most modern
music was not the less wonderful because he concealed the
mechanical means so completely.
Lady Hall6, who from 1864 onwards had been one of the leading
solo violinists of the time, was constantly associated with her
husband on the concert stage till his death; and in 1806 a public
subscription was organized in her behalf, under royal patronage.
She continued to appear occasionally in public, notably as late
as 1007, when she played at the Joachim memorial concert. In
1 001 she was given by Queen Alexandra the title of "violinist
to the queen." A fine classical player and artist, frequently
associated with Joachim, Lady Hall€ was the first of the women
violinists who could stand comparison with men.
HALLE (known as Halle-an-der-Saale, to distinguish it
from the small town of Halle in Westphalia), a town of Germany,
in the Prussian province of Saxony, situated in a sandy plain on
the right bank of the Saale, which here divides into several arms,
21 m. N.W. from Leipzig by the railway to Magdeburg. Pop.
(1875), 60,503; (1885) 81,982; (1895) 116,304; (1905) 160,031.
Owing to its situation at the junction of six important lines of
railway, bringing it into direct communication with Berlin,
Breslau, Leipzig, Frankfort-on-Main, the Hans country and
Hanover, it has greatly developed in size and in commercial
and industrial importance. It consists of the old, or inner, town
surrounded by promenades, which occupy the site of the former
fortifications, and beyond these of two small towns, Glaucha
in the south and Neumarkt in the north, and five rapidly in-
creasing suburbs. The inner town is irregularly built and
presents a somewhat unattractive appearance, but it has been
much improved and modernized by the laying out of new streets.
The centre of the town proper is occupied by the imposing
market square, on which stand the fine medieval town hall
(restored in 1883) and the handsome Gothic Marienkirche,
dating mainly from the 16th century, with two towers connected
by a bridge. In the middle of the square are a clock-tawer
(Der rote Turm) 276 ft. in height, and a bronze statue of Handel,
the composer, a native of Halle. West of the market-square lies
the Halle, or the Tal, where the brine springs (see below) issue.
Among the eleven churches, nine Protestant and two Roman
Catholic, may also be mentioned the St Moritzkirche, dating
.frpm the 12th century, with fine wood carvings and sculptures,
and the cathedral (belonging since 1689 to the Reformed or
Calvinistic church), built in the 16th century and containing an
altar-piece representing Duke Augustus of Saxony and his
family. Of secular buildings the most noticeable are the ruins
of the castle of Moritzburg, formerly a citadel and the residence
of the archbishops of Magdeburg, destroyed by fire in the Thirty
Years' War, with the exception Of the left wing now used for
military purposes, the university buildings, the theatre and the
new railway station. The famous university was founded by
the elector Frederick III. of Brandenburg (afterwards king of
Prussia), in 1694, on behalf of the jurist, Christian Thomasius
(1655-1728), whom many students followed to Halle, when he was
expelled from Leipzig through the enmity of his fellow professors.
It was closed by Napoleon in 1806 and again in 1813, but in 18x5
was re-established and augmented by the removal to it cif the
university of Wittenberg, with which it thus became united.
It has faculties of theology, law, medicine and philosophy.
From the first it has been recognized as one of the principal seats
of Protestant theology, originally of the pietistie and latterly of
the rationalistic and critical school. In connexion with the
university there are a botanical garden, a theological seminary,
8 5 4
HALLECK, F.— HALLECK, H. W.
anatomical, pathological and physical institutes, hospitals, an
agricultural institute — one of the foremost institutions of the
kind in Germany — a meteorological institute, an observatory
and a library of 180,000 printed volumes and 800 manuscripts.
Among other educational establishments must be mentioned
the Francke'sche Stiftungen, founded in 1691 by August Hermann
Francke (1663-1727), a bronze statue of whom by Rauch was
erected in 1829 in the inner court of the building. They embrace
an orphanage, a laboratory where medicines are prepared and
distributed, a Bible press from which Bibles are issued at a cheap
rate, and eight schools of various grades, attended in all by over
3000 pupils. The other principal institutions are the city
gymnasium, the provincial lunatic asylum, the prison, the town
hospital and infirmary, and the deaf and dumb institute. The
salt-springs of Halle have been known from a very early period.
Some rise within the town and others on an island in the
Saale; and together their annual yield of salt is about 8500
tons.
The workmen employed at the salt-works are of a peculiar race
and are known as the Halloren. They have been usually regarded
as descendants of the original Wendish inhabitants, or as Celtic
immigrants, with an admixture of Frankish elements. They
wear a distinct dress, the ordinary costume of about 1700,
observe several ancient customs, and enjoy certain exemptions
and privileges derived from those of the ancient Pfannerschaft
(community of the salt-panners).
Among the other industries of Halle are sugar refining, machine
building, the manufacture of spirits, malt, chocolate, cocoa,
confectionery, cement, paper, chicory, lubricating and illuminat-
ing oil, wagon grease, carriages and playing cards, printing,
dyeing and coal mining (soft brown coal). The trade, which is
supervised by a chamber of commerce, is very considerable, the
principal exports being machinery, raw sugar and petroleum.
Halle is also noted as the seat of several important publishing
firms. The Bibelanstalt (Bible institution) of von Castein is the
central authority for the revision of Luther's Bible, of which it
sells annually from 60,000 to 70,000 copies.
Halle is first mentioned as a fortress erected on the Saale in 806
by Charles, son of Charlemagne, during his expedition against the
Sorbs. The place was, however, known long before, and owes its
origin as well as its name to the salt springs (aalis). In 968 Halle,
with the valuable salt works, was given by the emperor Otto I. to
the newly founded archdiocese of Magdeburg, and in 981 Otto II.
gave it a charter as a town. The interests of the archbishop were
watched over by a Vogt (aduocatus) and a burgrave, and from the
first there were separate jurisdictions for the Halloren and the
German settlers in the town, the former being under that of the
Salzgraf (comes salis), the latter of a Schultheiss or bailiff, both
subordinate to the burgrave. The conflict of interests and juris-
dictions led to the usual internecine strife duringthe middle ages. The
panners (Pf anner) of the Tal, feudatories or officials, became a close
hereditary aristocracy in perpetual rivalry with the gilds in the town ;
and both resisted the pretensions of the archbishops. At the
beginning of the 12th century Halle had attained considerable im-
portance, and in the 13th and 14th centuries as a member of the
Hanseatic League it carried on successful wars with the archbishops
of Magdeburg; and in 1435 it resisted an army of 30,000 men under
the elector of Saxony. Its liberty perished, however, as a result
of the internal feud between the democratic gilds and the patrician
panners. On the 20th of September 1478 a demagogue and cobbler
named Jakob Weissak, a member of the town council, with his
confederates opened the gates to the soldiers of the archbishop. The
townsmen were subdued, and to hold them in check the archbishop,
Ernest of Saxony, built the castle of Moritzburg. Notwithstanding
the efforts of the archbishops of Mainz and Magdeburg, the Refor-
mation found an entrance into the city in 1522; and in 1541 a
Lutheran superintendent was appointed. After the peace of West-
phalia in 1648 the city came into the possession of the house of
Brandenburg. In 1806 it was stormed and taken by the French,
after which, at the peace of Tilsit, it Was united to the new kingdom
of Westphalia. After the battle between the Prussians and French,
in May 1813, it was taken by the Prussians. The rise of Leipzig
was for a long time hurtful to the prosperity of Halle, and its present
rapid increase in population and trade is principally due to its position
as the centre of a network of railways.
See Dreyhaupt, Ausfuhrliche Beschreibung des Saalkreises (Halle,
2 vols., 1755? 3rd edition, 1 842-1844); HorTbauer, Geschichte der
Universitdt su Halle (1806) ; Halle in Vorzeit und Gegenwart (1851) ;
Knauth, Kurze Geschichte und Beschreibung der Stadt Halle (3rd ed.,
1861); vom Hagen, Die Stadt Halle (1866-1867); Hertzberg,
Geschichte der Vereinigung der Universitdten von Wittenberg und
Halle (1867); Voss, Zur Geschichte der Autonomic der Stadt Halle
(1874.); Schrader, Geschichte der Friedrichs- Universitdt zu Halle
(Berlin, 1894); Karl Hegel, Stddte und Gilden der germanischen
Vdlker (Leipzig, 1891), ii. 444-449.
HALLECK, FTTZ-GREENE {1790-1867), American poet, was
born at Guilford, Connecticut, on the 8th of July 1790. By his
mother he was descended from John Eliot, the " Apostle to the
Indians." At an early age he became clerk in a store at Guil-
ford, and in x8n he entered a banking-house in New York.
Having made the acquaintance of Joseph Rodman Drake, in 1819
he assisted him under the signature of "Croaker junior" in
contributing to the New York Evening Post the humorous series
of " Croaker Papers." In 1821 he published his longest poem,
Fanny, a satire on local politics and fashions in the measure of
Byron's Don Juan. He visited Europe in 1822-1823, and after
his return published anonymously in 1827 Alnwick Castle, with
other Poems. From 1832 to 1841 he was confidential agent of
John Jacob Astor, who named him one of the trustees of the
Astor library. In 1864 he published in the New York Ledger
a poem of 300 lines entitled " Young America." He died at
Guilford, on the 19th of November 1867. The poems of Haileck
are written with great care and finish, and manifest the possession
of a fine sense of harmony and of genial and elevated sentiments.
His Life and Letters, by James Grant Wilson, appeared in 1869.
His Poetical Writings, together with extractB from those Of Joseph
Rodman Drake, were edited by Wilson in the same year.
HALLECK, HENRY WAGER (1815-1872), American general
and jurist, was born at Westernville, Oneida county, N.Y.,
in 181 5, entered the West Point military academy at the age of
twenty, and on graduating in 1839 was appointed to the engineers,
becoming at the same time assistant professor of engineering
at the academy. In the f ollowing year he was made an assistant
to the Board of Engineers at Washington, from 1841 to 1846
he was employed on the defence works at New York, and in
1845 he was sent by the government to visit the principal
military establishments of Europe. After his return, Haileck
delivered a course of lectures on the science of war, published
in 1846 under the title Elements of Military Art and Science-
A later edition of this work was widely used as a text-book by
volunteer' officers during the Civil War. On the outbreak of the
Mexican War in 1846, he served with the expedition to California
and the Pacific coast, in which he distinguished himself not only
as an engineer, but by his skill in civil administration and by his
good conduct before the enemy. He served for several years
in California as a staff officer, and as secretary of state under the
military government, and in 1849 he helped to frame the state
constitution of California, on its being admitted into the Union.
In 1852 he was appointed inspector and engineer of lighthouses,
and in 1853 was employed in the fortification of the Pacific
coast. In 1854 Captain Haileck resigned his commission and
took up the practice of law with great success. He was also
director of a quicksilver mine, and in 1855 he became president
of the Pacific & Atlantic railway. On the outbreak of the Civil
War he returned to the army as a major-general, and in
November 1861 he was charged with the supreme command in
the western theatre of war. There can be no question that his
administrative skill was mainly instrumental in bringing order
out of chaos in the hurried formation of large volunteer armies
in 1861, but the strategical and tactical successes of the following
spring were due rather to the skill and activity of his subordinate
generals Grant, Buell and Pope, than to the plans of the supreme
commander, and when he assumed command of the united forces
of these three generals before Corinth, the methodical slowness
of his advance aroused much criticism. In July, however, he
was called to Washington as general-in-chief of the armies. At
headquarters his administrative powers were conspicuous,
but he proved to be utterly wanting in any large grasp of the
military problem; the successive reverses of Generals McClellan,
Pope, Burnside and Hooker in Virginia were not infrequently
traceable to the defects of the general-in-chief. No co-ordination
of the military efforts of the Union was seriously undertake* by
Haileck, and eventually in March 1864 Grant was appointed to
HALLEFLIKTA— HALLEft, A. VON
»55
replace him, Major -General Halleck becoming chief of staff at
Washington. This post he occupied with credit until the
end of the war. In April 1865 he held the command of the
military division of the James and in August of the same year
of the military division of the Pacific, which he retained till
June 1869, when he was transferred to that of the South, a
position he held till his death at Louisville, Ky., on the 9th of
January 1872. Halleck's position as a soldier is easily defined
by his uniform success as an administrative official, his equally
uniform want of success as an officer at the head of large armies
in the field, and the popularity of his theoretical writings on
war : His influence, for good or evil, on the course of the greatest
war of modern times was greater than that of any soldier on
either side save Grant and Lee, and whilst his interference with
the dispositions of the commanders in the field was often dis-
astrous, his services in organizing and instructing the Union
forces were always of the highest value, and in this respect he
was indispensable.
Besides Military Art and Science, Halleck wrote Bitumen, its
Varieties, Properties and Uses (1841); The Mining Laws of Spain
and Mexico (1859); International Law (1861; new edition, 1908);
and Treatise on International Law and the Laws of War, prepared
for the use of Schools and Colleges, abridged from the larger work.
He translated Jomini's Vie politique et militaire de NapoUon (1864)
and de Fooz On the Law of Mines (1 860) . The works on international
law mentioned above entitle General Halleck to be considered as
one of the great jurists of the 19th century.
HALLEFLINTA (a Swedish word meaning rock-flint), a white,
grey, yellow, greenish or pink, fine-grained rock consisting of
an intimate mixture of quartz and felspar. Many examples
are banded or striated; others contain porphyritic crystals
of quartz which resemble those of the felsites and porphyries.
Mica, iron oxides, apatite, zircon, epidote and hornblende may
also be present in small amount. The more micaceous varieties
form transitions to granulite and gneiss. Halleflinta under the*
microscope is very finely crystalline, or even cryptocrystalline,
resembling the felsitic matrix of many acid rocks. It is essentially
metamorphic and occurs with gneisses, schists and granulites,
especially in the Scandinavian peninsula, where it is regarded
as being very characteristic of certain horizons* Of its original
nature there is some doubt, but its chemical composition and
the occasional presence of porphyritic crystals indicate that it
has affinities to the fine-grained acid intrusive rocks. In this
group there may also have been placed metamorphosed acid
tuffs and a certain number of adinoles (shales, contact altered
by intrusions of diabase). The assemblage is not a perfectly
homogeneous one but includes both igneous and sedimentary
rocks, but the former preponderate. Rocks very similiar to the
typical Swedish halleflintas occur in Tirol, in Galicia and eastern
Bohemia.
HALLEL (Heb. ^0 a Mishnic derivative from .tyn killel,
" to praise "), a term in synagogal liturgy for (a) Psalms
cxiii.-cxviii., often called " the Egyptian Hallel " because of its
recitation during the paschal meal on the night of the Passover,
(b) Psalm cxxxvi. "the Great Hallel. ,, C. A. Briggs 1 points out
that the term " Hallelujah " (Praise ye Yah) is found at the
close of Pss. civ., cv., cxv., cxvi., cxvii., at the beginning of
Pss. cxi., cxii. and at both ends of Pss. cvi., cxiii., cxxxv., cxlvi.
to cl. The Septuagint also gives it at the beginning of Pss. cv.,
cvii., cxiv., cxvi. to cxix., cxxxvi. There are thus four groups
of Hallel psalms; — civ.-cvii. (a tetralogy on creation, the
patriarchal age, the Exodus, and the Restoration); cxi.-cxvii.
which includes most of the "Egyptian Hallel"; cxxxv.-cxxxvi. ;
cxlvi.-ci. All of these Hallels (except cxlvii. and cxlix. which
are Maccabean) belong to the Greek period, forming a collection
of sixteen psalms composed for public use by the choirs, especially
at the great feasts. Their distribution into four groups was the
work of the final editor of the psalter. Later liturgical use
regarded Pss. cxviii. and even cxix. as Hallels, as well as Pss.
cxx. to cxxxiv.
It will be observed that the extent of the official Hallel varied
from time to time. It would appear that in the time of Gamaliel
1 International Critical Commentary, " Psalms," Intro, lxxviii.
(Pesahim x. 5) the custom of its recitation at the paschal meal
was still of recent innovation. While the school of Shammai
advised only Ps\ cxiii., the school of Hillel favoured Pss. cxiii.
and cxiv. 2 The further extension so as to include Pss. cxv. to
cxviii. probably dates from the first half of the 2nd century a.d.,
and these four psalms were recited after the pouring out of the
fourth cup, the two earlier ones being taken at the beginning of
the meal. From the 3rd century the use of the Hallel was
extended to other occasions, and was gradually incorporated
into the liturgy of eighteen festal days.
The " Great Hallel " (Ps. cxxxvi. and its later extension to
cxx.-cxxxvi.) always served the wider purpose of a more general
thanksgiving. According to Rabbi Johanan it derived its name
from the allusion in v. 25 to the Holy One who sits in heaven and
thence distributes ,food to all his creatures.
HALLER, ALBRECHT VON (1708-1777), Swiss anatomist
and physiologist, was born of an old Swiss family at Bern, on the
16th of October 1708. Prevented by long-continued ill-health
from taking part in boyish sports, he had the more opportunity
for the development of his precocious mind. At the age of four,
it is said, he used to read and expound the Bible to his father's
servants; before he was ten he had sketched a Chaldee grammar,
prepared a Greek and a Hebrew vocabulary, compiled a collection
of two thousand biographies of famous men and women on the
model of the great works of Bayle and Moreri, and written in
Latin verse a satire on his tutor, who had warned him against
a too great excursiveness. When still hardly fifteen he was
already the author of numerous metrical translations from Ovid,
Horace and Virgil, as well as of original lyrics, dramas, and an
epic of four thousand lines on the origin of the Swiss confedera-
tions, writings which he is said on one occasion to have rescued
from a fire at the risk of his life, only, however, to burn them a
little later (1729) with his own hand. Haller's attention had
been directed to the profession of medicine while he was residing
in the house of a physician at Biel after his father's death in
1 721; and, following the choice then made, he while still a
sickly and excessively shy youth went in his sixteenth year to
the university of Ttibingen (December 1723), where he studied
under Camerarius and Duvernoy. Dissatisfied with his progress,
he in 1725 exchanged Ttibingen for Leiden, where Boerhaave
was in the zenith of his fame, and where Albinus had already
begun to lecture in anatomy. At that university he graduated
in May 1727, undertaking successfully in his thesis to prove that
the so-called salivary duct, claimed as a recent discovery by
Coschwitz, was nothing more than a blood-vessel. Haller then
visited London, naaking the acquaintance of Sir Hans Sloane,
Cheselden, Pringle, Douglas and other scientific men; next,
after a short stay in Oxford, he visited Paris, where he studied
under Ledran and Winslow; and in 1728 he proceeded to Basel,
where he devoted himself to the study of the higher mathematics
under John Bernoulli. It was during his stay there also that
his first great interest in botany was awakened; and, in the
course of a tour (July-August, 1828), through Savoy, Baden
and several of the Swiss cantons, he began a collection of plants
which was afterwards the basis of his great work on the flora
of Switzerland. From a literary point of view the main result
of this, the first of his many journeys through the Alps, was his
peom entitled Die Alpen, which was finished in March 1729*
and appeared in the first edition (1732) of his Gedichte* This
poem of 490 hexameters is historically important as one of the
earliest signs of the awakening appreciation of the mountains
(hitherto generally regarded as horrible monstrosities), though
it is chiefly designed to contrast the simple and idyllic life of the
inhabitants of the Alps with the corrupt and decadent existence
of the dwellers in the plains.
In 1729 he returned to Bern and began to practise as a
physician; his best energies, however, were devoted to the
botanical and anatomical researches which rapidly gave him a
European reputation, and procured for him from George II.
4 The reference to a hymn at the institution of the Eucharist
(Matt. xxvi. 30, Mark xiv. 26) must be interpreted in the light of this
inceptive stage of the Hallel.
856
HALLER, B.— HALLEY
in 1736 a call to the chair of medicine, anatomy, botany and
surgery in the newly founded university of Gottingen. He became
F.R.S. in 1743, and was ennobled in 1749. The quantity of
work achieved by Hallcr in the seventeen years during which
he occupied his Gottingen professorship was immense. Apart
from the ordinary work of his classes, which entailed upon him
the task of newly organizing a botanical garden, an anatomical
theatre and museum, an obstetrical school, and similar institu-
tions, he carried on without interruption those original investiga-
tions in botany and physiology, the results of which are preserved
in the numerous works associated with his name; he continued
also to persevere in his youthful habit of poetical composition,
while at the same time he conducted a monthly journal (the
GMlingische gelehrte Aweigen), to which he is said to have
contributed twelve thousand articles relating to almost every
branch of human knowledge. He also warmly interested himself
in most of the religious questions, both ephemeral and
permanent, of his day; and the erection of the Reformed church
in Gottingen was mainly due to his unwearied energy. Not-
withstanding all this variety of absorbing interests he never
felt at home in Gottingen; his untravelled heart kept ever
turning towards his native Bern (where he had been elected a
member of the great council in 1745), and in 1753 he resolved to
resign his chair and return to Switzerland.
The twenty-one years of his life which followed were largely
occupied in the discharge of his duties in the minor political post,
of a Rathhausammann which he had obtained by lot, and in the
preparation of his Bibliotheca medica t the botanical, surgical
and anatomical parts of which he lived to complete; but he
also found time to write the three philosophical romances —
(J song (1771), Alfred (1773) and Fabius and Cato (1774), — in
which his views as to the respective merits of. despotism, of
limited monarchy and. of aristocratic republican government are
fully set forth. About 1773 the state of his health rendered
necessary his entire withdrawal from public business; for some
time he supported his failing strength by means of opium, on the
use of which he communicated a paper to the Proceedings of
the Gottingen Royal Society in 1776; the excessive use of the
drug is believed, however, to have hastened his death, which
occurred on the 17th of December 1777. Haller, who had been
three times married, left eight children, the eldest of whom,
Gottlieb Emanuel, attained to some distinction as a botanist
and as a writer on Swiss historical bibliography (x 785-1 788,
7 vols,).
Subjoined is a classified but by no means an exhaustive list of his
very numerous works in various branches of science and literature
\9l complete list, up to 1775, numbering 576 items, including various
editions, was published by Haller himself, in 1775, at the end of
vol. 6 of the correspondence addressed to him by various learned
friends): — (1) Anatomical: — Icones anatomicae (1 743-1 754); Dis~
putationes anatomicae sclectiores (1 746-1 752); ana Opera acad.
min&ra anatomici argument* (1 762-1 768). (2) Physiological: — De
respiration* experimenta anatomica (1747) ; Primae lineae piysiologiae
(1747); and Elementa physiologiae corporis humani (1 757-1 760).
(3; Pathological and surgical i-~-Opuscula paihologica (1754); Dis-
hutoJUonum ckirurg. coUectio (1777); also careful editions of Boer-
haave's Prnetectiones academtcae in sues institutions rei medico*
(1 739) ♦ ^nd of the Artis medicae principia of the same author (1769-
1 774). (4) Botanical : — Enumeratio metkodico stirpium Hehcticarum
11742); Opuscula botanica (1749); Bibliotheca botanica (1771). (5)
Theological : — Briefe uber die wtchtigsten Wakrheiten der Offenbarung
(1772); and Briefe sur Vertkeidignng der Offenbarung (1 775-1 777).
^6) Poetical: — Gtdickte (1732, 12th od M 1777). His three romances
have been already mentioned. Several volumes of lectures and
** Tagebucher " or journals were published posthumously.
See J. G. Zimmermann, Das Leben des Herrn von Holler (1755),
and the articles by Forster and Seiler in Ersch and Gruber's Encykuh-
padie, and particularly the detailed biography (over 500 pages) by
L Hiriel, printed at the head of his elaborate edition (Frauenfeld,
1882) of Hallcr's Geddckte.
HALLER, BBRTHOLD (149 2-1 536), Swiss reformer, was born
at Aldingen in Wurttemberg, and after studying at Pforzheim,
where he met Melanchthon, and at Cologne, taught in the
gymnasium at Bern. He was appointed assistant preacher at
the church of St Vincent in 1515 and people's priest in 1520.
Even before his acquaintance with Zwingli in 152 1 he had begun
to preach the Reformation, his sympathetic character and his
eloquence making him a great force. In 1526 he was at the
abortive conference of Baden, and in January 1528 drafted and
defended the ten theses for the conference of Bern which
established the new religion in that city. He left no writings
except a few letters which are preserved in Zwingli's works.
He died on the 25th of February 1536.
Life by Pestalozzi (Elberfeld, 1861).
HALLEY, EDMUND (1656-1742), English astronomer, was
born at Haggerston, London, on the 29th of October 1656.
His lather, a wealthy soapboiler, placed him at St Paul's school,
where he was equally distinguished for classical and mathe-
matical ability. Before leaving it for Queen's College, Oxford,
in 1673, he had observed the change in the variation of the
compass, and at the age of nineteen, he supplied a new and
improved method of determining the elements of the planetary
orbits (Phil. Trans, xi. 683). His detection of considerable
errors in the tables then in use led him to the conclusion that a
more accurate ascertainment of the places of the fixed stars was
indispensable to the progress of astronomy; and, finding that
Flamsteed and Hevelius had already undertaken to catalogue
those visible in northern latitudes, he assumed to himself the
task of making observations in the southern hemisphere. A
recommendation from Charles II. to the East India Company
procured for him an apparently suitable, though, as it proved,
ill-chosen station, and in November 1676 he embarked for St
Helena. On the voyage he noticed the retardation of the pendu-
lum in approaching the equator; and during his stay on the
island he observed, on the 7 th of November 1677, a transit of
Mercury, which suggested to him the important idea of employing
similar phenomena for determining the sun's distance. He
returned to England in November 1678, having by the registra-
tion of 341 stars won the title of the " Southern Tycho," and
by the translation to the heavens of the " Royal Oak," earned
a degree of master of arts, conferred at Oxford by the king's
command on the 3rd of December 1678, almost simultaneously
with his election as fellow of the Royal Society. Six months
later, the indefatigable astronomer started for Danzig to set
at rest a dispute of long standing between Hooke and Hevelius
as to the respective merits of plain or telescopic sights; and
towards the end of 1680 he proceeded on a continental tour.
In Paris he observed, with G. D. Cassini, the great comet of 1680
after its perihelion passage; and having returned to England,
he married in 1682 Mary, daughter of Mr Tooke, auditor of the
exchequer, with whom he lived harmoniously for fifty-five years.
He now fixed his residence at Islington, engaged chiefly upon
lunar observations, with a view to the great desideratum of a
method of finding the longitude at sea. His mind, however,
was also busy with the momentous problem of gravity. Having
reached so far as to perceive that the central force of the solar
system must decrease inversely as the square of the distance,
and applied vainly to Wren and Hooke for further elucidation,
he made in August 1684 that journey to Cambridge for the
purpose of consulting Newton, which resulted in the publication
of the Principia. The labour and expense of passing this great
work through the press devolved upon Halley, who also wrote
the prefixed hexameters ending with the well-known line —
Nee fas est propius mortali attingere divos.
In 1696 he was, although a zealous Tory, appointed deputy
comptroller of the mint at Chester, and (August 19, 1698) he
received a commission as captain of the " Paramour Pink "
for the purpose of making extensive observations on the con-
ditions of terrestrial magnetism. This task he accomplished in
a voyage which lasted two years, and extended to the 52nd
degree of S. latitude. The results were published in a General
Chart of the Variation of the Compass in 1 701 ; and immediately
afterwards he executed by royal command a careful survey of
the tides and coasts of the British Channel, an elaborate map
of which he produced in 1702. On his return from a journey
to Dalmatia, for the purpose of selecting and fortifying the port
of Trieste, he was nominated, November 1703, Savilian professor
of geometry at Oxford, and received an honorary degree of
HALLGRIMSSON— HALLOWE'EN
•8- 5 >
doctor of laws in 1 7 10. Between 17 13 and 1721 he acted as
secretary to the Royal Society, and early in 1720 he succeeded
Flamsteed as astronomer-royal. Although in his sixty-fourth
year, he undertook to observe the moon through an entire
revolution of her nodes (eighteen years), and actually carried
out his purpose. He died on the 14th of January 1742. His
tomb is in the old graveyard of St Margaret's church, Lee, Kent.
Halley's most notable scientific achievements were-^his
detection of the " long inequality " of Jupiter and Saturn, and
of the acceleration of the moon's mean motion (1603), his dis-
covery of the proper motions of the fixed stars (17 18), his theory
of variation (1683), including the hypothesis of four magnetic
poles, revived by C. Hansteen in 1819, and his suggestion of the
magnetic origin of the aurora boreaHs; his calculation of the
orbit of the 1682 comet (the first ever attempted), coupled with
a prediction of its return, strikingly verified in 1759; and his
indication (first in 1679, and again in 1716, Phil. Trans., No. 348)
of a method extensively used in the 18th and 19th centuries for
determining the solar parallax by means of the transits of Venus.
His principal works are Catalogue stettarum australium (London,
1679), the substance of which was embodied in vol. iii. of Flamsteed 's
Htstoria coelestis (1725); Synopsis astronomiae cometicae (Oxford,
1705); Astronomical Tables (London, 1752); also eighty-one mis-
cellaneous papers of considerable interest, scattered through the
Philosophical Transactions. To these should be added his version
from the Arabic (which language he acquired for the purpose) of the
treatise of Apollonius De sectione rationis, with a restoration of his
two lost books De sectione spatii, both published at Oxford in 1706;
also his fine edition of the Conies of Apollonius, with the treatise
by Serenus De sectione cylindri et coni (Oxford, 1710, folio). His
edition of the Spherics of Menelaus was published by his friend Dr
Costard in 1758. See also Biographia Britannica, vol. iv. (1757) ;
Gent. Mag. xvu. 435, 503; A. Wood, Athenae Oxon. (Bliss), iv. 536;
J. Aubrey, Lives, h. 365; F. BaHy, Account of Flamsteed; Sir D.
Brewster, Life of Newton; R. Grant, History of Astronomy \ p.* 477
and passim; A. J. Rudolph, Bulletin of Bibliography, No. 14 (Boston,
1904); E. F. McPike, <r BiWiography of Halley's Comet,'* Smith-
sonian Misc. Collections, vol. xlviii. pt. i. (1905) ; Notes and Queries,
9th series, vols. x. xi. xii., ioth series, vol. H. (E. F. McPike). A
collection of manuscripts regarding Halley is preserved among the
Rigaud papers in the Bodleian library, Oxford; and many of his
unpublished letters exist a{ the. Record Office and in the library of
the Royal Society. (A. M. C.)
HALLGRfMSSON, J6NAS ( i 807-1 844), the chief lyrical poet
of Iceland, was born in 1807 at Steinsstaoir in Eyjafjarfars^sla
in the north of that island, and educated at the famous school
of Bessastadr. In 1 83 2 he went to the university of Copenhagen ,
and shortly afterwards turned his attention to the natural'
sciences, especially geology. Having obtained pecuniary assist- ,
ance from the Danish government, he travelled through all
Iceland for scientific purposes in the years 183 7-1842, and made
many interesting geological observations. Most of his writings
on geology are in Danish. His renown was, however, not'
acquired by his writings in that language, but by his Icelandic
poems and short stories. He was well read in German literature,
Heine and Schiller being his favourites, and the study of the
German masters and the old classical writers of Iceland opened
his eyes to the corrupt state of Icelandic poetry and showed him
the way to make it better. The misuse of the Eddie metaphors
made the lyrical and epical poetry of the day hardly intelligible,
and, to make matters worse, the language of the poets was mixed
up with words of German and Danish origin. The great Danish
philologist and friend of Iceland, Rasmus Rask, and the poet
Bjarni Thorarensen had done much to purify the language,
but J6nas Hallgrimsson completed their work by his poems and
tales, in a purer language than ever had been written in Iceland
since the days of Snorri Sturlason. The excesses of Icelandic
poetry were specially seen in the so-called rimur, ballads of
heroes, &c, which were fiercely attacked by J6nas Hallgrimsson,
who at last succeeded in converting the educated to his view.
Most of the principal poems, tales and essays of J6nas Hall-
grimsson appeared in the periodical Fjolnir, which he began
publishing at Copenhagen in 1835, together with KonraSGfslason,
a well-known philologist, and the patriotic Th6mas Saemunds-
son. Fjdlnir had in the beginning a hard struggle against old
prejudices, but as the years went by its influence became
/
enormous; and when it at last ceased, its programme and spirit
still lived in N$ FUagsrit and other patriotic periodicals which
took its place. Jonas Hallgrimsson, who died in 1844, is the
father of a separate school in Icelandic lyric poetry. He intro-
duced foreign thoughts and metres, but at the same time revived
the metres of the Icelandic classical poets. Altho ugh his poetical
works are all comprised in one small volume, he strikes every
string of the old harp of Iceland. (S. Bt.)
HALLIDAY, ANDREW [Andrew Halliday Duff] (1830-
1877), British journalist and dramatist, was born at Marnoch,
Banffshire, in 1830. He was educated at Marischal College,
Aberdeen, and in 1849 he came to London, and discarding the
name of Duff, devoted himself to literature. His first engagement
was with the daily papers, and his work having attracted the
notice of Thackeray, he was invited to write for the CornkUl
Magazine. From 1861 he contributed largely to All the Year
Round, and many of his articles were republished in collected
form. He was also the author, alone and with others, of a great
number of farces, burlesques and melodramas and a peculiarly
successful adapter of popular novels for the stage. Of these
Little Em'ly (1869), his adaptation of David Copper fields was
warmly approved by Dickens himself, and enjoyed a long run
at Drury Lane. Halliday died in London on the ioth of April
1877.
HALLIWELL-FHILLIFPS, JAMES ORCHARD (1820-1889),
English Shakespearian scholar, son of Thomas HaUiwell, was
born in London, on the 21st of June 1820. He was educated
privately and at Jesus College, Cambridge* He devoted himself
to antiquarian research, particularly in early English literature.
In 1S39 he edited Sir John Mandeville's Travels; in 1842 pub-
lished an Account of the European MSS. in the Chetham Library,
besides a newly discovered metrical romance of the 15th century
(Torrent of Portugal). He became best known, however, as a
Shakespearian editor and collector. In 1848 he brought out his
Life of Shakespeare, which passed through several editions;
in 1 853-1865 a sumptuous edition, limited to 150 copies, of
Shakespeare in folio, with full critical notes; in 1863 a Calendar
of the Records at Stratford-on-Avon; in 1864 a History of New
Place. After 1870 he entirely gave up textual criticism, and
devoted his attention to elucidating the particulars of Shake-
speare's life. He collated all the available facts and documents
in relation to it, and exhausted the information to be found in
local records in his Outlines of the Life of Shakespeare. He was
mainly instrumental in the purchase of New Place for the
corporation of Stratford-on^Avon, and in the formation there
of the Shakespeare museum. His publications in all numbered
more than sixty volumes. He assumed the name of Philiipps
in 1872, under the will of the grandfather of his first wife, a
daughter of Sir Thomas Philiipps the antiquary. He took an
active interest in the Camden Society, the Percy Society and the
Shakespeare Society, for which he edited many early English
and Elizabethan works. From 1845 HaUiwell was excluded
from the library of the British Museum on account of the
suspicion attaching to his possession of some manuscripts which
had been removed from the library of Trinity College, Cambridge.
He published privately an explanation of the matter in 1845.
His house, Hollingbury Copse, near Brighton, was full of rare
and curious works, and he generously gave many of them to the
Chetham library, Manchester, to the town library of Penzance,
to the Smithsonian Institute, Washington, and to the library of
Edinburgh university. He died on the 3rd of January 1889.
HALLOWE'EN* or All Hallows Eve, the name given to the
31st of October^ as the vigil of Hallowmas or All Saints' Day.
Though now known as little else but the eve of the Christian
festival, Hallowe'en and its formerly attendant ceremonies
long antedate Christianity. The two chief characteristics of
ancient Hallowe'en were the lighting of bonfires and the belief
that of all nights in the year this is the one during which ghosts
and witches are most likely to wander abroad. Now on or about
the xst of November the Druids held their great autumn festival
and lighted fires in honour of the Sun-god in thanksgiving for
the harvest. Further, it was a Druidic belief that on the eve of
8 5 8
HALLSTATT-— HALLUCINATION
this festival Saman, lord of death, called together the wicked
souls that within the past twelve months had been condemned to
inhabit the bodies of animals. Thus it is clear that the main
celebrations of Hallowe'en were purely Druidical r and this is
further proved by the fact that in parts of Ireland the 31st of
October was, and even still is, known. as Oidhche Shamhna,
" Vigil of Saman." On the Druidic ceremonies were grafted some
of the characteristics of the Roman festival in honour of Pomona
held about the 1st of November, in which nuts and apples, as
representing the winter store of fruits, played an important
part. Thus the roasting of nuts and the sport known as " apple-
ducking " — attempting to seize with the teeth an apple floating
in a tub of water, — were once the universal occupation of the
young folk in medieval England on the 31st of October. The
custom of lighting Hallowe'en fires survived until recent years
in the highlands of. Scotland and Wales. In the dying embers
it was usual to place as many small stones as there were persons
around, and next morning a search was made. If any of the
pebbles were displaced it was regarded as certain that, the person
represented would die within the twelve months.
For details of the Hallowe'en games and bonfires see Brand's
Antiquities of Great Britain ; Chambers's Book of Days; Grimm's
Deutsche Mythologie, ch. xx. (Elements) and ch. xxxiv. (Aberglaube) ;
and J. G. Frazer s Golden Bough, vol. iii. Compare also Beltane
and Bonfire.
HALLSTATT V a market-place of Austria, in Upper Austria,
67 m. S.S.W. of Linz by rail. Pop. (1900) 737. It is situated
on the shore of the Hallstatter-see and at the foot of the Hall-
statter Salzberg, and is built in amphitheatre with its houses
clinging to the mountain side. The salt mine of Hallstatt,
which is one of the oldest in existence, was rediscovered in the
14th century. In the neighbourhood is the celebrated Celtic
burial ground, where a great number of very interesting anti-
quities have been found. Most of these have been removed to
the museums at Vienna and Linz, but some are kept in the local
museum.
The excavations (1847-1864) revealed a form of culture
hitherto unknown, and accordingly the name Hallstatt has
been applied to objects of like form and decoration since found
in Styria, Carniola, Bosnia (at Glasinatz and Jezerin), Epirus,
north Italy, France, Spain and Britain (see Celt). Everywhere
else the change from iron weapons to bronze is immediate, but
at Hallstatt iron is seen gradually superseding bronze, first for
ornament, then for edging cutting instruments, then replacing
fully the old bronze types, and finally taking new forms of its
own. There can be no doubt that the use of iron first developed
in the Hallstatt area, and that thence it spread southwards into
Italy, Greece, the Aegean, Egypt and Asia, and northwards
and westwards in Europe. At Noreia, which gave its name to
Noricum (q.v.) less than 40 m. from Hallstatt, were the most
famous iron mines of antiquity, which produced the Noric iron
and Noric swords so prized and dreaded by the Romans (Pliny,
Hist. Nat. xxxiv. 145; Horace, Epod. 17. 71). This iron needed
no tempering, and the Celts had probably found it ready smelted
by nature, just as the Eskimo had learned of themselves to use
telluric iron embedded in basalt. The graves at Hallstatt were
partly inhumation partly cremation; they contained swords,
daggers, spears, javelins, axes, helmets, bosses and plates of
shields and hauberks, brooches, various forms of jewelry, amber
and glass beads, many of the objects being decorated with animals
and geometrical designs. Silver was practically unknown.
The weapons and axes are mostly iron, a few being bronze. The
swords are leaf-shaped, with blunt points intended for cutting,
not for thrusting; the hilts differ essentially from those of the
Bronze Age, being shaped like a crescent to grasp the blade,
with large pommels; or sometimes with antennae (the latter
found also in Bavaria, Wurttemberg, Baden, Switzerland, the
Pyrenees, Spain, north Italy): only six arrowheads (bronze)
were found. Both flanged and socketed celts occurred, the iron
being much more numerous than the bronze. The flat axes are
distinguished by the side stops and in some cases the transition
from palstave to socketed axe can be seen. The shields were
round as in the early Iron Age of north Italy (see Viixanova).
Greaves were found at Glasinatz and Jezerin, though not at
Hallstatt; two helmets were found at Hallstatt and others in
Bosnia; broad bronze belts were numerous, adorned in repousse*
with beast and geometric ornament. Brooches are found in
great numbers, both those derived from the primitive safety-pin
(" Peschiera " type) and the " spectacle " or " Hallstatt " type
found all down the Balkans and in Greece. The latter are formed
of two spirals of wire, sometimes four such spirals being used,
whilst there were also brooches in animal forms, one of the latter
being found with a bronze sword. The Hallstatt culture is that
of the Homeric Achaeans (see Achaeans), but as the brooch
(along with iron, cremation of the dead, the round shield and
the geometric ornament) passed down into Greece from central
Europe, and as brooches are found in the lower town at Mycenae,
1350 B.C., they must have been invented long before that date
in central Europe. But as they are found in the late Bronze
Age and early Iron Age, the early iron culture of Hallstatt must
have originated long before 1350 B.C., a conclusion in accord
with the absence of silver at Hallstatt itself.
See Baron von Sacken, Das Grabfeld von Hallstatt; Bertrand and
S. Reinach, Les Celtes dans les vallees du Pt et du Danube; W. Ridge-
way, Early Age of Greece; Archaeology (plate). (W. Ri.)
HALLUCINATION (from Lat. alucinari or allucinari, to
wander in mind, Gr. dXAarctp or aJkvetv, from 6X17, wandering),
a psychological term which has been the subject of much con-
troversy, and to which, although there is now fair agreement as
to its denotation, it is still impossible to give a precise and
entirely satisfactory definition. Hallucinations constitute one
of the two great classes of all false sense-perceptions, the other
class consisting of the " illusions," and the difficulty of definition
is clearly to mark the boundary between the two classes. Illusion
may be defined as the misinterpretation of sense-impression,
while hallucination^ in its typical instances, is the experiencing
of a sensory presentation, i.e. a presentation having the sensory
vividness that distinguishes perceptions from representative
imagery, at a time when no stimulus is acting on the correspond-
ing sense-organ. There is, however, good reason to think that
in many cases, possibly in all cases, some stimulation of the
sense-organ, coming either from without or from within the
body, plays a part in the genesis of the hallucination. This
being so, we must be content to leave the boundary between
illusions and hallucinations ill-defined, and to regard as illusions
those false perceptions in which impressions made on the sense-
organ play a leading part in determining the character of the percept,
and as hallucinations those m which any such impression is
lacking, or plays but a subsidiary part and bears no obvious relation
to the character of the false percept.
As in the case of illusion, hallucination may or may not
involve delusion, or belief in the reality of the object falsely
perceived. Among the sane the hallucinatory object is fre-
quently recognized at once as unreal or at least as but quasi-real;
and it is only the insane, or persons in abnormal states, such
as hypnosis, who, when an hallucination persists or recurs, fail
to recognize th^Lt it corresponds to no physical impression from,
or object in, the outer world. Hallucinations of all the senses
occur, but the. {most commonly reported are the auditory and
the visual, while those of the other senses seem to be comparatively
rare. This apparent difference of frequency is no doubt largely
due to the more) striking character of visual and auditory hal-
lucinations, and \to the relative difficulty of ascertaining, in the
case of perceptions of the lower senses, e.g. of taste and smell,
that no impression adequate to the genesis of the percept has
been made upon ihe sense-organ; but, in so far as it is real, it is
probably due in part to the more constant use of the higher
senses and the greater strain consequently thrown upon them,
in part also to t heir more intimate connexion with the life of
ideas.
The hallucinate >ry perception may involve two or more senses ,
e.g., the subject may seem to see a human being, to hear his voice
and to feel the 1 x>uch of his hand. This is rarely the case in
spontaneous hallucination, but in hypnotic hallucination the
HALLUCINATION
859
subject is apt to develop the object suggested to him, as present
to one of his senses, and to perceive it also through other senses.
Among visual hallucinations the human figure, and among
auditory hallucinations human voices, are the objects most
commonly perceived. The figure seen always appears localized
more or less definitely in the outer world. In many cases it
appears related to the objects truly seen in just the same way
as a real object; e.g. it is no longer seen if the eyes are closed
or turned away, it does not move with the movements of the
eyes, and it may hide objects lying behind it, or be hidden by
objects coming between the place that it appears to occupy and
the eye of the percipient. Visual hallucinations are most often
experienced when the eyes are open and the surrounding space
is well or even brightly illuminated. Less frequently the visual
hallucination takes the form of a self-luminous figure in a dark
place or appears in a luminous globe or mist which shuts out
from view the real objects of the part of the field of view in
which it appears.
Auditory hallucinations, especially voices, seem to fall into
two distinct classes — (1) those which are heard as coming from
without, and are more or less definitely localized in outer space,
(2) those which seem to be within the head or, in some cases,
within the chest, and to have less definite auditory quality.
It seems probable that the latter are hallucinations involving
principally kinesthetic sensations, sensations of movement of
the organs of speech.
Hallucinations occur under a great variety of bodily and
mental conditions, which may conveniently be classified as
follows.
I. Conditions which imply normal waking Consciousness and no
distinct Departure from bodily and mental Sanity.
a. It would seem that a considerable number of perfectly
healthy persons occasionally experience, while in a fully waking
state, hallucinations for which no cause can be assigned. The
census of hallucinations conducted by the Society for Psychical
Research showed that about 10 % of all sane persons can
remember having experienced at least one hallucination while
they believed themselves to be fully awake and in normal health.
These sporadic hallucinations of waking healthy persons are far
more frequently visual than auditory, and they usually take
the form of some familiar person in ordinary attire. The figure
in many cases is seen, on turning the gaze in some new direction,
fully developed and lifelike, and its hallucinatory character may
be revealed only by its noiseless movements, or by its fading away
in situ. A special interest attaches to hallucinations of this
type, owing to the occasional coincidence of the death of the
person with his hallucinatory appearance. The question raised
by these coincidences will be discussed in a separate paragraph
below.
b. A few persons, otherwise normal in mind and body, seem
to experience repeatedly some particular kind of hallucination.
The voice {bax^bvvov) so frequently heard by Socrates,
warning or advising him, is the most celebrated example of
this type.
II. Conditions more or less unusual or abnormal but not implying
distinct Departure from Health.
a. A kind of hallucination to which perhaps every normal
person is liable is that known technically as " recurrent sensa-
tion." This kind is experienced only when some sense-organ
has been continuously or repeatedly subjected to some one kind
of impression or stimulation for a considerable period; e.g.
the microscopist, after examining for some hours one particular
kind of object or structure, may suddenly perceive the object
faithfully reproduced in form and colour, and lying, as it were,
upon any surface to which his gaze is directed. Perhaps the
commonest experience of this type is the recurrence of the
sensations of movement at intervals in the period following a sea
voyage or long railway journey.
b. A considerable proportion of healthy sane persons can
induce hallucinations of vision by gazing fixedly at a polished
surface or into some dark translucent mass; or of hearing, by
applying a large shell or similar object to the ear. These methods
of inducing hallucinations, especially the former, have long been
practised in many countries as modes of divination, various
objects being used, e.g. a drop of ink in the palm of the hand, or
a polished finger-nail. The object now most commonly used is a
polished sphere of clear glass or crystal (see Crystal-Gazing).
Hence such hallucinations go by the name oi crystal visions.
The crystal vision often appears as a picture of some distant or
unknown scene lying, as it were, in the crystal; and in the picture
figures may come and go, and move to and fro, in a perfectly
natural manner. In other cases, written or printed words or
sentences appear. The percipient, seer or server, commonly
seems to be in a fully waking state as he observes the objects
thus presented. He is usually able to describe and discuss the
appearances, successively discriminating details by attentive
observation, just as when observing an objective scene; and
he usually has no power of controlling them, and no sense of
having produced them by his own activity. In some cases these
visions have brought back to the mind of the server facts or
incidents which he could not voluntarily recollect. In other
cases they are asserted by credible witnesses to have given to
the server information, about events distant in time or place,
that had not come to his knowledge by normal means. These
cases have been claimed as evidence of telepathic communication
or even of clairvoyance. But at present the number of well-
attested cases of this sort is too small to justify acceptance of
this conclusion by those who have only secondhand knowledge
of them.
c. Prolonged deprivation of food predisposes to hallucina-
tions, and it would seem that, under this condition, a large
proportion of otherwise healthy persons become liable to them,
especially to auditory hallucinations.
d. Certain drugs, notably opium, Indian hsrnp, and mescal
predispose to hallucinations, each tending to produce a peculiar
type. Thus Indian hemp and mescal, especially the latter,
produce in many cases visual hallucinations in the form of a
brilliant play of colours, sometimes a mere succession of patches
of brilliant colour, sometimes in architectural or other definite
spatial arrangement.
e. The states of transition from sleep to waking, and from
waking to sleep, seem to be peculiarly favourable to the appear-
ance of hallucinations. The recurrent sensations mentioned
above are especially pronfe to appear at such times, and a con-
siderable proportion of the sporadic hallucinations of persons
in good health are reported to have been experienced under these
conditions. The name " hypnagogic " hallucinations, first
applied by Alfred Maury, is commonly given to those experienced
in these transition states.
/. The presentations, predominantly visual, that constitute
the principal content of most dreams, are generally described as
hallucinatory, but the propriety of so classing them is very
questionable. The present writer is confident that his own
dream-presentations lack the sensory vividness which is the
essential mark of the percept, whether normal or hallucinatory,
and which is the principal, though not the only, character in
which it differs from the representation or memory-image. It is
true that the dream-presentation, like the percept, differs from
the representative imagery of waking life in that it is relatively
independent of volition; but that seems to be merely because
the will is in abeyance or very ineffective during sleep. The wide
currency of the doctrine that classes dream-images with hal-
lucinations seems to be due to this independence of volitional
control, and to the fact that during sleep the representative
imagery appears without that rich setting of undiscriminated
or marginal sensation which always accompanies waking imagery,
and which by contrast accentuates for introspective reflection
the lack of sensory vividness of such imagery.
g. Many of the subjects who pass into the deeper stages of
hypnosis (see Hypnotism) show themselves, while in that
condition, extremely liable to hallucination, perceiving whatever
object is suggested to them as present, and failing to perceive
86o
HALLUCINATION
any object of which it is asserted by the operator that it is no
longer present. The reality of these positive and negative
hallucinations of the hypnotized subject has been recently
questioned, it being maintained that the subject merely gives
verbal assent to the suggestions of the operator. But that the
hypnotized subject does really experience hallucinations seems
to be proved by the cases in which it is possible to make the
hallucination, positive or negative, persist for some time after the
termination of hypnosis, and by the fact that in some of these cases
the subject, who in the post-hypnotic state seems in every other
respect normal and wide awake, may find it difficult to distinguish
between the hallucinatory and real objects. Further proof is
afforded by experiments such as those by which Alfred Binet
showed that a visual hallucination may behave for its percipient
in many respects like a real object, e.g. that it may appear
reflected in a mirror, displaced by a prism and coloured when
a coloured glass is placed before the patient's eyes. It was by
means of experiments of this kind that Binet showed that
hypnotic hallucinations may approximate to the type of the
illusion, i.e. that some real object affecting the sense-organ (in
the case of a visual hallucination some detail of the surface
upon which it is projected) may provide a nucleus of peripherally
excited sensation around which the false percept is built up.
An object playing a part of this sort in the genesis of an hal-
lucination is known as a " point de repere" It has been main-
tained that all hallucinations involve seme such point de repere
or objective nucleus; but there are good reasons for rejecting
this view. -*
h. In states of ecstasy, or intense emotional concentration
of attention upon some one ideal object, the object contemplated
seems at times to take on sensory vividness, and so to acquire
the character of an hallucination, In these cases the state of
mind of the subject is probably similar in many respects to that
of the deeply hypnotized subject, and these two classes of
hallucination may be regarded as very closely allied.
III. Hallucinations which occur as symptoms of both bodily and
mental diseases.
a. Dr H. Head has the credit of having shown for the first
time, in the year iooi, that many patients, suffering from more
or less painful visceral diseases, disorders of heart, lungs,
abdominal viscera, &c., are liable to experience hallucinations
of a peculiar kind. These " visceral " hallucinations, which
are constantly accompanied by headache of the reflected visceral
type, are most commonly visual, more rarely auditory. In all
Dr Head's cases the visual hallucination took the form of a
shrouded human figure, colourless and vague, often incomplete,
generally seen by the patient standing by his bed when he
wakes in a dimly lit room. The auditory " visceral " hallucina-
tion was in no instance vocal, but took such forms as sounds of
tapping, scratching or rumbling, and were heard only in the
absence of objective noises. In a few cases the " visceral "
hallucination was bisensory, i.e. both auditory and visual.
In all these respects the " visceral " hallucination differs
markedly from the commoner types of the sporadic hallucination
of healthy persons.
b. Hallucinations axe constant symptoms of certain general
disorders in which the nervous system is involved, notably
of the delirium tremens, which results from chronic alcohol
poisoning, and of the delirium of the acute specific fevers. The
hallucinations of these states are generally of a distressing or
even terrifying character. Especially is this the rule with those
of delirium tremens, and in the hallucinations of this disease
certain kinds of objects, e.g. rats and snakes, occur with curious
frequency.
c. Hallucinations occasionally occur as symptoms of certain
nervous diseases that are not usually classed with the insanities,
notably in cases of epilepsy and severe forms of hysteria. In
the former disorder, the sensory aura that so often precedes
the epileptic convulsion may take the form of an hallucinatory
object, which in some cases is very constant in character.
Unilateral hallucinations, an especially interesting class, occur
in severe cases of hysteria, and are usually accompanied by
hemi-anaesthesia of the body on the side on which the hallucin-
atory object is perceived.
d. Hallucinations occur in a large, but not accurately definable,
proportion of all cases of mental disease proper. Two classes
are recognized: (i) those that are intimately connected with
the dominant emotional state or with some dominant delusion;
(2) those that occur sporadically and have no such obvious
relation to the other symptoms of disease. Hallucinations of
the former class tend to accentuate, and in turn to be confirmed
by, the congruent emotional or delusional state; but whether
these are to be regarded as primary symptoms and as the cause
of the hallucinations, or vice versa, it is generally impossible to say.
Patients who suffer delusions of persecution are very apt to
develop later in the course of their disease hallucinations of the
voices of their persecutors; while in other cases hallucinatory
voices, which are at first recognized as such, come to be regarded
as real and in these cases seem to be factors of primary importance
in the genesis of further delusions. Hallucinations occur in
almost every variety of mental disease, but are commonest in
the forms characterized by a cloudy dream-like condition of
consciousness, and in extreme cases of this sort the patient (as
in the delirium of chronic alcohol-poisoning) seems to move
waking through a world consisting largely of the images of his
own creation, set upon a background of real objects.
In some cases hallucinations are frequently experienced for
long periods in the absence of any other symptom of mental
disorder, but these no doubt usually imply some morbid condition
of the brain.
Physiology of Hallucination. — There has been much discussion
as to the nature of the neural process in hallucination. It
is generally and rightly assumed that the hallucinatory perception
of any object has for its immediate neural correlate a state of
excitement which, as regards its characters and its distribution
in the elements of the brain, is entirely similar to the neural
Correlate of the normal perception of the same object. The
hallucination is a perception, though a false perception. In
the perception of an object and in the representation of it,
introspective analysis discovers a number of presentative
elements. In the case of the representation these elements are
memory images only (except perhaps in so far as actual kin-
aesthetic sensations enter into its composition); whereas, in
the case of the percept, some of these elements are sensations,
sensations which differ from images in having the attribute of
sensory vividness; and the sensory vividness of these elements
lends to the whole complex the sensory vividness or reality,
the possession of which character by the percept constitutes its
principal difference from the representation. Normally, sensory
vividness attaches only to those presentative elements which
are excited through stimulations of the sense-organs. The
normal percept, then, owes its character of sensory reality to
the fact that a certain number of its presentative elements are
sensations peripherally excited by impressions made upon a
sense-organ. The problem is, then, to account for the fact that
the hallucination contains presentative elements that have
sensory vividness, that are sensations, although they are not
excited by impressions from the external world falling upon a
sense-organ. Most of the discussions of this subject suffer from
the neglect of this preliminary definition of the problem. Many
authors, notably W. Wundt and his disciples, have been content
to assume that the sensation differs from the memory-image
only in having a higher degree of intensity; from which they
infer that its neural correlate in the brain cortex also differs
from that of the image only in having a higher degree of intensity.
For them an hallucination is therefore merely a representation
whose neural correlate involves an intensity of excitement of
certain brain-elements such as is normally produced only by
peripheral stimulation of sensory nerves in the sense-organs.
But this view, so attractively simple, ignores an insuperable
objection. Sensory vividness is not to be identified with superior
intensity; for while the least intense sensation has it, the
memory image of the most intense sensation lacks it completely.
HALLUCINATION
861
And, since intensity of sensation is a function of the intensity
of the underlying neural excitement, we may not assume that
sensory vividness is also the expression in consciousness of that
intensity of excitement. If Wundt 's view were true a progressive
diminution of the intensity of a sensory stimulus should bring
the sensation to a point in the scale of diminishing intensity at
which it ceases to be sensation, ceases to have sensory vividness
and becomes an image merely. But this is not the case; with
diminishing intensity of stimulation, the sensation declines to
a minimal intensity and then disappears from consciousness.
This objection applies not only to Wundt's view of hallucinations,
but also to H. Taine's explanation of them by the aid of his
doctrine of " reductives," for this too identifies sensory vividness
with intensity. (H. Taine, De I'inteUigenee, tome i. p~ 108.)
Another widely current explanation is based on the view that
the representation and the percept have their anatomical bases
in different element-groups or " centres " of the brain, the
" centre " of the representation being assigned to a higher level
of the brain than that of the percept (the latter being sometimes
assigned to the basal ganglia of the brain, the former to the
cortex). It is then assumed that while the lower perceptual
centre is normally excited only through the sense-organ, it may
occasionally be excited by impulses playing down upon it from
the corresponding centre of representation, when hallucination
results.
This view also is fax from satisfactory, because the great
additions recently made to our knowledge of the brain tend
very strongly to show that both sensations and memory-
images have their anatomical bases in the same sensory areas
of the cerebral cortex; and many considerations converge
to show that their anatomical bases must be, in part at least,
identical.
The views based on the assumptions of complete identity, and
of complete separateness, of the anatomical bases of the percept
and of the representation are then alike untenable; and the
alternative — that their anatomical bases are in part identical,
in part different, which is indicated by this conclusion — renders
possible a far more satisfactory doctrine. We have good reason
to believe that the neural correlate of sensation is the trans-
mission of the nervous impulse through a sensori-motor arc of
the cortex, made up of a chain of neurones; and the view suggests
itself that the neural correlate of the corresponding memory-
image is the transmission of the impulse through a part only of
this chain of cortical elements, either the efferent motor part of
this chain or the afferent sensory part of it. Professor W.
James's theory of hallucinations is based on the latter assump-
tion. He suggests that the sensory vividness of sensation and
of the percept is due to the discharge of the excitement of the
chain of elements in the forward or motor direction; and that,
in the case of the image and of the representation, the discharge
takes place, not in this direction through the efferent channel of
the centre, but laterally into other centres of the cortex. Hal-
lucination may then be conceived as caused by obstruction, or
abnormally increased resistance, of the paths connecting such a
cortical centre with others, so that, when it becomes excited
in any way, the tension or potential of its charge rises, until
discharge takes place in the motor direction through the
efferent limbs of the sensori-motor arcs which constitute the
centre.
It is a serious objection to this view that, as James himself,
in common with most modern authors, maintains, every idea
has its motor tendency which commonly, perhaps always, finds
expression in some change of tension of muscles, and in many
cases issues in actual movements. Now if we accept James's
theory of hallucination, we should expect to find that whenever
a representation issues. in bodily action it should assume the
sensory vividness of an hallucination; and this, of course, is
not the case.
The alternative form of the view that assumes partial identity
of the anatomical bases of the percept and the representation
of an object, would regard the neural correlate of the sensation
as the transmission of the nervous impulse throughout the length
of the sensori-motor arc of the cortex, from sensory inlet to
motor outlet; and that of the image as its transmission through
the efferent part of this arc only; that is to say, in the case
of the image, it would regard the excitement of the arc as being
initiated at some point between its afferent inlet and its motor
outlet, and as spreading, in accordance with the law of forward
conduction, towards the motor outlet only, so that only the part
of the arc distal or efferent to this point becomes excited.
This view of the neural basis of sensory vividness, which
correlates the difference between the sensation and the image
with the only known difference between their physiological
conditions, namely the peripheral initiation of the one and the
central initiation of the other, enables us to formulate a satis-
factory theory of the physiology of hallucinations.
The anatomical basis of the perception and of the representa-
tion of any object is a functional system of nervous elements,
comprising a number of sensori-motor arcs, whose excitement by
impulses ascending to them by the sensory paths from the sense-
organs determines sensations, and whose excitement in their
efferent parts only determines the corresponding images. In
the case of perception, some of these arcs are excited by impulses
ascending from the sense-organs, others only by the spread of
the excitement through the system from these peripherally
excited arcs; while, in the case of the representation, all alike
are excited by impulses that reach the system from other parts
of the cortex and spread throughout its efferent parts only to its
motor outlets.
If then impulses enter this system by any of the afferent limbs
of its sensori-motor arcs, the presentation that accompanies
its excitement will have sensory vividness and will be a true
perception, an illusion, or an hallucination, according as these
impulses have followed the normal course from the sense-organ,
or have been diverted, to a lesser or greater degree, from their
normal paths. If any such neural system becomes abnormally
excitable,or becomes excited in any way with abnormal intensity,
it is thereby rendered a path of exceptionally low-resistance
capable of diverting to itself, from their normal path, any
streams of impulses ascending from the sense-organ; which
ascending impulses, entering the system by its afferent inlets,
excite sensations that impart to the presentation the character
of sensory vividness; the presentation thus acquires the
character of a percept in spite of the absence of the appropriate
impression on the sense-organ, and we call it an hallucination.
This view renders intelligible the modus operandi of many of
the predisposing causes of hallucination; e.g. the pre-occupation
with certain representations of the ecstatic, or of the sufferer
from delusions of persecution; the intense expectation of a
particular sense impression, the generally increased excitability
of the cortex in states of delirium; in all these conditions the
abnormally intense excitement of the cortical systems may be
supposed to give them an undue directive and attractive influence
upon the streams of impulses ascending from the sense-organs,
so that sensory impulses may be diverted from their normal paths.
Again, it renders intelligible the part played by chronic irritation
of a sense-organ, as when chronic irritation of the internal ear
leads on to hallucinations of hearing; perhaps also the chronic
irritation of sensory nerves that must accompany the states of
visceral disease, shown by Head to be so frequently accompanied
by a liability to hallucinations; for any such chronic irritation
supplies a stream of disorderly impulses rising constantly from
the sense-organ, for the reception of which the brain has no
appropriate system, and which, therefore, readily enters any
organized cortical system that at any moment constitutes a
path of low-resistance. A similar explanation applies to the
influence of fixed gazing upon a crystal, or the placing of a shell
over the ear, in inducing visual and auditory hallucinations.
The " recurrent sensations " experienced after prolonged
occupation with some one kind of sensory object may be regarded
as due to an abnormal excitability of the cortical system con-
cerned, resulting from its unduly prolonged exercise. The
hypothesis renders intelligible also the liability to hallucination
of persons in the hysterical and hypnotic states, in whose brains
862
HALLUCINATION
the cortical neural systems are in a state of partial dissociation,
which renders possible an unduly intense and prolonged excite-
ment of some one system at the expense of all other systems
<cf. Hypnotism).
Coincidental Hallucinations.— -It would seem that, in well-
nigh all countries and in all ages, apparitions of persons known
to be in distant places have been occasionally observed. Such
appearances have usually been regarded as due to the presence,
before the bodily eye of the seer, of the ghost, wraith, double
or soul of the person who thus appears; and, since the soul
has been very commonly supposed to leave the body, permanently
at death and temporarily during sleep, trance or any period of
unconsciousness, however induced, it was natural to regard
such an appearance as evidence that the person whose wraith
was thus seen was in some such condition. Such apparitions
have probably played a part, second only to that of dreams,
in generating the almost universal belief in the separability of
soul and body.
In many parts of the world traditional beb'ef has connected
such apparitions more especially with the death of the person
so appearing, the apparition being regarded as an indication
that the person so appearing has recently died, is dying or is
about to die. Since death is so much less common an event than
sleep, trance, or other form of temporary unconsciousness, the
wide extension of this belief suggests that such apparitions may
coincide in time with death, with disproportionate frequency.
The belief in the significance of such apparitions still survives
in civilized communities, and stories of apparitions coinciding
with the death of the person appearing are occasionally reported
in the newspapers, or related as having recently occurred. The
Society for Psychical Research has sought to find grounds for
an answer to the question " Is there any sufficient justification
for the belief in a causal relation between the apparition of a
person at a place distant from his body and his death or other
exceptional and momentous event in his experience ?" The
problem was attacked in a thoroughly scientific spirit, an
extensive inquiry was made, and the results were presented and
fully discussed in two large volumes, Phantasms of the Living,
published in the year 1886, bearing on the title-page the names
of Edmund Gurney, F. W. H. Myers and F. Podmore. Of
the three collaborators Gurney took the largest share in the
planning of the work, in the collection of evidence, and in the
elaboration and discussion of it.
Gurney set out with the presumption that apparitions, whether
coincidental or not, are hallucinations in the sense defined above;
that they an false perceptions and are not excited by any object
or process of the external world acting upon the sense-organs
of the percipient in normal fashion; that they do not imply the
presence, in the place apparently occupied by them, of any wraith
or any form of existence emanating from, or specially connected
with, the person whose phantasm appears. This initial assump-
tion was abundantly justified by an examination of a large
number of cases for it, which showed that, in all important
respects, most of these apparitions of persons at a distance,
whether coincidental or not, were similar to other forms of
hallucination.
The acceptance of this conclusion does not, however, imply
a negative answer to the question formulated above. The
Society for Psychical Research had accumulated an impressive
and, to almost all those who had first-hand acquaintance with
it, a convincing mass of experimental evidence of the reality
of telepathy (?.».), the influence of mind on mind otherwise
than through the recognized channels of sense. The successful
experiments had for the most part been made between persons
in close proximity, in the same room or in adjoining rooms;
but they seemed to show that the state of consciousness of one
person may induce directly (i\r. without the mediation of the
organs of expression and sense-perception) a similar state of
consciousness in another person, especially if the former,
usually called the "agent/* strongly desired or "willed"
that this effect should be produced on the other person, the
*' percipient. 1 *
The question formulated above thus resolved itself for Gurney
into the more definite form, " Can we find any good reason for
believing that coincidental hallucinations are sometimes veridical,
that the state of mind of a person at some great crisis of his
experience may telepathically induce in the mind of some
distant relative or friend an hallucinatory perception of himself ? "
It was at once obvious that, if coincidental apparitions can be
proved to occur, this question can only be answered by a
statistical inquiry; for each such coincidental hallucination,
considered alone, may always be regarded as most educated
persons of the present time have regarded them, namely, as
merely accidental coincidences. That the coincidences are not
merely accidental can only be proved by showing that they
occur more frequently than the doctrine of chances would justify
us in expecting. Now, the death of any person is a unique event,
and the probability of its occurrence upon any particular day
may be very simply calculated from the mortality statistics,
if we assume that nothing is known of the individual's vitality.
On the other hand, hallucinatory perceptions of persons, occurring
to sane and healthy individuals in the fully waking state, are
comparatively rare occurrences, whose frequency we may hope
to determine by a statistical inquiry. If, then, we can obtain
figures expressing the frequency of such hallucinations, we can
deduce, by the help of the laws of chance, the proportion of such
hallucinations that may be expected to coincide with (or, for
the purposes of the inquiry, to fall within twelve hours of) the
death of the person whose apparition appears, if no causal
relation obtains between the coinciding events. If, then, it
appears that the proportion of such coincidental hallucinations
is greater than the laws of probability will account for, a certain
presumption of a causal relation between the coinciding events
is thereby established; and the greater the excess of such
coincidences, the stronger does this presumption became.
Gurney attempted a census of hallucinations in order to obtain
data for this statistical treatment, and the results of it, embodied
in Phantasms of the Living, were considered by the authors of
that work to justify the belief that some coincidental hallucina-
tions are veridical. In the year 1889 the Society for Psychical
Research appointed a committee, under the chairmanship of the
late Henry Sidgwick, to make a second census of hallucinations
on a more extensive and systematic plan than the first, in order
that the important conclusion reached by the authors of Phant-
asms of the Living might be put to the severer test rendered
possible by a larger and more carefully collected mass of data.
Seventeen thousand adults returned answers bo the question,
u Have you ever, when believing yourself to be completely awake,
had a vivid impression of seeing or being touched by a living
being or inanimate object, or of hearing a voice; which impres-
sion, so far as you could discover, was not due to any external
physical cause ? " Rather more than two thousand persons
answered affirmatively, and to each of these were addressed
careful inquiries concerning their hallucinatory experiences.
In this way it was found that of the total number, 381 apparitions
of persons living at the moment (or not more than twelve hours
dead) had been recognized by the percipients, and that, of these,
80 were alleged to have been experienced within twelve hours
of the death of the person whose apparition had appeared. A
careful review of all the facts, conditions and probabilities,
led the committee to estimate that the former number should be
enlarged to 1300 in order to make ample allowance for forgetful-
ness and for all other causes that might have tended to prevent
the registration of apparitions of this class. On the other hand,
a severe criticism of the alleged death-coincidences led them to
reduce the number, admitted by them for the purposes of their
calculation, to 30. The making of these adjustments gives us
about 1 in 43 as the proportion of coincidental death-apparitions
to the total number of recognized apparitions among the 17*000
persons reached by the census. Now the death-rate being just
over 10 per thousand, the probability that any person taken at
random will die on a given day is about 1 in 19,000; or, more
strictly speaking, the average probability that any person will
die within any given period of twenty-four hoars duration
HALLUIN— HALMAHERA
863
is about .1 in 19,000. Hence the probability that any other
particular event, having no causal relation to his death, but
occurring during his lifetime (or not later than twelve hours
after his death) will fall within the same twenty-four hours as his
death is 1 in 19,000; ix. if an apparition of any individual is
seen and recognized by any other person, the probability of its
being experienced within twelve hours of that individual's death
is 1 in 19,000, if no causal relation obtains between the two
events. Therefore, of all recognized apparitions of living persons,
1 only in 19,000 may be expected to be a death-coincidence of
this sort. But the census shows that of 1300 recognized appari-
tions of living persons 30 are death-coincidences and that is
equivalent, to 440 in 19,00a Hence, of recognized hallucinations,
those coinciding with death are 440 times more numerous than
we should expect, if no causal relation obtained; therefore, if
neither the data nor the reasoning can be destructively criticized,
we are compelled to believe that some causal relation obtains;
and, since good evidence of telepathic communication has been
experimentally obtained, the least improbable explanation of
these death-apparitions is that the dying person exerts upon his
distant friend some telepathic influence which generates an
hallucinatory perception of himself.
These death-coincidences constitute the main feature of the
argument in favour of telepathic communication between
distant persons, but the census of hallucinations afforded other
data from which a variety of arguments, tending to support this
conclusion, were drawn by the committee; of these the most
important are the cases in which the hallucinatory percept
embodied details that were connected with the person perceived
and which could not have become known to the percipient by
any normal means. The committee could not find in the results
of the census any evidence sufficient to justify a belief that
hallucinations may be due to telepathic influence exerted by
personalities surviving the death of the body.
The critical handling of the cases by the committee seems to
be above reproach. Those who do not accept their conclusion
based on the death-coincidences must direct their criticism to
the question of the reliability of the reports of these cases. It
is to be noted that, although only those cases are reckoned in
which the percipient had no cause to expect the death of the
person whose apparition he experienced, and although, in nearly
all the accepted cases, some record or communication of the
hallucination was made before hearing of the death, yet in very
few cases was any contemporary written record of the event
forthcoming for the inspection of the committee. (W. McD.)
ff ALLUIN, a frontier town of northern France, in the depart-
ment of Nord, near the right bank of the Lys, 14 m. N. by E.
of Lille by rail. Pop. (1906) town, 11,670; commune, 16,158.
Its church is of Gothic architecture. The manufactures comprise
linen and cotton goods, chairs and rubber goods, and brewing
and tanning are carried on; there is a board of trade arbitration.
The family of Halluin is mentioned as early as the 13th century.
In 1587 the title of duke and peer of the realm was granted to it,
but in the succeeding century it became extinct.
HALM, CARL FELIX (1809-1882), German classical scholar
and critic, was born at Munich on the 5th of April 1809. In
1849, after having held appointments at Spires and Hadamar,
he became rector of the newly founded Maximiliansgymnasium
at Munich, and in 1856 director of the royal library and professor
in the university. These posts he held till his death on the 5th
of October 1882. It is chiefly as the editor of Cicero and other
Latin prose authors that Halm is known, although in early years
he also devoted considerable attention to Greek. After the
death of J. C. Orelli, he joined J. G. Baiter in the preparation
of a revised critical edition of the rhetorical and philosophical
writings of Cicero (1 854-1 862). His school editions of some of
the speeches of Cicero in the Haupt and Sauppe series, with
notes and introductions, were very successful. He also edited
a number of classical texts for the Teubner series, the most
important of which are Tacitus (4th ed., 1883); Rhetores Latini
minor es (1863); Quintilian (1868); Sulpicius Severus (1866);
Minucius Felix together with Firmicus Maternus De errore
(1867); Salvianus (1877) and Victor Vitensis's Hisioria per-
secutions Africanae provinciae (1878). He was also an
enthusiastic collector of autographs.
See articles by W. Christ and G. Laubmann in Allgemeine deutsche
Biograpkie and by C. Bursian in Bio pr aphis ches Jahrbuch; and
J. E. Sandys, Hist, of Classical Scholarship, iii. 195 (1908).
HALMA (Greek for " jump "), a table game, a form of which
was known to the ancient Greeks, played on a board divided
into 256 squares with wooden men, resembling chess pawns.
In the two-handed game 19 men are employed on each side,
coloured respectively black and white; in the four-handed
each player has 13, the men being coloured white, black; red
and green. At the beginning of the game the men are drawn up
in triangular formation in the enclosures, or yards, diagonally
opposite each other in the corners of the board. The object of
each player is to get all his men into his enemy's yard, the player
winning who first accomplishes this. The moves are made
alternately, the mode of progression being by a step, from one
square to another immediately adjacent, or by a jump (whence
the name) , which is the jumping of a man from a square in front
of it into an empty square on the other side of it. This corre-
sponds to jumping in draughts, except that, in halma, the
hop may be in any direction, over friendly as well as hostile
men, and the men jumped over are not taken but remain on
the board.
In the four-handed game either each player plays for himself,
or two adjacent players play against the other two.
See Card and Table Games, by Professor Hoffmann (London, 1903).
HALMAHERA ["great land"; also Jilolo or Gilolo], an
island of the Dutch East Indies, belonging to the residency
of Ternate, lying under the equator and about 128 E. Its
shape is extremely irregular, resembling that of the island
of Celebes. It consists of four peninsulas so arranged as to
enclose three great bays (Kayu, Bicholi, Weda), all opening
towards the east, the northern peninsula being connected with
the others by an isthmus only 5 m. wide. On the western side
of the isthmus lies another bay, that of Dodinga, in the mouth
of which are situated the two islands Ternate and Tidore, whose
political importance exceeds that of the larger island (see these
articles). Of the four peninsulas of Halmahera the northern
and the southern are reckoned to the sultanate of Ternate, the
north-eastern and south-eastern to that of Tidore; the former
having eleven, the latter three districts. The distance between
the extremities of the northern and southern peninsulas, measured
along the curve of the west coast, is about 240 m. ; and the total
area of the island is 6700 sq. m. Knowledge of the island is very
incomplete. It appears that the four peninsulas are traversed
in the direction of their longitudinal axis by mountain chains
3000 to 4000 ft. high, covered with forest, without a central
chain at the nucleus of the island whence the peninsulas diverge.
The mountain chains are frequently interrupted by plains, such
as those of Weda and Kobi. The northern part of the mountain
chain of the northern peninsula is volcanic, its volcanoes con-
tinuing the line of those of Makian, Ternate and Tidore. Coral
formations on heights in the interior would indicate oscillations
of the land in several periods, but a detailed geology of the
island is wanting. To the north-east of the northern peninsula
is the considerable island of Morotai (635 sq. m.), and to the west
of the southern peninsula the more important island of Bachian
(q.v.) among others. Galela is a considerable settlement, situated
on a bay of the same name on the north-east coast, in a well
cultivated plain which extends southward and inland. Vegeta-
tion is prolific. Rice is grown by the natives, but the sago tree
is of far greater importance to them. Dammar and coco- nuts
are also grown. The sea yields trepang and pearl shells. A
little trade is carried on by the Chinese and Macassars of Ternate,
who, crossing the narrow isthmus of Dodinga, enter the bay of
Kayu on the east coast. The total population is estimated at
100,000.
The inhabitants are mostly of immigrant Malayan stock.
In the northern peninsula are found people of Papuan type,
probably representing the aborigines, and a tribe around Galela,
86 4
HALMSTAD—HALO
who are Polynesian in physique, possibly remnants, much mixed
by subsequent crossings with the Papuan indigenes, of the
Caucasian hordes emigrating in prehistoric times across the
Pacific. M. Achille Raffray gives a description of them in Tour
du monde (1879) where photographs will be found. " They are
as unlike the Malays as we are, excelling them in tallness of
stature and elegance of shape, and being perfectly distinguished
by their oval face, with a fairly high and open brow, their aquiline
nose and their horizontally placed eyes. Their beards are
sometimes thick; their limbs are muscular; the colour of their
skins is cinnamon brown. Spears of iron-wood, abundantly
barbed, and small bows and bamboo arrows free from poison
are their principal weapons." They are further described as
having temples (sabuas) in which they suspend images of
serpents and other monsters as well as the trophies procured by
war. They believe in a better life hereafter, but have no idea
of a hell or a devil, their evil spirits only tormenting them in
the present state.
The Portuguese and Spaniards were better acquainted with
Halmahera than with many other parts of the archipelago;
they called it sometimes Batu China and sometimes Moro. It
was circumnavigated by one of their vessels in 1525, and the
general outline of the coasts is correctly given in their maps at
a time when separate portions of Celebes, such as Macassar and
Menado, are represented as distinct islands. The name (Jilolo)
was really that of a native state, the sultan of which had the
chief rank among the princes of the Moluccas before he was
supplanted by the sultan of Ternate about 1380. His capital,
Jilolo, lay on the west coast on the first bay to the north of that
of Dodinga. In 1876 Danu Hassan, a descendant of the sultans
of Jilolo, raised an insurrection in the island for the purpose
of throwing off the authority of the sultans of Tidore and Ternate ;
and his efforts would probably have been successful but for the
intervention of the Dutch, In 1878 a Dutch expedition was
directed against the pirates of Tbbalai, and they were virtually
extirpated. Slavery remains in the interior. Missionary work,
carried on in the northern peninsula of Halmahera since 1866,
has been fairly successful among the heathen natives, but less so
among the Mahommedans, who have often incited the others
against the missionaries and their converts.
HALMSTAD, a seaport of Sweden, chief town of the district
(/#») of Halland, on the E. shore of the Cattegat, 76 m. S.S.E.
of Gothenburg by the railway to Helsingborg. Pop. (1900),
1 5,362. It lies at the mouth of the river Nissa, having an inner
harbour (15 ft. depth), an outer harbour, and roads giving
anchorage (24 to 36 ft.) exposed to S. and N.W. winds. In the
neighbourhood there are quarries of granite, which is exported
chiefly to Germany. Other industries are engineering, ship-
building and brewing, and there are cloth, jute, hat, wood-pulp
and paper factories. The principal exports are granite, timber
and hats; and butter through Helsingborg and Gothenburg.
The imports are coal, machinery and grain. Potatoes are
largely grown in the district, and the salmon fisheries are valuable.
The castle is the residence of the governor of the province. There
are both mineral and sea-water baths in the neighbourhood.
Mention of the church of Haimstad occurs as early as 1462,
and the fortifications are mentioned first in 1225. The latter
were demolished in 1734. There were formerly Dominican and
Franciscan monasteries in the town. The oldest town-privileges
.date from 1307. During the revolt of the miner Engelbrekt,
it twice fell into the hands of the rebels — in 1434 and 1436.
The town appears to have been frequently chosen as the meeting-
place of the rulers and delegates of the three northern kingdoms;
and under the union of Kalmar it was appointed to be the place
for the election of a new Scandinavian monarch whenever
necessary. The l&n of Halland formed part of the territory of
Denmark in Sweden, and accordingly, in 1534, during his war
with the Danes, Gustavus Vasa assaulted and took its chief town.
In 1660, by the treaty of Copenhagen, the whole district was
ceded to Sweden. In 1676 Charles XII. defeated near Haimstad
a Danish army which was attempting to retake the district, and
since that time Halland has formed part of Sweden.
HALO, a word derived from the Gr. &Xtos, a threshing-floor,
and afterwards applied to denote the disk of the sun or moon,
probably on account of the circular path traced out by the oxen
threshing the corn. It was thence applied to denote any luminous
ring, such as that viewed around the sun or moon, or portrayed
about the heads of saints.
In physical science, a halo is a luminous circle, surrounding
the sun or moon, with various auxiliary phenomena, and formed
by the reflection and refraction of light by ice-crystals suspended
in the atmosphere. The optical phenomena produced by
atmospheric water and ice may be divided into two classes,
according to the relative position of the luminous ring and the
source of light. In the first class we have halos, and coronae,
or " glories," which encircle the luminary; the second class
includes rainbows, fog-bows, mist-halos, anthelia and mountain-
spectres, whose centres are at the anti-solar point. Here it is
only necessary to distinguish halos from coronae. Halos are
at definite distances (22 and 46 ) from the sun, and are coloured
red on the inside, being due to refraction; coronae closely
surround the sun at variable distances, and are coloured red
on the outside, being due to diffraction.
The phenomenon of a solar (or lunar) halo as seen from the
earth is represented in fig. 1 ; fig. 2 is a diagrammatic sketch
showing the appearance as viewed from the zenith; but it is
only in exceptional circumstances that all the parts are seen.
Encircling the sun or moon (S), there are two circles, known as
Fig. 1.
Fig. 2.
fhe inner halo I, and the outer halo 0, having radii of about 22
and 46 , and exhibiting the colours of the spectrum in a confused
manner, the only decided tint being the red on the inside.
Passing through the luminary and parallel to the horizon, there
is a white luminous circle, the parhelic circle (P), on which a
number of images of the luminary appear. The most brilliant
are situated at the intersections of the inner halo and the parhelic
circle; these are known as parhelia (denoted by the letter p in
the figures) (from the Gr. irapk, beside, and ffXtos, the sun)
or " mock-suns," in the case of the sun,, and as paraselenae
(from irapd and crekiivri, the moon) or u mock-moons," in the
case of the moon. Less brilliant are the parhelia of the outer
halo. The parhelia are most brilliant when the sun is near the
horizon. As the sun rises, they pass a little beyond the halo
and exhibit flaming tails. The other images on the parhelic
circle are the paranthelia (q) and the anthelion (a) (from the
Greek b.vri, opposite, and ^Xios, the sun). The former are
situated at from 90 to 140 from the sun; the latter is a white
patch of light situated at the anti-solar point and often exceeding
in size the apparent diameter of the luminary. A vertical circle
passing through the sun may also be seen. From the parhelia
of the inner halo two oblique curves (L) proceed. These are
known as the " arcs of Lowitz," having been first described in
1794 by Johann Tobias Lowitz (1757-1804). Luminous arcs
(T), tangential to the upper and lower parts of each halo, also
occur, and in the case of the inner halo, the arcs may be prolonged
to form a quasi-elliptic halo.
The physical explanation of halos originated with Ren£
Descartes, who ascribed their formation to the presence of ice-
crystals in the atmosphere. This theory was adopted by Edm6
Mariotte, Sir Isaac Newton and Thomas Young; and, although
HALOGENS— HALS, FRANS
865
certain of their assumptions were somewhat arbitrary, yet the
general validity of the theory has been demonstrated by the
researches of J. G. Galle and A. Bravais. The memoir of the
last-named, published in the Journal de V&cole royafc poly-
technique for 1847 (xvhi., 1-270), ranks as a classic on the
subject; it is replete with examples and illustrations, and dis-
cusses the various phenomena in minute detail.
The usual form of ice-crystals in clouds is a right hexagonal
prism, which may be elongated as a needle or foreshortened
like a thin plate. There are three refracting angles possible,
one of 120 between two adjacent prism faces, one of 6o° between
two alternate prism faces, and one of 90 between a prism face
and the base. If innumerable numbers of such crystals fall in
any manner between the observer and the sun, light falling
upon these crystals will be refracted, and the refracted rays will
be crowded together in the position of minimum deviation (see
Refraction of Light). Mariotte explained the inner halo as
being due to refraction through a pair of alternate faces, since the
minimum deviation of an ice-prism whose refracting angle is 6o°
is about 22 . Since the minimum deviation is least for the least
refrangible rays, it follows that the red rays will be the least
refracted, and the violet the more refracted, and therefore the
halo will be coloured red on the inside. Similarly, as explained
by Henry Cavendish, the halo of 46 is due to refraction by faces
inclined at oo°. The impurity of the colours (due partly to the
sun's diameter, but still more to oblique refraction) is more
marked in halos than in rainbows; in fact, only the red is at
all pure, and as a rule, only a mere trace of green or blue is seen,
the external portion of each halo being nearly white.
The two halos are the only phenomena which admit of
explanation without assigning any particular distribution to the
ice-crystals. But it is obvious that certain distributions will
predominate, for the crystals will tend to fall so as to offer the
least resistance to their motion; a needle-shaped crystal tending
to keep its axis vertical, a plate-shaped crystal to keep its axis
horizontal. Thomas Young explained the parhelic circle (P)
as due to reflection from the vertical faces of the long prisms
and the bases of the short ones. If these vertical faces become
very numerous, the eye will perceive a colourless horizontal
circle. Reflection from an excess of horizontal prisms gives
rise to a vertical circle passing through the sun.
The parhelia (p) were explained by Mariotte as due to refrac-
tion through a pair of alternate faces of a vertical prism. When
the sun is near the horizon the rays fall upon the principal section
of the prisms; the minimum deviation for such rays is 22 , and
consequently the parhelia are not only on the inner halo, but
also on the parhelic circle. As the sun rises, the rays enter the
prisms more and more obliquely, and the angle of minimum
deviation increases; but since the emergent ray makes the same
angle with the refracting edge as the incident ray, it follows that
the parhelia will remain on the parhelic circle, while receding
from the inner halo. The different values of the angle of
minimum deviation for rays of different refrangibilities give rise
to spectral colours, the red being nearest the sun, while farther
away the overlapping of the spectra forms a flaming colourless
tail sometimes extending over as much as io° to 20 . The
" arcs of Lowitz " (L) are probably due to small oscillations of
the vertical prisms.
The " tangential arcs " (T) were explained by Young as being
caused by the thin plates with their axes horizontal, refraction
taking place through alternate faces. The axes will take up any
position, and consequently give rise to a continuous series of
parhelia which touch externally the inner halo, both above and
below, and under certain conditions (such as the requisite
altitude of the sun) form two closed elliptical curves; generally,
however, only the upper and lower portions are seen. Similarly,
the tangential arcs to the halo of 46° are due to refraction through
faces inclined at oo°.
The paranthelia (q) may be due to two internal or two external
reflections. A pair of triangular prisms having a common face,
or a stellate crystal formed by the symmetrical interpenetration
of two triangular prisms admits of two internal reflections by
faces inclined at 120 , and so give rise to two colourless images
each at an angular distance of 120 from the sun. Double
internal reflection by a triangular prism would form a single
coloured image on the parhelic circle at about 98 from the sun.
These -angular distances are attained only when the sun is on
the horizon, and they increase as it rises.
The anthelion (a) may be explained as caused by two internal
reflections of the solar rays by a hexagonal lamellar crystal,
having its axis horizontal and one of the diagonals of its base
vertical. The emerging rays are parallel to their original direction
and form a colourless image on the parhelic circle opposite
the sun.
References. — August e Bravais 's celebrated memoir, " Sur les
halos et les phenomenes optiques qui les accompagnent " (Journ.
£colcpoly. vol. xviii., 1847), contains a full account of the geometrical
theory. See also E. Mascart, Traiti d'optique; J. Pernter, Meteoro-
logische Optik (1902-1905) ; and R. S. Heath, Geometrical Optics,
HALOGENS. The word halogen is derived from the Greek
&Xs (sea-salt) and y&vav (to produce), and consequently
means the sea-salt producer. The term is applied to the four
elements fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine, on account of
the great similarity of their sodium salts to ordinary sea-salt.
These four elements show a great resemblance to one another
in their general chemical behaviour, and in that of their com-
pounds, whilst their physical properties show a gradual transition.
Thus, as the atomic weight increases, the state of aggregation
changes from that of a gas in the case of fluorine and chlorine,
to that of a liquid (bromine) and finally to that of the solid
(iodine); at the same time the melting and boiling points rise
with increasing atomic weights. The halogen of lower atomic
weight can displace one of higher atomic weight from its hydrogen
compound, or from the salt derived from such hydrogen com-
pound, while, on the other hand, the halogen of higher atomic
weight can displace that of lower atomic weight, from the
halogen oxy-acids and their salts; thus iodine will liberate
chlorine from potassium chlorate and also from perchloric acid.
All four of the halogens unite with hydrogen, but the affinity
for hydrogen decreases as the atomic weight increases, hydrogen
and fluorine uniting explosively at very low temperatures and
in the dark, whilst hydrogen and iodine unite only at high
temperatures, and even then the resulting compound is very
readily decomposed by heat. The hydrides of the halogens are
all colourless, strongly fuming gases, readily soluble in water and
possessing a strong acid reaction; they react readily with basic
oxides, forming in most cases well defined crystalline salts which
resemble one another very strongly. On the other hand the
stability of the known oxygen compounds increases with the
atomic weight, thus iodine pentoxide is, at ordinary temperatures,
a well-defined crystalline solid, which is only decomposed on
heating strongly, whilst chlorine monoxide, chlorine peroxide,
and chlorine heptoxide are very unstable, even at ordinary
temperatures, decomposing at the slightest shock. Compounds
of fluorine and oxygen, and of bromine and oxygen, have not
yet been isolated. In some respects there is a very marked
difference between fluorine and the other members of the group,
for, whilst sodium chloride, bromide and iodide are readily
soluble in water, sodium fluoride is much less soluble; again,
silver chloride, bromide and iodide are practically insoluble
in water, whilst, on the other hand, silver fluoride is appreciably
soluble in water. Again, fluorine shows a great tendency to form
double salts, which have no counterpart among the compounds
formed by the other members of the family.
HALS, FRANS (is8o?-i666), Dutch painter, was born at
Antwerp according to the most recent authorities in 1580 or
1581, and died at Haarlem in 1666. As a portrait painter second
only to Rembrandt in Holland, he displayed extraordinary
talent and quickness in the exercise of his art coupled with
improvidence in the use of the means which that art secured to
him. At a time when the Dutch nation fought for independence
and won it, Hals appears in the tanks of its military gilds. He
was also a member of the Chamber of Rhetoric, and (1644) chair-
man of the Painters' Corporation at Haariem. But as a man he
had failings. He so ill-treated his first wife, Anneke Hermansz,
xii. 28
866
HALS, FRANS
that she died prematurely in 1616; and he barely saved the
character of his second, Lysbeth Reyniers, by marrying her in
1 61 7. Another defect was partiality to drink, which led him
into low company. Still he brought up and supported a family
of ten children with success till 1652, when the forced sale of his
pictures and furniture, at the suit of a baker to whom he was
indebted for bread and money, brought him to absolute penury.
The inventory of the property seized on this occasion only
mentions three mattresses and bolsters, an armoire, a table and
five pictures. This humble list represents all his worldly posses-
sions at the time of his bankruptcy. Subsequently to this he
was reduced to still greater straits, and his rent and firing were
paid by the municipality, which afterwards gave him (1664)
an annuity of 200 florins. We may admire the spirit which
enabled him to produce some of his most striking works in his
unhappy circumstances: we find his widow seeking outdoor
relief from the guardians of the poor, and dying obscurely in a
hospital.
Hals's pictures illustrate the various strata of society into
which his misfortunes led him. His banquets or meetings of
officers, of sharpshooters, and gildsmen are the most interesting
of his works. But they are not more characteristic than his
low-life pictures of itinerant players and singers. His portraits
of gentlefolk are true and noble, but hardly so expressive as
those of fishwives and tavern heroes.
His first master at Antwerp was probably van Noort, as has
been suggested by M. G. S. Davies, but on his removal toHaarlem
Frans Hals entered the atelier of van Mander, the painter and
historian, of whom he possessed some pictures which went to
pay the debt of the baker already alluded to. But he soon
improved upon the practice of the time, illustrated by J. van
Schoreel and Antonio Moro, and, emancipating himself gradually
from tradition, produced pictures remarkable for truth and
dexterity of hand. We prize in Rembrandt the golden glow of
effects based upon artificial contrasts of low light in immeasurable
gloom. Hals was fond of daylight of silvery sheen. Both men
were painters of touch, but of touch on different keys — Rem-
brandt was the bass, Hals the treble. The latter is perhaps
more expressive than the former. He seizes with rare intuition
a moment in the life of his sitters. What nature displays in
that moment he reproduces thoroughly in a very delicate scale
of colour, and with a perfect mastery over every form of expres-
sion. He becomes so clever at last that exact tone, light and
shade, and modelling are all obtained with a few marked and
fluid strokes of the brush.
In every form of his art we can distinguish his earlier style
from that of later years. It is curious that we have no record
of any work produced by him. in the first decade of his
independent activity, save an engraving by Jan van de Velde
after a lost portrait of " The Minister Johannes Bogardus,"
who died in 16 14. The earliest works by Frans Hals that have
come down to us, " Two Boys Playing and Singing " in the
gallery of Cassel, and a " Banquet of the officers of the 'St
Joris Doele' " or Arquebusiers of St George (161 6) in the museum
of Haarlem, exhibit him as a careful draughtsman capable of
great finish, yet spirited withal. His flesh, less clear than it
afterwards becomes, is pastose and burnished. Later he becomes
more effective, displays more freedom of hand, and a greater
command of effect. At this period we note the beautiful full-
length of " Madame van Beresteyn " at the Louvre in Paris,
and a splendid full-length portrait of " Willem van Heythuysen "
leaning on a sword in the Liechtenstein collection at Vienna.
Both these pictures are equalled by the other " Banquet of the
officers of the Arquebusiers of St George " (with different
portraits) and the " Banquet of the officers of the ' Cloveniers
Doelen ' " or Arquebusiers of St Andrew of 1627 and an
" Assembly of the officers of the Arquebusiers of St Andrew "
of 1633 in the Haarlem Museum. A picture of the same kind
in the town hall of Amsterdam, with the date of 1637, suggests
some study of the masterpieces of Rembrandt, and a similar
influence is apparent in a picture of 164 1 at Haarlem, representing
the " Regents of the Company of St Elizabeth " and in the
portrait of " Maria Voogt " at Amsterdam. But Rembrandt's
example did not create a lasting impression on Hals. He gradu-
ally dropped more and more into grey and silvery harmonies
of tone; and two of his canvases, executed in 1664, " The
Regents and Regentesses of the Oudemannenhuis " at Haarlem,
are masterpieces of colour, though in substance all but mono-
chromes. In fact, ever since 1641 Hals had shown a tendency
to restrict the gamut of his palette, and to suggest colour rather
than express it. This is particularly noticeable in his flesh tints
which from year to year became more grey, until finally the
shadows were painted in almost absolute black, as in the
" Tymane Oosdorp," of the Berlin Gallery. As this tendency
coincides with the period of his poverty, it has been suggested
that one of the reasons, if not the only reason, of his predilection
for black and white pigment was the cheapness of these colours
as compared with the costly lakes and carmines.
As a portrait painter Frans Hals had scarcely the psychological
insight of a Rembrandt or Velazquez, though in a few works,
like the " Admiral de Ruyter," in Earl Spencer's collection,
the " Jacob Olycan " at the Hague Gallery, and the " Albert
van der Meer " at Haarlem town hall, he reveals a searching
analysis of character which has little in common with the
instantaneous expression of his so-called " character " portraits.
In these he generally sets upon the canvas the fleeting aspect
of the various stages of merriment, from the subtle, half ironic
smile that quivers round the lips of the curiously misnamed
" Laughing Cavalier " in the Wallace Collection to the imbecile
grin of the " Hille Bobbe " in the Berlin Museum. To this
group of pictures belong Baron Gustav Rothschild's " Jester,"
the " Bohimienne " at the Louvre, and the "Fisher Boy" at
Antwerp, whilst the " Portrait of the Artist with his second
Wife " at the Ryks Museum in Amsterdam, and the somewhat
confused group of the " Beresteyn Family " at the Louvre
show a similar tendency. Far less scattered in arrangement
than this Beresteyn group, and in every respect one of the most
masterly of Frans Hals's achievements is the group called " The
Painter and his Family " in the possession of Colonel Warde,
which was almost unknown until it appeared at the winter
exhibition at the Royal Academy in 1906.
Though a visit to Haarlem town hall, which contains the
five enormous Doelen groups and the two Regenten pictures,
is as necessary for the student of Hals's art as a visit to the
Prado in Madrid is for the student of Velazquez, good examples
of the Dutch master have found their way into most of the
leading public and private collections. In the British Isles,
besides the works already mentioned, portraits from his brush
are to be found at the National Gallery, the Edinburgh Gallery,
the Glasgow Corporation Gallery, Hampton Court, Buckingham
Palace, Devonshire House, and the collections of Lord North-
brooke, Lord Ellesmere, Lord Iveagh and Lord Spencer.
At Amsterdam is the celebrated " Flute Player," once in the
Dupper collection at Dort; at Brussels, the patrician "Heyt-
huysen "; at the Louvre, " Descartes "; at Dresden, the
painter " Van der Vinne." Hals's sitters were taken from
every class of society — admirals, generals and burgomasters
pairing with merchants, lawyers, clerks. To register all that
we find in public galleries would involve much space. There
are eight portraits at Berlin, six at Cassel, five at St Petersburg,
six at the Louvre, two at Brussels, five at Dresden, two at Gotha.
In private collections, chiefly in Paris, Haarlem and Vienna,
we find an equally important number. Amongst the painter's
most successful representations of fishwives and termagants
we should distinguish the " Hille Bobbe " of the Berlin Museum,
and the " Hille Bobbe with her Son " in the Dresden Gallery.
Itinerant players are best illustrated in the Neville-Goldsmith
collection at the Hague, and the Six collection at Amsterdam.
Boys and girls singing, playing or laughing, or men drinking,
are to be found in the gallery of Schwerin, in the Arenberg
collection, and in the royal palace at Brussels.
For two centuries after his death Frans Hals was held in such
poor esteem that some of his paintings, which are now among
the proudest possessions of public galleries, were sold at auction
HALSBURY— HALYBURTON, T.
S67
for a few pounds or even shillings. The portrait of " Johannes
Acronius," now at the Berlin Museum, realized five shillings
at the Enschede sale in 1786. The splendid portrait of the man
with the sword at the Liechtenstein gallery was sold in 1800 for
£4, 5s. With his rehabilitation in public esteem came the
enormous rise in values, and, at the Secretan sale in 1889, the
portrait of " Pieter van de Broecke d'Anvers " was bid up to
£4420, while in 1908 the National Gallery paid £25,000 for the
large group from the collection of Lord Talbot de Maiahide.
Of the master's numerous family none has left a name except
Frans Hals the Younger, born about 1622, who died in 1669.
His pictures represent cottages and poultry; and the " Vanitas "
at Berlin, a table laden with gold and silver dishes, cups, glasses
and books, is one of his finest works and deserving of a passing
glance.
Quite in another form, and with much of the freedom of the
elder Hals, Dirk Hals, his brother (born at Haarlem, died 1656),
is a painter of festivals and ball-rooms. But Dirk had too much
of the freedom and too little of the skill in drawing which cha-
racterized his brother. He remains second on his own ground to
Palamedes. A fair specimen of his art is a " Lady playing a
Harpsichord to a Young Girl and her Lover " in the van der
Hoop collection at Amsterdam, now in the Ryks Museum.
More characteristic, but not better, is a large company of
gentle-folk rising from dinner, in the Academy at Vienna.
Literature. — See W. Bode, Frans Hals und seine Schule (Leipzig,
1871); W. Unger and W. Vosmaer, Etchings after Frans Hals
(Leyden, 1873) ; Percy Rendell Head, Sir Anthony Van Dyck and
Frans Hals (London, 1879); D. Knackfuss, Frans Hals (Leipzig,
1896) ; G. S. Davies, Frans Hals (London, 1902). (P. G. K.)
HALSBURY, HARDINGE STANLEY GIFFARD, ist Earl of
(1825- ), English lord chancellor, son of Stanley Lees
Giffard, LL.D., was born in London on the 3rd of September
1825. He was educated at Merton College, Oxford, and was
called to the bar at the Inner Temple in 1850, joining the North
Wales and Chester circuit. Afterwards he had a large practice
at the central criminal court and the Middlesex sessions, and he
was for several years junior prosecuting counsel to the treasury.
He was engaged in most of the celebrated trials of his time,
including the Overend and Gurney and the Tichborne cases.
He became queen's counsel in 1865, and a bencher of the Inner
Temple. Mr Giffard twice contested Cardiff in the Conservative
interest, in 1868 and 1874, but he was still without a seat in the
House of Commons when he was appointed solicitor-general by
Disraeli in 1875 and received the honour of knighthood. In 1877
he succeeded in obtaining a seat, when he was returned for
Launceston, which borough he continued to represent until his
elevation to the peerage in 1885. He was then created Baron
Halsbury and appointed lord chancellor, thus forming a remark-
able exception to the rule that no criminal lawyer ever reaches
the woolsack. Lord Halsbury resumed the position in 1886
and held it until 1892 and again from 1895 to 1905, his tenure
of the office, broken only by the brief Liberal ministries of 1886
and 1 892-1 895, being longer than that of any lord chancellor
since Lord Eldon. In 1898 he was created earl of Halsbury and
Viscount Tiverton. Among Conservative lord chancellors Lord
Halsbury must always hold a high place, his grasp of legal
principles and mastery in applying them being pre-eminent
among the judges of his day.
HALSTEAD, a market-town in the Maldon parliamentary
division of Essex, England, on the Colne, 17 m. N.N.E. from
Chelmsford; served by the Colne Valley railway from Chappel
Junction on the Great Eastern railway. Pop. of urban district
(1001), 6073. It lies on a hill in a pleasant wooded district.
The church of St Andrew is mainly Perpendicular. It contains
a monument supposed to commemorate Sir Robert Bourchier
(d. 1349), lord chancellor to Edward III. The Lady Mary
Ramsay grammar school dates from 1594. There are large silk
and crape works. Two miles N. of Halstead is Little Maplestead,
where the church is the latest in date of the four churches with
round naves extant in England, being perhaps of 12th-century
foundation, but showing early Decorated work in the main.
The chancel, which is without aisles, terminates in an apse.
Three miles N.W. from Halstead are the large villages of Sible
Hedingham (pop. 1701) and Castle Hedingham (pop. 1097). At
the second is the Norman keep of the de Veres, of whom Aubrey
de Vere held the lordship from William I. The keep dates from
the end of the nth century, and exhibits much fine Norman
work. The church of St Nicholas, Castle Hedingham, has fine
Norman, Transitional and Early English details, and there is a
black marble tomb of John de Vere, 15th earl of Oxford (d. 1540),
with his countess.
There are signs of settlement at Halstead (Halsteda,Halgusted,
Halsted) in the Bronze Age; but there is no evidence of the
causes of its growth in historic times. Probably its situation
on the river Colne made it to some extent a local centre.
Throughout the middle ages Halstead was unimportant, and
never rose to the rank of a borough.
HALT. (1) An adjective common to Teutonic languages and
still appearing in Swedish and Danish, meaning lame, crippled.
It is also used as a verb, meaning to limp, and as a substantive,
especially in the term " string-halt " or " spring-halt," a nervous
disorder affecting the muscles of the hind legs of horses. (2) A
pause or stoppage made on a march or a journey. The word
came into English in the form " to make alto " or " alt," and
was taken from the French faire alte or Italian far alto. The
origin is a German military term, Halt machen, Halt meaning
" hold."
HALUNTIUM (Gr. 'AMww, mod. S. Marco d'Alunzio), an
ancient city of Sicily, 6 m. from the north coast and 25 m. E.N.E.
of Halaesa. It was probably of Sicel origin, though its foundation
was ascribed to some of the companions of Aeneas. It appears
first in Roman times as a place of some importance, and suffered
considerably at the hands of Verres. The abandoned church of
S. Mark, just outside the modern town, is built into the cella
of an ancient Greek temple, which measures 62 ft. by 18. A
number of ancient inscriptions have been found there.
HALYBURTON, JAMES (1518-1589), Scottish reformer, was
born in 1 5 18, and was educated at St Andrews, where he graduated
M.A. in 1538. From 1553 to 1586 he was provost of St Andrews
and a prominent figure in the national life. He was chosen as
one of the lords of the congregation in 1557, and commanded
the contingents sent by Forfar and Fife against the queen regent
in 1559. He took part in the defence of Edinburgh, and in the
battles of Langside (1568) and Restalrig (1571). He had stoutly
opposed the marriage of Mary with Darnley, and when, after
Restalrig, he was captured by the queen's troops, he narrowly
escaped execution. He represented Morton at the conference
of 1 578, and was ofie of the royal commissioners to the General
Assembly in 1582 and again in 1588. He died in February 1589.
HALYBURTON, THOMAS (1674-171 2), Scottish divine, was
born at Dupplin, near Perth, on the 25th of December 1674.
His father, one of the ejected ministers, having died in 1682,
he was taken by his mother in 1685 to Rotterdam to escape
persecution, where he for some time attended the school founded
by Erasmus. On his return to his native country in 1687 he
completed his elementary education at Perth and Edinburgh,
and in 1696 graduated at the university of St Andrews. In
1700 he was ordained minister of the parish of Ceres, and in 17 10
he was recommended by the synod of Fife for the chair of
theology in St Leonard's College, St Andrews, to which accord-
ingly he was appointed by Queen Anne. After a brief term of
active professorial life he died from the effects of overwork in
1712.
The works by which he continues to be known were all of them
published after his death. Wesley and Whitefield were accustomed
to commend them to their followers. They were published as
follows: Natural Religion Insufficient, and Revealed Religion
Necessary, to Man's Happiness in his Present State (1714)1 an able
statement of the orthodox Calvinistic criticism of the deism of Lord
Herbert of Cherbury and Charles Blount; Memoirs of the Life of
Mr Thomas Halyburton (1715), three parts by his own hand, the
fourth from his diary by another hand; The Great Concern of
Salvation (1721), with a word of commendation by I. Watts; Ten
Sermons Preached Before and After the Lord's Supper (1722); The
Halyburton's
Unpardonable Sin Against the Holy Ghost (1784).
Memoirs (17 14).
868
HAM— HAMADHANl ;
HAM, in tfre Bible, (i) or>, fllton, in Gen. v. 32, vi. 10, vii. 13,
ix. 18, x. 5, x Chron. i. 4, the second son of Noah; in Gen. ix. 24,
the youngest son (but cf . below) ; and in Gen. x. 6, 1 Chron. i. 8,
the father of Cush (Ethiopia), Mizraim (Egypt), Phut and
Canaan. Genesis x. exhibits in the form of genealogies the
political, racial and geographical relations of the peoples known
to Israel; as it was compiled from various sources and has been
more than once edited, it does not exactly represent the situation
at any given date, 1 but Ham seems to stand roughly for the
south-western division of the world as known to Israel, which
division was regarded as the natural sphere of influence of Egypt.
Ham is held to be the Egyptian word Khem (black) which was
the native name of Egypt; thus in Pss. lxxviii. 51, cv. 23, 27,
cvi. 22, Ham ■» Egypt. In Gen. ix. 20-26 Canaan was originally
the third son of Noah and the villain of the story. Ham is a
later addition to harmonize with other passages.
(2) on , If dm, 1 Chron. iv. 40, apparently the name of a place
or tribe. It can hardly be identical with (1); nothing else is
known of this second Ham, which may be a scribe's error;
the Syriac version rejects the name.
(3) b?> Bam, Gen. xiv. 5; the place where Chedorlaomer
defeated the Zuzim, apparently in eastern Palestine. The place
is unknown, and the name may be a scribe's error, perhaps for
Ammon. (W. H. Be.)
HAM, a small town of northern France, in the department of
Somme, 36 m. E.S.E. of Amiens on the Northern railway between
that city and Laon. Pop. (1006), 2957. It stands on the Somme
in a marshy district where market-gardening is carried on. From
the 9th century onwards it appears as the seat of a lordship
which, after the extinction of its hereditary line, passed in
succession to the houses of Coucy, Enghien, Luxembourg, Rohan,
Vendome and Navarre, and was finally united to the French
crown on the accession of Henry IV. Notre-Dame, the church
of an abbey of canons regular of St Augustin, dates from the
1 2th and 13th centuries, but in 1760 all the inflammable portions
of the building were destroyed by a conflagration caused by
lightning, and a process of restoration was subsequently carried
out. Of special note are the bas-reliefs of the nave and choir,
executed in the 17th and 18th centuries, and the crypt of the
1 2th century, which contains the sepulchral effigies of Odo IV.
of Ham and his wife Isabella of B6thencourt. The castle,
founded before the xoth century, was rebuilt early in the 13th,
and extended in the 14th; its present appearance is mainly
due to the constable Louis of Luxembourg, count of St Pol,
who between 1436 and 1470 not only furnished it with outworks,
but gave such a thickness to the towers and«curtains, and more
especially to the great tower or donjon which still bears his
motto Mon Myeulx, that the great engineer and architect
Viollet-le-Duc considered them, even in the 19th century,
capable of resisting artillery. It forms a rectangle 395 ft. long
by 263 ft. broad, with a round tower at each angle and two
square towers protecting the curtains. The eastern and western
sides are each defended by a demi-lune. The Constable's Tower,
for so the great tower is usually called in memory of St Pol,
has a height of about 100 ft., and the thickness of the walls is
36 ft.; the interior is occupied by three large hexagonal chambers
in as many stories. The castle of Ham, which now serves as
barracks, has frequently been used as a state prison both in
ancient and modern times, and the list of those who have
sojourned there is an interesting one, including as it does Joan
of Arc, Louis of Bourbon, the ministers of Charles X., Louis
Napoleon, and Generals Cavaignac and Lamoriciere. Louis
Napoleon was there for six years, and at last effected his escape
in the disguise of a workman. During 1870-1871 Ham was
several times captured and recaptured by the belligerents. A
statue commemorates the birth in the town of General Foy
(1775-1825).
See J. G. Cappot, Le Chdteau de Ham (Paris, 1842); and Ch.
Gomart, Ham, son chdteau et ses prtsonnicrs (Ham, 1864).
1 A. Jeremias, Das A.T. im Lichte des alten Orients, p. 145, holds
that it represents the situation in the 8th century B.C.
HAMADAN, a province and town of Persia. The province is
bounded N. by Gerrus and Khamseh, W. by Kermanshah,
S. by Malayir and Irak, E. by Savah and Kazvin. It has many
well- watered, fertile plains and more than four hundred flourish-
ing villages producing much grain, and its population, estimated
at 350,000 — more than half being Turks of the Karaguzlu
(black-eyed) and Sh&mlu (Syrian) tribes — supplies several
battalions of infantry to the army, and pays, besides, a yearly
revenue of about £1 8,000.
Hamadan, the capital of the province, is situated 188 m.
W.S.W. of Teheran, at an elevation of 5930 ft., near the foot of
Mount Elvend (old Persian Arvand, Gr. Orontes), whose granite
peak rises W. of it to an altitude of 11,900 ft. It is a busy trade
centre with about 40,000 inhabitants (comprising 4000 Jews
and 300 Armenians), has extensive and well-stocked bazaars and
fourteen large and many small caravanserais. The principal
industries are tanning leather and the manufacture of saddles,
harnesses, trunks, and other leather goods, felts and copper
utensils. The leather of Hamadan is much esteemed throughout
the country and exported to other provinces in great quantities.
The streets are narrow, and by a system called Kucheh-bandi
(street-closing) established long ago for impeding the circulation
of crowds and increasing general security, every quarter of the
town, or block of buildings, is shut off from its neighbours by
gates which are closed during local disorders and regularly at
night. Hamadan has post and telegraph offices and two
churches, one Armenian, the other Protestant (of the American
Presbyterian Mission).
Among objects of interest are the alleged tombs of Esther
and Mordecai in an insignificant domed building in the centre
of the town. There are two wooden sarcophagi carved all over
with Hebrew inscriptions. That ascribed to Mordecai has the
verses Isaiah lix. 8; Esther ii. 5; Ps. xvi. 9, 10, n, and the
date of its erection a.m. 4318 (a.d. 557). The inscriptions on
the other sarcophagus consist of the verses Esther ix. 29, 32,
x. 1; and the statement that it was placed there a.m. 4602
(a.d. 841) by " the pious and righteous woman Gemal Setan."
A tablet let into the wall states that the building was repaired
a.m. 4474 (a.d. 713). Hamadan also has the grave of the cele-
brated physician and philosopher Abu Ali ibn Sina, better known
as Avicenna (d. 1036). It is now generally admitted that
Hamadan is the Hagmatana (of the inscriptions), Agbatana or
Ecbatana (q.v., of the Greek writers), the " treasure city " of the
Achaemenian kings which was taken and plundered by Alexander
the Great, but very few ancient remains have been discovered.
A rudely carved stone lion, which lies on the roadside close to
the southern extremity of the city, and by some is supposed to
have formed part of a building of the ancient city, is locally
regarded as a talisman against famine, plague, cold* &c, placed
there by Pliny, who is popularly known as the sorcerer BalinSs
(a corruption of Plinius).
Five miles S.W. from the city in a mountain gorge of Mount
Elvend is the so-called Ganjn&ma (treasure-deed), which consists
of two tablets with trilingual cuneiform inscriptions cut into
the rock and relating the names and titles of Darius I. (521-
485 B.C.) and his son Xerxes I. (485-465 B.C.). (A. H.-S.)
HAMADHANl, in full AbO-l Fadl A?mad ibn ul-IJusain
ul-HamadhAn! (967-1007), Arabian writer, known as Badi*
uz-Zaman (the wonder of the age), was born and educated at
Hamadhan. In 990 he went to Jorjan, where he remained two
years; then passing to Nishapur, where he rivalled and surpassed
the learned Khwarizml. After journeying through Khorasan
and Sijist&n, he finally settled in Herat under the protection of
the vizir of Mahmud, the Ghaznevid sultan. There he died at the
age of forty. He was renowned for a remarkable memory and
for fluency of speech, as well as for the purity of his language.
He was one of the first to renew the use of rhymed prose both in
letters and tnaq&tnas (see Arabia: Literature, section " Belles
Lettres ")•
His letters were published at Constantinople (1881), and with
commentary at Beirut (1890); his maq&mas at Constantinople
(1881), and with commentary at Beirut (1889). A good idea of the
HAMAH— HAMAR
869
latter may be obtained from S. de Sacy 's edition of six of the maqdmas
with French translation and notes in his Ckrestomatkie arabe, vol. iii.
(2nd ed., Paris, 1827). A specimen of the letters is translated into
Ge-man in A. von Kroner's Culturgeschichte des Orients, ii. 470 sqq.
(Vienna, 1877). (G. W. T.)
HAMAH, the Hamath of the Bible, a Hittite royal city,
situated in the narrow valley of the Orontes, 1 10 English miles N.
(by E.) of Damascus. It finds a place in the northern boundaries
of Israel under David, Solomon and Jeroboam II. (2 Sam. viii. 9;
1 Kings viii. 65; 2 Kings xiv. 25). The Orontes flows winding
past the city and is spanned by four bridges. On the south-east
the houses rise 1 50 ft. above the river, and there are four other
hills, that of the Kalah or castle being to the north 100 ft. high.
Twenty-four minarets rise from the various mosques. The
houses are principally of mud, and the town stands amid poplar
gardens with a fertile plain to the west. The castle is ruined,
the streets are narrow and dirty, but the bazaars are good, and
the trade with the Bedouins considerable. The numerous water-
wheels {naurah,) of enormous dimension, raising water from the
Orontes are the most remarkable features of the view. Silk,
woollen and cotton goods are manufactured. The population
is about 40,000.
In the year 854 B.C. Hamath was taken by Shalmaneser II.,
king of Assyria, who defeated a large army of allied Hamathites,
Syrians and Israelites at Karkor and slew 14,000 of them. In
738 B.C. Tiglath Pileser III. reduced the city to tribute, and
another rebellion was crushed by Sargon in 720 B.C. The down-
fall of so ancient a state made a great impression at Jerusalem
(Isa. x. 9). According to 2 Kings xvii. 24, 30, some of its people
were transported to the land of N. Israel, where they made
images of Ashima or Eshmun (probably Ishtar). After the
Macedonian conquest of Syria Hamath was called Epiphania
by the Greeks in honour of Antiochus IV., Epiphanes, and in
the early Byzantine period it was known by both its Hebrew
and its Greek name. In a.d. 639 the town surrendered to Abu
'Obeida, one of Omar's generals, and the church was turned
into a mosque. In a.d. 1108 Tancred captured the city and
massacred the Ism'aileh defenders. In 1 1 1 5 it was retaken by
the Moslems, and in 11 78 was occupied by Saladin. Abulfeda,
prince of Hamah in the early part of the 14th century, is well
known as an authority on Arab geography.
HAMANN, JOHANN GEORG (1 730-1 788), German writer on
philosophical and theological subjects, was born at Kttnigsberg
in Prussia on the 27th of August 1730. His parents were of
humble rank and small means. The education he received was
comprehensive but unsystematic, and the want of definiteness
in this early training doubtless tended to aggravate the peculiar
instability of character which troubled Hamann's after life.
In 1746 he began theological studies, but speedily deserted
them and turned his attention to law. That too was taken up
in a desultory fashion and quickly relinquished. Hamann seems
at this time to have thought that any strenuous devotion to
" bread-and-butter " studies was lowering, and accordingly
gave himself entirely to reading, criticism and philological
inquiries. Such studies, however, were pursued without any
definite aim or systematic arrangement, and consequently were
productive of nothing. In 1752, constrained to secure some
position in the world, he accepted a tutorship in a family resident
in Livonia, but only retained it a few months. A similar situation
in Courland he also resigned after about a year. In both cases
apparently the rupture might be traced to the curious and
unsatisfactory character of Hamann himself. After leaving his
second post he was received into the house of a merchant at
Riga named Johann Christoph Behrens, who contracted a great
friendship for him and selected him as his companion for a tour,
through Danzig, Berlin, Hamburg, Amsterdam and London,
Hamann, however, was quite unfitted for business, and when
left in London, gave himself up entirely to his fancies, and was
quickly reduced to a state of extreme poverty and want. It was
at this period of his life, when his inner troubles of spirit har-
monized with the unhappy external conditions of his lot, that
he began an earnest and prolonged study of the Bible; and from
this time dates the tone of extreme pietism which is characteristic
of his writings, and which undoubtedly alienated many of his
friends. He returned to Riga, and was well received by the
Behrens family, in whose house he resided for Some time. A
quarrel, the precise nature of which is not very clear though the
occasion is evident, led to an entire separation from these friends.
In 1759 Hamann returned to Konigsberg, and lived for several
years with his father, filling occasional posts in Konigsberg and
Mitau. In 1767 he obtained a situation as translator in the
excise office, and ten years later a post as storekeeper in a
mercantile house. During this period of comparative rest
Hamann was able to indulge in the long correspondence with
learned friends which seems to have been his greatest pleasure.
In 1784 the failure of some commercial speculations greatly
reduced his means, and about the same time he was dismissed
with a small pension from his situation. The kindness of friends,
however, supplied provision for his children, and enabled him
to carry out the long-cherished wish of visiting some of his
philosophical allies. He spent some time with Jacobi at Pempel-
fort and with Buchholz at Walbergen. At the latter place he was
seized with illness, and died on the 21st of June 1788.
^ Hamann's works resemble his life and character. They are en-
tirely unsystematic so far as matter is concerned, chaotic and dis-
jointed in style. To a reader not acquainted with the peculiar
nature of the man, which led him to regard what commended
itself to him as therefore objectively true, they must be, moreover,
entirely unintelligible and, from their peculiar, pietistic tone and
scriptural jargon, probably offensive. A place in the history of
philosophy can be yielded to Hamann only because he expresses in
uncouth, barbarous fashion an idea to which other writers have
given more effective shape. The fundamental thought is with him
the unsatisfactoriness of abstraction or one-sidedness. The Aufkla-
rung, with its rational theology, was to him the type of abstraction.
Even Epicureanism, which might appear concrete, was by him
rightly designated abstract. Quite naturally, then, Hamann is led
to object strongly to much of the Kantian philosophy. The sepa-
ration of sense and understanding is for him unjustifiable, and only
paralleled by the extraordinary blunder of severing matter and
form. Concreteness, therefore, is the one demand which Hamann
expresses, and as representing his own thought he used to refer to
Giordano Bruno's conception (previously held by Nicolaus Curanus)
of the identity of contraries. The demand, however, remains but a
demand. Nothing that Hamann has given can be regarded as in the
slightest degree a response to it. His hatred of system , incapacity for
abstract thinking, and intense personality rendered it impossible
for him to do more than utter the disjointed, oracular, obscure dicta
which gained for him among his friends the name of " Magus of the
North. Two results only appear throughout his writings — first, the
accentuation of belief; and secondly, the transference of many
philosophical difficulties to language. Belief is, according to Hamann,
the groundwork of knowledge, and he accepts in all sincerity Hume's
analysis of experience as being most helpful in constructing a theo-
logical view. In language, which he appears to regard as somehow
acquired, he finds a solution for the problems of reason which
Kant had discussed in the KriHk der reinen Vemunft. On the
application of these thoughts to the Christian theology one need
not enter.
None of Hamann's writings is of great bulk; most are mere
pamphlets of some thirty or forty pages. A complete collection
has been published by F. Roth (Schriften, 8vo, 1821-1842), and by
C. H. Gildemeister \Leben und Schriften, 6 vols., 1851-1873). See
also M. Petri, Hamanns Schriften u. Briefe, 4 vols., 1872-1873);
J. Poel, Hamann, der Magus int Nor den, sein Leben u. Mttteilungen
aus seinen Schriften (2 vols., 1 874-1 876); J. Claasseii, Hamanns
Leben und Werke (1885). Also H. Weber, Neue Hamanniana (1905).
A very comprehensive essay on Hamann is to be found in Hegel's
Vermtschte Schriften, ii. {Werke, Bd. xvii.). On Hamann's influence
on German literature, see J. Minor, /. G. Hamann in seiner Bedeu-
tungfiir die Sturm- und Drang-Periode (188 1).
HAMAR, or Storehammer (Great Hamar), a town of Norway
in Hedemarken amt (county), 78 m. by rail N. of Christiania.
Pop. (1900), 6003. It is pleasantly situate4 between two bays
of the great Lake Mjosen, and is the junction of the railways to
Trondhjem (N.) and to Otta in Gudbrandsdal (N.W.). The
existing town was laid out in 1849, and made a bishop's see in
1864. Near the same site there stood an older town, which,
together with a bishop's see, was founded in 1 1 52 by the English-
man Nicholas Breakspeare (afterwards Pope Adrian IV.) ; but
both town and cathedral were destroyed by the Swedes in 1567,
Remains of the latter include a nave-arcade with rounded arches.
The town is a centre for the local agricultural and timber
trade.
870
HAMASA
QAM ASA (IJamAsah), the name of a famous Arabian anthology
compiled by rjablb ibn Aus at-f&X surnamed Aba Tammim
(see AbC TammAm). The collection is so called from the title of
its first book, containing poems descriptive of constancy and
valour in battle, patient endurance of calamity, steadfastness in
seeking vengeance, manfulness under reproach and temptation,
all which qualities make up the attribute called by the Arabs
ham&sah (briefly paraphrased by at-TibrlzI as ash-shiddah
fi-l-amr). It consists of ten books or parts, containing in all
884 poems or fragments of poems, and named respectively —
(1) al-tfamdsa, 261 pieces; (2) al-Mar&thl, " Dirges," 169
pieces; (3) al-Adab, " Manners," 54 pieces; (4) an-Naslb,
li The Beauty and Love of Women," 139 pieces; (5) al-Hijd,
"Satires," 80 pieces; (6) al-Afy&f wa-l-Madlh, "Hospitality
and Panegyric," 143 pieces; (7) as-§ifdt, " Miscellaneous
Descriptions," 3 pieces; (8) as-Sair wa-n-Ntf&s, " Journeying
and Drowsiness," 9 pieces; (9) al~Mulafi, " Pleasantries," 38
pieces; and (10) Madhammat-an-nisd, "Dispraise of Women,"
18 pieces. Of these books the first is by far the longest, both
in the number and extent of its poems, and the first two together
make up more than half the bulk of the work. The poems are
for the most part fragments selected from longer compositions,
though a considerable number are probably entire. They are
taken from the works of Arab poets of all periods down to that
of Aba Tamm&m himself (the latest ascertainable date being
a.d. 832), but chiefly of the poets of the Ante-Islamic time
(J&hiliyy&n), those of the early days of Al-Islam (Mukha-
4rimUn), and those who flourished during the reigns of the
Omayyad caliphs, a.d. 660-749 (Isl&miyyUn). Perhaps the
oldest in the collection are those relating to the war of Basils,
a famous legendary strife which arose out of the murder of
Kulaib, chief of the combined clans of Bakr and Taghlib, and
lasted for forty years, ending with the peace of Dhu-l-Maj&z,
about a.d. 534. Of the period of the Abbasid caliphs, under
whom Aba Tammam himself lived, there are probably not more
than sixteen fragments.
Most of the poems belong to the class of extempore or
occasional utterances, as distinguished from qasidas, or elabor-
ately finished odes. While the latter abound with comparisons
and long descriptions, in which the skill of the poet is exhibited
with much art and ingenuity, the poems of the tfatn&sa are short,
direct and for the most part free from comparisons; the transi-
tions are easy, the metaphors simple, and the purpose of the
poem clearly indicated. It is due probably to the fact that this
style of composition was chiefly sought by Aba Tammam in
compiling his collection that he has chosen hardly anything from
the works of the most famous poets of antiquity. Not a single
piece from Imra 'al-Qais (Amru-ul-Qais) occurs in the tfatnasa,
nor are there any from 'Alqama, Zuhair or A'sh&; Nfibigha
is represented only by two pieces (pp. 408 and 742 of Freytag's
edition) of four and three verses respectively; 'Antara by two
pieces of four verses each (id. pp. 206, 209) ; faraf a by one piece
of five verses (id. p. 632); Labid by one piece of three verses
(id. p. 468); and 'Amr ibn Kultham by one piece of four verses
{id. p. 236). The compilation is thus essentially an anthology
of minor poets, and exhibits (so far at least as the more ancient
poems are concerned) the general average of poetic utterance
at a time when to speak in verse was the daily habit of every
warrior of the desert.
To this description, however, there is an important exception
in the book entitled an-Nasib t containing verses relating to
women and love. In the classical age of Arab poetry it was the
established rule that all qasldas, or finished odes, whatever
their purpose, must begin with the mention of women and their
charms (tashbib) } in order, as the old critics said, that the hearts
of the hearers might be softened and inclined to regard kindly
the theme which the poet proposed to unfold. The fragments
included in this part of the work are therefore generally taken
from the opening verses of qasidas; where this is not the case,
they are chiefly compositions of the early Islamic period, when
the school of exclusively erotic poetry (of which the greatest
representative was 'Omar ibn Abl Rabf a) arose.
The compiler was himself a distinguished poet in the style
of his day, and wandered through many provinces of the Moslem
empire earning money and fame by his skill in panegyric. About
220 a.h. he betook himself to Khorasan, then ruled by 'Abdallah
ibn T&hi r ? whom he praised and by whom he was rewarded;
on his journey home to 'Irak he passed through Hamadhan, and
was there detained for many months a guest of Abu-1-Waf£, son
of Salama, the road onward being blocked by heavy falls of
snow. During his residence at Hamadhan, Aba Tammim is
said to have compiled or composed, from the materials which
he found in Abu-l-Waf&'s library, five poetical works, of which
one was the tfam&sa. This collection remained as a precious
heirloom in the family of Abu-1-Waf & until their fortunes decayed,
when it fell into the hands of a man of Dlnawar named Abu-1-
'Awadhil, who carried it to Isfahan and made it known to the
learned of that city.
The worth of the ffamasa as a store-house of ancient legend,
of faithful detail regarding the usages of the pagan time and
early simplicity of the Arab race, can hardly be exaggerated.
The high level of excellence which is found in its selections, both
as to form and matter, is remarkable, and caused it to be said that
Aba Tamm&m displayed higher qualities as a poet in his choice
of extracts from the ancients than in his own compositions.
What strikes us chiefly in the class of poetry of which the tfamasa
is a specimen, is its exceeding truth and reality, its freedom
from artificiality and hearsay, the evident first-hand experience
which the singers possessed of all of which they sang. For
historical purposes the value of the collection is not small;
but most of all there shines forth from it a complete portraiture
of the hardy and manful nature, the strenuous life of passion
and battle, the lofty contempt of cowardice, niggardliness and
servility, which marked the valiant stock who bore Islam
abroad in a flood of new life over the outworn civilizations of
Persia, Egypt and Byzantium. It has the true stamp of the
heroic time, of its cruelty and wantonness as of its strength and
beauty.
No fewer than twenty commentaries are enumerated by Hajji
Khalifa. Of these the earliest was by Abu Riyash (otherwise ar-
Riyftshi), who died in 257 a.h.; excerpts from it, chiefly in eluci-
dation of the circumstances in which the poems were composed, are
frequently given by at-Tibria (Tabriz!). He was followed by the
famous grammarian Abu-1-Fatb ibn al-Tinni (d. 392 a.h.), and later
by Shihab ad-Din Ahmad al-Marzuqi of Isfahan (d. 421 a.h.). Upon
af- Manual's commentary is chiefly founded that of Abu ZakariyS.
Yabyfc at-TibrizI (b. 421 A.H., d. 502), which has been published by
the late Professor G. W. Freytag of Bonn, together with a Latin
translation and notes (1828-1851). This monumental work, the
labour of a life, is a treasure of information regarding the classical
age of Arab literature which has not perhaps its equal for extent,
accuracy, and minuteness of detail in Europe. No other complete
edition of the flam&sa has been printed in the West; but in 1856
one appeared at Calcutta under the names of Maulavi Ghul&m
RabbanI and Kablru-d-din Abroad. Though no acknowledgment
of the fact is contained in this edition, it is a simple reprint of Pro-
fessor Freytag's text (without at-TibrizTs commentary), and follows
its original even in the misprints (corrected by Freytag at the end
of the second volume, which being in Latin the Calcutta editors do
not seem to have consulted). It contains in an appendix of 12 pages
a collection of verses (and some entire fragments) not found in
at-TibrizTs recension, but stated to exist in some copies consulted
by the editors: these are, however, very carelessly edited and
'Abdul-QSdir ibn Shaikh Luqm&n, was published at Bombay.
The fjtam&sa has been rendered with remarkable skill and spirit
into German verse by the illustrious Friedrich Ruckert (Stuttgart,
1846), who has not only given translations of almost all the poems
proper to the work, but has added numerous fragments drawn from
other sources, especially those occurring in the scholia of at-Tibria,
as well as the Mu'aUaqas of Zuhair and 'Antara, the Ldmiyya of
Ash-Shanfara, and the B&nat Su % 6d of Ka'b, son of Zuhair. A small
collection of translations, chiefly in metres imitating those of the
original, was published in London by Sir Charles Lyall in 1885.
When the ffam&sa is spoken of, that of Abu Tamm&m, as the first
and most famous of the name, is meant; but several collections of
a similar kind, also called flam&sa, exist. The best-known and
earliest of these is the flam&sa of Buhturi (d. 284 a.h.), of which the
unique MS. now in the Leiden University Library, has been repro-
duced by photo-lithography (1909); a critical edition has been
HAMBURG
87!
p rep ar e d by Professor Chlikho at Beyrouth. Four other work* of the
same name, formed on the model of Abfl Tammam's compilation,
are mentioned by Hajji Khalifa. Besides these, a work entitled
ffamasat ar-R&h (" the tfamasa of wine ") was composed of Abu-1-
'A15 al-Ma'ani (d. 429 a.h.). (C. J. L.)
HAMBURG, a state of the German empire, on the lower Elbe,
bounded by the Prussian provinces of Schleswig-Holstein and
Hanover. The whole territory has an area of 160 sq. m., and
consists of the city of Hamburg with its incorporated suburbs
and the surrounding district, including several islands in the
Elbe, five small enclaves in Holstein; the communes of Moorburg
in the Luneburg district of the Prussian province of Hanover
and Cuxhaven-Ritzebiittel at the mouth of the Elbe, the island
of Neuwerk about 5 m. from the coast, and the bailiwick (atnt)
of Bergedorf, which down to 1867 was held in common by
Lubeck and Hamburg. Administratively the state is divided
into the city, or metropolitan district, and four rural domains
(or Landherrenschaften), each under a senator as praeses, viz.
the domain of the Geestlande, of the Marschlande, of Bergedorf
and of Ritzebiittel with Cuxhaven. Cuxhaven-Ritzebuttel and
Bergedorf are the only towns besides the capital. The Geest-
lande comprise the suburban districts encircling the city on the
north and west; the Marschlande includes various islands in
the Elbe and the fertile tract of land lying between the northern
and southern arms of the Elbe, and with its pastures and market
gardens supplying Hamburg with large quantities of country
produce. In the Bergedorf district lies the Vierlande, or Four
Districts (Neuengamme, Kirchwarder, Altengamme and Curs-
lack), celebrated for its fruit gardens and the picturesque dress
of the inhabitants. Ritzebiittel with Cuxhaven, also a watering-
place, have mostly a seafaring population. Two rivers, the
Alster and the Bille, flow through the city of Hamburg into the
Elbe, the mouth of which, at Cuxhaven, is 75 m. below the
city.
Government. — As a state of the empire, Hamburg is repre-
sented in the federal council (Bundesrat) by one plenipotentiary,
and in the imperial diet (Reichstag) by three deputies. Its
present constitution came into force on the 1st of January 1861,
and was revised in 1879 and again in 1906. According to this
Hamburg is a republic, the government (Stoats gewalt) residing
in two chambers, the Senate and the House of Burgesses. The
Senate, which exercises the greater part of the executive power,
is composed of eighteen members, one half of whom must have
studied law or finance, while at least seven of the remainder
must belong to the class of merchants. The members of the
Senate are elected for life by the House of Burgesses; but a
senator is free to retire from office at the expiry of six years.
A chief (ober-) and second (zweiter-) burgomaster, the first of
whom bears the title of " Magnificence/' chosen annually in
secret ballot, preside over the meetings of the Senate, and are
usually jurists. No burgomaster can be in office for longer than
two years consecutively, and no member of the Senate may hold
any other public office. The House of Burgesses consists of
160 members, of whom 80 are elected in secret ballot by the
direct suffrages of all tax-paying citizens, 40 by the owners of
house-property within the city (also by ballot), and the remaining
40, by ballot also, by the so-called " notables," i.e. active and
former members of the law courts and administrative boards.
They are elected for a period of six years, but as half of each
class retire at the end of three years, new elections for one half
the number take place at the end of that time. The House of
Burgesses is represented by a BUrgerausschuss (committee of the
house) of twenty deputies whose duty it is to watch over the
proceedings of the Senate and the constitution generally. The
Senate can interpose a veto in all matters of legislation, saving
taxation, and where there is a collision between the two bodies,
provision is made for reference to a court of arbitration, consist-
ing of members of both houses in equal numbers, and also to the
supreme court of the empire (Reichsgerickt) sitting at Leipzig.
The law administered is that of the civil and penal codes of the
German empire, and the court of appeal for all three Hanse towns
is the common Oberlondesgericht, which has its seat in Hamburg.
There is also a special court of arbitration in commercial disputes
and another for such as arise under accident insurance.
Religion. — The church in Hamburg is completely separated
from the state and manages its affairs independently. The
ecclesiastical arrangements of Hamburg have undergone great
modifications since the general constitution of i860. From
the Reformation to the French occupation in the beginning of
the 19th century, Hamburg was a purely Lutheran state;
according to the " Recess " of 1529, re-enacted in 1603, non-
Lutherans were subject to legal punishment and expulsion from
the country. Exceptions were gradually made in favour of
foreign residents; but it was not till 1785 that regular inhabitants
were allowed to exercise the religious rites of other denominations,
and it was not till after the war of freedom that they were
allowed to have buildings in the style of churches. In i860 full
religious liberty was guaranteed, and the identification of church
and state abolished. By the new constitution of the Lutheran
Church, published at first in 1870 for the city only, but in 1876
extended to the rest of the Hamburg territory, the parishes or
communes are divided into three church-districts, and the general
affairs of the whole community are entrusted to a synod of
53 members and to an ecclesiastical council of 9 members which
acts as an executive. Since 1887 a church rate has been levied
on the Evangelical-Lutheran communities, and since 1904 upon
the Roman Catholics also. The German Reformed Church,
the French Reformed, the English Episcopal, the English
Reformed, the Roman Catholic, and the Baptist are all recognized
by the state. Civil marriages have been permissible in Hamburg
since 1866, and since the introduction of the imperial law in
January 1876 the number of such marriages has greatly
increased.
Finance. — The jurisdiction of the Free Port was on the 1st of
January 1882 restricted to the city and port by the extension
of the Zollverein to the lower Elbe, and in 1888 the whole of the
state of Hamburg, with the exception of the so-called " Free
Harbour " (which comprises the port proper and some large
warehouses, set apart for goods in bond), was taken into the
Zollverein.
Population. — The population increased from 453,000 in 1880
to 622,530 in 1890, and in 1905 amounted to 874,878. The
population of the country districts (exclusive of the city of
Hamburg) was 72,085 in 1905. The crops raised in the country
districts are principally vegetables and fruit, potatoes, hay, oats,
rye and wheat. For manufactures and trade statistics see
Hamburg (city).
The military organization of Hamburg was arranged by
convention with Prussia. The state furnishes three battalions
of the 2nd Hanseatic regiment, under Prussian officers. The
soldiers swear the oath of allegiance to the senate.
HAMBURG, a seaport of Germany, capital of the free state
of Hamburg, on the right bank of the northern arm of the Elbe,
75 m. from its mouth at Cuxhaven and 178 m. N.W. from Berlin
by rail. It is the largest and most important seaport on the
continent of Europe and (after London and New York) the
third largest in the world. Were it not for political and municipal
boundaries Hamburg might be considered as forming with Altona
and Ottensen (which lie within Prussian territory) one town. The
view of the three from the south, presenting a continuous river
frontage of six miles, the river crowded with shipping and the
densely packed houses surmounted by church towers — of which
three are higher than the dome of St Paul's in London — is one
of great magnificence.
The city proper lies on both sides of the little river Alster,
which, dammed up a short distance from its mouth, forms a
lake, of which the southern portion within the line of the former
fortifications bears the name of the Inner Alster (Binnen Alster),
and the other and larger portion (2500 yards long and 1300 yards
at the widest) that of the Outer Alster (Aussen Alster). The
fortifications as such were removed in 181 5, but they have left
their trace in a fine girdle of green round the city, though too
many inroads on its completeness have been made by railways
and roadways. The oldest portion of the city is that which lies
872
HAMBURG
to the east. of the Alster; but, though it still retains the name of
Altstadt, nearly all trace of its antiquity has disappeared, as it
was rebuilt after the great fire of 1842. To the west lies the
new town (Neustadt), incorporated in 1678; beyond this and
contiguous to Altona is the former suburb of St Pauli, incor-
porated in 1876, and towards the north-east that of St Georg,
which arose in the 13th century but was not incorporated till
1868.
The old town lies low, and it is traversed by a great number
of narrow canals or " fleets " (Flceten)— for the same word which
has left its trace in London nomenclature is used in the Low
German city — which add considerably to the picturesqueness
of the meaner quarters, and serve as convenient channels for
the transport of goods. They generally form what may be called
the back streets, and they are bordered by warehouses, cellars
and the lower class of dwelling-houses. As they are subject to
the ebb and flow of the Elbe, at certain times they run almost
dry. As soon as the telegram at Cuxhaven announces high tide
three shots are fired from the harbour to warn the inhabitants
of the " fleets "; and if the progress of the tide up the river gives
indication of danger, other three shots follow. The " fleets "
with their quaint medieval warehouses, which come sheer down
to the water, and are navigated by barges, have gained for
Hamburg the name of " Northern Venice." They are, however,
though antique and interesting, somewhat dismal and unsavoury.
In fine contrast to them is the bright appearance of the Binnen
fcln*ry*ilktl it,
Alster, which is enclosed on three sides by handsome rows of
buildings, the Alsterdamm in the east, the Alter Jungfernstieg
in the south, and the Neuer Jungfernstieg in the west, while
it is separated from the Aussen Alster by part of the rampart
gardens traversed by the railway uniting Hamburg with Altona
and crossing the lakes by a beautiful bridge — the Lombards-
Brttcke. Around the outer lake are grouped the suburbs
Harvestehude and Posseldorf on the western shore, and Uhlen-
horst on the eastern, with park-like promenades and villas
surrounded by well-kept gardens. Along the southern end of
the Binnen Alster runs the Jungfernstieg with fine shops, hotels
and restaurants facing the water. A fleet of shallow-draught
screw steamers provides a favourite means of communication
between the business centre of the city and the outlying colonies
of villas.
The streets enclosing the Binnen Alster are fashionable
promenades, and leading directly from this quarter are the main
business thoroughfares, the Neuer-Wall, the Grosse Bleichen
and the Hermannstrasse. The largest of the public squares in
Hamburg is the Hopfenmarkt, which contains the church of
St Nicholas (Nikolaikirche) and is the principal market for
vegetables and fruit. Others of importance are the Gansemarkt,
the Zeughausmarkt and the Grossneumarkt. Of the thirty-five
churches existing in Hamburg (the old cathedral had to be taken
down in 1805), the St Petrikirche, Nikolaikirche, St Katharinen-
kirche, St Jakobikirche and St Michaeiiskirche are those that
HAMBURG
873
give their names to the five old city parishes. The Nikolaikirche
is especially remarkable for its spire, which is 473 ft. high and
ranks, after those of Ulm and Cologne, as the third highest
ecclesiastical edifice in the world. The old church was destroyed
in the great fire of 1842, and the new building, designed by Sir
George Gilbert Scott in 13th century Gothic, was erected 1845-
1874. The exterior and interior are elaborately adorned with
sculptures. Sandstone from Osterwald near Hildesheim was
used for the outside, and for the inner work a softer variety from
Postelwitz near Dresden. The Michaeliskirche, which is built
on the highest point in the city and has a tower 428 ft. high,
was erected (1750-1762) by Ernst G. Sonnin on the site of the
older building of the 17th century destroyed by lightning; the
interior, which can contain 3000 people, is remarkable for its
bold construction, there being no pillars. The St Petrikirche,
originally consecrated in the 12th century and rebuilt in the
14th, was the oldest church in Hamburg; it was burnt in 1842 and
rebuilt in its old form in 1844-1849. It has a graceful tapering
spire 402 ft. in height (completed 1878); the granite columns
from the old cathedral, the stained glass windows by Kellner
of Nuremberg, and H. Schubert's fine relief of the entombment
of Christ are worthy of notice. The St Katharinenkirche and
the St Jakobikirche are the only surviving medieval churches,
but neither is of special interest. Of the numerous other churches,
Evangelical, Roman Catholic and Anglican, none are of special
interest. The new synagogue was built by Rosengarten between
1857 and 1859, and to the same architect is due the sepulchral
chapel built for the Hamburg merchant prince Johann Heinrich,
Freiherr von Schroder (1784-1883), in the churchyard of the
Petrikirche. The beautiful chapel of St Gertrude was unfortu-
nately destroyed in 1842.
Hamburg has comparatively few secular buildings of great
architectural interest, but first among them is the new Rathaus,
a huge German Renaissance building, constructed of sandstone
in 1886-1897, richly adorned with sculptures and with a spire
330 ft. in height. It is the place of meeting of the municipal
council and of the senate and contains the city archives.
Immediately adjoining it and connected with it by two wings is
the exchange. It was erected in 1836-1841 on the site of the
convent of St Mary Magdalen and escaped the conflagration of
1842. It was restored and enlarged in 1904, and shelters the
commercial library of nearly 100,000 vols. During the business
hours (1-3 p.m.) the exchange is crowded by some 5000 merchants
and brokers. In the same neighbourhood is the Johanneum,
erected in 1834 and in which are preserved the town library of
about 600,000 printed books and 5000 MSS. and the collection
of Hamburg antiquities. In the courtyard is a statue (1885)
of the reformer Johann Bugenhagen. In the Fischmarkt,
immediately south of the Johanneum, a handsome fountain
was erected in 1890. Directly west of the town hall is the new
Stadthaus, the chief police station of the town, in front of which
is a bronze statue of the burgomaster Karl Friedrich Petersen
(1809-1892), erected in 1897. A little farther away are the
headquarters of the Patriotic Society (Patriotische Gesettschaft) ,
founded in 1765, with fine rooms for the meetings of artistic
and learned societies. Several new public buildings have been
erected along the circuit of the former walls. Near the west
extremity, abutting upon the Elbe, the moat was filled in in
1894-1897, and some good streets were built along the site,
while the Kersten Miles-Briicke, adorned with statues of four
Hamburg heroes, was thrown across the Helgolander Allee.
Farther north, along the line of the former town wall, are the
criminal law courts (1879-1882, enlarged 1893) and the civil
law courts (finished in 1001). Close to the latter stand the new
supreme court, the old age and accident state insurance offices,
the chief custom house, and the concert hall, founded by Karl
Laeisz, a former Hamburg wharfinger. Farther on are the
chemical and the physical laboratories and the Hygienic In-
stitute. Facing the botanical gardens a new central post-office,
in the Renaissance style, was built in 1887. At the west end of
the Lombards-Briicke there is a monument by Schilling, com-
memorating the war of 1870-71. A few streets south of that is
a monument to Leasing (1881); while occupying a commanding
site on the promenades towards Altona is the gigantic statue of
Bismarck which was unveiled in June 1906, The Kunst-Halle
(the picture gallery), containing some good works by modern
masters, faces the east end of Lombards-Briicke. The new
Natural History Museum, completed in 1891, stands a Httle
distance farther south. To the east of it comes the Museum
for Art and Industry, founded in 1878, now one of the most
important institutions of the kind in Germany, with which
is connected a trades school. Close by is the Hansa^fountain
(65 ft. high), erected in 1878. On the north-east side of the
suburb of St Georg a botanical museum and laboratory have
been established. There is a new general hospital at Eppendorf ,
outside the town on the north, built on the pavilion principle,
and one of the finest structures of the kind in Europe; and at
Ohlsdorf , in the same direction, a crematorium was built in 1891
in conjunction with the town cemeteries (370 acres). There
must also be mentioned the fine public zoological gardens,
Hagenbeck's private zoological gardens in the vicinity, the
schools of music and navigation, and the school of commerce.
In 1900 a high school for shipbuilding was founded, and in 1001
an institute for seamen's and tropical diseases, with a laboratory
for their physiological study, was opened, and also the first
public free library in the city. The river is spanned just above
the Frei Hafen by a triple-arched railway bridge, 1339 ft. long,
erected in 1868-1873 and doubled in width in 1894. Some 270
yds. higher up is a magnificent iron bridge (1888) for vehicles
and foot passengers. The southern arm of the Elbe, on the
south side of the island of Wilhelmsburg, is crossed by another
railway bridge of four arches and 2050 ft. in length.
Railways. — The through railway traffic of Hamburg is practic-
ally confined to that proceeding northwards — to Kiel and Jutland
— and for the accommodation of such trains the central (terminus)
station at Altona is the chief gathering point. The Hamburg
stations, connected with the other by the Verbindungs-Bahn
(or metropolitan railway) crossing the Lombards-Briicke, are
those of the Venloer (or Hanoverian, as it is often called)
Bahnhof on the south-east, in close proximity to the harbour,
into which converge the lines from Cologne and Bremen, Hanover
and Frankfort-on-Main, and from Berlin, via Nelzen; the
Klostertor-Bahnhof (on the metropolitan line) which temporarily
superseded the old Berlin station, and the Liibeck station a little
to the north-east, during the erection of the new central station,
which occupies a site between the Klostertor-Bahnhof and the
Lombards-Briicke. Between this central station and Altona
terminus runs the metropolitan railway, which has been raised
several feet so as to bridge over the streets, and on which lie
the important stations Dammtor and Sternschanze. An excellent
service of electric trams interconnect the towns of Hamburg,
Altona and the adjacent suburbs, and steamboats provide
communication on the Elbe with the riparian towns and villages;
and so with Blankenese and Harburg, with Stade, Gluckstadt
and Cuxhaven.
Trade and Shipping. — Probably there is no place which during
the last thirty years of the 19th century grew faster commercially
than Hamburg. Its commerce is, however, almost entirely of
the nature of transit trade, for it is not only the chief distributing
centre for the middle of Europe of the products of all other parts
of the world, but is also the chief outlet for German, Austrian,
and even to some extent Russian (Polish) raw products and
manufactures. Its principal imports are coffee (of which it is
the greatest continental market), tea, sugar, spices, rice, wine
(especially from Bordeaux), lard (from Chicago), cereals, sago,
dried fruits, herrings, wax (from Morocco and Mozambique),
tobacco, hemp, cotton (which of late years shows a large increase),
wool, skins, leather, oils, dyewoods, indigo, nitrates, phosphates
and coal. Of the total importations of all kinds of coal to Ham-
burg, that of British coal, particularly from Northumberland
and Durham, occupies the first place, and despite some falling off
in late years, owing to the competition made by Westphalian
coal, amounts to more than half the total import. The increase
of the trade of Hamburg is most strikingly shown by that of
xn. 28 a
8 7 4
HAMBURG
the ihipping belonging to the port. Between 1876 and 1880
there were 475 tailing vessels with a tonnage of 230,691, and
1 to steam-ships with a tonnage of 87,050. In 1907 there were
(exclusive of fishing vessels) 470 sailing ships with a tonnage of
371,661, and 610 steamers with a tonnage of 1,256,449. In
1870 the crews numbered 6900 men, in 1907 they numbered
Industries. — The development of manufacturing industries
at Hamburg and its immediate vicinity since 1880, though not so
rapid as that of its trade and shipping, has been very remarkable,
and more especially has this been the case since the year 1888,
when Hamburg joined the German customs union, and the
barriers which prevented goods manufactured at Hamburg from
entering into other parts of Germany were removed. Among
the chief industries are those for the production of articles of
food and drink. The import trade of various cereals by sea to
Hamburg is very large, and a considerable portion of this corn
is converted into flour at Hamburg itself. There are also, in
this connexion, numerous bakeries for biscuit, rice-peeling mills
and spice mills. Besides the foregoing there are cocoa, chofolate,
confectionery and baking-powder factories, coffee-roasting and
hnmnuring and smoking establishments, lard refineries, mar-
garine manufactories and fish-curing, preserving and packing
factories. There are numerous breweries, producing annually
about J4,ooo.ooo gallons of beer, spirit distilleries and factories
of artificial waters. Yarns, textile goods and weaving industries
generally have not attained any great dimensions, but there are
large jute-spinning mills and factories for cotton-wool and
cotton driving -belts. Among other important articles of
domestic industry are tobacco and cigars (manufactured mainly
in bond, within the free harbour precincts), hydraulic machinery,
electro-technical machinery, chemical products (including
artificial manures^ oils* soaps, india-rubber, ivory and celluloid
ankles and the manufacture of leather.
Shipbuilding has made very important progress, and there
are at present in Hamburg eleven large shipbuilding yards,
employing nearly 10.000 hands. Of these, however, only three
are oi any great extent, and one. where the largest class of
orcMMffomg steamers and of war vessels for the German navy
are built, employs about 5000 persons. There are also two yards
fv* the building of pleasure yachts and rowing-boats (in both
which branches of sport Hamburg takes a leading place in
OermanyV Art industries, particularly those which appeal to
the luxurious taste of the inhabitants in fitting their houses,
such as wallopers and furniture* and those which are included
in the equipment of tvean-going steamers, have of late years
tttade raptd strides and are anvtng the best productions of this
character <* any German city.
iijp-bw . It was x V aoressvc of ftis&eng: r^ tbe c^stoee union
ut l£^ mtach $aw «ac^ * \itoevx» rrr.rcifv re 5acr =>?ne ncoeat com-
awtc**! dev^eoM*^ At tbe same tiase a wra« «ce* -it port was
«< «$tttt >» a tret htttver* AhvipctSrr j* m « r?w» acnes of water
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s*c svH**t >„\\\,w v< w>.v^. vSt -.— vm*I Treasury contributed
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Sitv»-v^ mv iv'uwJ Kr*r ' aoalt nu.i ^*Uii=- ' nRnuriil'* tiat tnd
it <ir-^nt, c*i'rc '"^tt rs.<* " v\^c -^*". .tip.i a.^riT-"^^.
*•>*.► >*$■; tint ■*,*"«* .*t , *" , t Srs?r»«rTsif ^:^* i t. i: r~ t ithe j^i *rr SSr>
U %.*ui. w^. «■ itsso--.. riu -»i».n>L UATi. -iuul ui*zl> jxsznttsim. nx*k % \
several swimming and dry docks; and in the west of the free port
area three other large docks, one of 77 acres for river craft, the others
each 56 acres in extent, and one 23} ft. deep, the other 26i ft. deep,
at low water, constructed in 1900-1901. In 1897 Hamburg was
provided with a huge floating dock, 558 ft. long and 84 ft. in maxi-
mum breadth, capable of holding a vessel of 17,500 tons and draught
not exceeding 29 ft., so constructed and equipped that in time of
need (war) it could be floated down to Cuxhaven. During the last
25 years of the 19th century the channel of the Elbe was greatly
improved and deepened, and during the last two years of the 19th
century some £360,000 was spent by Hamburg alone in regulating
and correcting this lower course of the river. The new Kuhwarder-
basin, on the left bank of the river, as well as two other large dock
basins (now leased to the Hamburg- American Company), raise the
number of basins to twelve in all.
Emigration. — Hamburg is one of the principal continental ports
for the embarkation of emigrants. In 1 881-1890, on an average
they numbered 90,000 a year (of whom 60,000 proceeded to the
United States). In 1900 the number was 87,153 (and to the United
States 64,137). The number of emigrant Germans has enormously
decreased of late years, Russia and Austria-Hungary now being
most largely represented. For the accommodation of such passengers
large and convenient emigrant shelters have been recently erected
close to the wharf of embarkation.
Health and Population. — The health of the city of Hamburg and
the adjoining district may be described as generally good, no
epidemic diseases having recently appeared to any serious degree.
The malady causing the greatest number of deaths is that of pul-
monary consumption; but better housing accommodation has of
late years reduced the mortality from this disease very considerably.
The results of the census of 1905 showed the population of the city
(not including the rural districts belonging to the state of Hamburg)
to be 802,793.
Hamburg is well supplied with places of amusement, especially
of the more popular kind. Its Stadt-Theater, rebuilt in 1874, has
room for 1750 spectators and is particularly devoted to operatic
performances; the Thalia-Theater dates from 1841, and holds
1700 to 1800 people, and the Schauspielhaus (for drama) from 1900
people, and there are some seven or eight minor establishments.
Theatrical performances were introduced into the city in the 17th
century, and 1678 is the date of the first opera, which was played
in a house in the Gansemarkt. Under Schroder and Lessing the
Hamburg stage rose into importance. Though contributing few
names of the highest rank to German literature, the city has been
intimately associated with the literary movement. The historian
Lappenberg and Friedrich von Hagedorn were born in Hamburg;
and not only Lessing, but Heine and Klopstock lived there for some
time.
History. — Hamburg probably had its origin in a fortress
erected in 808 by Charlemagne, on an elevation between the
Elbe and Alster, as a defence against the Slavs, and called
Hammaburg because of the surrounding forest (Hamme). In
811 Charlemagne founded a church here, perhaps on the site of
a Saxon place of sacrifice, and this became a great centre for
the evangelization of the north of Europe, missionaries from
Hamburg introducing Christianity into Jutland and the Danish
islands and even into Sweden and Norway. In 834 Hamburg
became an archbishopric, St Ansgar, a monk of Corbie and
known as the apostle of the North, being the first metropolitan.
In 845 church, monastery and town were burnt down by the
Norsemen, and two years later the see of Hamburg was united
with that of Bremen and its seat transferred to the latter city.
The town, rebuilt after this disaster, was again more than once
devastated by invading Danes and Slavs. Archbishop Unwan
of Hamburg-Bremen (1013-1029) substituted a chapter of
canons for the monastery, and in 1037 Archbishop Bezelin (or
Akbrand) built a stone cathedral and a palace on the Elbe.
In 1 1 10 Hamburg, with Hoist ein, passed into the hands of
Adolph I., count of Schauenburg, and it is with the building
of the Neustadt (the present parish of St Nicholas) by his grand-
son, Adolph III. of Holstein, that the history of the commercial
city actually begins. In return for a contribution to the costs
of a crusade, he obtained from the emperor Frederick I. in 1180
a charter granting Hamburg considerable franchises, including
exemption from tolls, a separate court and jurisdiction, and the
rights of fishery on the Elbe from the city to the sea. The city
council (Rath) y first mentioned in 1100, had jurisdiction over
both the episcopal and the new town. Craft gilds were already
in existence, but these had no share in the government; for,
though the Ltibeck rule excluding craftsmen from the Rath
did not obtain, they were excluded in practice. The counts, of
HAMDANI
875
course, as over-lords, had their Vogt (advocatus) in the town,
but this official, as the city grew in power, became subordinate
to the Rath, as at Lubeck.
The wealth of the town was increased in 1 189 by the destruction
of the flourishing trading centre of Bardowieck by Henry the
Lion; from this time it began to be much frequented by Flemish
merchants. In 1 201 the city submitted to Valdemar of Schleswig,
after his victory over the count of Holstein, but in 1225, owing
to the capture of King Valdemar II. of Denmark by Henry of
Schwerin, it once more exchanged the Danish over-lordship for
that of the counts of Schauenburg, who established themselves
here and in 1231 built a strong castle to hold it in check. The
defensive alliance of the city with Lubeck in 1241, extended
for other purpose by the treaty of 1255, practically laid the
foundations of the Hanseatic League (q.v.), of which Hamburg
continued to be one of the principal members. The internal
organization of the city, too, was rendered more stable by the
new constitution of 1270, and the recognition in 1292 of the
complete internal autonomy of the city by the count of Schauen-
burg. The exclusion of the handicraftsmen from the Rath led,
early in the 15th century, to a rising of the craft gilds against
the patrician merchants, and in 1410 they forced the latter to
recognize the authority of a committee of 48 burghers, which
concluded with the senate the so-called First Recess; there
were, however, fresh outbursts in 1458 and 1483, which were
settled by further compromises. In 146 1 Hamburg did homage
to Christian I. of Denmark, as heir of the Schauenburg counts;
but the suzerainty of Denmark was merely nominal and soon
repudiated altogether; in 1510 Hamburg was made a free
imperial city by the emperor Maximilian I.
In 1529 the Reformation was definitively established in
Hamburg by the Great Recess of the 19th of February, which
at the same time vested the government of the city in the Rath,
together with the three colleges of the Ober alien, the Forty-eight
(increased to 60 in 1685) and the Hundred and Forty-four
(increased to 180). The ordinary burgesses consisted of the
freeholders and the master- workmen of the gilds. In 1536
Hamburg joined the league of Schmalkalden, for which error
it had to pay a heavy fine in 1547 when the league had been
defeated. During the same period the Lutheran zeal of the
citizens led to the expulsion of the Meanonites and other Pro-
testant sects, who founded Altona. The loss this brought to
the city was, however, compensated for by the immigration of
Protestant refugees from the Low Countries and Jews from
Spain and Portugal. In 1549, too, the English merchant
adventurers removed their staple from Antwerp to Hamburg.
The 17th century saw notable developments. Hamburg had
established, so early as the 16th century, a regular postal service
with certain cities in the interior of Germany, e.g. Leipzig and
Breslau; in 16 15 it was included in the postal system of Turn
and Taxis. In 1603 Hamburg received a code of laws regulating
exchange, and in 1619 the bank was established. In 161 5 the
Neustadt was included within the city walls. During the Thirty
Years' War the city received no direct harm; but the ruin of
Germany reacted upon its prosperity, and the misery of the lower
orders led to an agitation against the Rath. In 1685, at the
invitation of the popular leaders, the Danes appeared before
Hamburg demanding the traditional homage; they were
repulsed, but the internal troubles continued, culminating in
1708 in the victory of the democratic factions. The imperial
government, however, intervened, and in 17 12 the " Great
Recess " established durable good relations between the Rath
and the commonalty. Frederick IV. of Denmark, who had seized
the opportunity to threaten the city (17 12), was bought off with
a ransom of 246,000 Reichsthaler. Denmark, however, only
finally renounced her claims by the treaty of Gottorp in 1768,
and in 1770 Hamburg was admitted for the first time to a repre-
sentation in the diet of the empire.
The trade of Hamburg received its first great impulse in 1783,
when the United States, by the treaty of Paris, became an in-
dependent power. From this time dates its first direct mari-
time communication with America. Its commerce was further
extended and developed by the French occupation of Holland
in 1795, when the Dutch trade was largely directed to its port.
The French Revolution and the insecurity of the political
situation, however, exercised a depressing and retarding effect.
The wars which ensued, the closing of continental ports against
English trade, the occupation of the city after the disastrous
battle of Jena, and pestilence within its walls brought about a
severe commercial crisis and caused a serious decline in its
prosperity. Moreover, the great contributions levied by
Napoleon on the city, the plundering of its bank by Davoust, and
the burning of its prosperous suburbs inflicted wounds from
which the city but slowly recovered. Under the long peace
which followed the close of the Napoleonic wars, its trade gradu-
ally revived, fostered by the declaration of independence of
South and Central America, with both of which it energetically
opened close commercial relations, and by the introduction of
steam navigation. The first steamboat was seen on the Elbe on
the 17th of June 1816; in 1826 a regular steam communication
was opened with London; and in 1856 the first direct steamship
line linked the port with the United States. The great fire of
1842 (5th-8th of May) laid in waste the greatest part of the
business quarter of the city and caused a temporary interruption
of its commerce. The city, however, soon rose from its ashes,
the churches were rebuilt and new streets laid out on a scale of
considerable magnificence. In 1866 Hamburg joined the North
German Confederation, and in 187 1, while remaining outside
the Zollverein, became a constituent state of the German empire.
In 1883-1888 the works for the Free Harbour were completed,
and on the 18th of October 1888 Hamburg joined the Customs
Union (Zollverein). In 1892 the cholera raged within its walls,,
carried off 8500 of its inhabitants, and caused considerable losses;
to its commerce and industry; but the visitation was not without
its salutary fruits, for an improved drainage system, better
hospital accommodation, and a purer water-supply have since
combined to make it one of the healthiest commercial cities of
Europe.
Further details about Hamburg will be found in the following
works: O. C. Gaedechens, Historische Topographic der Freien und
Hansestadt Hamburg (1880); £. H. Wichmann, Heimalskunde von
Hamburg (1863); W. Melhop, Historische Topographic der Freien
und Hansestadt Hamburg von 1880-1895 (1896) ; WuJn, }£&mburgische
Gesetze und Verordnungen (1889-1896) ; and W. von Ivielle &*** * aw "
burgische Staatsrecht (1891). There are many valuable o^^
publications which may be consulted, among these being: Statists
^^ h ! lf f gx i chen St 9 aUs O867-1904); Hamburgs Handel und
^^(1847-1903); the yearly Hamburgischer Staatskalender ;
and Jahrbuch der Hamburger wissenschaftlichen Anstalten. See also
Hamburg und seine Bauten (1890); H. Benrath, Lokalfuhrer durch
¥' ai ???tf un £r Umg &l?¥? ( J 9°4); and the consular reports by
Sir William Ward, H.B.M.'s consul-general at Hamburg, to whom
the author is indebted for great assistance in compiling this article.
For the history of Hamburg see the Zeitschrtft des Vereins fur
hamburgische Geschichte (1841, foL); G. Dehio, Geschichte des Erz-
bistums Hamburg-Bremen (Berlin, 1877); the Hamburgisches
Urkundenbuch (1842), the Hamburgische Chroniken (1852-1861),
and the Chronica der Stadt Hamburg bis 1557 of Adam Tratziger
(186s), all three edited by J. M. Lappenberg; the Briefsammlung
des hamburrischen Superintendents Joachim Westphal 1530-1575,
edited by C. H. W. Sillem (1903); Gallois, Geschichte der Stadt
C. Monckeberg, Geschichte der Freien und Hansestadt Hamburg
(1885); E. H. Wichmann, Hamburgische Geschichte in Darstellungen
aus alter und neuer Zeit (1889); and R. Bollheimer, Zeittafdn der
hamburgischen Geschichte (1895).
HAMDANI, in full AbO Ma^ommed ul-Qasan ibn A^mad
ibn Ya'qCb ul-HamdanI (d. 945), Arabian geographer, also
known as Ibn uHJ&'ik. Little is known of him except that
he belonged to a family of Yemen, was held in repute as a
grammarian in his own country, wrote much poetry, compiled
astronomical tables, devoted most of his life to the study of the
ancient history and geography of Arabia, and died in prison at
San'a in 945. His Geography of the Arabian Peninsula (Kit/lb
Jazirat uWArab) is by far the most important work on the
subject. After being used in manuscript by A. Sprenger in his
Post- und Reiser outen des Orients (Leipzig, 1864) and further
876
HAMELlN— HAMERLING
in hi* Alte Geographic Ar aliens (Bern, 1875), it was edited by
D. H. Midler (Leiden, 1884; cf. A. Sprenger's criticism in
Zeitsckrift der deutschen morgenUlndischen Gesettschaft, vol. 45,
PP* 36i-394)* Much has also been written on this work by £.
Glaser in his various publications on ancient Arabia. The other
great work of HamdanI is the I Mil (Crown) concerning the
genealogies of the Himyarites and the wars of their kings in ten
volumes. Of this, part 8, on the citadels and castles of south
Arabia, has been edited and annotated by D. H. M tiller in Die
Bwgen und SMdsser SUdarabiens (Vienna, 1879-1881).
For other works said to have been written by Hamdani cf. G.
Flugel's Die grammatischen Schulen der Araber (Leipzig, 1862),
pp. 220-221. (G. W. T.)
HAMELIN, FRANCOIS ALPHONSE (1796-1864), French
admiral, was born at Pont Pfivfique on the 2nd of September
1796. He went to sea with his uncle, J. F. £. Hamelin, in the
" V6nus " frigate in 1806 as cabin boy. The " Venus " was
part of the French squadron in the Indian Ocean, and young
Hamelin had an opportunity of seeing much active service.
She, in company with another and a smaller vessel, captured
the English frigate " Ceylon " in 1810, but was immediately
afterwards captured herself by the " Boadicea," under Com-
modore Rowley (1 765-1842). Young Hamelin was a prisoner of
war for a short time. He returned to France in 181 1. On the
fall of the Empire he had better fortune than most of the
Napoleonic officers who were turned ashore. In 182 1 he became
lieutenant, and in 1823 took part in the French expedition under
the duke of Angouteme into Spain. In 1828 he was appointed
captain of the " Actton," and was engaged till 1831 on the coast
of Algiers and in the conquest of the town and country. His
first command as flag officer was in the Pacific, where he showed
much tact during the dispute over the Marquesas Islands with
England in 1844. He was promoted vice-admiral in 1848.
During the Crimean War he commanded in the Black Sea, and
co-operated with Admiral Dundas in the bombardment of
Sevastopol 17th of October 1854. His relations with his English
colleague were not very cordial. On the 7th of December 1854
he was promoted admiral. Shortly afterwards he was recalled
to France, and was named minister of marine. His administra-
tion lasted till i860, and was remarkable for the expeditions
to Italy and China organized under his directions; but it was
even more notable for the energy shown in adopting and
developing the use of armour. The launch of the " Gloire "
in 1859 set the example of constructing sea-going ironclads.
The first English ironclad, the " Warrior/' was designed as
an answer to the " Gloire." When Napoleon III. made his first
concession to Liberal opposition, Admiral Hamelin was one of
the ministers sacrificed. He held no further command, and died
on the 10th of January 1864.
HAMELN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Hanover, at the confluence of the Weser and Hamel, 33 m. S.W.
of Hanover, on the line to Altenbeken, which here effects a
junction with railways to Ltthne and Brunswick. Pop. (1905)
20,736. It has a venerable appearance and has many interesting
and picturesque houses. The chief public buildings of interest
are the minster, dedicated to St Boniface and restored in 1870-
1875; the town hall; the so-called Rattenfangerhaus (rat-
catcher's house) with mural frescoes illustrating the legend (see
below); and the Hochzeitshaus (wedding house) with beautiful
gables. There are classical, modern and commercial schools.
The principal industries are the manufacture of paper, leather,
chemicals and tobacco, sugar refining, shipbuilding and salmon
fishing. By the steamboats on the Weser there is communication
with Karlshafen and Minden. In order to avoid the dangerous
part of the river near the town a channel was cut in 1734, the
repairing and deepening of which, begun in 1868, was completed
in 1873. The Weser is here crossed by an iron suspension bridge
830 ft. in length, supported by a pier erected on an island in the
middle of the river.
The older name of Hameln was Hameloa or Hamelowe, and
the town owes its origin to an abbey. It existed as a town as
early as the nth century, and in 1259 it was sold by the abbot
of Fulda to the bishop of Minden, afterwards passing under the
protection of the dukes of Brunswick. About 1 540 the Reforma-
tion gained an entrance into the town, which was taken by both
parties during the Thirty Years' War. In 1757 it capitulated
to the French, who, however, vacated it in the following year.
Its fortifications were strengthened in 1766 by the erection of
Fort George, on an eminence to the west of the town, across the
river. On the capitulation of the Hanoverian army in 1803
Hameln fell into the hands of the French; it was retaken by
the Prussians in 1806, but, after the battle of Jena, again passed
to the French, who dismantled the fortifications and incorporated
the town in the kingdom of Westphalia. In 1814 it again became
Hanoverian, but in 1866 fell with that kingdom to Prussia.
Legend of the Pied Piper. — Hameln is famed as the scene of
the myth of the piper of Hameln. According to the legend,
the town in the year 1284 was infested by a terrible plague of
rats. One day there appeared upon the scene a piper clad in
a fantastic suit, who offered for a certain sum of money to charm
all the vermin into the Weser. His conditions were agreed to,
but after he had fulfilled his promise the inhabitants, on the
ground that he was a sorcerer, declined to fulfil their part of the
bargain, whereupon on the 26th of June he reappeared in the
streets of the town, and putting his pipe to his lips began a soft
and curious strain. This drew all the children after him and
he led them out of the town to the Koppelberg hill, in the side
of which a door suddenly opened, by which he entered and the
children after him, all but one who was lame and could not
follow fast enough to reach the door before it shut again. Some
trace the origin of the legend to the Children's Crusade of 12 n;
others to an abduction of children; and others to a dancing
mania which seized upon some of the young people of Hameln
who left the town on a mad pilgrimage from which they never
returned. For a considerable time the town dated its public
documents from the event. The story is the subject of a poem
by Robert Browning, and also of one by Julius Wolff. Curious
evidence that the story rests on a basis of truth is given by the
fact that the Koppelberg is not one of the imposing hills by which
Hameln is surrounded, but no more than a slight elevation of
the ground, barely high enough to hide the children from view
as they left the town.
See C. Langlotz, Geschichte der Stadt Hamdn(Hame\n, 1888 fol.);
Sprenger, Geschichte der Stadt Hameln (1861); O. Meinardus, Der
htstortsche Kern der Rattenfdngersage (Hameln, 1882); Jostes, Der
Rattenf anger von Hameln (Bonn, 1885); and S. Baring-Gould,
Curious Myths of the Middle Ages (1868).
HAMERLING, ROBERT (1830-1889), Austrian poet, was born
at Kirchenberg-am-Walde in Lower Austria, on the 24th of
March 1830, of humble parentage. He early displayed a genius
for poetry and his youthful attempts at drama excited the
interest and admiration of some influential persons. Owing to
their assistance young Hamerling was enabled to attend the
gymnasium in Vienna and subsequently the university. In
1848 he joined the student's legion, which played so conspicuous
a part in the revolutions of the capital, and in 1849 shared in the
defence of Vienna against the imperialist troops of Prince
Windischgratz, and after the collapse of the revolutionary
movement he was obliged to hide for a long time to escape
arrest. For the next few years he diligently pursued his studies
in natural science and philosophy, and in 1855 was appointed
master at the gymnasium at Trieste. For many years he battled
with ill-health, and in 1866 retired on a pension, which in acknow-
ledgment of his literary labours was increased by the government
to a sum sufficient to enable him to live without care until his
death at his villa in Stiftingstal near Graz, on the 13th of July
1889. Hamerling was one of the most remarkable of the poets
of the modern Austrian school; his imagination was rich and
his poems are full of life and colour. His most popular poem,
Ahasver in Rom (1866), of which the emperor Nero is the central
figure, shows at its best the author's brilliant talent for descrip-
tion. Among his other works may be mentioned Venus im
Exil (1858); Der Konig von Sion (1869), which is generally
regarded as his masterpiece; Die sieben TodsUnden (1872);
Elmer im Winde (1887); Homunculus (1888); Amor und
HAMERTON— MAMILCAR
877
Psyche (1882). His novel, Aspasia (1876) gives a finely-drawn
description of the Peridean age, but like his tragedy Danton
und Robespierre (1870), is somewhat stilted, showing that
Hamerling's genius, though rich in imagination, was ill-suited
for the realistic presentation of character.
A popular edition of Hamerling's works in four volumes was
published by M. M. Rabenlechner (Hamburg, 1900). For the poet's
Ufe, see his autobiographical writings, Slationen meiner Lebenspttger-
schaft (1889) and Lehrjahre der Ltebe (1890); also M. M. Raben-
lechner, Hamerling, sein Leben und seine Werke, i. (Hamburg 1896) ;
a short biography by the same (Dresden, 1901); R. H. Kleinert,
R. Hamerling, ein Dichter der Schdnkeit (Hamburg, 1889) ; A. Polzer,
Hamerling, sein Wesen und Wirken (Hamburg, 1890).
HAMERTON, PHIUP GILBERT (1834-1894)1 English artist
and author, was born at Laneside, near Shaw, dose to Oldham,
on the 10th of September 1834. His mother died at his birth,
and having lost his father ten years afterwards, he was educated
privately under the direction of his guardians. His first literary
attempt, a volume of poems, proving unsuccessful, he devoted
himself for a time entirely to landscape painting, encamping
out of doors in the Highlands, where he eventually rented the
island of Innistrynych, upon which he settled with his wife, a
French lady, in 1858. Discovering after a time that his qualifica-
tions were rather those of an art critic than of a painter he
removed to the neighbourhood of his wife's relatives in France,
where he produced his Painter's Camp in the Highlands (1863),
which obtained a great success and prepared the way for his
standard work on Etching and Etchers (1866). In the following
year he published a book, entitled Contemporary French Painters ,
and in 1868 a continuation, Painting in France after the Decline
of Classicism. He had meanwhile become art critic to the
Saturday Review, a position which, from the burden it laid upon
him of frequent visits to England, he did not long retain. He
proceeded (1870) to establish an art journal of his own, The
Portfolio^ a monthly periodical, each number of which consisted
of a monograph upon some artist or group of artists, frequently
written and always edited by him. The discontinuance of his
active work as a painter gave him time for more general literary
composition, and he successively produced The Intellectual Life
(1873), perhaps the best known and most valuable of his writings;
Round my House (1876), notes on French society by a resident;
and Modern Frenchmen (1879), admirable short biographies.
He also wrote two novels, Wenderholme (1870) and Marmorne
(1878). In 1884 Human Intercourse, another valuable volume
of essays, was published, and shortly afterwards Hamerton
began to write his autobiography, which he brought down to
1858. In 1882 he issued a finely illustrated work on the technique
of the great masters of various arts, under the title of The
Graphic Arts, and three years later another splendidly illustrated
volume, Landscape, which traces the influence of landscape upon
the mind of man. His last books were: Portfolio Papers (1889)
and French and English (1889). In 1891 he removed to the
neighbourhood of Paris, and died suddenly on the 4th of
November 1894, occupied to the last with his labours on The
Portfolio and other writings on art*
In 1896 was published Philip Gilbert Hamerton: an Auto-
biography, 1834-18581 and a Memoir by his Wife, 1858-1894*
HAMI, a town in Chinese Turkestan, otherwise called Kamil,
KoifUL or Kamul, situated on the southern slopes of the Tian-
Shan mountains, and on the northern verge of the Great Gobi
desert, in 42 48' N., 93 28' E., at a height above sea-level of
3150 ft. The town is first mentioned in Chinese history in the
1st century, under the name I-wu-lu, and said to be situated
1000 lis north of the fortress Yii-men-kuan, and to be the key
to the western countries. This evidently referred to its advanta-
geous position, lying as it did in a fertile tract, at the point
of convergence of two main routes running north and south of
the Tian-Shan and connecting China with the west. It was
taken by the Chinese in a.d. 73 from the Hiungnu (the ancient
inhabitants of Mongolia), and made a military station. It next
fell into the hands of the Uighurs or Eastern Turks, who made
it one of their chief towns and held it for several centuries, and
whose descendants are said to live there now. From the 7th
to the nth century I-wu-lu is said to have borne the name of
Igu or I-chu, under the former of which names it is spoken of by
the Chinese pilgrim, Hsiian tsang, who passed through it in the
7th century. The name Hami is first met in the Chinese Yuan-shi
or " History of the Mongol Dynasty," but the name more
generally used there is Homi-li or Komi-li. Marco Polo, describ-
ing it apparently from hearsay, calls it Camul, and speaks of it
as a fruitful place inhabited by a Buddhist people of idolatrous
and wanton habits. It was visited in 1341 by Giovanni de
Marignolli, who baptized a number of both sexes there, and by
the envoys of Shah Rukh (1420), who found a magnificent
mosque and a convent of dervishes, in juxtaposition with a fine
Buddhist temple. Hadji Mahommed (Ramusio's friend) speaks
of Kamul as being in his time (c. 1550) the first Mahommedan
city met with in travelling from China. When Benedict Goes
travelled through the country at the beginning of the 17th
century, the power of the king Mahommed Khan of Kashgar
extended over nearly the whole country at the base of the Tian-
Shan to the Chinese frontier, including Kamil. It fell under the
sway of the Chinese in 1720, was lost to them in 1865 dtfring the
great Mahommedan rebellion, and the trade route through it
was consequently closed, but was regained in 1873. Owing to
its commanding position on the principal route to the west, and
its exceptional fertility, it has very frequently changed hands
in the wars between China and her western neighbours. Hami
is now a small town of about 6000 inhabitants, and is a busy
trading centre. The Mahommedan population consists of
immigrants from Kashgaria, Bokhara and Samarkand, and of
descendants of the Uighurs. •
HAMILCAR BARCA, or Barcas (Heb. barak " lightning") K
Carthaginian general and statesman, father of Hannibal, was
born soon after 270 B.C. He distinguished himself during the
First Punic War in 247, when he took over the chief command in
Sicily, which at this time was almost entirely in the hands of
the Romans. Landing suddenly on the north-west of the island
with a small mercenary force he seized a strong position on Mt.
Ercte (Monte Pellegrino, near Palermo), and not only maintained
himself against all attacks, but carried his raids as far as the
coast of south Italy. In 244 he transferred his army to a similar
position on the slopes of Mt. Eryx (Monte San Giuliano), from
which he was able to lend support to the besieged garrison in
the neighbouring town of Drepanum (Trapani). By a provision
of the peace of 241 Hamilcar's unbeaten force was allowed to
depart from Sicily without any token of submission. On return-
ing to Africa his troops, which had been kept together only by
his personal authority and by the promise of good pay, broke
out into open mutiny when their rewards were withheld by
Hamilcar's opponents among the governing aristocracy. The
serious danger into which Carthage was brought by the failure
of the aristocratic generals was averted by Hamilcar, whom
the government in this crisis could not but reinstate. By the
power of his personal influence among the mercenaries and the
surrounding African peoples, and by superior strategy, he speedily
crushed the revolt (237). After this success Hamilcar enjoved
such influence among the popular and patriotic party that his
opponents could not prevent him being raised to a virtual
dictatorship. After recruiting and training a new army in
some Numidian forays he led on his own responsibility an
expedition into Spain, where he hoped to gain a new empire to
compensate Carthage for the loss of Sicily and Sardinia, and to
serve as a basis for a campaign of vengeance against the Romans
(236). In eight years by force of arms and diplomacy he secured
an extensive territory in Spain, but his premature death in battle
(228) prevented him from completing the conquest. Hamilcar
stood out far above the Carthaginians of his age in military and
diplomatic skill and in strength of patriotism; in these qualities
he was surpassed only by his son Hannibal, whom he had
imbued with his own deep hatred of Rome and trained to be
his successor in the conflict.
This Hamilcar has been confused with another general who
succeeded to the command of the Carthaginians in the First Punic
War, and after successes at Therma and Drepanum was defeated at
878
HAMILTON (FAMILY)
Ecnomus (256 b. c). Subsequently, apart from unskilful operations
against Regulus, nothing is certainly known of him. For others
of the name see Carthage, Sicily, Smith's Classical Dictionary.
So far as the name itself is concerned, Milcar is perhaps the same as
Melkarth, the Tyrian god.
See Polybiusi.-iii.; Cornelius Nepos, Vita Hamilcaris; Appian,
Res Hispanicae, chs. 4, 5, Diodorus, Excerpta, xxiv., xxv.; 0.
Meltzer, Geschichte der Karthager (Berlin, 1877), ii. also Punic
Wars. (M. O. B. C.)
HAMILTON, the name of a famous Scottish family. Chief
among the legends still clinging to this important family is that
which gives a descent from the house of Beaumont, a branch
of which is stated to have held the manor of Hamilton in
Leicestershire; and it is argued that the three cinquefoils of
the Hamilton shield bear some resemblance to the single cinque-
foil of the Beaumonts. In face of this it has been recently shown
that the single cinquefoil was also borne by the Umfravilles of
Northumberland, who appear to have owned a place called
Hamilton in that county. It may be pointed out that Simon
de Montfort, the great earl of Leicester, in whose veins flowed
the blood of the Beaumonts, obtained about 1245 the wardship
of Gilbert de Umfraville, second earl of Angus, and it is con-
ceivable that this name Gilbert may somehow be responsible
for the legend of the Beaumont descent, seeing that the first
authentic ancestor of the Hamiltons is one Walter FitzGilbert.
He first appears in 1 294-1 295 as one of the witnesses to a charter
by James, the high steward of Scotland, to the monks of Paisley;
and in 1296 his name appears in the Homage Roll as Walter
FitzGilbert of " Hameldone." Who this Gilbert of " Hamel-
done " may have been js uncertain, " but the fact must be faced,"
Mr John Anderson points out (Scots Peerage, iv. 340) " that in
a charter of the 12th of December 1272 by Thomas of Cragyn
or Craigie to the monks of Paisley of his church of Craigie in
Kyle, there appears as witness a certain ' Gilbert de Hameldun
dericuSy whose name occurs along with the local clergy of
Inverkip, Blackhall, Paisley and Dunoon. He was therefore
probably also a cleric of the same neighbourhood, and it is
significant that ' Walter FitzGilbert ' appears first in that
district in 1294 and in 1296 is described as son of Gilbert de
Hameldone. . . ." Walter FitzGilbert took some part in the
affairs of his time. At first he joined the English party but after
Bannockburn went over to Bruce, was knighted and subse-
quently received the barony of Cadzow. His younger son John
was father of Alexander Hamilton who acquired the lands of
Innerwick by marriage, and from him descended a certain
Thomas Hamilton, who acquired the lands of Priestfield early
in the 16th century. Another Thomas, grandson of this last,
who had with others of his house followed Queen Mary and
with them had been restored to royal favour, became a lord of
session as Lord Priestfield. Two of his younger sons enjoyed
also this legal distinction, while the eldest, Thomas, was made
an ordinary lord of session as early as 1592 and was eventually
created earl of Haddington (g.r.). It is interesting to note that
the 5th earl of Haddington by his marriage with Lady Margaret
Leslie brought for a time the earldom of Rothes to the Hamiltons
to be added to their already numerous titles.
Sir "David FitzWalter FitzGilbert," who carried on the
main line of the Hamiltons, was taken prisoner at the battle of
Neville's Cross (1346) and treated as of great importance, being
ransomed, it is stated, for a large sum of money; in 13 71 and
1373 he was one of the barons in the parliament. Of the four
sons attributed to him David succeeded in the representation
of the family, Sir John Hamilton of Fingaltoun was ancestor
of the Hamiltons of Preston, and Walter is stated to have been
progenitor of the Hamiltons of Cambuskeith and Sanquhar in
Ayrshire.
David Hamilton, the first apparently to describe himself as
lord of Cadzow, died before 1392, leaving four or five sons, from
whom descended the Hamiltons of Bathgate and of Bardowie,
and perhaps also of (Tdstown, to which last belong the lords
Belhaven.
Sir John Hamilton of Cadzow, the eldest son, was twice a
prisoner in England, but beyond this little is known of him;
even the date of his death is uncertain. His two younger sons
are stated to have been founders of the houses of Dalserf and
Raploch. His eldest son, James Hamilton of Cadzow, like his
father and great-grandfather, visited England as a prisoner,
being one of the hostages for the king's ransom. From him the
Hamiltons of Silvertonhill and the lords Hamilton of Dalzell
claim descent, among the more distinguished members of the
former branch being General Sir Ian Hamilton, K.C.B. James
Hamilton was succeeded by his eldest son Sir James Hamilton
of Cadzow, who was created in 1445 an hereditary lord of parlia-
ment, and was thereafter known as Lord Hamilton. He had
allied himself some years before with the great house of Douglas
by marriage with Euphemia, widow of the 5th earl of Douglas,
and was at first one of its most powerful supporters in the
struggle with James II. Later, however, he obtained the royal
favour and married about 1474 Mary, sister of James III. and
widow of Thomas Boyd, earl of Arran. Of this marriage was
born James, second Lord Hamilton, who as a near relative took
an active part in the arrangements at the marriage of James IV.
with Margaret Tudor; being rewarded on the same day (the
8th of August 1503) with the earldom of Arran. A champion
in the lists he was scarcely so successful as a leader of men, his
struggle with the Douglases being destitute of any great martial
achievement. Of his many illegitimate children Sir James
Hamilton of Finnart, beheaded in 1540, was ancestor of the
Hamiltons of Gilkerscleugh; and John, archbishop of St Andrews,
hanged by his Protestant enemies, was ancestor of the Hamiltons
of Blair, and is said also to have been ancestor of Hamilton of
London, baronet. James, second earl of Arran, son of the first
earl by his second wife Janet Beaton, was chosen governor to
the little Queen Mary, being nearest of kin to the throne through
his grandmother, though the question of the validity of his
mother's marriage was by no means settled. He held the
governorship till 1554, having in 1549 been granted the duchy
of Chatellerault in France. In his policy he was vacillating
and eventually he retired to France, being absent during the
three momentous years prior to the deposition of Mary. On his
return he headed the queen's party, his property suffering in
consequence. He was succeeded in the title in 1 579 by his eldest
son James, whose qualities were such that he was even proposed
as a husband for Queen Elizabeth, but unfortunately he soon after
became insane, his brother John, afterwards first marquess of
Hamilton, administering the estates. From the third son, Claud,
descends the duke of Abercorn, heir male of the house of
Hamilton.
The first marquess of Hamilton had a natural son, Sir John
Hamilton of Let trick, who was legitimated in 1600 and was
ancestor of the lords Bargany. His two legitimate sons were
James, 3rd marquess and first duke of Hamilton, and William,
who succeeded his brother as 2nd duke and was in turn
succeeded under the special remainder contained in the patent of
dukedom, by his niece Anne, duchess of Hamilton, who was
married in 1656 to William Douglas, earl of Selkirk. The history
of the descendants of this marriage belongs to the great house
of Douglas, the 7th duke of Hamilton becoming the male repre-
sentative and chief of the house of Douglas, earls of Angus.
The above mentioned Claud Hamilton, who with his brother,
the first marquess, had taken so large a part in the cause of
Queen Mary, was created a lord of parliament as Lord Paisley
in 1587. He had five sons, of whom three settled in Ireland,
Sir Claud being ancestor of the Hamiltons of Bel trim and Sir
Frederick, distinguished in early life in the Swedish wars, being
ancestor of the viscounts Boyne.
James, the eldest son of Lord Paisley, found favour with
James VI. and was created in 1603 Lord of Abercorn, and three
years later was advanced in the peerage as earl of Abercorn
and lord of Paisley, Hamilton, Mountcastell and Kilpatrick. His
eldest son James, 2nd earl of Abercorn, eventually heir male of
the house of Hamilton and successor to the dukedom of Chatel-
lerault, was created in his father's lifetime lord of Strabane in
Ireland, but he resigned this title in 1633 in favour of his brother
Claud, whose grandson, Claud, 5th Lord Strabane, succeeded
HAMILTON (TITLE)
879
eventually as 4th earl of Abercorn. This earl, taking the side
of James II., was with him in Ireland, his estate and title being
afterwards forfeited, while his kinsman Gustavus Hamilton,
afterwards first Lord Boyne, raised several regiments for William
III., and greatly distinguished himself in the service of that
monarch. His brother Charles, 5th earl of Abercorn, who
obtained a reversal of the attainder, died without issue surviving
in 1 701 when the titles passed to his kinsman James Hamilton,
grandson of Sir George Hamilton of Donalong in Ireland and
great-grandson of the first earl. This branch, most faithful
to the house of Stuart, counted among its many members
distinguished in military annals Count Anthony Hamilton,
author of the Memoir es du comte de Gramont and brother of " la
belle Hamilton." James, 6th earl of Abercorn (whose brother
William was ancestor of Hamilton of the Mount, baronet), was a
partisan of William III., and obtained in 1701 the additional
Irish titles of lord of Mountcastle and viscount of Strabane.
The 8th earl of Abercorn, who was summoned to the Irish
house of peers in his father's lifetime as Lord Mountcastle, was
created a peer of Great Britain in 1786 as Viscount Hamilton
of Hamilton in Leicestershire, and renewed the family's connexion
with Scotland by repurchasing the barony of Duddingston
and later the lordship of Paisley. His nephew and successor
was created marquess of Abercorn in 1790, and was father of
James, 1st duke of Abercorn,
See the article Hamilton and other articles on the different
branches of the family (e.g. Haddington and Belhaven) in Sir J. B.
Paul's edition of Sir R. Douglas's Peerage of Scotland; and also
G. Marshall, Guide to Heraldry and Genealogy.
HAMILTON, MARQUESSES AND DUKES OF. The holders
of these titles descended from Sir James Hamilton of Cadzow,
who was made an hereditary lord of parliament in 1445, his lands
and baronies at the same time being erected into the " lordship "
of Hamilton. His first wife Euphemia, widow of the 5th earl
of Douglas, died in 1468, and probably early in 1474 he married
Mary, daughter of King James II. and widow of Thomas Boyd,
earl of Arran; the consequent nearness of the Hamiltons to
the Scottish crown gave them very great weight in Scottish
affairs. The first Lord Hamilton has been frequently confused
with his father, James Hamilton of Cadzow, who was one of the
hostages in England for the payment of James I.'s ransom,
and is sometimes represented as surviving until 145 1 or even
1479, whereas he certainly died, according to evidence brought
forward by J. Anderson in The Scots Peerage, before May 1441.
James, 2nd Lord Hamilton, son of the 1st lord and Princess
Mary, was created earl of Arran in 1503; and his son James,
who was regent of Scotland from 1542 to 1554, received in
February 1549 a grant of the duchy of Ch&tellerault in
Poitou.
John, 1st marquess of Hamilton (c. 1542-1604), third son
of James Hamilton, 2nd .earl of Arran (q.v.) and duke of Ch&tel-
lerault, was given the abbey of Arbroath in 1551. In politics
he was largely under the influence of his energetic and un-
scrupulous younger brother Claud, afterwards Baron Paisley
(c. 1 543-16 2 2) , ancestor of the dukes of Abercorn. The brothers
were the real heads of the house of Hamilton, their elder brother
Arran being insane. At first hostile to Mary, they later became
her devoted partisans. Their uncle, John Hamilton, archbishop
of St Andrews, natural son of the 1st earl of Arran, was restored
to his consistorial jurisdiction by Mary in 1566, and in May of
the next year he divorced Bothwell from his wife. Lord Claud
met Mary on her escape from Lochleven and escorted her to
Hamilton palace. John appears to have been in France in
1 568 when the battle of Langside was fought, and it was probably
Claud who commanded Mary's vanguard in the battle. With
others of the queen's party they were forfeited by the parliament
and sought their revenge on the regent Murray. Although
the Hamiltons disavowed all connexion with Murray's murderer,
James Hamilton of Bothwellhaugh, he had been provided with
horse and weapons by the abbot of Arbroath, and it was at Hamil-
ton that he sought refuge after the deed. Archbishop Hamilton
was hanged at Stirling in 157 1 for alleged complicity in the
murder of Darnley, and is said to have admitted that he was a
party to the murder of Murray. At the pacification of Perth
in 1573 the Hamiltons abandoned Mary's cause, and a recon-
ciliation with the Douglases was sealed by Lord John's marriage
with Margaret, daughter of the 7th Lord Glamis, a cousin of
the regent Morton. Sir William Douglas of Lochleven, however,
persistently sought his life in revenge for the murder of Murray
until, on his refusal to keep the peace, he was imprisoned. On
the uncertain evidence extracted from the assassin by torture,
the Hamiltons had been credited with a share in the murder of
the regent Lennox in 1571. In 1579 proceedings against them
for these two crimes were resumed, and when they escaped to
England their lands and titles were seized by their political
enemies, James Stewart becoming earl of Arran. John Hamilton
presently dissociated himself from the policy of his brother
Claud, who continued to plot for Spanish intervention on behalf
of Mary; and Catholic plotters are even said to have suggested
his murder to procure the succession of his brother. Hamilton
had at one time been credited with the hope of marrying
Mary; his desires now centred on the peaceful enjoyment of his
estates. With other Scottish exiles he crossed the border in
1585 and marched on Stirling; he was admitted on the 4th of
November and formally reconciled with James VI., with whom
he was thenceforward on the friendliest terms. Claud returned
to Scotland in 1586, and the abbey of Paisley was erected into a
temporal barony in his favour in 1587. Much of his later years
was spent in strict retirement, his son being authorized to act
for him in 1 598. John was created marquess of Hamilton and
Lord Evan in 1599, and died on the 6th of April 1604.
His eldest surviving son James, 2nd marquess of Hamilton
(c. 1 589-1625), was created baron of Innerdale and earl of
Cambridge in the peerage of England in 16 19, and these honours
descended to his son James, who in 1643 was created duke of
Hamilton {q.v.). William, 2nd duke of Hamilton (1616-1651),
succeeded to the dukedom on his brother's execution in 1649.
He was created earl of Lanark in 1639, and in the next year
became secretary of state in Scotland. Arrested at Oxford by
the king's orders in 1643 for " concurrence " with Hamilton,
he effected his escape and was temporarily reconciled with the
Presbyterian party. He was sent by the Scottish committee
of estates to treat with Charles I. at Newcastle in 1646, when
he sought in vain to persuade the king to consent to the
establishment of Presbyterianism in England. On the 26th of
September 1647 he signed on behalf of the Scots the treaty with
Charles known as the " Engagement " at Carisbrooke Castle,
and helped to organize the second Civil War. In 1648 he fled
to Holland, his succession in the next year to his brother's
dukedom making him an important personage among the
Royalist exiles. He returned to Scotland with Prince Charles
in 1650, but, finding a reconciliation with Argyll impossible,
he refused to prejudice Charles's cause by pushing his claims,
and lived in retirement chiefly until the Scottish invasion of
England, when he acted as colonel of a body of his dependants.
He died on the 12th of September 1651 from the effects of
wounds received at Worcester. He left no male heirs, and the
title devolved on the 1st duke's eldest surviving daughter Anne,
duchess of Hamilton in her own right.
Anne married in 1656 William Douglas, earl of Selkirk (1635-
1694), who was created duke of Hamilton in 1660 on his wife's'
petition, receiving also several of the other Hamilton peerages,
but for his life only. The Hamilton estates had been declared
forfeit by Cromwell, and he himself had been fined £roao. He
supported Lauderdale in the early stages of his Scottish policy,
in which he adopted a moderate attitude towards the Presby-
terians, but the two were soon alienated, through the influence
of the countess of Dysart, according to Gilbert Burnet, who
spent much time at Hamilton Palace in arranging the Hamilton
papers. With other Scottish noblemen who resistedlarticterdale's
measures Hamilton was twice summoned to Lofedtift t&p&sent
his case at court, but without obtaining any reftd*. He'wfcs
dismissed from the privy council in 1676, and' on a subsequent
visit to London Charles refused to receive-him. On' the *cc^Ssio»
8«o
HAMILTON, ALEXANDER
of James II. he received numerous honours, but he was one. of
the first to enter into communication with the prince of Orange.
He presided over the convention of Edinburgh, summoned at
his request, which offered the Scottish crown to William and
Mary in March 1689. His death took place at Holyrood on
the 18th of April 1694. His wife survived until 17 16.
James Douglas, 4th duke of Hamilton (1658-1712), eldest
son of the preceding and of Duchess Anne, succeeded his mother,
who resigned the dukedom to him in 1698, and at the accession
of Queen Anne he was regarded as leader of the Scottish national
party. He was an opponent of the union with England, but
his lack of decision rendered his political conduct ineffective.
He was created duke of Brandon in the peerage of Great Britain
in 171 1 ; and on the 15th of November in the following year
he fought the celebrated duel with Charles Lord Mohun, narrated
in Thackeray's Esmond, in which both the principals were killed.
His son, James (1 703-1 743), became 5th duke, and his grandson
James, 6th duke of Hamilton and Brandon (1724-1758), married
the famous beauty, Elizabeth Gunning, afterwards duchess of
Argyll. James George, 7th duke (1755-1769), became head of
the house of Douglas on the death in 1761 of Archibald, duke
of Douglas, whose titles but not his estates then devolved on
the duke of Hamilton as heir-male. Archibald's brother Douglas
(1 756-1 799) was the 8th duke, and when he died childless
the titles passed to his uncle Archibald (1740-18 19). His son
Alexander, 10th duke (1767-1852), who as marquess of Douglas
was a great collector and connoisseur of books and pictures (his
collections realized £397,562 in 1882), was ambassador at St
Petersburg in 1806-1807. His sister, Lady Anne Hamilton,
was lady-in-waiting and a faithful friend to Queen Caroline,
wife of George IV.; she did not write the Secret History of the
Court of England . . . (1832) to which her name was attached.
William Alexander, nth duke of Hamilton (1811-1863), married
Princess Marie Am&ie, daughter of Charles, grand-duke of Baden,
and, on her mother's side, a cousin of Napoleon III. The title
of duke of CMtellerault, granted to his remote ancestor in 1548,
and claimed at different times by various branches of the
Hamilton family, was conferred on the nth duke's son, William
Alexander, 12th duke of Hamilton (1845-1895), by the emperor
of the French in 1864. His sister, Lady Mary Douglas-Hamilton!
married in 1869 Albert, prince of Monaco, but their marriage
was declared invalid in 1880. She subsequently married Count
Tassilo Festetics, a Hungarian noble. The 12th duke left no
male issue and was succeeded in 1895 by his kinsman, Alfred
Douglas, a descendant of the 4th duke. Claud Hamilton, 1st
Baron Paisley, brother of the 1st marquess of Hamilton, was,
as mentioned above, ancestor of the Abercorn branch of the
Hamiltons. His son, who became earl of Abercorn in 1606,
received among a number of other titles that of Lord Hamilton.
This title, and also that of Viscount Hamilton, in the peerage
of Great Britain, conferred on the 8th earl of Abercorn in 1786,
are borne by the dukes of Abercorn, whose eldest son is usually
styled by courtesy marquess of Hamilton, a title which was
added to the other family honours when the 2nd marquess of
Abercorn was raised to the dukedom in 1868.
See John Anderson, The House of Hamilton (1825); Hamilton
Papers, ed. J. Bain (2 vols., Edinburgh, 18^0-1892); Gilbert Burnet,
Lives of James and William, dukes of Hamilton (1677) ; The Hamilton
Papers relative to 1638-1650, ed. S. R. Gardiner for the Camden
Society (1880); G. E. Qokayne], Complete Peerage (1887-1898);
an article by the Rev. J. Anderson in Sir J. B. Paul's edition of the
Scots Peerage, vol. iv. (1907).
HAMILTON, ALEXANDER (1 757-1804), American statesman
and economist, was born, as a British subject, on the island of
Nevis in the West Indies on the nth of January 1757. He
came of good family on both sides. His father, James Hamilton,
a Scottish merchant of St Christopher, was a younger son of
Alexander Hamilton of Grange, Lanarkshire, by Elizabeth,
daughter of Sir R. Pollock. His mother, Rachael Fawcett
(Faucette), of French Huguenot descent, married when very
young a Danish proprietor of St Croix, John Michael Levine,
with whom she lived unhappily and whom she soon left, sub-
sequently living with James Hamilton; her husband procured
a divorce in 1759, but the court forbade her remarriage. 1 Such
unions as hers with James Hamilton were long not uncommon
in the West Indies. By her James Hamilton had two sons,
Alexander and James. Business misfortunes having caused
his father's bankruptcy, and his mother dying in 1768, young
Hamilton was thrown upon the care of maternal relatives at
St Croix, where, in his twelfth year, he entered the counting-
house of Nicholas Cruger. Shortly afterward Mr Cruger, going
abroad, left the boy in charge of the business. The extra-
ordinary specimens we possess of his mercantile correspondence
and friendly letters, written at this time, attest an astonishing
poise and maturity of mind, and self-conscious ambition. His
opportunities for regular schooling must have been very scant;
but he had cultivated friends who discerned his talents and en-
couraged their development, and he early formed the habits of
wide reading and industrious study that were to persist through
his life. An accomplishment later of great service to Hamilton,
common enough in the Antilles, but very rare in the English
continental colonies, was a familiar command of French. In
1772 some friends, impressed by a description by him of the
terrible West Indian hurricane in that year, made it possible
for him to go to New York to complete his education. Arriving
in the autumn of 1772, he prepared for college at Elizabethtown,
N.J., and in 1774 entered King's College (now Columbia Uni-
versity) in New York City. His studies, however, were inter-
rupted by the War of American Independence.
A visit to Boston seems to have thoroughly confirmed the
conclusion, to which reason had already led him, that he should
cast in his fortunes with the colonists. Into their cause he threw
himself with ardour. In 1774-1775 he wrote two influential
anonymous pamphlets, which were attributed to John Jay;
they show remarkable maturity and controversial ability, and
rank high among the political arguments of the time. 2 He
organized an artillery company, was awarded its captaincy
on examination, won the interest of Nathanael Greene and
Washington by the proficiency and bravery he displayed in the
campaign of 1776 around New York City, joined Washington's
staff in March 1777 with the rank of lieutenant-colonel, and
during four years served as his private secretary and confidential
aide. The important duties with which he was entrusted attest
Washington's entire confidence in his abilities and character;
then and afterwards, indeed, reciprocal confidence and respect
took the place, in their relations, of personal attachment.'
But Hamilton was ambitious for military glory — it was an
ambition he never lost; he became impatient of detention in
what he regarded as a position of unpleasant dependence, and
(Feb. 1 781) he seized a slight reprimand administered by Wash-
ington as an excuse for abandoning his staff position. 4 Later
he secured a field command, through Washington, and won
laurels at Yorktown, where he led the American column in the
1 These facts were first definitely determined by Mrs Gertrude
Atherton from the Danish Archives in Denmark and the West
Indies; see article in North American Review, Aug. 1902, vol. 175,
p. 229 ; and preface to her A Few of Hamilton* s Letters (New York,
1003).
1 These were written in answer to the widely read pamphlets
published over the nom de plume of " A Westchester Farmer/'
and now known to have been written by Samuel Seabury (q.v.).
Hamilton's pamphlets were entitled " A Full Vindication of the
Measures of the Congress from the Calumnies of their Enemies,"
and " The Farmer Refuted." Concerning them George Ticknor
Curtis (Constitutional History of the United States, i. 274) has said,
" There are displayed in these papers a power of reasoning and
sarcasm, a knowledge of the principles of government and of the
English constitution, and a grasp of the ments of the whole contro-
versy, that would have done honour to any man at any age. To
say that they evince precocity of intellect gives no idea of their main
characteristics. They show great maturity — a more remarkable
maturity than has ever been exhibited by any other person, at so early
an age, in the same department of thought."
1 George Bancroft was the first to point out that there is small
evidence that Hamilton ever really appreciated Washington's great
qualities; buton the score of personal and Federalist indebtedness
he left explicit recognition.
4 For Hamilton's letter to General Schuyler on this episode —
one of the most important letters, in some ways, that he ever wrote
— see the Works, ix. 232 (8 : 35).
HAMILTON; ALEXANDER
881
final assault on the British works. In 1 780 be married Elizabeth,
daughter of General Philip Schuyler, and thus became allied
with one of the most distinguished families in New York.
Meanwhile, he had begun the political efforts upon which
his fame principally rests. In letters of 17 79-1 780 * he correctly
diagnoses the ills of the Confederation, and suggests with
admirable prescience the necessity of centralization in its
governmental powers; he was, indeed, one of the first, if not
to conceive, at least to suggest adequate checks on the anarchic
tendencies of the time. After a year's service in Congress in
1782-1783, in which he experienced the futility of endeavouring
to attain through that decrepit body the ends he sought, he
settled down to legal practice in New York. 2 The call for the
Annapolis Convention (1786) was Hamilton's opportunity.
A delegate from New York, he supported Madison in inducing
the Convention to exceed its delegated powers and summon
the Federal Convention of 1787 at Philadelphia (himself drafting
the call) ; he secured a place on the New York delegation; and,
when his anti-Federal colleagues withdrew from the Convention,
he signed the Constitution for his state. So long as his colleagues
were present his own vote was useless, and he absented himself
for some time from the debates after making one remarkable
speech (June 18th, 1787). In this he held up the British govern-
ment as the best model in the world. 8 Though fully conscious
that monarchy in America was impossible, he wished to obtain
the next best solution in an aristocratic, strongly centralized,
coercive, but representative union, with devices to give weight
to the influence of class and property. 4 His plan had no chance
of success; but though unable to obtain what he wished, he
used his great talents to secure the adoption of the Constitution.
To this struggle was due the greatest of his writings, and the
greatest individual contribution to the adoption of the new
government, The Federalist, which remains a classic commentary
on American constitutional law and the principles of government,
and of which Guizot said that " in the application of elementary
principles of government to practical administration " it was
the greatest work known to him. Its inception, and much more
than half its contents were Hamilton's (the rest Madison's and
Jay's). 6 Sheer will and reasoning could hardly be more bril-
1 Especially the letter of September 1780 to James Duane, Works,
i. 213 (1 : 203); also the " Continentalist " papers of 1781.
* His most famous case at this time (Rutgers v. Waddington) was
one that well illustrated his moral courage. Under a " Trespass
Law " of New York, Elizabeth Rutgers, a widow, brought suit
against one Joshua Waddington, a Loyalist, who during the war of
American Independence, while New York was occupied by the
British, had made use of some of her property. In face of popular
clamour, Hamilton, who advocated a conciliatory treatment of the
Loyalists, represented Waddington, who won the case, decided in
1784.
1 As Mr Oliver points out (Alexander Hamilton, p. 156), Hamilton's
idea of the British constitution was not a correct picture of the
British constitution in 1787, and still less of that of the 20th century.
" What he had in mind was the British constitution as George III.
had tried to make it." Hamilton's ideal was an elective monarchy,
and his guiding principle a proper balance of authority.
* Briefly, he proposed a governor and two chambers — an Assembly
elected by the people for three years, and a Senate—the governor
and senate holding office for lite or during good behaviour, and
chosen, through electors, by voters qualified by property; the
governor to have an unqualified veto on federal legislation; state
governors to have a similar veto on state legislation, and to be
appointed by the federal government; the federal government to
control all militia. See Works, i. 347 (1:331); and cf. his corre-
nty, passim in later yea
spondence, which is scanty,
ears, notably x. 446,
43 T » 329 (8: 606, 596, 517)", and references below.
Yearly all the papers in The Federalist first appeared (between
October 1787 and April 1788) in New York journals, over the signa-
ture " Publius." Jay wrote only five. The authorship of twelve
of them is uncertain, and has been the subject of much controversy
between partisans of Hamilton and Madison. Concerning The
Federalist Chancellor James Kent (Commentaries, i. 241) said:
" There is no work on the subject of the Constitution, and on re-
publican and federal government generally, that deserves to be more
thoroughly studied. I know not indeed of any work on the principles
of free government that is to be compared, in instruction and intrinsic
value, to this small and unpretending volume. ... It is equally
admirable in the depth of its wisdom, the comprehensiveness of its
views, the sagacity of its reflections, and the fearlessness, patriotism,
liantly and effectively exhibited than they were by Hamilton
in the New York convention of 1788, whose vote he won, against
the greatest odds, for the ratification of the Constitution. It
was the judgment of Chancellor James Kent, the justice of
which can hardly be disputed, that " all the documentary proof
and the current observation of the time lead us to the conclusion
that he surpassed all his contemporaries in his exertions to create,
recommend, adopt and defend the Constitution of the United
States,"
When the new government was inaugurated, Hamilton became
secretary of the treasury in Washington's cabinet. 6 Congress
immediately referred to him a press of queries and problems,
and there came from his pen a succession of papers that have
left the strongest imprint on the administrative organization
of the national government — two reports on public credit,
upholding an ideal of national honour higher than the prevalent
popular principles; a report on manufactures, advocating their
encouragement (e.g. by bounties paid from surplus revenues
amassed by tariff duties) — a famous report that has served ever
since as a storehouse of arguments for a national protective
policy; 7 a report favouring the establishment of a national
bank, the argument being based on the doctrine of " implied
powers " in the Constitution, and on the application that Con-
gress may do anything that can be made, through the medium
of money, to subserve the " general welfare " of the United
States — doctrines that, through judicial interpretation, have
revolutionized the Constitution; and, finally, a vast mass of
detailed work by which order and efficiency were given to the
national finances. In 1793 he put to confusion his opponents
who had brought about a congressional investigation of his
official accounts. The success of his financial measures was im-
mediate and remarkable. They did not, as is often but loosely
said, create economic prosperity; but they did prop it, in
an all-important field, with order, hope and confidence. His
ultimate purpose was always the strengthening of the union;
but before particularizing his political theories, and the political
import of his financial measures, the remaining events of bis
life may be traced.
His activity in the cabinet was by no means confined to
the finances. He regarded himself, apparently, as premier, and
sometimes overstepped the limits of his office in interfering
with other departments. The heterogeneous character of the
duties placed upon his department by Congress seemed in fact
to reflect the English idea of its primacy. Hamilton's influence
was in fact predominant with Washington (so far as any man
could have predominant influence). Thus it happens that in
foreign affairs, whatever credit properly belongs to the Federalists
as a party (see also the article Federalist Party) for the
adoption of that principle of neutrality which became the
traditional policy of the United States must be regarded as
largely due to Hamilton. But allowance must be made for the
mere advantage of initiative which belonged to any party that
organized the government — the differences between Hamilton
and Jefferson, in this question of neutrality, being almost purely
factitious. 8 On domestic policy their differences were vital,
candour, simplicity, and elegance, with which its truths are uttered
and recommended."
6 The position was offered first to Robert Morris, who declined
it, expressing the opinion that Hamilton was the man best fitted to
meet its problems.
7 Hamilton's Report on Manufactures (1 791) by itself entitles him
to the place of an epoch-maker in economics. It was the first great
revolt from Adam Smith, on whose Wealth of Nations (1776) he is
said to have already written a commentary which is lost. In his
criticism on Adam Smith, and his arguments for a system of
moderate protective duties associated with the deliberate policy of
promoting national interests, his work was the inspiration of Fried-
rich List, and so the foundation of the economic system of Germany
in a later day, and again, still later, of the policy of Tariff Reform
and Colonial Preference in England, as advocated by Mr Chamber-
lain and his supporters. See the detailed account given in the
article Protection.
8 That is, while Jefferson hated British aristocracy and sym-
pathized with French democracy, Hamilton hated French demo-
cracy and sympathized with British aristocracy and order; but
882
HAMILTON, ALEXANDER
and in their conflicts over Hamilton's financial measures they
organized, on the basis of varying tenets and ideals which
have never ceased to conflict in American politics, the two
great parties of Federalists and Democrats (or Democratic-
Republicans). On the 31st of January 1795 Hamilton resigned
his position as secretary of the treasury and returned to the
practice of law in New York, leaving it for public service only
in 1 798-1 800, when he was the active head, under Washington
(who insisted that Hamilton should be second only to himself),
of the army organized for war against France. But though in
private life he remained the continual and chief adviser of
Washington — notably in the serious crisis of the Jay Treaty,
of which Hamilton approved. Washington's Farewell Address
(1796) was written for him by Hamilton.
After Washington's death the Federalist leadership was
divided (and disputed) between John Adams, who had the
prestige of a varied and great career, and greater strength than
any other Federalist with the people, and Hamilton, who con-
trolled practically all the leaders of lesser rank, including much
the greater part of the most distinguished men of the country,
so that it has been very justly said that " the roll of his followers
is enough of itself to establish his position in American history "
(Lodge). But Hamilton was not essentially a popular leader.
When his passions were not involved, or when they were repressed
by a crisis, he was far-sighted, and his judgment of men was
excellent. 1 But as Hamilton himself once said, his heart was
ever the master of his judgment. He was, indeed, not above
intrigue, 2 but he was unsuccessful in it. He was a fighter through
and through, and his courage was superb; but he was indiscreet
in utterance, impolitic in management, opinionated, self-con-
fident, and uncompromising in nature and methods. His faults
are nowhere better shown than in his quarrel with John Adams.
Three times, in order to accomplish ends deemed by him, person-
ally, to be desirable, Hamilton used the political fortunes of
John Adams, in presidential elections, as a mere hazard in his
manoeuvres; moreover, after Adams became president, and
so the official head of the party, Hamilton constantly advised
the members of the president's cabinet, and through them
endeavoured to control Adams's policy; and finally, on the eve
of the crucial election of 1800, he wrote a bitter personal attack
on the president (containing much confidential cabinet informa-
tion), which was intended for private circulation, but which
was secured and published by Aaron Burr, his legal and political
rival.
The mention of Burr leads us to the fatal end of another great
political antipathy of Hamilton's life. He read Burr's character
correctly from the beginning; deemed it a patriotic duty to
thwart him in his ambitions; defeated his hopes successively
of a foreign mission, the presidency, and the governorship of
New York; and in his conversations and letters repeatedly
and unsparingly denounced him. If these denunciations were
known to Burr they were ignored by him until his last defeat.
After that he forced a quarrel on a trivial bit of hearsay (that
Hamilton had said he had a "despicable" opinion of Burr);
and Hamilton, believing as he explained in a letter he left before
going to his death — that a compliance with the duelling prejudices
of the time was inseparable from the ability to be in future
neither wanted war ; and indeed Jefferson, throughout life, was the
more peaceful of the two. Neutrality was in the line of common-
place American thinking of that time, as may be seen in the writings
of all the leading men of the day. The cry of " British Hamilton "
had no good excuse whatever.
1 e.g. his prediction in 1789 of the course of the French Revolu-
tion; nis judgments of Burr from 1792 onward, and of Burr and
Jefferson in 1800.
1 After the Democrats won New York in 1799, Hamilton proposed
to Governor John Jay to call together the out-going Federalist
legislature, in order to choose Federalist presidential electors, a
suggestion which Jay simply endorsed: " Proposing a measure for
party purposes which it would not become me to adopt." — Works, x.
371 (8 : 5A9). Compare also with later developments of ward
politics in New York City, Hamilton's curious suggestions as to
Federalist charities, &c, in connexion with the Chnstian Consti-
tutional Society proposed by him in 1802 to combat irreligion and
democracy (Works, x. 432 (8 : 596).
useful in public affairs, accepted a challenge from him. The dud
was fought at Weehawken on the Jersey shore of the Hudson
opposite the City of New York. At the first fire Hamilton fell,
mortally wounded, and he died on the following day, the 12th
of July 1804. Hamilton himself did not intend to fire, but his
pistol went off as he fell. The tragic close of his career appeased
for the moment the fierce hatred of politics, and his death was
very generally deplored as a national calamity.*
No emphasis, however strong, upon the mere consecutive
personal successes of Hamilton's life is sufficient to show the
measure of his importance in American history. That import-
ance lies, to a large extent, in the political ideas for which he
stood. His mind was eminently " legal." He was the unrivalled
controversialist of the time. His writings, which are distin-
guished by clarity, vigour and rigid reasoning, rather than by
any show of scholarship — in the extent of which, however solid
in character Hamilton's might have been, he was surpassed by
several of his contemporaries — are in general strikingly empirical
in basis. He drew his theories from his experiences of the
Revolutionary period, and he modified them hardly at all through
life. In his earliest pamphlets (1 774-1775) he started out with
the ordinary pre-Revolutionary Whig doctrines of natural
rights and liberty; but the first experience of semi-anarchic
states'-rights and individualism ended his fervour for ideas
so essentially alien to his practical, logical mind, and they have
no place in his later writings. The feeble inadequacy of concep-
tion, infirmity of power, factional jealousy, disintegrating
particularism, and vicious finance of the Confederation were
realized by many others; but none other saw so clearly the
concrete nationalistic remedies for these concrete ills, or
pursued remedial ends so constantly, so ably, and so con-
sistently. An immigrant, Hamilton had no particularistic
ties; he was by instinct a " continentalist " or federalist.
He wanted a strong union and energetic government that
should " rest as much as possible on the shoulders of the
people and as little as possible on those of the state
legislatures "; that should have the support of wealth and
class; and that should curb the states to such an " entire
subordination " as nowise to be hindered by those bodies. At
these ends he aimed with extraordinary skill in all his financial
measures. As early as 1776 he urged the direct collection of
federal taxes by federal agents. From 1779 onward we trace the
idea of supporting government by the interest of the propertied
classes; from 1781 onward the idea that a not-excessive public
debt would be a blessing 4 in giving cohesiveness to the union:
hence his device by which the federal government, assuming
the war debts of the states, secured greater resources, based
itself on a high ideal of nationalism, strengthened its hold on the
individual citizen, and gained the support of property. In his
report on manufactures his chief avowed motive was to strengthen
the union. To the same end he conceived the constitutional
doctrines of liberal construction, " implied powers," and the
" general welfare," which were later embodied in the decisions
of John Marshall. The idea of nationalism pervaded and
quickened all his life and works. With one great exception, the
dictum of Guizot is hardly an exaggeration, that " there is not in
the Constitution of the United States an element of order, of
force, of duration, which he did not powerfully contribute to
introduce into it and to cause to predominate."
* Hamilton's widow, who survived him for half a century, dying
at the age of ninety-seven, was left with four sons and four
daughters. He had been an affectionate husband and father,
though his devotion to his wife had been consistent with occasional
lapses from strict marital fidelity. One intrigue into which he
drifted in 1791, with a Mrs Reynolds, led to the blackmailing of
Hamilton by her husband ; and when this rascal, shortly afterwards,
got into trouble for fraud, his relations with Hamilton were un-
scrupulously misrepresented for political purposes # by some of
Hamilton's opponents. But Hamilton faced the necessity of revealing
the true state of things with conspicuous courage, and the scandal
only reacted on his accusers. One of them was Monroe, whose re-
putation comes very badly out of this unsavoury affair.
4 In later years he said no debt should be incurred without provid-
ing simultaneously for its payment.
HAMILTON, ALEXANDER
The exception, as American history showed, was American
democracy. The loose and barren rule of the Confederation
seemed to conservative minds such as Hamilton's to presage,
in its strengthening of individualism, a fatal looseness of social
restraints, and led him on to a dread of democracy that he never
overcame. Liberty, he reminded his fellows, in the New York
Convention of 1788, seemed to be alone considered in govern-
ment, but there was another thing equally important: " a
principle of strength and stability in the organization . . . and
of vigour in its operation." But Hamilton's governmental
system was in fact repressive. 1 He wanted a system strong
enough, he would have said, to overcome the anarchic tendencies
loosed by war, and represented by those notions of natural
rights which he had himself once championed; strong enough
to overbear all local, state and sectional prejudices, powers or
influence, and to control — not, as Jefferson would have it, to
be controlled by — the people. Confidence in the integrity, the
self-control, and the good judgment of the people, which was
the content of Jefferson's political faith, had almost no place
in Hamilton's theories. " Men," said he, " are reasoning rather
than reasonable animals." The charge that he laboured to
introduce monarchy by intrigue is an under-estimate of his good
sense. 2 Hamilton's thinking, however, did carry him foul of
current democratic philosophy; as he said, he presented his
plan in 1787 " not as attainable, but as a model to which we
ought to approach as far as possible "; moreover, he held through
life his belief in its principles, and in its superiority over the
government actually created; and though its inconsistency
with American tendencies was yearly more apparent, he never
ceased to avow on all occasions his aristocratic-monarchical
partialities. Moreover, his preferences for at least an aristocratic
republic were shared by many other men of talent. When it is
added that Jefferson's assertions, alike as regards Hamilton's
talk 3 and the intent and tendency of his political measures,
were, to the extent of the underlying basic fact — but discounting
Jefferson's somewhat intemperate interpretations — unquestion-
ably true, 4 it cannot be accounted strange that Hamilton's
Democratic opponents mistook his theoretic predilections for
positive designs. Nor would it be a strained inference from
much that he said, to believe that he hoped and expected that
in the " crisis " he foresaw, when democracy should have caused
the ruin of the country, a new government might be formed
lhat should approximate to his own ideals. 6 From the beginning
of the excesses of the French Revolution he was possessed by
the persuasion that American democracy, likewise, might at
any moment crush the restraints of the Constitution to enter
on a career of licence and anarchy. To this obsession he sacri-
1 He warmly supported the Alien and Sedition Laws of 1798 (in
their final form).
* The idea, he wrote to Washington, was " one of those visionary
things none but madmen could undertake, and that no wise man
will believe " (1792). And see his comments on Burr's ambitions,
Works, x. 417, 450 (8:585, 610). We may accept as just, and
applicable to his entire career, the statement made by himself in
1803 of his principles in 1787 : " (1) That the political powers of the
people of this continent would endure nothing but a representative
Form of government. (2) That, in the actual situation of the country,
it was itself right and proper that the representative system should
have a full and fair trial. (3) That to such a trial it was essential
that the government should be so constructed as to give it all the
energy and the stability reconcilable with the principles of that
theory."
1 Cf. Gouverneur Morris, Diary and Letters, ii. 455, 526, 531,
4 Cf. even Mr Lodge's judgments, pp. 00-92, 115-116, 122, 130, 140.
hen he says (p. 140) that " In Hamilton's successful policy there
were certainly germs of an aristocratic republic, there were certainly
limitations and possibly dangers to pure democracy," this is practi-
cally Jefferson's assertion (1792) that " His system flowed from
principles adverse to liberty ; but Jefferson eoes on to add:
11 and was calculated to undermine and demolish the republic." As
to the intent of Hamilton to secure through his financial measures
the political support of property, his own words are honest and clear;
and in fact he succeeded. Jefferson merely had exaggerated fears
of a moneyed political engine, and seeing that Hamilton's measures
of funding and assumption did make the national debt politically
useful to the Federalists in the beginning he concluded that they
would seek to fasten the debt on the country for ever.
• Cf . Gouv. Morris, op. ctt. ii. 474.
883
ficed his life. 8 After the Democratic victory of 1800, his letters,
full of retrospective judgments and interesting outlooks, are
but rarely relieved in their sombre pessimism by flashes of hope
and courage. His last letter on politics, written two days
before his death, illustrates the two sides of his thinking already
emphasized: in this letter he warns his New England friends
against dismemberment of the union as " a clear sacrifice of
great positive advantages, without any counterbalancing good;
administering no relief to our real disease, which is democracy,
the poison of which, by a subdivision, will only be more con-
centrated in each part, and consequently the more virulent."
To the end he never lost his fear of the states, nor gained faith
in the future of the country. He laboured still, in mingled hope
and apprehension, "to prop the frail and worthless fabric," 7
but for its spiritual content of democracy he had no under-
standing, and even in its nationalism he had little hope. Yet
probably to no one man, except perhaps to Washington, does
American nationalism owe so much as to Hamilton.
In the development of the United States the influence of
Hamiltonian nationalism and Jeffersonian democracy has been
a reactive union; but changed conditions since Hamilton's
time, and particularly since the Civil War, are likely to create
misconceptions as to Hamilton's position in his own day. Great
constructive statesman as he was, he was also, from the American
point of view, essentially a reactionary. He was the leader of
reactionary forces — constructive forces, as it happened — in
the critical period after the War of American Independence,
and in the period of Federalist supremacy. He was in sympathy
with the dominant forces of public life only while they took,
during the war, the predominant impress of an imperfect nation-
alism. 8 Jeffersonian democracy came into power in 1800 in
direct line with colonial development; Hamiltonian Federalism
was a break in that development; and this alone can explain
how Jefferson could organize the Democratic Party in face of
the brilliant success of the Federalists in constructing the govern-
ment. Hamilton stigmatized his great opponent as a political
fanatic; but actualist as he claimed to be, 9 Hamilton could not
see, or would not concede, the predominating forces in American
life, and would uncompromisingly have minimized the two
great political conquests of the colonial period — local self-
government and democracy.
Few Americans have received higher tributes from foreign
authorities. Talleyrand, personally impressed when in America
with Hamilton's brilliant qualities, declared that he had the
power of divining without reasoning, and compared him to Fox
and Napoleon because he had " devin6 PEurope." Of the
judgments rendered by his countrymen, Washington's con-
fidence in his ability and integrity is perhaps the most significant.
Chancellor James Kent, and others only less competent, paid
remarkable testimony to his legal abilities. Chief-justice
Marshall ranked him second to Washington alone. No judgment
6 He dreamed of saving the country with an army in this crisis
of blood and iron, and wished to preserve unweakened the public
confidence in his personal bravery.
7 His own words in 1802. In justification of the above state-
ments see the correspondence of 1800-1804 passim — Works, vol. ix.-
x. (or 7-8) ; especially x. 363, 425, 434, 44©, 445 (or 8 1543, 591, 596,
602, 605).
8 Cf. Anson D. Morse, article cited below, pp. 4, 18-21.
9 Chancellor Kent tells us (Memoirs and Letters, p. 32) that in
1804 Hamilton was planning a co-operative Federalist work on the
history and science of government on an inductive basis. Kent
always speaks of Hamilton's legal thinking as deductive, however
(ibid, p. 290, 329), and such seems to have been in fact all his political
reasoning: i.e. underlying them were such maxims as that of Hume,
that in erecting a stable government every citizen must be assumed
a knave, and be bound by self-interest to co-operation for the public
good. Hamilton always seems to be reasoning deductively from
such principles. He went too far and fast for even such a Federalist
disbeliever in democracy as Gouverneur Morris; who, to Hamilton's
assertion that democracy must be cast out to save the country,
replied that " such necessity cannot be shown by a political ratio-
cination. Luckily, or, to speak with a reverence proper to the
occasion, providentially, mankind are not disposed to embark the
blessings they enjoy on a voyage of syllogistic adventure to obtain
something more beautiful in exchange. They must feel before they
will act (op. ciL ii. 531).
8 84 HAMILTON, ANTHONY—HAMILTON, ELIZABETH
is more justly measured than Madison's (in 1831): "That he
possessed intellectual powers of the first order, and the moral
qualities of integrity and honour in a captivating degree, has
been awarded him by a suffrage now universal. If his theory
of government deviated from the republican standard he had
the candour to avow it, and the greater merit of co-operating
faithfully in maturing and supporting a system which was not
his choice."
In person Hamilton was rather short and slender; in carriage,
erect, dignified and graceful. Deep-set, changeable, dark eyes
vivified his mobile features, and set off his light hair and fair,
ruddy complexion. His head in the famous Trumbull portrait
is boldly poised and very striking. The captivating charm of
his manners and conversation is attested by all who knew him,
and in familiar life he was artlessly simple. Friends he won
readily, and he held them in devoted attachment by the solid
worth of a frank, ardent, generous, warm-hearted and high-
minded character. Versatile as were his intellectual powers, his
nature seems comparatively simple. A firm will, tireless
energy, aggressive courage and bold self-confidence were its
leading qualities; the word " intensity " perhaps best sums up
his character. His Scotch and Gallic strains of ancestry are
evident; his countenance was decidedly Scotch; his nervous
speech and bearing and vehement temperament rather French;
in his mind, agility, clarity and penetration were matched with
logical solidity. The remarkable quality of his mind lay in the
rare combination of acute analysis and grasp of detail with great
comprehensiveness of thought. So far as his writings show, he
was almost wholly lacking in humour, and in imagination little
less so. He certainly had wit, but it is hard to believe he could
have had any touch of fancy. In public speaking he often
combined a rhetorical effectiveness and emotional intensity
that might take the place of imagination, and enabled him,
on the coldest theme, to move deeply the feelings of his
auditors.
Bibliography. — Hamilton's Works have been edited by H. C.
Lodge (New York, 9 vols., 1885-1886, and 12 vols., 1904); all
references above are first to the latter edition, secondly (in brackets)
to the former. There are various additional editions of The Federal-
ist, notably those of H. B. Dawson (1863), H. C. Lodge (1888), and
— the most scholarly — P. L. Ford (1898); cf. American Historical
Review, ii. 413, 675. See also James Bryce, " Predictions of Hamil-
ton and de Tocqueville," in Johns Hopkins University Studies,
vol. 5 (Baltimore, 1887) ; and the capital essay of Anson D. Morse
in the Political Science Quarterly, v. (1890), pp. 1-23. For a biblio-
graphy of the period see the Cambridge Modern History, vol. vii.
pp. 780-810. The unfinished Life of Alexander Hamilton, by his
Son, J. C. Hamilton, going only to 1787 (New York, 2 vols., 1834-
1840), was superseded by the same author's valuable, but partisan
and uncritical History of the Republic . . . as traced in the Writings
of Alexander Hamilton (New York, 7 vols., 1857-1864; 4th ed.,
Boston, 1870). Professor W. G. Sumner's Alexander Hamilton
(Makers of America series, New York, 1890) is appreciative, and
important for its criticism from the point of view of an American
free-trader; see also, on Hamilton's finance and economic views,
Prof. C. F. Dunbar, Quarterly Journal of Economics, Hi. (1889), p. 32 ;
E. G. Bourne in ibtd. x. (1894), p. 328; E. C. Lunt in Journal of
Political Economy, Hi. (1895), P* 289. Among modern studies must
also be mentioned J. T. Morse's able Life (1876); H. C. Lodge's
(in the American Statesmen series, 1882); and G. Shea's two
books, his Historical Study (1877) and Life and Epoch (1879). C. J.
Riethmuller's Hamilton and his Contemporaries (1864), written
during the Civil War, is sympathetic, but rather speculative. The
most vivid account of Hamilton is in Mrs Gertrude Atherton's
historical romance, The Conqueror (New York, 1902), for the writing
of which the author made new investigations into the biographical
details, and elucidated some points previously obscure; see also
her A Few of Hamilton's Letters (1903). F. S. Oliver's brilliant
Alexander Hamilton: An Essay on American Union (London, 1906),
which uses its subject to illustrate the necessity of British imperial
federation, is strongly anti-Jeffersonian, but no other work by
a non-American author brings out so well the wider issues involved
in Hamilton's economic policy. (F. S. P. ; H. Ch.)
HAMILTON, ANTHONY, or Antoine (1646-17 20), French
classical author, was born about 1646. He is especially note-
worthy from the fact that, though by birth he was a foreigner,
his Uterary characteristics are more decidedly French than those
of many of the most indubitable Frenchmen. His father was
George Hamilton, younger brother of James, 2nd earl of
Abercorn, and head of the family of Hamilton in the peerage
of Scotland, and 6th duke of Chatellerault in the peerage of
France; and his mother was Mary Butler, sister of the 1st
duke of Ormonde. According to some authorities he was born
at Drogheda, but according to the London edition of his works
in 181 1 his birthplace was Roscrea, Tipperary. From the age
of four till he was fourteen the boy was brought up in France,
whither his family had removed after the execution of Charles I.
The fact that, like his father, he was a Roman Catholic, prevented
his receiving the political promotion he might otherwise have
expected on the Restoration, but he became a distinguished
member of that brilliant band of courtiers whose chronicler
he was to become. He took service in the French army, and
the marriage of his sister Elizabeth, " la belle Hamilton," to
Philibert, comte de Gramont (q. v.) rendered his connexion with
France more intimate, if possible, than before. On the accession
of James II. he obtained an infantry regiment in Ireland, and
was appointed governor of Limerick and a member of the privy
council. But the battle of the Boyne, at which he was present,
brought disaster on all who were attached to the cause of the
Stuarts, and before long he was again in France — an exile, but
at home. The rest of his life was spent for the most part at the
court of St Germain and in the chdteaux of his friends. With
Ludovise, duchesse du Maine, he became an especial favourite,
and it was at her seat at Sceaux that he wrote the MSmoires
that made him famous. He died at St Germain-en-Laye on the
21st of April 1720.
It is mainly by the MSmoires du comte de Gramont that Hamilton
takes rank with the most classical writers of France. It was
said to have been written at Gramont's dictation, but it is very
evident that Hamilton's share is the most considerable. The
work was first published anonymously in 1 713 under the rubric of
Cologne, but it was really printed in Holland, at that time the
great patroness of all questionable authors. An English trans-
lation by Boyer appeared in 1714. Upwards of thirty editions
have since appeared, the best of the French being Renouard's
(181 2), forming part of a collected edition of Hamilton's works,
and Gustave Brunet's (1859), and the best of the English,
Edwards's (1793), with 78 engravings from portraits in the royal
collections at Windsor and elsewhere, A. F. Bertrand de Mole-
ville's (2 vols., 181 1), with 64 portraits by E. Scriven and others,
and Gordon Goodwin's (2 vols., 1903). The original edition
was reprinted by Benjamin Pifteau in 1876. In imitation and
satiric parody of the romantic tales which Antoine Galland's
translation of The Thousand and One Nights had brought into
favour in France, Hamilton wrote, partly for the amusement of
Henrietta Bulkley, sister of the duchess of Berwick, to whom
he was much attached, four ironical and extravagant conies,
Le BSlier, Fleur d'Spine, Zenfyde and Les Quatre Facardins.
The saying in Le BSlier' " Belier, mon ami, tu me ferais plaisir
si tu voulais commencer par le commencement," has passed
into a proverb. These tales were circulated privately during
Hamilton's lifetime, and the first three appeared in Paris in
1730, ten years after the death of the author; a collection of his
(Euvres diver ses in 1731 contained the unfinished Ziniyde.
Hamilton was also the author of some songs as exquisite in their
way as his prose, and interchanged amusing verses with the duke
of Berwick. In the name of his niece, the countess of Stafford,
Hamilton maintained a witty correspondence with Lady Mary
Wortley Montagu.
See notices of Hamilton in Lescure's edition (1873) of the Conies,
Sainte-Beuve's Causeries du lundi, tome i., Sayou's Histoire de la
literature frangaise & VUr anger (1853), and by L. S. Auger in the
(Euvres completes (1804).
HAMILTON, ELIZABETH (1758-1816), British author, was
born at Belfast, of Scottish extraction, on the 21st of July 1758.
Her father's death in 1759 left his wife so embarrassed that
Elizabeth was adopted in 1762 by her paternal aunt, Mrs
Marshall, who lived in Scotland, near Stirling. In 1788 Miss
Hamilton went to live with her brother Captain Charles Hamilton
(17 53-1 792), who was engaged on his translation of the Hedaya.
Prompted by her brother's associations, she produced her
HAMILTON, LADY— HAMILTON, JAMES
es 5
Letters of a Hindoo Rajah in 1796. Soon after, with her sister
Mrs Blake, she settled at Bath, where she published in 1800 the
Memoirs of Modern Philosophers, a satire on the admirers of
the French Revolution. In 1801-1802 appeared her Letters
on Education. After travelling through Wales and Scotland for
nearly two years, the sisters took up their abode in 1803 at
Edinburgh. In 1804 Mrs Hamilton, as she then preferred to be
called, published her Life of Agrippina, wife of Germanicus;
and in the same year she received a pension from government.
The Cottagers ofGlenburnie (1808), which is her best-known work,
was described by Sir Walter Scott as " a picture of the rural
habits of Scotland, of striking and impressive fidelity." She
also published Popular Essays on the Elementary Principles
of the Human Mind (181 2), and Hints addressed to the Patrons
and Directors of Public Schools (181 5). She died at Harrogate
on the 23rd of July 1816.
Memoirs of Mrs Elizabeth HamUton f by Miss Benger, were pub-
lished in 18 18.
HAMILTON, EMMA, Lady (c. 1 765-181 5), wife of Sir William
Hamilton (q.v.), the British envoy at Naples, and famous as
the mistress of Nelson, was the daughter of Henry Lyon, a
blacksmith of Great Neston in Cheshire. The date of her birth
cannot be fixed with certainty, but she was baptized at Great
Neston on the 12th of May 1765, and it is not improbable that
she was born in that year. Her baptismal name was Emily.
As her father died soon after her birth, the mother, who was
dependent on parish relief, had to remove to her native village,
Hawarden in Flintshire. Emma's early life is very obscure. She
was certainly illiterate, and it appears that she had a child in
1780, a fact which has led some of her biographers to place her
birth before 1 765. It has been said that she was first the mistress
of Captain Willet Payne, an officer in the navy, and that she
was employed in some doubtful capacity by a notorious quack
of the time, Dr Graham. In 1781 she was the mistress of a
country gentleman, Sir Harry Feat hers tonhaugh, who turned
her out in December of that year. She was then pregnant, and
in her distress she applied to the Hon. Charles Greville, to whom
she was already known. At this time she called herself Emily
Hart. Greville, a gentleman of artistic tastes and well known
in society, entertained her as his mistress, her mother, known
as Mrs Cadogan, acting as housekeeper and partly as servant.
Under the protection of Gfreville, whose means were narrowed
by debt, she acquired some education, and was taught to sing,
dance and act with professional skill. In 1782 he introduced
her to his friend Romney the portrait painter, who had been
established for several years in London, and who admired her
beauty with enthusiasm. The numerous famous portraits of
her from his brush may have somewhat idealised her apparently
robust and brilliantly coloured beauty, but her vivacity and
powers of fascination cannot be doubted. She had the tempera-
ment of an artist, and seems to have been sincerely attached to
Greville. In 1784 she was seen by his uncle, Sir William
Hamilton, who admired her greatly. Two years later she was
sent on a visit to him at Naples, as the result of an understanding
between Hamilton and Greville — the uncle paying his nephew's
debts and the nephew ceding his mistress. Emma at first
resented, but then submitted to the arrangement. Her beauty,
her artistic capacity, and her high spirits soon made her a great
favourite in the easy-going society of Naples, and Queen Maria
Carolina became closely attached to her. She became famous
for her " attitudes," a series of poses plastiques in which she
represented classical and other figures. On the 6th of September
1 791, during a visit to England, she was married to Sir W.
Hamilton. The ceremony was required in order to justify her
public reception at the court of Naples, where Lady Hamilton
played an important part as the agent through whom the queen
communicated with the British minister — sometimes in opposi-
tion to the will and the policy of the king. The revolutionary
wars and disturbances which began after 1702 made the services
of Lady Hamilton always useful and sometimes necessary to
the British government. It was claimed by her, and on her
behalf, that she secured valuable information in 1796, and was
of essential service to the British fleet in 1798 during the Nile
campaign, by enabling it to obtain stores and water in Sicily.
These claims have been denied on the rather irrelevant ground
that they are wanting in official confirmation, which was only
to be expected since they were ex hypothesi unofficial and secret,
but it is not improbable that they were considerably exaggerated,
and it is certain that her stories cannot always be reconciled
with one another or with the accepted facts. When Nelson
returned from the Nile in September 1798 Lady Hamilton made
him her hero, and he became entirely devoted to her. Her
influence over him indeed became notorious, and brought him
much official displeasure. Lady Hamilton undoubtedly used
her influence to draw Nelson into a most unhappy participation
in the domestic troubles of Naples, and when Sir W. Hamilton
was recalled in 1800 she travelled with him and Nelson ostenta-
tiously across Europe. In England Lady Hamilton insisted on
making a parade of her hold over Nelson. Their child, Horatia
Nelson Thompson, was born on the 30th of January 1801. The
profuse habits which Emma Hamilton had contracted in Naples,
together with a passion for gambling which grew on her, led her
into debt, and also into extravagant ways of living, against which
her husband feebly protested. On his death in 1803 she received
by his will a liferent of £800, and the furniture of his house in
Piccadilly. She then lived openly with Nelson at his house at
Merton. Nelson tried repeatedly to secure her a pension for
the services rendered at Naples, but did not succeed. On his
death she received Merton, and an annuity of £500, as well as
the control of the interest of the £4000 he left to his daughter.
But gambling and extravagance kept her poor. In 1808 her
friends endeavoured to arrange her affairs, but in 18 13 she was
put in prison for debt and remained there for a year. A certain
Alderman Smith having aided her to get out, she went over to
Calais for refuge from her creditors, and she died there in distress
if not in want on the 15th of January 181 5.
Authorities. — The Memoirs of Lady Hamilton (London, 1815)
were the work of an ill-disposed but well-informed and shrewd
observer whose name is not given. Lady Hamilton and Lord Nelson,
by J. C. Jefferson (London, 1888) is based on authentic papera.
It is corrected in some particulars by the detailed recent life written
by Walter Sichel, Emma, Lady Hamilton (London, 1905). See also
the authorities given in the article Nelson. (D. H.)
HAMILTON, JAMES (1769-1831), English educationist, and
author of the Hamiltonian system of teaching languages, was
born in 1769. The first part of his life was spent in mercantile
pursuits. Having settled in Hamburg and become free of the
city, he was anxious to become acquainted with German and
accepted the tuition of a French emigre, General d'Angelis.
In twelve lessons he found himself able to read an easy German
book, his master having discarded the use of a grammar and
translated to him short stories word for word into French. As
a citizen of Hamburg Hamilton started a business in Paris, and
during the peace of Amiens maintained a lucrative trade with
England; but at the rupture of the treaty he was made a prisoner
of war, and though the protection of Hamburg was enough to get
the words effort de la liste des prisonniers de guerre inscribed upon
his passport, he was detained in custody till the close of hostilities.
His business being thus ruined, he went in 18 14 to America,
intending to become a farmer and manufacturer of potash;
but, changing his plan before he reached his " location," he
started as a teacher in New York. Adopting his old tutor's
method, he attained remarkable success in New York, Baltimore,
Washington, Boston, Montreal and Quebec. Returning to
England in July 1823, he was equally fortunate in Manchester
and elsewhere. The two master principles of his method were
that the language should be presented to the scholar as a living
organism, and that its laws should be learned from observation
and not by rules. His system attracted general attention, and
was vigorously attacked and defended. In 1826 Sydney Smith
devoted an article to its elucidation in the Edinburgh Review.
As textbooks for his pupils Hamilton printed interlinear transla-
tions of the Gospel of John, of an Epitome historiae sacrae, of
Aesop's Fables, Eutropius, Aurelius Victor, Phaedrus, &c, and
many books were issued as Hamiltonian with which he
886
HAMILTON, ist DUKE OF
had nothing personally to do. He died on the 31st of October
183 1.
See Hamilton's own account, The History, Principles, Practice
and Results of the Hamiltonian System (Manchester, 1829; new ed.,
1831); Alberte, Uber die Hamilton' sche Methode; C. F. Wurm,
Hamilton und Jacotot (1831).
HAMILTON, JAMES HAMILTON, ist Duke of (1606-1640),
Scottish nobleman, son of James, 2nd marquess of Hamilton,
and of the Lady Anne Cunningham, daughter of the earl of
Glencairn, was born on the 19th of June 1606. As the descendant
and representative of James Hamilton, ist earl of Arran, he
was the heir to the throne of Scotland after the descendants of
James VI. 1 He married in his fourteenth year May Feilding,
aged seven, daughter of Lord Feilding, afterwards ist earl of
Denbigh, and was educated at Exeter College, Oxford, where
he matriculated on the 14th of December 162 1. He succeeded
to his father's titles on the latter's death in 1625. In 1628 he
was made master of the horse and was also appointed gentleman
of the bedchamber and a privy councillor. In 1631 Hamilton
took over a force of 6000 men to assist Gustavus Adolphus in
Germany. He guarded the fortresses on the Oder while Gustavus
fought Tilly at Breitenfeld, and afterwards occupied Magdeburg,
but his army was destroyed by disease and starvation, and after
the complete failure of the expedition Hamilton returned to
England in September 1634. He now became Charles I.'s
chief adviser in Scottish affairs. In May 1 638, after the outbreak
of the revolt against the English Prayer-Book, he was appointed
commissioner for Scotland to appease the discontents. He
described the Scots as being " possessed by the devil," and instead
of doing his utmost to support the king's interests was easily
intimidated by the covenanting leaders and persuaded of the
impossibility of resisting their demands, finally returning to
Charles to urge him to give way. It is said that he so far forgot
his trust as to encourage the Scottish leaders in their resistance
in order to gain their favour. 2 On the 27th of July Charles sent
him back with new proposals for the election of an assembly
and a parliament, episcopacy being safeguarded but bishops
being made responsible to future assemblies. After a wrangle
concerning the mode of election he again returned to Charles.
Having been sent back to Edinburgh on the 17th of September,
he brought with him a revocation of the prayer-book and canons
and another covenant to be substituted for the national covenant.
On the 2 1 st of November Hamilton presided over the first meeting
of the assembly in Glasgow cathedral, but dissolved it on the
28th on its declaring the bishops responsible to its authority.
The assembly, however, continued to sit notwithstanding, and
Hamilton returned to England to give an account of his failure,
leaving the enemy triumphant and in possession. War was now
decided upon, and Hamilton was chosen to command an expedi-
tion to the Forth to menace the rear of the Scots. On arrival
on the ist of May 1639 he found the plan impossible, despaired of
success, and was recalled in June. On the 8th of July, after a
hostile reception at Edinburgh, he resigned his commissionership.
He supported Strafford's proposal to call the Short Parliament,
but otherwise opposed him as strongly as he could, as the chief
adversary of the Scots; and he aided the elder Vane, it was
1 James, Lord Hamilton = Princess Mary Stuart,
(d. 1479). I daughter of James II.
James, Lord Hamilton and 1st earl of Arran
(d. c. IS29).
James, duke of Chatelherault, and 2nd earl of Arran
(d. 1575).
James, 3rd earl of Arran
(d. 1609).
John, ist marquess of Hamilton
(d. 1604).
James, 2nd marquess of Hamilton
(d. 1625).
James, 3rd marquess and ist duke of Hamilton.
* See S. R. Gardiner in the Diet, of Nat. Biography.
believed, in accomplishing Strafford's destruction by sending
for him to the Long Parliament. Hamilton now supported the
parliamentary party, desired an alliance with his nation, and
persuaded Charles in February 164 1 to admit some of their
leaders into the council. On the death of Strafford Hamilton
was confronted by a new antagonist in Montrose, who detested
both his character and policy and repudiated his supremacy
in Scotland. On the 10th of August 1641 he accompanied
Charles on his last visit to Scotland. His aim now was to effect
an alliance between the king and Argyll, the former accepting
Presbyterianism and receiving the help of the Scots against the
English parliament, and when this failed he abandoned Charles
and adhered to Argyll. In consequence he received a challenge
from Lord Ker, of which he gave the king information, and
obtained from Ker an apology. Montrose wrote to Charles
declaring he could prove Hamilton to be a traitor. The king
himself spoke of him as being " very active in his own pre-
servation." Shortly afterwards the plot — known as the
" Incident " — to seize Argyll, Hamilton and the latter's brother,
the earl of Lanark, was discovered, and on the 12th of October
they fled from Edinburgh. Hamilton returned not long after-
wards, and notwithstanding all that had occurred still retained
Charles's favour and confidence. He returned with him to
London and accompanied him on the 5th of January 1642 when
he went to the city after the failure to secure the five members.
In July Hamilton went to Scotland on a hopeless mission to
prevent the intervention of the Scots in the war, and a breach
then took place between him and Argyll. When in February
1643 proposals of mediation between Charles and the parliament
came from Scotland, Hamilton instigated the " cross petition "
which demanded from Charles the surrender of the annuities
of tithes in order to embarrass Loudoun, the chief promoter of
the project, to whom they had already been granted. This
failing, he promoted a scheme for overwhelming the influence
and votes of Argyll and his party by sending to Scotland all the
Scottish peers then with the king, thereby preventing any
assistance to the parliament coming from that quarter, while
Charles was to guarantee the establishment of Presbyterianism
in Scotland only. This foolish intrigue was strongly opposed
by Montrose, who was eager to strike a sudden blow and antici-
pate and annihilate the plans of the Covenanters. Hamilton,
however, gained over the queen for his project, and in September
was made a duke, while Montrose was condemned to inaction.
Hamilton's scheme, however, completely failed. He had no
control over the parliament. He was unable to hinder the
meeting of the convention of the estates which assembled without
the king's authority, and his supporters found themselves in a
minority. Finally, on refusing to take the Covenant, Hamilton
and Lanark were obliged to leave Scotland. They arrived at
Oxford on the 16th of December. Hamilton's conduct had at
last incurred Charles's resentment and he was sent, in January
1644, a prisoner to Pendennis Castle, in 1645 being removed to
St Michael's Mount, where he was liberated by Fairfax's troops
on the 23rd of April 1646. Subsequently he showed great
activity in the futile negotiations between the Scots and Charles
at Newcastle. In 1648, in consequence of the seizure of Charles
by the army in 1647, Hamilton obtained a temporary influence
and authority in the Scottish parliament over Argyll, and led
a large force into England in support of the king on the 8th of
July. He showed complete incapacity in military command;
was kept in check for some time by Lambert; and though out-
numbering the enemy by 24,000 to about 9000 men, allowed his
troops to disperse over the country and to be defeated in detail
by Cromwell during the three days August I7th-i9th at the
so-called battle of Preston, being himself taken prisoner on the
25th. He was tried on the 6th of February 1649, condemned
to death on the 6th of March and executed on the 9th.
Hamilton, during his unfortunate career, had often been
suspected of betraying the king's cause, and, as an heir to the
Scottish throne, of intentionally playing into the hands of the
Covenanters with a view of procuring the crown for himself.
The charge was brought against him as early as 163 1 when he was
HAMILTON, JOHN— HAMILTON, ROBERT
887
levying men in Scotland for the German expedition, but Charles
gave no credence to it and showed his trust in Hamilton by
causing him to share his own room. The charge, however, always
clung to him, and his intriguing character and hopeless manage-
ment of the king's affairs in Scotland gave colour to the accusa-
tion. There seems, however, to be no real foundation for it.
His career is sufficiently explained by his thoroughly weak and
egotistical character. He took no interest whatever in the great
questions at issue, was neither loyal nor patriotic, and only
desired peace and compromise to avoid personal losses. " He
was devoid of intellectual or moral strength, and was therefore
easily brought to fancy all future tasks easy and all present
obstacles insuperable." 1 A worse choice than Hamilton could
not possibly have been made in such a crisis, and his want of
principle, of firmness and resolution, brought irretrievable ruin
upon the royal cause.
Hamilton's three sons died young, and the dukedom passed
by special remainder to his brother William, earl of Lanark.
On the latter's death in 1651 the Scottish titles reverted to the
, 1st duke's daughter, Anne, whose husband, William Douglas,
was created (third) duke of Hamilton.
Bibliography.— Article in the Diet. o£ Nat. Biog. by S.
" ~ r, by the
----- , R.
Gardiner; History of England and of the Civil War, by the same
author; Memoirs of the Dukes of Hamilton, by G. Burnet; Lauder-
dale Papers (Camden Society, 1884-1885); The Hamilton Papers,
ed. by S. R. Gardiner (Camden Society, 1880} and addenda (Camden
Miscellany, vol. ix., 1895); Thomason Tracts in the British Museum,
550 (6)» 1948 (30) (account of his supposed treachery), and 546 (21)
(speech on the scaffold). (P. C. Y.)
HAMILTON, JOHN (c. 1511-1571), Scottish prelate and
politician, was a natural son of James Hamilton, 1st earl of
Arran. At a very early age he became a monk and abbot of
Paisley, and after studying in Paris he returned to Scotland,
where he soon rose to a position of power and influence under
his half-brother, the regent Arran. He was made keeper of the
privy seal in 1543 and bishop of Dunkeld two years later; in
1 546 he followed David Beaton as archbishop of St Andrews, and
about the same time he became treasurer of the kingdom. He
made vigorous efforts to stay the growth of Protestantism, but
with one or two exceptions " persecution was not the policy of
Archbishop Hamilton," and in the interests of the Roman
Catholic religion a catechism called Hamilton's Catechism
(published with an introduction by T. G. Law in 1884) was
drawn up and printed, possibly at his instigation. Having
incurred the displeasure of the Protestants, now the dominant
party in Scotland, the archbishop was imprisoned in 1563. After
his release he was an active partisan of Mary queen of Scots;
he baptized the infant James, afterwards King James VI., and
pronounced the divorce of the queen from Bothwell. He was
present at the battle of Langside, and some time later took
refuge in Dumbarton Castle. Here he was seized, and on the
charge of being concerned in the murders of Lord Darnley and
the regent Murray he was tried, and hanged on the 6th of April
1 571. The archbishop had three children by his mistress,
Grizzel Sempill.
HAMILTON, PATRICK (1 504-1 528), Scottish divine, second
son of Sir Patrick Hamilton, well known in Scottish chivalry,
and of Catherine Stewart, daughter of Alexander, duke of Albany,
second son of James II. of Scotland, was born in the diocese
of Glasgow, probably at his father's estate of Stanehouse in
Lanarkshire. He was educated probably at Linlithgow. In 1 517
he was appointed titular abbot of Feme, Ross-shire; and it
was probably about the same year that he went to study at
Paris, for his name is found in an ancient list of those who
graduated there in 1520. It was doubtless in Paris, where
Luther's writings were already exciting much discussion, that
he received the germs of the doctrines he was afterwards to
uphold. From Alexander Ales we learn that Hamilton subse-
quently went to Louvain, attracted probably by the fame of
Erasmus, who in 1521 had his headquarters there. Returning
to Scotland, the young scholar naturally selected St Andrews,
the capital of the church and of learning, as his residence. On
1 See S. R. Gardiner in the Diet, of Nat. Biography.
the 9th of June 1523 he became a member of the university of
St Andrews, and on the 3rd of October 1524 he was admitted
to its faculty of arts. There Hamilton attained such influence
that he was permitted to conduct as precentor a musical mass
of his own composition in the cathedral. But the reformed
doctrines had now obtained a Arm hold on the young abbot,
and he was eager to communicate them to his fellow-country-
men. Early in 1527 the attention of James Beaton, archbishop
of St Andrews, was directed to the heretical preaching of the
young priest, whereupon he ordered that Hamilton should be
formally summoned and accused. Hamilton fled to Germany,
first visiting Luther at Wittenberg, and afterwards enrolling
himself as a student, under Franz Lambert of Avignon, in the
new university of Marburg, opened on the 30th of May 1527 by
Philip, landgrave of Hesse. Hermann von dem Busche, one of
the contributors to the Epistolae obscurorum virorum, John
Frith and Tyndale were among those whom he met there. Late
in the autumn of 1527 Hamilton returned to Scotland, bold in
the conviction of the truth of his principles. He went first to
his brother's house at Kincavel, near Linlithgow, in which town
he preached frequently, and soon afterwards he married a young
lady of noble rank, whose name has not come down to us.
Beaton, avoiding open violence through fear of Hamilton's high
connexions, invited him to a conference at St Andrews. The
reformer, predicting that he was going to confirm the pious
in the true doctrine by his death, resolutely accepted the invita-
tion, and for nearly a month was permitted to preach and dispute,
perhaps in order to provide material for accusation. At length,
however, he was summoned before a council of bishops and
clergy presided over by the archbishop; there were thirteen
charges, seven of which were based on the doctrines affirmed
in the Loci communes. On examination Hamilton maintained
that these were undoubtedly true. The council condemned
him as a heretic on the whole thirteen charges. Hamilton was
seized, and, it is said, surrendered to the soldiery on an assurance
that he would be restored to his friends without injury. The
council convicted him, after a sham disputation with Friar
Campbell, and handed him over to the secular power. The
sentence was carried out on the same day (February 29, 1528)
lest he should be rescued by his friends, and he was burned at
the stake as a heretic. His courageous bearing attracted more
attention than ever to the doctrines for which he suffered, and
greatly helped to spread the Reformation in Scotland. The
" reek of Patrick Hamilton infected all it blew on." His
martyrdom is singular in this respect, that he represented in
Scotland almost alone the Lutheran stage of the Reformation.
His only book was entitled Loci communes, known as " Patrick's
Places." It set forth the doctrine of justification by faith and
the contrast between the gospel and the law in a series of clear-cut
propositions. It is to be found in Foxs's Acts and Monuments.
HAMILTON, ROBERT (1743-1829), Scottish economist and
mathematician, was born at Pilrig, Edinburgh, on the nth of
June 1743. His grandfather, William Hamilton, principal of
Edinburgh University, had been a professor of divinity. Having
completed his education at the university of Edinburgh, where
he was distinguished in mathematics, Robert was induced to
enter a banking-house in order to acquire a practical knowledge
of business, but his ambition was really academic. In 1769 he
gave up business pursuits and accepted the rectorship of Perth
academy. In 1779 he was presented to the chair of natural
philosophy at Aberdeen University. For many years, however,
by private arrangement with his colleague Professor Copland,
Hamilton taught the class o* mathematics. In 1817 he was
presented to the latter chair.
Hamilton's most important work is the Essay on the National
Debt, which appeared in 18 13 and was undoubtedly the first to
expose the economic fallacies involved in Pitt's policy of a sinking
fund. It is still of value. A posthumous volume published in
1830, The Progress of Society, is also of great ability, and is a very
effective treatment of economical principles by tracing their natural
origin and position in the development of social life. Some minor
works of a practical character (Introduction to Merchandise, 1777;
Essay on War and Peace, 1790) are now forgotten.
888
HAMILTON T.-^HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM
HAMILTON, THOMAS (1789-1842), Scottish writer, younger
brother of the philosopher, Sir William Hamilton, Bart., was
born in 1789. He was educated at Glasgow University, where
he made a close friend of Michael Scott, the author of Tom
Cringle's Log. He entered the army in 18x0, and served through-
out die Peninsular and American campaigns, but continued to
cultivate his literary tastes. On the conclusion of peace he
withdrew, with the rank of captain, from active service. He
contributed both prose and verse to Blackwood's Magazine,
in which appeared his vigorous and popular military novel,
Cyril Thornton (1827). His Annals of the Peninsular Campaign,
published originally in 1829, and republished in 1849 with
additions by Frederick Hardman, is written with great clearness
and impartiality. His only other work, Men and Manners in
America, published originally in 1833, is somewhat coloured by
British prejudice, and by the author's aristocratic dislike of a
democracy. Hamilton died at Pisa on the 7th of December
1842.
HAMILTON, WILLIAM (1704-1754), Scottish poet, the author
of "The Braes of Yarrow," was born in 1 704 at Bangour in Linlith-
gowshire, the son of James Hamilton of Bangour, a member
of the Scottish bar. As early as 1724 we find him contributing
to Allan Ramsay's Tea Table Miscellany. In 1745 Hamilton
joined the cause of Prince Charles, and though it is doubtful
whether he actually bore arms, he celebrated the battle of
Prestonpans in verse. After the disaster of Culloden he lurked
for several months in the Highlands and escaped to France;
but in 1749 the influence of his friends procured him permission
to return to Scotland, and in the following year he obtained
possession of the family estate of Bangour. The state of his
health compelled him, however, to live abroad, and he died at
Lyons on the 25th of March 1754. He was buried in the Abbey
Church of Holyroodhouse, Edinburgh. He was twice married —
" into families of distinction " says the preface of the authorized
edition of his poems.
Hamilton left behind him a considerable number of poems,
none of them except " The Braes of Yarrow " of striking origin-
ality. The collection is composed of odes, epitaphs, short pieces
of translation, songs, and occasional verses. The longest is
"Contemplation, or the Triumph of Love" (about 500 lines).
The first edition was published without his permission by Foulis
(Glasgow, 1748), and introduced by a preface from the pen of
Adam Smith. Another edition with corrections by himself was
brought out by his friends in 1760, and to this was prefixed a
portrait engraved by Robert Strange.
In 1850 James Pateraon edited The Poems and Songs of William
Hamilton* This volume contains several poems till then unpublished,
and gives a life of the author.
HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM (1 730-1803), British diplomatist
and archaeologist, son of Lord Archibald Hamilton, governor
of Greenwich hospital and of Jamaica, was born in Scotland on
the 13th of December 1730, and served in the 3rd Regiment of
Foot Guards from 1747 to 1758. He left the army after his
marriage with Miss Barlow, a Welsh heiress from whom he
inherited an estate near Swansea upon her death in 1 782. Their
only child, a daughter, died in 1775. From 1761 to 1764 he
was member of parliament for Midhurst, but in the latter year
he was appointed envoy to the court of Naples, a post which he
held for thirty-six years— until his recall in 1800. During the
greater part of this time the official duties of the minister were
of small importance. It was enough that the representative
of the British crown should be a man of the world whose means
enabled him to entertain on a handsome scale. Hamilton was
admirably qualified for these duties, being an amiable and
accomplished man, who took an intelligent interest in science
and art. In 1766 he became a member of the Royal Society,
and between that year and 1780 he contributed to its Philo-
sophical Transactions a series of observations on the action of
volcanoes, which he had made, or caused to be made, at Vesuvius
and Etna. He employed a draftsman named Fabris to make
studies of the eruption of 1775 and 1776, and a Dominican,
Resina, to make observations at a later period. He published
several treatises on earthquakes and volcanoes between 1776
and 1783. He was a fellow of the Society of Antiquaries and
of the Dilettanti, and a notable collector, Many of his treasures
went to enrich the British Museum. In 1772 he was made a
knight of the Bath. The last ten years of his life presented a
curious contrast to the elegant peace of those which had preceded
them. In 1 791 he married Emma Lyon (see the separate article
on Lady Hamilton). The outbreak of the French Revolution
and the rapid extension of the revolutionary movement in
Western Europe soon overwhelmed Naples. It was a misfortune
for Sir William that he was left to meet the very trying political
and diplomatic conditions which arose after 1793. His health
had begun to break down, and he suffered from bilious fevers.
Sir William was in fact in a state approaching dotage before
his recall, a fact which, combined with his senile devotion to
Lady Hamilton, has to be considered in accounting for his
extraordinary complaisance in her relations with Nelson. He
died on the 6th of April 1803.
See E. Edwards, Lives of the Founders of the British Museum
(London, 1870); and the authorities given in the article on Emma,
Lady Hamilton.
HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM, Bart. (1788-1856), Scottish meta-
physician, was born in Glasgow on the 8th of March 1788. His
father, Dr William Hamilton, had in 1781, on the strong recom-
mendation of the celebrated William Hunter, been appointed
to succeed his father, Dr Thomas Hamilton, as professor of
anatomy in the university of Glasgow; and when he died in
1790, in his thirty-second year, he had already gained a great
reputation. [William Hamilton and a younger brother (after-
wards Captain Thomas Hamilton, q.v.) were thus brought up
under the sole care of their mother. William received his early
education in Scotland, except during two years which he spent
in a private school near London, and went in 1807, as a Snell
exhibitioner, to Balliol College, Oxford. He obtained a first-
class in Uteris humanioribus and took the degree of B. A. in 18 11,
M.A. in 1814. He had been intended for the medical profession,
but soon after leaving Oxford he gave up this idea, and in 1813
became a member of the Scottish bar. His life, however, was
mainly that of a student; and the following years, marked by
little of outward incident, were filled by researches of all kinds,
through which he daily added to his stores of learning, while
at the same time he was gradually forming his philosophic
system. Investigation enabled him to make good his claim to
represent the ancient family of Hamilton of Preston, and in 18 16
he took up the baronetcy, which had been in abeyance since the
death of Sir Robert Hamilton of Preston (1650-1701), well known
in his day as a Covenanting leader.
Two visits to Germany in 181 7 and 1820 led to his taking up
the study of German and later on that of contemporary German
philosophy, which was then almost entirely neglected in the
British universities. In 1820 he was a candidate for the chair of
moral philosophy in the university of Edinburgh, which had
fallen vacant on the death of Thomas Brown, colleague of
Dugald Stewart, and the latter's consequent resignation, but
was defeated on political grounds by John Wilson (1785-1854),
the " Christopher North " of Blackwood's Magazine. Soon
afterwards (1821) he was appointed professor of civil [history,
and as such delivered several courses of lectures on the history
of modern Europe and the history of literature* The salary
was £100 a year, derived from a local beer tax, and was dis-
continued after a time. No pupils were compelled to attend,
the class dwindled, and Hamilton gave it up when the salary
ceased. In January 1827 he suffered a severe loss in the death
of his mother, to whom he had been a devoted son. In March
1828 he married his cousin Janet Marshall.
In 1829 his career of authorship began with the appearance of
the well-known essay on the " Philosophy of the Unconditioned "
(a critique of Comte's Cours de philosophic) — the first of a series
of articles contributed by him to the Edinburgh Review. He was
elected in 1836 to the Edinburgh chair of logic and metaphysics,
and from this time dates the influence which, during the next
twenty years, he exerted over the thought of the younger
HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM
889
generation in Scotland. Much about the same time he began
the preparation of an annotated edition of Reid's works, intending
to annex to it a number of dissertations. Before, however, this
design had been carried out, he was struck (1844) with paralysis
of the right side, which seriously crippled his bodily powers,
though it left his mind wholly unimpaired. The edition of Reid
appeared in 1846, but with only seven of the intended disserta-
tions — the last, too, unfinished. It was his distinct purpose to
complete the work, but this purpose remained at his death
unfulfilled, and all that could be done afterwards was to print
such materials for the remainder, or such notes on the subjects
to be discussed, as were found among his MSS. Considerably
before this time he had formed his theory of logic, the leading
principles of which were indicated in the prospectus of " an essay
on a new analytic of logical forms " prefixed to his edition of
Reid. But the elaboration of the scheme in its details and
applications continued during the next few years to occupy
much of his leisure. Out of this arose a sharp controversy with
Augustus de Morgan. The essay did not appear, but the results
of the labour gone through are contained in the appendices to
his Lectures on Logic. Another occupation of these years was
the preparation of extensive materials for a publication which he
designed on the personal history, influence and opinions of
Luther. Here he advanced so far as to have planned and partly
carried out the arrangement of the work; but it did not go
further, and still remains in MS. In 1852-1853 appeared the
first and second editions of his Discussions in Philosophy,
Literature and Education, a reprint, with large additions, of his
contributions to the Edinburgh Review. Soon after, his general
health began to fail. Still, however, aided now as ever by his
devoted wife, he persevered in literary labour; and during 1854-
1855 he brought out nine volumes of a new edition of Stewart's
works. The only remaining volume was to have contained a
memoir of Stewart, but this he did not live to write. He taught
his class for the last time in the winter of 1855-1856. Shortly
after the close of the session he was taken ill, and on the 6th of
May 1856 he died in Edinburgh.
Hamilton's positive contribution to the progress of thought is
comparatively slight, and his writings, even where reinforced by the
copious lecture notes taken by his pupils, cannot be said to present
a comprehensive philosophic system. None the less he did consider*
able service by stimulating a spirit of criticism in his pupils, by insist-
ing on the great importance of psychology as opposed to the older
metaphysical method, and not least by his recognition of the import-
ance of German philosophy, especially that of Kant. By far his most
important work was his "Philosophy of the Unconditioned," the
development of the principle that for the human finite mind there
can be no knowledge of the Infinite. The basis of his whole argu-
ment is the thesis. "To think is to condition." Deeply impressed
with Kant's antithesis between subject and object, the knowing and
the known, Hamilton laid down the principle that every object is
known only in virtue of its relations to other objects (see Relativity
of Knowledge). From this it follows limitless time, space, power
and so forth are humanly speaking inconceivable. The fact, how-
ever, that all thought seems to demand the idea of the infinite or
absolute provides a sphere for faith, which is thus the specific faculty
of theology. It is a weakness characteristic of the human mind that
it cannot conceive any phenomenon without a. beginning: hence
the conception of the causal relation, according to which every
phenomenon has its cause in preceding phenomena, and its effect in
subsequent phenomena. The causal concept is, therefore, only one
of the ordinary necessary forms of the cognitive consciousness
limited, as we have seen, by being confined to that which is relative
or conditioned. As regards the problem of the nature of objectivity,
Hamilton simply accepts the evidence of consciousness as to the
separate existence of the object: " the root of our nature cannot
be a lie." In virtue of this assumption Hamilton's philosophy
becomes a " natural realism." In fact his whole position is a strange
compound of Kant and Reid. Its chief practical corollary is the
denial of philosophy as a method of attaining absolute knowledge
and its relegation to the academic sphere of mental training. The
transition from philosophy to theology, i.e. to the sphere of faith,
is presented by Hamilton under the analogous relation between the
mind and the "body. As the mind is to the body, so is the uncon-
ditioned Absolute or God to the world of the conditioned. Conscious-
ness, itself a conditioned phenomenon, must derive from or depend
on some different thing prior to or behind material phenomena.
Curiously enough, however, Hamilton does not explain how it comes
about that God, who in the terms of the analogy bears to the con-
ditioned mind the relation which the conditioned mind bears to its
objects, can Himself be unconditioned. He can be regarded only
as related to consciousness, and in so far is, therefore, not absolute
or unconditioned. Thus the very principles of Hamilton's philo-
sophy are apparently violated in his theological argument.
Hamilton regarded logic as a purely formal science; it seemed
to him an unscientific mixing together of heterogeneous elements
to treat as parts of the same science the formal and the material
conditions of knowledge. He was quite ready to allow that on this
view logic cannot be used as a means of discovering or guaranteeing
facts, even the most general, and expressly asserted that it has to do,
not with the objective validity, but only with the mutual relations,
of judgments. He further held that induction and deduction are
correlative processes of formal logic, each resting on the necessities
of thought and deriving thence its several laws. The only logical
laws which he recognized were the three axioms of identity, non-
contradiction, and excluded middle, which he regarded as severally
phases of one general condition of the possibility of existence and,
therefore, of thought. The law of reason and consequent he con-
sidered not as different, but merely as expressing metaphysically
what these express logically. He added as a postulate — which in
his theory was of importance — "that logic be allowed to state
explicitly what is thought implicitly."
In logic, Hamilton is known chiefly as the inventor of the doctrine
of the " quantification of the predicate," i.e. that the judgment
" All A is B " should really mean " All A is all B," whereas the
ordinary universal proposition should be stated " All A is some B."
This view, which was supported by Stanley Jevons, is fundamentally
at fault since it implies that the predicate is thought of in its ex-
tension ; in point of fact when a judgment is made, e.g. about men,
that they are mortal ("All men are mortal "), the intention is to
attribute a quality (i.e. the predicate is used in connotation). In other
words, we are not considering the question " what kind are men
among the various things which must die?" (as is implied in the
form all men are some mortals ") but " what is the fact about
men?" We are not stating a mere identity (see further, e.g.,
H. W. B. Joseph, Introduction to Logic, 1906, pp. 198 foil.).
The philosopher to whom above all others Hamilton professed
allegiance was Aristotle. His works were the object of his profound
and constant study, and supplied in fact the mould in which his
whole philosophy was cast. With the commentators on the Aris-
totelian writings, .ancient, medieval and modern, he was also
familiar; and the scholastic philosophy he studied with care and
appreciation at a time when it had hardly yet begun to attract
attention in his country. His wide reading enabled him to trace
many a doctrine to the writings of forgotten thinkers; and nothing
gave him greater pleasure than to draw forth such from their ob-
scurity, and to give due acknowledgment, even if it chanced to be
of the prior possession of a view or argument that he had thought
out for himself. Of modern German philosophy he was a diligent,
if not always a sympathetic, student. How profoundly his thinking
was modified by that of Kant is evident from the tenor of his specu-
lations ; nor was this less the case because, on fundamental points,
he came to widely different conclusions.
Any account of Hamilton would be incomplete which regarded
him only as a philosopher, for his knowledge and his interests em-
braced all subjects related to that of the human mind. Physical
and mathematical science had, indeed, no attraction for him; but
his study of anatomy and physiology was minute and experimental.
In literature alike ancient and modern he was widely and deeply
read; and, from his unusual powers of memory, the stores which he
had acquired were always at command. If there was one period
with the literature of which he was more particularly familiar, it
was the 16th and 17th centuries. Here in every department he was
at home. He had gathered a vast amount of its theological lore, had
a critical knowledge especially of its Latin poetry, and was minutely
acquainted with the history of the actors in its varied scenes, not
only as narrated in professed records, but as revealed in the letters,
table-talk, and casual effusions of themselves or their contemporaries
(cf. his article on the Epistolae obscurorum virorum, and his pam-
phlet on the Disruption of the Church of Scotland in 1843). Among
his literary projects were editions of the works of George Buchanan
and Julius Caesar Scaliger. His general scholarship found expression
in his library, which, though mainly, was far from being exclusively,
a philosophical collection. It now forms a distinct portion of the
library of the university of Glasgow.
His chief practical interest was in education — an interest which he
manifested alike as a teacher and as a writer, and which had led him
long before he was either to a study of the subject both theoretical
and historical. He thence adopted views as to the ends and methods
of education that, when afterwards carried out or advocated by him,
met with general recognition; but he also expressed in one of his
articles an unfavourable view of the study ©f mathematics as a
mental gymnastic, which excited much opposition, but which he
never saw reason to alter. As a teacher, he was zealous and
successful, and his writings on university organization and reform
had, at the time of their appearance, a decisive practical effect, and
contain much that is of permanent value.
His posthumous works are his Lectures on Metaphysics and Logic, 4
vols., edited by H. L. Mansel, Oxford, and John Veitch {Metaphysics,
8 9 o HAMILTON, W. G.— HAMILTON, SIR W. ROWAN
1858; Logic, i860); and Additional Notes to Reid's Works, from Sir
W. Hamilton's MSS., under the editorship of H. L. Mansel, D.D.
(1862). A Memoir of Sir W. Hamilton, Tby Veitch, appeared in
1869.
HAMILTON, WILLIAM GERARD (1729-1796), English
statesman, popularly known as " Single Speech Hamilton," was
born in London on the 28th of January 1729, the son of a Scottish
bencher of Lincoln's Inn. He was educated at Winchester and
at Oriel College, Oxford. Inheriting his father's fortune he
entered political life and became M.P. for Petersfield, Hampshire.
His maiden speech, delivered on the 13th of November 1755,
during the debate on the address, which excited Walpole's
admiration, is generally supposed to have been his only effort
in the House of Commons. But the nickname " Single Speech "
is undoubtedly misleading, and Hamilton is known to have
spoken with success on other occasions, both in the House of
Commons and in the Irish parliament. In 1 7 56 he was appointed
one of the commissioners for trade and plantations, and in 176 1
he became chief secretary to Lord Halifax, the lord-lieutenant
of Ireland, as well as Irish M. P. for KUlebegs and English M. P.
for Pontefract. He was chancellor of the exchequer in Ireland
in 1763, and subsequently filled various other administrative
offices. Hamilton was thought very highly of by Dr Johnson,
and it is certain that he was strongly opposed to the British
taxation of America. He died in London on the 16th of July
1 796, and was buried in the chancel vault of St Martin's-in-the-
fields.
Two of his speeches in the Irish House of Commons, and some other
miscellaneous works, were published after his death under the title
Parliamentary Logick.
HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM ROWAN (1805-1865), Scottish
mathematician, was born in Dublin on the 4th of August 1805.
His father, Archibald Hamilton, who was a solicitor, and his
uncle, James Hamilton (curate of Trim), migrated from Scotland
in youth. A branch of the Scottish family to which they belonged
had settled in the north of Ireland in the time of James I., and
this fact seems to have given rise to the common impression that
Hamilton was an Irishman.
His genius first displayed itself in the form of a wonderful
power of acquiring languages. At the age of seven he had
already made very considerable progress in Hebrew, and before
he was thirteen he had acquired, under the care of his uncle,
who was an extraordinary linguist, almost as many languages
as he had years of age. Among these, besides the classical and
the modern European languages, were included Persian, Arabic,
Hindustani, Sanskrit and even Malay. But though to the very
end of his life he retained much of the singular learning of his
childhood and youth, often reading Persian and Arabic in the
intervals of sterner pursuits, he had long abandoned them as a
study, and employed them merely as a relaxation.
His mathematical studies seem to have been undertaken and
carried to their full development without any assistance what-
ever, and the result is that his writings belong to no particular
" school," unless indeed we consider them to form, as they are
well entitled to do, a school by themselves. As an arithmetical
calculator he was not only wonderfully expert, but he seems to
have occasionally found a positive delight in working out to an
enormous number of places of decimals the result of some irksome
calculation. At the age of twelve he engaged Zerah Colburn,
the American " calculating boy," who was then being exhibited
as a curiosity in Dublin, and he had not always the worst of the
encounter. But, two years before, he had accidentally fallen
in with a Latin copy of Euclid, which he eagerly devoured;
and at twelve he attacked Newton's Arithmetica universalis.
This was his introduction to modern analysis. He soon com-
menced to read the Principia, and at sixteen he had mastered
a great part of that work, besides some more modern works on
analytical geometry and the differential calculus.
About this period he was also engaged in preparation for
entrance at Trinity College, Dublin, and had therefore to devote
a portion of his time to classics. In the summer of 1822, in his
seventeenth year, he began a systematic study of Laplace's
MScanique Celeste. Nothing could be better fitted to call forth
such mathematical powers as those of Hamilton; for Laplace's
great work, rich to profusion in analytical processes alike novel
and powerful, demands from the most gifted student careful
and often laborious study. It was in the successful effort to
open this treasure-house that Hamilton's mind received its
final temper, " Des-lors il commenca a marcher seul," to use
the words of the biographer of another great mathematician.
From that time he appears to have devoted himself almost
wholly to original investigation (so far at least as regards mathe-
matics), though he ever kept himself well acquainted with the
progress of science both in Britain and abroad.
Having detected an important defect in one of Laplace's
demonstrations, he was induced by a friend to write out his
remarks, that they might be shown to Dr John Brinkley (1763-
l8 35)> afterwards bishop of Cloyne, but who was then the first
royal astronomer for Ireland, and an accomplished mathe-
matician. Brinkley seems at once to have perceived the vast
talents of young Hamilton, and to have encouraged him in the
kindest manner. He is said to have remarked in 1823 of this lad
of eighteen: " This young man, I do not say wiU be, but is, the
first mathematician of his age."
Hamilton's career at College was perhaps unexampled.
Amongst a number of competitors of more than ordinary merit,
he was first in every subject and at every examination. He
achieved the rare distinction of obtaining an optime for both
Greek and for physics. How many more such honours he might
have attained it is impossible to say; but he was expected to
win both the gold medals at the degree examination, had his
career as a student not been cut short by an unprecedented
event. This was his appointment to the Andrews professorship
of astronomy in the university of Dublin, vacated by Dr Brinkley
in 1827. The chair was not exactly offered to him, as has been
sometimes asserted, but the electors, having met and talked over
the subject, authorized one of their number, who was Hamilton's
personal friend, to urge him to become a candidate, a step which
his modesty had prevented him from taking. Thus, when barely
twenty-two, he was established at the Observatory, Dunsink,
near Dublin. He was not specially fitted for the post, for
although he had a profound acquaintance with theoretical
astronomy, he had paid but little attention to the regular work
of the practical astronomer. And it must be said that his time
was better employed in original investigations than it would
have been had he spent it in observations made even with the
best of instruments, — infinitely better than if he had spent it on
those of the observatory, which, however good originally, were
then totally unfit for the delicate requirements of modern
astronomy. Indeed there can be little doubt that Hamilton
was intended by the university authorities who elected
him to the professorship of astronomy to spend bis time
as he best could for the advancement of science, without being
tied down to any particular branch. Had he devoted himself
to practical astronomy they would assuredly have furnished him
with modern instruments and an adequate staff of assistants.
In 1835 , being secretary to the meeting of the British Associa-
tion which was held that year in Dublin, he was knighted by the
lord-lieutenant. But far higher honours rapidly succeeded,
among which we may merely mention his election in 1837 to
the president's chair in the Royal Irish Academy, and the rare
distinction of being made corresponding member of the academy
of St Petersburg. These are the few salient points (other, of
course, than the epochs of his more important discoveries and
inventions presently to be considered) in the uneventful life of
this great man. He retained his wonderful faculties unimpaired
to the very last, and steadily continued till within a day or two of
his death, which occurred on the 2nd of September 1865, the
task (his Elements of Quaternions) which had occupied the last
sixyears of his life.
The germ of his first great discovery was contained in one of those
early papers which in 1823 he communicated to Dr Brinkley, by
whom, under the title of " Caustics," it was presented in 1824 to the
Royal Irish Academy. It was referred as usual to a committee.
Their report, while acknowledging the novelty and value of its
HAMILTON
891
contents, and the great mathematical skill of its author, recommended
that, before being published, it should be still further developed and
simplified. During the next three years the paper grew to an
immense bulk, principally by the additional details which had been
inserted at the desire of the committee. But it also assumed a much
more intelligible form, and the grand features of the new method
were now easily to be seen. Hamilton himself seems not till this
period to have fully understood either the nature or the importance
of his discovery, for it is only now that we find him announcing his
intention of applying his method to dynamics. The paper was
finally entitled Theory of Systems of Rays," and the first part was
printed in 1828 in the Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy.
It is understood that the more important contents of the second
and third parts appeared in the three voluminous supplements (to
the first part) which were published in the same Transactions, and in
the two papers " On a General Method in Dynamics," which ap-
peared in the Philosophical Transactions in 1 834- 1 835. The principle
of " Varying Action ' is the great feature ofthese papers; and it is
strange, indeed, that the one particular result of this theory which,
perhaps more than anything else that Hamilton has done, has
rendered his name known beyond the little world of true philosophers,
should have been easily within the reach of Augustin Fresnel and
others for many years before, and in no way required Hamilton's
new conceptions or methods, although it was by them that he was
led to its discovery. This singular result is still known by the name
11 conical refraction," which he proposed for it when he first pre-
dicted its existence in the third supplement to his " Systems of
Rays," read in 1832.
The step from optics to dynamics in the application of the method
of " Varying Action " was made in 1827, and communicated to
the Royal Society, in whose Philosophical Transactions for 1834
and 1835 there are two papers on the subject. These display, like
the " Systems of Rays," a mastery over symbols and a flow of mathe-
matical language almost unequalled. But they contain what is far
more valuable still, the greatest addition which dynamical science
had received since the grand strides made by Sir Isaac Newton and
Joseph Louis Lagrange. C. G. J. Jacobi and other mathematicians
have developed to a great extent, and as a question of pure mathe-
matics only, Hamilton's processes, and have thus made extensive
additions to our knowledge of differential equations. But there can
be little doubt that we have as yet obtained only a mere glimpse
of the vast physical results of which they contain the germ. And
though this is of course by far the more valuable aspect in which
any such contribution to science can be looked at, the other must
not be despised. It is characteristic of most of Hamilton's, as of
nearly all great discoveries, that even their indirect consequences are
of high value.
The other great contribution made by Hamilton to mathematical
science, the invention of Quaternions, is treated under that heading.
The following characteristic extract from a letter shows Hamilton s
own opinion of his mathematical work, and also gives a hint of the
devices which he employed to render written language as expressive
as actual speech. His first great work, Lectures on Quaternions
(Dublin, 1852), is almost painful to read in consequence of the
frequent use of italics and capitals.
41 I hope that it may not be considered as unpardonable vanity
or presumption on my part, if, as my own taste has always led me
to feel a greater interest in methods than in results, so it is by
methods, rather than by any theorems, which can be separately
quoted, that I desire and hope to be remembered. Nevertheless it
is only human nature, to derive some pleasure from being cited, now
and then, even about a ' Theorem ; especially where . . . the
quoter can enrich the subject, by combining it with researches of
his oum."
The discoveries, papers and treatises we have mentioned might
well have formed the whole work of a long and laborious life. But
not to speak of his enormous collection of MS. books, full to over-
flowing with new and original matter, which have been handed over
to Trinity College, Dublin, the works we have already called atten-
tion to barely form the greater portion of what he has published.
His extraordinary investigations connected with the solution of
algebraic equations of the fifth degree, and his examination of the
results arrived at by N. H. Abel, G. B. Terrard, and others in their
researches on this subject, form another grand contribution to
science. There is next his great paper on Fluctuating Functions,
a subject which, since the time of J. Fourier, has been of immense
and ever increasing value in physical 'applications of mathematics.
There is also the extremely ingenious invention of the hodograph.
Of his extensive investigations into the solution (especially by
numerical approximation) of certain classes of differential equations
which constantly occur in the treatment of physical questions, only
a few items have been published, at intervals, in the Philosophical
Magazine. Besides all this, Hamilton was a voluminous corre-
spondent. Often a single letter of his occupied from fifty to a
hundred or more closely written pages, all devoted to the minute
consideration of every feature of some particular problem ; for it
was one of the peculiar characteristics of his mind never to be
satisfied with a general understanding of a question ; he pursued it
until he knew it in all its details. He was ever courteous and kind
in answering applications for assistance in the study of his works,
even when his compliance must have cost him much time. He
was excessively precise and hard to please with reference to the
final polish of his own works for publication; and it was probably
for this reason that he published so little compared with the extent
of his investigations.
Like most men of great originality, Hamilton generally matured
his ideas before putting pen to paper. " He used to carry on," says
his elder son, William Edwin Hamilton, " long trains of algebraical
and arithmetical calculations in his mind, during which he was
unconscious of the earthly necessity of eating; we used to bring in a*
4 snack ' and leave it in his study, but a brief nod of recognition of
the intrusion of the chop or cutlet was often the only result, and
his thoughts went on soaring upwards."
For further details about Hamilton (his poetry and his association
with poets, for instance) the reader is referred to the Dublin Univer-
sity Magazine (Jan. 1842), the Gentleman's Magazine (Jan. 1866),
and the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society (Feb. 1866) ;
and also to an article by the present writer in the North British
Review (Sept. 1866), from which much of the above sketch has been
taken. His works have been collected and published by R. P.
Greaves, Life of Sir W. R. Hamilton (3 vols., 1882, 1885, 1903).
(P. G. T.) „**
HAMILTON, a town of Dundas and Normanby counties,
Victoria, Australia, on the Grange Burne Creek, 197 J m. by
rail W. of Melbourne. Pop. (1901) 4026. Hamilton has a
number of educational institutions, chief among which are the
Hamilton and Western District College, one of the finest buildings
of its kind in Victoria, the Hamilton Academy, and the Alexandra
ladies' college, a state school, and a Catholic college. It has
a fine racecourse, and pastoral and agricultural exhibitions are
held annually, as the surrounding district is mainly devoted to
sheep-farming. Mutton is frozen and exported. Hamilton
became a borough in 1859.
HAMILTON (Grand or Ashuanipi), the chief river of
Labrador, Canada. It rises in the Labrador highlands at an
elevation of 1700 ft., its chief sources being Lakes Attikonak and
Ashuanipi, between 65 and 66° W. and 52° and 53 N. After
a precipitous course of 600 m. it empties into Melville Lake
(90 m. long and 18 wide), an extension of Hamilton inlet, on the
Atlantic. About 220 m. from its mouth occur the Grand Falls
of Labrador. Here in a distance of 1 2 m. the river drops 760 ft.,
culminating in a final vertical fall of 316 ft. Below the falls are
violent rapids, and the river sweeps through a deep and narrow
canyon. The country through which it passes is for the most
part a wilderness of barren rock, full of lakes and lacustrine
rivers, many of which are its tributaries. In certain portions of
the valley spruce and poplars grow to a moderate size. From
the head of Lake Attikonak a steep and rocky portage of less
than a mile leads to Burnt Lake, which is drained into the
St Lawrence by the Romaine river.
HAMILTON, one of the chief cities of Canada, capital of
Wentworth county, Ontario. It occupies a highly picturesque
situation upon the shore of a spacious land-locked bay at the
western end of Lake Ontario. It covers the plain stretching
between the water-front and the escarpment (called " The
Mountain "), this latter being a continuation of that over which
the Falls of Niagara plunge 40 m. to the west. Founded about
1778 by one Robert Land, the growth of Hamilton has been
steady and substantial, and, owing to its remarkable industrial
development, it has come to be called " the Birmingham of
Canada." This development is largely due to the use of electrical
energy generated by water-power, in regard to which Hamilton
stands first among Canadian cities. The electricity has not,
however, been obtained from Niagara Falls, but from De Cew
Falls, 35 m. S.E. of the city. The entire electrical railway system ,
the lighting of the city, and the majority of the factories are
operated by power obtained from this source. The manufactur-
ing interests of Hamilton are varied, and some of the establish-
ments are of vast size, employing many thousands of hands each,
such as the International Harvester Co. and the Canadian
Westinghouse Co. In addition Hamilton is the centre of one of
the finest fruit-growing districts on the continent, and its open-
air market is a remarkable sight. The municipal matters are
managed by a mayor and board of aldermen. Six steam rail-
roads and three electric radial roads afford Hamilton ample facili-
ties for transport by land, while during the season of navigation
892
HAMILTON— HAMIRPUR
a number of steamboat lines supply daily services to Toronto
and other lake ports. Entrance into the broad bay is obtained
through a short canal intersecting Burlington Beach, which is
crossed by two swing bridges, whereof one — that of the Grand
Trunk railway — is among the largest of its kind in the world.
Burlington Beach is lined with cottages occupied by the city
residents during the hot summer months. Hamilton is rich in
public institutions. The educational equipment comprises a
normal college, collegiate institute, model school and more than
a score of public schools, for the most part housed in handsome
stone and brick buildings. There are four hospitals, and the
asylum for the insane is the largest in Canada. There is an
excellent public library, and in the same building with it a good
art school. Hamilton boasts of a number of parks, Dundurn
Castle Park, containing several interesting relics of the war of
181 a, being the finest, and, as it is practically within the city
limits, it is a great boon to the people. Gore Park, in the centre
of the city, is used for concerts, given by various bands, one of
which has gained an international reputation. Since its incor-
poration in 1833 the history of Hamilton has shown continuous
growth. In 1836 the population was 2846; in 1851, 10,248;
in 1861, 19,006; in 1871, 26,880; in 1881, 36,661; in 1891,
48,950; and in 1001, 52,634. The Anglican bishop of Niagara
has his seat here, and also a Roman Catholic bishop. Hamilton
returns two members to the Provincial parliament and two to
the Dominion.
HAMILTON, a municipal and police burgh of Lanarkshire,
Scotland. Pop. (1891), 24,859; (1001), 32,775. It is situated
about 1 m. from the junction of the Avon with the Clyde, io| m.
S.E. of Glasgow by road, and has stations on the Caledonian and
North British railways. The town hall in the Scottish Baronial
style has a clock-tower 130 ft. high, and the county buildings
are in the Grecian style. Among the subjects of antiquarian
interest are Queenzie Neuk, the spot where Queen Mary rested
on her journey to Langside, the old steeple and pillory built
in the reign of Charles I., the Mote Hill, the old Runic cross,
and the carved gateway in the palace park. In the churchyard
there is a monument to four covenanters who suffered at Edin-
burgh, on the 7th of December 1600, whose heads were buried
here. Among the industries are manufactures of cotton, lace
and embroidered muslins, and carriage-building, and there are
also Urge market gardens, the district being famed especially
for its apples, and some dairy-farming; but the prosperity of
the town depends chiefly upon the coal and ironstone of the
surrounding country, which is the richest mineral field in Scot-
land. Hamilton originated in the 15th century under the
protecting influence of the lords of Hamilton, and became a
burgh of barony in 1456 and a royal burgh in 1548. The latter
rights were afterwards surrendered and it was made the chief
burgh of the regality and dukedom of Hamilton in 1668, the third
marquess having been created duke in 1643. It unites with
Airdrie, Falkirk. Lanark and Linlithgow to form the Falkirk
district of burghs, which returns one member to parliament.
Immediately cast of the town b Hamilton palace, the seat of the
duke of Hamilton and Brandon, premier peer of Scotland. It
occupies most of the site of the original burgh of Netherton. The
first mansaoa was erected at the end of the 16th century and rebuilt
about ijio* to be su cc eeded in 1&22-1&29 by the present palace,
a magnificent building in the cU-yaral style. Its front is a specimen
of the enriched Corinthian architecture, with a projecting pillared
portico after the stvle of the temple of Jupiter Stat or at Rome.
J&4 ft. in length and 60 ft. in height. Each of the tweHe pillars of
the portico b a single block of stone, quarried at Dalserf, midway
between Hamilton and Lanark, and required thirtv horses to draw
it to its $tte. The interior is^ richly decorated and coce contained
the finest collection of naintings ra Scotland, bet most of them,
together with the Hamilton ana Beckiord libraries, were sold in
l&sr. Within the grounds, which comprise nearly 1500 acres, is the
a%*«3oic:=r« erected bv the loth duke, a structure resembang in
jjtwr.it ot^cr* tint ot the esnwror Hidri&n at K j=>e. bein^ a circular
hcukitry: $^r:r^ir^ troca a square hasenwet. aad eoci-rsts? a decorated
octagonal chawC the door of w*rvh is a cccy ic brsae af Gaiberti*s
gat** at Floeeace. At Bat>S-::Sl 1 ». Si of tie tcwa. may be
seen tSr Dutch corvkss wb^ch were l*si iows i= terraces on the
store Si-.fc* AC the Avon. TVeir ^-uii^t shr.roery a=>d :vi-£isfcioned
•Kv.r^: rceoer thess attractive. Tbey were pca-rard i= 1583 by
John Hamilton, an ancestor of Lord Belhaven, and now belong to
Lord Ruthven. About 2 m. S.E. of Hamilton, within the western
High Park, on the summit of a precipitous rock 200 ft. in height,
the foot of which is washed by the Avon, stand the ruins of Cadzow
Castle, the subject of a spirited ballad by Sir Walter Scott. The
castle had been a royal residence for at least two centuries before
Bannockburn (1 J14), but immediately after the battle Robert Bruce
granted it to Sir Walter FitzGilbert Hamilton, the son of the founder
of the family, in return for the fealty. Near it is the noble chase
with its ancient oaks, the remains of the Caledonian Forest, where
are still preserved some of the aboriginal breed of wild cattle.
Opposite Cadzow Castle, in the eastern High Park, on the right bank
of the Avon, is Chatelherault, consisting of stables and offices, and
imitating in outline the palace of that name in France.
HAMILTON, a village of Madison county, New York, U.S.A.,
about 29 m. S.W. of Utica. Pop. (1800), 1744; (1000), 1627;
(1905, state census), 1522. It is served by the New York, Ontario
& Western railway. Hamilton is situated in a productive
agricultural region, and has a large trade in hops; among its
manufactures are canned vegetables, lumber and knit goods,
There are several valuable stone quarries in the vicinity. The
village owns and operates its water-supply and electric-lighting
system. Hamilton is the seat of Colgate University, which was
founded in 1819, under the name of the Hamilton Literary and
Theological Institution, as a training school for the Baptist
ministry, was chartered as Madison University in 1846, and
was renamed in 1890 in honour of the Colgate family, several
of whom, especially William (1783-1857), the soap manu-
facturer, and his sons, James Boorman (1818-1904), and Samuel
(1822-1897), were its liberal benefactors. In 1008-1909 it had
a university faculty of 33 members, 307 students in the college,
60 in the theological department, and 134 in the preparatory
department, and a library of 54,000 volumes, including the
Baptist Historical collection (about 5000 vols.) given by Samuel
Colgate. The township in which the village is situated and
which bears the same name (pop. in 1005, 3614) was settled
about 1700 and was separated from the township of Paris in
1 795. The village was incorporated in 181 2.
HAMILTON, a city and the county-seat of Butler county,
Ohio, U.S.A., on both sides of the Great Miami river, 25 m. N.
of Cincinnati. Pop. (1800), 17,565; (1000), 23,914, of whom
2949 were foreign-born; (1910 census), 35,279. It is served
by the Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton, and the Pittsburg,
Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis railways, and by interurban
electric lines connecting with Cincinnati, Dayton and Toledo.
The valley in which Hamilton is situated is noted for its fertility.
The city has a fine public square and the Lane free library (1866) ;
the court house is its most prominent public building. A
hydraulic canal provides the city with good water power, and
in 1905, in the value of its factory products ($13,992,574,
heing 31-3% more than in 1900), Hamilton ranked tenth among
the cities of the state. Its most distinctive manufactures are
paper and wood pulp; more valuable are foundry and machine
shop products; other manufactures are safes, malt liquors,
flour, woollens, Corliss engines, carriages and wagons and
agricultural implements. The municipality owns and operates
the water-works, electric-lighting plant and gas plant. A
stockade fort was built here in 1791 by General Arthur Saint
Clair, but it was abandoned in 1796, two years after the place
had been laid out as a town and named Fairfield. The town
was renamed, in honour of Alexander Hamilton, about 1796.
In 1803 Hamilton was made the county-seat; in 1810 it was
incorporated as a village; in 1854 it annexed the town of
Rossville on the opposite side of the river; and in 1857 it was
made a city. In 1008, by the annexation of suburbs, the area
and the population of Hamilton were considerably increased.
Hamilton was the early home of William Dean Howells, whose
recollections of it are to be found in his A Boy's Town; his
father's anti-slavery sentiments made it necessary for him to
sett his printing office, where the son had learned to set type in
his teens, and to remove to Dayton.
HAMIRPUR, a town and district of British India, in the
Allahabad division of the United Provinces. The town stands
on a tongue of land near the confluence of the Betwa and Jumna,
HAMITIC RACES AND LANGUAGES
893
no m. N.W. of Allahabad. Pop. (1901), 6721. It was founded,
according to tradition, in the nth century by Hamir Deo, a
Karchuli Rajput expelled from Alwar by the Mahommedans.
The district has an area of 2289 sq. m., and encloses the native
states of Sarila, Jigni and Bihat, besides portions of Charkhari
and Garrauli. Hamirpur forms part of the great plain of Bun-
delkhand, which stretches from the banks of the Jumna to the
central Vindhyan plateau. The district is in shape an irregular
parallelogram, with a general slope northward from the low hills
on the southern boundary. The scenery is rendered picturesque
by the artificial lakes of Mahoba. These magnificent reservoirs
were constructed by the Chandel rajas before the Mahommedan
conquest, for purposes of irrigation and as sheets of ornamental
water. Many of them enclose craggy islets or peninsulas,
crowned by the ruins of granite temples, exquisitely carved and
decorated. From the base of this hill and lake country the
general plain of the district spreads northward in an arid and
treeless level towards the broken banks of the rivers. Of these
the principal are the Betwa and its tributary the Dhasan, both
of which are unnavigable. There is little waste land, except
in the ravines by the river sides. The deep black soil of Bundel-
khand, known as m&r, retains the moisture under a dried and
rifted surface, and renders the district fertile. The staple pro-
duce is grain of various sorts, the most important being gram.
Cotton is also a valuable crop. Agriculture suffers much from
the spread of the k&ns grass, a noxious weed which overruns
the fields and is found to be almost ineradicable wherever it
has once obtained a footing. Droughts and famine are unhappily
common. The climate is dry and hot, owing to the absence of
shade and the bareness of soil, except in the neighbourhood
of the Mahoba lakes, which cool and moisten the atmosphere.
In 1901 the pop. was 458,542, showing a decrease of 11% in
the decade, due to the famine of 1895-1897. Export trade is
chiefly in agricultural produce and cotton cloth. Rath is the
principal commercial centre. The Midland branch of the Great
Indian Peninsula railway passes through the south of the district.
From the 9th to the 12th century this district was the centre
of the Chandel kingdom, with its capital at Mahoba. The rajas
adorned the town with many splendid edifices, remains of which
still exist, besides constructing the noble artificial lakes already
described. At the end of the 12th century Mahoba fell into the
hands of the Mussulmans. In 1680 the district was conquered
by Chhatar Sal, the hero of the Bundelas, who assigned at his
death one-third of his dominions to his ally the peshwa of
the Mahrattas. Until Bundelkhand became British territory in
1803 there was constant warfare between the Bundela princes
and the Mahratta chieftains. On the outbreak of the Mutiny
in 1857, Hamirpur was the scene of a fierce rebellion, and all the
principal towns were plundered by the surrounding chiefs.
After a short period of desultory guerrilla warfare the rebels
were effectually quelled and the work of reorganization began.
The district has since been subject to cycles of varying agri-
cultural prosperity.
HAMITIC RACES AND LANGUAGES. The questions in-
volved in a consideration of Hamitic races and Hamitic languages
are independent of one another and call for separate treatment.
I. Hamitic Races. — The term Hamitic as applied to race is
not only extremely vague but has been much abused by anthro-
pological writers. Of the few who have attempted a precise
definition the most prominent is Sergi, 1 and his classification
may be taken as representing one point of view with regard to
this difficult question.
Sergi considers the Hamites, using the term in the racial sense, as
a branch of his "Mediterranean Race"; and divides them as
follows: —
1. Eastern Branch —
(a) Ancient and Modern Egyptian (excluding the Arabs).
lb) Nubians, Beja,
ic) Abyssinians.
(d) Galla, Danakil, Somali.
1 G. Sergi, The Mediterranean Race. A Study of the Origin of
European Peoples (London, 1901); idem, Africa, Antropolagia
delta stirpe camitica (Turin, 1897).
8 :
ie) Masai.
~ Wahuma or Watusi.
2. Northern Branch —
(a) Berbers of the Mediterranean, Atlantic and Sahara.
(b) Tibbu.
\c) Fula.
(d) Guanches (extinct).
With regard to this classification the following conclusions may
be regarded as comparatively certain : that the members of groups
d t e and / of the first branch appear to be closely inter-connected
by ties of blood, and also the members of the second branch. The
Abyssinians in the south have absorbed a certain amount of Galla
blood, but the majority are Semitic or Semito-Negroid. The
question of the racial affinities of the Ancient Egyptians and the
Beja are still a matter of doubt, and the relation of the two groups
to each other is still controversial. Sergi, it is true, arguing from
physical data believes that a close connexion exists; but the data
are so extremely scanty that the finality of his conclusion may well
be doubted. His " Northern Branch corresponds with the more
satisfactory term " Libyan Race," represented in fair purity by the
Berbers, and, mixed with Negro elements, by the Fula and Tibbu.
This Libyan race is distinctively a white race, with dark curly hair;
the Eastern Hamites are equally distinctively a brown people with
frizzy hair. If, as Sergi believes, these brown people are themselves
a race, and not a cross between white and black in varying propor-
tions, they are found in their greatest purity among the Somali and
Galla, and mixed with Bantu blood among the Ba-Hima (Wahuma)
and Watussi. The Masai seem to be as much Nilotic Negro as
Hamite. This Galla type does not seem to appear farther north
than the southern portion of Abyssinia, and it is not unlikely that
the Beja are very early Semitic immigrants with an aboriginal
Negroid admixture. It is also possible that they and the Ancient
Egyptians may contain a common element. The Nubians appear
alan to the Egyptians but with a strong Negroid element.
To return to Sergi's two branches, besides the differences in skin
colour and hair-texture there is also a cultural difference of great
importance. The Eastern Hamites are essentially a pastoral people
and therefore nomadic or semi-nomadic; the Berbers, who, as said
above, are the purest representatives of the Libyans, are agri-
culturists. The pastoral habits of the Eastern Hamites are of
importance, since they show the utmost reluctance to abandon
them. Even the Ba-Hima and Watussi, for long settled and partly
intermixed with the agricultural Bantu, regard any pursuit but that
of cattle-tending as absolutely beneath their dignity.
It would seem therefore that, while sufficient data have not been
collected to decide whether, on the evidence of exact anthropological
measurements, the Libyans are connected racially with the Eastern
Hamites, the testimony derived from broad " descriptive character-
istics " and general culture is against such a connexion. To regard
the Libyans as Hamites solely on the ground that the languages
spoken Sy the two groups show affinities would be as rash and might
be as false as to aver that the present-day Hungarians are Mon-
golians because Magyar is an Asiatic tongue. Regarding the present
state of knowledge it would be safer therefore to restrict the term
" Hamkes " to Sergi's first group; and call the second by the name
" Libyans." The difficult question of the origin of the ancient
Egyptians is discussed elsewhere.
As to the question whether the Hamites in this restricted sense
are a definite race or a blend, no discussion can, in view of the paucity
of evidence, as yet lead to a satisfactory conclusion, but it might
be suggested very tentatively that further researches may possibly
connect them with the Dravidian peoples of India. It is sufficient
for present purposes that the term Hamite, using it as coextensive
with Sergi's Eastern Hamite, has a definite connotation. By the
term is meant a brown people with frizzy hair, of lean and sinewy
physique, with slender but muscular arms and legs, a thin straight
or even aquiline nose with delicate nostrils, thin lips and no trace
of prognathism. (T. A. J.)
II. Hamitic Languages. — The whole north of Africa was once
inhabited by tribes of the Caucasian race, speaking languages
which are now generally called, after Genesis x., Hamitic, a
term introduced principally by Friedrich Mttller. The linguistic
coherence of that race has been broken up especially by the
intrusion of Arabs, whose language has exercised a powerful
influence on all those nations. This splitting up, and the immense
distances over which those tribes were spread, have made those
languages diverge more widely than do the various tongues of
the Indo-European stock, but still their affinity can easily be
traced by the linguist, and is, perhaps, greater than the corre-
sponding anthropologic similarity between the white Libyan,
red Galla and swarthy Somali. The relationship of these
languages to Semitic has long been noticed, but was at first
taken for descent from Semitic (cf. the name " Syro-Arabian "
proposed by Prichard). Now linguists are agreed that the
894
HAMLET
Proto-Semites and Proto-Hamites once formed a unity, probably
in Arabia. That original unity has been demonstrated especially
by Friedrich Miiller (Reise der osterreichischen Fregatte Novara,
p. 51, more fully, Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft, vol. iii.
fasc. 2, p. 226); cf. also A. H. Sayce, Science of Language, ii.
178; R. N. Cust, The Modern Languages of Africa, i. 94, &c.
The comparative grammars of Semitic (W. Wright, 1800, and
especially H. Zimmern, 1898) demonstrate this now to everybody
by comparative tables of the grammatical elements.
The classification of Hamitic languages is as follows: ' —
1. The Libyan Dialects (mostly misnamed " Berber languages,"
after an unfortunate, vague Arabic designation, bar&bra, people
of foreign language "). The representatives of this large group
extend from the Senegal river (where they are called Zenaga; im-
perfect Grammaire by L. Faidherbe, 1877) and from Timbuktu
(dialect of the Auelimmiden, sketched by Heinrich Barth, Travels,
vol. v., 1857) to the oases of Aujila (Bengazi) and of Siwa on the
western border of Egypt. Consequently, these " dialects " differ
more strongly from each other than, e.g. the Semitic languages do
between themselves. The purest representative seems to be the
language of the Algerian mountaineers (Kabyles), especially that of
the Zuawa (Zouaves) tribe, described by A. Hanoteau, Essai de
frammaire kabyle (1858); Ben Sedira, Cours de langue kab. (1887);
)ictionnaire by Olivier (1878). The learned little Manuel de langue
kabyle, by R. Basset (1887) is an introduction to the study of the
many dialects with full bibliography, cf. also Basset's Notes de
lexicographic berbere (1883 foil.). (The dictionaries by Brosselard and
Venture de Paradis are imperfect.) The best now described is
Shilb(a), a Moroccan dialect (H. Stumme, Handbuchdes Schilhischen,
1899), but it is an inferior dialect. That of Ghat in Tripoli under-
lies the Grammar of F. W. Newman (1845) and the Grammaire
Tamashek of Hanoteau (i860); cf. also the Dictionnaire of Cid
Kaoui (1900). Neither medieval reports on the language spoken
by the Guanches of the Canary Islands (fullest in A. Bertnelot,
Antiquitts canariennes, 1879; akin to Shilfra; by no means primitive
Libyan untouched by Arabic), nor the modern dialect of Siwa (still
little known; tentative grammar by Basset, 1890), have justified
hopes of finding a pure Libyan dialect. Of a few literary attempts
in Arabic letters the religious Pohme de Qabi (ed. Basset, Journ.
asiatique, vii. 476) is the most remarkable. The imperfect native
writing (named tifinaghen), a derivation from the Sabaean alphabet
(not, as Hal6vy claimed, from the Punic), still in use among the
Sahara tribes, can be traced to the 2nd century B.C. (bilingual in-
scription of Tucca, &c; cf. T. HaleVy, Essai d'tpigraphielibyque,
1875), but hardly ever served for literary uses.
2. The Cushitic or Ethiopian Family. — The nearest relative of
Libyan is not Ancient Egyptian but the language of the nomadic
Bisharin or Beja of the Nubian Desert (cf. H. Almkvist, Die Bischari
Sprache, 1881 ft he northern dialect], and L. Reinisch, Die Bedauye
Sprache, 1 893 , Worterbuch, 1 895 ) . The speech of the peoples occupy-
ing the lowland east of Abyssinia, the Saho (Reinisch, grammar in
Zeitschrift d. deutschen morgenland. Gesellschaft, 32, 1878; Texte,
1889; Wdrterbuch, 1890; cf. also Reinisch, Die Sprache der Irob
Saho, 1878), and the Afar or Danakil (Reinisch, Die Afar Sprache,
1887 ; G. Colizza, Lingua Afar, 1887), merely dialects of one language,
form the connecting link with the southern Hamitic group, i.e.
Somali (Reinisch, Somali Sprache, 1900-1903, * vols.; Larajasse
und de Sampont, Practical Grammar of the Somali Language, 1897;
imperfect sketches by Hunter, 1880, and Schleicher, 1890), and Galla
(L. Tutscheck, Grammar, 1845, Lexicon, 1844; Massaja, Lectiones,
1877; G. F. F. Praetorius, Zur Grammatik der Gallasprache, 1893,
&c). All these Cushitic languages, extending from Egypt to the
equator, are separated by Reinisch as Lower Cushitic from the High
Cushitic group, i.e. the many dialects spoken by tribes dwelling
in the Abyssinian highlands or south of Abyssinia. Of the original
inhabitants of Abyssinia, called collectively AgSu (or Agau) by the
Abyssinians, or Falashas (this name principally for Jewish tribes),
Reinisch considers the Bilin or Bogos tribe as preserving the most
archaic dialect {Die Bilin Sprache, Texts, 1883; Grammatik, 1882;
Wdrterbuch, 1887); the same scholar gave sketches of the Khamir
(1884) and Quara (1885) dialects. On other dialects, struggling
against the spreading Semitic tongues (Tigre", Amharic, &c), see
Conti Rossini, " Appunti suIla lingua Khamta," in Giorn. soc. orient.
(1905); Waidmeyer, Wdrtersammlun$ (1868); J. Halevy, "Essai
sur la langue Agaou " {Actes soc. phtlologique, 1873), &c. Similar
dialects are those of the Sid(d)ama tribes, south of Abyssinia, of
which only Kaf(f)a (Reinisch, Die Kafa Sprache, 1888) is known at
all fully. Of the various other dialects (Kullo, Tambaro, &c),
vocabularies only are known; cf. BoreUi, tXhiopie mendionale
(1890). (On Hausa see below.)
There is no question that the northernmost Hamitic languages
have preserved best the original wealth of inflections which reminds
us so strongly of the formal riches of southern Semitic. Libyan
1 Only works of higher linguistic standing are quoted here ;
many vocabularies and imperfect attempts of travellers cannot be
enumerated.
and Beja are the best-preserved types, and the latter especially
may be called the Sanskrit of Hamitic. The other Cushitic tongues
exhibit increasing agglutinative tendencies the farther we go south,
although single archaisms are found even in Somali. Tne early
isolated High Cushitic tongues (originally branched off from a stock
common with Galla and Somali) diverge most strongly from the
original type. Already the Agau dialects are full of very peculiar
developments; the Hamitic character of the Sid(d)ama languages
can be traced only by lengthy comparisons.
The simple and pretty (Haus(s)a language, the commercial lan-
guage of the whole Niger region and beyond (Schoen, Grammar, 1862,
Dictionary, 1876; Charles H. Robinson, 1897, in Robinson and
Brookes's Dictionary) has fairly well preserved its Hamitic grammar,
though its vocabulary was much influenced by the surrounding Negro
languages. It is no relative of Libyan (though it has experienced
some Libyan influences), but comes from the (High ?) Cushitic
family; its exact place in this family remains to be determined.
Various languages of the Niger region were once Hamitic like
Haus(s)a, or at least under some Hamitic influence, but have now
lost that character too far to be classified as Hamitic, e.g. the Muzuk
or Musgu language (F. M tiller, 1886). The often-raised question
of some (very remote) relationship between Hamitic and the £reat
Bantu family is still undecided ; more doubtful is that with the inter-
esting Ful (a) language in the western Sudan, but a relationship with
the Nilotic branch of negro languages is impossible (though a few
of these, e.g. Nuba, have borrowed some words from neighbouring
Hamitic peoples). The development of a grammatical gender, this
principal characteristic of Semito-Hamitic, in Ban and Masai, may
be rather accidental than borrowed; certainly, the same pheno-
menon in Hottentot does not justify the attempt often made to
classify this with Hamitic.
3. Ancient Egyptian, as we have seen, does not form the connect-
ing link between Libyan and Cushitic which its geographical posi-
tion would lead us to expect. It represents a third independent
branch, or rather a second one, Libyan and Cushitic forming one
division of Hamitic. A few resemblances with Libyan (M. de
Rochemonteix in Memoires du congrbs internal, des orientalistes,
Paris, 1873; elementary) are less due to original relationship than
to the general better preservation of the northern idioms (see above).
Frequent attempts to detach Egyptian from Hamitic and to attri-
bute it to a Semitic immigration later than that of the other Hamites
cannot be proved. Egyptian is, in many respects, more remote
from Semitic than the Libyan-Cushitic division, being more agglu-
tinative than the better types of its sister branch, having lost the
most characteristic verbal flection (the Hamito-Semitic imperfect),
forming the nominal plural in its own peculiar fashion, &c. The
advantage of Egyptian, that it is represented in texts of 3000 B.C.,
while the sister tongues exist only in forms 5000 years later, allows
us, e.g. to trace the Semitic principle of triliteral roots more clearly
in Egyptian; but still the latter tongue is hardly more character-
istically archaic or nearer Semitic than Beja or Kabytic.
All this is said principally of the grammar. s Of the vocabulary
it must not be forgotten that none of the Hamitic tongues remained
untouched by Semitic influences after the separation of the Hamites
and Semites, say 4000 or 6000 B.C. Repeated Semitic immigrations
and influences have brought so many layers of loan-words that it is
questionable if any modern Hamitic language has now more than
10% of original Hamitic words. Which Semitic resemblances are
due to original affinity, which come from pre-Christian immigrations,
which from later influences, are difficult questions not yet faced by
science; e.g. the half- Arabic numerals of Libyan have often been
quoted as a proof of primitive Hamito-Semitic kinship, but they
are probably only a gift of some Arab invasion, prehistoric for us.
Arab tribes seem to have repeatedly swept over the whole area of
the Hamites, long before the time of Mahomet, and to have left deep
impressions on races and languages, but none of these migrations
stands in the full light of history (not even that of the Gees tribes of
Abyssinia). Egyptian exhibits constant influences from its Canaan-
itish neighbours; it is crammed with such loan-words already in
jooo B.C. ; new affluxes can be traced, especially c. 1600. (The Punic
influences on Libyan are, however, very slight, inferior to the Latin.)
Hence the relations of Semitic and Hamitic still require many investi-
gations in detail, for which the works of Reinisch and Basset have
merely built up a basis. (W. M. M.)
HAMLET, the hero of Shakespeare's tragedy, a striking figure
in Scandinavian romance.
The chief authority for the legend of Hamlet is Saxo Gram-
maticus, who devotes to it parts of the third and fourth books of
his Historia Danica, written at the beginning of the 13th century.
It is supposed that the story of Hamlet, Amletfi or Amlool,*
was contained in the lost Skjoldunga saga, but we have no means
of determining whether Saxo derived his information in this
case from oral or written sources. The close parallels between the
*The word is used in modern Icelandic metaphorically of an
imbecile or weak-minded person (seeCleasbyand Vigutsson, Icelandic-
English Dictionary, 1869).
HAMLET
895
tale of Hamlet and the English romances of Havelok, Horn and
Bevis of Hampton make it not unlikely that Hamlet is of British
rather than of Scandinavian origin. His name does in fact occur
in the Irish Annals of the Four Masters (ed. 'Donovan, 1851)
in a stanza attributed to the Irish Queen Gormflaith, who laments
the death of her husband, Niall Glundubh, at the hands of
Amhlaufe in 919 at the battle of Ath-Cliath. The slayer of Niall
Glundubh is by other authorities stated to have been Sihtric.
Now Sihtric was the father of that Olaf or Anlaf Cuaran who was
the prototype of the English Havelok, but nowhere else does he
receive the nickname of Amhlakfe. If Amhlaidfe may really be
identified with Sihtric, who first went to Dublin in 888, the
relations between the tales of Havelok and Hamlet are readily
explicable, since nothing was more likely than that the exploits
of father and son should be confounded (see Havelok). But,
whoever the historic Hamlet may have been, it is quite certain
that much was added that was extraneous to Scandinavian
tradition. Later in the 10th century there is evidence of the
existence of an Icelandic saga of AmloSi or Amleth in a passage
from the poet Snaebjorn in the second part of the prose Edda. 1
According to Saxo, 2 Hamlet's history is briefly as follows. In
the days of Rorik, king of Denmark, Gervendill was governor
of Jutland, and was succeeded by his sons Horvendill and Feng.
Horvendill, on his return from a Viking expedition in which
he had slain Koll, king of Norway, married Gerutha, Rorik's
daughter, who bore him a son Amleth. But Feng, out of jealousy,
murdered Horvendill, and persuaded Gerutha to become his
wife, on the plea that he had committed the crime for no other
reason than to avenge her of a husband by whom she had been
hated. Amleth, afraid of sharing his father's fate, pretended to
be imbecile, but the suspicion of Feng put him to various tests
which are related in detail. Among other things they sought
to entangle him with a young girl, his foster-sister, but his
cunning saved him. When, however, Amleth slew the eaves-
dropper hidden, like Polonius, in his mother's room, and destroyed
all trace of the deed, Feng was assured that the young man's
madness was feigned. Accordingly he despatched him to England
in company with two attendants, who bore a letter enjoining
the king of the country to put him to death. Amleth surmised
the purport of their instructions, and secretly altered the message
on their wooden tablets to the effect that the king should put
the attendants to death and give Amleth his daughter in marriage.
After marrying the princess Amleth returned at the end of a year
to Denmark. Of the wealth he had accumulated he took with
him only certain hollow sticks filled with gold. He arrived in
time for a funeral feast, held to celebrate his supposed death.
During the feast he plied the courtiers with wine, and executed
his vengeance during their drunken sleep by fastening down over
them the woollen hangings of the hall with pegs he had sharpened
during his feigned madness, and then setting fire to the palace.
Feng he slew with his own sword. After a long harangue to the
people he was proclaimed king. Returning to England for his
wife he found that his father-in-law and Feng had been pledged
each to avenge the other's death. The English king, unwilling
personally to carry out his pledge, sent Amleth as proxy wooer
for the hand of a terrible Scottish queen Hermuthruda, who had
put all former wooers to death, but fell in love with Amleth.
On his return to England his first wife, whose love proved stronger
than her resentment, told him of her father's intended revenge.
In the battle which followed Amleth won the day by setting up
1 " 'Tis said that far out, off yonder ness, the Nine Maids of the
Island Mill stir amain the host — cruel skerry-quern — they who in
ages past ground Hamlet's meal. The good Chieftain furrows the
hull's lair with his ship's beaked prow." This passage may be com-
pared with some examples of Hamlet's cryptic sayings quoted by
Saxo: "Again, as he passed along the beach, his companions
found the rudder of a ship which had been wrecked, and said
they had discovered a huge knife. * This,' said he, ' was the
right thing to carve such a huge ham . . . . ' Also, as they passed
the sand-hills, and bade him look at the meal, meaning the sand,
he replied that it had been ground small by the hoary tempests of
the ocean."
2 Books iii. and i v., chaps. 86-106, Eng. trans, by O. Elton (London,
1894).
the dead men of the day before with stakes, and thus terrifying
the enemy. He then returned with his two wives to Jutland,
where he had to encounter the enmity of Wiglek, Rorik's suc-
cessor. He was slain in a battle against Wiglek, and Hermuth-
ruda, although she had engaged to die with him, married the
victor.
The other Scandinavian versions of the tale are: the Hrolfssaga
Kraka* where the brothers Helgi and Hroar take the place of the
hero; the tale of Harald and Half dan, as related in the 7 th book
of Saxo Gramma ticus; the modern Icelandic Ambales Saga*
a romantic tale the earliest MS. of which dates from the 17th
century; and the folk-tale of Brjam 6 which was put in writing
in 1 707 . Helgi and Hroar, like Harald and Half dan, avenge their
father's death on their uncle by burning him in his palace.
Harald and Halfdan escape after their father's death by being
brought up, with dogs' names, in a hollow oak, and subsequently
by feigned madness; and in the case of the other brothers there
are traces of a similar motive, since the boys are called by dogs*
names. The methods of Hamlet's madness, as related by Saxo,
seem to point to cynanthropy. In the Ambales Saga, which
perhaps is collateral to, rather than derived from, Saxo's version,
there are, besides romantic additions, some traits which point
to an earlier version of the tale.
Saxo Grammaticus was certainly familiar with the Latin
historians, and it is most probable that, recognizing the similarity
between the northern Hamlet legend and the classical tale of
Lucius Junius Brutus as told by Livy, by Valerius Maximus,
and by Dionysius of Halicarnassus (with which he was probably
acquainted through a Latin epitome), he deliberately added
circumstances from the classical story. The incident of the gold-
filled sticks could hardly appear fortuitously in both, and a
comparison of the harangues of Amleth (Saxo, Book iv.) and of
Brutus (Dionysius iv. 77) shows marked similarities. In both
tales the usurping uncle is ultimately succeeded by the nephew
who has escaped notice during his youth by a feigned madness.
But the parts played by the personages who in Shakespeare
became Ophelia and Polonius, the method of revenge, and the
whole narrative of Amleth's adventure in England, have no
parallels in the Latin story.
Dr. O. L. Jiriczek 6 first pointed out the striking similarities
existing between the story of Amleth in Saxo and the other
northern versions, and that of Kei Chosro in the Shahnanteh
(Book of the King) of the Persian poet Firdausi. The comparison
was carried farther by R. Zenker (Boeve Amlelhus, pp. 207-268,
Berlin and Leipzig, 1004), who even concluded that the northern
saga rested on an earlier version of Firdausi's story, in which
indeed nearly all the individual elements of the various northern
versions are to be found. Further resemblances exist in the
Ambales Saga with the tales of Bellerophon, of Heracles, and of
Servius Tullius. That Oriental tales through Byzantine and
Arabian channels did find their way to the west is well known,
and there is nothing very surprising in their being attached to a
local hero.
The tale of Hamlet's adventures in Britain forms an episode
so distinct that it was at one time referred to a separate hero.
The traitorous letter, the purport of which is changed by Her-
muthruda, occurs in the popular Dit de Vempereur Constant?
and in Arabian and Indian tales. Hermuthruda's cruelty to her
wooers is common in northern and German mythology, and close
' Printed in Fornaldar Sogur Norfftrlanda (vol. i. Copenhagen,
1820), analysed by F. Detter in Zeitschr. fur deutsches A Iter turn
(vol. 36, Berlin, 1892).
* Printed with English translation and with other texts germane
to the subject by I. Gollancz (Hamlet in Iceland, London, 1898).
6 Professor I. Gollancz points out (p. lxix.) that Brjam is a varia-
tion of the Irish Brian, that the relations between Ireland and the
Norsemen were very close, and that, curiously enough, Brian
Boroimhe was the hero of that very battle of Clontarf (1014) where
the device (which occurs in Havelok and Hamlet) of blumng the
enemy by tying the wounded to stakes to represent active soldiers
was used.
• " Hamlet in Iran," in Zeitschrift des Vereins fur Volkskunde, x.
(Berlin, 1900).
7 See A. B. Gough, The Constance Saga (Berlin, 1902).
896
HAMLEY— HAMMAD AR-RAWIYA
parallels are afforded by Thyrdo, the terrible bride of Offa L,
who figures in Beowulf, and by Brunhilda in the Nibefangen-
Ued.
The story of Hamlet was known to the Elizabethans in
Francois de BeDeforest's Histoires tragiques (1559), and found
its supreme expression in Shakespeare's tragedy. That as early
as 1587 or 1589 Hamlet had appeared on the English stage is
shown by Nash's preface to Greene's Menaphon: " He will
afford you whole Hamlets, I should say, handfulls of tragical
speeches." The Shakespearian Hamlet owes, however, little
but the outline of his story to Saxo. In character he is dia-
metrically opposed to his prototype. Amleth's madness was
certainly altogether feigned; he prepared his vengeance a year
beforehand, and carried it out deliberately and ruthlessly at
every point. His riddling speech has little more than an outward
similarity to the words of Hamlet, who resembles him, however,
in his disconcerting penetration into his enemies' plans. For
a discussion of Shakespeare's play and its immediate sources
see Shakespeare.
Sec an appendix to Elton's trans, of Saxo Grammaticus; I.
Gollancz, Hamlet in Iceland (London, 1898) ; H. L. Ward, Catalogue
of Romances, under " Havelok/' vol. i. pp. 423 seq. ; English His-
torical Review, x. (1895); F. better, " Die Hamletsage, Zeitschr.
f. deut. Alter, vol. 36 (Berlin, 1802); O. L. Jiriczek, " Die Amleth-
sage auf Island," in Germanistische Abhondlunqen, vol xii. (Breslau),
and " Hamlet in Iran," in Zeitschr. des Veretns fUr Volkskunde, x.
(Berlin, 1900) ; A. Olrik, KUderne til Sakses Oldhistorie (Copenhagen,
2 vols., 1892-1894).
HAMLEY, SIR EDWARD BRUCE (1824-1893), British
general and military writer, youngest son of Vice- Admiral William
Hamley, was born on the 27th of April 1824 at Bodmin, Cornwall,
and entered the Royal Artillery in 1843. He was promoted
captain in 1850, and in 1851 went to Gibraltar, where he com-
menced his literary career by contributing articles to magazines.
He served throughout the Crimean campaign as aide-de-camp
to Sir Richard Dacres, commanding the artillery, taking part
in all the operations with distinction, and becoming successively
major and lieutenant-colonel by brevet. He also received the
C.B. and French and Turkish orders. During the war he con-
tributed to Blackwood's Magazine an admirable account of the
progress of the campaign, which was afterwards republished.
The combination in Hamley of literary and military ability
secured for him in 1859 the professorship of military history at
the new Staff College at Sandhurst, from which in 1866 he went
to the council of military education, returning in 1870 to the
Staff College as commandant. From 1879 to 1881 he was British
commissioner successively for the delimitation of the frontiers
of Turkey and Bulgaria, Turkey in Asia and Russia, and Turkey
and Greece, and was rewarded with the K.C.M.G. Promoted
colonel in 1863, he became a lieutenant-general in 1882, when he
commanded the 2nd division of the expedition to Egypt under
Lord Wolscley, and led his troops in the battle of Tell-el-Kebir,
for which he received the K.C.B., the thanks of parliament, and
2nd class of Osrnanieh. Hamley considered that his services
in Egypt had been insufficiently recognized in Lord Wolseley's
despatches, and expressed his indignation freely, but he had no
sufficient ground for supposing that there was any intention to
belittle his services. From 1885 until his death on the 12th of
August 1893 he represented Birkenhead in parliament in the
Conservative interest.
Hamley was a clever and versatile writer. His principal work,
The Operations of War, published in 1867, became a text-book of
military instruction. He published some pamphlets on national
defence, wa9 a frequent contributor to magazines, and the author of
several novels, of which perhaps the best known is Lady Lee's
Widowhood.
HAMLIN, HANNIBAL (1809-1891), vice-president of the
United States (1861-1865), was born at Paris, Maine, on the
a 7 th of August 180Q. After studying in Hebron Academy, he
conducted his father's farm for a time, became schoolmaster,
and later managed a weekly newspaper at Paris. He then
studied law, was admitted to the bar in 1833, and rapidly acquired
a reputation as an able lawyer and a good public speaker.
Entering politics as an anti-slavery Democrat, he was a member
of the state House of Representatives in 1 836-1 840, serving as
its presiding officer during the last four years. He was a
representative in Congress from 1843 to 1847, and was a member
of the United States Senate from 1848 to 1856. From the very
beginning of his service in Congress he was prominent as an
opponent of the extension of slavery; he was a conspicuous
supporter of the Wilmot Proviso, spoke against the Compromise
Measures of 1850, and in 1856, chiefly because of the passage
in 1854 of the Kansas-Nebraska Bill, which repealed the Missouri
Compromise, and his party's endorsement of that repeal at the
Cincinnati Convention two years later, he withdrew from the
Democrats and joined the newly organized Republican party.
The Republicans of Maine nominated him for governor in the
same year, and having carried the election by a large majority
he was inaugurated in this office on the 8th of January 1857.
In the latter part of February, however, he resigned the governor-
ship, and was again a member of the Senate from 1857 to January
1861. From 1861 to 1865, during the Civil War, he was Vice-
President of the United States. While in this office he was one
of the chief advisers of President Lincoln, and urged both the
Emancipation Proclamation and the arming of the negroes.
After the war he again served in the Senate (1869-1881), was
minister to Spain (1 881- 1883), and then retired from public life.
He died at Bangor, Maine, on the 4th of July 1891.
See Life and Times of Hannibal Hamlin (Cambridge, Mass., 1899),
by C. E. Hamlin, his grandson.
HAMM, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Westphalia, on the Lippe, 19 m. by rail N.E. from Dortmund
on the main line Cologne-Hanover. Pop. (1005) 38,430. It
is surrounded by pleasant promenades occupying the site of the
former engirdling fortifications. The principal buildings are
four Roman Catholic and three Evangelical churches, several
schools and an infirmary. The town is flourishing and rapidly
increasing, and possesses very extensive wire factories (in
connexion with which there are puddling and rolling works),
machine works, and manufactories of gloves, baskets, leather,
starch, chemicals, varnish, oil and beer. Near the town are
some thermal baths.
Hamm, which became a town about the end of the 12th
century, was originally the capital of the countship of Mark, and
was fortified in 1226. It became a member of the Hanseatic
League. In 1614 it was besieged by the Dutch, and it was
several times taken and retaken during the Thirty Years' War.
In 1666 it came into the possession of Brandenburg. In 1761
and 1762 it was bombarded by the French, and in 1763 its
fortifications were dismantled.
HAMMAD AR-RAWIYA [AbQ-1-Qasim tfammad ibn Ab!
Laila S&pQr (or ibn Maisara)] (8th century A.r>.), Arabic scholar,
was of Dailamite descent, but was born in Kufa. The date of
his birth is given by some as 694, by others as 714. He was
reputed to be the most learned man of his time in regard to the
" days of the Arabs " (i.e. their chief battles), their stories,
poems, genealogies and dialects. He is said to have boasted
that he could recite a hundred long qasidas for each letter of
the alphabet (i.e. rhyming in each letter) and these all from
pre-Islamic times, apart from shorter pieces and later verses.
Hence his name Hammad ar-Rawiya, " the reciter of verses from
memory." The Omayyad caliph Walid is said to have tested
him, the result being that he recited 2900 qasidas of pre-
Islamic date and Walid gave him 100,000 dirhems. He was
favoured by Yazid II. and his successor Hisham, who brought
him up from Irak to Damascus. Arabian critics, however, say
that in spite of his learning he lacked a true insight into the
genius of the Arabic language, and that he made more than
thirty — some say three hundred — mistakes of pronunciation in
reciting the Koran. To him is ascribed the collecting of the
Mo % aUakat (q.v.) . No diwan of his is extant, though he composed
verse of his own and probably a good deal of what he ascribed
to earlier poets.
Biography in McG. de Slane's trans, of Ibn Khallikan, vol. L
pp. 470-474, and many stories are told of him in the Kittib ul-Aghani,
vol. v. pp. 164-175. (G. W. T.)
HAMMER^-HAMMERFEOT
897
HAMMER, FRIEDRICH J0LIUS (1810-1862), German poet,
was born on the 7th of June 1810 at Dresden. In 183 1 he went
to Leipzig to study law, but devoted himself mainly to philosophy
and belles lettres. Returning to Dresden in 1 834 a small comedy,
Das seltsame FrUhstiick, introduced him to the literary society
of the capital, notably to Ludwig Tieck, and from this time he
devoted himself entirely to writing. In 1837 he returned to
Leipzig, and, coming again to Dresden, from 1851 to 1850 edited
the feuilleton of Sacksische konstUutionclle Zeitung, and took
the lead in the foundation in 1855 of the Schiller Institute in
Dresden. His marriage in 185 1 had made him independent, and
he bought a small property at Pillnitz, on which, soon after his
return from a residence of several years at Nuremberg, he died,
on the 23rd of August 1862.
Hammer wrote, besides several comedies, a drama Die Brilder
(1856), a number of unimportant romances, and the novel
Einkthr und Umkehr (Leipzig, 1856); but his reputation rests
upon his epigrammatic and didactic poems. His Schau 1 urn
dicky und schau 9 in dich (1851), which made his name,, has passed
through more than thirty editions. It was followed by Zu alien
guUn Skinden (1854), Fester Grund (1857), Auf stillen Wegen
(1859), and Leme, Hebe, lebe (1862). Besides these he wrote a
book of Turkish songs/ Unter dent Halbmond (Leipzig, i860),
and rhymed versions of the psalms (1861), and compiled the
popular religious anthology Leben und Heimat in GoU, of which a
14th edition was published in 1000.
See C. G. E. Am Ende, Julius Hammer (Nuremberg, 1872).
HAMMER, an implement consisting of a shaft or handle with
head fixed transversely to it. The head, usually of metal, has
one flat face, the other may be shaped to serve various purposes,
e.g. with a claw, a pick, &c. The implement is used for breaking,
beating, driving nails, rivets, &c, and the word is applied to
heavy masses of metal moved by machinery, and used for similar
purposes. (See Tool.) " Hammer " is a word common to
Teutonic languages. It appears in the same form in German
and Danish, and in Dutch as hamer, in Swedish as hatnmare.
The ultimate origin is unknown. It has been connected with
the root seen in the Greek K&fiirrav, to bend; the word would
mean, therefore, something crooked or bent. A more illuminating
suggestion connects the word with the Slavonic kamy, a stone,
cf. Russian kamen, and ultimately with Sanskrit actnan, a
pointed stone, a thunderbolt. The legend of Thor's hammer,
the thunderbolt, and the probability of the primitive hammer
being a stone, adds plausibility to this derivation. The word
is applied to many objects resembling a hammer in shape or
function. Thus the " striker M in a clock, or in a bell, when it
is sounded by an independent lever and not by the swinging of
the " tongue," is called a " hammer M ; similarly, in the " action "
of a pianoforte the word is used of a wooden shank with felt-
covered head attached to a key, the striking of which throws
the "hammer" against the strings. In the mechanism of a
fire-arm, the " hammer " is that part which by its impact on
the cap or primer explodes the charge. (See Gun.) The hammer,
more usually known by its French name of marld tie fer, was a
medieval hand-weapon. ■ With a long shaft it was used by
infantry, especially when acting against mounted troops. With
a short handle and usually made altogether of metal, it was
also used by horse-soldiers. The martel had one part of the head
with a blunted face, the other pointed, but occasionally both
sides were pointed. There are 16th century examples in which
a hand-gun forms the handle. The name of "hammer," in
Latin malleus, has been frequently applied to men, and also to
books, with reference to destructive power. Thus on the tomb
of Edward I. in Westminster Abbey is inscribed his name of
Scoiorum Malleus, the "Hammer of the Scots." The title of
" Hammer of Heretics," Malleus Haereticorum, has been given
to St Augustine and to Johann Faber, whose tract against
LUther is also known by the name. Thomas Cromwell was styled
Malleus Monachorum. The famous text-book of procedure in
cases of witchcraft, published by Spreflger and Kramer in 1489,
was called Hexenhammer or Malleus Maleficarum (see Witch-
Craft).
The origin of the word "hammer-cloth," an ornamental cloth
covering the box-seat on a state-coach, has been often explained
from the hammer and other tools carried in the box-seat by the
coachman for repairs, &c. The New English Dictionary points
out that while the word occurs as early as 1465, the use of a box-
seat is not known before the 17th century. Other suggestions
are that it is a corruption of " hamper-doth," or of " hammock-
cloth," which is used in this sense, probably owing to a mistake.
Neither of these supposed corruptions helps very much. Skeat
connects the word with a Dutch word kernel, meaning a canopy.
In the name of the bird, the yellow-hammer, the latter part
should be "ammer." This appears in the German name,
Emmerling, and the word probably means the " chirper," cf.
the Ger. jammern, to wail, lament. 1
HAMMERBBAM ROOF, in architecture, the name given to a
Gothic open timber roof, of which the finest example is that over
Westminster Hall (1305-1309). In order to give greater height
in the centre, the ordinary tie beam is cut through, and the
portions remaining, known as hammerbe&ms, are supported by
curved braces from the wall; in Westminster Hall, in order to
give greater strength to the framing, a large arched piece 6i
timber is carried across the hall, rising from the bottom 1 of the
wall piece to the centre of the collar beam, the latter being also
supported by curved braces rising from the end of the hammer-
beam. The span of Westminster Hall is 68 ft. 4 in., and the
opening between the ends of the hammerbeams 25 It. 6 in. ,<r fne
height from the paving of the hall to the hammerbeam is 40 ft.,
and to the underside of the collar beam 63 ft. 6 in., so that an
additional height in the centre of 23 ft. 6 in. has been gained.
Other important examples of hammerbeam roofs exist over the
halls of Hampton Court and Eltham palaces, and thfere are
numerous examples of smaller dimensions in churches throughout
England and particularly in the eastern counties. The ends
of the hammerbeams are usually decorated with winged angels
holding shields; the curved braces and beams are richly moulded;'
and the spandrils in the larger examples filled in with tracery,
as in Westminster Hall. Sometimes, but rately, the collar
beam is similarly treated, or cut through and supported by
additional curved braces, as in the hall of the Middle Temple,
London.
HAMMERFEST, the most northern town in Europe.. Pop;
(1000) 2300. It is situated on an island (Kval6) off the' N.W.'
coast of Norway, in Finmarken ami (county), in 76 40* ir* N.,
the latitude being that of the extreme north of Alaska. Its
position affords the best illustration of the warm climatic
influence of the north-eastward Atlantic drift, the mean annual
temperature being 36 F. (January 31 , July $7*). Hammerfest'
is 674 m. by sea N.E. of Trondhjem, and 78 S.W. from the North
Cape. The character of this coast differs from the southern,
the islands being fewer and larger, and of table shape. The 1
narrow strait Strommeri separates Kvalo from the larger SeilahoT,'
whose snow-covered hills with several glaciers rise above 3500 ft.,
while an insular rampart of mountains, Soro, protects the strait
and harbour from the open sea. The town is timber-built and
modern; and the Protestant church, town-hall, and schools
were all rebuilt after fire in 1 890. There is also a Roman Catholic
church. The sun does not set at Hammerfest from the 13th of
May to the 29th of July. This is the busy season of the towns-
folk. Vessels set out to the fisheries, as far as Spitsbergen and
the Kara Sea; and trade is brisk, not only Norwegian and'
Danish but British, German and particularly Russian vessels
engaging in it. Cod-liver oil and salted fish are exported with
some reindeer-skins, fox-skins and eiderdown; and coal and salt
for curing are imported. In the spring the great herds of tame
reindeer are driven out to swim Strommen and graze in the
summer pastures of Seiland; towards winter they are. called
home again. From the 18th of November to the 23rd of January,
the sun is not seen, and the enforced quiet of winter prevails.
Electric light was introduced in the town in 1891, On the
Fuglenaes or Birds' Cape, which protects the harbour on the
north, there stands a column with an inscription in Norte and
Latin, stating that Hammerfest was one of the station* 1 of the
xn. 29
HAMMER-KOP^HAMMERSMITH
expedition for the measurement of the arc of the meridian in
t&i6-x$52. Nor is this its only association with science; for
it was one of the spots chosen by Sir Edward Sabine for his
series of pendulum experiments in 1823. The ascent of the
S&cUen or the Ty ven in the neighbourhood is usually undertaken
by travellers for the view of the barren, snow-clad Arctic land-
scape, the bluff indented coast, and the vast expanse of the
Arctic Ocean.
HAMMER-KOP, or Hammerhead, an African bird, which has
been regarded as a stork and as a heron, the Scopus umbretta of
ornithologists, called the " Umbre " by T. Pennant, now placed
in a separate family Scopidae between the herons and storks.
It was discovered by M. Adanson, the French traveller, in Senegal
about the middle of the 19th century, and was described by
M. J. Brissonin 1760. It has since been found to inhabit neatly
the whole of Africa and Madagascar, and is the " hammerkop "
(hammerhead) of the Cape colonists. Though not larger than
a raven, it builds an enormous nest, some six feet in diameter,
with a flat-topped roof and a small hole for entrance and exit,
and placed either on a tree or a rocky ledge. The bird, of an
almost uniform brown colour, slightly glossed with purple and its
tail barred with black, has a long occipital crest, generally borne
horizontally, so as to give rise to its common name. It is some-
what sluggish by day, but displays much activity at dusk, when
it will go through a series of strange performances. (A. N.)
HAMMER-PURGSTALL, JOSEPH, Fjleiherr von (1774-
1856), Austrian orientalist, was bom at Graz on the oth of June
1774, the son of Joseph Johann von Hammer, and received his
early education mainly in Vienna. Entering the diplomatic
service in 1796, he was appointed in 1799 to a position in the
Austrian embassy in Constantinople, and in this capacity he
took part in the expedition under Admiral Sir William Sidney
Smith and General Sir John Hely Hutchinson against the
French. In 1807 he returned home from the East, after which
he was made a privy councillor, and, on inheriting in 1835 the
estates of the countess Purgstall in Styria, was given the title
of " freiherr." In 1847 he was elected president of the newly-
founded academy, and he died at Vienna on the 23rd of November
1856.
For fifty years Hammer-Purgstall wrote incessantly on the
most diverse subjects and published numerous texts and transla-
tions of Arabic, Persian and Turkish authors. It was natural
that a scholar who traversed so large a field should lay himself
open to the criticism of specialists, and he was severely handled
by Friedrich Christian Diez (1794-1876), who, in his Unfug
und BeUrug (1815), devoted to him nearly 600 pages of abuse.
Von Hammer-Purgstall did for Germany the same work that
Sir William Jones (g.fl.) did for England and Silvestre de Sacy
for France. He was, like his younger but greater English con-
temporary, Edward William Lane, with whom he came into
friendly conflict on the subject of the origin of The Thousand
and One Nights > an assiduous worker, and in spite of many faults
did more for oriental studies than most of his critics put together.
Von Hammer's principal work is his Geschichte des osmanischen
Rekhes (eo vols., Pesth, 1827-1835). Another edition of this was
published at Pesth in 1834-1835, and it has been translated into
French by J. J. Hellert (1835-1843). Among his other works are
Constantinopofis und der Bosporos (1822); Sur Us origines russes
(St Petersburg, 1825); Geschichte der osmanischen Dichtkunst
(1836); Geschichte der Goidenen Horde in Kiptschah (1840); Ge-
schichte der Chane der Krim (i8§6); and an unfinished Lttteratur-
geschichte der Araber (1850- 1856). His Geschichte der Assassinen
(T8i8) has been translated into English by O. C. Wood (1835).
Texts and translations — Eth-Tha&labi, Arab, and Ger. (1829);
Ihn Wahshiyah, History of the Mongols, Arab, and Eng. (1806);
El- Wasstif, Pers. and Ger. (1856); Esch - Schebistani's Rosenfor
des Geheimnisscs, Pers. and Ger. (1838); Ez - Zamakhsheri, Goldene
Halbander, Arab, and Germ. (1835); ELGhazsali, Hujjet-el-Isldm,
Arab, and Ger. (1838); El-Hamatci, Das arab. Hohe Lied der Liebe,
Arab, and Ger. (1854). Translations of — El-Mutanebbi's Poems;
Er-R*smi's Account of his Embassy (1809) ; Conies incdits des loci
nuits (1828). Besides these and smaller works, von Hammer
contributed numerous essays and criticisms to the Fundgruben des
Orients, which he edited; to the Journal asiatique\ and to many
other learned journals; above all to the Transactions of the " Aka-
demie der Wissenschaften " of Vienna, of which he was mainly the
founder; and he translated Evliya Eljfefrjj's Travels, in~J2nrofa . for
the English Oriental Translation Fund. For a fuller list of his works,
which amount in all to nearly 100 volumes, see Comptes rendus of
the Acad, des Inscr. et des Belles-Lettres (1857). See also Schlottman,
Joseph von Hammer-Purgstall (Zurich, 1857).
HAMMERSMITH, a western metropolitan borough of London,
England, bounded E. by Kensington and S. by Fulham and the
river Thames, and extending N.and W. to the boundary of
the county of London. Pop. (1901) 112,239. The name appears
in the early forms of Hermodewode and Hamer smith, the deriva-
tion is probably from the Anglo-Saxon, signifying the place
with a haven (hythe). Hammersmith is mentioned with Fulham
as a winter camp of Danish invaders in 879, when they.occupied
the island of Hame, which may be identified with Ch is wick
Eyot. Hammersmith consists of residential streets of various
classes. There are many good houses in the districts of Brook
Green in the south-east, and Ravenscourt; Park and Starch Green
in the west. Shepherd's Bush in the east is a populous and poorer
quarter. Boat-building yards, lead-mills, oil mills, distilleries,
coach factories, motor works, and other industrial establish-
ments are found along the river and elsewhere in the borough.
The main thoroughfares are Uxbridge Road and Goldhawk
Road, from Acton on the west, converging at Shepherd's Bush
and continuing towards Notting Hill; King Street from Cbi&wick
on the south-west, continued as Hammersmith Broadway and
Road to Kensington Road; Bridge Road from Hammersmith.
Bridge over the Thames, and Fulham Palace Road from Fulham,
converging at the Broadway. Old Haxojoaersmith , Bridge,
designed by Tierney Clark (1824), was the earliest suspension
bridge erected near London. This bridge was found insecure
and replaced in 1884-1887, Until 1834 Hammersmith formed
part, of Fulham parish. Its church of St Paul was built as a
chapel of ease to Fulham, and consecrated by Laud in 1631.
The existing building dates from 1890. Among the old monu-
ments preserved is that of Sir Nicholas Crispe (d. 1665), a
prominent royalist during the civil wars and a benefactor of the
parish. Schools and religious houses are numerous. St Paul's
school is one of the principal public schools in England. It
was founded in or about 1509 by John Colet, dean of St Paul's,
under the shadow of the cathedral church. But it appears that
Colet actually refounded and reorganised a school which had
been attached to the cathedral of St Paul from very early times;
the first mention of such a school dates from the early part of
the 1 2th century (see an article in The Times, London, July 7,
1009, on the occasion of the celebration of the quatercentenary
of Colet's foundation). The school .was moved to its present site
in Hammersmith Road in 1883. The number of foundation
scholars, that is, the number for which Colet's endowment
provided, is 153, according to the number of fishes taken in
the miraculous draught. The total number of pupils is about
600. The school governors are appointed by the Mercers'
Company (by which body the new site was acquired), and the
universities of Oxford, Cambridge and London. Close to the
school is St Paul's preparatory school, and at Brook Green is a
girls' school in connexion with the main school. There are,
besides, the Edward Latymer foundation school for boys (1624),
part of the income of which is devoted to general charitable
purposes; the Godolphin school, founded in the 16th century
and remodelled as a grammar school in 1861; Nazareth House
of Little Sisters of the Poor, the Convent of the Sacred Heart,
and other convents. The town hall, the West London hospital
with its post-graduate college, and Wormwood Scrubbs prison
are noteworthy buildings. Other institutions are the Hammer-
smith school of art and a Roman Catholic training college.
Besides the picturesque Ravenscourt Park (31 acres) there are
extensive recreation grounds in the north of the borough at
Wormwood Scrubbs (193 acres), and others of lesser extent.
An important place of entertainment is Olympia, near Hammer-
smith Road and the Addison Road station on the West London
railway, which includes a vast arena under a glass roof; while
at Shepherd's Bush are the extensive grounds, and buildings
first occupied by the Franco-British Exhibition of 1908, including
HAMMER-THROWING—HAMMOND
#99
a huge stadium for athletic displays. In the extreme north of
the borough is the Kensal Green Roman Catholic cemetery,
in which Cardinal Manning and many other prominent members
of this faith are buried. In the neighbourhood of the Mall,
bordering the river, are the house where Thomson wrote his
poem " The Seasons," and Kelmscott House, the residence of
William Morris. The parliamentary borough of Hammersmith
returns one member. The borough council consists of a mayor,
5 aldermen, and 30 councillors. Area, 2286*3 acres.
HAMMER-THROWING, a branch of field athletics which
consists of hurling to the greatest possible distance an instrument
with a heavy head and slender handle called the hammer.
Throwing the hammer is in all probability of Keltic origin, as
it has been popular in Ireland and Scotland for many centuries.
The missile was, however, not a hammer, but the wheel of a
chariot attached to a fixed axle, by which it was whirled round
the head and cast for distance. Such a sport was undoubtedly
cultivated in the old Irish games, a large stone being substituted
for the wheel at the beginning of the Christian era. In the
Scottish highlands the missile took the form of a smith's sledge-
hammer, and in this form the sport became popular in England
in early days. Edward II. is said to have fostered it, and Henry
VIII. is known to have been proficient. At the beginning of
the 19th century two standard hammers were generally recognized
in Scotland, the heavy hammer, weighing about 21 lb, and the
light hammer, weighing about 16 lb. These were in general
use until about 1885, although the light hammer gradually
attained popularity at the expense of the heavy. Although
originally an ordinary blacksmith's sledge with a handle about
3 ft. long, the form of the head was gradually modified until it
acquired its present spherical shape, and the stiff wooden handle
gave place to one of flexible whalebone about f in. in diameter.
The Scottish style of throwing, which also obtained in America,
was to stand on a mark, swing the hammer round the head
several times and hurl it backwards over the shoulder, the
length being measured from the mark made by the falling hammer
to the nearest foot of the thrower, no run or follow being allowed.
Such men as Donald Dinnie, G. Davidson and Kenneth McRae
threw the light hammer over no ft., and Dinnie's record was
132 ft. 8 in., made, however, from a raised mount. Meanwhile
the English Amateur Athletic Association had early fixed the
weight of the hammer at 16 ft>, but the length of the handle
and the run varied widely, the restrictions being few. Under
these conditions S. S. Brown, of Oxford, made in 1873 a throw
of 120 ft., which was considered extraordinary at the time.
In 1875 the throw was made from, a 7-ft. circle without run, head
and handle of the missile weighing together exactly 16 lb. In
1887 the circle was enlarged to 9 ft., and in 1896 a handle of
flexible metal was legalized. The throw was made after a few
rapid revolutions of the body, which added an impetus that
greatly added to the distance attained. It thus happened that
the Scottish competitors at the English games, who clung to
their standing style of throwing, were, although athletes of
the very first class, repeatedly beaten; the result being that
the Scottish association was forced to introduce the English
rules. This was also the case in America, where the throw
from the 7-ft. circle, any motions being allowed within it, was
adopted in 1888, and still obtains. The Americans still further
modified the handle, Which now consists of steel wire with two
skeleton loops for the hands, the wire being joined to the head by
means of a ball-bearing swivel. Thus the greatest mechanical
advantage, that of having the entire weight of the missile at the
end, as well as the least friction, is obtained. In England the
Amateur Athletic Association in 1008 enacted that " the head
and handle may be of any size, shape and material, provided
that the complete implement shall not be more than 4 ft. and its
weight not less than 16 lb. The competitor may assume any
position he chooses, and use either one or both hands. All
throws shall be made from a circle 7 ft. in diameter." The
modern hammer-thrower, if right-handed, begins by placing
the head on the ground at his right side. He then lifts and
swings it round his head with increasing rapidity, his whole
body finally revolving with outstretched arms twice, in some
cases three times, as rapidly as possible, ,the hammer beirij;
released in the desired , direction. During the " spinning," pr
revolving of the body, the athlete must be constantly, "ahead of
the hammer," i.e. he must be drawing it after him with continu-
ally increased pressure up to the very moment of delivery. The
muscles chiefly called into play are those of the shoulders, back
and loins. The adoption of the hand-loops has given the thrower
greater control over the hammer and has thus rendered the
sport much less dangerous than it once was.
With a wooden handle the longest throw made in Great Britain
from a 9-ft. circle was' that of W. J. M. Barry in 1892, who won the
championship in that year with 133 ft. 3 in. With the flexible
handle, "unlimited run and follow being permitted,' the record
was held in 1909 by M. J. McGrath with 175 it. 8. in,, made in 1007 ;
a Scottish amateur, T. R. Nicholson, held tne British record of 169 ft.
8 in. The world's record for throw from a 7-ft. circle was 172 ft. n in.
by J. Flanagan in 1904 in America ; the British record from 9-ft. circle
being also held by Flanagan with a throw of 163 ft.; 1 ia. made in 1900.
Flanagan's Olympic record (London, 1908) was 170 ft. }\ in.
See Athletics in the Badminton library; Athletes* Guide in Spald-
ing's Athletic library; " Hammer-Throwing " in vol. xx. of Outing.
HAMMER-TOE, a painful condition in which a toe is rigidly
bent and the salient angle on its upper aspect is constantly
irritated by the boot. It is treated surgically, not as formerly
by amputation of the toe, but the toe is made permanently to
lie flat by the simple excision of the small digital joint. Even
in extremely bad cases of hammer-toe the operation of resection
of the head of the metatarsal phalanx is to be recommended
rather than amputation.
HAMMOCK, a bed or couch slung from each end. ' The word
is said to have been derived from the hamack tree, the bark of
which was used by the aboriginal natives of Brazil to form the
nets, suspended from trees, in which they slept. The hammock
may be of matting, skin or textiles, lined with cushions or filled
with bedding. It is much used in hot climates.
HAMMOND, HENRY (1605-1660), English divine, was born at
Chertsey in Surrey on the 18th of August 1605. ' He was edu-
cated at Eton and at Magdalen College, Oxford, becoming demy
or scholar in 1619, and fellow in 1625. He took orders in '1629,
and in 1633 m preaching before the court so won, the approval
of the earl of Leicester that he presented him to the living of
Penshurst in Kent. In 1643 he was made archdeacon of Chi-
chester. He was a member of the convocation of 1640, and
was nominated one of the Westminster Assembly of divines.
Instead of sitting at Westminster he took part in the unsuccessful
rising at Tunbridge in favour of King Charles!., and was obliged
to flee in disguise to Oxford, then the royal headquarters.
There he spent much of his time" in writing, though he accom-
panied the king's commissioners ' to London, ' and afterwards
to the ineffectual convention at "Oxbridge in 1645, where he
disputed with Richard Vines, one of the parliamentary envoys.
In his absence he was appointed canon of Christ Church and
public orator of the university. These dignities he relinquished
for a time in order to attend the king as chaplain during his
captivity in the hands of the parliament. When Charles was
deprived of all his loyal attendants at Christmas 1647, Hammond
returned to Oxford and was made subdean of Christ Church,
only, however, to be removed from all his' offices by the parlia-
mentary visitors, who imprisoned him for ten weeks. After-
wards he was permitted, though still under quasi-confinement,
to retire to the house of Philip Warwick at Clapham in Bedford-
shire. In 1650, having regained his full liberty, Hammo'nd
betook himself to the friendly mansion of Sir John Pakihgtoii,
at West wood, in Worcestershire, where he died on the 25th of
April 1660, just on the eve of his preferment to the see of
Worcester. Hammond was held in high esteem even by his
opponents. He was handsome in person arid benevolent fn
disposition. He was an excellent preacher; Charles I. pro-
nounced him the most natural orator he had ever heard. His
range of reading was extensive, and he was a most diligent
scholar and writer. '
His writings, published in 4 vols. fol. (1674-168J.), consist for the
most part of controversial sermons and tracts.' ; Tne Angh»-Caikol4c
goto
i
HAMMOND— HAMPDEN, JOHN
Library contain* four volume* of hi* Miscellaneous Theological
Works (/?47'"l^59)« The best of them are his Practical Catechism,
first puDiianea in 1644; his Paraphrase and Annotations on the
New Testament ; and an incomplete work of a similar nature on the
Old Testament, His Life, a delightful piece of biography, written
by Bishop Fell*, and prefixed to the collected Works, has been re-
printed in vol. iv. of Wordsworth's Ecclesiastical Biography. See
also Life of Henry Hammond, by G. G. Perry.
HAMMOND* a city of Lake county, Indiana, U.S.A., about
x8 m. S r E, of the business centre of Chicago, on the Grand
Calumet river. Pop. (1890), 5428; (1900) 12,376, of whom 3156
were foreign-born; (1910, census) 20,925. It is served by no
fewer £han eight railways approaching Chicago from the east,
and by several belt lines. As far a* its industries are concerned,
it is a part of Chicago, to which fact it owes its rapid growth
and its extensive manufacturing establishments, which include
slaughtering and packing houses, iron and steel works, chemical
works, piano, wagon and carriage factories, printing establish-
ments, -flour and Starch mills, glue works, breweries and dis-
tilleries. In 1900 Hammond was the principal slaughtering and
meat-packing centre of the state, but subsequently a large
establishment removed from the city, and Hammond's total
factory product (all industries) decreased from $25,070,551 in
1900 to $7*671,203 in 1905; after 1905 there was renewed
growth in the city's manufacturing interests. It has a good
water-supply system which is owned by the city. Hammond
was first settled about 1868, was named in honour of Abram
A. Hammond (acting governor of the state in 1860-1861) and
was chartered as a city in 1883.
HAMON, JEAN LOUIS (1821-1874)^ French painter, was
born at rlouha on the 5th of May 1821, At an early age he was
intended for the priesthood, and placed under the care of the
brothers L&mennais, but his strong desire to become a painter
.finally triumphed over family opposition, and in 1840 he courage-
ously left Plouha for Paris--his sole resources being a pension
of five hundred francs, granted him for one year only by the
municipality of his native town. At Paris Hamon received valu-
able counsels and encouragement from Delaroche and Gleyre,
and in 1848 he made his appearance at the Salon with " Le
Tombeau du Christ " (Musee de Marseille), and a decorative work,
" Dessus de Porte." The works which he exhibited in 184?) —
" Une Affiche romaine," " L'£galit6 au serail," and " Perroquet
jasant avec deux jeunes filles " — obtained no marked success.
Hamon was therefore content to accept a place in the manu-
factory of S&vrcs, but an enamelled casket by his hand having
attracted notice at the London International Exhibition of 185 1,
he received a medal, and, reinspired by success, left his post to
try his chances again at the Salon of 1852. " La Comedie
huroaine," which he then exhibited, turned the tide of his
fortune, and " Ma sceur n'y est pas " (purchased by the emperor)
obtained for its author a third-class medal in 1853. At the Paris
International Exhibition of 1855, when Hamon re-exhibited
the casket of 1851, together with several vases and pictures of
which " L* Amour et son troupeau," " Ce n'est pas moi," and
" Une Gardeuse d'enfants" were the chief, he received a medal
of the second class, and the ribbon of the legion of honour. In
the following year he was absent in the East, but in 1857 he
reappeared with " Boutique a quatre sous," " Papillon en-
chaiaey " Cantharide csclave," " Devideuses," &c, in all ten
pictures; " L'Amour en visite " was contributed to the Salon
of 1859, w*d " Vierge de Lesbos," " Tutelle," " La Voliere,"
"L'Escarnoteur" and "La Sceur alnee" were all seen in 1861.
Hamon now spent some time in Italy, chiefly at Capri, whence
in 1864 he sent to Paris " L'Aurore " and " Un Jour de fianc.ailles."
The influence of Italy was also evident in " Les Muses & PompeV'
his sole contribution to the Salon of 1866, a work which enjoyed
great popularity and was re-exhibited at the International
Exhibition of 1867, together with u La Promenade " and six
other pictures of previous years. His last work, " Le Triste
Rivfige," appeared at the Salon of 1873. It was painted at
St Raphael, where Hamon had finally settled in a little house
on the shores of the Mediterranean, close by Alphonse Karr's
famous garden. In this house he died on the 29th of May 1874.
HAMPDEN, HENRY BOUVERIE WILLIAM BRAND, ist
Viscount 1 (1812-1892), speaker of the> House of Commons,
was the second son of the 21st Baron Dacre,and descended from
John Hampden, the patriot, in the female line; the barony
of Dacre devolved on him in 1800, after he had been created
Viscount Hampden in 1884. He entered parliament as a Liberal
in 1852, and for some time was chief whip of his party. In 1872
he was elected speaker, and retained this post till February
1884. It fell to him to deal with the systematic obstruction of
the Irish Nationalist party, and his speakership . is memorable
for his action on the 2nd of February 188 1 in refusing further
debate on W. E. Forster's Coercion Bill — a step which led to the
formal introduction of the closure into parliamentary procedure.
He died on the 14th of March 1892, being succeeded as 2nd
viscount by his son (h. 1841), who was governor of New South
Wales, 1 895-1899.
HAMPDEN, JOHN (c. 1595-1643), English statesman, the
eldest son of William Hampden, of Great Hampden in Bucking-
hamshire, a descendant of a very ancient family of that place,
said to have been established there before the Conquest, and of
Elizabeth, second daughter of Sir Henry Cromwell, and aunt
of Oliver, the future protector, was born about the year 1595.
By his father's death, when he was but a child, he became the
owner of a good estate and a ward of the crown. He was
educated at the grammar school at Thame, and on the 30th of
March 1610 became a commoner of Magdalen College at Oxford.
In 161 3 he was admitted a student of the Inner Temple. He first
sat in parliament for the borough of Grampound in 162 1, repre-
senting later Wendover in the first three parliaments of Charles L,
Buckinghamshire in the Short Parliament of 1640, and Wendover
again in the Long Parliament. In the early days of his parlia-
mentary career he was content to be overshadowed by Eliot,
as in its later days he was content to be overshadowed by Pym
and to be commanded by Essex. Yet it is Hampden, and not
Eliot or Pym, who lives in the popular imagination as the central
figure of the English revolution in its earlier stages. It is
Hampden whose statue rather than that of Eliot or Pym has
been selected to take its place in St Stephen's Hall as the noblest
type of the parliamentary opposition, as Falkland's has been
selected as the noblest type of parliamentary royalism.
Something of Hampden's fame no doubt is owing to the
position which he took up as the opponent of ship-money. But
it is hardly possible that even resistance to ship-money would
have so distinguished him but for the mingled massiveness and
modesty of his character, his dislike of all pretences in himself
or others, his brave contempt of danger, and his charitable
readiness to shield others as far as possible from the evil
consequences of their actions. Nor was he wanting in that skill
which enabled him to influence men towards the ends at which
he aimed, and which was spoken of as subtlety by those who
disliked his ends.
During these first parliaments Hampden did not, so far as
we know, open his lips in public debate, but he was increasingly
employed in committee work, for which he seems to have had
a special aptitude. In 1626 he took an active part in theprepara-
tionof the charges against Buckingham. In January 1627 he was
bound over to answer at the council board for his refusal to pay
the forced loan. Later in the year he was committed to the gate-
house, and then sent into confinement in Hampshire, from which
he was liberated just before the meeting of the third parliament
of the reign, in which he once more rendered useful but un-
obtrusive assistance to his leaders.
When the breach came in 1629 Hampden is found in epis-
tolary correspondence with the imprisoned Eliot, discussing with
him the prospects of the Massachusetts colony,' or rendering
1 An earlier viscountcy was bestowed in 1776 on Robert Hampden-
Trevor, 4th Baron Trevor (1 706-1783), a great-grandson of the
daughter of John Hampden, the patriot; it became extinct in 1824
by the death of the 3rd viscount.
1 Hampden was one of the persons to whom the earl of Warwick
granted land in Connecticut, out for the anecdote which relates his
attempted emigration with Cromwell there is no foundation (v. under
John Pym).
HAMPDEN, JOHN
hospitality and giving counsel to the patriot's sons now that they
were deprived of a father's personal care. It was not till 1637,
however, that his resistance to the payment of ship-money
gained for his name the lustre which it has never since lost.
(See Ship-Money.) Seven out of the twelve judges sided against
him, but the connexion between the rights of property and the
parliamentary system was firmly established in the popular
mind. The tax had been justified, says Clarendon! who expresses
his admiration at ; Hampden's " rare temper and modesty "
at this crisis, " upon such grounds and reasons as every stander-
by was able to swear was not law " (Hist. i. 150, vii. $2).
In the Short Parliament of 1 640 Hampden stood forth amongst
the leaders. He guided the House, in the debate on the 4th of
May in its opposition to the grant of twelve subsidies in return
for the surrender of ship-money/ Parliament was dissolved the
next day, and on the 6th an unsuccessful search was made among
the .papers of Hampden and of other chiefs of the party to
discover incriminating correspondence with the Scots. During
the eventful months which followed, when Strafford was striv-
ing in vain to force England, in spite of its visible reluctance,
to support the king in his Scottish war, rumour has much to tell
of Hampden's activity in rousing opposition. It is likely enough
that the rumour is in the main true, but we are not possessed
of any satisfactory evidence on the subject.
In the Long Parliament, though Hampden was by no means
a frequent speaker, it is possible to trace his course with sufficient
distinctness. His power consisted in his personal influence,
and as a debater rather than as an orator. " He was not a man
of many words," says Clarendon, " and rarely began the discourse
or made the first entrance upon any business that was assumed,
but; a very weighty speaker, and after he had heard a full debate
and observed how the House was likely to be inclined, took up
the argument and shortly and clearly and craftily so stated it
that he commonly conducted it to the conclusion he desired;
and if he found he could not do that, he never was without the
dexterity to divert the debate to another time, and to prevent the
determining anything in the negative which might prove incon-
venient in the future " (Hist. iii. 31). Unwearied in attendance
upon committees, he was in all things ready to second Pym,
whom he plainly regarded as his leader. Hampden was one of
the eight managers of Strafford's prosecution. Like Pym, he
was in favour of the more legal and regular procedure by im-
peachment rather than by attainder, which at the later stage
was supported by the majority of the Commons; and through
his influence . a compromise was effected by which, while an
attainder was subsequently adopted, Strafford's counsel were,
heard as in the case of an impeachment, and thus a serious breach
between the two Houses, which threatened to cause the break-
down of the whole proceedings, was averted.
There was another point on which there was no agreement.
A large minority wished to retain Episcopacy, and to keep the
common Prayer Book unaltered, whilst the majority were at
least willing to consider the question of abolishing the one and
modifying the other. On this subject the parties which ulti-
mately divided the House and the country itself were fully
formed as early as the 8th of February 1641. It is enough to
say that (v. under Pym) Hampden fully shared in the counsels of
the opponents of Episcopacy. It is not that he was a theoretical
Presbyterian, but the bishops had been in his days so fully
engaged in the imposition of obnoxious ceremonies that it was
difficult, if not impossible, to dissociate them from the cause in
which they were embarked. Closely connected with Hampden's
distrust of the bishops was his distrust of monarchy as it then
existed. The dispute about the church therefore soon attained
the form of an attack upon monarchy, and, when the majority
of the House of Lords arrayed itself on the side of Episcopacy
and the Prayer Book, of an attack upon the House of Lords as
well.
No serious importance therefore can be attached to the offers
of advancement made from time to time to Hampden and his
friends. Charles would gladly have given them office if they had
been ready to desert their principles. Every day Hampden's
9OI
conviction grew stronger that Charles would never abandon the
position which he had taken up. In August 1640 Hampden
was one of the four commissioners who attended Charles in
Scotland, and the king's conduct there, connected with such
events as the " Incident," must have proved to a man far less
sagacious than Hampden that the time for compromise had gone
by. He was therefore a warm supporter of the Grand Remon-
strance, and was marked out as one of the five impeached
members whose attempted arrest brought at last the opposing
parties into open collision (see also Pym, Strode, Holles and
Lenthall). In the angry scene which arose on the proposal
to print the Grand Remonstrance, it was Hampden's personal
intervention which prevented an actual conflict, and it was after
the impeachment had been attempted that Hampden laid down
the two conditions under which resistance to the king became
the duty of a good subject. Those conditions were an attack
upon religion and an attack upon the fundamental laws. There
can be no doubt that Hampden fully belipved that both those
conditions were fulfilled at the opening of 164a.
When the Civil War began, Hampden was appointed a member
of the committee for safety, levied a regiment of Buckingham-
shire men for the parliamentary cause, and in his capacity of
deputy-lieutenant carried out the parliamentary militia ordinance
in the county. In the earlier operations of the war he bore him-
self gallantly and well. He took po actual part in the battle of
Edgehill. His troops in the rear, however, arrested Rupert's
charge at Kineton, and he urged Essex to renew the attack here,
and also after the disaster at Brentford. In 1643 he was present
at the siege and capture of Reading* But it is not on his skill
as a regimental officer that Hampden's fame rests. In war as
in peace his distinction lay in his power of disentangling the
essential part from the non-essential. In the previous con-
stitutional struggle he had seen that the one thing necessary was
to establish the supremacy of the House of Commons. In the
military struggle which followed he saw, as Cromwell saw
afterwards, that the one thing necessary was to beat the enemy.
He protested at once against Essex's hesitations and com-
promises. In the formation of the confederacy of the six
associated counties, which was to supply a basis for Cromwell's
operations, he took an active part. His influence was felt alike
in parliament and in the field. But he was not in supreme
command, and he had none of .that impatience which often
leads able men to fail in the execution of orders of which they
disapprove. His precious life was a sacrifice to his unselfish
devotion to the call of discipline and duty. On the 18th of June
1643, when he was. holding out on Chalgrove Field against the
superior numbers of Rupert till reinforcements arrived, he
received two carbine balls in the shoulder. Leaving the field
he reached Thame, survived six days, and died on the 24th.
Hampden married (1) in 1610 Elizabeth, daughter of Edmund
Symeon of Pyrton, Oxfordshire, and (2) Letitia, daughter of
Sir Francis Knollys and widow of Sir Thomas Vachell. By his
first wife he had nine children, one of whom, Richard (1631-1695)
was chancellor of the exchequer in William IIL's reign; from
two of his daughters are descended the families of . Trevor-
Hampden and Hobart-Hampden, the descent in the male line
becoming apparently extinct in 1754 in the person of John
Hampden.
John Hampden the younger (c. 1 656-1 696), the second son
of Richard Hampden, returned to England after residing for
about two years in France, and joined himself to Lord William
Russell and Algernon Sidney and the party opposed to the
arbitrary government of Charles II. With Russell and Sidney
he was arrested in 1683 for alleged complicity in the Rye House
Plot, but more fortunate than his colleagues his life was spared,
although as he was unable to pay the fine of £40,000 which was
imposed upon him he remained in prison. Then in 1685, after
the failure of Monmouth's rising, Hampden was again brought
to trial, and on a charge of high treason was condemned to death.
But the sentence was not carried out, and having paid £6000
he was set at liberty. In the Convention parliament of 1689 he
represented Wendover, but in the subsequent parliaments he
902
failed to secure a seat. He died by bis own hand on the 1 2th
of December 1696. Hampden wrote numerous pamphlets, and
Bishop Burnet described him as " one of the learnedest gentlemen
I ever knew."
See S. R. Gardiner's Hist, of England and of the Great CwU War;
the article on Hampden in the Diet, of Nat. Biography t by C. H.
Firth, with authorities there collected; Clarendons Hist, of the
Rebellion; Sir Philip Warwick's Mems. p. 239; Wood'9 A th.
Oxon. iii. 59; Lord Nugent 's Memorials of John Hampden (1811);
Macaulay's Essay on Hampden (1831). The printed pamphlet
announcing his capture of Reading in December 1642 is shown by
Mr Firth to be spurious, and the account in Mercurius Aulicus,
January 27 and 29, 1643, of Hampden commanding an attack at
Brill, to be also false, while the published speech supposed to be
spoken by Hampden on the 4th of January 1642, and reproduced
by Forster in the Arrest of the Five Members (1660), has been proved
by Gardiner to be a forgery (Hist, of England, x. 135). Mr Firth
has also shown in The Academy for 1889, November 2 and 9, that
" the belief that we possess the words of Hampden's last prayer
must be abandoned."
HAMPDEN, RENN DICKSON (1 793-1 $68), English divine,
was born in Barbados, where his father was colonel of militia,
in 1793, and was educated at Oriel College, Oxford. Having
taken his B.A. degree with first-class honours in both classics
and mathematics in 181 3, he next year obtained the chancellor's
prize for a Latin essay, and shortly afterwards was elected to
a fellowship in his college, Keble, Newman and Arnold being
among his contemporaries. Having left the university in 18 16
he held successively a number of curacies, and in 1827 he pub-
lished Essays on the Philosophical Evidence of Christianity,
followed by a volume of Parochial Sermons illustrative of the
importance of the Revelation of God in Jesus Christ (1828). In
1829 he returned to Oxford and was Bampton lecturer in 1832.
Notwithstanding a charge of Arianismnow brought against him
by the Tractarian party, he in 1833 passed from a tutorship
at Oriel to the principalship of St Mary's Hall. In 1834 he was
appointed professor of moral philosophy, and despite much
university opposition, Regius professor of divinity in 1836.
There resulted a widespread and violent though ephemeral
controversy, after the subsidence of which he published a Lecture
on Tradition, which passed through several editions, and a volume
on The Thirty-nine Articles of the Church of England. His
nomination by Lord John Russell to the vacant see of Hereford
in December 1847 was again the signal for aviolent and organized
opposition; and his consecration in March 1848 took place in
spite of a remonstrance by many of the bishops and the resistance
of Dr John Merewether, the dean of Hereford, who went so far
as to vote against the election when the conge* d'tlire reached
the chapter. As bishop of Hereford Dr Hampden made no
change- in his long-formed habits of studious seclusion, and
though he showed no special ecclesiastical activity or zeal, the
diocese certainly prospered in his charge. Among the more
important of his later writings were the articles on Aristotle,
Plato and Socrates, contributed to the eighth edition of the
Encyclopaedia Britannica, and afterwards reprinted with
additions under the title of The Fathers of Greek Philosophy
(Edinburgh, 1862). In 1866 he had a paralytic seizure, and
died in London on the 23rd of April 1868.
His daughter, Henrietta Hampden, published Some Memorials of
R. D. Hampden in 1871.
HAMPDEN-SIDNEY, a village of Prince Edward county,
Virginia, U.S.A., about 70 m. S.W. of Richmond. Pop. about
350. Daily stages connect the village with Farinville (pop. in
1900, 2471), the county-seat, 6 m. N.E., which is served by the
Norfolk & Western and the Tidewater & Western railways.
Hampden-Sidney is the seat of Hampden-Sidney College,
founded by the presbytery of Hanover county as Hampden-
Sidney Academy in 1 7 76, and named in honour of John Hampden
and Algernon Sidney. It was incorporated as Hampden-Sidney
College in 1783. The incorporators included James Madison,
Patrick Henry (who is believed to have drafted the college
charter), Paul Carrington, William Cabell, Sen., and Nathaniel
Venable. The Union Theological School was established in
connexion with the college in 181 2, but in 1898 was removed
to Richmond, Virginia. In 1907-1908 the college had 8 in-
HAMPDEN, R. D.— HAMPSHIRE
structors, 125 students, and a library of it, 000 volumes. The
college has maintained a high standard of instruction, and many
of its former students have been prominent as public men,
educationalists and preachers. Among them were President
William Henry Harrison, William H. Cabell (1772-1853),
president of the Virginia Court of Appeals; George M. Bibb
(1772-1859), secretary of the treasury (1844-1845) in President
Tyler's cabinet; William B. Preston (1805-1862), secretary of
the navy in 1840-1850; William Cabell Rives and General
Sterling Price (1809-1867).
HAMPSHIRE (or County of Southaicpton, abbreviated
Hants), a southern county of England, bounded N. by Berkshire,
E. by Surrey and Sussex, S. by the English Channel, and W.
by Dorsetshire and Wiltshire. The area is 1623* 5 sq. m. From
the coast of the mainland, which is for the most part low and
irregular, a strait, known in its western part as the Solent, and
in its eastern as Spithead, separates the Isle of Wight. This
island is included in the county. The inlet of Southampton
Water opens from this strait, penetrating inland in a north-
westerly direction for 12 m. The easterly part of the coast forms
a large shallow bay containing Hayling and Portsea Islands,
which divide it into Chichester Harbour, Langston Harbour
and Portsmouth Harbour. The westerly part forms the more
regular indentations of Christchurch Bay and part of Poole Bay.
In its general aspect Hampshire presents a beautiful variety of
gently rising hills and fruitful valleys, adorned with numerous
mansions and pleasant villages, and interspersed with extensive
tracts of woodland. Low ranges of hills, included in the system
to which the general name of the Western Downs is given, reach
their greatest elevation in the northern and eastern parts of the
county, where there are many picturesque eminences, of which
Beacon, Sidown and Pilot hills near Highclere in the north-west,
each exceeding 850 ft., are the highest. The portion of the county
west of Southampton Water is almost wholly included in the
New Forest, a sequestered district, one of the few remaining
examples of an ancient afforested tract. The river Avon in the
south-west rises in Wiltshire, and passing Fordmgbridge and
Ringwood falls into Christchurch Bay below Christchurch,
being joined close to its mouth by the Stour. The Lymington
or Boldre river rises in the New Forest, and after collecting the
waters of several brooks falls into the Solent through Lymington
Creek. The Beaulieu in the eastern part of the forest also enters
the Solent by way of a long and picturesque estuary. The
Test rises near Overton in the north, and after its junction with
the Anton at Fullerton passes Stockbridge and Romsey, and
enters the head of Southampton Water. The Itchen rises near
Alresford, and flowing by Winchester and Eastleigh falls into
Southampton Water east of Southampton. The Hamble rises
near Bishops Waltham, and soon forms a narrow estuary opening
into Southampton Water. The Wey , the Loddon and the Black-
water, rising in the north-eastern part of the county, bring that
part into the basin of the Thames. The streams from the chalk
hills run clear and swift, and the trout-fishing in the county is
famous. Salmon are taken in the Avon.
Geology. — Somewhat to the north of the centre of the county is
a broad expanse of hilly chalk country about 21m. wide; the whole
of it has been bent up into a great fold so that the strata on the north
dip northward steeply in places, while those on the south dip in the
opposite direction more gently. In the north the chalk disappears
beneath Tertiary strata of the " London Basin," and some little
distance south of Winchester it runs in a similar manner beneath
the Tertiaries of the " Hampshire Basin." Scattered here and there
over the chalk are small outlying remnants which remain to show
that the two Tertiary areas were once continuous, before the agencies
of denudation had removed them from the chalk. These same
agencies have exposed the strata beneath the chalk over a small
area on the eastern border.
The oldest formation in. Hampshire is the Lower Greensand in the
neighbourhood of Woolmer Forest and Petersfield ; it is represented
by the Hythe beds, sandstones and limestones which form the
high ridge which runs on towards Hind Head, then by the sands
and clays of the Sandgate beds which lie in the low ground west
of the ridge, and finally by the Folkestone beds; all these dip
westward beneath the Gault. The last-named formation, a clay,
worked here and* there for bricks, crops out as a narrow band from
Fareham through Worldham and Stroud common to Petersfield*
HAMPSHIRE
903
Between the Gault and the chalk is the Upper Greensand with a
hard bed of calcareous sandstone, the Malm rock, which stands
up in places as a prominent escarpment. The Upper Greensand is
also exposed at Burghclere as an inlier; the rocks are bent into
a sharp anticline and the chalk, having been denuded from its crest,
the older sandy strata are brought to light. A much more gentle
anticline brings up the chalk through the Tertiary rocks in the neigh-
bourhood of Farenam. Besides occupying the central region already
mentioned, which includes Basingstoke, Whitchurch, Andover,
Alresford and Winchester, the chalk appears also in a small patch
round Rockbourne. The Tertiary rocks of the north (London basin)
about Farnborough, Aldershot and Kingsclere, comprise the Reading
beds, London clay and the more sandy Bagshot beds which cover
the latter in many places, giving rise to heathy commons. The
southern Tertiary rocks of the Hampshire basin include the Lower
Eocene Reading beds — used for brick-making — and the London
clay which extend from the boundary of the chalk by Romsey,
Bishop's Waltham, to Havant. These are succeeded towards the
south by the Upper Eocene beds, the Bracklesham beds and the
Barton clay. The Barton clays are noted for their abundant
fossils and the Bagshot beds at Bournemouth contain numerous
remains of subtropical plants. A series of clays and sands of
Qligocene age (unknown in the London basin) are found in the
vicinity of Lymington, Brockenhurst and Beaulieu; they include
the Headon beds, with a fluvio-marine fauna, well exposed at Hord-
well cliffs, and the marine beds of Brockenhurst. Numerous small
outliers of Tertiary rocks are scattered over the chalk area, and
many of the chalk and Tertiary areas are obscured by patches of
Pleistocene deposits of brick earth and gravel.
Agriculture and Industries. — Nearly seven- tenths of the total area
is undercultivation (an amount below the average of English counties)
and of this areaabout two-fifths is in permanent pasture. The acreage
under oats is roughly equal to that under wheat and barley. Small
quantities of rye and hops are cultivated. Barley is usually sown
after turnips, and is more grown in the uplands than in the lower
levels. Beans, pease and potatoes are only grown to a small extent.
On account of the number of sheep pastured on the uplands a large
acreage of turnips is grown. Rotation grasses are grown chiefly
in the uplands, and their acreage is greater than in any other of
the southern counties of England. Sanfoin is the grass most largely
gtfown, as it is best adapted to land with a calcareous subsoil. In
the lower levels no sanfoin and scarcely any clover is grown, the hay
being supplied from the rich water meadows, which are managed
with great skill and attention, and give the best money return of any
lands in the county. Where a rapid stream of water can be passed
over them during the winter it seldom becomes frozen., and the grasses
grow during the cold weather so as to be fit for pasture before any
traces of vegetation appear in the surrounding fields. Hops are
grown in the eastern part of the county bordering on Surrey. Farm-
ing is generally conducted on the best modern principles, but owing
to the varieties of soil there is perhaps no county in England in which
the rotation pbserved is more diversified, or the processes and
methods more varied. Most of the farms are large, and there are a
number of model farms. The waste land has been mostly brought
under tillage, but a very large acreage of the ancient forests is still
occupied by wood. In addition to the New Forest there are in the
east Woolmer Forest and Alice Holt, in the south-east the Forest of
Bere and Waltham Chase, and in the Isle of Wight Parkhurst Forest.
The honey of the county is especially celebrated. Much attention
is paid to the rearing of sheep and cattle. The original breed of
sheep was white-faced with horns, but most of the flocks are now of
a Southdown variety which have acquired certain distinct peculiari-
ties, and are known as " short wools " or " Hampshire downs."
Cattle are of no distinctive breed, and are kept largely for dairy
purposes, especially for the supply of milk. The breeding and rear-
ing of horses is widely practised, and the fattening of pigs has long
been an important industry. The original breed of pigs is crossed
with Berkshire, Essex and Chinese pigs. In the vicinity of the forest
the pigs are fed on acorns and beechmast, and the flesh of those so
reared is considered the best, though the reputation of Hampshire
bacon depends chiefly on the skilful manner in which it is cured.
The manufactures are unimportant, except those carried on at
Portsmouth and Gosport in connexion with the royal navy. South-
ampton is one of the principal ports in the kingdom. In many of the
towns there are breweries and tanneries, and paper is manufactured
at several places. Fancy pottery and terra-cotta are made at
Fareham and Bishop's Waltham; and Ringwood is celebrated for its
knitted gloves. At most of the coast towns fishing is carried on,
and there are oyster beds at Hayling Island. Cowes in the Isle of
Wight is the station of the Royal Yacht Squadron, and has building
yards for yachts and large vessels. The principal seaside resorts
besides those in the Isle of Wight are Bournemouth, Milford, Lee-on-
the-Solent, Southsea and South Hayling. Aldershot is the principal
military training centre in the British Isles.
Communications. — Communications are prtvided mainly by the
Unes of the London & South-Western railway company, which also
owns the docks at Southampton. The main line serves Farnborough,
Basingstoke, Whitchurch and Andover, and a branch diverges
southward from Basingstoke for Winchester, Southampton and the
New Forest and Bournemouth. An alternative line from eastward
to Winchester serves Aldershot, Alton and Alresford. The main
Portsmouth line skirts the south-eastern border by Petersfield to
Havant, where it joins the Portsmouth line of the London, Brighton
& South Coast railway. The South- Western system also connects
Portsmouth and Gosport with Southampton, has numerous branches
in the Southampton and south-western districts, and large work
shops at Eastleigh near Southampton. The Great Western company
serves Basingstoke from Reading and Whitchurch, Winchester and
Southampton from Didcot (working the Didcot, Newbury & South-
ampton line); the Midland & South- Western Junction line connects
Andover with Cheltenham; and the Somerset & Dorset (also a
Midland & South-Western joint line) connects Bournemouth with
Bath — all these affording through communications between South-
ampton, Bournemouth, and the midlands and north of England.
None of the rivers, except in the estuarine parts, is navigable.
Population and Administration. — The area of the ancient county
is 1,039,031 acres, including the Isle of Wight. The population
was 690,097 in 1891 and 797.634 in 1901. The area of the adminis-
trative county of Southampton is 958,742 acres, and that of the ad-
ministrative county of the Isle of Wight 94,068 acres. The county
is divided for parliamentary purposes into the following divisions :
Northern or Basingstoke, Western or Andover, Eastern orPetersfield,
Southern or Fareham, New Forest, and Isle of Wight, each return-
ing one member. It also includes the parliamentary boroughs of
Portsmouth and Southampton, each returning two members, and
of Christchurch and Winchester, each returning one. There, are n
municipal boroughs: Andover (pop. 6509), Basingstoke (9793
Bournemouth (59,762), Christchurch (4204), Lymington (4165
Portsmouth (188,133), Romsey (4365), Southampton (104,824,,
Winchester (20,929), and in the Isle of Wight, Newport (10,911)
and Ryde (11,043). Bournemouth, Portsmouth and Southampton
are county boroughs. The following are urban districts : Aldershot
(3°.974)» Alton (5479), Eastleigh and Bishopstoke (9317), Fareham
(8246), Farnborough (11,500), Gosport and Alverstobe (28,884),
Havant (3837). Itchen (13,097), Petersfield (3265), Warblington
(3639); and in the Isle of Wight, Cowes (8652), East Cpwes
(3196), St Helen's (4652), Sandown (5006), Shanklin (45.33). Ventnor
(5866). The county is in the western circuit, and assizes are held
at Winchester. It has one court of quarter sessions, and is divided
into 14 petty sessional divisions. The boroughs of Andover, Basing-
stoke, Bournemouth, Lymington, Newport, Portsmouth, Romsey,
Ryde, Southampton (a county in itself) and Winchester have
separate commissions of the peace, and the boroughs of Andover,
Bournemouth, Portsmouth, Southampton and Winchester have
in addition separate courts of quarter sessions. There are 394 civil
parishes. Hampshire is in the diocese of Winchester, excepting
small parts in those of Oxford and Salisbury, and contains 411
ecclesiastical parishes or districts wholly or in part.
Hislory.-^-Tbe earliest English settlers in the district which
is now Hampshire were a Jutish tribe who occupied the northern
parts of the Isle of Wight and the valleys of the Meon and the
HambJe. Their settlements were, however, unimportant, and
soon became absorbed in the territory: of the West Saxons who
in 495 landed at the mouth of the Itchen under the leadership
of Cerdic and Cynric, and in 508 slew 5000 Britons and their
king. But it was not until after another decisive victory at
Charford in 519 that the district was definitely organized as
West Saxon territory under the rule of Cerdic and Cynric, thus
becoming the nucleus of the vast later kingdom of Wessex. The
Isle of Wight was subjugated in 530 and bestowed on Stuf and
Wihtgar, the nephews of Cerdic. The Northmen made their first
attack on the Hampshire coast in 835, and for the two centuries
following the district wa& the scene of perpetual devastations
by the Danish pirates, who made their headquarters in the Isle
of Wight, fromwhich theyphmdered the opposite coast. Hamp-
shire suffered less from the Conquest than almost any English
county, and was a favourite resort of the Norman kings. The
alleged destruction of property for the formation of the New
Forest is refuted by the Domesday record, which shows that
this district had never been under cultivation.
In the civil war of Stephen's reign Baldwin de Redvers, lord
of the Isle of Wight, supported the empress Matilda, and Win-
chester Castle was secured in her behalf by Robert of Gloucester,
while the neighbouring fortressof Wolvesey was held for Stephen
by Bishop Henry de filois. In 12 16 Louis of France, having
arrived in the county by invitation of the barons, occupied
Winchester Castle, and only met with resistance at Odiham
Castle, which made a brave stand against him for fifteen days.
During the Wars of the Roses Anthony Woodville, 2nd earl
Rivers, defeated the duke of Clarence at Southampton, and in
1471,. after the battle of Barnet, the countess of Warwick took
9°4
HAMPSHIRE
sanctuary at Beaulieu Abbey. The chief events connected
with Hampshire in the Civil War of the 17 th century were the
gallant resistance of the cavalier garrisons at Winchester and
Basing House; a skirmish near Cheriton in 1644 notable as the
last battle fought on Hampshire soil; and the concealment of
Charles at Titchfield in 1647 before his removal to Carisbrooke.
The duke of Monmouth, whose rebellion met with considerable
support in Hampshire, was captured in 1685 near Ringwood.
Hampshire was among the earliest shires to be created, and
must have received its name before the revival of Winchester
in the latter half of the 7th century. It is first mentioned in the
Saxon chronicle in 755, at which date the boundaries were
practically those of the present day. The Domesday Survey
mentions 44 hundreds in Hampshire, but by the 14th century
the number had been reduced to 37. The hundreds of East
Medina and West Medina in the Isle of Wight are mentioned in
13 16. Constables of the hundreds were first appointed by the
Statute of Winchester in 1285, and the hundred court continued
to elect a high constable for Fordingbridge until 1878. The
chief court of the Isle of Wight was the Knighten court held at
Newport every three weeks. The sheriff's court and the assizes
and quarter sessions for the county were formerly held at
Winchester, but in 1831 the county was divided into 14 petty
sessional divisions; the quarter sessions for the county were
held at Andover; and Portsmouth, Southampton and Win-
chester had separate jurisdiction. Southampton was made a
county by itself with a separate sheriff in 1447.
In the middle of the 7th century Hampshire formed part of
the West Saxon bishopric of Dorchester-on-Thames. On the
transference of the episcopal seat to Winchester in 676 it was
included in that diocese in which it has remained ever since.
In 1291 the archdeaconry of Winchester was coextensive with
the county and comprised the ten rural deaneries of Alresford,
Alton, Andover, Basingstoke, Drokinsford, Fordingbridge, Isle
of Wight, Somboume, Southampton and Winchester. In 1850
the Isle of Wight was subdivided into the deaneries of East
Medina and West Medina. In 1856 the deaneries were increased
to 24. In 1 87 1 the archdeaconry of the Isle of Wight was
constituted, and about the same time the deaneries were reduced
to at. In 1892 the deaneries were reconstituted and made 18 in
number, and the archdeaconry of the Isle of Wight was divided
into the deaneries of East Wight and West Wight.
After the Conquest the most powerful Hampshire baron was
William Fitz-Osbern, who in addition to the lordship of the
Isle of Wight held considerable estates on the mainland. At the
time of the Domesday Survey the chief landholders were Hugh
de Port, ancestor of the Fitz- Johns; Ralf de Mortimer; William
Mauduit whose name is preserved in Hartley Mauditt; and
Waleran, called the Huntsman, ancestor of the Waleraund
family. Hursley near Winchester was the seat of Richard
Cromwell; and Gilbert White, the naturalist, was curate of
Farringdon near Selborne.
Apart from the valuable foreign and shipbuilding trade which
grew up with the development of its ports, Hampshire has
always been mainly an agricultural county, the only important
manufacture being that of wool and cloth, which prospered at
Winchester in the 1 2th century and survived till within recent
years. Salt-making and the manufacture of iron from native
ironstone also nourished in Hampshire from pre-Norman times
until within the 1 9th century. In the 1 4th century Southampton
had a valuable trade with Venice, and from the 15th to the 18th
century many famous warships were constructed in its docks.
Silk-weaving was formerly carried on at Winchester, Andover,
Odiham, Alton, Whitchurch and Overton, the first mills being
set up in 1684 at Southampton by French refugees. The paper
manufacture at Laverstoke was started by the Portals, a family
of Huguenot refugees, in 1685, and a few years later Henri de
Portal obtained the privilege of supplying the bank-note paper
to the Bank of England.
Hampshire returned four members to parliament in 1295, when
the boroughs of New Alresford, Alton, Andover, Basingstoke,
Overton, Portsmouth, Southampton, Winchester, Yarmouth
and Newport were also represented. After this date the
county was represented by two members, but most of the
boroughs ceased to make returns. Odiham and the Isle of
Wight were represented in 1300, Fareham in 1306, and Peters-
field in 1307. From 1311 to 1547 Southampton, Portsmouth,
and Winchester were the only boroughs represented. By the
end of the 16th century Petersfield, Newport, Yarmouth,
and Andover had regained representation, and Stockbridge,
Christchurch, Lymington, Newtown and Whitchurch returned
two members each, giving the county with its boroughs a total
representation of 26 members. Under the Reform Act of 1832
the county returned four members in four divisions; Christchurch
and Petersfield lost one member each; and Newtown, Yarmouth,
Stockbridge and Whitchurch were disfranchised. By the act
of 1868 Andover, Lymington and Newport were deprived of
one member each.
Antiquities. — Hampshire is rich in monastic remains. Those
considered under separate headings include the monastery of
Hyde near Winchester, the magnificent churches at Christchurch
and Romsey, the ruins of Netley Abbey, and of Beaulieu Abbey
in the New Forest, the fragments of the priory of St Denys,
Southampton, the church at Porchester and the slight ruins at
Titchfield, near Fareham, and Quarr Abbey in the Isle of Wight.
Other foundations, of which the remains are slight, were the
Augustinian priory of South wick near Fareham, founded by
William of Wykeham; that of Breamore, founded by Baldwin
de Redvers, and that of Mottisfont near Romsey, endowed soon
after the Conquest. There are many churches of interest, apart
from the cathedral church of Winchester and those in some
of the towns in the Isle of Wight, or already mentioned in con-
nexion with monastic foundations. Pre-Conquest work is well
shown in the churches of Corhampton and Breamore, and very
early masonry is also found in Headbourne Worthy church,
where is also a brass of the 15 th century to a scholar of Winchester
College in collegiate dress. .The most noteworthy Norman
churches are at Chilcombe and Kingsclere and (with Early
English additions) at Brockenhurst, Upper Clatford, which has
the unusual arrangement of a double chancel arch, Hambledon,
Milford and East Meon. Principally Early English are the
churches of Cheriton, Grately, which retains some excellent
contemporary stained glass from Salisbury cathedral; Sopley,
which is partly Perpendicular; and Thruxton, which contains a
brass to Sir John Lisle (d. 1407), affording a very early example
of complete plate armour. Specimens of the later styles are
generally less remarkable. The frescoes in Bramley church,
ranging in date from the 13th to the 15th century, include a
representation of the murder of Thomas a Beckett. A fine
series of Norman fonts in black marble should be mentioned;
they occur in Winchester cathedral and the churches of St
Michael, Southampton, East Meon and St Mary Bourne.
The most notable old castles are Carisbrooke in the Isle of
Wight; Porchester, a fine Norman stronghold embodying
Roman remains, on Portsmouth Harbour; and Hurst, guarding
the mouth of the Solent, where for a short time Charles I. was
imprisoned. Henry VIII. built several forts to guard the Solent,
Spithead and Southampton Water; Hurst Castle was one,
and others remaining, but adapted to various purposes, are at
Cowes, Calshot and Netley. Fine mansions are unusually
numerous. That of Stratfieldsaye or Strathfieldsaye, which
belonged to the Pitt family, was purchased by parliament for
presentation to the duke of Wellington in 181 7, his descendants
holding the estate from the Crown in consideration of the annual
tribute of a flag to the guard-room at Windsor. A statue of the
duke stands in the grounds, and his war-horse " Copenhagen "
is buried here. The name of Tichborne Park, near Alresford,
is well known in connexion with the famous claimant of the
estates whose case was heard in 187 1, Among ancient mansions
the Jacobean BramshiU is conspicuous, lying near Stratfieldsaye
in the north of the county. It is built of stone and is highly
decorated, and though the complete original design was not
carried out the house is among the finest of its type in England.
At Bishops Waltham, a small town 10 m. S.S.E. of Winchester,
HAMPSTEAD— HAMPTON
9°5
Henry deBlois, bishop of Winchester, erected a palace, which
received additions from William of Wykeham, who died here
in 1404/ and from other bishops. The ruins are picturesque
bnt not extensive.
. See Victoria County History, " Hampshire," R. Warner, Collections
for the History of Mompshire; &c. (London, 1789); H. Moody,
Hampshire in 1086 (1862), and the same author's Antiquarian and
Topographical Sketches (1846), and Notes and Essays relating to the
Counties of Hants and Wilts (1831)7 R. Mudie, Hampshire, &c.
(3 vols., Winchester, 1838); B. B. Woodward, T. C. WHks and C.
Lockhart, General History of Hampshire (1 861-1869) ; G. N. Godwin,
The Civil War in Hampshire, 1642-164$ (London, 1882); H. M.
Gilbert and G. N. Godwin, BiHiotheca Hantoniensis (Southampton,
1891). See also various papers in Hampshire Notes and Queries
(Winchester, 1883 et »eq.).
HAMPSTfiAD, a north-western metropolitan borough of
London, England, bounded £. by St Pancras and S. by St
Marykbone, and extending N. and W. to the boundary of the
county of London. Fop. (1001), 81)942. The name, Hamstede,
is synonymous with " homestead/' and the manor is first named
in a charter of Edgar (957-075), and was granted to the abbey
of Westminster by Ethelred in 986. It reverted to the Crown in
x 550, and had various owners until the close of the 18th century,
when it came to Sir Thomas Spencer Wilson, whose descendants
retain it. The borough includes the sub-manor of Belsize and
£>art of the hamlet of Kilburn.
The surface of the ground is sharply undulating, an elevated
spur extending south-west from the neighbourhood of Highgate;
arid turning south through Hampstead. It reaches a height
of 443 ft. above the level of the Thames. The Edgware Road
bounds Hampstead on the west; and the borough is intersected,
parallel to this thoroughfare, by FihcMey Road, and by Haver-
stock Hill, which, continued under the names of Rosslyn Hill,
High Street, Heath Street, and North End, crosses the Heath
for which Hampstead is chiefly celebrated. This is a fine open
space of about 240 acres, including iti its bounds the summit of
Hampstead Hill. It is a sandy tract, in parts well wooded,
diversified with several small sheets of water, and to a great
extent preserves its natural characteristics unaltered. Beautiful
views, both near and distant, are commanded from many points.
Of all the public grounds within London this is the most valuable
to the populace at large; the number of visitors on a Bank
holiday in August is generally, under favourable conditions,
about 100,000; and strenuous efforts are always forthcoming
from either public or private bodies when the integrity of the
Heath is in any way menaced. As early as 1829 attempts to
save it from the builder are recorded. In 1871 its preservation
as an open space was insured after several years' dispute, when
the lord of the manor gave up his rights. An act of parliament
transferred the ownership to the Metropolitan Board of Works,
to which body the London County Council succeeded. The
Heath is continued eastward in Parliament Hill (borough of
St Pancras), acquired for the public in 1890; and westward
outside the county boundary in Golders Hill, owned by Sir
Spenser Wells, Bart., until 1898. A Protection Society guards
the preservation of the natural beauty and interests of the Heath.
It is not the interests of visitors alone that must be consulted,
for Hampstead, adding to its other attractions a singularly
healthy cHmate, has long been a favourite residential quarter,
especially for lawyers, artists and men of letters. Among
famous residents are found the first earl of Chatham, John
Constable, George Romney, George du Maurier, Joseph Butler,
author of the Analogy, Sir Richard Steele, John Keats, the sisters
Joanna and Agnes Baillie, Leigh Hunt and many others. The
parish church of St John (1747) has several monuments of
eminent persons. Chatham's residence was at North End, a
picturesque quarter yet preserving characteristics of a rural
village; here also Wilkie Collins was born. Three old-estab-
lished inns, the Bull and Bush, the Spaniards, and Jack Straw's
Castle (the name of which has no historical significance), claim
many great names among former visitors; while the Upper
Flask Inn, now a private house, was the meeting-place of the
Kit-Cat Club. Chalybeate springs were discovered at Hampstead
in the 17th century, and early in the 18th rivalled those of
Tunbridge Wells and Epsom. The name of Well Walk recalls
them, but their fame is lost. There are others at Kilburn.
In the south-east Hampstead includes the greater part of
Primrose Hill, a public ground adjacent to the north side of
Regent's Park. The borough has in ail about 350 acres of open
spaces. The name of the sub-manor of Belsize is preserved in
several streets in the central part. Kilburn, which as a district
extends outside the borough, takes name from a stream which,
as the Westbourne, entered the Thames at Chelsea. Fleet Road
similarly recalls the more famous stream which washed the walls
of the City of London on the west. Hampstead has numerous
charitable institutions, amongst which are the North London
consumptive hospital, the Orphan Working School, Haverstock
Hill (1758), the general hospital and the north-western fever
hospital. In Finchley Road are the New and Hackney Colleges,
both Congregational. The parliamentary borough of Hampstead
returns one member. The borough council consists of a mayor,
7 aldermen and 42 councillors. Area, 2265 acres.
HAMPTON, WADE (1818-1002), American cavalry leader
was born on the 28th of March 1818 at Columbia, South Carolina,
the son of Wade Hampton (1791-1858), one of the wealthiest
planters in the South, and the grandson of Wade Hampton
(1754-1835), a captain in the War of Independence and. a
brigadier-general in the War of 1812. He graduated (1836) at
South Carolina College, and was trained for the law. He devoted
himself, however, to the management of his great plantations in
South Carolina and in Mississippi, and took part in state politics
and legislation. Though his own views were opposed to the
prevailing state-rights tone of South Carolinian opinion, he threw
himself heartily into the Southern cause in 1861, raising a mixed
command known as " Hampton's. Legion/' which he led at the
first battle of Bull Run. 'During the Civil War he served in the
main with the Army of Northern Virginia in Stuart's cavalry
corps. After Stuart's death Hampton distinguished himself
greatly in opposing Sheridan in the Shenandoah Valley, and was
made lieutenant-general to command Lee's whole force of
cavalry. In 1865 he assisted Joseph Johnston in the attempt
to prevent Sherman's advance through the Carolinas. After the
war his attitude was conciliatory and he recommended a frank
acceptance by the South of the war's political consequences.
He was governor of his state in 1 876-1879, being installed after
a memorable contest; he served in the United States Senate
in 1870-1891, and was United States commissioner of Pacific
railways in 1893-1897. He died on the nth of April 1002.
See E. L. Wells, Hampton and Reconstruction (Columbia, S. C,
1907).
HAMPTON, an urban district in the Uxbridge parliamentary
division of Middlesex, England, 15 m. S. W. of St Paul's cathedral,
London, on the river Thames, served by the London & South
Western railway. Pop. (1901), 6813. Close to the river, a mile
below the town, stands Hampton Court Palace, one of the finest
extant specimens of Tudor architecture, and formerly a royal
residence. It was erected by Cardinal Wolsey, who in 151 5
received a lease of the old mansion and grounds for 09 years.
As the splendour of the building seemed to awaken the cupidity
of Henry VIII., Wolsey in 1526 thought it prudent to make him
a present of it. It became Henry's favourite residence, and
he made several additions to the building, including the great
hall and chapel in the Gothic style. Of the original five quad-
rangles only two now remain, but a third was erected by Sir
Christopher Wren for William HI. In 1649 a great sale of
the effects of the palace took place by order of parliament, and
later the manor itself was sold to a private owner but immedi-
ately after came into the hands of Cromwell; and Hampton
Court continued to be one of the principal residences of the
English sovereigns until the time of George II. It was the
birthplace of Edward VI., and the meeting-place (1604) of the
conference held in the reign of James I. to settle the dispute
between the Presbyterians and the state clergy. William III.,
riding in the grounds, met with the accident which resulted in
his death. It is now partly occupied by persons of rank in
reduced circumstances; but the state apartments and picture
xn. 29 a
.906
HAMPTON— HAMPTON ROADS
galleries are open to the public, as is the home park. The
gardens, with their ornamental waters, are beautifully laid out
in the Dutch style favoured by William III., and contain a
magnificent vine planted in 1768. In the enclosure north of the
palace, called the Wilderness, is the Maze, a favourite resort.
North again lies Bushey Park, a royal demesne exceeding 1000
acres in extent. It is much frequented, especially in early
summer, when its triple avenue of horse-chestnut trees is in
blossom.
Among several residences in the vicinity of Hampton is
Garrick Villa, once, under the name of Hampton House, the
residence of David Garrick the actor- Sir Christopher Wren
and Sir Richard Steele are among famous former residents.
Hampton Wick, on the river E. of Bushey Park, is an urban
district with a population (1001) of 2606.
See E. Law, History of Hampton Court Palace (London, 1890).
HAMPTON, a city and the county-seat of Elizabeth City
county, Virginia, U.S.A., at the mouth of the James river, on
Hampton Roads, about 15 m. N.W. of Norfolk. Pop. (1800),
2513; (ioco) 2764, including 1249 negroes; (1910) 5505. It is
served by the Chesapeake & Ohio railway, and by trolley lines
to Old Point Comfort and Newport News. Hampton is an
agricultural shipping point, ships fish, oysters and canned crabs,
and manufactures fish oil and brick. In the city are St John's
church, built in 1727; a national cemetery, a national soldiers'
home (between Phoebus and Hampton), which in 1907-1908
cared for 4093 veterans and had an average attendance of 2261;
and the Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute (co-
educational), which was opened by the American Missionary
Association in 1868 for the education of negroes. This last was
chartered and became independent of any denominational
control in 1870, and was superintended by Samuel Chapman
Armstrong (q.v.) from 1868 to 1893. The school was opened
in 1878 to Indians, whose presence has been of distinct advantage
to the negro, showing him, says Booker T. Washington, the most
famous graduate of the school, that the negro race is not alone
in its struggle for improvement. The National government
pays $167 a year for the support of each of the Indian students.
The underlying idea of the Institute is such industrial training
as will make the pupil a willing and a good workman, able to
teach his trade to others; and the school's graduates include the
heads of other successful negro industrial schools, the organizers
of agricultural and industrial departments in Southern public
schools and teachers in graded negro schools. The mechanism
of the school includes three schemes: that of " work students,"
who work during the day throughout the year and attend night
school for eight months; that of day school students, who attend
school for four or five days and do manual work for one or two
days each week; and that of trade students, who receive trade
instruction in their daily eight-hours' work and study in night
school as well. Agriculture in one or more of its branches is
taught to .all, including the four or five hundred children of the
Whittier school, a practice school with kindergarten and primary
classes. Graduate courses are given in agriculture, business,
domestic art and science, library methods, " matrons' " training,
and public school teaching. The girl students are trained in
every branch of housekeeping, cooking, dairying and gardening.
The institute publishes The Southern Workman, a monthly
magazine devoted to the interests of the Negro and the Indian
and other backward races. In 1008 the Institute had more
than 100 buildings and 188 acres of land S.W. of the national
cemetery and on Hampton river and Jones Creek, and 600 acres
at Shellbanks, a stock farm 6 m. away; the enrolment was
21 in graduate classes, 372 in day school, 489 in night school
and 524 in the Whittier school. Of the total, 88 were Indians.
Hampton was settled in 16 10 on the site of an Indian village,
Kecoughtan, a name it long retained, and was represented at
the first meeting (16 19) of the Virginia House of Burgesses.
It was fired by the British during the War of 181 2 and by the
Confederates under General J. B. Magruder in August 1861.
During the Civil War there was a large Union hospital here,
the building of the Chesapeake Female College, erected in 1.857,
being used for this purpose. Hampton was incorporated as
a town in 1887, and in 1908 became a city of the second class.
HAMPTON ROADS, a channel through which the, waters of
the James, Nansemond and Elizabeth rivers of Virginia, U.S.A.,
pass (between Old Point Comfort to the N. and Sewell's Point
to the S.) into Chesapeake Bay. It is an important highway of
commerce, especially for the cities of Norfolk, Portsmouth and
Newport News, and is the chief rendezvous of the United
States navy. For a width of 500 ft. the Federal government
during 1902-1005 increased its minimum depth at low water
from 25 J ft. to 30 ft. The entrance from Chesapeake Bay is
defended by Fortress Monroe on Old Point Comfort and by
Fort Wood on a small island called the Rip Raps near the middle
of the channel; and at Portsmouth, a few miles up the Elizabeth
river, is an important United States navy-yard.
Hampton Roads is famous in history as the scene of the first
engagement between iron-clad vessels. In the spring of 1861
the Federals set fire to several war vessels in the Gosport navy
yard on the Elizabeth river and abandoned the place. In
June the Confederates set to work to raise one of these abandoned
vessels, the frigate " Merrimac " of 3500 tons and 40 guns, and
to rebuild it as an iron-clad. The vessel (renamed the ' ' Virginia' '
though it is generally known in history by its original name)
was first cut down to the water-line and upon her hull was built
a rectangular casemate, constructed of heavy timber (24 in. in
thickness), covered with bar-iron 4 in. thick,and rising from the
water on each side at an angle of about 35 . The iron plating
extended 2 ft. below the water line; and beyond th^ casemate,
toward the bow, was a cast-iron pilot house, extending 3 ft.
above the deck. The reconstruction of the vessel was completed
on the 5th of March 1862. The vessel drew 22 ft. of water, was
equipped with poor engines, so that it could not make more
than 5 knots, and was so unwieldy that it could not be turned
in less than 30 minutes. It was armed with 10 .guns-r-2 (rifled)
7 in., 2 (rifled) 6 in., and 6 (smooth bore Dahlgren) 9 in. Her
most powerful equipment, however, was her 18 in. cast-iron ram.
In October 1861 Captain John Ericsson, an engineer, and a Troy
(N. Y.) firm, as builders, began the construction of the iron-clad
* ' Monitor " for the Federals, at Greenpoint, Long Island. With
a view to enable this vessel to carry at good speed the thickest
possible armour compatible with buoyancy, Ericsson reduced
the exposed surface to the least possible area. Accordingly,
the vessel was built so low in the water that the waves glided
easily over its deck except at the middle, where was constructed
a revolving turret 1 for the guns, and though the vessel's iron
armour had a thickness of 1 in. on the deck, 5 in. on the side,
and 8 in. on the turret, its draft was only 10 ft. 6 in., or less
than one-half that of the " Merrimac." Its turret k 9 ft. high
and 20 ft. in inside diameter, seemed small • for its length of
172 ft. and its breadth of 41 ft. 6 in., and this, with the lowness of
its freeboard, caused the vessel to be called the " Yankee cheese-
box on a raft." Forward of the turret was the iron pilot house,
square in shape, and rising about 4 ft. above the dock. The
" Monitor's " displacement was about 1 200 tons and her armament
was two n in. Dahlgren guns; her crew numbered 58, while
that of the * ' Merrimac ' ' numbered about 300. She was seaworthy
in the shallow waters off the southern coasts and steered fairly
well. The " Monitor " was launched at Greenpoint, Long Island,
on the 30th of January, and was turned over to the government
on the 19th of the following month. The building of the two
vessels was practically a race between the two combatants.
On the 8th of March about 1 p.m., the " Merrimac," com-
manded by Commodore Franklin Buchanan (1795-1871),
steamed down the Elizabeth accompanied by two one-gun
gun-boats, to engage the wooden fleet of the Federals, consisting
of the frigate " Congress," 50 guns, and the sloop " Cumberland,"
30 guns, both sailing vessels, anchored off Newport. News, and
1 For the idea of the low free-board and the revolving turret
Ericsson was indebted to Theodore R. Timby (1819-1909), who in
1843 had tiled a caveat for revolving towers for offensive or
defensive warfare whether placed on land or water, and to whom
the company building the '* Monitor " paid $5000 royalty for each
turret.
HAMSTER— -HANAPER
907
the steam frigates " Minnesota/' and " Roanoke/' the sailing
frigate " St Lawrence/ 1 and several gun-boats, anchored off
Fortress Monroe. Actual firing began about 2 o'clock, when the
" Merrimac " was nearly a mile from the " Congress " and the
" Cumberland." Passing the first of these vessels with terrific
broadsides, the " Merrimac " rammed the " Cumberland "
and then turned her fire again on the " Congress/' which in an
attempt to escape ran aground and was there under fire from
three other Confederate gun-boats which had meanwhile joined
the " Merrimac." About 3.30 p.m. the " Cumberland," which,
while it steadily careened, had been keeping up a heavy fire at
the Confederate vessels, sank, with " her pennant still flying
from the topmast above the waves." Between 4 and 4.30 the
" Congress," having been raked fore and aft for nearly an hour
by the " Merrimac," was forced to surrender. While directing
a fire of hot shot to burn the " Congress," Commodore Buchanan
of the " Merrimac " was severely wounded and was succeeded
in the command by Lieutenant Catesby ap Roger Jones. The
Federal steam frigates, " Roanoke," " St Lawrence " and
" Minnesota " had all gone aground in their trip from Old Point
Comfort toward the scene of battle, and only the " Minnesota "
was near enough (about 1 m.) to take any part in the fight.
She was in such shallow water that the Confederate iron-clad
ram could not get near her at ebb tide, and about 5 o'clock the
Confederates postponed her capture until the next day and
anchored off SewelTs Point.
The " Monitor," under Lieut. John Lorimer Worden (1818-
1897), had left New York on the morning of the 6th of March;
after a dangerous passage in which she twice narrowly escaped
sinking, she arrived at Hampton Roads during the night of the
8th, and early in the morning of the 9th anchored near the
" Minnesota." When the " Merrimac " advanced to attack the
" Minnesota," the " Monitor " went out to meet her, and the
battle between the ifon-clads began about 9 a.m. on the 9th.
Neither vessel Was able seriously to injure the other, and not
a single shot penetrated the armour of either. The " Monitor"
had the advantage of being able to out-manoeuvre her heavier
and more unwieldy adversary; but the revolving turret made
firing difficult and communications were none too good with the
pilot house, the position of which on the forward deck lessened
the range of the two turret-guns. The machinery worked so
badly that the revolution, of the turret was stopped. After two
hours' fighting, the " Monitor " was drawn off, so that more
ammunition could be placed in her turret. When the battle
was renewed (about 11.30) the "Merrimac" began firing at
the " Monitor's " pilot house; and a little after noon a shot
struck the sight-hole of the pilot house and blinded Lieut.
Worden. The " Monitor " withdrew in the confusion consequent
upon the wounding of her commanding officer; and the
" Merrimac " after a short wait for her adversary steamed back
to Norfolk. There were virtually no casualties on either side.
After the evacuation of Norfolk by the Confederates on the
9th of May Commodore Josiah Tattnall, then in command of
the " Merrimac," being unable to take her up the James, sank
her. The " Monitor " was lost in a gale off Cape Hatteras on
the 31st of December 1862.
Though the battle between the two vessels was indecisive,
its effect was to "neutralize" the "Merrimac," which had
caused great alarm in Washington, and to prevent the breaking
of the Federal blockade at Hampton Roads; in the history of
naval warfare it may be regarded as marking the opening of a
new era — the era of the armoured warship. On the 3rd of
February 1865 near Fortress Monroe on board a steamer occurred
the meeting of President Lincoln and Secretary Seward with
Confederate commissioners which is known as the Hampton
Roads Conference (see Lincoln, Abraham). At Sewell's Point,
on Hampton Roads, in 1907 was held the Jamestown Ter-
centennial Exposition.
See James R. Soley, The Blockade and the Cruisers (New York,
1883); Battles and Leaders of the Civil War, vol. i. (New York,
1887); chap. ii. of Frank M. Bennett's The Monitor and the Navy
under Steam (Boston, 1900) ; and William Swinton, Twelve Decisive
Battles of the War (New York, 1867).
HAMSTER, a European mammal of the order Rodentia,
scientifically known as Cricetus frumentarius (or C. cricetus),
and belonging to the mouse tribe, Muridae, in which it typifies
the sub-family Cricetinae. The essential characteristic of the
Cricetines is to be found in the upper cheek-teeth, which (as
shown in the figure of those of Cricetus in the article Rodentia)
have their cusps arranged in two longitudinal rows separated
by a groove. The hamsters, of which there are several kinds,
are short-tailed rodents, with large cheek-pouches, of which
the largest is the common C. frumentarius. Their geographical
distribution comprises a large portion of Europe and Asia north
of the Himalaya. All the European hamsters show more or less
black on the under-parts, but the small species from Central
Asia, which constitute distinct subgenera, are uniformly grey.
The common species is specially interesting on account of its
habits. It constructs elaborate burrows containing several
chambers, one of which is employed as a granary, and filled with
corn, frequently of several kinds, for winter use. As a rule, the
males, females, and young of the first year occupy separate
burrows. During the winter these animals retire to their burrows,
sleeping the greater part of the time, but awakening about
February or March, when they feed on the garnered grain. They
are very prolific, the female producing several litters in the year,
each consisting of over a dozen blind young; and these, when
not more than three weeks old, are turned out of the parental
burrow to form underground homes for themselves. The burrow
of the young hamster is only about a foot in depth, while that
of the adult descends 4 or 5 ft. beneath the surface. On retiring
for the winter the hamster closes the various entrances to its
burrow, and becomes torpid during the coldest period. Although
feeding chiefly on roots, fruits and grain, it is also to some extent
carnivorous, attacking and eating small quadrupeds, lizards and
birds. It is exceedingly fierce and pugnacious, the males especi-
ally fighting with each other for possession of the females.
The numbers of these destructive rodents are kept in check by
foxes, dogs, cats and pole-cats, which feed upon them. The
skin of the hamster is of some value, and its flesh is used as food.
Its burrows are sought after in the countries where it abounds,
both for capturing the animal and for rifling its store. America,
especially North America, is the home of by far the great majority
of Cricetinae, several of which are called white-footed Or deer-
mice. They are divided into numerous genera and the number
of species is very large indeed. Both in size and form consider-
able variability is displayed, the species of Holochilus being some
of the largest, while the common white-footed mouse (Eligmodcn
leucopus) of North America is one of the smaller forms. Some
kinds, such as Oryzotnys and Peromyscus have long, rat-like
tails, while others, like Acodon, are short- tailed and more vole-
like in appearance. In habits some are partially arboreal, others
wholly terrestrial, and a few more or less aquatic. Among the
latter, the most remarkable are the fish-eating rats (Ichthyowys)
of North-western South America, which frequent streams and
feed on small fish. The Florida rice-rat (Sigmodon hispidus)
is another well-known representative of the group. In the Old
World the group is represented by the Persian Calamysous, a
near relative of Peromyscus. (R. L.*)
HANAPER, properly a case or basket to contain a " hanap "
(O. Eng. hncep; cf. Dutch nap), a drinking vessel, a goblet with
a foot or stem; the term which is still used by antiquaries
for medieval stemmed cups. The famous Royal Gold Cup in
the British Museum is called a " hanap " in the inventory of
Charles VI. of France. The word " hanaper " (Med. Lat.
hanaperium) was used particularly in the English chancery of a
wicker basket in which were kept writs and other documents,
and hence it became the name of a department of the chancery,
now abolished, under an officer known as the clerk or warden of
the hanaper, into which were paid fees and other moneys for
the sealing of charters, patents, writs, &c, and from which issued
certain writs under the great seal (S. R. Scargill-Bird, Guide
to the Public Records (1908). In Ireland it still survives in the
office of the clerk of the crown and hanaper, from which are
issued writs for the return of members of parliament for Ireland.
908
HANAU— HANCOCK, JOHN
Prom " hanaper " is derived the modern " hamper," a wicker
or rush basket used for the carriage of game, fish, wine, &c. The
verb " to hamper," to entangle, obstruct, hinder, especially
used of disturbing the mechanism of a lock or other fastening
so as to prevent its proper working, is of doubtful origin. It is
probably connected with a root seen in the Icel. hemja, to
restrain, and Ger. henttnen, to clog.
HANAU, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Hesse-Nassau, on the right bank of the Main, 14 m. by rail E.
from Frankfort and at the junction of lines to Friedberg, Bebra
and Aschaffenburg. Pop. (1905) 3M&37- It consists of an old
and a new town. The streets of the former are narrow and
irregular, but the latter, founded at the end of the 16th century
by fugitive Walloons and Netherlander, is built in the form of a
pentagon with broad streets crossing at right angles, and possesses
several fine squares, among which may be mentioned the market-
place, adorned with handsome fountains at the four corners.
Among the principal buildings are the ancient castle, formerly
the residence of the counts of Hanau; the church of St John,
dating from the 17th century, with a handsome tower; the old
church of St Mary, containing the burial vault of the counts of
Hanau; the church in the new town, built by the Walloons in
the beginning of the 17th century in the form of two intersecting
circles; the Roman Catholic church, the synagogue, the theatre,
the barracks, the arsenal and the hospital. Its educational
establishments include a classical school, and a school of industrial
art. There is a society of natural history and an historical
society, both of which possess considerable libraries and collec-
tions. Hanau is the birthplace of the brothers Grimm, to whom
a monument was erected here in 1806. In the neighbourhood
of the town are the palace of Philippsruhe, with an extensive
park and large orangeries, and the spa of Wilhelmsbad.
Hanau is the principal commercial and manufacturing town
in the province, and stands next to Cassel in point of population.
It manufactures ornaments of various kinds, cigars, leather,
paper, playing cards, silver and platina wares, chocolate, soap,
woollen cloth, hats, silk, gloves, stockings, ropes and matches.
Diamond cutting is curried on and the town has also foundries,
breweries, and in the neighborhood extensive powder-mills.
It carries on a large trade in wood, wine and com, in addition to
its articles of manufacture.
From the number of urns, coins and other antiquities found
near Hanau it would appear that it owes its origin to a Roman
settlement. It received municipal rights in 1393, and in 1528
it was fortified by Count Philip III. who rebuilt the castle. At
the end of the 16th century its prosperity received considerable
impulse from the accession of the Walloons and Netherlanders.
During the Thirty Years' War it was in 163 1 taken by the
Swedes, and in 1636 it was besieged by the imperial troops,
but was relieved on the 13th of June by Landgrave William V*
of Hesse-Cassel, on account of which the day is still commemor-
ated by the inhabitants. Napoleon on his retreat from Leipzig
defeated the Germans under Marshal Wrede at Hanau, on the
30th of October 1813? and on the following day the allies
vacated the town, when it was entered by the French. Early
in the 1 5th century Hanau became the capital of a principality
of the Empire, which on the death of Count Reinhard in 145 1
was partitioned between the Hanau-Mtinzenberg and Hanau-
Lichtenberg lines, but was reunited in 1642 when the elder line
became extinct. The younger line received princely rank in
1696, but as it became extinct in 1736 Hanau-Munzenberg was
joined to Hesse-Cassel and Hanau-Lichtenberg to Hesse-Darm-
stadt. In 1785 the whole province was united to Hesse-Cassel,
and in 1803 it became an independent principality. In 1815
it again came into the possession of Hesse-Cassel, and in 1866
it was joined to Prussia.
See R. Wille, Hanau im dreissigj&hrigen Krieg (Hanau, 1886);
and Junghaus, Geschichte der Stadt und des Kreises Hanau (1887).
HANBURY WILLIAMS, SIR CHARLES (1708-1759), English
diplomatist and author, was a son of Major John Hanbury
(1664-1734), of Pontypool, Monmouthshire, and a scion of an
ancient Worcestershire family. His great-great-great-grand-
father, Capel Hanbury, bought property at Pontypool and began
the family iron- works there in 1565. His father John Hanbury
was a wealthy iron-master and member of parliament, who
inherited another fortune from his friend Charles Williams of
Caerleon, his son's godfather, with which he bought the Cold-
brook estate, Monmouthshire. Charles accordingly took the
name of Williams in 1729. He went to Eton, and there made
friends with Henry Fielding, the novelist, and, after marrying
in 1732 the heiress of Earl Coningsby, was elected M.P. for
Monmouthshire (1 734-1 747) and subsequently for Leominster
(1754-1759). He became known as one of the prominent
gallants and wits about town, and following Pope he wrote a
great deal of satirical light verse, including Isabella, or the
Morning (1740), satires on Ruth Darlington and Pulleney
(1741-1742), The Country Girl (1742), Lessons for the Day (1742),
Letter to Mr Dodsley (1743), &c. A collection of his poems was
published in 1763 and of his Works in 1822. In 1746 he was
sent on a diplomatic mission to Dresden, which led to further
employment in this capacity; and through Henry Fox's influence
he was sent as envoy to Berlin (1750), Dresden (1751), Vienna
(1753), Dresden (1754) and St Petersburg (i755-i757); in the
latter case he was the instrument for a plan for the alliance
between England, Russia and Austria, which finally broke down,
to his embarrassment. He returned to England, and committed
suicide on the 2nd of November 1759, being buried in West-
minster Abbey. He had two daughters, the elder of whom
married William Capel, 4th earl of Essex, and was the mother of
the 5th earl. The Coldbrook estates went to Charles's brother,
George Hanbury- Williams, to whose heirs it descended.
See William Coxe's Historical Tour in Monmouthshire (1801), and
T. Seccombe's article in the Diet. NaL Biog. with bibliography.
HANCOCK, JOHN (1737-1793), American Revolutionary
statesman, was born in that part of Braintree, Massachusetts,
now known as Quincy, on the 23rd of January 1737. After
graduating from Harvard in 1754, he entered the mercantile
house of his uncle, Thomas Hancock of Boston, who had adopted
him, and on whose death, in 1764, he fell heir to a large fortune
and a prosperous business. In 176$ he became a selectman of
Boston, and from 1766 to 1772 was a member of the Massa-
chusetts general court. An event which is thought to have
greatly influenced Hancock's subsequent career was the seizure
of the sloop " Liberty " in 1768 by the customs officers for dis-
charging, without paying the duties, a cargo of Madeira wine
consigned to Hancock. Many suits were thereupon entered
against Hancock, which, if successful, would have caused the
confiscation of his estate, but which undoubtedly enhanced his
popularity with the Whig element and increased his resentment
against the British government. He was a member of the
committee appointed in a Boston town meeting immediately
after the " Boston Massacre " in 1770 to demand the removal
of British troops from the town. In 1774 and 1775 he was
president of the first and second Provincial Congresses respect-
ively, and he shared with Samuel Adams the leadership of the
Massachusetts Whigs in all the irregular measures preceding
the War of American Independence. The famous expedition
sent by General Thomas Gage of Massachusetts to Lexington
and Concord on the i8th-i9th of April 1775 had for its object,
besides the destruction of materials of war at Concord, the
capture of Hancock and Adams, who were temporarily staying
at Lexington, and these two. leaders were expressly excepted
in the proclamation of pardon issued on the 12th of June by
Gage, their offences, it was said, being " of too flagitious a nature
to admit of any other consideration than that of condign punish*
ment." Hancock was a member of the Continental Congress
from 1775 to 1780, was president of it from May 1775 to October
1777, being the first to sign the Declaration of Independence,
and was a member of the Confederation Congress in 1785-1786.
In 1778 he commanded, as major-general of militia, the Massa-
chusetts troops who participated in the Rhode Island expedition.
He was a member of the Massachusetts Constitutional Convention
of 1 770-1 780, became the first governor of the state, and served
from 1780 to 1785 and again from 1787 until his death. Although
i
HANCOCK, W. S.— HAND, F. G.
909
at irst unfriendly to the Federal Constitution as drafted by the
convention at Philadelphia, he was finally won over to its support,
and in 1788 he presided over the Massachusetts convention which
ratified the instrument. Hancock was not by nature a leader,
but he wielded great influence on account of his wealth and
social position, and was liberal, public-spirited, and, as his
repeated election — the elections were annual — to the governor-
ship attests, exceedingly popular. He died at Quincy, Mass.,
on the 8th of October 1793.
See Abram E. Brown, John Hancock, His Book (boston, 1898), a
work consisting largely of extracts from Hancock's letters.
HANCOCK, WIKFIBLD SCOTT (1824-1886), American general,
was born on the 14th of February 1824, in Montgomery county,
Pa. He graduated in 1844 at the United States Military
Academy, where his career was creditable but not distinguished.
On the 1 st of July 1844 he was breveted, and on the 18th of
June 1846 commissioned second lieutenant. He took part
in the later movements under Winfield Scott against the city
of Mexico, and was breveted first lieutenant for " gallant
and meritorious conduct." After the Mexican war he served
in the West, in Florida and elsewhere; was married in 1850
to Miss Almira Russell of St Louis; became first lieutenant
in 1853, and assistant-quartermaster with the rank of captain
in 1855. The outbreak of the Civil War found him in California.
At his own request he was ordered east, and on the 23rd of
September 1861 was made brigadier-general of volunteers and
assigned to command a brigade in the Army of the Potomac*
He took part in the Peninsula campaign, and the handling of
his troops in the engagement at Williamsburg on the 5th of
May 1862, was so brilliant that McGlellan reported " Hancock
was superb," an epithet always afterwards applied to him. At
the battle of Antietam he was placed in command of the first
division of the II. corps, and in November he was made major-*
general of volunteers, and about the same time 1 was promoted
major in the regular army. In thre disastrous battle of Fredericks-
burg (q.v.), Hancock's division was on the right among the troops
that were ordered to storm Marye's Heights. Out of the 5006
men in his division 2013 feUL At Chancellorsville his division
received both on the 2nd and the 3rd of May the brunt of the
attack of Lee's main army. Soon after the battle he was
appointed commander of the II. corps.
The battle of Gettysburg (q.v.) began on the 1st Of July with
the defeat of the left wing of the Army of the Potomac and the
death of General Reynolds. About the middle of the afternoon
Hancock arrived on the field with orders from Meade to assume
command and to decide whether to continue the fight there or
to fall back. He decided to stay, rallied' the retreating troops,
and held Cemetery Hill and Ridge until the arrival of the main
body of the Federal army. During the second day's battle he
commanded the left centre of the Union army, and after General
Sickles had been wounded, the whole of the left wing. In the
third day's battle he commanded the left centre, upon which
fell the full brunt of Pickett's charge, one of the most famous
incidents of the war. Hancock's superb presence and power
over men never shone more clearly than when, as the 1 50 guns
of the Confederate army opened the attack he calmly rode along
the front of his line to show his soldiers that he shared the
dangers of the cannonade with them. His corps lost in the
battle 4350 out of less than 10,000 fighting men. Rut it had
captured twenty-seven Confederate battle flags and as many
prisoners as it had men when the fighting ceased. Just as the
Confederate troops reached the Union line Hancock was struck
in the groin by a bullet, but continued in command until the
repulse of the attack, and as he was at last borne off the field
earnestly recommended Meade to make a general attack on the
beaten Confederates. The wound proved a severe one, so that
some six months passed before he resumed command.
In the battles of the year 1864 Hancock's part was as important
and striking as in those of 1863. At the Wilderness he com-
manded, during the second day's fighting, half of the Union
army; at Spottsylvania he had charge of the fierce and successful
attack on the " salient "; at Cold Harbor his corps formed the
left wing in the unsuccessful assault on the Confederate Htoes,
In August he was promoted to brigadier-general in the regular
army. In November,.his old wound troubling him, he obtained
a short leave of absence, expecting to return to his corps in the
near future. He was, however, detailed to raise: a new corps,
; and later was placed in charge of the " Middle Division." It waj
expected that he would move towards Lynchburg, as part of a
combined movement against Lee's communications. But before
he could take the field Richmond had fallen and Lee had sur-
rendered. It thus happened that Hancock, who for three yeaift
had been one of the most conspicuous figures in the Army of the
Potomac did not take part in its final triumph.
After the assassination of Lincoln, Hancock was placed in
charge of Washington, and it was under his command that
Booth's accomplices were tried and executed. Jn July 1866
he was appointed major-general in the regular army. A little
later he was placed in command of the department of the
Missouri, and the year following assumed command of the -fifth
military division, comprising Louisiana and Texas. His policy)
however, of discountenancing military trials and conciliating
the conquered did not meet with approval at Washington, and
he was at his own request transferred. Hancock had all his life-
been a Democrat. His splendid war record and his personal
popularity caused his name to be considered as a candidate for
the Presidency as early as i868> and in 1880 he was nominated
for that office by' the Democrats; but he was defeated by
his Republican opponent, General Garfield, though by the
small popular plurality of seven thousand votes.' He died'
at Governor's Island, near New York, on ! the 9th of February
1886. Hancock was in many respects the ideal soldier of the
Northern armies. He was quick, energetic and resourceful,!
reckless of his own safety, a strict disciplinarian, a painstaking
and hard-workmg officer. It was on the field of battle, and
when the fighting was fiercest, that his best qualities came to
the front. He was a born commander of men, and it is doubtftirt
if any other officer in the Northern army could get more fighting
and more marching out of his men. Grant said of him, " -Han-
cock stands the most conspicuous figure of all the general officers
who did not exercise a separate command.' He commanded
a corps longer than any other, and his name was^neVer mentioned
as having committed in battle a blunder for "which he was
responsible." '
A biography of him has been written by General Francis A.
Walker (New York, 1894). See also History of Ikt Secobd Corps, by
the same author (1886). (F» U r H.)
HANCOCK, a city of Houghton tounty, Michigan, W^A.,
on Portage Lake, opposite Houghton. Pop. (1890) 1 772 ; (1900)
4050, of whom 1409 Were foreign-borti; (1904) 6037; (1910)
8981. Hancock is served by thte Mineral' Range, the Copper
Range, the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, and the Dbltith;
South Shore & Atlantic railways (the last two send their trains
in over the Mineral Range tracks), and by steamboats through
the Portage Lake Canal Which connects with Lake Superior;
Hancock is connected by a bridge and an electric line
with the village - of* Houghton (pop. in 1904; 4345), the
county-seat Of Houghton county and the seat of the Michigan*
College of Mines (opened in r886). Hancock has 1 ! three
parks, and a marine and general hospital. The dty is the
seat of a Finnish Lutheran Seminary-^-there are many Finris in
and near Hancock, and a Finnish newspaper is published here.
Hancock is in the Michigan copper region — the Quincy, Franklin
and Hancock mines are in or near the city — and the mining,
working and shipping of copper are the leading industries;
among the city's manufactures are mining machinery, lumber;
bricks and beer. The municipality owns and operates 1 the w*te*J»
works. The electric-fighting plant, the gas plant and the street
railway are owned by private corporations. Hancock was
settled in 1859, was incorporated as a village in 1875, and Was
chartered as a city in 1903. . • • ■ ' '<•
HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1 786-1 85 r), German
classical scholar, was born at Plauen in Saxony on the 1 3th of
February 1786. He studied at Leipzig, in 1810 became professor
<?*Q
HAND— HANDEL
at the Wehhar gymnasium, and in 1817 professor of philosophy
and Greek literattnre in the university of Jena, where he remained
till his death on the 14th of March 1851. The work by which
Hand is chiefly known is his (unfinished) edition of the treatise
of Horatius Tursellinus (Orazio Torselfino, 154S-1590) on the
Latiii particles {Tursellinus , sou de particulis Latinis com-
meHtarii, 1829-1845) . Like his treatise on Latin style (Lekrbuch
des lateinischen Stils, 3rd ed. by H. L. Schmitt, 1880), it is too
abstruse and philosophical for the use of the ordinary student.
Band was also an enthusiastic musician, and in his Asthelik der
Tonkunst (1837-1841) he was the first to introduce the subject
of musical aesthetics.
The first part of the last-named work has been translated into
English by W. E. Lawson {Aesthetics of Musical Art, or The Beautiful
in Music, 1880), and B. Sears's Classical Studies (1849) contains a
44 History of the Origin and Progress of the Latin Language,"
abridged from Hand's work on the subject.: There is a memoir of
bb life and work by G. Queck (Jena, 1852).
'HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger.
Bandy Goth, ftandvs), the terminal part of the human arm from
below the .wrists and consisting of the fingers and the palm. The
word is also used of the prehensile termination of the limbs in
certain other ;animals (see Anatomy: Superficial and artistic;
Skeleton; > Appendicular, and such articles as Musculak
System and Nervous System). There are many transferred
applications of "hand," both as a substantive and in various
adverbial phrases. The following may be mentioned: charge
oar. authority j. agency, source, chiefly in such expressions as "in
the hands of v ". .'! by hand," " at first hand." From the position
of ahe hands at the side of the body, *he word means " direction,"
0.4, on the right, left hand, cf. " at hand." The hand as given
in betrothal or marriage, has been from early times the symbol
of marriage as it also is of oaths. Other applications are to
labourers engaged in manual occupations, the members of the
crew of a ship, to a person who has some special skill, as in the
phrase, " old parliamentary band," and to the pointers of a clock
op watch and to the number of. cards dealt to each player in a
cardigame. As a measure of length the term " hand "is now
only used in the measurement of horses, it is equal to 4 in.
The name " hand of glory," is given to a hand cut from the
Corpse of a hanged criminal, dried in smoke, and used as a
charm or talisman, for the finding of treasures, &c. The expres-
sion is the translation of the Fr. main de gloire, a corruption of
the 0. Fr. vnandegloire, mandegoire, i.e. mandragore f mandragora,
the mandrake, to the root of which many magical properties are
attributed.
HANDEL, GBQRGE FREDERICK (1685-1750)1 English
musical composer, German by origin, was born at Halle in Lower
L§h ■ Saxony, on the^ 23rd of February 1685. His name
, ' > o.was Handel, but, like most 18th-century musicians
who travelled, he compromised with its pronunciation by
foreigners, and when in Italy spelt it Hendel, and in England
(where Jie became naturalized) accepted the version Handel,
which 4s therefore correct for English writers, while Handel
remains the correct version in Germany. His father was a
barber-surgeon, who disapproved of music, and wished George
Frederick to become a lawyer. A friend smuggled a clavichord
into the attic, and on this instrument, which is inaudible behind
a closed door, the little boy practised secretly. Before he was
eight his father went to visit a son by a former marriage who
was a< valet-de-chambre to the duke of Saxe-Weissenfels. The
little boy begged in vain to go also, and at last ran after the
carriage on foot so far that he had to be taken. He made
acquaintance with the court musicians and contrived to practise
oa the organ when he could be overheard by the duke, who,
immediately recognizing his talent, spoke seriously to the father,
who had to yield to his arguments. On returning to Halle
Handel. became a pupil of Zachau, the cathedral organist, who
gave him a thorough training as a composer and as a performer
on keyed instruments, the oboe and the violin. , Six very good
trios for two oboes and bass, which- Handel wrote at the age of
ten, are extant;, and when he himself was shown them by an
English, admirer who had discovered them, he was much amused
and remarked^ " I wrote like the devil in those dfcys, and chiefly
for the oboe, which was my favourite instrument." His master
also of course made him write an enormous amount of vocal
music, and he had to produce a motet every week. By the time
he was twelve Zachau thought he could teach him.no more, and
accordingly the boy was sent to Berlin, where he made a great
impression at the court.
His father, however, thought fit to decline the proposal of
the elector of Brandenburg, afterwards King Frederick I. of
Prussia, to send the boy to Italy in order afterwards to attach
him to the court at Berlin.- German court musicians, as late as
the time of Mozart, had hardly enough freedom to. satisfy a
man of independent character, and the elder Handel had not
yet given up hope of his son's becoming a lawyer. Young
Handel, therefore, returned to Halle and resumed his work with
Zachau. In 1697 his father died, but the boy showed great
final piety in finishing the ordinary course of his education, both
general and musical, and even entering the university of Halle
in 1702 as a law student. But in that year he succeeded to the
post of organist at the cathedral, and after his " probation "
year in that capacity he departed to Hamburg, where the only
German opera worthy of the name was flourishing .under the
direction of its founder, Reinhold Keiser. Here he became
friends with Matheson, a prolific composer and writer on music.
On one occasion they set out together to go to Lubeck, where a
successor was to be appointed to the post left vacant by the
great organist Buxtehude, who was retiring on account of his
extreme age. Handel and Matheson, ma4e much music on this
occasion, but did not compete, because they found that- the
successful candidate was required to accept the hand of the
elderly daughter of the retiring organist.
Another adventure might have had still move serious con*
sequences. At a performance of Matbeson's opera Cleopatra
at Hamburg, Handel refused to give up the conductor's seat
to the composer when the latter returned, to his usual post at
the harpsichord after singing the part of Antony on the stage.
The dispute led to a dud outside the theatre, and, but for a
large button on Handel's coat which intercepted Matheson's
sword, there would have been no Messiah or Israel in Egypt.
But the young men remained friends, and Matheson's writings
are full of the most valuable facts for Handel's biography. He
relates in his Ehrenpjorte that his friend at that time used to
compose " interminable cantatas " of no great merit; but of
these no traces now remain, unless we assume that a Passion
according to St John, the manuscript of which is in the royal
library at Berlin, is among the works alluded to. But its authen-
ticity, while strongly upheld by Chrysander, has recently been
as strongly assailed on internal evidence.
On the 8th of January 1705, (iandel's first opera, AImira f
was performed at Hamburg with great success, and was followed
a few weeks later by another work, entitled Nero. Nero is lost,
but. Almira, with its mixture of Italian and German language
and form, remains as a valuable example of the tendencies of
the time and of Handel's eclectic methods. It contains many
themes used by Handel in well-known later works; but the
current statement that the famous aria in Rinaldo t " Lascia
ch'io pianga," comes from a saraband in Almira, is based upon
nothing more definite than the inevitable resemblance between
the simplest possible forms of saraband-rhythm.
In 1706 Handel left Hamburg for Italy, where he remained
for three years, rapidly acquiring the smooth Italian vocal
style which hereafter always characterized his work. He
had before this refused offers from noble patrons to send him
there, but had now saved enough money, not only to support his
mother at home, but to travel as his own master. He divided
his time in Italy between Florence, Rome, Naples and Venice;
and many anecdotes are preserved of his meetings with Corelli,
Lotti, Aiessandro Scarlatti and, Domenico Scarlatti, whose
wonderful harpsichord technique still has a direct bearing on
some of the most modern features of pianoforte style. Handel
soon became famous as II Sassone (" the Saxon "), and it is
said that Domenico on first hearing him play incognito exclaimed,
HANDEL
9Ji
" It is either the devil or tbe Saxon! " Then there is a story
of Corelli's coming to grief over a passage in Handel's overture
to // Trionfo del tempo, in which the violins went up to A in
altissimo. Handel impatiently snatched the violin to show
Corelli how the passage ought to be played, and Corelli, who
had never written or played beyond the third position in his
life (this passage being in the seventh), said gently, " My dear
Saxon, this music is in the French style, which I do not under-
stand." In Italy Handel produced two operas, Rodrigo and
Agrippina, the latter a very important work, of which the
splendid overture was remodelled forty-four years afterwards
as that of his last original oratorio, Jephtha. He also produced
two oratorios, La Resurrezione, and // Trionfo del tempo* This,
forty-six years afterwards, formed the basis of his last work;
The Triumph of Time and Truth, which contains no original
matter. All Handel's early works contain material that he
used often with very little alteration later on, and, though the
famous " Lascia ch'io pianga " does not occur in Almira, it
occurs note for note in Agrippina and the two Italian oratorios.
On the other hand the cantata Aci, Galattea e Polifemo has
nothing in common with Ads and Galatea. , Besides these larger
works there are several choral aad solo cantatas of which the
earliest, such as the great Dixit Dominus, show in their extra-
vagant vocal difficulty how radical was the change which Handel's
Italian experience so rapidly effected in his methods*
Handel's success in Italy established his fame and led to his
receiving at Venice in 1709 the offer of the poet of Kapellmeister
to the elector of Hanover, transmitted to him by Baron Kiel-
mansegge, his patron and staunch friend of later years. Handel
at the time contemplated a visit to England, and he accepted
this offer on condition of leave of absence being granted to him
for that purpose. To England accordingly Handel journeyed
after a short stay at Hanover, arriving in London towards the
close of 17 zo. He came as a composer of Italian opera, and
earned his first success at the Haymarket with Rinaldo, com-
posed) to the consternation of the hurried librettist, Jn a fortnight,
and first performed on the 24th of February 1711. In this opera
the aria " Lascia ch'io pianga" found its final home. The work
was produced with the utmost magnificence, and Addison's
delightful reviews of it in the Spectator poked fun at it from an
unmusical. 'point of view, in a way that sometimes curiously
foreshadows the criticisms that Gluck might have made on such
things at a later period. The success was so great,, especially
for Walsh the publisher, that Handel proposed that Walsh should
compose the jiext opera, and that he should publish it. He
returned to Hanover at the close of the opera season, and com-
posed a good deal of vocal, chamber music for the princess
Caroline,, the step-daughter of the elector, besides the instru-
mental works known to us as the oboe concertos. In 17 12
Handel returned to London and. spent a year with Andrews,
a rich musical aroateux, in Barn Elms, Surrey. Three more
years were spent in Burlington, in the neighbourhood of London.
He evidently was. but, little inclined to return to Hanover, in
spite of his duties to. the court there. Two Italjan operas and
the Utrecht Te Deum written by the command of Queen Anne
are the principal works of this period. It was somewhat; awkward
for the composer when his deserted master came to London
in x 7 14 as George L of England. For some time Handel did not
venture to appear at court, and it was only at the intercession
of Baron Kielmansegge that his pardon was obtained. By his
advice Handel wrote the Water Music which was performed at a
royal water party on the Thames, and it so pleased the king
that he at once received the. composer into his good graces and
granted him a salary of £400 a year. Later Handel became
music master to the little princesses and was given an additional
£200 by the princess Caroline. In 17 16 he followed the king
to Germany, where he wrote a second German Passion to the
popular poem of Brockes, a text which, divested of its worst
features, forms the basis of several of the arias in Bach's Passion
according to St John. This was Handel's last work to a German
text.
On his return to England he entered the service of the duke
of Chandos as conductor of his concerts) receiving a thousand
pounds for his first oratorio Esther. The music which Handel
wrote for performance at " Cannons," the duke of Chaados's
residence at Edgware, is comprised in the first version of Esther,
Acts and Galatea, and the twelve Chandos Anthems, which are
compositions approximately in the same form as Pach's church
cantatas but without any systematic use of chorale tunes. TV
fashionable Londoner would travel 9 miles in those days to
the little chapel of Whitchurch to hear Handel's music, and all
that now remains of the magnificent scene of these visits is the
church, which is the parish church of Edgware. In 1 7 20 Handel
appeared again in a public capacity as impresario of the Italian
opera at the Haymarket theatre, which he managed for the
institution called the Royal Academy of Music. Senesino, a
famous singer, to engage whom Handel especially journeyed to
Dresden, was the mainstay of the enterprise, which opened with
a highly successful performance of Handel's opera Radamisto.
To this time belongs the famous rivalry between Handel and
Buononcini, a melodious Italian composer whom majiy thought
to be the greater of the two. The controversy has been per-
petuated in John Byrom's lines:
" Some say, compared to Buononcini . .
That Mynheer Handel's but a ninny;
Others aver that he to Handel
Is scarcely fit to hold a candle.
Strange all this difference should be
Twixt tweedle-dnm and tweedle-dee."
It must be remembered that at this time Handel had not yet
asserted his greatness as a choral writer; the fashionable ideas
of music and musicianship were based entirely upon success in
Italian opera, and the contest between the rival composers was
waged on the basis of works which have fallen into almost as
complete an oblivion in Handel's case as in Buononcmi's. None
of Handel's forty-odd Italian operas can be said to survive,
except in some two or three detached arias out of each opera;
arias which reveal their essential qualities far better in isolation
than when performed in groups of between twenty and thirty
on the stage, as interruptions to the action of a classical drama
to which nobody paid the slightest attention. But even within
these limits Handel's artistic resources were too great to leave
the issue in doubt; and when Handel wrote the third ad! of
an opera Muzio Scevola, of Which Buononcini and Ariosti*
wrote the other two, his triumph was decisive, especially as
Buononcini soon got into discredit by failing to defend himself
against the charge of producing as a prize-madrigal of his own
a composition' which proved to be by Lotti. At all events
Buononcini left London, and Handel for the next ten years was
without a rival in his ventures as an operatic composer: He
was not, however, without a rival as an impresario; and the
hostile competition of a rival company which obtained the
services of the great Farinelll and also induced Senesino to
desert him, led to his bankruptcy in 1737, and to aft attack of
paralysis caused by anxiety and overwork. The rival company
also had to te dissolved from want of support, so that Handel's
misfortunes must not be attributed to any failure to maintain
his, position in the musical world. Handel's artistic conscience
wad that of the most easy-going opportunist, or he would never
have continued till 1741 to work in a field that gave so little
scope for his genius. But the public seemed to want operas,
and, if opera had no scope for his genius, at all events he could
supply better operas with greater rapidity and ease than any
three other living composers working together. And this he
naturally continued to do so long as it seemed to be the best
way to keep up his reputation. But with all this artistic
opportunism he was not a man of tact, and there are
numerous stories of the type of his holding the great prima
donna Cuzzoni at arm's-length out of a window and threatening
to drop her unless she consented to sing a song which she had
declared unsuitable to her style.
Already before his last opera, Dcidamia, produced in 1741,
Handel had been making a growing impression with his oratorios.
1 Chrysander says Mattei instead of Ariosti.
$ie
HANDEL
In these, freed from the restriction* of the stage, he was able
to give scope to his genius for choral writing, and so to develop,
or rather revive, that art of chorus singing which is the normal
outlet for English musical talent. In 1726 Handel had become
a naturalized Englishman, and in 1733 he began his public
career as a composer of English texts by producing the second
and larger version of Esther at the King's theatre* This was
followed early in the same year by Deborah, in which the share
of the chorus is much greater. In July he produced Alhalia
at Oxford, the first work in which his characteristic double
choruses appear. The share of the chorus increases in Saul
(1738); and Israel in Egypt (also 1738) is practically entirely
a choral work, the solo movements, in spite of their fame, being
as perfunctory in character as they are few in number. It was
not unnatural that the public, who still considered Italian opera
the highest, because the most modern form of musical art,
obliged Handel at subsequent performances of this gigantic
work to insert more solos.
The Messiah was produced at Dublin on the 13th of April
1742. Samson (which Handel preferred to the Messiah) appeared
at Covent Garden on the 2nd of March 1744; Belshaaar at
the King's theatre, 27th of March 1745; the Occasional Oratorio
(chiefly a compilation of the earlier oratorios, but with a few
important new numbers), on the 14th of February 1746 at
Covent Garden, where all his later oratorios were produced;
Judas Maccabaeus on the iBt of April 1747; Joshua on the 9th
of, March 1748; Alexander Bolus on the 23rd of March 1748;
Solomon on the 17th of March 1749; Susanna, spring of 1749;
Theodora, a great favourite of Handel's, who was much dis-
appointed by its cold reception, on the 16th of March 1750;
Jephiha (strictly speaking, his last work) on the 26th of February
1752, and The Triumph of Time and Truth (transcribed from
11 Trionjo del tempo with the addition of many later favourite
numbers), 1757. Other important works, indistinguishable in
artistic form from oratorios, but on secular subjects, are Alex-
ander's Feast, 1736; Ode for SI Cecilia's Day (words by Dryden);
L' Allegro, il pensieroso ed il moderate (the words of the third part
by Jennens), 1740; Semele, 1744; Hercules, 1745; and The
Choice of Hercules, 1751.
By degrees the enmity against Handel died away, though he
had many troubles. In 1745 he had again become bankrupt;
for, although he had no rival as a composer of choral music it
was possible for his enemies to give balls and banquets on the
nights of his oratorio performances. As with bis first bank-
ruptcy, so in his later years, he showed scrupulous sense of honour
in discharging his debts, and he continued to work hard to the
end of his life. He had not only completely recovered his
financial position by the year 1750, but he must have made a
good deal of money, for he then presented an organ to the
Foundling Hospital, and opened it with a performance of the
Messiah on the 15th of May. In 1751 his sight began to trouble
him; and the autograph of Jephiha, published in facsimile
by the H&ndelteseUschafty shows pathetic traces of this in his
handwriting, 1 and so affords a most valuable evidence of his
methods of composition, all the accompaniments, recitatives,
and less essential portions of the work being evidently filled
in long after the rest. He underwent unsuccessful operations,
one of them by the same surgeon who had operated on Bach's
eyes. There is evidence that he was able to see at intervals
during his last years, but his sight practically never returned
after May 1752. He continued superintending performances
of his works and writing new arias for them, or inserting revised
old ones, and he attended a performance of the Messiah a week
before his death, which took place, according to the Public
Adxtrtistr of the 16th of April, not on Good Friday, the 13th
of April, according to his own pious wish and according to
common report, but on the 14th of April 1759. He was buried
in Westminster Abbey ; and his monument is by L. F. Roubilliac,
1 By a dramatic coincidence Handel's blindness interrupted him
during the writing of the chorus, " How dark, oh Lord, are Thy
deem*, . . all our joys to sorrow turning ... as the night succeeds
the day."
HamdeiMM
the same sculptor who modelled the marhle statue erected in
1739 in Vauxhall Gardens, where his works had been frequently
performed.
Handel was a man of high character and intelligence, and his
interest was not confined to his own art exclusively. He liked the
society of politicians and literary men, and he was also a collector
of pictures and articles of vertu. His power of work was enormous,
and the H&ndeltesellschaft' s edition of his complete works' fills one
hundred volumes, forming a total bulk almost equal to the works of
Bach and Beethoven together. (F. H. ; D. F. T.)
No one has more successfully popularized the greatest artistic
ideals than Handel; no artist is more disconcerting to critics
who imagine that a great man's mental development
is easy to follow. Not even Wagner effected a greater
transformation in the possibilities of dramatic musk
than Handel effected in oratorio, yet we have seen that Handel
was the very opposite of a reformer. He was not even conser-
vative, and he hardly took the pains to ascertain what an art-
form was, so long as something externally like it would convey
his idea. But he never failed to convey his idea, and, if the
hybrid forms in which he conveyed it had no historic influence
and no typical character, they were none the less accurate in
each individual case. The same aptness and the same absence
of method are conspicuous in his style. The popular idea that
Handel's style is easily recognizable comes from the fact that
he overshadows all his predecessors and contemporaries, except
Bach, and so makes us regard typical iSth-century Italian and
English style as Handelian, instead of regarding Handel's style
as typical Italian 18th-century. Nothing in music requires
more minute expert knowledge than the sifting of the real
peculiarities of Handel's style from the mass of contemporary
formulae which in his inspired pages he absorbed, and which in
his uninspired pages absorbed him.
His easy mastery was acquired, Hke Mozart's, in childhood.
The later sonatas for two oboes and bass which he wrote in his
eleventh year are, except in their diffuseness and an occasional
slip in grammar, indistinguishable from his later works, and
they show a boyish inventiveness worthy of Mozart's work at
the same age. Such early choral works, as the Dixit Dominus
(1707), show the ill-regulated power of his choral writing
before he assimilated Italian influences. Its practical diffi-
culties are at least as extravagant as Bach's, while they are not
accounted for by any corresponding originality and necessity
of idea; but the grandeur of the scheme and nobility of thought
is already that for which Handel so often in later years found
the simplest and easiest adequate means of expression that
music has ever attained. His eminently practical genius soon
formed his vocal style, and long before the period of his great
oratorios, such works as The Birthday Ode for Queen Anne (17 13)
and the Utrecht Te Deum show not a trace of German extra-
vagance. The only drawback to his practical genius was that
it led him to bury perhaps half of his finest melodies, and nearly
all the secular features of interest in his treatment of instruments
and of the aria forms, in that deplorable limbo of vanity, th
18th-century Italian opera. It is not true, as has been alleged
against him, that his operas are in no way superior to those of
his contemporaries; but neither is it true that he stirred a finger
to improve the condition of dramatic musical art. He was no
slave to singers, as is amply testified by many anecdotes. Nor
was he bound by the operatic conventions of the time. In Tcseo
he not only wrote an opera in five acts when custom prescribed
three, but also broke a much more plausible rule in arranging
that each character should have two arias in succession. He
also showed a feeling for expression and style which led him to
write arias of types which singers might not expect. But he
never made any innovation which had the slightest bearing upon
the stage-craft of opera, for he never concerned himself with any
artistic question beyond the matter in hand; and the matter
in hand was not to make dramatic music, or to make the story
interesting or intelligible, but simply to provide a concert of
between some twenty and thirty Italian arias and duets, wherein
singers could display their abilities and spectators find distraction
from the monotony of so large a dose of the aria form (which
HANDBL
W3
reas thtil the only possibility: for *olo vocal music) in the gorgeous- ,
nubs of the.dresses and scenery.
< - When the question arosei how a musical entertainment of
this kind could be managed in Leitt without protests .from the
bishop of I*ondon, Handelian oratorio came into being as a
•matter of course. But though Handed, was an opportunist:
he was not shallow. His artistic sense stized upon the natural
possibilities, which arose as scfon as the music waa transferred
from the. stage to i the concert platform;, and his first English
loratorio, Esther (1720)^, beautifully shows the transition! The
subject is as nearly secular as any that can be extracted from
the Bible, and the treatment was based on Racine's Esther,
which was much discussed at the time. Handel's, oratorio
Was reproduced in an enlarged version in 1732 at the. King's
theatre]. the princess royal wished for scenery and action, but
the bishop of London protested. And the" choruses, of which
in the first version there are already no less than ten, are dn the
one hand operatic 1 and unecclesiastical in expression, until the
'last, where polyphonic work on a large scale first appears; but
on the other hand they areoH much too long to be sung by heart,
as is necessary: in operas. In fact, the turning-point in Handel's
development is the emancipation of the chorus from theatrical '
Ibmtatibnft. ■ This had a£ great effect upon his.few but imfcwrtant ,
secular English works as upon his other oratorios. Acts and
-Galatea, Semele and Hercufcs,< are in fact secular oratorios;
the 1 choral music in them is not ecclesiastical, but it is large,
•independent and polyphonic -
We must remember, then, that Handel's scheme of oratorio
is operatic in its origin and has no historic connexion with
such principles as might have been generalized from the practice
of the German Passion hiuac of the time; and it is sufficiently
astonishing that the chorus should have so readily assumed its
proper place in a scheme which the public certainly regarded
as a> sort of Lenten biblical opera. And, although the chorus
owes' its freedom of development to the disappearance of
theatrical necessities, it becomes no less powerful as a means of
dramatic expression (as opposed to dramatic action) than as' a
purely musical .resource. Already in AthaHa the " Hallelujah " ■
chorus at the end of the first act is a marvel of dramatic truth.
'It is sUng by Israelites almost in despair beneath usurping
■tyranny; and accordingly it is a severe double fugue in a minor
key, expressive of devout courage at a moinent of depression.
On purely musical grounds it is no less powerful in throwing
- into the highest possible relief theecstatic solemnity of the psalm ,
with which the second act opens. Now this sombre " Hallelujah "
chorus is a very convenient illustration of Handel's originality,
and the point in which his creative power really lies. It was not
originally written for its situation in Athalia, but it was chosen
'for it. It was originally the last chorus of the second version
of the anthem, As pants the Hart} from the autograph of which
it is missing because Handel cut out the last pages in order to
insert them into the manuscript of Athalia. The inspiration
in Athalia thus lies not in the creation of the chorus itself, but
in the choice of it, > •• »
In Choral music Handel made no more' innovation than he
made in arias. His sense of fitness in expression was of little
use to' him* in opera, because opera could not become 1 dramatic
Until musical form became capable of developing and blending
emotions in all degrees of climax in a way that may be described
as pictorial and not merely decorative (see Music; Sonata-
Forms; and Instrument atiok). But in oratorio there was
not the least necessity for reforming any art-forms. The ordinary
choral resources of the time had perfect expressive possibilities
where there were no actors to keep waiting, and where no dresses
and scenery need distract the attention of the listener. When
lastly, ordinary decorum dictated an attitude of reverent
attention towards the subject of the oratorio, then the man of
genius "Could find such a scope for his real Bense of dramatic
fitness as would make his work immortal.
In estimating Handel's greatness we must think away all
orthodox musical and progressive prejudices, and learn to apply
the lessons critics of architecture and some- critics of literature
seem to kripw by nature. OriginaHfcy, in music as in other arts,
lies in the whole, and in a sense of the true rneaning of every
part. When Handel wrote u notmai double fugue in a minor
key on the word u Hallelujah'- he showed that he at all events
knew what a vigorous and dignified thing an 18th-century double
fugue could be. In putting it at the end of a melancholy psalm
he showed his sense of the value -of the minor mode. When he
put it in its situation in Aihalia he showed as perfect a senefe of
dramatic and musical fitness as could well be found in art. Now
it is obvious that in works like oratorios (which are dramatic
schemes vigorously hut loosely organized by the putting together
of some twenty or thirty complete pieces of music) the proper
conception of originality wiH be very different from that which
animates the. composer of modern lyric, operatic or symphonic
music. When we add to this the characteristics of a method
like Handel's* in which musical technique has become a masterly
automatism, it becomes evident that our conception of originality
must be at least as broad as that which we would apply in the
criticism of architecture. The disadvantages of the want of
such a conception have been aggravated by the dearth of general
knowledge of the structure of musical art; a knowledge which
shows that the parallel we have suggested between music and
architecture,! as regards the nature of originality, is no mere
figure of speech.
In every art there is an antithesis between forin and matter,
which becomes* reconciled only when the work of art is perfect
in its execution- And, whatever this perfection, the antithesis
must always remain in the mind of the artist and critic to this
extent, that some part of the material seems to be the special
subject of technical rule rather than another. In the plastic and
literary arts one type of this antithesis is more or less permanently
maintained in the relation between subject and treatment. The
mere fact that these -arts express themselves by representing
things that have some previous independent existence, helps
us to look for originality rather in the things that make for
perfection of treatment than in novelty of subject. But in music
we have no permanent means of deriding which of many aspects
we shall call the subject and which the treatment. In the 16th
century the a priori form existed mainly in the practice of basing
almost every melodic detail of the work on phrases of Gregorian
chant or popular song, treated for the most part in terms of
very definitely regulated polyphonic design, and on harmonic
principles regulated in almost every detail by the relation between
the melodic aspects of the church modes and the necessity for
occasional alterations of the strict mode to secure finality at
the close. In modern music such a relation between form and
matter, prescribing as it does for every aspect at every moment
both of the shape and the texture of the music, would exclude
the element of invention altogether. In 16th-century music it
by no means had that effect. An inventive 16th-century com-
poser is as clearly distinguishable from a dull one as a good
architect from a bad. The originality of the composer resides,
in 16th-century music as in all art, in his whole work; but
naturally his conception of property and ideas will not extend
to themes or isolated passages. That man is entitled to an idea
who can show what it means, or who can make it mean what
he likes. Let him wear the giant's robe if it fits him. And it
is merely a local difference in point of view which makes us think
that there is property in themes and no property in forms.
Nowadays we happen to Tegard the shape of a whole composition
as its form, and its theme as its matter. And, as artistic
organization becomes more complex and heterogeneous, the
need of the broadest and most forcible possible outline of design
is more pressingry felt; so that in what we choose to call form
we are willing to sacrifice all conception of originality for the
sake of general intelligibility, while we insist upon complete
originality in those thematic details which we are pleased to
call matter. But, if this explains, it does not excuse our setting
up a criterion for musical originality which can be accepted by
no intelligent critics of other arts, and which is completely upset
by the study of any music earlier than the beginning of the
19th century.
9H
HANDEL
The difficulty many writers have found in explaining the
subject of Handel's " plagiarisms " is not entirely accounted
for by mere lack of these considerations; but the grossest con-
fusion of ideas as to the difference between cases in point prevails
to this day, and many discussions which have been raised in
regard to the ethical aspect of the question are frankly absurd. 1
It has been argued, for instance, that great injustice was done
to Buononcini over his unfortunate affair with the prize madrigal,
while his great rival was allowed the credit of Israel in Egypt,
which contains a considerable number of entire choruses (besides
hosts of themes) by earlier Italian and German writers. But
the very idea of Handelian oratorio is that of some three hours
of music, religiouB or secular, arranged, like opera, in the form of
a colossal entertainment, and with high dramatic and emotional
interest imparted to it, if not by the telling of a story, at all
events by the nature and development of the subject. It seems,
moreover, to be entirely overlooked that the age was an age of
pastkcios* Nothing was more common than the organization
of some siich solemn entertainment by the skilful grouping of
favourite pieces. Handel himself never revived one of his
oratorios without inserting in it favourite pieces from his other
works as well as several new numbers; and the story is well
known that the turning point in Gluck's career was his perception
of the true possibilities of dramatic music from the failure of a
pasticcio in which he had reset some rather definitely expressive
musk to situations for which it was not originally designed.
The success of an oratorio was due to the appropriateness of its
contrasts, together of course with the mastery of its detail,
whether that detail were new or old; and there are many
gradations between a rtchauff i of an early work like The Triumph
of Time and Truth, or a pasticcio with a few original numbers
like the Occasional Oratorio, and such works as Samson, which
was entirely new except that the " Dead March " first written
for it was immediately replaced by the more famous one imported
from Saul. That the idea of the pasticcio was extremely familiar
to the age is shown by the practice of announcing an oratorio
as " new and original, 1 ' a term which would obviously be mean-
ingless if it were as much a matter of course as it is at the present
day, and which, if used at all, must obviously so apply to the
whole work without forbidding the composer from gratifying
the public with the reproduction of one or two favourite arias.
But of course the question of originality becomes more serious
when the imported numbers are not the composer's own. And
here it is very noticeable that Handel derived no credit, either
with his own public or with us, from whole movements that are
not of his own designing. In Israel in Egypt, the choruses
•* Egypt was glad when they departed," " And I will exalt Him,"
" Thou sentest forth Thy Wrath " and " The Earth swallowed
them," are without exception the most colourless and
unattractive pieces of severe counterpoint to be found among
Handel's works; and it is very difficult to fathom his motive in
copying them from obscure pieces by Erba and Kaspar Kerl,
unless it be that he wished to train his audiences to a better
understanding of a polyphonic style. He certainly felt that 1
the greatest possibilities of music lay in the higher choral poly-
phony, and so in Israel in Egypt he designed a work consisting
almost entirely of choruses, and may have wished in these
instances for severe contrapuntal movements which he had not
time to write, though he could have done them far better himself.
Be this as it maw these choruses have certainly added nothing
1 The " moral ** question has been raised afresh in reviews of
Mr SeO.Jey Ta\ Ws admirable volume of analysed illustrations iThe
I%nif>n\i^itss «■>* 7/.:«mW fr twks of <\*fce* Composers, Cambridge, 1906).
The iatest art^imont is that HandeJ shows moral obliquity in borrow-
iiw; % * rrswnabJy " iwm sources no one couM know at the time.
This K**>nin£ 'makes it mysterious that a man of such moral
oMu$x:i:v should ever have written a note of his own music in
K^s'ami *hen he cou\i have stolen the complete choral works of
Ruh and niv>st of the hundred operas of Alessandro Scarlatti with
the certain; v that the sour„>es mou'.d not be primed tor a century
alter his death, even it his own name did not then check cariosity
anions an:n;\:ar;ans. Of course Ha reel's p*.\cv»nsms would have
danased his rep..ta::.vi if cv^enporares had kr.cwr. of Then:. His
polv pNvnic svho;Ars K :p was ^one " antiquated " in the iSth century
than ;; i> in the :sxh.
to the popularity of a work of which the public from the outset
complained that there was not enough solo music; and what
effect they have is merely to throw Handel's own style into
relief. To draw any parallel between the theft of such unat-
tractive details in the grand and intensely Handelian scheme
of Israel in Egypt and Buononcini's alleged theft of a prize
madrigal is merely ridiculous. Handel himself, if he had any
suspicion that contemporaries did not take a Sane architect's
view of the originality of large musical schemes, 1 probably gave
himself no more trouble about their scruples on this matter than
about other forms of musical banality.
The History of Music by Burney, the cleverest and most
refined musical critic of the age, shows in the very freshness of
its musical scholarship how completely unscholariy were the
musical ideas of the time. Burney was incapable of regarding
choral musk as other than a highly improving academic exercise
in which he himself was proficient; and for him Handel is the
great opera-writer whose choral musk will reward the study
of the curious. If Handel had attempted to explain his
methods to the musicians of his age, he would probably have
found himself alone in his opinions as to the property of
musical ideas. He did not trouble to explain, but he made no
concealment of his sources. He left his whole musical library
to his copyist, and it was from this that the sources of
his work were discovered. And when the whole series of
plagiarisms is studied, the fact forces itself upon us that nothing
except themes and forms which are common property in all
i8th»century music, has yet been discovered as the source of any
work of Handel's which is not felt as part of a larger design.
Operatic arias were never felt as parts of a whole. The opera
was a concert on the stage, and it stood or fell, not by a dramatic
propriety which it notoriously neglected to consider at all,
but by the popularity of its arias. There is no aria in Handel's
operas which is traceable to another composer. Even in the
oratorios there is no solo number in which more than the themes
are . pilfered, for in oratorios the solo work still appealed to
the popular criterion of novelty and individual attractiveness.
And when we leave the question of copying of whole movements
and come to that of the adaptation of passages, and still more
of themes, Handel shows himself to be simply on a line with
Mozart. Jahn compares the. opening of Mozart's Requiem with
that of the first chorus in Handel's Funeral Anthem. Mozart
recreates at least as much from Handel's already perfect frame-
work as Handel ever idealized from the inorganic fragments
of earlier writers. The double counterpoint of the Xyrie in
Mozart's Requiem is still more indisputably identical with that
of the last chorus of Handel's Joseph, and if the themes are
common property their combination certainly is not. But the
true plagiarist is the man who does not know the meaning of
the idtets he copies, and the true cteator is he in whose hands they
remain or become true ideas. The theme " He led them forth
like sheep " in the chorus " But as fox his people " is one of the
most beautiful in Handel's works, and the bare statement that it
comes from a serenata by Stradella seems at first rather Shocking.
But, to any one who knew StradeUVs treatment of it first,
Handel's would come as a revelation actually greats than if he
had .never heard the theme before, Stradella makes nothing
more of it, and therefore presumably sees nothing more in it
than an agreeable and essentially frivolous little tune which
lends itself to comic dramatk purpose by a wearisome repetition
throughout eight pages of patchy aria and instrumental ritoraello
at an ever-increasing pace. What Handel sees in it is what he
makes of it, one of the most solemn and poetic things in music.
Again, it may be very shocking to discover that the famous
opening of the " Hailstone chorus " comes from the patchy and
facetious overture to this same serenata, with which it is identical
for ten bars all in the tonic chord (representing, according
to Stradella, someone knocking at a door). And it is no doubt
yet more shocking that the chorus " He spake the word, and
* Much light would be thrown on the subject if some one sufficiently
ignorant of architecture were to make researches into Sir Christopher
Wren's indebtedness to Italian architects i
HANIDffASTIN<&— HANDICAP
915
tbe*e came all manner of flies" contains no idea of Handeta
own except the realistic swarming violin-passages, .the general
structure, and the vocal colouring; whereas the ibythtftie fend
melodic figures of the voice parts come from an equally patchy
mtfotria concertata in StradieUa/s work. The real interest of
■these, things ought not to be denied either by the misstatement
that the materials adapted are mere common property, nor by
the calumny that Handel was uninventive.
The effects of Handel's original inspiration upon foreign'
material are really the best indication of the range of his style.
The comic meaning of the broken rhythm of Stcadella's overture
.becomes indeed Handel's inspiration in the light of the gigantic
,tone^picture of the " Hailstone ichorns." In the theme of " He
led them forth like sheep " we have already cited a particular
ease, .where Handel perceived great solemnity in a theme
originally intended . to be frivolous* The converse process is
'equally instructive. In the. short Carillon choruses in Saul
where the Israelitish women welcome David after his victory
oyer Goliath, Handel uses a delightful instrumental tune which
stands at the beginning of a Te Deum by Urio, from which he
borrowed, an enormous amount of material in Saul, V A lkgro t
Xb& DeUingen. Te Deum and .other works. Urio's idea is first to
make a jubilant and melodious noise from the. lower register of
-the strings, and then to bring out a flourish of high trumpets as
<a contrast. He has no other use for his beautiful tune, wlujch
indeed would not bear more elaborate, treatment ; than he. gives it
The ritornello fails into statement and counterstaterneut, and 1
the oounterstatement secures one repetition of the tune,, after
.which no more is heard of it. It has.none of the solemnity of
church music, and its value as a contrast to the flourish of
trumpets depends, not upon itself, but upon its position in the
orchestra. Handel did not see in it a fine opening for a, great
ecclesiastical work, but he saw in it an admirable expression of
popular jubilation, and he understood how tp bring out its
character with the liveliest sense of climax and dramatic interest
by taking it at its, own value as a popular tune* So he uses it as
<an instrumental interlude accompanied with a jingle of carillons, ]
while the daughters of Israel sing to a square-cut tune those
praises of David which aroused the jealousy of Saul. But now
turn to the opening of the Deitingen Te Deum and see what
splendid use is made of the other side of Urio's idea, the contrast
between a jubilant noise in, the lowest part of the scale and the
blaze of trumpets at an extreme height In the fourth bar of
the DeUingen Te Deum we find the same florid trumpet figures
as we find in the fifth bar of Urio's, but at the first moment, they
are on oboes. The first four bars beat* a tattoo on the tonic
and dominant, with the whole ..orchestra, including trumpets
and drums, in the lowest possible position, and in a stirring
rhythm with a boldness and simplicity characteristic only of
a stroke of genius* Then the oboes appear with Urio's trumpet
flourishes; the momentary contrast is at least as brilliant
as Urio's; and as the oboes are immediately followed by the
same figures on the trumpets themselves the contrast gains
incalculably in subtlety and climax. Moreover, these flourishes
are more melodious than the broad and massive opening, instead
of being, as in Urio's scheme, incomparably less so. Lastly,
Handel's primitive opening rhythmic figures inevitably underlie
every subsequent inner part and bass that occurs at every
half close and full close, throughout the movement, especially
where the trumpets are used. And thus every detail of his
scheme is rendered alive with a rhythmic significance which
the elementary nature of the theme prevents, from ever becoming
obtrusive.
. No other great composer has ever so overcrowded his life
with occasional and mechanical work as. Handel, and in no other
artist are the qualities that make the difference between inspired
and uninspired pages more difficult to analyse. The libretti
of his oratorios are full of absurdities, except when they are
derived in every detail from Scripture, as in the. Messiah and
Israel in Egypt, or from the classics of English literature, as in
Samson and L' Allegro. These absurdities, and the obvious fact
that in every oratorio Handel writes many mpre numbers than
are desirable for one-tpecfiortnance, and that he was continually
in later performances .adding, transferring and cutting out
solo numbers and .often choruses as welH-all this- may seem at
first sight to militate seriously against the view that Handel's
originality and greatness consists in his grasp of the .works, as
wholes, but in reality it strengthens that view. These things
militate against the perfection of the whole, but they would
nave been absolutely fatal to a work of which the whole is not
(as in all true art) greater than the sum of its parts* That .they
are felt as absurdities and defects already shows that Handel
created in English oratorio a true art-form on the largest possible
scale.
There never has been a time when Handel has been overrated,
except in so far as other composers have been neglected. . But
no composer has suffered so much from pious misinterpretation
and the: popular admiration of misleading externals. It, is not the
place here to dilate upon the burial. of Handel's- art beneath the
"mammoth" performances of the Handel Festivals at the
Crystal Palace; nor can we give 1 more than, a passing reference
to the effects of "additional accompaniments " in the style of an
altogether later «age, started most unfortunately by Mozart
(whose share in the work has been very much misinterpreted
.and corrupted) and continued in the middle: of the xoth century
by musicians of every degree of intelligence and refinement, until
-all sense of u&ity of style has been lost and does. apt seem likely
to be recovered as a general element in the popular, appreciation
,of Handel ior some time to come. But in spite of this, Handel
will jaetver. cease to be revered and loved as one of the greatest
of composers, if wevajue the criteria of architectonic power,
a perfect sense of style, and the power to rise, to theinost sublime
height of musical climax by the simplest means. . .
Handel's important works have all been Mentioned. above with
their dates, and a separate detailed list does not seem necessary.
He was an extremely rapid worker, and his later works are dated
almost day by day as they proceed. From this we learn that the
Messiah was sketched and scored within twenty-one days* and that
even Jepktiw^ with an interruption of nearly four months besides
several other delays caused by Handel's failing sight, was begun and
finished within seven months, representing hardly five weeks actual
writing. Handel's extant works may be roughry summarized from
the edition of the HdndelgeseUschaft as 41 Italian operas, 2 Italian
oratorios, 2 German Passions* 1 8 English oratorios, ± English secfldar
oratorios, 4 English secular cantatas, and a few other small works,
English and Italian, of the type of oratorio or incidental dramatic
music; 3 Latin settings of the Te Deum; the (English) DeUingen
Te Deum and Utrecht Te Deum and Jubilate; 4 coronation anthems;
L volumes of English anthems (Chandos Anthems); 1 volume of
itin church music; 3 volumes of Italian vocal chamber-music;
I volume of clavier works; 37 instrumental duets and trios (sonatas),
and 4 volumes of orchestral music and organ concertos (about 40
works). Precise figures are impossible as there is no means of draw-
ing tne line between pastieoios and original works. The instrumental
pieces especially are used again and again as overtures to operas and
oratorios and anthems. ■ .
The complete edition of the German HdndelgeseUschaft suiters
from being the work of one man who would not recognise that his
task was beyond any single man's power. The best arrangements
of the. vocal scores are undoubtedly those published by Novello
that are not based on " additional accompaniments." None is
absolutely trustworthy, and those of the editor of the German
Hdndelgesellschaft are sad proofs of the uselessnees of expert library-
scholarship without a sound musical training. Yet Chrysander's
services in the restoration of Handel are beyond praise. We need
only mention his discovery of authentic trombone parts in Israel
in Egypt as one among many of his priceless contributions to musical
history and aesthetics. ;(D.' F. T.)
HANDFASTING (A.S. handfceslnung, pledging one's hand),
primarily the O. Eng. synonym for betrothal (q.v.), and later a
peculiar form of temporary marriage at one time common in
Scotland, the only necessary ceremony being the verbal pledge
of the couple while holding hands. The pair thus handfasted
were, in accordance with Scotch law, entitled to live together
for a year and a day. If then they so wished, the temporary
marriage could be made permanent; if not, they could go their
several ways without reproach, the child, if any, being supported
by the party who objected to further cohabitation.
HANDICAP (from the expression hand in yap, referring to
drawing lots), a disadvantageous condition imposed upon the
916
HANDSEL^HAMDWRFFING
superior competitor in sports and games, or !an advantage
allowed the inferior, in order to equalize the chances of both.
The character of the handicap depends upon the nature of the
sport. Thus in horse-racing the better horse must carry the
heavier weight. In foot races the inferior runners are allowed
to start at certain distances in advance of the best (or " scratch ")
man, according to their previous records. In distance competi-
tions (weights, fly-casting, jumping, &c.) the inferior contestants
add certain distances to their scores. In time contests (yachting,
canoe-racing, &c.) the weaker or smaller competitors subtract
certain periods of time from that actually made, reckoned by
the mile. In stroke contests (e.g. golf) a certain number of
strokes are subtracted from or added to the scores, according
to the strength of the players. In chess and draughts the
stronger competitor may play without one or more pieces. In
court games (tennis, lawn-tennis, racquets, &c.) and in billiards
certain points, or percentage of points, are accorded the weaker
players.
Handicapping was applied to horse-racing as early as 1680,
though the word was not used in this connexion much before the
middle of the 18th century. A " Post and Handy-Cap Match "
is described in Pond's Racing Calendar for 1754. A reference
to something similar in Germany and Scandinavia, called
Freimarkt, may be found in Germania, vol. xix.
Competitions in which handicaps are given are called handicap-
events or handicaps. There are many systems which depend
upon the whim of the individual competitors. Thus a tennis
player may offer to play against his inferior with a selaer-bottle
instead of a racquet; or a golfer to play with only one
club; or a chess-player to make his moves without seeing the
board.
The name " handicap " was taken from an ancient English
game, to which Pepys, in his Diary under the date of the 18th
of September 1660, thus refers: " Here some of us fell to handi-
cap, a sport that I never knew before, which was very good,"
This game, which became obsolete in the 19th century, was
described as early as the 14th in Piers the Plowman under the
name of " New Faire." It was originally played by three
persons, one of whom proposed to " challenge," or exchange,
some piece of property belonging to another for something of
his own. The challenge being accepted an umpire was chosen,
and all three put up a sum of money as a forfeit. The two
players then placed their right hands in a cap, or in their pockets,
in which there was loose money, while the umpire proceeded to
describe the two objects of exchange, and to declare what sum
of money the owner of the inferior article should pay as a bonus
to the other. This declaration was made as rapidly as possible
and ended with the invitation, " Draw, gentlemen l" Each
player then withdrew and held out his hand, which he opened.
If both hands contained money the exchange was effected
according to the conditions laid down by the umpire, who then
took the forfeit money for himself. If neither hand contained
money the exchange was declined and the umpire took the
forfeit money. If only one player signified his acceptance of
the exchange by holding money in his hand, he was entitled to
the forfeit-money, though the exchange was not made.
Handicap was also the name of an old game at cards, now
obsolete. It resembled the game of Loo, and probably derived
its name from the ancient sport described above.
HANDSEL, the O. Eng. term for earnest money; especially
in Scotland the first money taken at a market or fair. The
termination sel is the modern " sell." " Hand " indicates, not
a bargain by shaking hands, but the actual putting of the money
into the hand. Handsels were also presents or earnests of good-
will in the North; thus Handsel Monday, the first Monday in
the year, an occasion for universal tipping, is the equivalent of
the English Boxing day.
HANDSWORTH. (1) An urban district in the Handsworth
parliamentary division of Staffordshire, England, suburban
to Birmingham on the north-west. Pop. (1891), 32,756; (1901)
52,921. (See Birmingham.) (2) An urban district in the
Hallamshire parliamentary division of Yorkshire, 4 m. S.E.
In this nrighbotBrhood are
of Sheffield. Pop. (1001), 13,404.
extensive colKeries and quarries.
HANDWRITING. Under Palaeography and Writing, the
history of handwriting is dealt with. Questions of handwriting
come before legal tribunals mainly in connexion with the law
of evidence. In Roman liw, the authenticity of documents
was proved first by the attesting witnesses; in the second place,
if they were dead, by comparison of handwritings. It was
necessary, however, that the document to be used for purposes
of comparison either should have been executed with the for-
malities of a public document, or should have its genuineness
proved by three attesting witnesses. The determination was
apparently, in the latter case, left to experts, who were sworn
to give an impartial opinion (Code 4, 21. 20). Proof by com-
parison of handwritings, with a reference if necessary to three
experts as to the handwriting which is to be used for the purposes
of comparison, is provided for in the French Code of Civil
Procedure (arts. 193 et seq.); and in Quebec (Code Proc. Civ.
arts. 392 et seq.) and St Lucia (Code Civ. Proc. arts. 286 et seq.),
the French system has been adopted with modifications. Com-
parison by witnesses of disputed writings with any writing
proved to the satisfaction of the judge to be genuine is accepted
in England and Ireland in all legal proceedings whether criminal
or civil, including proceedings before arbitrators (Denmab
Act, 28 & 29 Vict. c. 18, 55. 1, 8); and such- writings and the
evidence of witnesses respecting the same may be submitted
to the court and jury as evidence of the genuineness or otherwise
of the writing in dispute. It is admitted in Scotland (where the
term comparatio lUerarum is in use) and in most of the American
states, subject to the same conditions. In England, prior to
the Common Law Procedure Act of 1854 (now superseded by
the act of 1866), documents irrelevant to the matter in issue
were not admissible for the sole purpose of comparison, and this
rule has been adopted, and is still adhered to, in some of the
states in America. In England, as in the United States, and in
most legal systems, the primary and best evidence of hand-
writing is that of the writer himself. Witnesses who saw him
write the writing in question, or who are familiar with his
handwriting either from having seen him write or from having
corresponded With him, or otherwise, may be called. In cases
of disputed handwriting the court will accept the evidence of
experts in handwriting, i.e. persons who have an adequate
knowledge of handwriting, whether acquired in the way of their
business or not, such as solicitors or bank cashiers (R. v.
Silverlocky 1894, 2 Q.B. 766). In such cases the witness is
required to compare the admitted handwriting of the person
whose writing is in question with the disputed document, and
to state in detail the similarities or differences as to the formation
of words and letters, on which he bases his opinion as to the
genuineness or otherwise of the disputed document. By the use
of the magnifying glass, or, as in the Parnell case, by enlarged
photographs of the letters alleged to have been written by Mr
Parnell, the court and jury are much assisted to appreciate the
grounds on which the conclusions of the expert are founded.
Evidence of this kind, being based on opinion and theory,
needs to be very carefully weighed, and the dangers of implicit
reliance on it have been illustrated in many cases (e.g. the
Beck case in 1904; and see Seaman v. Netherclift, 1876, t
C.P.D. 540). Evidence by comparison of handwriting comes
in principally either in default, or in corroboration, of the other
modes of proof.
Where attestation is necessary to the validity of a document,
e.g. wills and bills of sale, the execution must be proved by one
or more of the attesting witnesses, unless they are dead or
cannot be produced, when it is sufficient to prove the signature
of one of them to the attesting clause (28 & 29 Vict. c. 18, s. 7).
Signatures to certain public and official documents need not in
general be proved (see e.g. Evidence Act, 1845, ss. 1, 2).
See Taylor, Law of Evidence (10th ed., London, 1Q06); Erririne,
Principles of the Law of Scotland (20th ed., Edinburgh, 1903)/,
Bouvier, Law Dicty. (Boston and London, 1807); Harris, Identi-
fication (Albany, 1892); Hagan, Disputed Handwriting (New York,
1894); also the article Identification. (A. W. R.)
HANG-CfiOW-FU^HANGING
917
HANG-CHOW-ttJ, tfcity of China, in the province of Cheh-
Kiang, a m. N.W. of the Tsien-tang-Kiang, at the southern
terminus of the Grand canal, by which it communicates with
Peking. It lies about 100 m. S.W. of Shanghai, 'in 30 20'
20" N., 1 20 7' 27" E. Towards the west is the Si4iu or Western
Lake, a beautiful sheet of water, with its banks and islands
studded with villas, monuments and gardens, and its surface
traversed by gaily-painted pleasure boats. Exclusive ot extent
sive and flourishing suburbs, the city has a circuit of 12 m.;
its streets are well paved and clean; and it possesses a large
number of arches, public monuments, temples, hospitals and
colleges. It has long ranked as one of the great centres of
Chinese commerce and Chinese learning. In i860 the silk
manufactures alone were said to give employment to 60,000
persons within its walls, and it has an extensive production of
gold and silver work and tinsel paper. On one of the islands
in the lake is the great Wen-lan-ko or pavilion of literary
assemblies, and it is said that at the examinations for the second
degree, twice every three years, from 10,000 to 15,000 candidates
come together. In the north-east corner of the city is the
Nestorian church which was noted by Marco Polo, the facade
being " elaborately carved and the gates covered with elegantly
wrought iron." There is a Roman Catholic mission in Hang-«
chow, and the Church Missionary Society, the American Presby-
terians, and the Baptists have stations. The local dialect differs
from the Mandarin mainly in pronunciation. The population,
which is remarkable for gaiety of clothing, was formerly reckoned
at 2,000,000, but is now variously estimated at 300,000, 400,000
or 800,000. Hang-chow-fu was declared open to foreign trade
in 1896, in pursuance of the Japanese treaty of Shimonoseki,
It is connected with Shanghai by inland canal, which is navigable
for boats drawing up to 4 ft. of water, and which might be
greatly improved by dredging. The cities of Shanghai, Hang-
chow and Suchow form the three points of a triangle, each being
connected with the other by canal, and trade is now open by
steam between all three under the inland navigation rules.
These canals pass through the richest and most populous districts
of China, and in particular lead into the great silk-producing
districts. They have for many centuries been the highway
of commerce, and afford a cheap and economical means of
transport. Hangchow lies at the head of the large estuary
of that name, which is, however, too shallow for navigation by
steamers. The estuary or bay is funnel-shaped, and its con-
figuration produces at spring tides a "bore" or tidal wave,
which' at its maximum reaches a height of 15 to 26 ft. The
value of tfade passing through the customs in 1899 was
£1,729,000; in 1904 these figures had risen to £2,543,831.
Hang-chow-fu is the Kinsai of Marco Polo, who describes it
as the finest and noblest city in the world, and speaks enthusi-
astically of the number and splendour of its mansions and the
wealth and luxuriance of its inhabitants. According to this*
authority it had a circuit of 100 m., and no fewer than 12,006
bridges and 3000 baths. The name Kmsai, which appears in
Wassaf as Khanzai, in Ibn Batata as Khansa, in Odoric of
Pordenone as Camsay, and elsewhere as Campsay and Cassay,
is really a corruption of the Chinese King-sze, capital, the same
wofd which is still applied to Peking. From the roth to the"
13th century (960-1272) the city, whose real name was then
Ling-nan, was the capital of southern China and the seat of the
Sung dynasty, which was dethroned by the Mongolians shortly
before Marco Polo's visit. Up to 1861, when it was laid in ruins
by the Taip'ings, Hangchow continued to maintain its position
as one of the most flourishing cities in the empire.
HANGING, one of the modes of execution under Roman law
(ad fur cam domnatio), and in England and some other countries
the usual form of capital punishment. It was derived by the
Anglo-Saxons from their German ancestors (Tacitus, Germ.
12). Under William the Conqueror this mode of punishment is
said to have been disused in favour of mutilation: but Henry I.
decreed that all thieves taken should be hanged (i.e. summarily
without trial), and by the time of Henry II. hanging was fully
established as a punishment for homicide; the " right of pit
and gallows 9 ' was ordinarily included in the royal grants of
jurisdiction to lords of manors and to ecclesiastical 1 and
municipal corporation's. In the middle ages every town, abbey,
and nearly all the more important manorial lords had the right
of hanging. Hie clergy had rights, too, in respect to the gallows.
Thus William the Conqueror invested the abbot of Battle* Abbey
with authority to save the life of any criminal. From the end
of the 1 2th century the jurisdiction of the royal courts gradually
became exclusive; as early as 1212 the king's justices- sentenced
offenders to be hanged (Seld. Soc. Publ. vol. i. ; Select Pleat
of the Crown, p. in) ? and in the Gloucester eyre of 1 221 instances
of this sentence aire numerous (Maitland, pi. 72, 101, 228). In
1241 a nobleman's son, William Marise, was hanged for piracy.
In the reign of Edward I. the abbot of Peterborough set up a
gallows at CoUingham, Notts, and hanged a thief. In 1279
two hundred and eighty Jews were hanged for clipping coin.
The mayor and the porter of the South Gate of Exeter were
hanged for their neglect in leaving the city gate open at night,
thereby aiding the escape of a murderer. Hanging in time
superseded all other forms of capital punishment for felony.
It was substituted in 1790 for burning as a punishment of female
traitors and in 1814 for beheading as a punishment for male
traitors. The older and more primitive modes of carrying out
the sentence were by hanging from the bough of a tree ("the
father to the bough, the son to the plough ") or from a gallows.
Formerly in the worst cases of murder it was customary after
execution to hang the criminal's body in chains near the scene
of his crime. This was known as " gibbeting/' and, though by
no means rare in the earliest times, was, according to Blaekstone,
no part of the legal sentence. Holinshed is the authority for
the statement that sometimes culprits were gibbeted alive,
but this is doubtful. It was not until 1*752 that ' gibbeting was
recognized by statute. The act (25 Geo.TL c. 37) empowered
the judges to direct that the dead body of a murderer should be
hung in chains, in the manner practised for the most atrocious
offences, or given over to surgeons to be dissected and anatomized,
and forbade burial except after dissection (see Foster, Crown
Law, 107, Earl Ferrers' case, 1760). The hanging m chains
was usually on the spot where the murder took place. Pirates
were gibbeted on the sea sliore or river bank. The act of 1752
was repealed in 1828, but the alternatives of dissection or hanging
m chains were re-enacted and continued in use until abolished
as to dissection by the Anatomy Act in 1832, and as to hanging
in trhains in 1834. The last murderer hung in chains seems to
have been James Cook, executed at Leicester on the ioth of
August 1832. The irons Used on that occasion are preserved in
Leicester prison. Instead of chains, gibbet irons, a framework
to hold the limbs together, were sometimes used. At the town
hall, Rye, Sussex, are preserved the irons used in 1744 for one
John Breeds who murdered the mayor.
The earlier modes of hanging were ; gradually disused, and
the present system of hanging by use of the drop is said to have
been inaugurated at the execution of the fourth Earl Ferrers
in 1 760. The form of scaffold now in use* has under the gallows
a drop constructed on the principle of the trap-doors on a
theatrical stage, upon which the convict is placed under the
gallows, a white cap is placed over his head, and when the halter
has been properly adjusted the drop is withdrawn by a mechanical
contrivance worked by a lever, much like those in use on railways
for moving points and signals. The convict falls into a pit,
. l See Pollock and Maitland vol, i. 563. The sole survival of these
grants is the jurisdiction of the justices of the Soke of Peterborough
to try for capital offences at their quarter sessions.
9 In most counties if) Ireland the scaffold used (in 1852) to consist
in an iron balcony permanently fixed outside the gaol wall. There
was a small door in the wall commanding the balcony and opening
out upon it. The bottom of the iron balcony or cage was so con-
structed that on the withdrawal of a pin or bolt which could be
managed from within the gaol* the trap-door upon which the culprit
stood dropped from under his feet. The upper end of the rope was
fastened to a strong iron bar, which projected over the trap-door.
There were usually two or three trap-doors on the same balcony,
so that, if required, two Or more men could be hanged simultaneously,
(Trench, Realities of Irish Life (i860), 480.)
9 i8
HANGO— HANKA
the kngtji i of the fall being regulated by his height and weight.
Death results not from real hanging and strangulation, but from
a fracture of the cervical vertebrae. Compression of the windpipe
by the rope and the obstruction of the circulation aid in the
fatal result. Recently the noose has had imbedded in its fibre
a metal eyelet which is adjusted tightly beneath the ear and
considerably expedites death. The convict is left hanging
until life is extinct,
It was long considered essential that executions, like trials,
should be public, and be carried out in a manner calculated to
impress evil-doers. Partly to this idea, partly to notions of
revenge and temporal punishment of sin, is probably due the
rigour of the administration of the English law. But the methods
of execution were unseemly, as delineated in Hogarth's, print
of the execution of the idle apprentice, and were ineffectual in
reducing the bulk of crime, which was augmented by the in-
efficiency of the police and the uncertainty and severity of the
law, which rendered persons tempted to commit crime either
reckless or confident of escape. The scandals attending public
executions led to an attempt to alter the law in 1841, although
many protests had been made long before, among them those of
the novelist Fielding* But perhaps the most forcible and
effectual was that, of Charles Dickens in his letters to. The Time$
written after mixing in the crowd gathered tp witness the execu-
tion of the Mannings at Horsemonger Lane gaol in 1849. After
his experiences he came to the conclusion that public executions
attracted the depraved and those affected by morbid curiosity;
and that the spectacle had neither the solemnity nor the salutary
effect which should attend the execution of public justice. , His
views were strongly resisted in some quarters; and it was not
until ig68 (31 & 33 Vict* c. 24) that they were accented. The
last public hanging in England was that of Michael Barrett for
murder by causing' an explosion at. Cterkenwell prison with the
object of releasing persons confined there for treason and felony
(Ann. Reg., 1868, p. 63). Under the act of 1868 (31 & 32 Vict,
c. 24), which was adapted from similar legislation already in
force in the Australian colonies, convicted murderers are hanged
within the walls of a .prison. The sentence o^ the court is that
the convict " be, hanged by the neck until he is dead." The
execution of the sentence devolves on the sheriff of the county
(Sheriffs Act 1887* s - 13) • As a general rule the sentence, is
carried out in England and Ireland at 8 a.m. on a week-day
(not being Monday),.in the week fpllowing r^he third Sunday after
sentence was passed. In old times prisoners were. often hanged
on the day after sentence was passed; and under the act of
1752 this was made the rule in cases of murder, A public notice
of the date and hour of execution must be posted on the prison
walls not less than twelve hours before the execution and must
remain until the inquest is over. The, persons required to be
present are the sheriff, the gaoler, chaplain and surgeon of the
prison, and such other officers of the prison as the sheriff requires;
justices of the peace for the jurisdiction to which the prison
belongs, and such of the relatives, or such other persons as the
sheriff or visiting justices allow, may also attend. It is usual
to allow the attendance of some representatives of the press.
The death of the prisoner is certified by the prison surgeon, and
a declaration that judgment of death has been executed is signed
by the sheriff. An inquest is then held on the body by the
coroner for the jurisdiction and a jury from which prison officers
are excluded. The certificate and declaration, and a duplicate
of the coroner's inquiry also, are sent to the home office, or in
Ireland to the lord-lieutenant, and the body of the prisoner is
interred in quicklime within the prison walls if space is available.
It is also the practice to toll the bell of the parish or other neigh-
bouring church, for fifteen minutes before and fifteen minutes
after the execution. The hoisting of the black flag at the moment
of execution was abolished in 1902. The regulations as to
execution are printed in the Statutory Rules and Orders, Revised
ed. 1904, vol. x. (tits. Prison E. and Prison I). The act of 1868
applies only to executions for murder; but since the passing of
the act there have been no executions for any other crime
within the United Kingdom. {See further Capital Punishment.)
In Scotland execution by hanging is carried put in the. same
manner as in England and Ireland) but under the supervision
of the magistrates of the burgh in which it is decreed to take
place, and in lieu of the inquest required in England and Ireland
an inquiry is held at the instance of the procurator-fiscal before
a sheriff or sheriff substitute (act of 1868, s. 13). The procedure
at the execution is governed by the act of 1868 and the Scottish
Prison Rules, rr. 465-469 (Stat. Rules and Orders, Revised ed.
1904, tiuPrison S).
British Dominions beyond the Seas. — Throughout the King's
dominions banging is the regular method of executing sentence
of death. In India the Penal Code superseded the modes of
punishment under Mahommedan law, .and s. 368 of the Criminal
Procedure Code of 1898 provides that sentence of death is to be
executed by hanging by the neck.
In Canada the sentence is executed within a prison under
conditions very similar to those in England (Criminal Code, 1892;
ss. 936-945). In Australia the execution takes place within the
prison walls, at a time and place appointed by the governor, of
the state. See Queensland Code, 1 899, s. .664 ; Western Australia
Code, 1 901 , s. 663 ; i& these states no inquest is held. -. In Western
Australia the governor may cause an aboriginal .native to be
executed outside a prison. In New Zealand, the only mode of
execution is by hanging within a prison (Act of 1883).
United States. — In all the states except New Yor,k, Massa-
chusetts, New Jersey, North Carolina, Mississippi, Virginia, and
Ohio (see Electrocution) persons sentenced to death are
hanged. In JJtah the criminal, may elect to be shot instead.
The only countries, whose law is not of direct English origin,
which inflict capital punishment by hanging are Japan, Austria,
Hungary and Russia. (W. Fl C.)
HANG&, a port and sea-bathing resort situated on the pro-
montory • of Hangftudd, to the extreme south-west of Finland.
Hango owes its commercial importance to the fact that it is
practically the only winter ice-free, port in Finland,. and is thus
of value both to the Finnish and the Russian sea-borne trade.
When incorporated in 1874 it had only a'few hundred inhabitants;
in 1900 it had 2501 and it has now. over six thousand (5986 in
1904). It is connected by railway with Helsingfors and Tam-
merfors, and is the centre of the Finnish, butter export, which
now amounts to, over £1 ,000,000 yearly. There.is a considerable
import of coal, cotton, iron and breadstuff*, . {he chief exports
being butter., fish, timber and wood pulp. During the period
of emigration, owing to political troubles with Russia, over
1 3, 000. Finns sailed from Hango in a single year (1901), mostly
for. the United States and Canada., Hango now takes front rank
as a fashionable watering-place, especially for wealthy Russians,
having a dry climate and a fine strand. ,
HANKA, WENCESLAUS (1791-1861), Bohemian philologist,
was born at Horeniowes, a hamlet of eastern Bohemia, on the
loth of June 1791; He was sent in 1807 to school at Koniggratz,
to escape the conscription, then to the university of Prague,
where he founded a society for the cultivation of, the Czech
language. At Vienna, where he afterwards . studied law, he
established a Czech periodical; and in 1813 ^ e made the
acquaintance of Joseph Dobrowsky, the eminent philologist.
On the 16th of September 181 7 Hanka alleged that he had
discovered some ancient Bohemian manuscript poems (the
Koniginhof MS.) of the 13th and 14th. century in the church
tower of the village of Kralodwor, or Koniginhof. These were
published in 181 8, under the title Kralodworsky Rukopis, with
a German translation by Swoboda. Great doubt, however, was
felt as to their genuineness; and Dobrowsky, by pronounc-
ing The Judgment of Libussa, another manuscript found by
Hanka, an "obvious fraud," confirmed the suspicion. Some
years afterwards Dobrowsky saw fit to modify his decision,
but by modern Czech scholars the MS. is regarded as a forgery.
A translation into English, The Manuscript of the Queen's Court,
was made by Wratislaw in 1852. The originals were presented
by the discoverer to the Bohemian museum at Prague, of which
he was appointed librarian in 1818. In 1848 Hanka, who was
an ardent Panslavist, took part in the Slavonic congress and
HANKOW— HANNA
9*9
other peaceful national demonstrations, being, the founder of
the political society Slovanska Lipa. He was elected to the
imperial diet at Vienna, but declined to take his seat. In the
winter of 1848 he became lecturer and in 1849 professor, of
Slavonic languages in the university of Prague, where he died
on the 1 2th of January 186 1.
His chief works and editions' are the following: Hankowy Pjsne
(Prague, 1815), a volume of poems; Starobyla Skladani (1817-1826),
in 5 vols. — a collection of old Bohemian poems, chiefly from un-
published manuscripts; A Short History of the Slavonic Peoples
(1 81 8); A Bohemian Grammar (1822) and A Polish Grammar (1839)
— these grammars were composed on a plan suggested by Dobrowsky ;
Igor (1821), an ancient Russian epic, with a translation into
Bohemian ; a part of the. Gospels from the Reims manuscript in
the Glagolitic character (1846); the old Bohemian Chronicles of
Dalimil (1848) and the History of Charles IV. % by Procop Lupac
(1848); Evangelium Ostromis (1853).
HANKOW (" Mouth of the Han ")• the great commercial
centre of the middle portion of the Chinese empire, and since
1858 one of the principal places opened to foreign trade. It is
situated on the northern side of the Yangtsze-kiang at. its
junction with the Han river, about 600 m. W, of Shanghai in
30 32' 51* N., 114 19' 55* E., at a height of 150 ft. By the
Chinese it is not considered a separate city, but as a suburb
of the now decadent city of Hanyang; and it may almost be
said to stand in a similar relation to Wu-chang the capital of
the province of Hupeh, which lies immediately opposite on the
southern bank of the Yangtsze-kiang. Hankow extends for about
a mile along the main river and about two and a half along the
Han. It is protected by a wall 18 ft. high, which was erected
in 1863 and has a circuit of about 4 nv Within recent years
the port has made rapid advance in wealth and importance.
The opening up of the upper, waters of the Yangtsze to steam
navigation has. made it a commercial entrepdt second only to
Shanghai. It is the. terminus of a railway between Peking:
and the Yangtsze, the ., northern half of the trunk line, from j
Peking to Canton. There is daily communication , by regular
lines of steamers, with Shanghai, and smaller steamers ply on the
upper section of the river between Hankow and Ich^ang, /the!
principal article of export continues to be black tea, of. which
staple Hankow has always been the central market. The bulk
of the leaf tea,. however, now goes; to Russia by direct steamers.
to Odessa: instead of to London as formerly, and a large quantity :
goes overfahd via Tientsin and Siberia in the form of brick tea.:
The quantity of brick tea thus exported in 1004 was, upwards;
of 10 million ft). The exports -which come next jn, value are
opium, wood-oil, hides, beans, cotton yarn and raw silk. The;
population .of Hankow, together with the city of Wuchang on .
the opposite bank, is estimated .at 800,000, and the number of
foreign residents is about 500. Large iron-works have beerij
erected by the Chinese authorities at Hanyang, a couple of miles;
higher up the river, and at Wuchang there are t wp official cotton
mills. The British concession, on which the business, part of'
the foreign settlement is built, was obtained in. . 186 1 by a lease
in perpetuity from the Chinese authorities in favour of the crown.
• By 1863 a great embankment and a roadway were, completed,
along the river, which may rise as, .much as 59 ft. or more above
its ordinary levels, and not infrequently,, as in 1849 and 1866,
lays a large part of the town under water. On the former occasion
little was left uncovered but the roofs of the houses. In 1864,
a public assay office was established. Sub-leases for a term of
years are granted by the crown to private individuals; local
control, including the policing of the settlement, is managed by
. a municipal council elected under regulations promulgated by
the British minister in China, acting by authority, of the,
sovereign's orders in council. Foreigners, i.e. non-British, are
admitted to become lease-holders on their submitting to be
bound by the municipal regulations. The concession, however,
gives no territorial jurisdiction. All foreigners, of whatever
nationality, are justiciable only before their own consular
authorities by virtue of the extra-territorial clauses of their
treaties with 'China. In 1895 a concession, on similar terms to
that under which the British is held, was obtained by Germany,
and this was followed by concessions to France and Russia.
These three concessions all lie on the north bank pf the river
and immediately below the British. An extension of the British
concession backwards was granted in 1898. The Roman
Catholics, the London Missionary Society and the Wesleyans
have all missions in the town; and there are two missionary
hospitals. The total trade in 1904 was valued at £15,401,076
(£9,042,190 being exports and £6,358,886 imports) as compared
with a total of £1.7,183,400 in 1891 and £11,628,000 in 1880.
HANLEY, a market town and parliamentary borough of
Staffordshire, England, in the Potteries district, 148 m„ N.W.
from London, on the North Staffordshire railway. Pop. (189 1)
54,946; (1901) 61,599. The parliamentary borough includes
the adjoining town of Burslem. The town, which lies on high
ground, has handsome municipal buildings, free library, technical
and art museum, elementary, science and art schools, and a
large park. Its manufactures include porcelain, encaustic tiles,
and earthenware, and give employment to the greater part of
the population, women and children being employed almost as
largely as men. In the neighbourhood coal and iron, are obtained.
Hanley is of modern development. Its municipal constitution
dates from 1857, the parliamentary borough from 1885, and
the county borough from 1888. Shelton, Hope, North wood and
Wellington are populous ecclesiastical parishes included within
its boundaries. That of Etruria, adjoining on the west, originated
in the Ridge House pottery works of Josiah Wedgwood and
Thomas Bentley, who founded them in 1769, naming them after
the country of the Etruscans in Italy. Etruria Hall was the
scene of Wedgwood's experiments. The parliamentary borough
of Hanley returns one member. The town was governed by a
mayor, 6 aldermen, and 18 councillors until under the " Potteries
federation " scheme (1908) it became part of the borough of
Stoke-on-Trent (q.v.) in 1910.
HANNA, MARCUS) ALONZO (1837-1904), American politician,
was born at New Lisbon (now Lisbon) Columbiana county,
Ohio, on the 24th of September 1837. In 1852 he removed
with his father to Cleveland, where the latter established himself
in the wholesale grocery business, and the son received his
education in the public schools of that city, and at the Western
Reserve University. Leaving college before the completion of
-bis-qourse, he became associated with his father in business,
and on- his father's death (1862) became a member of the firm.
In 1867 he entered into . partnership with his father-in-law,
Daniel P. Rhodes, in the coal and iron business. It was largely
<jue to Hanna's progressive methods that the business of the
;firai, which became M. A. Hanna & Company in 1877, was
extended to include the, ownership of a fleet of lake steamships
constructed in their own shipyards, and the control and operation
pf valuable coal and iron mines. Subsequently he became
largely interested in, street railway properties in Cleveland and
elsewhere, and ui various banking institutions. In early life he
had little time for politics, but after 1880 he. became prominent
in the affairs of the Republican party in Cleveland, and in 1884
and 1888 was a delegate to the Republican National Convention,
in the latter year being associated with William McKinley in
the management t of the John. Sherman canvass. It was not,
however, until 1896, when he personally managed the canvass
that resulted in securing the Republican presidential nomination
for William McKinley at the St Louis Convention (at which he
was a delegate), that he became known throughout the United
States as a political manager of great adroitness, tact and
resourcefulness. Subsequently he became chairman of the
Republican National Committee, and managed with consummate
skill the campaign of 1896 against William Jennings Bryan and
" free-silver." In March 1897 he was appointed, by Governor
Asa S. Bushnell (1834-1904) United States senator from Ohio,
to succeed John, Sherman. In the senate, to which in January
1S98 he was elected for the short term ending on the 3rd of
March 1899 and for the succeeding full term, he took little part
in the debates, but was recognized as one of the principal advisers
of the McKinley administration, and his influence was large
in consequence. Apart from politics he took a deep and active
interest in the problems of capital and labour, was one of the
9^0
HANNAY— HANNIBAL
organizers (1901) and tlie first president of the National Civic
Federation, whose purpose was to solve social and industrial
problems, and in December 1901 became chairman of a pe^- '
manent board of conciliation and arbitration established by
the Federation. After President Roosevelt's policies became
defined, Senator Hanna came to be regarded as the leader of
the conservative branch of the Republican party and a possible
presidential candidate in 1904. He died at Washington on the ;
15th of February 1904. '. ' " '
HANNAY, JAMES (1827-1873), Scottish critic, novelist and
publicist, was born at Dumfries on the 17th of February 1827.
He came of the Hannays of Sorbie, an ancient Galloway family.
He entered the navy in 1840 and served till 1845, when he
adopted literature as his profession. He acted as reporter on
the Morning Chronicle and gradually obtained a connexion,
writing for the quarterly arid monthly journals. In 1857 Hannay
contested the Dumfries burghs in the Conservative interest,
but without success. He edited the Edinburgh C our ant from
i860 till 1864, when he removed to London. From 1868 till his
death on the 8tli of January 1873 he was British consul at
Barcelona, ' His letters to the Pall Mall Gazette "From an'
Englishman in Spain " were highly appreciated. Hannay's
best books are' his two naval novels, Singleton Fontenoy (1850) .
and Eustace Coriyers {1855); Satire and Satirists (1854); and
Essays front the Quarterly Review (1861). Satire not only shows
loving appreciation of the great satirists of the past, but is
itself instinct with wit and fine satiric power. The book sparkles
with epigrams and aspposite classical allusions, and contains
admirable critical estimates of Horace (Hannay's favourite
author), Juvenal, Erasmus, Sir David Lindsay, George Buchanan,
Boileau, Butler, Dryden, Swift, Pope, Churchill, Burns, Byron
and Moore.
Among his other works are Biscuits and Grog, Clarei Ciii£ and
Hearts are Trumps (1848); KingDobbs (1849); Sketches in Ultra-
marine (1853) ; an edition of the Poems of Edgar Allan Poe, to which
he prefixed an essay on the poet's life and genius (1852) ; Characters
ana Criticisms, consisting mainly of his contributions to the Edin-
burgh Courant (1865); A Course of English Literature (1866);
Studies on Thackeray (1869); and a family history entitled Three
Hundred Years of a Norman House (the Gurneys) (1867).
HANNEN, JAMES HANNEN, Baron (1821-1894), English
judge, son of a London merchant, was born at Peckhanl hi 1821.
He was educated at St Paul's school and at Heidelberg Univer-
sity, which was famous as a school of law. Called to the bar
at the Middle Temple in 1848, he joined the home circuit. At
this time he also wrote for the press, and supplied special reports
for the Morning Chronicle. Though not eloquent in speech, he
was clear, accurate and painstaking, and soon advanced in his!
profession, passing many more brilliant competitors. He :
appeared for the claimant in the Shrewsbury peerage case in 185$, '
when the 3rd Earl Talbot was declared to be entitled to the
earldom of Shrewsbury as the descendant of the 2nd earl;;
was principal agent for Great Britain on the mixed British and.
American commission for the settlement of outstanding claims,
1853-1855; and assisted in the prosecution of the Fenian
prisoners at Manchester. In 1868 Hannen was appointed a
judge of the Court of Queen's Bench. In many cases he took a
strong position of his own, notably in that of Farrar v. Close
(1869), which materially affected the legal status of trade unions
and was regarded by unionists as a severe blow to their interests.
Hannen became judge of the Probate and Divorce Court in 1872,
and in 1875 he was appointed president of the probate and
admiralty division of the High Court of Justice. Here he
showed himself a worthy successor to Cresswell and Penzance.
Many important causes came before him, but he will chiefly
be remembered for the manner in which he presided over the
Parnell special commission. His influence pervaded the whole
proceedings, and it is understood that he personally penned a
large part of the voluminous report. Hannen's last public
service was in connexion with the Bering Sea inquiry at Paris,
when he acted as one of the British arbitrators. In January
1 89 1 he was appointed a lord of appeal in ordinary (with the
dignity of a life peerage), but in that capacity he had few oppor-
tunities for displaying his powers, and' he retire^ at the close
of the session of 1893. He died in London, after a prolonged
illness, on the 29th of March 1894.
HANNIBAL (" mercy " or " favour of Baal "), Carthaginian
general and statesman, son of Hamilcar Barca (#.».), was born
in 249 or 247 B.C. Destined by his father to succeed him in
the work of Vengeance against Rome, he was taken to Spain,
and while yet a boy gave ample evidence of his military aptitude.
Upon the death of his brother-in-law Hasdrubal (221) he was
acclaimed commander-in-chief by the soldiers and confirmed
in his appointment by the Carthaginian government. After
two years spent in completing the conquest of Spain south of
the Ebro, he set himself to begin what he felt to be his life's task,
the conquest and humiliation of Rome. Accordingly in 219
he seized some pretext for attacking the town of Saguntum
(mod. Murviedro), which stood under the special protection of
Rome, and disregarding the protests of Roman envoys, stormed
it after an eight months' siege. As the home government, in
view of Hannibal's great popularity, did riot venture to repudiate
this action, the declaration of war which he desired took place at
the erid of the year.
Of the large army of Libyan and Spanish mercenaries which
he had at his disposal Hannibal selected the most trustworthy
and devoted contingents, and with these determined to execute
the daring plan of carrying the war into the heart of Italy by
a rapid march through Spain and Gaul, Starting in the spring
of 218 he easily fought his way through the northern tribes to
the Pyrenees, and by conciliating the Gaulish chiefs on his
passage contrived to reach the Rhone before the Romans could
take any measures to bar his advance. After outmanoeuvring
the natives, who endeavoured to prevent his crqssing, Hannibal
evaded a Roman force sent to operate against him in Gaul; he
proceeded up the valley of one of the tributaries of the Rhone
(Isere or, more probably, Durance), and by autumn arrived at
the foot of the Alps. 1 His passage over the mountain-chain, at
a point which cannot be determined with certainty, though the
balance of the available evidence inclines to the Mt Genevre
pass, and fair cases can be mack out for the Gol d'Argentiere
and for Mt Cenis, was one of the most memorable achievements
of any military force of ancient times. Though the opposition
of the natives and the difficulties of ground and climate cost
Hannibal half his army, his perilous march brought him directly
into Roman territory and entirely frustrated the attempts of the
enemy to fight out the main issue on foreign ground. His
sudden appearance among the Gauls, moreover, enabled him
to detach most of the tribes from their new allegiance to the
Romans before the latter could take steps to check rebellion.
After allowing his soldiers a brief rest to recover from their
exertions Hannibal first secured his rear by subduing the hostile
tribe of the Taurini (mod. Turin), and moving down the Po
valley forced the Romans by virtue of his superior cavalry to
evacuate the plain of Lombardy. In December of the same year
he had an opportunity of showing his superior military skill
when the Roman commander attacked him on the river Trebia
(near Placentia); after wearing down the excellent Roman
infantry he cut it to pieces by a surprise attack from an ambush
in the flank. Having secured his position in north Italy by this
victory, he quartered his troops for the winter on the Gauls,
whose zeal in his cause thereupon began to abate. Accordingly
in spring 217 Hannibal decided to find a more trustworthy base
of operations farther south; he crossed the Apennines without
opposition, but in the marshy lowlands of the Arno he lost a
large part of his force through disease and himself became blind
in one eye. Advancing through the uplands of Etruria he pro-
voked the main Roman army to a hasty pursuit, and catching
it in a defile on the shore of Lake Trasimenus destroyed it in
the waters or on the adjoining slopes (see Trasimene). He had
now disposed of the only field force which could check his advance
upon Rome, but realizing that without siege engines he could
not hope to take the capital, he preferred to utilise his victory
by passing into central and southern Italy and exciting a general
revolt against the sovereign power. Though closely watched
HANNIBAL
921
by a forc4 under Fabius Maximus Cunctator, he was able *to
carry his ravages far and wide through Italy: on one occasion
he was entrapped in the lowlands of Campania, but set himself
free by a stratagem which completely deluded his opponent.*
For the winter he found comfortable quarters in the Apulian
plain, into which the enemy dared not descend. In the campaign
of 217 Hannibal had failed to obtain a following among the
Italians; in the following year he had an opportunity of turning
the tide in his favour. A large Roman army advanced into
Apulia in order to crush him, and accepted battle on the site
of Cannae. Thank9 mainly to brilliant cavalry tactics, Hannibal,
with much inferior numbers, managed to surround and cut to
pieces the whole of this force; moreover, the moral effect of
this victory was such that all the south of Italy joined his cause.
Had Hannibal now received proper material reinforcements
from his countrymen at Carthage he might have made a direct
attack upon Rome; for the present he had to content himself
with subduing the- fortresses which still held out against him,
and the only other notable event of 216 was the defection of
Capua, the second largest city of Italy, which Hannibal made
his new base.
In the next few years Hannibal was reduced to minor opera-
tions which centred mainly round the cities of Campania. He
failed to draw his opponents into a pitched battle, and in some
slighter engagements 1 suffered reverses. As the forces detached
under his lieutenants were generally unable to hold their own,
and neither his home government nor his new ally Philip V.
of Macedon helped to make good his losses, his position in south
Italy became increasingly difficult and his chance of ultimately
conquering Rome grew ever more remote. In 212 he gained an
important success by capturing Tarentum, but in the same year
he lost his hold upon Campania, where he failed to prevent the
concentration of three Roman armies round Capua. Hannibal
attacked the besieging armies with his full force in 211, and
attempted to entice them away by a sudden march through
Samnium which brought him within 3 m. of Rome, but caused
more alarm than real danger to the city. But the siege continued,
and the town fell in the same year. In 210 Hannibal again
proved his superiority in tactics by a severe defeat inflicted at
Herdoniae (mod. Ordona) in Apulia upon a proconsular army,
and in 208 destroyed a Roman force engaged in the siege of
Locri Epizephyrii. But with the loss of Tarentum hi 209 and
the gradual reconquest \}f th&Romans of Samnium and Lucania
his hold on south Italy was almost lost. . In 207 he succeeded
in making his way again into Apujlk, where he waited to concert
measures for a combined mardr upon Rome with his brother
Hasdrubal (#.«.). On hearing, however, of his brother's defeat
and death at the Metaurus he retired into the mountain fastnesses
of Bruttiumy where he maintained himself for the ensuing
years. With the failure of his brother Mago (q.v.)'in Liguria^
(205-203) and of his own negotiations with Philip of Macedfcn,
the last hope of recovering his ascendancy in Italy was lost.
In 203, when Scipio was carrying all before him in Africa and the?
Carthaginian peace-party were arranging an armistice, Hannibal
was recalled from Italy by the " patriot " party at Carthage.
After leaving a record of his expedition, engraved in Punic and
Greek upon brazen tablets, in the temple of Juno at Crotona;
he sailed back to Africa. His arrival immediately restored the
predominance of the war-party, who placed him in command of
a combined force of African levies and of his mercenaries from
Italy. In 202 Hannibal, after meeting Scipio in a fruitless peace
conference, engaged him in a decisive battle at Zama. Unable
to cope with his indifferent troops against the well-trained and
confident Roman soldiers, he experienced a crushing defeat
which put an fend to all resistance on the part of Carthage.
Hannibal was still only in hisf orty^sixth year. He soon showed
that he could be a statesman as well as a soldier. Peace having
been concluded, he was appointed chief magistrate (suffetes,
sofet). The office had become rather insignificant, but Hannibal
restored its power and authority. The oligarchy, always jealous
of him, had even charged him with having betrayed the interests
of his country while in Italy, and neglected to take Rome when
he might have done so. The dishonesty and incompetence of
these men had brought the finances of Carthage into grievous
disorder. So effectively did Hannibal reform abuses that the
heavy tribute imposed by Rome could be paid by instalmemts
without additional and extraordinary taxation.
Seven years after the victory of Zama, the Romans, alarmed at
this new prosperity, demanded Hannibal's surrender. Hannibal
thereupon went into voluntary exile* First he journeyed to
Tyre, the mother-city of Carthage, and thence to Ephesus, where
he was honourably received by Antiochus III. of Syria, who was
then preparing for war with Rome. Hannibal soon saw that the
king's army was no match for the Romans. He advised him
to equip a feet and throw a body of troops on the south of
Italy, adding that he would himself take the command. But
he could not make much impression on Antiochus, who listened
more willingly to courtiers and flatterers, and would not
entrust Hannibal with any important charge. In 106 he was
placed in command of a Phoenician fleet, but was defeated in a
battle off the river Eurymedon,
From the court of Antiochus, who seemed prepared to«ur render
him to the Romans, Hannibal fled to Crete, but he soon went
back to Asia, and sought refuge with Prusjas, king of Bithyua^
Once more the Romans were determined to hunt him out, and
they sent Flamjnius to insist on his surrender. Prusias agreed to
give him up, but Hannibal did not choose to fall into his enemies'
hands. At Libyssa, on the eastern shore of the Sea of Marmora,
he took poison, which, it was said, he had long carried about
with him in a ring. The precise year of his death was a matter
of controversy. If, as Livy seems to imply, it was 183, he died
in the same year as Scipio Africanus.
As to the transcendent .military genius of Hannibal there
cannot be two opinions. The man who for fifteen years could
hold his ground in a hostile country against several powerful
armies and a, succession of able generals must have been a
commander and a tactician of supreme capacity. In the use of
stratagems and ambuscades he certainly surpassed all other
generals of antiquity. Wonderful as his achievements were, we
must marvel the more when we take into account the grudging
support he received from Carthage. As his veterans melted
away,; he had to organize fresh levies on the spot. We never
hear of a mutiny in his army, composed though it was of Africans,
Spaniards and Gauls.: Again, all we know of him comes for the
most pact from hostile sources. The Romans feared and hated
him so .much that they could not do him justice. Livy speaks
of his great qualities, but he adds that his vices were equally
great, among which he singles out his " more than Punic perfidy "
and " an inhuman cruelty;" Jfoi the first there would seem to
be no further justification than that he was consummately
skilful in the use of ambuscades. For the latter there is, we
believe, no more ground than that at certain crises he acted in
the general spirit of ancient warfare. Sometimes he contrasts
most favourably. with his enemy. No such brutality stains his
name as that perpetrated by Claudius Nero on the vanquished
Hasdrubal. Polybius merely says that he was accused of cruelty
by the Romans and of avarice by the Carthaginians. He had
indeed bitter enemies, and his life was pne continuous struggle
against destiny. For steadfastness of purpose, for organizing
capacity and a mastery of military science he has perhaps never
had an equal.
AtfTHORiTifcs.^Polybius ijt.-xy., xxi.-iL, xxiv.; Livy xxL-
Cornelius Nepos, Vita Hannibalis: Apoian, Beflum Hanmbalicum\
E. Hennebert, Histoire d'Annibal (Paris, 1870-1.891, 3 volsj; F. A.
Dodge, Great Captains, Hannibal (Boston and New York, 1891);
D. Grasei, Annibale giudicato da Polibio e Tito Lvvio (Vicenza, 1806) ;
W. How, Hannibal and the Great War between Rome and Carthage
(London, 1899) ; T. Montanari, Annibale, down to 217 B.C. (Rovigp,
1 901); K. Lehmann. Die Angriffe der drei Barkiden auf ttalten
(Leipzig, 1905), with bibliography. See also Puwc Wars and
articles on the chief battle sites. Oh Hannibal's passage through
Gaul and the Alps,*ee T. Arnold, The Second Punic War (ed. W. T.
AniokJ, London, 1 886),, Appendix B, pp. 362-373. with bibliography;
D. Freshfield in Alpine Journal (1883), pp. 267*300; L. Montlahuc,
Le Vrai Chemin d'Annibal d tr avers les Alpes (Paris, 1896) ; J. Fuchs',
Hannibals Al^eniibergang (Vienna, 1897) ; G. E. Marindin in Classical
Review (1899), pp. 138-249; W. Osiander, Der Hannibalweg neu
922
HANNIBAL— HANOI
HANNIBAL, a city of Marion county, Missouri, U.S.A., on
the Mississippi river, about 120 m. N.W. of Saint Louis. Pop.
(1800), 13,857; (1900), 12,780, including 920 foreign-born and 1836
negroes; (1910) 18,341. It is served by the Wabash, the Missouri,
Kansas & Texas, the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, and the
St Louis & Hannibal railways, and by hoat lines to Saint Louis,
Saint Paul and intermediate points. The business section is
in the level bottom-lands of the river, while the residential
portion spreads up the banks, which afford fine building sites
with beautiful views. Mark Twain's boyhood was spent at
Hannibal, which is the setting of Life on the Mississippi, Huckle-
berry Finn and Tom Sawyer; Hannibal Cave, described in
Tom Sawyer, extends for miles beneath the river and its bluffs.
Hannibal has a good public library (1889; the first in Missouri) ;
other prominent buildings are the Federal building, the court
house, a city hospital and the high school. The river is here
spanned by a long iron and steel bridge connecting with East
Hannibal, 111. Hannibal is the trade centre of a rich agricultural
region, and has an important lumber trade, railway shops, and
manufactories of lumber, Bhoes, stoves, flour, cigars, lime,
Portland cement and pearl buttons (made from mussel shells);
the value of the city's factory products increased from $2,698,720
in 1900 to $4,442,099 in 1905, or 64*6%. In the vicinity are
valuable deposits of crinoid limestone, a coarse white building
stone which takes a good polish. The electric-lighting plant is
owned and operated by the municipality. Hannibal was laid out
as a town in i8iq (its origin going back to Spanish land grants,
which gave rise to much litigation) and was first chartered as a city
in 183Q. The town of South Hannibal was annexed to it in 1843.
HANNINQTON, JAMES (1847-1885), English missionary, was
born at Hurst picrpoint, in Sussex, on the 3rd of September
1847. From earliest childhood he displayed a love of adventure
and natural history. At school he made little progress, and left
at the age of fifteen for his father's counting-house at Brighton.
He had no taste for office work, and much of his time was
occupied in commanding a battery of volunteers and in charge
of a steam launch. At twenty-one he decided on a clerical
career and entered St Mary's Hall, Oxford, where he exercised
a remarkable influence over his fellow-undergraduates. He
was, however, a desultory student, and in 1870 was advised to
go to the little village of Martinhoe, in Devon, for quiet reading,
but distinguished himself more by his daring climbs after sea-
gulls' eggs and his engineering skill in cutting a pathway along
precipitous cliffs to some caves. In 1872 the death of his mother
made a deep impression upon him. He began to read hard,
took his B.A. degree, and in 1873 was ordained deacon and
placed in charge of the small country parish of Trentishoe in
Devon. Whilst curate in charge at Hurstpierpoint, his thoughts
were turned by the murder of two missionaries on the shores
of Victoria Nyansa to mission work. He offered himself to
the Church Missionary Society and sailed on the 17th of May
1882, at the head of a party of six, for Zanzibar, and thence set
out for Uganda; but, prostrated by fever and dysentery, he
was obliged to retucn to England in 1883. On his recovery he
was consecrated bishop of Eastern Equatorial Africa (June
1 $$4), and in January 1885 started again for the scene of his
mission, and visited Palestine on the way. On his arrival at
Krerttown. near Mombasa, he visited many stations in the
neighbourhood. Then, filled with the idea of opening a new
route to Uganda, he set out and reached a spot near Victoria
Nyansa in safety. His arrival, however, roused the suspicion
of the natives, and under King Mwanga's orders he was lodged
in a filthy hut swarming with rats and vermin. After eight
days his men were murdered, and on the 20th of October 1&H5
he himself was speared in both sides, his last words to the
soldier* appointed to kill him being. '* Go. tell Mwanga I have
purchased the road to Uganda with my blood.*'
HU Last Jtmnais wore edited in l&tt. See also Life by E. C.
D*w*m* u££?i; and \Y, G. Berry, Bishop H*nntM£ton U908).
HANNINQTON, a lake of British East Africa in the eastern
lift-valley just south of the equator and in the shadow of the
Laikipia escarpment. It is 7 m. long by a m. broad. The
water is shallow and brackish. Standing in the lake and along
its shores axe numbers of dead trees, the remains of an ancient
forest, which serve as eyries for storks, herons and eagles. The
banks and fiats at the north end of the lake are the resort of
hundreds of thousands of flamingoes. The places where they
cluster are dazzling white with guano deposits. The lake is
named after Bishop James Hannington.
HANNO* the name of a large number of Carthaginian soldiers
and statesmen. Of the majority little is known; the most
important are the following 1 : —
1. Hanko, Carthaginian navigator, who probably flourished
about 500 B.C. It has been conjectured that be was the son of
the Hamilcar who was killed at Himera (480), but there is nothing
to prove this. He was the author of an account of a coasting
voyage on the west coast of Africa, undertaken for the purpose
of exploration and colonization. The original, inscribed on a
tablet in the Phoenician language, was hung up in the temple
of Melkarth on his return to Carthage. What is generally sup-
posed to be a Greek translation of this is still extant., under the
title of Periplus t although its authenticity has been questioned.
Hanno appears to have advanced beyond Sierra Leone as far
as Cape Palmas. On the island which formed the terminus of
his voyage the explorer found a number of hairy women,
whom the interpreters called Gorillas (TopDsXas).
. Valuable editions by T. Falconer. (i797. with translation and
defence of its authenticity) and C. W. M tiller in Geographic* Graeci
minores, i.; see also E. H. Bunbury, History of Ancient Geography, i.,
and treatise by C. T. Fischer (1893), with bibliography.
2. Hanno (3rd century B.C.), called " the Great," Carthaginian
statesman and general, leader of the aristocratic party and the
chief opponent of Hamilcar and Hannibal. He appears to have
gained his title from military successes in Africa, but of these
nothing is known. In 240 B.C. he drove Hamilcar 's veteran
mercenaries to rebellion by withholding their pay, and when
invested with the command against them was so unsuccessful
that Carthage might have been lost but for the exertions of his
enemy Hamilcar (9. v.). Hanno subsequently remained at
Carthage, exerting all his influence against the democratic
party, which, however, had now definitely won the upper hand.
During the Second Punic War he advocated peace with Rome,
and according to Lrvy even advised that Hannibal should be
given up to the Romans. After the battle of Zama (202) he
was one of the ambassadors sent to Scipk> to sue for peace.
Remarkably little is known of him, considering the great influence
he undoubtedly exercised amongst his countrymen.
Livy xxi, 3 ff., xxiii. 12; Polybius I 67 ff.j Appiaa, Rts His-
panicae, 4, 5, Res Punicae, 34, 49, 68.
HANOI* capital of Tongking and of French Indo-China, on
the right bank of the Song-koi or Red river, about 80 m. from
its mouth in the Gulf of Tongking. Taking in the suburban
population the inhabitants numbered in 1905 about 110,000,
including 103,000 Annamese, 2289 Chinese and 2665 French,
exclusive of troops. Hanoi resembles a European city in the
possession of wide well-paved streets and promenades, systems of
electric light and drainage and a good water-supply. A crowded
native quarter built round a picturesque lake lies dose to the
river with the European quarter to the south of it. The public
buildings include the palace of the governor-general, situated
in a spacious botanical and zoological garden, the large military
hospital, the cathedral of St Joseph, the Paul Bert college, and
the theatre. The barracks and other military buildings occupy
the site of the old citadel, an area of over 300 acres, to the west
of the native town. The so-called pagoda of the Great Buddha
is the chief native building. The river is embanked and is
crossed by the Pont Doumer, a fine railway bridge over 1 m.
long. Vessels drawing 8 or 9 ft. can reach the town. Hanoi is
, For others of the name see Carthage; Hannibal; Pcsic
Wars. Smith's Classical Dictionary has notices of some thirty of the
HANOTAUX— HANOVER
923
the seat of the general government of Indo- China, of the resident-
superior of Tongking, and of a bishop, who is vicar-apostolic of
central Tongking. It is administered by an elective municipal
council with a civil service administrator as mayor. It has a
chamber of commerce, the president of which has a seat on the
superior council of Indo-China; a chamber of the court of
appeal of Indo-China, a civil tribunal of the first order, and is
the seat of the chamber of agriculture of Tongking. Its industries
include cotton-spinning, brewing, distilling, and the manufacture
of tobacco, earthenware and matches; native industry pro-
duces carved and inlaid furniture, bronzes and artistic metal-
work, silk embroidery, &c. Hanoi is the junction of railways to
Hai- Phong, its seaport, Lao-Kay, Vinh, and the Chinese frontier
via Lang-Son. It is in frequent communication with Hai-Phong
by steamboat.
See C. Madrolle, Tonkin du sud: Hanoi (Paris, 1907).
HANOTAUX, ALBERT AUGUSTS GABRIEL (1853- ),
French statesman and historian, was born at Beaurevoir in the
department of Aisne. He received his historical training in the
£cole des Chartes. and became maUre de conferences in the
ficole des Hautes Etudes. His political career was rather that
of a civil servant than of a party politician. In 1870 he entered
the ministry of foreign affairs as a secretary, and rose step by
step through the diplomatic service. In 1886 he was elected
deputy for Aisne, but, defeated in 1880, he returned to his dipk>-
matic career, and on the 3 1st of May 1894 was chosen by Charles
Dupuy to be minister of foreign affairs. With one interruption
(during the Ribot ministry, from the 26th of January to the
2nd of November 1895) he held this portfolio until the 14th of
June i8o8 k During his ministry he developed the rapproche-
ment of France with Russia — visiting St Petersburg with the
president, Felix Faure — and sent expeditions to delimit the
French colonies in Africa. The Fashoda incident of July 1898
was a result of this policy, and Hanotaux's distrust of England
is frankly stated in his literary works. As an historian he pub^
lished Origines de ^institution des intendants de provinces (1884),
which is the authoritative study on the intendants; £tudes his-
toriques sur les X VI* tt X VII € siecles en France (1886) ; Histoire
de Richelieu (2 vols., *888); and Histoire de la Troisihne RSpub>-
lique (1904, &c), the standard history of contemporary France.
He also edited the Instructions des dmbassadettrs de France a
Rome, depuis les traitis de Westphalie (1888). He was elected a
member of the French Academy on the 1st of April 1897.
HANOVER (Ger. Hannover), formerly an independent kingdom
of Germany, but since 1866 a province of Prussia. It is bounded
on the N. by the North Sea, Holstein, Hamburg and Meekleh-
burg-Schwerin, E. and S.E. by Prussian Saxony* and the dtifchy
of Brunswick, S.W. by the Prussian provinces of Hesse^Nassau
and Westphalia, and W. by Holland. These boundaries include
the grand-duchy of Oldenburg and the free state of Bremen, the
former stretching southward from the North Sea nearly to the
southern boundary of Hanover. A small portion of the province
in the south is separated from Hanover proper by the inter-
position of part of Brunswick. On the 23rd of March 1873
the province was increased by the addition of the Jade territory
(purchased by Prussia from Oldenburg), lying south*west of
the Elbe and containing the great naval station and arsenal of
Wilhermshaven. The area of the province is 14,870 sq. m.
Physical Features, — The greater part of Hanover is a plain with
sandhills, heath and moor. The most fertile districts lie on the
banks of the Elbe and near the North Sea, where, as in Holland; rich
meadows are preserved from encroachment of the sea by broad
dikes and deep ditches, kept in repair at great expense. The main
feature of the northern plain is the so-called LUneburger Heide, a
vast expanse of moor and fen, mainly covered with low brushwood
(though here and there are oases of fine beech and oak woods)
and intersected by shallow valleys, and extending almost due north
from the city of Hanover to the southern arm of the Elbe at Harburg.
The southern portion of the province is hilly, and in the district
of Klausenburg, containing the Harz, mountainous. The higher
elevations are covered by dense forests of fir and larch, and the
lower slopes with deciduous trees. The eastern portion of the
northern plain is covered with forests of fir. The whole of Hanover
dips from the Harz Mountains to the north, and the rivers conse-
quently flow in that direction. The thr*z chief rivers of the province
are the Elbe in the north-east, where it mainly forms the boundary
and receives the navigable tributaries Jeetze, Ilmenau, Seve, Este,
Luhe, Schwinge and Medem; the Weser in the centre, with its
important tributary the Aller (navigable from Celle downwards);
and in the west the Ems, with its tributaries the Aa and the Lcda.
Still farther west is the Vecht, which, rising in Westphalia, flows
to the Zuider Zee. Canals are numerous and connect the various
river systems.
The principal lakes are the Steinhuder Meer, about 4 m. long and
2 m. broad, and 20 fathoms deep, on the borders of Schaumburg-
Lippe; the Dttmmersee, on the borders of Oldenburg, about 12 m.
in circuit ; the lakes of Bederkesa and some others in the moorlands
of the north ; the Seeburger See, near Duderstadt ; and the Oder-
teich, in the Harz, 2100 ft. above the level of the sea.
Climate. — The climate in the low-lying districts near the coast is
moist and foggy, in the plains mild, on the Harz mountains severe
and variable. In spring the prevailing winds blow from the N.E.
and E., in summer from the S.W. The mean annual temperature is
about 46 ° Fahr.; in the town of Hanover it is higher. The average
annual rainfall is about 23-5 in.; but this varies greatly in different
districts. Tn the west the Herauch, a thick fog arising from the
burning of the moors, is a plague of frequent occurrence.
Population; Divisions. — The province contains an area of 14.869
sq. m., and the total population, according to the census of 1905, was
2,759.699. (1,384.161 males and 1,375.538 females). In this con-
nexion it is noticeable that in Hanover, almost alone among German
states and. provinces, there is a considerable proportion of male
births over female. The density of the population is 175 to the
sq. m. (English), and the proportion of urban to rural population,
roughly, as I to 3 of the inhabitants. The province is divided into
the six kegierungsbevrke (or departments) of Hanover, Hildesheim,
LUneburg, Stade, Osnabriick and Aurich, and these again into
Kreise (circles, or local government districts) — 76 in all. The chief
towns — containing more than 10,000 inhabitants — are Hanover,
Linden, Osnabriick, Hildesheim, Geestemunde, Wilhelmshaven,
Harburg, Luneburg, Celle, Gdttingen and Emden. Religious statis-
tics show that 84% of the inhabitants belong to the Evangelical-
Lutheran Church, 17 to the Roman Catholic and less than 1 % to
the Jewish communities. The Roman Catholics are mostly gathered
around the episcopal sees of Hildesheim and Osnabruck and close
to Munster (m. Westphalia) on the western border, and the Jews in
the towns. A court of appeal for the whole province sits at Celle,
and there are eight superior courts. Hanover returns 19 members
to the Reichstag (imperial diet) and 36 to the Abgeordnetenhaus
(lower house) of the Prussian parliament (Landtag).
EducaUon>-~Am6ng the educational institutions of the province
the university of Gottingen stands first, with an average yearly
attendance of 1500 students. There are, besides, a technical college
in Hanover, an academy of forestry in Munden, a mining college in
Clausthal, a military school and a veterinary college (both in
Hanover), 26 gymnasia (classical schools), 18 semi-classical, and 14
commercial schools. . There are also two naval academies, asylums
for the deaf and dumb, and numerous charitable institutions.
Agriculture. — Though agriculture constitutes the most important
branch of industry in the province, it is still in a very backward
state. The 'greater part of the soil is of inferior quality, and much
that is susceptible of cultivation is still lying waste* Of the entire
area of the country 28-6 % is arable, 16-2 in meadow or pasture land,
14% in forests, 37-2% in uncultivated moors, heaths, &c; from
17 to 18% is in possession of the state. The best agriculture is to
be 1 found in' the districts of Hildesheim, Calenberg, Gottingen and
Grubenhagen, . on the banks of the Weser and Elbe, and in East
Friesland. Rve^ is generally crown for bread. Flax, for which
much of the soil is admirably adapted, is extensively cultivated, and
forms an important article of export, chiefly, however, in the form
of yarn. Potatoes, hemp, turnips, hops, tobacco and beet are also
extensively grown, the latter, in connexion with the sugar industry,
showing each year a larger return. Apples, pears, plums and
cherries are the principal kinds of fruit cultivated, while the wild
red 1 cranberries 'from the Harz and the black bilberries from the
LUneburger Heide form an important article of export.
Live Stock, — Hanover is renowned for its cattle and live stock
generally. Of these there were counted in 1900 1,115,022 head of
horned cattle, 824,000 sheep, 1 ,556,000 pigs, and 230,000 goats. The
LUneburger Heide yields an excellent breed of sheep, the Heid-
schnucken, which equal the Southdowns of England in delicacy of
flavour. Horses famous for their sice and Quality are feared iti the
marshes of Aurich and Stade, in Hildesheim and Hanover; and, for
breeding purposes, in the stud farm of Celle. Bees are principally
kept on the LUneburger Heide, and the annual yield of honey is very
considerable. Large flocks of geese are kept in the moist lowlands;
their flesh is salted for domestic consumption during the winter, and
their feathers are prepared for sale. Tne rivers yield trout, salmon
(in the Weser) and crayfish. The sea fisheries are important and have
their chief centre at Geestemunde.
Mining. — Minerals occur in great variety and abundance. The
Harz Mountains are rich in silver, lead, iron and copper; coal is
found around Osnabriick, on the Deister, at Osterwald, 4c, lignite in
various places; salt-springs of great richness exist at Egestorfshall
924
/HANOVER;
and Neuhali near Hanover, and at Luneburg; a*d petroleum may
be obtained south of Celle. In the cold regions, of the northern low-
lands peat occurs in beds of immense thickness.
Manufactures. — Works for the manufacture of iron, copper, silver,
lead, vitriol and sulphur are carried on to a large extent. The iron
works are very important : smelting is carried on in the Harz and
near Osnabruck; there are extensive foundries and machine factories
at Hanover, Linden, Osnabruck, Hameln, Geestemunde, Harburg,
Qsterode, &c, and manufactories of arms atHerzberg, and of
cutlery in the towns pf the Harz and in the Bollinger Forest. The
textije industries are prosecuted chiefly in the towns. Linen yarn
and cloth are largely manufactured, especially in the south about
Osnabruck and Hfldesheim, and bleaching is engaged in extensively ;
woollen cloths are made to a considerable extent in the south about
Einbeck, Gottingen and Hameln; cotton-spinning and weaving
have their principal seats at Hanover and Linden. Glass houses,
paper-mills, potteries, tile works and tobacco-pipe works are numer-
ous. Wax is bleached to a considerable exteht, and there are
numerous tobacco factories, tanneries, breweries, vinegar works
and brandy distilleries. Shipbuilding is an important industry,
especially at Wilhelmshaven, rapenburg, Leer, Stade and Harburg;
and at Milnden river-barees are built.
Commerce. — Although the carrying trade of Hanover is to a great
extent absorbed by Hamburg and Bremen, the shipping of the
province counted, in 1903, 750 sailing vessels and 86 steamers of,
together, 55,498 registered tons. The natural port is Bremen-
Geestemunde and to it is directed the rivter traffic down the Weser,
which practically forms the chief commercial artery of the province.
Communications, — The roads throughout are, on the whole, well
laid, and those connecting the principal towns macadamized.
Hanover is intersected by important trunk lines of railway: notably
the lines from Berliri to Cologne, from Hamburg to Frarikfort-on-
Main, from Hamburg to Bremen and Cologne, and from Berlin to
Amsterdam.
History* — The name Hanover (Hokenujer » high bank),
originally confined to the town which became the capital of
the duchy of Ltineburg-Calenberg, came gradually into use to
designate, first, the duchy itself, and secondly, the electorate
of Brunswick*LUneburg; and it was officially recognized as
the name of the state when in 1814 the electorate was raised
to the rank of a kingdom.
The early history of Hanover is merged in that of the duchy
•f Brunswick (?.*.), from, which the duchy of Branswick-LUne-
buxg and its offshoots, the duchies of Liineburg-Celle and
Liineburg-Calenberg have sprung. Ernest I. (1497-1546), duke
ef Brunswick-Ltineburg, who introduced the reformed doctrines
into Luneburg, obtained the whole of this duchy in 1539; and
in 1569 his two surviving sons made an arrangement which
was afterwards responsible for the birth of the kingdom of
Hanover. By this agreement the greater part of the duchy,
with its capital at Celle, came to William (1535-1592), the
younger of the .brothers, who gave laws to his land and added
to its area; and this duchy of Lttneburg-Celle was subsequently
ruled in turn by four of his sons: Ernest II. (1564-1611),
Christian (1 566-1633), Augustus (cL 1636) and Frederick
(d. 164S). In addition to these four princes Duke William left
three other sons, and in 1610 the seven brothers entered into a
compact that the duchy should not be divided, and that only
one of them should marry and continue the family. Casting
lots to determine this question, the lot fell upon the sixth brother,
George (1 582-1641), who was a prominent soldier during the
period of the Thirty Years' War and saw service in almost all
parts of Europe, fighting successively for Christian IV. of Den-
mark, the emperor Ferdinand II., and for the Swedes both
before and after the death of Gustavus Adolphus. In 161 7
he aided his brother, Duke Christian, to add Grubenhagen to
Lttneburg, and after the extinction of the family of Brunswick*-
Wolfenbtittel in 1634, he obtained Calenberg for himself, making
Hanover the capital of Ms small dukedom. In 1648, on Duke
Frederick's death, George's eldest son, Christian Louis (d. 1665),
became duke of Liineburg-Celle; and at this time he handed
over Calenberg, which he had ruled since his father's death,
to his second brother, George William (d. 1 705) . When Christian
Louis died' George William succeeded him in Lttneburg-Celle;
but the duchy was also claimed by a younger brother, John
Frederick, a cultured and enlightened prince who had forsaken
the Lutheran faith of his family and had become a Roman
Catholic. Soon, however, by an arrangement John Frederick
received Calenberg and Grubenhagen * which he ruled in absolute
fashion, .creating a standing army and modelling his court
after that of Louis XIV., and which came on his death in 1679
to his youngest brother, Ernest Augustus (1630-169$), the
Protestant bishop of Osnabruck. During the French wars of
aggression the Luneburg princes were eagerly courted by Louis
XIV. and by his opponents; and after some hesitation George
William, influenced by Ernest Augustus, fought among the
Imperialists, while John Frederick was ranged on the side of
France. In 1689 George William was one of the claimants for
the duchy of Saxe-Lauenburg, which was left without a ruler
in that year; and after a struggle with Jphn George III.j elector
of Saxony, and other rivals, he was invested with the duchy
by the emperor Leopold I. It was, however, his more ambitious
brother, Ernest Augustus, who did most for the prestige and
advancement of the house. Having introduced thfc principle
of primogeniture, into Calenberg in 1682* Ernest determined
to secure for himself the position of an elector, and the condition
of Europe and the exigencies of the emperor favoured his pre-
tensions. He made skilful use of Leopold's difuculties; and in
1602, in return for lavish promises of assistance to the. Empire
and the Habsburgs, the emperor granted him the rank and title
of elector of Brunswick-Liineburg with the office of standard-
bearer in the Holy Roman Empire. Indignant protests foliowed
this proceeding. A league was formed to prevent any addition
to the electoral college; France and Sweden were called upon
for assistance; and the constitution of the Empire was reduced
to a state of chaos. This agitation, however, soon died away;
and: in 1708 George Louis, the son and successor, of Ernest
Augustus, was recognized as an elector by the imperial diet.
George Louis married his cousin Sophia Dorothea, the only child
o£ George William of Liineburg-Celle; and on his uncle's death
in 1705 he united this duchy, together with Saxe-Lauenburg,
with his paternal inheritance of Calenberg or Hanover. His
father, Ernest Augustus, had taken a step of great importance
in the history of Hanover when he married Sophia, daughter
of the elector palatine, Frederick V., and grand-daughter of
James I. of England, for, through his mother, the elector George
Louis became, t?y the terms of the Act of Settlement of 1701,
king of Great Britain and Ireland in 1714.
From this time until the death of William IV. in 1837, Lune-
burg or Hanover, was ruled by the same sovereign as Great
Britain, and this personal union was not without important
results for both countries. Under George I* Hanover joined
the alliance, against Charles XII*. of Sweden in 1715; and by
the peace of Stockholm in November 1 719 the elector received
the duchies of Bremen and Verden, which formed an important
addition to the electorate. His son and successor, George II.,
who founded the university of G$ttingen in 1737, was on bad
terms with his brother-in-law Frederick William I. of Prussia,
and his nephew Frederick the Great; and in 1729 war between
Prussia and Hanover was only just avoided. In 1745 George
took up arms on behalf of the empress Maria Theresa; but in
August 1745 the danger in England from the Jacobites led him
to sign the convention of. Hanover with Frederick the Great,
although the struggle with France raged around his electorate
until the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle in z 748. Induced by political
exigencies. George allied himself with Frederick the Great when
the Seven Years' War broke out in 1756; but in September 1757
his son William Augustus, duke of Cumberland, was compelled
after his defeat at Hastenbeck to sign the convention of Kloster-
zeven and to abandon Hanover to the French. English money,
however, came to the rescue; in 1758 Ferdinand, duke of
Brunswick, cleared the electorate of the invader; and Hanover
suffered no loss of territory at the peace of 1763. Both George I.
and George II. preferred Hanover to England as a place of
residence, and it was a frequent and perhaps justifiable cause of
complaint that the interests of Great Britain were sacrificed
to those of the smaller country. But George III. was more
British than either his grandfather or his great-grandfather,
and owing to a variety of causes the foreign policies of the two
countries began to diverge in the later years of his reign. Two
tfANOYER
9*5
main considerations dominated the fortunes of Hanover during ;
the period of the Napoleonic wars, the jealpusy fe^t by Prussia
at the increasing strength and prestige of the electorate, and its
position as a vulnerable outpost of Great B rHain. From 1 793 the
Hanoverian troops fought for the Allies against France, until
the treaty of Basel between France and Prussia in 1795 imposed
a forced neutrality upon Hanover* At the instigation of Bona-
parte Hanover was occupied by the Prussians for a few months
in 1801, but at the settlement which followed the peace of
J-uneville the secularized bishopric of Osnahruck was added to
the electorate. Again tempting the fortune of war after the
rupture of the peace of Amiens, the Hanoverians found that
,the odds against them were too great; and in. June; 1803 by
the convention of Sulingen their. territory was occupied by the
French., The formation of the third coalition against France
in 1805 induced Napoleon, to purchase the support of Prussia
by allowing her troops to seize Hanover; but in 1807, after
the defeat pf Prussia at Jena, he incorporated the southern
part of the electorate in the kingdom of Westphalia, adding the
northern portion to France in 1810. The French, occupation
was costly and aggressive; and the Hanoverians, many of whom
were found in the allied armies, welcomed the fall of Napoleon
and' the return of the old order. Represented at the. congress of
Vienna by Ernest, Count Muaster, the elector was granted the
title of King; but the British ministers wished to keep the
interests of Great Britain distinct from those of Hanover. . The
result of the congress, however, was not unfavourable to the new
kingdom, which received East Frfesland, the secularized bishopric
of Hildesheim, the city of Goslar, and some smaller additions of
territory, in return for the surrender of the greater part ;of the
duchy of Saxe-Lauenburg to Prussia.
Like those of the other, districts of Germany, the estates Of
the different provinces which formed the kingdom of HanOver
had met for many years in an irregular fashion to exercise their
varying and ill-defined authority; and, although the elfector
Ernest Augustus introduced a system of administrative councils
intt Ceiie, these estates, consisting of the three orders of prelates,
nobles and towns, together with a body somewhat resembling
the English privy council, were the only constitution which the
country possessed, and the only check upon the power of it6
ruler. When the elector George Louis became king of Great
Britain in 17 14 he appointed a representative, or stoUhalier,
to .govern the electorate, and thus the union of the two countries
was attended with constitutional changes in Hanover as well
as in .Great Britain. Responsible of eoUrse to the elector, the
Statthalter, aided by the privy council, conducted the internal
affairs of the electorate, generally in a peaceful and satisfactory
fashion, until the welter of the Napoleonic wars. On the con<-
clusion of peace in 1814 the estates df the several provinces of
the kingdom were fused into one body, consisting of eighty-five
members, but the chief power was exercised as before by the
members of a few noble families In 1819, however, this feudal
relic was supplanted by a new constitution. Two chambers
were established, the one formed of nobles and the other of elected
representatives; but although they were authorized to control
the finances, their power with regard to legislation was very
circumscribed. This constitution was sanctioned by the prince
regent, afterwards King George IV.; but it was out of harmony
with the new and liberal ideas which prevailed in Europe, and
it hardly survived George's decease in 1830. The revolution
of tihat year compelled George's brother and successor, William,
to dismiss, Count Minister, who had been the actual ruler of the
country, and to name his own brother, Adolphus Frederick,
duke of- Cambridge, a viceroy of Hanover', one of the viceroy- s
earliest duties being to appoint a commission to draw up a new
constitution. This was done, and after William had insisted upon
certain alterations, it was accepted and promulgated in 1833.
Representation was granted to the peasants; the two chambers
were empowered to initiate legislation; ministers were made
responsible for all acts nongovernment; a civil list was given to
the king in return for, the surrender of the crown lands; and,
in short, the new constitution, was similar to that of Great
Britsiijn. These liberal arrangements, however, did not entirely
ailay the discontent. A strong and energetic party endeavoured
to thwart tbe working of the new order, and matters came to a
climax on the death of William IV. in 1837.
By the law of Hanover a woman could not ascend the throne,
and accordingly Ernest Augustus, duke of Cumberland, the fifth
son of George III., and not Victoria, succeeded William as
sovereign in 1837, thus separating the crowns of Great Britain
and Hanover after a union of 123 years, Ernest, a prince with
very autocratic ideas, had disapproved of the constitution of
1833, and his first important act as king was to declare it invalid.
He appears to have been especially chagrined because the crown
lands : were not his personal property* but the whole of the new
arrangements were repugnant to. him. Seven Gottingen pro-
fessors who protested against this proceeding were, deprived of
their chairs; and some of them, including F. C* Dahlmann and
Jakob Grimm, were banished from the country for publishing
their protest. To save the constitution an appeal was made to
the German Confederation, .which Hanover had joined in 18 15;
but the federal diet declined to interfere, and in 1840 Ernest
altered the constitution to suit his own illiberal views. Recover-
ing the crown lands, he abolished the principle of ministerial
responsibility, the legislative power of the two chambers, and
other reforms, virtually restoring affairs to their condition before
1833. The. inevitable crisis was delayed until the stormy year
1848, when the king probably saved his crown by hastily giving
back the constitution of 1833. Order, however, having been
restored, in 1850 he dismissed the Liberal ministry and attempted
to evade his concessions; a bitter struggle had just broken out
when Ernest Augustus died in November 1851. During this
reign the foreign policy of Hanover both within and without
Germany had been coloured by jealousy of Prussia and by the
.king's autocratic ideas* Refusing to join the Prussian Zolherein,
Hanover had become a member of the rival commercial union,
the Steuervartin, three years before Ernest's accession; but as
this union was not a great success the Zolherein was joined in
185 1. In 1849, after the failure of the German parliament at
Frankfort, the king had joined with the sovereigns of Prussia
and Saxony to form the " three kings' alliance"; but this
union with Prussia was unreal, and with the king of Saxony he
soon transferred his support to Austria and became a member
of the " four kings' alliance." ,
George V., the new king of Hanover, who was unfortunately
blind, sharing his father's political ideas, at once appointed
a ministry whose aim was to sweep away the constitution of
1848. This project, however, was resisted by the second
chamber of the Londtag y or parliament; and after several
changes of government a new ministry advised the king in 1855
to appeal to the diet of the German Confederation. This was
done, and the diet declared the constitution of 1848 to be invalid.
Acting on this verdict, not only was a ministry formed tc restore
the constitution of 1840, but after some trouble a body of
members fully in sympathy with this object was returned to
parliament in 1857. But these members were so far from repre-
senting the opinions of the people that popular resentment
compelled George to dismiss his advisers in 1862: But the more
liberal government which succeeded did not enjoy his complete
Confidence, and in 1865 a ministry was once more formed which
was more in accord with his own ideas. This contest soon lost
both interest and importance owing to the condition of affairs
in Germany. Bismarck, the director of the policy of Prussia,
was devising methods for the realization of his schemes, and it
became clear after the war over the duchies Oi Schleswig and
Holstein that the smaller German states would soon be obliged
to decide definitely between Austria and Prussia. After a period
of vacillation Hanover threw in her lot with Austria, the decisive
step being taken when the question of the mobilization of the
federal army was voted upon in the diet on the 14th of June
1866. At once Prussia requested Hanover to remain unarmed
and neutral during' the war, and with equal promptness Ring
George refused, to assent to these demands. Prussian troopB
then crossed his frontier and took possession of his capital.
T)26
HANOVER
The Hanoverians, however, were victorious at the battle of
Langensalza on the 27th of June 1866, but the advance of fresh
bodies of the enemy compelled them to capitulate two days
later. By the terms of this surrender the king was not to reside
in Hanover, his officers were to take no further part in the war,
and his ammunition and stores became the property of Prussia.
The decree of the 20th of September i860 formally annexed
Hanover to Prussia, when it became a province of that kingdom,
while King George from his retreat at Hietzing appealed in vain
to the powers of Europe. Many of the Hanoverians remained
loyal to their sovereign; some of them serving in the Guelph
Legion, which was maintained largely at his expense in France,
where a paper, La Situation, was founded by Oskar Meding
(1 820-1003) and conducted in his interests. These and other
elaborate efforts, however, failed to bring about the return of the
king to Hanover, though the Guelph party continued to agitate
and to hope even after the Franco-German War had immensely
increased the power and the prestige of Prussia. George died
in June 1878. His son, Ernest Augustus, duke of Cumberland,
continued to maintain his claim to the crown of Hanover, and
refused to be reconciled with Prussia. Owing to this attitude
the German imperial government refused to allow him to take
possession of the duchy of Brunswick, which he inherited on
the extinction of the elder branch of his family in 1884, and again
in 1006 when the same subject came up for settlement on the
death of the regent, Prince Albert of Prussia.
In 1867 King George had agreed to accept Prussian bonds to
the value of about £1 ,600,000 as compensation for the confiscation
of his estates in Hanover. In 1868, however, on account of his
continued hostility to Prussia, the Prussian government
sequestrated this property; and, known as the Welfenfonds,
or Reptilienfonds, it was employed as a secret service fund to
combat the intrigues of the Guelphs in various parts of Europe;
until in 1892 it was arranged that the interest should be paid
to the duke of Cumberland. In 1885 measures were taken to
incorporate the province of Hanover more thoroughly in the
kingdom of Prussia, and there is little doubt but that the great
majority of the Hanoverians have submitted to the inevitable,
and are loyal subjects of the king of Prussia.
Authorities, — A. Hune, Geschichte des Konigreichs Hannover und
des Hertogtums Braunschweig (Hanover, 1824- 1830); A. F. H.
Schaumann, Handbuch der Geschichte der Lande Hannover und
Braunschweig (Hanover, 1864); G. A. Grotefend, Geschichte der
allgemeinen landst&ndischen Verfassung des Konigreichs Hannover,
1814-1848 (Hanover, 1857) ; H. A. Oppermann, Zur Geschichte des
Kdnigretchs Hannover ; 1832-1860 (Berlin, 1868); E. von Meier,
Hannoversche Verfassungs- und Verwaltungsgeschichte (Leipzig,
1 898-1 899); W. von Hassell, Das Kurfurstentum Hannover vom
Baseler Frieden bis sur preussischen Okkupation (Hanover, 1894);
and Geschichte des Konigreichs Hannover (Leipzig, 1898-1901); H,
von Treitschke, Der Hertog von Cumberland una das hannoversche
Stoats grundgesetz von 1833 (Leipzig, 1888) ; M. Bar, (fbersicht uber
die Bestdnae des kdnigiichen Staatsarchivs zu Hannover (Leipzig,
1900); Hannoversches Portfolio (Stuttgart, 1839*1841); and the
authorities given for the history of Brunswick.
HANOVBR, the capital of the Prussian province of the same
name, situated in a sandy but fertile plain on the Leine, which
here receives the Dime, 38 m. N.W. from Brunswick, 78 S.E.
of Bremen, and at the crossing of the main lines of railway,
Berlin to Cologne and Hamburg to Frankfort-on-Main. Pop.
(1885) 139,731; (1900) 235,666; (1905) 250,032. On the north
and east the town is half encircled by the beautiful woods and
groves of the Eilenriede and the List which form the public
park. The Leine flows through the city, having the old town
on its right and the quaint Calenberger quarter between its left
bank and the Ihme. The old town is irregularly built, with
narrow streets and old-fashioned gabled houses. In its centre
lies the Markt Kirche, a red-brick edifice of the 14th century,
containing interesting monuments and some fine stained-glass
windows, and with a steeple 310 ft. in height (the highest in
Hanover). Its interior was restored in 1855. Close by, on the
market square, is the red-brick medieval town-hall (Rathaus),
with an historical wine cellar beneath. It has been superseded
for municipal business by a new building, and now contains the
civic archives and museum. The new town, surrounding the
old on the north and east, and lying between it and the woods
referred to, has wide streets, handsome buildings and beautiful
squares. Among the last-mentioned are the square at the railway
station — the Ernst August-Platz — with an equestrian statue of
King Ernest Augustus in bronze; the triangular Theater-Plate,
with statues of the composer Marschner and others; and the
Georgs-Platz, with a statue of Schiller. To the south of the old
town, on the banks of the Ihme, lies the Waterloo-Platz, with
a column of victory, 154 ft. high, having inscribed on it the
names of 800 Hanoverians who fell at Waterloo. In the adjacent
gardens an open rotunda encloses a marble bust of the philosopher
Leibnitz, and near it is a monument to General Count von Alten,
the commander of the Hanoverian troops at Waterloo. Among
the other churches the most noticeable are the Neust&dterkirche,
with a graceful shrine containing the tomb of Leibnitz, the
Kreuzkirche, built about 1300, with a curious steeple, and the
Aegidienkirche among ancient: edifices, and among modern ones
the Christuskirche, a gift of King George V., the Lukaskirche,
the Lutherkirche, and the Roman Catholic church of St Mary,
with a tower 300 ft. high, containing the grave of Ludwig
Windthorst, u his little excellency," for many years leader of
the Ultramontane (Centre) party in the imperial diet. Of
secular buildings the most remarkable is the royal palace — Schloss
—built 1636-1640, with a grand portal and handsome quadrangle.
In its chapel are preserved the relics of saints which Henry
the Lion brought from Palestine. The new provincial museum
built in 1897-1902 contains the Cumberland Gallery and the
Guelph Museum; and the Kestner Museum also, contains
interesting and valuable collections Of works of art. The other
principal public buildings are the royal archives and library,
containing a library of 200,000 volumes and 3500 manuscripts;
the old provincial museum, which houses a variety of collections,
such aJs natural, historical and ethnographical, and a collec-
tion of modern paintings; the theatre (built 184 5-1852), one
of the largest in Germany, the archaeological museum, the
railway station, and, in the west, close to Herrenhausen (see
below), the magnificent Welfenschloss (Guelph-palace). The last,
begun in 1859, was almost completed in 1866, but was never
occupied by the Hanoverian royal family. Since 1875 it has
been occupied by the technical high school, an academy with
university privileges. Close to it lies the famous Herrenhausen,
the summer palace of the former kings of Hanover, with fine
gardens, an open-air theatre, a museum and an orangery, and
approached by a grand avenue over a mile in length.
Hanover has a number of colleges and schools, and is the seat
of several learned societies. It is largely frequented by foreign
students, especially English, attracted by the educational
facilities it offers and by the reputed purity of the German
spoken. Hanover is the headquarters of the X. Prussian army
corps, has a large garrison of nearly all arms and a famous military
riding school. It occupies a leading position among the industrial
and commercial towns of the empire, and of recent years has
made rapid progress in prosperity* It is connected by railway
with Berlin, Hamburg, Bremen, Hameln, Cologne, Altenbeken
and Cassel, and the facilities of intercourse have, under the
fostering care of the Prussian government, enormously developed
its trade and manufactures. Almost all industries are repre-
sented; chief among them are machine-building, the manu-
facture of india-rubber, linen, cloth, hardware, chemicals,
tobacco, pianos, furniture and groceries. The commerce consists
principally in wine, hides, horses, coal, wood and cereals. There
are extensive printing establishments. Hanover was the first
German town that was lighted with gas. It is the birthplace
of Sir William Herschel, the astronomer, of the brothers Schlegel,
of Inland and of the historian Pertz. The philosopher Leibnitz
died there in 17 16.
Close by, on the left bank of the Leine, lies the manufacturing
town of Linden, which, though practically forming one town with
Hanover, is treated under a separate heading.
The town of Hanover is first mentioned during the 12th
century. It belonged to the family of Well, then to the bishops
of Hildesheim, and then, in 1369, it came again into the possession
HANOVER— HANSARD
927
of the Welfs, now dukes of Brunswick. It joined the Hanseatic
League, and was later the residence of the branch of the ducal
house, which received the title of elector of Hanover and
ascended the British throne in the person of George I. One or
two important treaties were signed in Hanover, which from 1810
to 1 8 13 was part of the kingdom of Westphalia, and in 1866 was
annexed by Prussia, after having been the capital of the kingdom
of Hanover since its foundation in 181 5.
See O. Ulrich, Bilder aus Hannovers Vergangenheit (1891); Hoppe,
Geschichte der Stadt Hannover (1845); Hirschfeld, Hannover s Gross-
industrie und Grosshandel (Leipzig, 1 891); Frensdorff, Die Stadt-
vetf&ssung Hannover s in alter und neuer Zeit (Leipzig, 1883); W.
Bahrdt, Geschichte der Reformation der Stadt Hannover (1891); Hart-
mann, Geschichte von Hannover mil besonderer RUcksichtnahme aufdie
Entwickelung der Residenzstadt Hannover (1886); Hannover , und
Umgegend, Entwickelung und Zustdnde seiner Industrie und
Gewerbe (1874); and the Urkundenbuch der Stadt Hannover (i860,
foL).
HANOVBR, a town of Jefferson county, Indiana, U.S.A.,
on the Ohio river, about 5 m. below Madison. Pop. (1890)
459'» (*ooo) 377. It is served by boats on the Ohio river and
by stages to Madison, the nearest railway station. Along the
border of the town and on a bluff rising about 500 ft. above the
river is Hanover College, an institution under Presbyterian
control, embracing a college and a preparatory department, and
offering classical and scientific courses and instruction in music;
there is no charge for tuition. In 1 908-1009 there were 211
students, 75 being in the Academy. The institution was opened
in a log cabin in 1827, was incorporated as Hanover Academy in
1828, was adopted as a synodical school by the Presbyterian
Synod of Indiana in 1829 on condition that a Theological depart-
ment be added, and in 1833 was incorporated under its present
name. In 1840, however, the theological department became* a
separate institution and was removed to New Albany, whence
in 1859 it was removed to Chicago, where it was named, first,
the Presbyterian Theological Seminary of the North-west, and,
in 1886, the McCormick Theological Seminary. In the years
immediately after its incorporation in 1833 Hanover College
introduced the " manual labor system " and was for a time
very prosperous, but the system was not a success, the college
ran into debt, and in 1843 the trustees attempted to surrender
the charter and to acquire the charter of a university at Madison.
This effort was opposed by a strong party, which secured a
more liberal charter for the college. In 1880 the college became
coeducational.
HANOVER, a township of Grafton county, New Hampshire,
U.S.A., on the Connecticut river, 75 m. by rail N.W. of Concord.
Pop. (1800) 1817; (1900) 1884. No railway enters this town-
ship; the Ledyard Free Bridge (the first free bridge across the
Connecticut) connects it with Norwich,Vt., which is served by
the Boston & Maine railway. Ranges of rugged hills, broken
by deep narrow gorges and by the wider valley of Mink Brook,
rise near the river and culminate in the £. section in Moose
Mountain, 2326 ft. above the sea. Near the foot of Moose
Mountain is the birthplace of Laura D. Bridgman. Agriculture,
dairying and lumbering are the chief pursuits of the inhabitants.
The village of Hanover, the principal settlement of the township,
occupies Hanover Plain in the S.W. corner, and is the seat of
Dartmouth College (q.v.) , which has a strikingly beautiful campus,
and among its buildings several excellent examples of the
colonial style,' notably Dartmouth Hall. The Mary Hitchcock
memorial hospital, a cottage hospital of 36 beds, was erected
in 1 890- 1893 by Hiram Hitchcock in memory of his wife. The
charter of the township was granted by Gov. Benning Went-
worth on the 4th of July 1761, and the first settlement was made
in May 1765. The records of the town meetings and selectmen,
1761-1818, have been published by E. P. Storrs (Hanover, 1905).
See Frederick Chase, A History of Dartmouth College and the Town
of Hanover (Cambridge, 1891).
HANOVER, a borough of York county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.,
36 m. S. by W. of Harrisburg, and o m. from the S. border of
the state. Pop. (1890) 3746; (1000) 5302, of whom 133 were
foreign-born. It is served by the Northern Central and the
Western Maryland railways. The borough is built on nearly
level ground in the fertile valley of the Conewago, at the point
of intersection of the turnpike roads leading to Baltimore, Carlisle,
York and Frederick, from which places the principal streets —
sections of these roads—are named. Among its manufactures
are foundry and machine-shop products, flour, silk, waggonB,
shoes, gloves, furniture, wire cloth and cigars. The settlement
of the place was begun mostly by Germans during the middle
of the 18th century. Hanover was laid out in 1763 or 1764 by
Col. Richard MacAIlister; and in 181 5 it was incorporated.
On the 30th of June 1863 there was a cavalry engagement in
and near Hanover between the forces of Generals H. J. Kilpatrick
(Union) and J. E. B. Stuart (Confederate) preliminary to the
battle of Gettysburg. This engagement is commemorated by
an equestrian statue erected in Hanover by the state.
HANRIOT, FRANCOIS (1761-1794), French revolutionist,
was born at Nanterre (Seine) of poor parentage. Having lost his
first employment — with a procureur — through dishonesty,
he obtained a clerkship in the Paris octroi in 1789, but was
dismissed for abandoning his post when the Parisians burned
the octroi barriers on the night of the I2th-I3th of July 1789.
After leading a hand-to-mouth existence for some time, he became
one of the orators of the section of the sans-culoUes, and com-
manded the armed force of that section during the insurrection
on the 10th of August 1792 and the massacres of September. But
he did not come into prominence until the night of the £Oth~3ist
of May 1793, when he was provisionally appointed commandant-
general of the armed forces of Paris by the council general of
the Commune. On the 31st of May he was one of the delegates
from the Commune to the Convention demanding the dissolution
of the Commission of Twelve and the proscription of the
Girondists (q.v.), and he was in command of the insurrectionary
forces of the Commune during the Smeute of the 2nd of June
(see French Revolution). On the irth of June he resigned
his command, declaring that order had been restored. On the
; 13th he was impeached in the Convention ; but the motion was
not carried, and on the 1st of July he was elected by the Commune
permanent commander of the armed forces of Paris. This
position, which gave him enormous power, he retained until
the revolution of the 9th Thermidor (July 27, 1794). His
arrest was decreed; but he had the ghUrale sounded and the
tocsin rung, and tried to rescue Robespierre, who was under
arrest in the hall of the ComiU de Sureti Ginerale. Hanriot was
himself arrested, but was rescued by his adherents, and hastened
to the H6tel de Ville. After a vain attempt to organise resistance
he fled and hid in a secluded yard, where he was discovered the
next day. He was arrested, sentenced to death, and guillotined
with Robespierre and his friends on the 10th Thermidor of the
year II. (the 28th of July 1794).
HANSARD, LUKE (1752-1828), English printer, was born on
the 5th of July 1752 in St Mary's parish, Norwich. He was
educated at Boston grammar school, and was apprenticed to
Stephen White, a Norwich printer. As soon as his apprenticeship
had expired Hansard started for London with only a guinea in
his pocket, and became a compositor in the office of John Hughs
(1703*1771), printer to the House of Commons. In 1774 he was
made a partner, and undertook almost the entire conduct of the
business, which in 1800 came completely into his hands. On the
admission of his sons the firm became Luke Hansard & Sons.
Among those whose friendship Hansard won in the exercise
of his profession were Robert Orme, Burke and Dr Johnson;
while Porson praised him as the most accurate printer of Greek.
He printed the Journals of the House of Commons from 1 774 till
his death. The promptitude and accuracy with which Hansard
printed parliamentary papers were often of the greatest service
to government — notably on one occasion when the proof-sheets
of the report of the Secret Committee on the French Revolution
were submitted to Pitt twenty-four hours after the draft had
left his hands. On the union with Ireland in 1801, the increase
of parliamentary printing compelled Hansard to give up all
private printing except when parliament was not sitting. He
devised numerous expedients for reducing the expense Of publish-
ing the reports; and in 1805, when his workmen struck at a time
928
HANSEATIC LEAGUE
of great pressure, he and fait sons themselves set to work as
compositors. Luke Hansard died on the 29th of October 1828.
His son, THomas Curson Hansard (1776-1833), established
a press of his own in Paternoster Row, and began in 1803 to
print the Parliamentary Debates, which were not at first inde-
pendent reports, but were taken from the newspapers. After
1889 the debates were published by the Hansard Publishing
Union Limited. T. C. Hansard was the author of Typographia,
an Historical Sketch of the Origin and Progress of the Art of
Printing (1825). The original business remained in the hands
of his younger brothers, James and Luke Graves Hansard
(1777-1851). The firm was prosecuted in 1837 by John Joseph
Stockweli for printing by order of the House of Commons, in an
official report of the inspector of prisons, statements regarded by
the plaintiff as libellous. Hansard sheltered himself on the
ground of privilege, but it was not until after much litigation
that the security of the printers of government reports was
guaranteed by statute in 1840.
HANSEATIC LEAGUE. It is impossible to assign any
precise date for the beginning of the Hanseatic League or
to name any single factor which explains the origin of that
loose but effective federation of North German towns. Associ-
ated action and partial union among these towns can be
traced back to the 13th century. In 1242 we find LUbeck and
Hamburg agreeing to safeguard the important road connect-
ing the Baltic and the North Sea. The first known meeting of
the " maritime towns/' later known as the Wendish group and
including LUbeck, Hamburg, LUneburg, Wismar, Rostock and
Stcalsund, took place in 1256. The Saxon towns, during the
following century, were joining to protect their common interests,
and indeed at this period town confederacies in Germany, both
North and South, were so considerable as to call for the declara-
tion against them in the Golden Bull of 1356. The decline of
the imperial power and the growing opposition between the
towns and the territorial princes justified these defensive town
alliances* which in South Germany took on a peculiarly political
character. The relative weakness of territorial power in the
North, after the fall of Henry the Lion of Saxony, diminished
without however removing this motive for union, but the
comparative immunity from princely aggression on land left
the towns freer to combine in a stronger and more permanent
union lor the defence of their commerce by sea and for the
control of the Baltic.
While the political element in the development of the Hanseatic
League must not be underestimated, it was not so formative
as the economic* The foundation was laid for the growth of
German towns along the southern shore of the Baltic by the great
movement of German colonisation of Slavic territory east of the
Elbe, This movement, extending in time from about the middle
of the nth to the middle of the 13th century and carrying a
stream of settlers and traders from the Northwest, resulted not
only in the Germanitation of a wide territory but in the extension
of German influence along the sea*coast far to the east of actual
territorial settlement, The German trading towns, at the mouths
of the numerous streams which drain the North European plain,
were stimulated or created by the unifying impulse of a common
and long-continued advance of conquest and colonisation.
The impetus of this remarkable movement of expansion not
only carried German trade to the East and North within the
Baltic basin, but reanimated the older trade from the lower Rhine
region to Flanders and England in the West. Cologne and the
Westphaltan towns, the most important of which were Dortmund,
Socst and MUnster* had long controlled this commerce but now
began to feel the competition of the active traders of the Baltic,
opening up that direct communication by sea from the Baltic
to western Europe which became the essential feature in the
history of the league. The necessity of seeking protection from
the sea-rovers and pirates who infested these waters during
the whv\le period of Hanseatic supremacy, the legal customs,
substantially alike in the towns of North Germany, which
governed the groups of traders in the outlying trading posts,
the csu&ishment of common factories, or " counters \Komtors)
at these points, with aldermen to administer justice and to
secure trading privileges for the community of German merchants
— such were some of the unifying influences which preceded the
gradual formation of the League. In the century of energetic
commercial development before 1350 the German merchants
abroad led the way.
Germans were early pushing as permanent settlers into the
Scandinavian towns, and in Wisby, on the island of Gothland,
the Scandinavian centre of Baltic trade, equal rights as citizens
in the town government were possessed by the German settlers
as early as the beginning of the 13th century. There also came
into existence at Wisby the first association of German traders
abroad, which united the merchants of over thirty towns,
from Cologne and Utrecht in the West to Reval in the East.
We find the Gothland association making in 1229 a treaty with
a Russian prince and securing privileges for their branch trading
station at Novgorod. According to the " Skra," .the" by-laws
of the Novgorod branch, the four aldermen of the community
of Germans, who among other duties held the keys of the common
chest, deposited in Wisby, were to be chosen from the merchants
of the Gothland association and of the towns of LUbeck, Soest
and Dortmund. The. Gothland association received in 1237
trading rights in England, and shortly after the middle of the
century it also secured privileges in Flanders. It legislated on
matters relating to common trade interests, and, in the case of
the regulation of 1287 concerning shipwrecked goods, we find
it imposing this legislation on the towns under the penalty of
exclusion from the association. But with the extension of the
East and West trade beyond the confines of the Baltic, this
association by the end of the century was losing its position of
leadership. Its inheritance passed to the gradually forming
union of towns, chiefly those known as Wendish, which looked to
LUbeck as their head. In 1293 the Saxon and Wendish merchants
at Rostock decided that all appeals from Novgorod be taken to
LUbeck instead of to Wisby, and six years later the Wendish
and Westphalian towns, meeting at LUbeck, ordered that the
Gothland association should no longer use a common seal.
Though LUbeck's right as court of appeal from the Hanseatic
counter at Novgorod was not recognized by the general assembly
of the League until 1373, the long-existing practice had simply
accorded with the actual shifting of commercial power. The
union of merchants abroad was beginning, to come under the
control of the partial union of towns at home.
A similar and contemporary extension of the influence of the
Baltic traders under LUbeck's leadership may be witnessed in
the West. As a consequence of the close commercial relations
early existing between England and the Rhenish- Westphalian
towns, the merchants of Cologne were the first to possess a gild-
hall in London and to form a " hansa " with the right of admitting
other German merchants on payment of a fee. The charter of
1226, however, by which Emperor Frederick II. created LUbeck
a free imperial city, expressly declared that LUbeck citizens
trading in England should be free from the dues imposed by
the merchants of Cologne and should enjoy equal rights and
privileges. In 1266 and 1267 the merchants of Hamburg and
LUbeck received from Henry IIL the right to establish their
own hansas in London, like that of Cologne. The situation thus
created led by 1282 to the coalescence of the rival associations
in the " Gild-hall of the Germans/' but though the Baltic traders
had secured a recognized foothoM in the enlarged and unified
organization, Cologne retained the controlling interest in the
London settlement until 1476. LUbeck and Hamburg, however,
dominated the German trade in the ports of the east coast,
notably in Lynn and Boston, while they were strong in the
organized trading settlements at York, Hull, Ipswich, Norwich,
Yarmouth and Bristol. The counter at London, first called the
Steelyard in a parliamentary petition of 1422, claimed jurisdiction
over the other factories in England.
In Flanders, also, the German merchants from the West had
long been trading, but here had later to endure not only the
rivalry but the pre-eminence of those from the East. In 1252
the first treaty privileges for German trade in Flanders show
HAN6£ATIjq JuEAGilf.
two men pf Liibeck and Hamburg heading the " Merchants ojf
the Roman Empire,'* and in.the later organisation of the counter
at Bruges four or five of the six aldermen were chosen from
towns east of the'Elbe, with Liibeck steadily predominant. The
Germans retognized the staple rights of Bruges for a number of
commodities, such as wool, wax, furs, copper and grain, and in
return for this material contribution to/jChe growing commercial
importance of the town, they received in 1309, freedom from the
compulsory brokerage which Bruges imposed on foreign mer-
chants. The importance and independence of the German
trading settlements abroad was exemplified in the statutes of
the " Company of German merchants at Bruges," drawn up
in 1347, where for the first time appears the grouping of towns
in three sections (the " Drittel "), the Wendish-Saxon, the
Prussian-Westphalian, and those of Gothland and Livland.
Even more important than the assistance which the concentra-
tion of the German trade at Bruges gave to that leading mart of
European commerce was the service rendered by the German
counter of Bruges to the cause of Hanseatic unity. Not merely
because of its central commercial position, but because of its
width of view, its political insight, and its constant insistence on
the necessity of union, this counter played a leading part in
Hanseatic policy. It was more Hanse than the Hanse towns.
The last of the chief trading settlements, both in importance
and in date of organization, was that at Bergen in Norway i
where in 1343 the Hanseatics obtained special trade privileges,
Scandinavia had early been sought for its copper and iron, its
forest products and its valuable fisheries, especially of herring
at Schonen, but it was backward in its industrial development
and its own commerce had seriously declined in the 14th century.
It had come to depend largely upon the Germans for the import-
ation of all its luxuries and of many of its necessities, as well as
for the exportation of its products, but regular trade with the
three kingdoms was confined for the most part to the Wendish
towns, with Liibeck steadily asserting an exclusive ascendancy.
The fishing centre at Schonen was important as a market, though,
like Novgorod, its trade was seasonal, but it did not acquire the
position of a regularly organized counter, reserved alone, in the
North, for Bergen. The commercial relations with the North
cannot be regarded as an important element in the union of the
Hanse towns, but the geographical position of the Scandinavian
countries, especially that of Denmark, commanding the Sound
which gives access to the Baltic, compelled a close attention to
Scandinavian politics on the part of Liibeck and the League and
thus by necessitating combined political action in defence of
Hanseatic sea-power exercised a unifying influence.
Energetic and successful though the scattered trading settle-
ments had been in establishing German trade connexions and
in securing valuable trade privileges, the middle of the 14th
century found them powerless to meet difficulties arising from
internal dissension and still more from the political rivalries
and trade jealousies of nascent nationalities. Flanders became
a battle-field in the great struggle between trance and England,
and the war of trade prohibitions led to infractions of the German
privileges in Bruges. An embargo on trade with Flanders, voted
in 1358 by a general assembly, resulted by 1360 in the full
restoration of German privileges in Flanders, but reduced the
counter at Bruges to an executive organ of a united town policy.
It is worth noting that in a document connected with this action
the union of towns, borrowing the term from English usage, was
first called the " German Hansa." In 136 1 representatives from
Ltibeck and Wisby visited Novgorod to recodify the by-laws
of the counter and to admonish it that new statutes required
the consent of Liibeck, Wisby, Riga, Dorpat and Heval. This
action was confirmed in 1366 by an assembly of the Hansa which
at the same time, on the occasion of a regulation made by the
Bruges counter and of statutes drawn up by the young 'Bergen
counter, ordered that in future the approval of the towns must
be obtained for all new regulations.
,,The counter at London was soon forced to follow the example
of the other counters. at Bruges, Novgorod and Bergen. After
t£e failure of the Italians, the Hanseattes remained the strongest
9*9
group of alien merchants in England, and, as «ich, claimed the
exclusive enjoyment of the privileges granted by the Carta
Mercatoria of 1303. Their highly favoured position in England,
contrasting markedly with their refusal of trade facilities to : the
English in some of the Baltic towns and their evident policy of
monopoly in the Baltic trade, incensed the English mercantile
classes, and doubtless influenced the increases in customs-duties
which were regarded by the Germans as contrary to their treaty
rights! Unsuccessful in obtaining redress from the English
government, the German merchants finally, in 1374, appealed
for aid to the home towns, especially to Ltibeck. The result
pf Hanseatic representations was the confirmation by Richard XL
in 1377 of all their privileges, which accorded them the pre-
ferential treatment they had claimed and became the foundation
of the Hanseatic position in England.
In the meanwhile, the conquest of Wisby by Waldemar IV,
of Denmark in 1361 had disclosed his ambition for the political
control of the Baltic. , He was promptly opposed by an alliance
of Hanse towns, led by Liibeck. The defeat of the Germans
at Helsingborg only called into being the stronger town and
territorial alliance of 1367, known as the Cologne Confederation,
and its final victory, with the peace of Stralsund in 1370, which
gave for a limited period the four chief castles on the Sound into
the hands of the Hanseatic towns, greatly enhanced the prestige
of the League.
The assertion of Hanseatic influence in the two decades, 1356 to
1377, marks the zenith of the League's power and the completion
of the long process of unification. Under the pressure of com-
mercial and political necessity, authority was definitely trans-
ferred from the Hansas of merchants abroad to the Hansa of
towns at home, and the sense of unity had become such that in
1380 a Liibeck official could declare that u whatever touches
one town touches all." But even at the time when union was
most important, this statement went further than the facts
would warrant, and in the course of the following century it
became less and less true. Dortmund held aloof from the
Cologne Confederation on the ground that it had no concern in
Scandinavian politics. It became, indeed, increasingly difficult
to obtain the support of the inland towns for a policy of sea-
power in the Baltic. Cologne sent no representatives to the
regular Hanseatic assemblies until 1383, and during the 15th
century its independence was frequently manifested. It rebelled
at the authority of the counter at Bruges, and at the time of
the war with England (1460-1474) openly defied the League.
In the East, the German Order, while enjoying Hanseatic
privileges, frequently opposed the policy of the League abroad
and was only prevented by domestic troubles and its Hinterland
enemies from playing its own hand in the Baltic. After the fall
of the order in 1467, the towns of Prussia and Livland, especially
Dantzig and Riga, pursued an exclusive trade policy even against
their Hanseatic confederates. Liibeck, however, supported by
the Bruges counter, despite the disaffection and jealousy on all
sides hampering and sometimes thwarting its efforts, stood
steadfastly for union and the necessity of obedience to the decrees
of the assemblies. Its headship of the League, hitherto tacitly
accepted, was definitely recognized in 14 18.
The governing body of the Hansa was the assembly of town
representatives, the "Hansetage," held irregularly as occasion
required at the summons of Ltibeck, and, with few exceptions,
attended but scantily. The delegates were bound by instruc-
tions from their towns and had to report home the decisions of
the assembly for acceptance or rejection. In 1469 the League
declared that the English use of the terms " societas," " col-
legium " and " universitas " was inappropriate to so loose an
organization- It preferred to call itself a "firma conf ederatio "
for trade purposes only. It had no common seal, though that
of Ltibeck was accepted, particularly by foreigners, in behalf
of the League. Disputes between the confederate towns were
brought for adjudication before the general assembly, but the
League had no recognized federal judiciary, Ltibeck, with th£
counters abroad, watched over the execution of the measures
voted by the assembly, but there was no regular administrative
xii. 30
930
HANSEATIC league
organization. Money for common purposes was raised from
time to time, as necessity demanded, by the imposition on Hanse
•merchandise of poundage dues, introduced in 136 1, while the
counters relied upon a small levy of like nature and upon fines
to meet current needs. Even this slender financial provision
met with opposition. The German Order in 1398 converted
the Hanseatic poundage to a territorial tax for its own purposes,
and one of the chief causes for Cologne's disaffection a half-
century later was the extension from Flanders to other parts of
the Netherlands' of the levy made by the counter at Bruges, Since
the authority of the League rested primarily on the moral support
of its members, allied in common trade interests and acquiescing
in the able leadership of Liibeck, its only means of compulsion
was the " Verhansung,'* or exclusion of a recalcitrant town from
the benefits of the trade privileges of the League. A conspicuous
instance was the exclusion of Cologne from 1471 until its
obedience in 1476, but the penalty had been earlier imposed,
as in the case of Brunswick, on towns which overthrew their
patrician governments. It was obviously, however, a measure
to be used only in the last resort and with extreme reluctance.
The decisive factor in determining membership in the League
was the historical right of the citizens of a town to participate
in Hanseatic privileges abroad. At first the merchant Hansas
had shared these privileges with almost any German merchant,
and thus many little villages, notably those in Westphalia,
ultimately claimed membership. Later, under the Hansa of the
towns, the struggle for the maintenance of a coveted position
abroad led to a more exclusive policy. A few new members were
admitted, mainly from the westernmost sphere of Hanseatic
influence, but membership was refused to some important
applicants. In 1447 it was voted that admission be granted
only by unanimous consent. No complete list of members was
ever drawn up, despite frequent requests from foreign powers.
Contemporaries usually spoke of 70, 72, 73 or 77 members, and
perhaps the list is complete with DaenelTs recent count of 72,
but the obscurity on so vital a point is significant of the
amorphous character of the organization.
The towns of the League, stretching from Thorn and Krakow
on the East to the towns of the Zuider Zee on the West, and from
Wisby and Reval in the North to Gottingen in the South, were
arranged in groups, following in the main the territorial divisions.
Separate assemblies were held in the groups for the discussion
both of local and Hanseatic affairs, and gradually, but not fully
until the 16th century, thetgroups became recognized as the lowest
stage of Hanse organization. The further grouping into
" Thirds," later "Quarters," under head-towns, was also more
emphasized in that century.
In the 15th century the League, with increasing difficulty,
held a defensive position against the competition of strong rivals
and new trade-routes. In England the inevitable conflict of
interests between the new mercantile power, growing conscious
of its national strength, and the old, standing insistant on the
letter of its privileges, was postponed by the factional discord
out of which the Hansa in 1474 dexterously snatched a renewal
of its rights. Under Elizabeth, however, the English Merchant
Adventurers could finally rejoice at the withdrawal of privileges
from the Hanseatics and their concession to England, in return
for the retention of the Steelyard, of a factory in Hamburg. In
the Netherlands the Hanseatics clung to their position in Bruges
until 1540, while trade was migrating to the ports of Antwerp
and Amsterdam. By the peace of Copenhagen in 1441, after the
unsuccessful war of the League with Holland, the attempted
monopoly of the Baltic was broken, and, though the Hanseatic
trade regulations were maintained on paper, the Dutch with
their larger ships increased their hold on the herring fisheries,
the French salt trade, and the Baltic grain trade. For the
Russian trade new competitors were emerging in southern
Germany. The Hanseatic embargo against Bruges from 145 1
to 1457, its later war and embargo against England, the Turkish
advance closing the Italian Black Sea trade with southern Russia,
all were utilized by Nuremberg and its fellows to secure a land-
trade outside the sphere of Hanseatic influence. The fairs of
Leipzig and Frankfort-on-Main rose in importance as Novgorod,
the stronghold of Hanse trade in the East, was weakened by
the attacks of Ivan III. The closing of the Novgorod counter
in 1494 was due not only to the development of the Russian state
but to the exclusive Hanseatic policy which had stimulated the
opening of competing trade routes.
Within the League itself increasing restiveness was shown
under the restrictions of its trade policy. At the Hanseatic
assembly of 1469, Dantzig, Hamburg and Breslau opposed the
maintenance of a compulsory staple at Bruges in the face of
the new conditions produced by a widening commerce and more
advantageous markets^ Complaint was made of South German
competition in the Netherlands. " Those in the Hansa," pro-
tested Breslau, " are fettered and must decline and those outside
the Hansa are free and prosper." By 1477 even Liibeck had
become convinced that a continuance of the effort to maintain
the compulsory staple against Holland was futile and should be
abandoned. But while it was found impossible to enforce the
staple or to close the Sound against the Dutch, other features
of the monopolistic system of trade regulations were still upheld.
It was forbidden to admit an outsider to partnership or to
co-ownership of ships, to trade in non-Hanseatic goods, to buy
or sell on credit in a foreign mart or to enter into contracts for
future delivery. The trade of foreigners outside the gates of
Hanse towns 6r with others than Hanseatics was forbidden
in 1417? and in the Eastern towns the retail trade of strangers
was strictly limited. The whole system was designed to suppress
the competition of outsiders, but the divergent interests of
individuals and towns, the pressure of competition and changing
commercial conditions, in part the reactionary character. of
the legislation, made enforcement difficult. The measures were
those of the late-medieval town economy applied to the wide
region of the German Baltic trade, but not supported, as was
the analogous mercantilist system, by a strong central govern-
ment.
Among the factors, economic, geographic, political and social,
which combined to bring about the decline of the Hanseatic
League, none was probably more influential than the absence
of a German political power comparable in unity and energy with
those of France and England, which could quell particularism
at home, and abroad maintain in its vigour the trade which these
towns had developed and defended with their imperfect union.
Nothing was to be expected from the declining Empire. Still
less was any co-operation possible between the towns and the
territorial princes. The fatal result of conflict between town
autonomy and territorial power had been taught in Flanders.
The Hanseatics regarded the princes with a growing and ex-
aggerated fear and found some relief in the formation in 141 8
of a thrice-renewed alliance, known as the " Tohopesate,"
against princely aggression. But no territorial power had as yet
arisen in North Germany capable of subjugating and utilizing
the towns, though it could detach the inland towns from the
League. The last wars of the League with the Scandinavian
powers in the 16th century, which left it shorn of many of its
privileges and of any pretension to control of the Baltic basin
eliminated it as a factor in the later struggle of the Thirty Years*
War for that control. At an assembly of 1629, Ltibeck, Bremen
and Hamburg were entrusted with the task of safeguarding the
general welfare, and after an effort to revive the League in the
last general assembly of 1669, these three towns were left alone
to preserve the name and small inheritance of the Hansa which
in Germany's disunion had upheld the honour of her commerce.
Under their protection, the three remaining counters lingered on
until their buildings were sold at Bergen in 1775, a * London in
1852 and at Antwerp in 1863.
Bibliography. — Hansisckes Urkundenbuch, bearbeitet von K.
Hohlbaum, K. Kunze und W. Stein (JO vols., Halle und Leipzig,
1 876-1907); Hanserecesse, erste Abtheilung, 1256-1430 (8 vols.,
Leipzig, 1870-1897), zweite Abtheilung, I431-1476 (7 vols., 1876-
1892); dritte Abtheilung, 1477-1530 (7 vols., 1881-1905) ; Hansische
GesckichtsqweMen (7 vols., 1875-1894; 3 vols., 1 897-1906); /*-
ventare hansischer Archive des secnzehnUn Jahrhunderts (vols. 1 and a,
1896-1903); Itansische Geschichtsblatter (14 vols., 1871-1908). All
HANSEN— HANSTEEN
93*
the above-mentioned chief sources have been issued by the Verein
far hansische Geschichte. Of the secondary literature, the following
histories and monographs should be named. G. F. Sartorius,
Geschichte des hanscatischen Bundes (3 vols., Gdttingen, 1 802-1 808),
Urkundliche Geschichte des Ursprunges der deutschen Manse, herausge-
geben von J. M. Lappenberg (2 vols., Hamburg, 1836); F. w.
Barthold, Geschichte der deutschen Hansa (3 vols., 2nd ed.* Leipzig,
1862); D. Sch&fer, Die Hansestddte una Kbnig Waldemar von
Danemark (Jena, 1870); W. Stein, Beitrage zur Geschichte der
deutschen Hanse bisumite Mitte desfunfzehnten Jahrhunderts (Giessen,
looo); E. Daenell, Die BHUezeit der deutschen Hanse. Hansische
Geschichte von der wweiten Halfie des XIV. bis mm letzten Viertd des
XV. Jahrhunderts (2 vols., Berlin, 1005-1906); J. M. Lappenberg,
Urkundliche Geschichte des hansischen Stdhlhofes zu London (Hamburg,
1 851) ; F. Keutgen, Die Beziehungen der Hanse zu England im letzten
Drtttd des vierzehnten Jahrhunderts (Giessen, 1800) ; K. Ehrenberg,
Hamburg und England im Zeitalter der Kdnigin Elisabeth (Jena,
1896); Wt Stein, Die Genossenschaft der deutschen Kaufieute zu
Brugge in Flandern (Beilin, 1890); H. Roege, Der Stapelswang des
hanstschen Kontors zu Brugge im funfzehnten Jahrhundert (Kiel,
1903) ; A. Winckler, Die deutsche Hansa in Russland (Berlin, r886).
(E. F. G.)
HANSEN, PETER ANDREAS (1795-1874), Banish astronomer,
was born on the 8th of December 1795, at Tondern, in the duchy
of Schleswig. The/son of a goldsmith, he learned the trade of a
watchmaker at yienst>urg, and exercised it at Berlin and Tondern,
1 8 18-1820. . He had, however, long been a student of science;
and Dr Dircks, a physician practising at .Tondern, prevailed
with his father, to send him in 1820 to Copenhagen, where he
won the patronage of H. C. Schumacher, and attracted the
personal notice of King Frederick VI. The Danish survey was
then in progress, and he acted as Schumacher's assistant in work
connected with it, chiefly at the new observatory of Altona,
1821-1825. Thence he passed on to Gotha as director of the
Seeberg observatory; nor could he be tempted to relinquish
the post by successive invitations to replace F. G. W. Struve at
Dorpat in 1829, and F. W. Bessel at Konigsberg in 1847. The
problems of gravitational astronomy engaged the chief part of
Hansen's attention. A research into the mutual perturbations of
Jupiter and Saturn secured for him the prize of the Berlin
Academy in 1830, and a memoir on cometary disturbances was
crowned by the Paris Academy in 1850. In 1838 he published
a revision of the lunar theory, entitled Fundamenta nova investi-
gationis, &c, and the improved Tables oi the Moon based upon
it were printed in i857,attheexpenseof the British government,
their merit being further recognized by a grant of £1000, and by
their immediate adoption in the Nautical Almanac, and other
Ephemerides. A theoretical discussion of the disturbances
embodied in them (still familiarly known to lunar experts as
the Darlegung) appeared in the Abhandlungen of the Saxon
Academy of Sciencesin 1862-1864. Hansen twice visited England
and was twice (in 1842 and i860) the recipient of the Royal
Astronomical Society's gold medal. He communicated to that
society in 1847 an able paper on a long-period lunar inequality
{Memoirs Hoy. Astr. Society, xvi. 465), and in 1854 one on the
moon's figure, advocating the mistaken hypothesis of its deforma-
tion by a huge elevation directed towards the earth {lb. xxiv.
29). He was awarded the Copley medal by the Royal Society
in 1850, and his Solar Tables, compiled with the assistance of
Christian Olufsen, appeared in 1854. Hansen gave in 1854 the
first intimation that the accepted distance of the sun was too
great by some millions of miles (Month. Notices Roy. Astr. Soc.
xv. 9), the error of J. F. Encke's result having been rendered
evident through his investigation of a lunar inequality. He died
on the 28th of March 1874, at the new observatory in the town
of Gotha, erected under his care in 1857.
See Vierteljahrsschrift astr. Gesellschaft t x. 133; Month. Notices
Roy. Astr. Society, xxxv. 168; Proc. Roy. Society, xxv. p. v.; R.
Wolf, Geschichte der Astronomic, p. $26; Wochenschrift filr Astro-
nomic, xvii. 307 (account of early years by E. Heis); AUgemeine
deutsche Biographic (C. Brujms). (A. M. C)
HANSI, a town of British India, in the Hissar district of the
Punjab, on a branch of the Western Jumna canal, with a station
on the Rewari-Ferozepore railway, 16 m. E. of Hissar. Pop.
(1001) 16,523: Hansi is one of the most ancient towns in
northern India, the former capital of tlie tract called Hariana.
At the end of the 18th century it was the headquarters of the
famous Irish adventurer George Thomas; from 1803 to 1857
it was a British cantonment, and it became the scene of a
murderous outbreak during the Mutiny. A ruined fort overlooks
the town, which is still surrounded by a high brick wall, with
bastions and loop holes. It is a centre of local trade, with
factories for ginning and pressing cotton.
HANSOM, JOSEPH ALOYSIUS (1803-188 2), English architect
and inventor, was born in York on the 26th of October 1803.
Showing an aptitude for designing and construction, he was taken
from his father's joinery shop and apprenticed to an architect
in York, and, by 183 1, his designs for the Birmingham town hall
were accepted and followed — to his financial undoing, as he had
become bond for the builders. In 1834 he registered the design
of a " Patent Safety Cab/' and subsequently sold the patent
to a company for £10,000, which, however, owing to the
company's financial difficulties, was never paid. The hansom
cab* as improved by subsequent alterations, nevertheless, took
and held the fancy of the public. Inhere was no back seat for the
driver in the original design, and there is little beside the sus-
pended axle and large wheels in the modern hansom to recall
the early ones. In 1 834 Hansom founded the Builder newspaper,
but was compelled to retire from this enterprise owing to in-
sufficient capital. Between 1854 and 1879 ke devoted himself
to architecture, designing and erecting a great number of
important buildings, private and public, including churches,
schools and convents for the Roman Catholic church to which
he belonged. Buildings from his designs are scattered all over
the United, Kingdom, and were even erected in Australia and
South America. He died in London on the 29th of June 1882.
HANSON, SIR RICHARD DAVIES (1805-1876), chief justice
of South Australia, was born in London on the 6th of December
1805. Admitted a solicitor in 1828, he practised for some time
in London. In 1838 he went with Lord Durham to Canada as
assistant-commissioner of inquiry into crown lands and immi-
gration. In 1840, on the death of Lord Durham, whose private
secretary he had been, he settled in Wellington, New Zealand.
He there acted as crown prosecutor, but in 1846 removed to
South Australia. In 1851 he was appointed advocate-general
of that colony and took an active share in the passing of many
important measures, such as the first Education Act, the District
Councils Act of 1852, and the Act of 1856 which granted con-
stitutional government to the colony. In 1856 and again from
1857 to i860 he was attorney-general and leader of the govern-
ment. In 1 861 he was appointed chief justice of the supreme
court of South Australia and was knighted in 1869. He died
in Australia on the 4th of March 1876.
HANSTEEN, CHRISTOPHER (1 784-1873), Norwegian astro-
nomer and physicist, was born at Christiania, on the 26th of
September 1784. From the cathedral school he went to the
university at Copenhagen, where first law and afterwards
mathematics formed his main study. In 1806 he taught mathe-
matics in the gymnasium of Frederiksborg, Zeeland, and in the
following year he began the inquiries in terrestrial magnetism
with which his name is especially associated. He took in 181 2
the prize of the Danish Royal Academy of Sciences for his reply
to a question on the magnetic axes. Appointed lecturer in 1814,
he was in 1816 raised to the chair of astronomy and applied
mathematics in the university of Christiania. In 1819 he pub-
lished a volume of researches on terrestrial magnetism, which was
translated into German by P. T. Hanson, under the title of
Untersuchungen ilber den Magnetismus der Erde, with a supple-
ment containing Beobachlungen der Abweichung und Neigung
der Magnetnadel and an atlas. By the rules there framed for
the observation of magnetical phenomena Hansteen hoped to
accumulate analyses for determining the number and position
of the magnetic poles of the earth. In prosecution of his
researches he travelled over Finland and the greater part of his
own country; and in 1828-1830 he undertook, in company
with G. A. Erman,and with the co-operation of Russia, a govern-
ment mission to Western Siberia. A narrative of the expedition
soon appeared (Reise-Erinnerungen aus Sibirien, 1854; Souvenirs
W
! IANTHAWADDY— HAPARANDA
<f f un voyage ** Mbtrie, iHtf)' t hut the < Mci work wa* not iwitled
lilt \M,s iHemUtate mtinnr.tiH.her HeobatMnngen, tic). Shortly
*ft*r f li#« rrturri of fb* iril*#ion. an observatory wa* erected in
ihrc park ol Oirl*(laf>la OH.m;, and Hansfeen was appointed
(lirtufor. On hi* rrprrwritation a magnetic observatory was
n<\ilet\ In tHw, In 1H.47 18^8 he published text-books on
gi'otrtrf ry and ror« UnnUn; and in 1842 he wrote hU Disquuitumes '
rf* mututlonlbut qua* patitur momentum <uus magnetkae, &c.
Hit tilto nmf rllfiiltfl various paper* to different scientific journals,
I'sprHally fhr M<ig<t»tn for NaturvMrnxkafwne, of whkh he
\mt\iM Jolnl (alitor In 18*3. He superintended the trigono-
mnrlul and topographical survey of Norway, begun in 1837.
In iHrti he rrtlrrd from active work, but still pursued his studies,
Ids OhwvuUon* (It Ntulination magnStiquc and Sur les variations
Ihufaim du mngnttlme appearing in 1865. He died at
Christ lanla on the nth of April 187,).
HANTHAWADDY, a district In the Pegu division of Lower
Hurnw, the home district of Rangoon, from which the town
wit a detached to make a separate (list rlct in 1880. It has an area
of M>K\ *<l m., with a population In loot of 484,811, showing an
Increase of jj% In the decade, Hanthawaddy and Hensada
rti'c the two most densely populated districts In the province.
It consist* of a vast plain stretching up from the sea between
the To or China Haklr mouth of the Irrawaddy and the Pegu
Ynnutft. Kscept the tract lying between the Pegu Yomas on
the enst and the lllalng river, the country Is intersected by
numerous tidal creeks, many navigable by large Iwats and some
by steamers. The headquarters of the district are in Rangoon,
width Is also the sub divisional headquarters, The second
sub division has Its headquarter* at lusciu, where there are
large railway works. Cultivation is almost wholly confined to
rhe, but there are many vegetable and fruit gardens.
HANUKKAH, a Jewish festival, the u Feast of Dedication "
(cf, John x, *)) or the " Feast of the Maccabees." beginning
on the j % \th day of tho ninth month Ktilw (December), of the
Hebrew ecclesiastical year, ami lasting eight days. It was
Instituted In ift$ iu\ In commemoration of, and thanksgiving
foi, the mirlAoation of the temple at Jerusalem on this day by
iudas Maccahaevis after Its pollution by Antiochus Kpiphanea,
Ing of Syria, who in tftti tu\ set up a pagan altar to Zeus
Olymphw, The Talmudte *ourvt\* say that when the perpetual
lamp of the temple was to be relighted only one flask of holy oil
suttuient tor lht> day remained, but this miraculously lasted
for the eight days (c(, the legend in i Mac\\ L 1$^ In memory
of this the Jews bum both in synagogue* and in houses on the
ttrat night of the festival one light, on the second two, and so on
to the end v*o the Hillelites^, or vie* versa eight lights on the
ftvat, and one less on each succeeding night (so the Shammaites).
*u\\u the prominence of the tights the festival is also known as
the w tV*ti\*l of tights * x or * x Illumination " (I\tfjw*n. It is
sai\l that the day chosen by Judas for the setting up of the new
altar \\a* th*.amdver*aty of that on which Antiochus had set
up the pagan altars henvY it is sugg^stexl U^» by Wellhausen*
that the -\\th of Kudev was an old pajt&n festival, perhaps the
da\ ot the winter fcdstw*\
r\* ftothet deud* and illustrates of VUaukkah Um|« see
NAHUIIAH> iu Hindu mythology* a monkey gvxK who farms a
c*t\t tal u$utv hv t he R^mj \o*m, lie was the child of a n\ mph by
the gvst wt the xvinvl llxs exploit** as the aU> of R&tna v incaRia-
tvo*\ ot YMmxO in the Uttet v s tevowxv ot h» wife ^ua frvvm the
\UiUh\Vi ot the demou Ra\aua* include the bridging of the
^va»h bet ww* India and Ce\W >&uh Huge boulders earned
awa> ?*wm the H\n\aU.\ as He » the U\u\Vr of a bw« ot r.^mkey$
^^ A\d xu the^e s^vrua:utal vkevl^ IVuxptes u\ V.s hvMKHir *nr
tfxw:vs^ v , »,V?\^Wut lttd»,A
HAHWAYv JOHAS v \m.^ \-^>\ F^g&li tr*\^^ atwt phlU^
V'
1*
,V* a w,xuO*e«. sV.v\V ^^. ^e tawi^ ^svxwt :\> Iav^Ioc
^ ■ j^v au^ V S^* Nn*\ ^ v .* k v v^e % -x* V,.x,.^es* ;cr ^uv^rl:
t vvssv^ 5* bevvAV a ^\s*t»e« wuh XJU P;^V>\ a ?»ecv^4ux;
St Petersburg, and ia this way waa led to travel in Russia and
Pereia. Leaving St Petersburg on the 10th of September 1743,
and passing south by Moscow, Tsaritsyn and Astrakhan, he
embarked on the Caspian on the 22nd of November, and arrived
at Astrabad on the 18th oi December. Here his goods were
seized by Mohammed Hassan Beg, and it was only after great
privations that he reached the camp of Nadir Shah, under whose
protection he recovered most (85%) of his property. His
return journey was embarrassed by sickness (at Resht), by
attacks from pirates, and by six weeks' quarantine; and be
only reappeared at St Petersburg on the ist of January 1745.
He again left the Russian capital on the 9th of July 1750 and
travelled through Germany and Holland to England (28th of
October). The rest of his life was mostly spent in London,
where the narrative of his travels (published in 1753) soon made
him a man of note, and where he devoted himself to philanthropy
and good citizenship. In 1756 he founded the Marine Society,
to keep up the supply of British seamen; in 1758 he. became a
governor of the Foundling, and established the Magdalen,
hospital; in 1761 he procured a better system of parochial
birth-registration in London; and in 1762 he was appointed a
commissioner for victualling the navy (10th of July); this office
he held till October 1783. He died, unmarried, on the 5th of
September 1786. He was the first Londoner, it is said, to cany
an umbrella, and he lived to triumph over all the hackney
coachmen who tried to hoot and hustle him down. He attacked
"vail-givlng," or tipping, with some temporary success; by
his onslaught upon tea-drinking he became involved in con-
troversy with Johnson and Goldsmith. His last efforts were on
behalf of little chimney-sweeps. His advocacy of solitary
confinement for prisoners and opposition to Jewish naturaliza-
tion were more questionable instances of his activity in social
matters.
Man way left seventy-four printed works, mostly pamphlets;
the only one of literary importance is the Historical Account of
British Trade over the Caspian Sea, with a Journal of Travels, &c
{London. 1753)* On his lite, see also Push, Remarkable Occurrences
%n the Life of Jonas Hanway (London, 1787); Gentleman's Magazine,
vol. xxxu. p. 342; vol. Ivi. pt. ii. pp. 812-814, 1090, 1143-1144;
vol, Ixv. pt. ii. pp. 721-722, 834-835; Notes and Queries, 1st series, i.
436, ii. 25; 3rd series, vii. 311 ; 4th series, viii. 416.
RANWELL, an urban district in the Brentford parliamentary
division of Middlesex, England, ioj m. W. of St Paul's cathedral,
London, on the river Brent and the Great Western railway. Pop.
(1801) 6130; (1901) 10,438. It ranks as an outer residential
suburb of London. The Hanwell lunatic asylum of the county of
London has been greatly extended since its erection 183 1, and
can accommodate over a$oo inmates. The extensive cemeteries
of St Mary Abbots, Kensington, and St George, Hanover Square,
London, are here. In the churchyard of St Mary's church was
buried Jonas Hanway td. 17S6), traveller, philanthropist, and
by repute, introducer of the umbrella into England. The
Roman Catholic Convalescent Home for women and children
was erect ed in 1S65. Before the Norman period the manor of
Hanwell belonged to Westminster Abbey.
HAPARAKDA (Finnish Haapartnta. "Aspen Shored, a
town of Sweden in the district \jtin) of Norbotten, at the head
of the Gulf of Bothnia. Pop. dooo> 156$. It Ees about i| m.
from the mouth oi the Torne river, on the frontier with Russia
lEinUndV opposite the town of Tornei which has belonged
to Ru$$ia since i$oj. The towns are divided by a marshy
dunnel, formerly the bed of the Torne. but the main stream
fe now east of the Russian town. Haparacda was founded in
181 ^. and at ftrsi bore the name of KLarijohannstad. It recei v ed
$:$ muric:pal cv>n^ti:u:ion :n i^. Shiphvdiding is prosecuted.
S<*i^Hng vessels load and unload ai Sahnio* 7 n. horn
lU;\*ttu>J3u Siace tSs^ the town has been the ant oi *■ ia*-
fwtjuu uKte\vv>40<jskal stacioa. Annual mean tempciat*re,
5:4* Fahc.; February 10-5*; July cs -$*. RjiaialL io-> i»-
ar.:u:jtr.\\ Up ;he Tortse valley ..uc is die hill Avasaxa,
wr.;;h^r rl^rrinia^es were focrsexly s&ade in order to stand
is x>< i$c^ ot ;iae $>m ai m.vi^ii o* Si Jokas day
HAPLODRILI
933
HAPLODRILI (so called by Lankester), often called Archian-
nelida (Hatschek), the name provisionally given to a number of
A, Polygordius neapolUanus.
(From Fraipont.)
B, Transverse section of Poly-
gordius. (From Fraipont.)
C, Trocnophore of JPoly gordius.
and D, later stage of the same,
showing the development of the
trunk. (From Hatschek.)
E, Dorsal view of Dinophilus
taenia t us.
F, Male apparatus of the same
(From Harmer.)
kidney,
second nephridii
*, "Head
below it.
with
mm just
a,
op,
c,
CO,
c.t,
d.v,
ep i
g-fi
Anus.
Apical organ.
Coelom.
Ciliated pit.
Cuticle.
Dorsal vessel.
Eye.
Epidermis.
Genital funnel.
*, Intestine.
l.m, Longitudinal muscles.
m, Mouth.
w.o, Muscular pharyngeal organ.
m.p, Male pore.
n, Nephridium.
o.m, Oblique muscles.
en, Ovary.
p, Penis.
pr, Prototroch.
pt, Prostomial tentacle.
sp, Sperm-sac.
spa, Sperm-duct.
sly Stomach.
/, Testes.
tr, Trunk segment.
tt, Telotroch.
v.n, Ventral nerve cord.
v.v, Ventral vessel.
interesting lowly-organized marine worms, whose affinities are
very doubtful (see Chaetopoda). Poly gordius and Protodrilus
live in sand, but while the former moves by means of the contrac-
tion of its body-wall muscles, Protodrilus can progress by the
action of the bands of cilia surrounding its segments, and of the
longitudinal ciliated ventral groove. Saccocirrus, which also
lives in sand, and more closely resembles the Polychaeta, has
throughout the greater length of its body on each segment a
pair of small uniramous parapodia bearing a bunch of simple
setae. No other member of the group is known to have any
trace of setae or parapodia at any stage of development.
These three genera have the following characters in common.
The body is composed of a large number of segments; the pro-
stomium bears a pair of tentacles; the nervous system consists
of a brain and longitudinal ventral nerve cords closely connected
with the epidermis (without distinct ganglia), widely separated in
Saccocirrus, closely approximated in Protodrilus, fused together
in Polygordius; the coelom is well developed, the septa are distinct,
and the dorsal and ventral longitudinal mesenteries are complete;
the nephridia are simple, and open into the coelom. Polygordius
differs from Protodrilus and Saccocirrus in the absence of a distinct
suboesophageal muscular pouch, and in the absence of a peculiar
closed cavity in the head region, which is especially well developed
in Saccocirrus, and probably represents the specialized coelom of
the first segment, moreover, in Saccocirrus the genital organs,
l/^*wVft
HtpApidiu*
Sh+rm*>Sac
ty*rmm.M*<*,
Fig. 2. — Diagram of a transverse section of Saccocirrus showing
on the left side the organs in a genital segment of a male, and on
the right side the organs in a genital segment of a female. (From
Goodrich.)
present in the majority of the trunk segments, have become much
complicated (fig. 2). In the female there is in every fertile seg-
ment a pair of spermathecae opening at the nephridiopores. In
the male there are a right and a left protrusible penis in every
genital segment, into which opens the nephridium and a sperm-sac.
The wide funnels of the nephridia of this region are possibly of
coelomic origin.
Dinophilus is a free-swimming form without tentacles, and with
segmental bands of cilia (fig. 1). The parasitic Histriodritus (Histrio
baella) feeds on the eggs of the lobster. It resembles Dinophilus
in the possession of a ventral pharyngeal pouch (which bears teeth
in Histriodritus only), the small number of segments, and absence
of distinct septa, the absence of a vascular system, the presence of
distinct ganglia on the ventral nerve cords, and of small nephridia
which do not appear to open internally. Histriodritus resembles
Saccocirrus in the possession of two posterior adhesive processes,
and to some extent in the structure of the complex genital organs,
which, however, are restricted to a single segment. In Dinophilus
there is also only a single pair of genital ducts behind ; and in the
male there are sperm-sacs and a median penis. In some species of
Dinophilus there is pronounced sexual dimorphism (the male being
small and without gut) as in the Rotifera. The resemblance of
Dinophilus to the Rotifera is, however, quite superficial, and the
general structure of this genus with distinct traces of segmenta-
tion, especially in the embryo, points to its close affinity, if not to
Polygordius in particular, at all events to the Annelida.
That Polygordius, Protodrilus and Saccocirrus are on the whole
primitive forms, and related to each other, then* can be little
doubt, but their' place amongst the Annelida is difficult to deter-
mine. The development of Polygordius alone is well known, having
been studied by Hatschek, Fraipont and others. The larva (fig. 1,
C and D) is a typical but very specialized form of trocnophore,
provided with a branching nephridium bearing solenocytes. The
trunk develops on the lower surface of the disk-like larva, which
undergoes a more or less sudden metamorphosis into the young
worm (fig. 1). There appears to be little either in the development
or in the structure of the Haplodrili to warrant the view held by
Hatschek and Fraipont that Polygordius and Protodrilus are exceed-
ingly primitive forms, ancestral to the whole group of seta-bearing
Annelids (Oligochaeta, Polychaeta, Hirudinea and Echiuroidea).
934
HAPTARA— HARALD
; rraipont, l* oenre roiygoraius, rauna u. riora a.
v. Ncapel., xiv., 1887; Weldon, " Dinophilus gigas," Quart.
Micr. Sci. vol. xxvii., 1886; Harmer, Dinophilus," Journ.
Biol. N.S. vol. i., 1880; Schimkewitsch, ' r Entwickl. des
Whatever may be the conclusion as to the position of Dino-
philus and Histriodrilus, it seems only reasonable to suppose that
rolygordius and Protodrilus, so far from representing a stage in the
phylogeny of the Annelida before setae were developed, have lost
the setae, which are already in a reduced state in Saccocirrus.
Authorities. — Hatschek, " Studien z. Entw. der Anneliden,"
Arb. Z00L Inst. Wien, vol i., 1878; " Protodrilus," ibid. vol. HL
(1881); Fraipont, " Le Genre Polygordius," Fauna u. Flora d.
Golfes v. Ncapel., xiv., 1887; Weldon " ~
Journ. Mic~ °" "" , — ' -no*. "
Mar. BioL _ _, __ , ___
Dinophilus" Zeit. f. wiss. Zoof. vol. lix., 1805; Korschelt, " Ober
Bau u. Entw. des Dinophilus" Zeit. f. wtss. Zool. vol. xxxvii.,
1882; Foettinger, " Histriobdella," Arch. Biol. vol. v., 1884;
Goodrich, " On Saccocirrus," Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci. vol. xliv.,
1901. (E. S. G.)
HAPTARA (lit. conclusion), the Hebrew title given to the
prophetic lessons with which the ancient Synagogue service
concluded. In the time of Christ these prophetic lessons were
already in vogue, and Christ himself read the lessons and dis-
coursed on them in the synagogues of Galilee. In the modern
synagogue these readings from the prophets are regularly
included in the ritual of Sabbaths, festivals and some other
occasions.
A list of the current lessons is given in the Jewish Encyclopedia,
vol. vi. pp. 136-137. (I. A.)
HAPUR, a town of British India in the Meerut district of the
United Provinces, 18 m. S. of Meerut. Pop. (1901) 17,796.
It is said to have been founded in the 10th century, and was
granted by Sindhia to his French general Perron at the end
of the 1 8th century. Several fine groves surround the town,
but the wall and ditch have fallen out of repair, and only
the names of the five gates remain. Considerable trade is
carried on in sugar, grain, cotton, timber, bamboos and brass
utensils.
HARA-KIRI (Japanese hara, belly, and kiri, cutting), self-
disembowelment, primarily the method of suicide permitted
to offenders of the noble class in feudal Japan, and later the
national form of honourable suicide. Hara-kiri has been often
translated as " the happy dispatch " in confusion with a native
euphemism for the act. More usually the Japanese themselves
speak of hara-kiri by its Chinese synonym, Seppuku. Hara-kiri
is not an aboriginal Japanese custom. It was a growth of
medieval militarism, the act probably at first being prompted
by the desire of the noble to escape the humiliation of falling
into an enemy's hands. By the end of the 14th century the
custom had become a much valued privilege, being formally
established as such under the Ashi-Kaga dynasty. Hara-kiri
was of two kinds, obligatory and voluntary. The first is the
more ancient. An official or noble, who had broken the law
or been disloyal, received a message from the emperor, couched
always in sympathetic and gracious tones, courteously intimating
that he must die. The mikado usually sent a jewelled dagger
with which the deed might be done. The suicide had so many
days allotted to him by immemorial custom in which to make
dignified preparations for the ceremony, which was attended by
the utmost formality. In his own baronial hall or in a temple
a dafe 3 or 4 in. from the ground was constructed. Upon this
was laid a rug of red felt. The suicide, clothed in his ceremonial
dress as an hereditary noble, and accompanied by his second or
" Kaishaku," took his place on the mat, the officials and his
friends ranging themselves in a semicircle round the dab. After
a minute's prayer the weapon was handed to him with many
obeisances by the mikado's representative, and he then made a
public confession of his fault. He then stripped to the waist.
Every movement in the grim ceremony was governed by
precedent, and he had to tuck his wide sleeves under his knees
to prevent himself falling backwards, for a Japanese noble
must die falling forward. A moment later he plunged the dagger
into his stomach below the waist on the left side, drew it across
to the right and, turning it, gave a slight cut upward. At the
same moment the Kaishaku who crouched at his friend's side,
leaping up, brought his sword down on the outstretched neck.
At the conclusion of the ceremony the bloodstained dagger was
taken to the mikado as a proof of the consummation of the heroic
act. The performance of hara-kiri carried with it certain
privileges. If it was by order of the mikado half only of a
traitor's property was forfeited to the state. If the gnawings
of conscience drove the disloyal noble to voluntary suicide, his
dishonour was wiped out, and his family inherited all his
fortune. '
Voluntary hara-kiri was the refuge of men rendered desperate
by private misfortunes, or was committed from loyalty to a dead
superior, or as a protest against what was deemed a false national
policy. This voluntary suicide still survives, a characteristic
case being that of Lieutenant Takeyoshi who in 1891 gave himself
the " belly-cut " in front of the graves of his ancestors at Tokyo
as a protest against what he considered the criminal lethargy
of the government in not taking precautions against possible
Russian encroachments to the north of Japan. In the Russo-
Japanese War, when faced by defeat at Vladivostock, the officer
in command of the troops on the transport " Kinshu Maru "
committed hara-kiri. Hara-kiri has not been uncommon among
women, but in their case the mode is by cutting the throat.
The popularity of this self-immolation is testified to by the
fact that for centuries no fewer than 1500 hara-kiris are said
to have taken place annually, at least half being entirely
voluntary. Stories of amazing heroism are told in connexion
with the performance of the act. One noble, barely out of his
teens, not content with giving himself the customary cuts,
slashed himself thrice horizontally and twice vertically. Then he
stabbed himself in the throat until the dirk protruded on the
other side with the sharp edge to the front, and with a supreme
effort drove the knife forward with both hands through his neck.
Obligatory hara-kiri was obsolete in the middle of the 19th
century, and was actually abolished in 1868.
See A. B. Mitford, Tales of Old Japan; Basil Hall Chamberlain,
Things Japanese (1898).
HARALD, the name of four kings of Norway.
Harald I. (850-933), surnamed Haarfager (of the beautiful
hair), first king over Norway, succeeded on the death of his
father Halfdan the Black in a.d. 860 to the sovereignty of
several small and somewhat scattered kingdoms, which had
come into his father's hands through conquest and inheritance
and lay chiefly in south-east Norway (see Norway). The tale
goes that the scorn of the daughter of a neighbouring king
induced Harald to take a vow not to cut nor comb his hair until
he was sole king of Norway, and that ten years later he was
justified in trimming it; whereupon he exchanged the epithet
" Shockhead " for the one by which he is usually known. In
866 he made the first of a series of conquests over the many
petty kingdoms which then composed Norway; and in 872,
after a great victory at Hafrsf jord near Stavanger, he found
himself king over the whole country. His realm was, however,
threatened by dangers from without, as large numbers of his
opponents had taken refuge, not only in Iceland, then recently
discovered, but also in the Orkneys, Shetlands, Hebrides and
Faeroes, and in Scotland itself; and from these winter quarters
sallied forth to harry Norway as well as the rest of northern
Europe. Their numbers were increased by malcontents from
Norway, who resented Harald's claim of rights of taxation over
lands which the possessors appear to have previously held in
absolute ownership. At last Harald was forced to make an
expedition to the west to clear the islands and Scottish mainland
of Vikings. Numbers of them fled to Iceland, which grew into
an independent commonwealth, while the Scottish isles fell
under Norwegian rule. The latter part of Harald's reign was
disturbed by the strife of his many sons. He gave them all the
royal title and assigned lands to them which they were to govern
as his representatives; but this arrangement did not put an end
to the discord, which continued into the next reign. When he
grew old he handed over the supreme power to his favourite
son Erik " Bloody Axe," whom he intended to be his successor.
Harald died in 933, in his eighty-fourth year.
Harald II., surnamed Graafeld, a grandson of Harald I.,
became, with his brothers, ruler of the western part of Norway
in 961; he was murdered in Denmark in 969.
HARBIN— HARBOUR
935
Harald III. (1015-1066), king of Norway, surnamed Haa;-
draade, which might be translated "ruthless," was the son of King
Sigurd and half-brother of King Olaf the Saint. At the age of
fifteen he was obliged to flee from Norway, having taken part in
the battle of Stiklestad (1030), at which King Olaf met his death.
He took refuge for a short time with Prince Yaroslav of Novgorod
(a kingdom founded by Scandinavians), and thence went to
Constantinople, where he took service under the empress Zoe,
whose Varangian guard he led to frequent victory in Italy,
Sicily and North Africa, also penetrating to Jerusalem. In the
year 1042 he left Constantinople, the story says because he was
refused the hand of a princess, and on his way back to his own
country he married EUisif or Elizabeth, daughter of Yaroslav
of Novgorod. In Sweden he allied himself with the defeated
Sven of Denmark against his nephew Magnus, now king of
Norway, but soon broke faith with Sven and accepted an offer
from Magnus of half his kingdom. In return for this gift Harald
is said to have shared with Magnus the enormous treasure which
he had amassed in the East. The death of Magnus in 1047
put an end to the growing jealousies between the two kings,
and Harald turned all his attention to the task of subjugating
Denmark, which he ravaged year after year; but he met with
such stubborn resistance from Sven that in 1064 he gave up the
attempt and made* peace. Two years afterwards, possibly
instigated by the banished Earl Tostig of Northumbria, he
attempted the conquest of England, to the sovereignty of which
his predecessor had advanced a claim as successor of Harthacnut. '
In September 1066 he landed in Yorkshire with a large army,
reinforced from Scotland, Ireland and the Orkneys; took
Scarborough by casting naming brands into the town from the
high ground above it; defeated the Northumbrian forces at
Fulford; and entered York on the 24th of September. But the
following day the English Harold arrived from the south, and
the end of the long day's fight at Stamford Bridge saw the rout
of the Norwegian forces after the fall of their king (25th of
September 1066). He was only fifty years old, but he was the
first of the six kings who had ruled Norway since the death of
Harald Haarf ager to reach that age. As a king he was unpopular
on account of his harshness and want of good faith, but his many
victories in the face of great odds prove him to have been a
remarkable general, of never-failing resourcefulness and indomit-
able courage.
Harald IV. (d. 1136), king of Norway, surnamed Gylle
(probably from Gylle Krist, i.e. servant of Christ), was born in
Ireland about 1103. About n 27 he went to Norway and
declared he was a son of King Magnus III. (Barefoot), who had
visited Ireland just before his death in 1103, and consequently
a half-brother of the reigning king, Sigurd. He appears to have
submitted successfully to the ordeal of fire, and the alleged
relationship was acknowledged by Sigurd on condition that
Harald did not claim any share in the government of the kingdom
during his lifetime or that of his son Magnus. Living on friendly
terms with the king, Harald kept this agreement until Sigurd's
death in 1 1 30. Then war broke out between himself and Magnus,
and after several battles the latter was captured in 1 134, his eyes
were put out, and he was thrown into prison. Harald now ruled
the country until 1 136, when he was murdered by Sigurd Slembi-
Diakn, another bastard son of Magnus Barefoot. Four of
Harald 's sons, Sigurd, Ingi, Eysteinn and Magnus, were subse-
quently kings of Norway.
HARBIH, or Kharbin, town of Manchuria, on the right
bank of the river Sungari. Pop. about 20,000. Till 1896 there
was only a small village here, but in that year the town was
founded in connexion with surveys for the Chinese Eastern
railway company, at a point which subsequently became the
junction of the main line of the Manchurian railway with the
branch line southward to Port Arthur. Occupying such a
position, Harbin became an important Russian military centre
during the Russo-Japanese War. The portion of the town
founded in 1896 is called Old Harbin, but the centre has shifted
to New Harbin, where the chief public buildings and offices of
the railway administration are situated. The river-port forms
a third division of the town, industrially the most important;
here are railway workshops, factories and mercantile establish-
ments. Trade is chiefly in the hands of the Chinese.
HARBINGER, originally one who provides a shelter or lodging
for an army. The word is derived from the M.E. and O.Fr.
herbergere, through the Late Lat. her iber gator } formed from the
O.H.Ger. heri, mod. Ger. Heer, an army, and bergen, shelter or
defence, cf. " harbour." The meaning was soon enlarged to
include any place where travellers could be lodged or entertained,
and also by transference the person who provided lodgings, and
so one who goes on before a party to secure suitable lodgings in
advance. A herald sent forward to announce the coming of a
king. A Knight Harbinger was an officer in the royal household
till 1846. In these senses the word is now obsolete. It is used
chiefly in poetry and literature for one who announces the
immediate approach of something, a forerunner. This is illus-
trated in the " harbinger of spring," a name given to a small
plant belonging to the Umbelliferae, which has a tuberous root,
and small white flowers; it is found in the central states of North
America, and blossoms in March.
HARBOUR (from M.E. hereberge, here, an army; cf. Ger. Heer
and -beorg, protection or shelter. Other early forms in English
were kerberwe and harborow, as seen in various place names,
such as Market Harborough. The French auberge, an inn,
derived through heberger, is thus the same word), a place of
refuge or shelter. It is thus used for an asylum for criminals,
and particularly for a place of shelter for ships.
Sheltered sites along exposed sea-coasts are essential for pur-
poses of trade, and very valuable as refuges for vessels from
storms. In a few places, natural shelter is found in combination
with ample depth, as in the Bay of Rio de Janeiro, New York
Harbour (protected by Long Island), Portsmouth Harbour and
Southampton Water (sheltered by the Isle of Wight), and the
land-locked creeks of Milford Haven and Kiel Harbour. At
various places there are large enclosed areas which have openings
into the sea; but these lagoons for the most part are very shallow
except in the main channels and at their outlets. Access to
them is generally obstructed by a bar as at the lagoon harbour
of Venice (fig. 1), and similar harbours, like those of Poole and
Wexford; and such harbours usually require works to prevent
their deterioration, and to increase the depth near their outlet.
Generally, however,harbours are formed where shelter is provided
to a certain extent by a bay, creek or projecting headland, but
requires to be rendered complete by one or more breakwaters
(see Breakwater), or where the approach to a river, a ship-
canal or a seaport, needs protection. A refuge harbour is
occasionally constructed where a long length of stormy coast,
near the ordinary track of vessels, is entirely devoid of natural
shelter. Naval harbours are required by maritime powers as
stations for their fleets, and dockyards for construction and
repairs, and also in some cases as places of shelter from the night
attacks of torpedoes. Commercial harbours have to be provided
for the formation of ports within their shelter on important
trade routes, or for the protection of the approaches from the
sea of ports near the sea-coast, or maritime waterways running
inland, in some cases at points on the coast devoid of all natural
shelter. A greater latitude in the selection of suitable sites is,
indeed,possible for refuge and naval harbours than for commercial
harbours; but these three classes of harbours are very similar
in their general outline and the works protecting them, only
differing in size and internal arrangements according to the pur-
pose for which they have been constructed, the chief differences
being due to the local conditions.
Harbours may be divided into three distinct groups, namely,
lagoon harbours, jetty harbours and sea-coast harbours, pro-
tected by breakwaters, including refuge; naval and commercial
harbours.
Lagoon Harbours. — A lagoon, consisting of a sort of large shallow
lake separated from the sea by a narrow belt of coast, formed of
deposit from a deltaic river or of sand dunes heaped up by on-shore
winds along a sandy shore, possesses erood natural shelter; and,
owing to the large expanse which is filled and emptied at each tide,
even when the tidal range is quite small, together with the discharge
93 6
HARBOUR
from any rivers flowing into the lagoon, one or more fairly deep
outlets are maintained through the fringe of coast, which afford
navigable access to the lagoon; whilst channels formed inside by
SCALK SOCLOOO.
MlLE**
I u
o
_1_
Fig. I. — Venetian Lagoon Harbour.
the currents lead to ports on its banks. Lagoons, however, are liable
to be gradually silted up, if rivers flowing into them bring down
considerable quantities of alluvium, which is readily deposited in
their fairly still waters; and their outlet channels are in danger of
becoming shallower, by the sea in storms forming additional outlets
by breaking through the narrow
barrier separating them from the
sea. Moreover, the approach from /
the sea to these channels through the ' • \ ,j M':'i$
fringe of coast is generally Impeded * / * {: /£$£:
by a bar, owing to the scour of the ) *' ♦* *£ £$}Zyi-
issuing current through these outlet ' / v • fij:i}-}£
channels becoming gradually too en- ' v .'
feebled, on entering the open sea, to . % .' '
overcome the heaping-up action of ,
the waves along the snore, which ^
tends to form a continuous beach *£*£*?
across these openings. Rivers, accord- 7
ingly, whose discharge is very valu- K "~}
able in maintaining a lagoon if their x
waters are free from sediment, must, /
if possible, be diverted from a lagoon
if they bring down large amounts of
silt; whilst the narrow belt of land
in front of the lagoon must be pro-
tected from erosion by the waves, on
its sea face, by groynes or revetments.
The depth over the bar in front of an outlet can be improved by
concentrating the current through the outlet by jetties on each side,
and prolonging the jetties, and consequently the scour, out to the
bar so as to lower it, and by supplementing the scouring action, if
necessary, by dredging.
Jetty Harbours. — Several small ports were formed on the sea-coast
long ago at points where flat marshy ground lying below the level
of high-water, and shut off from the sandy beach by dikes or sand
dunes, was connected with the sea by a small creek or river. Such
Ejrts presented in their original condition a slight resemblance to
goons on a very small scale. Several examples are to be found
on the sandy shores of the English Channel and North Sea, such as
Dieppe, Boulogne, Calais, Dunkirk, Nieuport and Ostend, where
the influx and efflux of the water from these enclosed tide-covered
areas, through a narrow opening, sufficed to maintain a shallow
channel to the sea across the beach, deep enough near high-water
for vessels of small draught. When the increase in draught necessi-
tated the provision of an improved channel, the scour of the issuing
current was concentrated and prolonged by erecting parallel jetties
across the beach, raised solid to a little above low water of neap tides,
with open timber-work above to indicate the channel and guide the
vessels. Even this low obstruction, however, to the littoral drift
of sand caused an advance of the low water line as the jetties were
carried out, so that further extensions of the jetties had eventually
to be abandoned, as occurred at Dunkirk (see Dock). Moreover, re-
clamation of the low-lying areas was gradually effected, thus reducing
the tidal scour; and sluicing basins were excavated in part of the
low ground, into which the tide flowed through the entrance channel,
and the water being shut in at high tide by gates at the outlet of
the basin, was released at low water, producing a rapid current
through the channel as a compensation for the loss of the former
natural scour. The current, however, from the sluicing basin
gradually lost its velocity in passing down the channel, and besides,
being most effective near the outlet of the basin, could only scour
the channel down to a moderate depth below low water, on account
of the increase in the volume of still water in the channel at low
tide as its deepening progressed. Lastly, about 1880, improve-
ments in suction dredgers (see Dredge and Dredging) led to the
adoption of sand-pump dredging in the outer part of the channel,
and across the foreshore in front to deej> water; and at Dunkirk,
docks were formed on the site of the sluicing basin ; whilst at Calais
sluicing was abandoned in favour of dredpng. Ostend is the only
jetty habour in which a large sluicing basin has been recently con-
structed, but it can only provide for the maintenance of deep-water
quays in its vicinity; and dredging is relied upon to an increasing
extent, both for the maintenance and further deepening of the outer
portion of the approach channel, and for maintaining the direct
channel dredged to deep water across the Stroombank extending
in front of Ostend (fig. 2).
Similar methods of improving the entrance channel to ports
possessing an extensive backwater have been adopted on a large
scale in the United States. For instance at Charleston, converging
jetties, about z\ m. long, have been extended across the bar to con-
centrate the scour due to a small tidal range expanding over the
enclosed backwater, 15 sq. m. in extent, and to protect the channel
from littoral drift; but these jetties have caused an advance of
the foreshore, and a progression
seawards of the bar, necessitating
dredging beyond the ends of the
jetties to maintain the requisite
depth.
rarallel jetties, moreover, across
the beach, combined with exten-
sive sand-pump dredging, have
been employed with success at
some of the ports situated at the
outlet of rivers, enclosed bays, or
lagoons, on the sandy shores of
QAOOF?
Fig. 2.— Ostend Harbour and Jetty Channel.
south-east Africa, for improving the access to them across en-
cumbering shoals, where the littoral drift is too great to allow of
the projection of breakwaters from the shore to shelter an approach
channel.
Harbours Protected by Breakwaters.-^The design for a harbour on
HARBOUR
937
the sea-coast must depend on the configuration of the adjacent
coast-line, the extent and direction of the exposure, the amount of
sheltered area required and the depth obtainable, the prospect of
the accumulation of drift or the occurrence of scour from the pro-
posed works, and the best position for an entrance in respect of
shelter and depth of approach.
Completion of Shelter of Harbours in Bays. — In the case of a deep,
fairly landlocked bay, a detached breakwater across the outlet
completes the necessary shelter, leaving an entrance between each
extremity and the shore, provided there is deep enough water near
the shore, as effected at Plymouth harbour, and also across the wider
but shallower bay forming Cherbourg harbour. A breakwater may
Fig. 3. — Genoa Harbour and Extensions.
instead be extended across the outlet from each shore, leaving a
single central entrance between the ends of the breakwaters; and
if one breakwater placed somewhat farther out is made to overlap
an inner one, a more sheltered entrance is obtained. This arrange-
ment has been adopted at the existing Genoa harbour within the
bay (fig. 3), and for the harbour at the mouth of the Nervion (see
River Engineering). The adoption of a bay with deep water for
a harbour does not merely reduce the shelter to be provided arti-
ficially, but it also secures a site not exposed to silting up, and where
the sheltering works do not interfere with any littoral drift along
the open coast. A third method of sheltering a deep bay is that
sand accumulates in the
between each converging
JCALK SO?DOO.
Fig. 4.— Peterhead Harbour of Refuge.
adopted for forming a refuge harbour at Peterhead (fig. 4), where
a single breakwater is extended out from one shore Tor 32*50 ft.
across the outlet of the bay, leaving a single entrance between its
extremity and the opposite shore and enclosing an area of about
250 acres at low tide, half of which has a depth of over 5 fathoms.
Harbours possessing partial Natural Shelter. — The most common
form of harbour is that 1 in which one or more breakwaters supple-
ment a certain amount of natural shelter. Sometimes, where the
exposure is from one direction only, approximately parallel with
the coast-line at the site, and there is more or less shelter from a pro-
jecting headland or a curve of the coast in the opposite direction, a
single breakwater extending out at right angles to the shore, with
a slight curve or bend inwards near its outer end, suffices to afford
the necessary shelter. As examples of this form of harbour con-
struction may be mentioned Newhaven breakwater, protecting the
approach to the port from the west, and somewhat sheltered from
the moderate easterly storms by Beachy Head, and Table Bay
breakwater, which shelters the harbour from the north-east, and is
somewhat protected on the opposite side by the wide sweep of the
coast-line known as Table Bay. Generally, however, some partial
embay ment, or abrupt projection from the coast, is utilized as
providing shelter from one quarter, which is completed by break-
waters enclosing the site, of which Dover and Colombo (fig. 5)
harbours furnish typical and somewhat similar examples.
Harbours formed on guile Open
SeacoasAs. — Occasionally harbours
have to be constructed for some
special . purpose where no natural
shelter exists, and where on an open,
sandy shore considerable littoral drift
may occur. Breakwaters, carried out
from the shore at some distance
apart, and converging to a central
entrance of suitable width, provide
the requisite shelter, as for instance
the harbour constructed to form a
sheltered approach to the river Wear
and the Sunderland docks (fig. 6).
If there is little littoral drift from
the most exposed quarter, the amount
of sand brought in during storms,
which is smaller in proportion to the
depth into which the entrance is
carried, can be readily removed by
dredging; whilst the scour across
the projecting ends of the break-
waters tends to keep the outlet free
from deposit. Where there is littoral
drift in both directions on an open,
sandy coast, due to winds blowing
alternately from opposite quarters,
sheltered angles outside the harbour
breakwater and the shore. This has-
happened at Ymuiden harbour at the entrance to the Amsterdam
ship-canal on the North Sea, but there the advance of the shore
appears to have reached its limit only a short distance out from
the old shore-line on each side; and the only evidence of drift
consists in the advance seawards of the lines of soundings
alongside, and in the considerable amount of sand which enters the
harbour and has to be removed by dredging. The worst results
occur where the littoral drift is almost wholly in one direction, so
that the projection of a solid breakwater out from the shore causes
a very large accretion on
the side facing the ex- /
posed quarter; whilst
owing to the arrest of the
travel of sand, erosion of
the beach occurs beyond
the second breakwater
enclosing the harbour on
its comparatively shel-
tered side. These effects
have been produced at
Port Said harbour at the
entrance to the Suez
Canal from the Medi-
terranean, formed by two
converging breakwaters,
where, owing: to the
prevalent north-westerly
, winds, the drift is from/
west to east, and is aug-
mented by the alluvium -
issuing from the Nile.
Accordingly, the shore
has advanced consider-
ably against the outer
face of the western break-
water; and erosion of
the beach has occurred
at the shore end of the
eastern breakwater, cut-
ting it off from the land.
The advance of the shore-line, however, has been much slower
during recent years; and though the progress seawards of the
lines of soundings close to and in front of the harbour continues,
the advance is checked by the sand and silt coming from the west
passing through some apertures purposely left in the western break-
water, and falling into tne approach channel, from which it is readily
dredged and taken away. Madras harbour, begun in 1875, consists
of two breakwaters, 3000 ft. apart, carried straight out to sea at
right angles to the shore for 3000 ft., and completed by two return
XII. 30a
COLOMBO,.
SCALE 40,000.
Fig. 5. — Colombo Harbour.
93*
HARBURG— HARCOURT
arm* inclined slightly teawardi, enclosing an area of 220 acres and
leaving a central entrance, 550 ft. wide, facing the Indian Ocean in
a depth of about 8 fathoms. The great drift, however, of sand along
the coast from south to north soon produced an advance of the shore
againnt the outside of the south breakwater, and erosion beyond
the north breakwater; and the progression of the foreshore has
extended so far seawards as to produce shoaling at the entrance.
Accordingly, the closing of the entrance, and the formation of a new
eftt ranee through the outer part of the main north breakwater,
facing north and sheltered
by an arm starting from the
angle of the northern return
arm and running north
parallel to the shore, round
the end of which vessels
would turn to enter, have
been recommended, to pro-
vide a deep entrance beyond
the influence of the ad-
vancing foreshore.
Proposals have been made
from time to time to evade
this advance of the foreshore
against a solid obstacle, by
extending an open viaduct
across the zone of littoral
drift, and forming a closed
harbour, or a sheltering
breakwater against which
vessels can lie, beyond the
influence of accretion. This
principle was carried out on a
tOALI SO0OO.
Fig. 6. —Sunderland Harbour.
large scale r\t the port of call and sheltering breakwater constructed
in front of the entrance to the Bruges ship-canal, at Zeebrugge on the
sandy North Sea coast { where a solid breakwater, provided with a
wide quay furnished with sidings and sheds, and curving round so
as to overlap thoroughly the entrance to the canal and shelter a
certain water-area, is approached by an open metal viaduct extend-
ing out 1007 ft. from low water into a depth of 20 ft. (ftp. 7). It is
hoped that by thus avoiding interference with the littoral drift close
to the shore, coming mainly from the west, the accumulation of silt
to the west of the harbour, and also in the harbour itself, will be
prevented; and though it appears probable that some accretion will
txreur within the area sheltered by the breakwater, it will to some
Fig. 7.— Zeebrugge Harbour.
extent l>c disturltcd by the wash of the steamers approaching and
leaving the quays, and can readily be removed under shelter by
dredging.
Entrances to Harbours, r-Though captains of vessels always wish
for wkle entrances to harbours as affording greater facility of safe
access, it is important to keep the width as narrow as practicable,
consistent with easy access, to exclude waves and swell as much
as possible and secure tranquillity inside. At Madras, the width of
550 ft. proved excessive for the j^reat exposure of the entrance, and
moderate si*e of the harbour, which does not allow of the adequate
expansion of the entering swell. Where an adequately easy and safe
approach can be secured* it is advantageous to make the entrance
face a somewhat sheltered quarter by the overlapping of the end
of one of the breakwaters, as accomplished at Bilbao and Genoa
harbours {fig. 3), and at the southern entrance to Dover harbour.
Occasionally, owing to the comparative shelter afforded by a bend
in the adjacent coast-line, a very wide entrance can be left between
a breakwater and the shore; typical examples are furnished by the
former open northern entrance to Portland harbour, now closed
against torpedoes, and the wide entrances at Holyhead and Zee-
brugge (fig. 7). With a large harbour and the adoption of a detached
breakwater, ft is possible to gain the advantage of two entrances
facing different quarters, as effected at Dover and Colombo, which
enables vessels to select their entrance according to the state of the
wind and weather ; where there is a laree tidal rise they reduce the
current through the entrances, and they may, under favourable
conditions, create a circulation of the water in the harbour, tending
to check the deposit of silt. (L. F. V.-H.)
HARBURG, a seaport town of Germany, in the Prussian
province of Hanover, on the left bank of the southern arm of
the Elbe, 6 m. by rail S. of Hamburg. Pop. (1885), 26,320;
(1905) — the area of the town having been increased since 1895 —
55,676. It is pleasantly situated at the foot of a lofty range of
hills, which here dip down to the river, at the junction of the
main lines of railway from Bremen and Hanover to Hamburg,
which are carried to the latter city over two grand bridges
crossing the southern and the northern arms of the Elbe. It
possesses a Roman Catholic and two Protestant churches,
a palace, which from 1524 to 1642 was the residence of the
Harburg line of the house of Brunswick, a high-grade modern
school, a commercial school and a theatre. The leading industries
are the crushing of palm-kernels and linseed and the manufacture
of india-rubber, phosphates, starch, nitrate and jute. Machines
are manufactured here; beer is brewed, and shipbuilding is
carried on. The port is accessible to vessels drawing 18 ft. of
water, and, despite its proximity to Hamburg, its trade has of
late years shown a remarkable development. It is the chief
mart in the empire for resin and palm-oil. The Prussian govern-
ment proposes establishing here a free port, on the lines of the
Freihafen in Hamburg.
Harburg belonged originally to the bishopric of Bremen, and
received municipal rights in 1297. In 1376 it was united to
the principality of Lilneburg, along with which it fell in 1705
to Hanover, and in 1806 to Prussia. In 1813 and 1814 it suffered
considerably from the French, who then held Hamburg, and
who built a bridge between the two towns, which remained
standing till 181 6.
See Ludewig, Geschickte des Schlosses und der Siadt Harburg
(Harburg, 1845); and Hoffmeyer, Harburg und die nackste Um-
gegend (1885).
HARCOURT, a village in Normandy, now a commune in the
department of Eure, arrondissement of Bernay and canton of
Brionne, which gives its name to a noble family distinguished
in French history, a branch of which was early established in
England. Of the lords of Harcourt, whose genealogy can be
traced back to the nth century, the first to distinguish himself
was Jean II. (d. 1302) who was marshal and admiral of France.
Godefroi d'Harcourt, seigneur of Saint Sauveur le Vicomte,
surnamed " Le boiteux " (the lame), was a marshal in the English
army and was killed near Coutances in 1356. The fief of Harcourt
was raised to the rank of a countship by Philip of Valois, in favour
of Jean IV., who was killed at the battle of Crecy (1346). His
son, Jean V. (d. 1355) married Blanche, heiress of Jean II.,
count of- Aumale, and the countship of Harcourt passed with
that of Aumale until, in 1424, Jean VIII., count of Aumale and
Mortain and lieutenant-general of Normandy, was killed at the
battle of Verneuil, and with him the elder branch became extinct
in the male line. The heiress, Marie, by her marriage with
Anthony of Lorraine, count of Yaudemont, brought the countship
of Harcourt into the house of Lorraine. The title of count of
Harcourt was borne by several princes of this house. The most
famous instance was Henry of Lorraine, count of Harcourt,
Brionne, and Annagnac, and nicknamed " Cadet la perle " (1601-
1666). He distinguished himself in several campaigns against
Spain, and later played an active part in the civil wars of the
Fronde. He took the side of the princes, and fought against the
HARCOURT, ist VISCOUNT— HARCOURT, SIR WILLIAM 939
government in Alsace; but was defeated by Marshal de la
Fert6, and made his submission ia 1654.
The most distinguished among the younger branches of the
family are those of Montgomery and of Beuvron. To the former
belonged Jean d'Harcourt, bishop of Amiens and Tournai,
archbishop of Narbonne and patriarch of Antioch, who died in
1452; and Guillaume d'Harcourt, count of Tancarville, and
viscount of MeJun, who was head of the administration of the
woods and forests in the royal domain (souverain mattre et
riformateur des eaux et forUs de France) and died in 1487.
From the branch of the marquises of Beuvron sprang Henri
d'Harcourt, marshal of France, and ambassador at the Spanish
court, who was made duke of Harcourt (1700) and a peer of
France (1709); also Francois Eugene Gabriel, count, and
afterwards duke, of Harcourt, who was ambassador first in
Spain, and later at Rome, and died in 1865. This branch of the
family is still in existence.
See G. A. de la Rogne, Bistoire genialogujue de la maison d'Har-
court (4 vols., Paris, 1662) ; P. Anselme, Htstoire genealogique de la
maison de France, v. 1 14, &c. ; and Dom le Noir, Preuves gbtialo-
giques et historiques de la maison de Harcourt (Paris, 1907).
(M. P.*)
HARCOURT, SIMON HARCOURT, ist Viscount (c. 1661-
1727), lord chancellor of England, only son of Sir Philip Harcourt
of Stanton Harcourt, Oxfordshire, by his first wife, Anne,
daughter of Sir William Waller, was born about 1661 at Stanton
Harcourt, and was educated at a school at Shilton, Oxfordshire,
and at Pembroke College, Oxford. He was called to the bar
in 1683, and soon afterwards was appointed recorder of Abingdon,
which borough he represented as a; Tory in parliament from
1600 to 1705. In 1 701 he was nominated by the Commons to
conduct the impeachment of Lord Somers; and in 1702 he
became solicitor-general and was knighted by Queen Anne.
He was elected member for Bossiney in 1705, and as commis-
sioner for arranging the union with Scotland was largely instru-
mental in promoting that measure. Harcourt was appointed
attorney-general in 1707, but resigned office in the following
year when his friend Robert Harley, afterwards earl of Oxford,
was dismissed. He defended Sacheverell ( at the bar of the House
of Lords in 1710, being then without a seat in parliament; but
in the same year was returned for Cardigan, and in September
again became attorney-general In October he was appointed
lord keeper of the great seal, and in virtue of this office he
presided in the House of Lords for some months without a
peerage, until, on the 3rd of September 171 1, he was created
Baron Harcourt of Stanton Harcourt; but it was not till April
1 7 13 that he received the appointment of lord chancellor. In
1 7 10 he had purchased the Nuneham-Courtney estate in Oxford-
shire, but his usual place of residence continued to be at Coke-
thorpe near Stanton Harcourt, where he received a visit in state
from Queen Anne. In the negotiations preceding the peace of
Utrecht, Harcourt took an important part. There is no sufficient
evidence for the allegations of the Whigs that Harcourt entered
into treasonable relations with the Pretender. On the accession
of George I. he was deprived of office and retired to Cokethorpe,
where he enjoyed the society of men of - letters, Swift, Pope,
Prior and other famous writers being among his frequent guests.
With Swift, however, he had occasional quarrels, during one of
which the great satirist bestowed on him the sobriquet of " Trim-
ming Harcourt." He exerted himself to defeat the impeach-
ment of Lord Oxford in 171 7, and in 1723 he was active in
obtaining a pardon for another old political friend, Lord Boling-
broke. In 17 21 Harcourt <waa created a viscount and returned
to the privy councils; and on several occasions during the king's
absences from England he was on the council of regency. He
died in London on the 33rd of July 1727. Harcourt was not a
great lawyer, but he enjoyed the reputation of being a brilliant
orator; Speaker Onslow going so far as to say that Harcourt
" had the greatest skill and power of speech of any man I ever
knew in a public assembly. " . He, was a member of the famous
Saturday Club, frequented by the -chief literati and wits of the
period, with several of whom he corresponded. Some letters to
him from Pope are preserved in the Harcourt Papers. His
portrait by Kneller is at Nuneham.
Harcourt married, first, Rebecca, daughter of Thomas Clark,
his father's chaplain, by whom he had five children; secondly,
Elizabeth, daughter of Richard Spencer; and thirdly, Elizabeth,
daughter of Sir Thomas Vernon* He left issue by his first wife
only. His son, Simon (1684-1720), married Elizabeth, sister of
Sir John Evelyn of Wotton, by whom he had one son and four
daughters, one of whom married George Venables Vernon,
afterwards Lord Vernon (see Harcourt, Sir William — foot-
note). Simon Harcourt predeceased his father, the lord chan-
cellor, in 1720, leaving a son Simon Harcourt (1714-1777),
ist Earl Harcourt, who succeeded his grandfather in the title
of viscount in 1727. He was educated at Westminster school.
In 1745, having raised a regiment, he received a commission as a
colonel in the army; and in 1749 he was created Earl Harcourt
of Stanton Harcourt. He was appointed governor to the prince
of Wales, afterwards George III., in 1751; and after the acces-
sion of the latter to the throne he was appointed, in 1761, special
ambassador to Mecklenburg-Strelitz to negotiate a marriage
between King George and the princess Charlotte, whom he
conducted to England. After holding a number of appointments
at court and in the diplomatic service, he was promoted to the
rank of general in 1772; and in October of the same year he
succeeded Lord Townsend as lord lieutenant of Ireland, an office
which he held till 1777. His proposal to impose a tax of 10%
on the rents of absentee landlords had to be abandoned owing
to opposition in England; but he succeeded in conciliating the
leaders of Opposition in Ireland, and he persuaded Henry Flood
to accept office in the government. Resigning in January 1777,
be retired to Nuneham, where he died in the following September.
He married, in 1735, Rebecca, daughter and heiress of Charles
Samborne Le Bas, of Pipewell Abbey, Northamptonshire, by
whom he had two daughters and two sons, George Simon and
William, who succeeded him as 2nd and 3rd earl respectively.
See Lord Campbell, Lives of the Lord Chancellors, vol. v. (London;
1846); Edward Foss, The Judges of England, vol. viii. (London,
1848) ; Gilbert Burnet, Hist, of his own Time (with notes by earls
of Dartmouth and Hardwicke, &c, Oxford, 1833); Earl Stanhope,
Hist, of England, comprising the reign of Queen Anne until the Peace
of Utrecht (London, 1870). In addition to the above-mentioned
authorities many particulars concerning the ist Viscount Harcourt,
and also of his grandson, the 1st earl, will be found in the Harcourt
Papers. For the earl, see also Horace Walpole, Memoirs of the Reign
of George II. (3 vols., 2nd ed., London, 1847), Memoirs of the Reign
of George III. (4 vols., London, 1845, 1804); also, for his vice-
royalty of Ireland, see Henry Grattan, Memoirs of the Life and
Times of the Right Hon. H. Grattan (5 vols., London, 1839-1846);
Francis Hardy, Memoirs of J. Caulfield, Earl of Charlemont (2 vols.,
London, 1812) { and for his genealogy, see Sir John Bernard Burke,
Genealogical History of Dormant and Extinct Peerages (London,
1883). (R. J. M.)
HARCOURT, SIR WILLIAM GEORGE GRANVILLE
VENABLES VERNON (1827-1904), English statesman, second
son of the Rev. Canon William Vernon Harcourt (q.v.) } of
Nuneham Park, Oxford, was born on the 14th of October 1827.
Canon Harcourt was the fourth son and eventually heir of
Edward Harcourt (1757-1847), archbishop of York, who was
the son of the ist Lord Vernon (d. 1780), and who took the name
of Harcourt alone instead of Vernon on succeeding to the pro-
perty of his cousin, the last Earl Harcourt, in 1831 .* The subject
'William, 3rd and last Earl Harcourt (1743-1830), who suc-
ceeded his brother in the title, was a soldier who distinguished him-
self in the American War of Independence by capturing General
Charles Lee, and commanded the British forces in Flanders in 1 794,.
eventually becoming a field-marshal. He was a son of Simon, 1st
earl (1 714-1777), created viscount and earl in 1749, a soldier, and
from 1772 to 1777 viceroy of Ireland, who was grandson and heir of
Simon, Viscount Harcourt (1661-1727), lord chancellor— the
" trimming Harcourt " of Swift— the purchaser of the Nuneham-
Courtney estates in Oxfordshire, and son of Sir Philip Harcourt of
Stanton Harcourt. The knights of Stanton Harcourt, from the
13th century onwards, traced their descent to the Norman de Har-
courts, a branch of that family having come over with the Conqueror ;
and the pedigree claims to go back to Bernard of Saxony, Who in
876 acquired the lordships of Harcourt, Castleville and Beauficel
in Normandy. Viscount Harcourt's second son Simon, who was
father of the 1st earl, was also father of Martha, who married George.
940
HARCOURT, W. V.
of thli biography was therefore born a Vernon, and by his
connexion with the old families of Vernon and Harcourt was
related to many of the great English houses, a fact which gave
him no little pride. Indeed, in later life his descent from the
Pluntagenets 1 was a subject of some banter on the part of his
political opponents. He was educated at Trinity College,
Cambridge, graduating with first-class honours in the classical
tripos In 1851. He was called to the bar in 1854, became a
Q.C. in 1866, and was appointed Whewell professor of inter-
national law, Cambridge, 1869. He quickly made his mark
In London society as a brilliant talker; he contributed largely
to the Saturday Review, and wrote some famous letters (1862)
to The Times over the signature of " Historicus," in opposition
to the recognition of the Southern States as belligerents in the
American Civil War. He entered parliament as Liberal member
for Oxford, and sat from 1868 to 1880, when, upon seeking
re-elect Ion after acceptance of office, he was defeated by Mr Hall.
A sent was, however, found for him at Derby, by the voluntary
retirement of Mr PI im soil, and he continued to represent that
constituency until 1805, when, having been defeated at the
general election, he found a seat in West Monmouthshire. He
was appointed solicitor-general and knighted in 1873; and,
although he had not shown himself a very strenuous supporter
of Mr Gladstone during that statesman's exclusion from power,
he became secretary of state for the home department on the
return of the Liberals to office in 1880. His name was connected
at that time with the passing of the Ground Game Act (1880),
the Arms (Ireland) Act (1881), and the Explosives Act (1883).
As home secretary at the time of the dynamite outrages he had
to take up a firm attitude, and the Explosives Act was passed
through nil Its stages in the shortest time on record. Moreover,
as champion of law and order against the attacks of the Parnell-
Itcs, his vigorous speeches brought him constantly into conflict
with the Irish members. In 1884 he introduced an abortive
bill for unifying the municipal administration of London. He
was indeed at that time recognized as one of the ablest and most
effective leaders of the Liberal party; and when, after a brief
interval in 1885, Mr Gladstone returned to office in 1886, he was
made chancellor of the exchequer, an office which he again filled
from i8ga to 1805.
Net ween 1880 and 1802 Sir William Harcourt acted as Mr
Gladstone's loyal and indefatigable lieutenant in political life.
A first -rate party fighter, his services were of inestimable value;
but in spite of his great success as a platform speaker, he was
generally felt to be speaking from an advocate's brief, and did
not impress the country as possessing much depth of conviction.
tt was he who coined the phrase about " stewing in Parnellite
juice," ami when the split came in the Liberal party on the
Irish quest ton , even t hose who gave M r Gladstone and Mr Morley
the credit of being convinced Home Rulers could not be per-
suaded that Sir William had followed anything but the line of
party expediency. In 1804 he introduced and carried a memor-
able budget, which equalized the death duties on real and
personal property. After Mr Gladstone's retirement in 1804
and Lord Roscl>ery*s selection as prime minister Sir William
became the leader of the Liberal party in the House of Commons,
but it was never probable that he would work comfortably in
the new conditions. His title to be regarded as Mr Gladstone's
successor had been too lightly ignored, and from the first it was
evident that Lord Rosebery's ideas of Liberalism and of the
policy of t he Liberal party were not those of Sir William Harcourt.
Their differences were patched up from time to time, but the
Yenahlea Vernon, of Sudburv, created 1st Baron Vernon in 176a.
The Utter \v«i> a <Wcndant oT Sir Richard Vernon (d. 1451 ), speaker
of the l.eice*t*r parliament U4*5^ and treasurer of Calais, a member
of a Norman famttv whWh came over with the Conqueror,
1 The Want Ajjenet descent v**e Vke 1W«W Rtvai 0/ Britam* by the
marquia of Ru\i$n\\ looj, for tables) couki be traced through
I *dv Ann,* I .ev**on l^wer (wife of Archbishop Harcourt) to Lady
France* Nunlew the wife of the 1st earl of Bridjewater 11570-1640).
and »o to l*ad\ Kleanor Brandon, wife of the earl of Cumberland
tmr- 1570^ and daughter of Mary Tudor iwife of Charles Brandon,
duke of'Surtolk, 14&4 1545*. the daughter of Henry ML and grand-
iUu«ht*v ot Kd*Ard l\\
combination could not last. At the general election of 1895
it was dear that there were divisions as to what issue the Liberals
were fighting for, and the effect of Sir William Harcourt's
abortive Local Veto Bill on the election was seen not only in his
defeat at Derby, which gave the signal for the Liberal rout, but
in the set-back it gave to temperance legislation. Though
returned for West Monmouthshire (1895, 1900), his speeches
in debate only occasionally showed his characteristic spirit,
and it was evident that for the hard work of Opposition he no
longer had the same motive as of old. In December 1898 the
crisis arrived, and with Mr John Morley he definitely retired
from the counsels of the party and resigned his leadership of the
Opposition, alleging as his reason, in letters exchanged between
Mr Morley and himself, the cross-currents of opinion among his
old supporters and former colleagues. The split excited con-
siderable comment, and resulted in much heart-burning and a
more or less open division between the section of the Liberal
party following Lord Rosebery (q.v.) and those who disliked
that statesman's Imperialistic views.
Though now a private member, Sir William Harcourt still
continued to vindicate his opinions in his independent position,
and his attacks on the government were no longer restrained
by even the semblance of deference to Liberal Imperialism.
He actively intervened in 1899 and 1900, strongly condemning
the government's financial policy and their attitude towards the
Transvaal; and throughout the Boer War he lost no opportunity
of criticizing the South African developments in a pessimistic
vein. One of the readiest parliamentary debaters, he savoured
his speeches with humour of that broad and familiar order which
appeals particularly to political audiences. In 1898-1900 he was
conspicuous, both on the platform and in letters written to The
Times, in demanding active measures against the Ritualistic
party in the Church of England; but his attitude on that subject
could not be dissociated from his political advocacy of Dis-
establishment. In March 1904, just after he had announced his
intention not to seek election again to parliament, he succeeded,
by the death of his nephew, to the family estates at Nuneham.
But he died suddenly there on the 1st of October in the same year.
He married, first, in 1859, Th6rese (d. 1863), daughter of Mr
T. H. Lister, by whom he had one son, Lewis Vernon Harcourt
(b. 1863), afterwards first commissioner of works both in Sir
Henry Campbell-Bannerman's 1905 ministry (included in the
cabinet in 1907) and in Mr Asquith's cabinet (1908); and
secondly, in 1876, Elizabeth, widow of Mr T. Ives and daughter
of Mr. J. L. Motley, the historian, by whom he had another son,
Robert (b. 1878).
Sir William Harcourt was one of the great parliamentary
figures of the Gladstonian Liberal period. He was essentially
an aristocratic type of late 19th century Whig, with a remarkable
capacity for popular campaign fighting. He had been, and
remained, a brilliant journalist in the non-professional sense.
He was one of those who really made the Saturday Review in its
palmy days, and in the period of his own most ebullient vigour,
while Mr Gladstone was alive, his sense of political expediency
and platform effectiveness in controversy was very acute. But
though he played the game of public life with keen zest, he never
really touched either the country or his own party with the
faith which creates a personal following, and in later years he
found himself somewhat isolated and disappointed, though he
was free to express his deeper objections to the new develop-
ments in church and state. A tall, fine man, with the grand
manner, he was, throughout a long career, a great personality
in the life of his time. (H. Ch.)
HARCOURT, WILLIAM VKRJfOM (1 789-1871). founder of
the British Association, was born at Sudbury, Derbyshire, in
1780, a younger son of Edward Vernon {Harcourt), archbishop
of York (see above). Having served for five years in the navy
he went up to Christ Church. Oxford, with a view to taking
holy orders. He began his clerical duties at Bishopthorpe.
Yorkshire, in 1811. and having developed a great interest in
science while at the university, he took an active part in tbe
foundation of the Yorkshire Philosophical Society, of which he
HARpANGE^; FJQR^—HARDENfiERG
was the first president. The laws and the plan of proceedings
for the British Association for the Advancement of Science
were drawn up by him; and Harcourt was elected president in
1839. Iti i! 8 2f4 he became canon of York and rector bfWheldrake
in Yorkshire, and in 1837 rector of 6olton Percy. The Yorkshire
school for the blind and the Castle Howard reformatory both
owe their existence to his energies. His spare time until quite
late in life was occupied with scientific experiments. Inheriting
the Harcourt estates in Oxfordshire from his brother in 186 1,
he removed to Nuneham, where he died in April 1871.
HARDANGER FJORD, an inlet on the west coast df Norway,
penetrating the mainland for 70 m. apart from the deep fringe
of islands off its mouth, the total distance from the open sea to
the head of the fjord being 114 m. Its extreme depth is about
350 fathotns. The entrance at Tortf is 50 m. by 'water south of
Bergen, 6b* N.,' and the general direction is "tf.E.firbin that point.
The fjord 1Y flanked by magnificent" mountains, from which
many waterfalls pour into it. The man} fjord is divided into
parts under different names, and there are rnany fine 'branch
fjords. The fjord is frequented by tourists, and the principal
Stations have hotels/ The outer fjord is called the Kvindherreds-
f jord, flanked by the Melderskin (4680 ft.) ; then follow Silde-
fjord and Bonde Sund, separated by Varalds island. Here
Mauranger~f jord opens on the east; from' Sundal on this inlet the
Seat . Fodgbfond snowfield may be crossed, and a fine glacier
kmdhusbrae) visited. Bakke and Vikingnaes are stations on
Hisfjord, Nordheimsund and Ostenso on Ytre Samlen, wljich
throws off' a fine narrow branch northward, the Fiksensuh<J,
There follow Indre^ Samlen and Utnefjord, with the station of
Utne opposite Oxen (41 20 ft.), and l its northward branch,
Graverifjord, with the beautifuj station of Eide at its head,
whence a road runs north-west to Vossevangeh. From the Utne
terminal branches of the fjord run South and east; the Stfrfjord,
steeply willed by the heights of the Folgefohd, with the fre-
quented resort of Odde at its' head ; ancl the EiAfjord, with its
branch Osefjord, terminating beneath a\ tremendous rampart
of mountains; through which' the sombre .Simodal penetrates,
the river flowing from Daemmevand, a "beautiful lake among
the fields, and forming with its tributaries the fine falls of
Skykje and Rembesdal. Vik is the principal station on EMf jord,'
and Uhrik on a branch of the Ose, with a road to Vossevangen.
At Vik is the mouth of the B jorda river, Which, in forming the
Vdringfos, plunges 520 ft. into a magnificent rock-bound basin.
A small stream entering SOrfjord forms' in its upper course the
Skjaeggetfalsfos, of equal height with the Vdringfos, arid hardly
less beautiiul. The natives of Harda^g&r have an especially
picturesque local costume. '
HARDEE, WILLIAM JOSfiPH (1815-^73), American soldier,
was born in Savannah, Georgia, on thVrotb of November 1815
and graduated from West Point in 1838. As a subaltern of
cavalry he was employed on a ! special mission t<> Europe to
study the cavalry methods in vogue (1839)" He Vas promoted
captain- in 1844 a nd served undef Generals Taylor and Scott in
the Mexican War, winning the brevet of major for gallantry in
action in March 1847 and subsequently that of lieut. -colonel.
After the war he served as a substantive major xrnder Colonel
Sidney Johnston and Lleut.-Colbnel Robfert tee in the 2nd
U.S. cavalry, and for some time before 1856 he was engaged in
compiling the official manual of infantry drill and tactics which,
familiarly called " Hardee's Tactics," afterwards formed the
text-book for the infantry arm in both the Federal and the
Confederate armies. From 1856 to t$6i he wa^ commandant
of Wfcst Point, resigning his commission oh the secession of his
state in the latter year. Entering the Confederate service as
a colonel, he was Shortly prbmotfed brigadier-general. He
distinguished himsilf very greatly by hii tactical feadership on
the field of Shiloh, and was immediately promoted rnajor-general.
As « corps commander he foughf under General Bragg at Perry-
vthV and Stbrie Rivfefr, and for Iris distinguished services hi these
battles was prdmoted Beuten^roSfcerier'a'I. fite Servedin ^he latter'
part of the <*arnpaigh bf 1&63 under Bragfc and 1 nV that of jr8&4
Under J; & Johnston. : When the lattefr' officer was superseded
9*<*
by Hood, Hardee was relieved at his own request, and for the
remainder of the war he served in the Carolinas. When the Civil
War came to an end in 1865 he retired to his plantation near
Selmd, Alabama. He died at Wytheville, Virginia, on the 6th
Of November 1873.
HARDENBERG, KARL AUGUST VON, Prince (1750-1822),
Prussian statesman, was born at Esseriroda in Hanover on the
31st of May 1750. After studying at ^Leipzig and Gottingen
he entered the Hanoverian civil service in 1770 as councillor
of the board of domains (Kammerrat)\ but, finding his advance-r
ment slow, he set out — on the advice of King George IIL-p-on
a course of travels, spending some time at'Wetzlaf, Regensburg
(where he studied the mechanism of the Imperial government),
Vienna and Berlin. He also visited France, JJolland and England,
where he was kindly received by the king. On his return he
married, by his father's desire, the countess Reventlow. In
1778 he was raised to the rank of privy councillor and created a
count. He now again went to England, in the hope of obtaining
the post of Hanoverian envoy in London; but, his wife becoming
entangled in an amour with the prince of Wales, so great a
scandal was created that he was forced to leave the Hanoverian
service. In 1782 he entered that of the duke of Brunswick,
and as president of the board of domains displayed a zeal for
reforni, in the manner approved hy the enlightened despots
of the century, that rendered him very unpopular with the
orthodox clergy and the conservative estates. In Brunswick,
too, his position was in the end made untenable by the conduct
of his wife, whom he now divorced; he himself, shortly after-
wards, marrying a divorced woman. Fortunately for him, this
coincided ^rith' the lapsing of the principalities of Ansbach and
Bayreuth to Prussia, owing to the resignation of the last margrave,
Charles Alexan4er, j in 1791. Hardenberg, who happened to be
iti Berlin at the time, was on the recommendation of Herzberg
appointed administrator of the principalities (1792)., The
position, owing to the singular overlapping of territorial claims
in the old Empire, Was one of Considerable delicacy, and Harden-
berg filled ft with great skill, doing much to reform traditional
anomalies and to develop the country, and at the same time
labouring to expand the influence of Prussia in South Germany.
After the outbreak of the revolutionary, wars his diplomatic
ability led to his appointment as Prussian envoy, with a roving
commission to visit the Rhenish courts and win them over to,
Prussia's views; and ultimately, when the necessity for making
peace with thd "French. Republic had' been recognized, he was
appointed to succeed Count Goltz as Prussian plenipotentiary
at Basel (February 28, 1795), where he signed the treaty of peace.
In 1797/ oh the accession of King Frederick William. III.,
Hardenberg was summoned to Berlin, where he received an
important position in the cabinet and was appointed chief of
the departments of Magdeburg andHalberstadt, for Westphalia,
and for the principality of Neuchatel. In 1793 Hardenberg had
struck up a friendship with Count Haugwitz, the influential
minister for foreign affairs, and when in 1803 the latter went
away on leave (Xugust : October) he appointed Hardenberg his
locum tenenS. It was a critical period. Napoleon had just
occupied rtanoyer, and Haugwitz, had urged upon the king the,
necessity for strong measures and the expediency of a Russian
alliance. During his absence, however, the king's irresolution
continued; he clung to the policy of neutrality which had so
far seemed to have served Prussia so well; and Hardenberg
contented himself with adapting himself to the royal will. By
the time Haugwitz returned, the unyielding attitude of Napoleon
had caused the king to make advances to Russia; but the mutual
declaration^ of the 3rd and 25th of May 1804 only pledged the
. two powers to take up arms in the event of a French attack upon,
Prussia or of rurther aggressions in North Germany. Finally,
HaugVitz, Unable to persuade the cabinet to a more vigorous
pctficy, resigned, ahfl on thg 14th of April 1804 Hardenberg
succeeded him as foreign minister.
ft there was to be fear, Hardenberg would have preferred t|ie.
French alliance, which was the price Napoleon demanded for the
cession of Hanover to Prussia; for the Eastern pbwers would
$1*
HARDERWYK— HARDING, €.
scarcely have conceded, of their free will, to great an augment-
ation of Prussian power. But be still hoped to gain the coveted
prize by diplomacy, backed by the veiled threat of an armed
neutrality. Then occurred Napoleon's contemptuous violation
of Prussian territory by marching three French corps through
Ansbach; King Frederick William's pride overcame his weakness,
and on the 3rd of November he signed with the tsar Alexander
the terms of an ultimatum to be laid before the French emperor*
Haugwitz was despatched to Vienna with the document; but
before he arrived die battle of AusterliU had been fought, and
the Prussian plenipotentiary had to make the best terms he could
with the conqueror. Prussia, indeed, by the treaty signed at
Schttnbrunn on the 15th of December 1805, received Hanover,
but in return for all her territories in South Germany. One
condition of the arrangement was the retirement of Hardenberg,
whom Napoleon disliked. He was again foreign minister for a
few months after the crisis of 1806 (April- July 1807); but
Napoleon's resentment was implacable, and one of the conditions
of the terms granted to Prussia by the treaty of Tilsit was
Hardenberg'* dismissal.
After the enforced retirement of Stein in 1810 and the unsatis-
factory interlude of the feeble Altcnstein ministry, Hardenberg
was again summoned to Berlin, this time as chancellor (June 6,
1810). The campaign of Jena and its consequences had bad a
profound effect upon him; and in his mind the traditions of the
old diplomacy bad given place to the new sentiment of nationality
characteristic of the coming age, which in him found expression
In a passionate desire to restore the position of Prussia and
crush her oppressors. During his retirement at Riga he had
worked out on elaborate plan for reconstructing the monarchy
on Liberal lines: and when he came into power, though the
circumstances of the time did not admit of his pursuing an
independent foreign policy, he steadily prepared for the struggle
with France by carrying out Stein's far-reaching schemes of
social and political reorganisation. The military system was
completely reformed, serfdom was abolished, municipal institu-
tions were fostered, the civil service was thrown open to all
-classes, and great attention was devoted to the educational needs
of every section of the community.
When at last the time came to put these reforms to the test,
after the Moscow campaign of 181 2, it was Hardenberg who,
supported by the influence of the noble Queen Louise, determined
Frederick William to take advantage of General Yorck's loyal
disloyalty and declare against France. He was rightly regarded
by German patriots as the statesman who had done most to
encourage the spirit of national independence; and immediately
after ho had signed the first peace of Paris he was raised to the
.*ank of prince (June 3» 1814) in recognition of the part he had
played in the War of Liberation.
Hardenberg uow had an assured position in that close
corporation of sovereigns and statesmen by whom Europe, during
the next few years, was to be governed. He accompanied the
allied sovereigns to England, and at the congress of Vienna
(1814-1815) was the chief plenipotentiary of Prussia. But from
t his t ime the tenith of his influence, if not of his fame, was passed.
In diplomacy he was no match for Metternich, whose influence
soon overshadowed his own in the councilsof Europe, of Germany,
and ultimately even of Prussia itself. At Vienna, in spite of the
powerful backing of Alexander of Russia, he failed to secure the
annexation of the whole of Saxony to Prussia; at Paris, after
Wat erloo, he failed to carry t hrough his views as to the further dis-
memberment of France; he had weakly allowed Metternich to
forestall him in making term* with the states of the Confederation
of the Rhine, which secured to Austria the preponderance in the
German federal diet; on the eve of the conference of Carlsbad
ViS»o^ he signed a convention with Metternich, by which — to
quote the historian Tmtschke -" like a penitent sinner, without
any formal *y*»iJ pro yn«>, the monarchy of Frederick the Great
Yielded to a foreign power a voice in her internal affairs. " At the
congresses of Aix-la- Chapdle, Troppau, Laibach and Verona
the voice of Hanknbeiy was but an echo of that of Metternich.
Th* cause lay partly in the difficult circumstances of the
loosely-knit Prussian monarchy, but partly in Hardenbeig's
character, which, never well balanced, had deteriorated with
age. He continued amiable, charming and enlightened as ever;
but the excesses which had been pardonable in a young diplo-
matist were a scandal in an elderly chancellor, and could not
but weaken his influence with so pious a Landesvater as Frederick
William III. To overcome the king's terror of Liberal experi-
ments would have needed all the powers of an adviser at once
wise and in character wholly trustworthy. Hardenberg was
wise enough; he saw the necessity for constitutional reform;
but he clung with almost senile tenacity to the sweets of office,
and when the tide turned strongly against Liberalism he allowed
himself to drift with it. In the privacy of royal commissions
he continued to elaborate schemes for constitutions that never
saw the light; but Germany, disillusioned, saw only the faithful
henchman of Metternich, an accomplice in the policy of the
Carlsbad Decrees and the Troppau Protocol. He died, soon
after the closing of the congress of Verona, at Genoa, oh the
26th of November 1822.
See L. v. Ranke, JDcnkwurdigkeiten des Staatskanzlers Fursten von
Hardenberg (5 vols., Leipzig, 1877) ; J. R. Seeley, The Life and Times
of Stein (3 vols., Cambridge, 1878); E. Meier, Reform der VerwaU
tungsorganisation unter Stein und Hardenberg (ib,, 1881); Chr.
Meyer, Hardenberg und seine Verwaltungder Fwrstent&mer Ansbach
una Bayreuth (Breslau, 1892); Koser, Die Neuordnung des prevs-
sischen Archivwesens durch den Staalskanzler Fursten v. Hardenberg
(Leipzig, 1904).
HARDERWYK, a seaport in the province of Gelderiand,
Holland, on the shores of the Zuider. Zee, 17 m. by rail N.N.E.
of Amersfoort. Pop. (1900) 7425. It is a quaint old town,
approached by a fine avenue of trees, and standing in the midst
of a patch of fertile ground. Harderwyk is. chiefly important as
being the depot for recruits for the Dutch colonial army. It
contains a small fort and large barracks. The principal buildings
are the town hall, with some ancient furniture, a large 15th
century church with a notable square tower, a municipal orphan*
age, and the Nassau-Veluwe gymnasium. Agriculture, fishing,
and a few domestic industries form the only employment of the
inhabitants. As a seaport its trade is now confined exclusively
to the Zuider Zee.
HARDICAKUTE [more correctly Hakdacnut] (c. 1010-1042),
son of Canute, king of England, by his wife iElfgifu or Emma,
was born about 1019. In the contest for the English crown
which followed the death of Canute in 1035 the claims of Hardi-
canute were supported by Emma and her ally, Godwine, earl of
the West Saxons, in opposition to those of Harold, Canute's
illegitimate son, who was backed by the Mercian earl Leofric
and the chief men of the north. At a meeting of the iritan at
Oxford a compromise was ultimately arranged by which Harold
was temporarily elected regent of all England, pending the final
settlement of the question on the return of Hardicanute from
Denmark. The compromise was strongly opposed by Godwine
and Emma, who for a time forcibly held Wessex in Hardicanute's
behalf. But Harold's party rapidly increased; and early in
1037 he was definitely elected king. Emma was driven out and
took refuge at Bruges. In 1039 Hardicanute joined her, and
together they concerted an attack on England. But next year
Harold died; and Hardicanute peacefully succeeded. His short
reign was marked by great oppression and cruelty. He caused
the dead body of Harold to be dug up and thrown into a fen;
he exacted so heavy a geld for the support of his foreign fleet
that great discontent was created throughout the kingdom, and
in Worcestershire a general uprising took place against those
sent to collect the tax, whereupon he burned the city of
Worcester to the ground and devastated the surrounding,
country; in 1041 he permitted Edwulf, earl of Northtunhcia,.
to be treacherously murdered after having granted him a safe-
conduct. While " he stood at his drink " at the marriage feast
of one of his flegnshe was suddenly seised with a fit, fcom which
he died a few days afterwards on the 8th of June- 1042,
HARDING, CHESTER (1792-1866), American portrait painter,
was born at Conway, Massachusetts, on the 1st of Septe&ber
1 702. Brought up in the wilderness of New York state, Harding,
J^VRDING, J. D.— HARDOUIN:
as a lad of splendid physique, standing over 6 ft. 3 in,., matched
as a drummer with the militia to the St [Lawrence in ^815. He
became subsequently chairmaker, peddler/ inn-keeper, and
house-painter, painting signs in Pittsburg, Pa., and eventually
going on the road, se}f-taught, as an itinerant portrait painter.
He made enough money to take him to the schools at the Phil-
adelphia Academy of Design, and he soon became proficient
enough to gain a competency, so ttyat later he went to England
and set up a studio in London. There he met with.great success*
painting royalty and the nobility* and, despite the lacking*, of
an early education and social experience, he became a favourite
in all circles. Returning to ( the United States, he settled in
Boston and painted portraits of many of the prominent men
and women of his time. He died on the xst of April 1&66.
HARDING, JAMES DUFFIBLP (1 798-1863), English land-
scape painter, was the son of an artist, and took to the same
vocation at an early age, although he had originally beep destined
for the law. He was in the main a w^ater-f oIqut painter and a
lithographer, but he produced various oil-paintings .both at
the beginning and towards the end of his career. He frequently
contributed to the exhibitions of the Water-Colour Society, of
which he became an associate in 1821, and a full member in 1822.
He was also very largely engaged in teaming, ancl publishe4
several books developing his views pf art — amongst others,
The Tourist in Italy (1831); The Tourist in, France (1834).; The
Park and the Forest (1841)5 The Principles and the Practice, of
Art (1845) ; Elementary Art (1846) ; Scotland Delineated in a Series
of Views (1847); Lessons on Art (1849). He died at Barnes on
the 4th pf December 1.863. Harding was noted, for facility,
sureness of hand, nicety of touch, and the various, qualities
which go to make up an elegant, fcighly trained, and accomplished
sketcher from nature, and composer of picturesque landscape
material; he was particularly skilful in the treatment of foliage.
HAttDINGE, HENRY HARDINGE, Viscount (178^1856),
British field marshal and governor-general of India, .was born
at Wrotham in Kent on the 301th of March 1785I After being
at Eton, he entered the army in 1709 as an ensign in t^e Oueen's
Rangers, a corns then stationed m Upper Canada. His first
active service was at the battle , of V4miera ? wtexe he was
wounded; and at Corunna he was by the side of Sir John Moore
when he received his death-wound. Subsequently he, received
an appointment as deputy-quartermaster-general in the .Portu-
guese army from Marshal Beresford, and was present at nearly
all the battles of the Peninsular War, being wounded again at
Vittoria. At Albuera he saved the day for the British by taking
the responsibility at a critical moment of strongly urging General
Cole's division to advance. When peace was .again broken in
181 5 by Napoleon's escape from .Elba, Hardinge fastened into
active service, and was appointed to the important post of
commissioner at the Prussian headquarters. In this capacity
he was present at the battle of Ligny on the 16th of June 1815,
where Jie lost his left hand by a shot, and thus was not present
at Waterloo, fought two days later. For the loss of nis hand he
received a pension of £300; he had already been made a K.C.B.,
and Wellington presented him with a sword that had belonged
to Napoleon. In 1820 and 1826 Sir Henry Hardinge was returned
to parliament as member for Durham; and in 1828 he accepted
the office of secretary at war in Wellington's ministry, a post
which he also filled in Peel's cabinet in 1841-1844, In 1830 and
1 834- 1 835 he was chief secretary for Ireland. In 1844 he
succeeded Lord Ellenborough as governor-general of India.
During his term of office the first Sikh War broke out; and
Hardinge, waiving his right to the supreme command, magnani-
mously offered to serve as second in command under Sir Hugh
Gough; but disagreeing with the latter *s plan of campaign at
Ferozeshah, he temporarily reasserted his authority as governor-
general (see Sikh Wars). After the successful termination of
the campaign at Sobraon he was created Viscount Hardinge of
Lahore and of King's Newton in Derbyshire,. with a pension of
£3000 for three lives; while the East India Company voted him
an annuity of £5000, which he declined to accept. Hardinge's
term pf office, in India was.rnarjte4 by many social and educational
943
reforms. He returned to England in 1848, and in 1852 succeeded
the duke of Wellington as commander-in-c£ief of the British
army. While in this, position he had the home management
of the Crimean War, which he endeavoured to . conduct on
Wellington's principles — a system, not altogether .suited to the
changed mode of warfare. In 1855 be was promoted to the, rank
of field marshal. Viscount Hardinge resigned his office of
commander-in-chief in July 1856/ owing to failing health, and
diefl on the 24th of September of the same year at South Park
near Tunbridge^ Wells. . His elder son, Charles Stewart (1&23-
1894), who had been his private secretary }n India, was the
2nd Viscount Hardinge; and the latter 's eldest son succeeded
to the title* The younger son of the 2nd Viscount, Charles
Hardinge (b. 1858), became a prominent diplomatist (st^
Edward VIL), .and was, appointed governor-general of India
in 191P, being created Baron Hardinge of Penshurst.
See C. Hardinge, Viscount Hardinge (Rulers of India series, iffci);
and R. S. Rait, Life and Campaigns of Viscount Gough (1903).
' 'HARDOI, a town and district of British India, in the Lucknow
division of the United Provinces. . The town is 63 nv W.R of
tucknow by rail. Pop. (1901) 12,174. It has a waodncarving
industry, saltpetre works, and m ^xgrort t*ade. in grain, :
The. District .0* Ha*dc* has, an ar^a of 2331 sq, m. It is a
level district watered by the Ganges, Ramganga, Deoha qr Garra,
Sukheta, Sai, fcaita and, Gumti — the three rivers first named
being navigable by, country, boats,' Towards the Ganges the
land is uneven, and often rises in hillocks of sand cultivated at
the base, and their slopes coyered with lofty munj, grass. , Several
large jhUs or swamps are scattered throughout the district,
the largest being that of Sandi, which is 3 m. long by from 1 to 2
m, broad.. These, jftifc are largely used for irrigation. Large
tracts of forest jungle. still exist. jLeopards, black buck, spotted
deer, and nilgai are common; .the mallard, teal, grey duck,
common goose, and all kinds of waterfowl abound: In 1901
tne population of the district was 1,092,834, showing a decrease,
of nearly 2 % in the decade. The district contains a larger urban
population than.anyotber in.Oudh, the largest town being
Shahabad, 20,036 in 1901. It is traversed by the Oudh and
Ijtphilkhand railway from Lucknow to Shahjahanpur, and its
branches. The chief exports are grain, sugar, hides, tobacco anfl
saltpetre. . \
The first authentic records of Hardoi are connected with the
Mussulman colonization. Bawan was occupied by Sayyid
Salar Masaud in 1028, but the permanent Moslem occupation did
not begin till 1 2 1 7. Owing to the situation of the district, Hardoi
formed the scene of many sanguinary battles between the rival
Afghan and Mogul empires. Between Bilgram and Sandi was
fought the great battle between Humayun and Sher Shah, in
which the former was utterly defeated. Hardoi, along with the
rest of Oudh, became British territory under Lord Dalhousie's
proclamation of February 1856.
HARDOUIN, JEAN (1646-1729), French classical scholar,
was born at Quimper in Brittany. Having acquired a taste
for literature in his father's book-shop, he sought and obtained
about his sixteenth year admission into the order of the Jesuits.
In Paris, where he went to study theology, he ultimately
became librarian of the College Louis le Grand in 1683, and he
died there on the 3rd of September 1 729. His first published
work was an edition of Themistius (1684), which included no
fewer than thirteen new orations. On the advice of Jean Garnier
(16 1 2-i 681) he undertook to edit the Natural History of Pliny,
for the Delphin series, a task which he completed in five years.J
His attention having been turned to numismatics as auxiliary to
his great editorial labours, he published several learned works
in that department, marred, however, as almost everything he
did was marred, by a determination to be at all hazards different
from other interpreters. It is sufficient to mention his Nummi
antiqui populorum et urbium illustrati (1684), Antirrheticus de
numntis antiquis coloniarutn et municipiorum (1689), and Chrono-
logia Veteris Testamenti ad vulgatam versionem exacta et numntis
ittustrata (1696). By the ecclesiastical authorities Hardouin
was appointed to supervise the Conciiiorumcollectio regia maxima^
harW^'har6^gr£,' mm
(1715); but lie was accused of suppressing Important documents
and foisting in apocryphal matter, and by the order of the
parlement of Paris (then at war with the Jesuits) the publication
of the work was delayed. It is really a valuable collection, much
cited by scholars. Hardouin declared that all the councils
supposed to have taken place before the council of Trent were
fictitious. It is, however, as the originator of a variety of para-
doxical theories that Hardouin is now best remembered. The
most remarkable, contained in his Chronologiae ex nutntnis
anliquis restitutae (1696) and Prolegomena ad censuram veterum
scriptorum, was to the effect that, with the exception of the
Works of Homer, Herodotus and Cicero, the Natural History of
Pliny, the Georgics of Virgil, and the Satires and Epistles of
Horace, all the ancient classics of Greece and Rome were spurious,
having been manufactured by monks of the 13th century, under
the direction of a certain Severus Archontius. He denied the
geriuineness of most ancient works of art, coins and inscriptions,
and declared that the New Testament was originally written in
Latin. '
' See A. Debacker, Bibliothhque des tcrivains de la Compagnie ii
Jtevs (1S53).
HARDT, HERMANN VON DER (1660-1746), German historian
and orientalist, was born at Melle, in Westphalia, on the 15th,
of November 1660. He studied oriental languages in Jena and
in Leipzig, and in 1690 he was called to the chair of orienuf
languages at Helmstedt. He resigned his position in 1727, but
lived at Helmstedt until his death on the 28th of February 1746.
Among his numerous writings the following deserve mention;
Autographa LtUheri aliorumque cetebrium virorum, ah anno 1517
ad annum 1546, Reformalionis aetatem et historiam egregie
Utusttantia (1696-1691); Magnum oecumenicum Constantiense
concilium (1697-1700) Hebtaeae linguae fundamenta (1694);
Sytiacae linguae fundamenta (1694); Elementa Ckaldaica (1693);
Historia lUteraria reformationis (171 7); Enigmata prisci orbis
(1723). Hardt left in manuscript a history of the Reformation
which is preserved in the Helmstedt Juleum.
' See F. Lamey , Hermann von der Hardt in seinen Brief en (Karlsruhe,
HARDT, THE, a mountainous district of Germany, in the
Bavarian palatinate, forming the northern end of the Vosges
range. It is, in the main, an undulating high plateau of sandstone
formation, of a mean elevation of 1300 ft., and reaching its
highest point in the Donnersberg (2254 ft.). The eastern slope,
which descends gently towards the Rhine, is diversified by deep
and well-wooded valleys, such as those of the Lauter and the
Queich, and by conical hills surmounted by the ruins of frequent
feudal castles and monasteries. Noticeable among these are the
Madenburg near Eschbach, the Trifels (long the dungeon of
Richard I. of England) , and the Maxburg near Neustadt. Three-
fifths of the whole area is occupied by forests, principally oak,
beech and fir. The lower eastern slope is highly cultivated and
produces excellent wine.
HARDWAR, or Hurdwar, an ancient town of British India,
and Hindu place of pilgrimage, in the Saharanpur district of
the United Provinces, on the right bank of the Ganges, 17 m.
N.E. of Rnrki, with a railway station. The Ganges canal here
takes off from the river. A branch railway to Dehra was opened
in 1900. Pop. (1901), 25,597. The town is of great antiquity,
and has borne many names. It was originally known as Kapila
from the sage Kapila. HsUan Tsang, the Chinese Buddhist
pilgrim, in the 7th century visited a city which he calls Mo-yu-lo,
the remains of which still exist at Mayapur, a little to the south
of the modern town. Among the ruins are a fort and three
temples, decorated with broken $tone sculptures. The great
object of attraction at present is the Hari-ka-charan, or bathing
ghat, with the adjoining temple of Gangadwara. The char an
or foot-mark of Vishnu, imprinted on a stone let into the upper
wall of the ghal, forms an object of special reverence. A great
assemblage of people takes place annually, at the beginning
of the Hindu solar year, when the sun, enters Aries; and every
twelfth year a feast of peculiar sanctity dccurs, known as a
Kumbk-mela. The ordinary number of pilgrims at the annual fair
amounts' to ioo;ooo, : ^hd at tlie fcumbh-mela to 300,000; in
1903 there Were 400,000 present. Since 1892 many sanitary
improvements have been made for the benefit of the annual
concourse of pilgrims. In early days riots and also outbreaks
of cholera were of common occurrence. . The Itardwar meeting
also possesses mercantile importance, being one of the principal
horse-fairs in Upper India. Commodities of all kinds, Indian
and European, find a ready sale, and the trade in grain and
food-stuffs forms a lucrative traffic.
HARDWICKE, PHILIP YORKE, ist Ea*l op (1600-1764),
English lord chancellor, son of Philip Yorke, an attorney, was
born at Dover, on the ist of December 1600. Through his
mother, Elizabeth, daughter and co-heiress of Richard Gibbon
of kolvenden, Kent, he was connected with the family of Gibbon
the historian. At the age of fourteen, after a not very thorough
education at a private school at Bethnal Green, where, however*
he showed exceptional promise, he entered an attorney's office
in London. Here he gaVfc some attention to literature arid the
classics as well as to law; but in the latter he made such progress
that his employer, Salkeld, impressed by Yorke's powers, entered
him at the Middle Temple in November 170$; and soon after-
wards recommended him to Lord Chief Justice Parker (after-
wards earl of Macclesfield) as law tutor to his sons. In 171 5 he
was called to the bat, whtere his progress was, says Lord Campbell,
" more rapid than that of any other debutant in the annals of
our profession," his advancement being greatly furthered by the
patronage of Macclesfield, who became lord chancellor in 1718,
when Yorke transferred his practice from the king's bench to
the court of chancery, though he continued to go on the western
circuit. In the following year he established his reputation
as an equity lawyer in a case in which &ir Robert Walpole's
family was interested, : by an argument displaying profound
learning and research concerning th$ jurisdiction of the
chancellor, on lines which he afterwards more fully developed
in a celebrated letter to Lord Kames on the distinction between
law and equity. Through Macclesfield's influence with the duke
of Newcastle Yorke entered parliament in 17 19 as member for
Lewes, and was appointed solicitor-general, with a knighthood,
in 1720, although he was then a barrister of only four years*
standing. His conduct of the prosecution of Christopher Layer
in that year for treason as a Jacobite further raised Sir Philip
Yorke's reputation as a forensic orator; and in 1723, having
already become attorney-general, he passed through the House
of Commons the bill of pains and penalties against Bishop
Atterbury. He was excused, on the ground of his personal
friendship, from acting for the crown in the impeachment of
Macclesfield in 1725, though he did not exert himself to save
his patron from disgrace largely brought about by Macclesfield's
partiality for Yorke himself. He soon found a new and still
more influential patron in the duke of Newcastle, to whom he
henceforth gave his political support. He rendered valuable
service to Walpole's government by his support of the bill for
prohibiting loans to foreign powers (1730), of the increase of
the army (1732) and of the excise bill (1733). In ^733 Yorke
was appointed lord chief justice of the king's bench, with the
title of Lord Hardwicke, and was sworn of the privy council;
and in 1737 he succeeded Talbot as lord chancellor, thus becoming
a member of Sir Robert Walpole's cabinet. One of his first
official acts was to deprive the poet Thomson of a small office
conferred on him by Talbot.
Hardwicke's political importance was greatly increased by
his removal to the House of Lords, where the incompetency of
Newcastle threw on the chancellor the duty of defending the
measures of the government.' He resisted Carteret's motion
to reduce the army in 173$, and the resolutions hostile to Spain
over the affair of Captain Jenkins's ears. ,But when Walpole
bent before the storm and declared war against Spain, Hardwicke
advocated energetic nieasures for its conduct; and he tried
to keep the peace between Newcastle and Walpole. There is no
sufficient ground for Horace Walpole's charge that the fall of
Sir Robert was brought about by, Hardwicke's treachery. No.
one was more' surprised* than himself when he retained the
HARDWICKE, LORD
thancellorfehip in the following administration/ and he resisted
the proposal to indemnify witnesses against Walpole in one of
hii finest speeches in May 1 742 . He exercised a leading influence
in the Wilmington Cabinet; and when Wilmington died in
August 1743, it was Hardwicke who put forward Henry Pelham
for the vacant office against the claims of Pulteney. For many
years from this time he was the controlling power in the govern-
ment. During the king's absences on the continent Hardwicke
was left at the head of the council of regency; it thus fell to
him to concert measures for dealing with the Jacobite rising
in 1745. He took a just view of the crisis, and his policy for
meeting it was on the whole statesmanlike. After Culloden he
presided at the trial of the Scottish Jacobite peers, his conduct
of which, though judicially impartial, was neither dignified
nor generous; and he must be held partly responsible for the
unnecessary severity meted out to the rebels, and especially
for the cruel, though not illegal, executions on obsolete attainders
of Charles RadcKffe and (in 1753) °f Archibald Cameron. He
carried, however, a great reform ii* 1746, of incalculable benefit
to Scotland, which Swept away the grave abuses of feudal power
surviving in that country in the form of private heritable juris-
dictions in, the hands of the lauded gentry. On the other hand
his legislation in 1748 for disarming the Highlanders and pro-
hibiting the use of the tartan in their dress was vexatious without
being effective. Hardwicke supported Chesterfield's reform of
the calendar in 17 51; in 1753 his bill for legalizing the natural-
ization of Jews in England had to be dropped on account of the
popular clamour it excited; but he successfully carried a
salutary reform of the marriage law, which became the basis of
all subsequent legislation on the subject.
Oh the death of Pelham in 1754 Hardwicke obtained for
Newcastle the post of prime minister, and for reward was created
earl of Hardwicke and Viscount Royston; and when in
November 1756 the weakness of the ministry and the threatening
aspect of foreign affairs compelled Newcastle to resign, Hard-
wicke retired with him. He pla'yed an important and dis-
interested part in negotiating the coalition between Newcastle
and Pitt in 1757, when he accepted a seat in Pitt's cabinet
without returning to the woolsack. After the accession of
George III. Hardwicke opposed the ministry of Lord Bute on
the peace with France in 1762, and on the cider tax in the
following year. In the Wilkes case Hardwicke condemned
general warrants, and also the doctrine that seditious libels
published by members of parliament were protected by parlia-
mentary privilege. He died in London on the 6th of March
1764.
Although for a lengthy period Hardwicke was an influential
minister, he was not a statesman of the first rank. On the other
hand he was one of the greatest judges who ever sat on the English
bench. He did not, indeed, by his three years' tenure of the chief-
justiceship of the king's bench leave any impress on the common
law; but Lord Campbell pronounces him " the most consum-
mate judge who ever sat in the court of chancery, being dis-
tinguished not only for his rapid and satisfactory decision of
the causes whidi came before him, but for the profound and
enlightened principles which he laid, down, and for perfecting
English equity into a systematic science." He held the office
of lord chancellor longer than any of his predecessors, with a
single exception; and the same high authority quoted above
asserts that as an. equity judge Lord Hardwicke's fame " has
not been exceeded by that of, any man in ancient or modern times.
His decisions have been, and ever will continue to be, appealed to
as fixing the limits and establishing the principles of the great
juridical system called Equity, which now not only in this
country and in our colonies, but over the whole extent of the
United States of America, regulates property and personal
rights more than the ancient common law." l Hardwicke had
pfrepared himself for this great and enduring service to English
jurisprudence by study of the historical foundations of the
chancellor's equftable jurisdiction, combined with profound
^Lord Campbell, Lives of the Lord Chancellors ^ y. 43 (London,
945
insight into legal principle, and a thorough knowledge of the
Roman civil law, the principles of which he scientifically incor-
porated into his administration of English equity in the absence
of precedents bearing on the causes submitted to his judgment.
His decisions on particular points in dispute were based on
general principles, which were neither so wide as to prove in-*
applicable to future circumstances, nor too restricted to serve
as the foundation for a coherent and scientific system. His
recorded judgments — which, as Lord Campbell observes,
" certainly do come up to every idea we can form of judicial
excellence " — combine luminous method of arrangement with
elegance and lucidity of language.
Nor was the creation of modern English equity Lord Hard-
wicke's only service to the administration of justice. Born
within two years of the death of Judge Jeffreys his influence was
powerful in obliterating the evil traditions of the judicial bench
under the Stuart monarchy, and in establishing the modern
conception of the duties and demeanour of English judges.
While still at the bar Lord Chesterfield praised his conduct of
crown prosecutions as a contrast to the former " bloodhounds of
. the crown "; and he described Sir Philip Yorke as " naturally
humane, moderate and decent." On the bench he had complete
control over his temper; he was always urbane, and decorous
and usually dignified. His exercise of legal patronage deserves
unmixe4 praise. As a public man he was upright and, in
comparison with most of his contemporaries, consistent. His
domestic life was happy and virtuous. His chief fault was
avarice, which perhaps makes it the more creditable that,
though a colleague of Walpole, he was never suspected of corrupt
tion. But he had a keen and steady eye to his own advantage,
and he was said to be jealous of all who might become his rivals
for power. His manners, too, were arrogant. Lord Waldegrave
said of Hardwicke that " he might have been thought a great
man had he been less avaricious, less proud, less unlike a gentle-
man." Although in his youth he contributed to the Spectator
over the signature " Philip Homebred," he seems early to have
abandoned all care for literature, and be has been reproached
by Lord Campbell and others with his neglect of art and letters.
He married, on the 16th of May 1719, Margaret, daughter of
Charles Cocks (by his wife Mary, /sister of Lord Chancellor
Somers), and widow of John Lygon, by whom he had five sons
and two daughters. His eldest daughter, Elizabeth, married
Lord Anson; and the second, Margaret, married Sir Gilbert
Heathcote. Three of his younger sons attained some distinction.
Charles Yorke (q.v.), the second son, became like his father
lord chancellor; the third, Joseph, was a diplomatist, and was
created Lor,d Dover; while James, the fifth son, became bishop
of Ely.
Hardwicke was succeeded in the earldom by his eldest son,
Phiup Yorke (1720-1705), 2nd earl of Hardwicke, born on the
19th of March 1720, and educated at Cambridge. In 1741 he
became a fellow of the Royal Society. With his brother, Charles
Yorke, he was one of the chief contributors to Athenian Letters;
or the Epistolary Correspondence of an agent of the King of Persia
residing at Athens during the Peloponnesiah War (4 vols., London,
1 741), a work that for many years had a considerable vogue
and went through several editions. He sat m the House of
Commons as member for Reigate (1741-1747), and afterwards
for Cambridgeshire; and he kept notes of the debates which
were afterwards embodied in Cobbett's Parliamentary History.
He was styled Viscount Royston from 1754 till 1764, when he
succeeded to the earldom. In politics he supported the Rocking-
ham Whigs. He held the office of teller of the exchequer, and
was lord-lieutenant of Cambridgeshire and high steward of
Cambridge University. He edited a quantity of miscellaneous
state papers and correspondence, to be found in MSS. collections
in the British Museum. He died in London, on the 16th of May
1790. He married Jemima Campbell, only daughter of John,
3rd earl of Breadalbane, and granddaughter and heiress of Henry
de Grey, duke of Kent, who became in her own right marchioness
de Grey.
In default of sons, the title devolved on his nephew, Philip
946
HARDY, A.— HARDY, THOMAS
Yorke (1757-1834), 3rd carl of Hardwicke, eldest son of Charles
Yorke, lord chancellor, by his first wife, Catherine Freman, who
was born on the 3 1st of May 1757 and was educated at Cambridge.
He was M.P. for Cambridgeshire, following the Whig traditions
of his family; but after his succession to the earldom in 1790
he supported Pitt, and took office in 1801 as lord lieutenant
of Ireland (1801-1806), where he supported Catholic emancipa-
tion. He was created K.G. in 1803, and was a fellow of the
Royal Society. He married Elizabeth, daughter of James
Lindsay, 5th earl of Balcarres, in 1782, but left no son.
He was succeeded in the peerage by his nephew, Charles
Philip Yorke (1790-1873), 4th earl of Hardwicke, English
admiral, eldest son of Admiral Sir Joseph Sydney Yorke (1768-
183 1), who was second son of Charles Yorke, lord chancellor,
by his second wife, Agncta Johnson. Charles Philip was born
at Southampton on the 2nd of April 1799 and was educated
at Harrow. He entered the royal navy in 1815, and served on
the North American station and in the Mediterranean, attaining
the rank of captain in 1825. He represented Reigate (1831)
and Cambridgeshire (1832-1834) in the House of Commons;
and after succeeding to the earldom in 1834, was appointed a
lord in waiting by Sir Robert Peel in 1841. In 1858 he retired
from the active list with the rank of rear-admiral, becoming
vice-admiral in the same year, and admiral in 1863. He was
a member of Lord Derby's cabinet in 1852 as postmaster-general
and lord privy seal in 1858. In 1833 he married Susan, daughter
of the 1 st Lord Ravensworth ? by whom he had five sons and
three daughters. His eldest son, Charles Philip Yorke (1836-
1897), 5th earl of Hardwicke, was comptroller of the household
of' Queen Victoria (1866-1868) and master of the buckhounds
1 874-1 880). He married in 1863, Sophia Georgiana, daughter
of the 1 st Earl Cowley. He was succeeded by his only son
Albert Edward Philip Henry Yorke (1867-1904), 6th earl
of Hardwicke, who, after holding the posts of under-secretary
of state for India (1900-1902) and for war (1902-1903), died
unmarried on the 29th of November 1904; the title then went
t6 his Uncle, John Manners Yorke (1840-1909), 7th earl of
Hardwicke, second son of Charles Philip, the 4th earl, who joined
the royal navy and served in the Baltic and in the Crimea (1854*-
1855). This earl died on the i3tfc of March 1909 and was suc-
ceeded by his son Charles Alexander (b. 1869) as 8th earl.
The contemporary authorities for the life of Lord Chancellor
Hardwicke are voluminous, being contained in the memoirs of the
period and in numerous collections of correspondence in the British
Museum. See, especially, the Hardwicke Papers ; the Stowe MSS. ;
Hist. MSS, Commission (Reports 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 11); Horace Wal-
pole, Letters (ed. by P. Cunningham, 9 vols., London, 1857-1859);
1844), Memoirs of the Reign of George
b 7
and No
2nd ed. revised, London,
by Lord Holland,
Letters to Sir H. Mann (ed. by Lord Dover, 4 vols., London, 1843-
- - -- " " ^ ' //. (ed.
s of the 1
. . . . . n, 1894);
soble Authors of England, Scotland and Ireland (ed. T>y T. Park,
5 vols., London, 1806). Horace Walpole was violently hostile to
) ; Memoirs of the Retgn of George HI.
(ed. by G. F. R- Barker, 4 vcta, London, 1894); Catalogue of Royal
Hardwicke, and his criticism, therefore, must be taken with extreme
reserve. See also the earl Waldegrave, Memoirs 1754-1758 (London,
1 821); Lord Chesterfield, Letters (ed. by Lord Mahon, 5 vols.,
London, 1892); Richard Cooksey, Essay on John, Lord Somers,
and Philip, Earl of Hardwicke (Worcester, 1791); William Coxe,
Memoirs of Sir R. Walpole (4 vols., London, 1816); Memoirs of the
Administration of Henry Pelham (2 vols., London, 1829); Lord
Campbell, Lives of the Lord Chancellors, vol. v. (8 vols., London,
1845) ; Edward Foss, The Judges of England, vols. vii. and viii.
(9 vols., London, 1848-1864); George Harris, Life of Lord Chan-
cellor Hardwicke; with Selections from his Correspondence, Diaries,
Speeches and Judgments (3 vols., London, 1847). The last-named
work may be consulted for the lives of the 2nd and 3rd earls. For
the 3rd earl see also the duke of Buckingham, Memoirs of the Court
and Cabinets of George III. (4 vols., London, 1853-1855). For the
4th earl see Charles Philip Yorke, by his daughter, Lady Biddulph of
Ledbury (1910). (R. J- M.)
HARDY, ALEXANDRE (is69?-i63i), French dramatist, was
born in Paris. He was one of the most fertile of all dramatic
authors, and himself claimed to have written some six hundred
plays, of which, however, only thirty-four are preserved. He
seems to have been connected all his life with a troupe of actors
headed by a clever comedian named Valleran-Lecomte, whom
he provided with plays. Hardy toured the provinces with this
company, which gave some representations in Paris in 1599
at the Hdtel de Bourgogne. Valleran-Lecomte occupied the
same theatre in 1600-1603, and again in 1607, apparently for
some years. In consequence of disputes with the Confrerie
de la Passion, who owned the privilege of the theatre, they played
elsewhere in Paris and in the provinces for some years; but in
1628, when they had long borne the title of " royal," they were
definitely established at the Hdtel de Bourgogne. Hardy's
numerous dedications never seem to have brought him riches
or patrons. His most powerful friend was Isaac de Laffemas
(d. 1657), one of Richelieu's most unscrupulous agents, and he
was on friendly terms with the poet Th6ophile, who addressed
him in some verses placed at the head of his Thidtre (163a),
and Tristan THermite had a similar admiration for him. Hardy's
plays were written for the stage, not to be read; and it was
in the interest of the company that they should not be printed
and thus fall into the common stock. But in 1623 he published
Les C hastes et lay ales amours de Thiagene et CaricUe, a tragi-
comedy in eight "days" or dramatic .poems; and in 1624 he
began a collected edition of his works, Le Thidtre d* Alexandre
Hardy, parisien, of which five volumes (1624-1628) were
published, one at Rouen and the rest in Paris. These comprise
eleven tragedies: Didon se sacrifiant, Sctdase ou VhospUalitt
violie, PanthSe, MtlSagre, LaMort d'Achille, Coriolan, Marianne,
a trilogy on the history of Alexander, Alcmion, ou la vengeance
feminine; five mythological pieces; thirteen tragi-comedies,
among them Gisippe, drawn from Boccaccio; Phraarte, taken
from Giraldi's Cent cxcellerites nouvelles (Paris, 1 584) ; Corntlie,
La Force du sang, Fttismene, La Belle £gyptienne, taken from
Spanish subjects; and five pastorals, of which the best is AlpkSe,
ou la justice d'amour. Hardy's importance in the history of
the French theatre can hardly be over-estimated. Up to the
end of the 16th century medieval farce and spectacle kept their,
hold on the stage in Paris. The French classical tragedy of
fitienne Jodelle, and his followers had been written for the
learned, and in 1628 when Hardy's work was nearly over and
Rotrou was on the threshold of his career, very few literary
dramas by any other author are known to have been publicly
represented. Hardy educated the popular taste, and made
possible the dramatic activity of the 17th century. He had
abundant practical experience of the stage, and modified tragedy
accordingly, suppressing chorus and monologue, and providing
the action and variety which was denied to the literary drama.
He was the father in France of tragi-comedy, but cannot fairly
be called a disciple of the romantic school of England and Spain.
It is impossible to know how much later dramatists were indebted
to him in detail, since only a fraction of his work is preserved,
but their general obligation is amply established. He died in
1631 or 1632.
The sources for Hardy's biography are extremely limited. The
account given by the brothers Parfaict in their Hist, du theatre
francais (1745, &c, vol. iv. pp. 2-4) must be received with caution,
and no documents are forthcoming. Many writers have identified
him with the provincial playwright picturesquely described in
chap. xi. of Le Page disgrdcU (1643), the autobiography of Tristan
1'Hermite, but if the portrait is drawn from life at all, it is more
probably drawn from Theophile. See Le Thidtre d* Alexandre Hardy,
edited by E. Stengel (Marburg and Paris, 1883-1884, 5 vols.); E.
Lombard, " £tude sur Alexandre Hardy," in ZeUtsehr. far neufranz.
Spr. u. Lit. (Oppeln and Leipzig, vols. i. and ii., 1880-1881); K.
Nagel, A. Hardy's Einfluss auf Pierre CorneUle (Marburg, 1884);
and especially E. Rigal, Alexandre Hardy . . . (Paris, 1889) and Le
Theatre francais a^antla periode classique (Paris, 190 1 .)
HARDY, THOMAS (1840- ), English novelist, was born
in Dorsetshire on the 2nd of June 1840. His family was one of
the branches of the Dorset Hardys, formerly of influence in and
near the valley of the Frome, claiming descent from John Le
Hardy of Jersey (son of Clement Le Hardy, lieutenant-governor
of that island in 1488), who settled in the west of England. His
maternal ancestors were the Swetman, Childs or Child, and
kindred families, who before and after 1635 were small landed
proprietors in Melbury Osmond, Dorset, and adjoining parishes.
He was educated at local schools, 1848-1854, and afterwards
privately, and in 1856 was articled to Mr John Hicks, an
HARDY, SIR T. D:— HARDY, SIR T. M.
ecclesiastical architect of Dorchester. In 1859 ne began writing
verse and essays, but in 1861 was compelled to apply himself
more strictly to architecture, sketching and measuring many old
Dorset . churches with a view to their restoration. In 1862 he
went to London (which he had first visited at the age of nine)
and became assistant to the late Sir Arthur Blomfield, R.A,
In 1863 he won the medal of the Royal Institute of British
Architects for an essay on Coloured Brick and Terra-cotta
Architecture, and in the same year won the prize of the Archi-
tectural Association for design. In March 1865 his first short
story was published in Chambers's Journal, and during the next
two or three years he wrote a good deal of verse, being somewhat
uncertain whether to take to architecture or to literature as a
profession. In 1867 he left London for Weymouth, and during
that and the following year wrote a " purpose " story, which
in 1869 was accepted by Messrs Chapman and Hall. The
manuscript had been read by Mr George Meredith, who asked the
writer to call on him, and advised him not to print it, but to
try , another* with more plot. The manuscript was withdrawn
and re- written, but never published. In 1870 Mr Hardy took
Mr Meredith's advice too literally, and constructed a novel that
was all plot, which was published in 187 1 under the title Desperate
Remedies. In 1872 appeared Under the Greenwood Tree, a " rural
painting of the Dutch school," in which Mr Hardy had already
"found himself, " and which he has never surpassed in happy
and delicate perfection of art. A Pair of Blue Eyes, in which
tragedy and irony come into his work together, was published
in 1873. In 1874 Mr Hardy married Emma Lavinia, daughter
of the late T. Attersoll Gilford of Plymouth. His first popular
success was made by Far from the Madding Crowd (1874), which,
on its appearance anonymously in the CornhiU Magazine, was
attributed by many to George Eliot. Then came The Hand of
Ethdberta (1876), described, not inaptly, as "a comedy in
chapters"; The Return of the Native (1878), the most sombre
and, in some ways, the most powerful and characteristic of
Mr Hardy's noveb; The Trumpet-Major (1880); A Laodicean
(1881) ', Two on a Tower. (1SS2), a long excursion in constructive
irony; The Mayor of Casterbridge (1886); The Woodlanders
(4887); Wessex Tales (1888); A Group of Noble Dames (1891);
Tess of the D* Urbervilles (1891), Mr Hardy's most famous novel;
Life's Little Ironies (1894); Jude the Obscure (1895), his most
.thoughtful and least popular book; The Well-Beloved, a reprint,
with some revision, of a story originally published in the Illus-
trated London News in 1892 (1897); Wessex Poems, written
during the previous thirty years, with illustrations by the
author (1898); and The Dynasts (2 parts, 1 904-1 906). In 1909
appeared Time's Laughing-stocks and other Verses. In all
his work Mr Hardy is concerned with one thing, seen under two
aspects; not civilization, nor manners, but the principle of life
itself, invisibly realized in humanity as sex, seen visibly in the
world as what we call nature. He is a fatalist, perhaps rather a
determinist, and he studies the workings of fate or law (ruling
through inexorable moods or humours), in the chief vivifying
and disturbing influence in life, women. His view of women is
more French than English; it is subtle, a little cruel, not as
tolerant as it seems, thoroughly a man's point of view, and not,
as with Mr Meredith, man's and woman's at once. . He sees
all that .is irresponsible fpr good and evil in a woman's character,
all that is untrustworthy in her brain and will, all that is alluring
\n her variability. He is her apologist, but always with a reserve
of private judgment. No one has created more attractive women
of a certain class, women whom a man would have been more
likely to love or to regret loving. In his earlier books he is
somewhat careful over the reputation of his heroines;, gradually
he allows them more liberty, with a franker treatment of instinct
and its consequences. Jude the Obscure is perhaps the most
■Unbiassed consideration in English fiction of the more com-
plicated questions of sex. There is almost no passion in his work,
neither the author nor his characters ever seeming able to pass
beyond the state of curiosity, the most intellectually interesting
£f 'JJmitations/under the influence of any emotion. In his feeling
Tor' nature, curiosity sometimes seems to broaden into a more
947
intimate communion. The heath, the village with its peasants,
the change of every hour among the fields and on the roads of
that English countryside which he has made his own — the
Dorsetshire and Wiltshire " Wessex " — mean more to him, in a
sense, than even the spectacle of man and woman in their blind
and painful and absorbing struggle for existence. His knowledge
of woman confirms him in a suspension of judgment; his know-
ledge of nature brings him nearer to the unchanging and consoling
element in the world. All the entertainment which he gets out
of life comes to him from his contemplation of the peasant, as
himself a rooted part of the earth, translating the dumbness of
the fields into humour. His peasants have been compared with
Shakespeare's; he has the Shakespearean sense of their placid
vegetation by the side of hurrying animal Hfe, to which they act
the part of chorus, with an unconscious wisdom in their close,
narrow and undistracted view of things. The order of merit
was conferred upon Mr Hardy in July 19 10.
See Annie Macdonell, Thomas Hardy (London, 1894); Lionel P.
Johnson, The Art of Thomas Hardy (London, 1894). (A. Sy.) .
HARDY, SIR THOMAS DUFFUS (1804-1878), English anti-
quary, was the third son of Major Thomas Bartholomew Price
Hardy, and belonged to a family several members of which had
distinguished themselves in the British navy. Born at Port
Royal in Jamaica on the 22nd of May 1804, he crossed over to
England and in 18 19 entered the Record Office in the Tower of
London. Trained under Henry Petrie (1 768-1842) he gained 3.
sound knowledge of palaeography, and soon began to edit
selections of the public records. From 1861 until his death on the
15th of June 1878 he was deputy-keeper x>f the Record Office,
which just before his appointment had been transferred to its
new London headquarters in Chancery Lane. Hardy, who was
knighted in 1873, had much to do with the appointment of the
Historical Manuscripts Commission in 1869.
Sir T. Hardy edited the Close Rolls, Rotuli liUerarum clausarum,
1204-1227 (2 vols., 1 833-1 844), with an introduction entitled " A
Description of the Close Rolls, with an Account of the early Courts of
Law and Equity " ; and the Patent Rolls, Rotuli litterarum patentium,
1201-1 216 (1835), with introduction, " A Description of the Patent
Rolls, to which is added an Itinerary of King John." He also edited
the Rotuli de oblatis etfinibus (1835), which deal also with the time of
King John ; the Rotuli Normanniae, 1200-1205, and 1417-1418 (1835),
containing letters and grants of the English kings concerning the
duchy of Normandy; the Charter Rolls, Rotuli char tar urn, 1100-
1216 (1837), giving with this work an account of the structure of
charters; the Liberate Rolls, Rotuli de liberate ac de misis et praestitis
regnante Johanne (1844); and the Modus tenendi parliamentum,
with a translation (1846). He wrote A Catalogue of Lords Chan-
cellors, Keepers of the Great Seal, Masters of the Rolls and Officers of
the Court of Chancery (1843); the preface to Henry Petrie 's Monu*
menta historica Britannica (1848); and Descriptive Catalogue of
Materials relating to the History of Great Britain and Ireland (3 vols.,
1 862-1 871). He edited William of Malmesbury's De gestis regum
anglorum (2 vols., 1840) ; he continued and corrected John le Neve's
Fasti ecclesiae Anglicanae (3 vols., Oxford, 1854); and with C. T.
Martin he edited and translated L'Estorie des Engles of Geoffrey
Gaimar (1 888-1 889). He wrote Syllabus in English of Documents in
Rymer's Foedera (3 vols., 1 869-1 885), and gave an account of the
history of the public records from 1837 to 185 1 in his Memoirs of
the Life of Henry , Lord Langdale (1852), Lord Langdale (1785- 185 1),
master of the rolls from 1836 to 1851* being largely responsible
for the erection of the new Record Office. Hardy took part in the
controversy about the date of the Athanasian creed, writing The
Athanasian Creed in connection with the Utrecht Psalter (1872); and
Further Report on the Utrecht Psalter (1874).
His younger brother, Sir William Hardy (1 807-1 887), was
also an antiquary. He entered the Record Office in 1S23,
leaving it in 1830 to become keeper Of the records of the duchy
of Lancaster. In 1868; when these records were presented by
Queen Victoria to the nation, he returned to the Record Office
as an assistant keeper, and in 1878 he succeeded his brother
Sir Thomas as deputy-keeper, resigning in 1886. He died on
the 17th of March 1887:
Sir W. Hardy edited Jehan de Waurin's Recueil des croniques et
anchiennes istories de la Grant Bretaigne (5 vols., 1 864-1 891) ; and he
translated and edited the Charters of the Duchy of Lancaster (1845).
HARDY, SIR THOMAS MASTERMAN, Bart. (1 769-1839),
British vice-admiral, of the Portisham (Dorsetshire) family of
Hardy, was born on the 5th of April 1769, and in 1781 began
9+ 8
HARDYNG— HARE, J. C.
his career as a sailor. He became lieutenant in 1793, and in
1796, being then attached to the u Minerve " frigate, attracted
the attention of Nelson by his gallant conduct. He continued
to serve with distinction, and in 1798 was promoted to be captain
of the " Vanguard," Nelson's flagship. In the " St George "
he did valuable work before the battle of Copenhagen in 1801,
and his association with Nelson was crowned by his appointment
in 1803 to the " Victory " as flag-captain, in which capacity he
was engaged at the battle of Trafalgar in 1805, witnessed Nelson's
will, and was in close attendance on him at his death. Hardy
was created a baronet in 1806. He was then employed on the
North American station, and later (1819), was made commodore
and commander-in-chief on the South American station, where
his able conduct came prominently into notice. In 1825 he
became rear-admiral, and in December 1826 escorted the
expeditionary force to Lisbon. In 1830 he was made first sea
lord of the admiralty, being created G.C.B. in 183 1. In 1834
he was appointed governor of Greenwich hospital, where thence-
forward he devoted himself with conspicuous success to the
charge of the naval pensioners; in 1837 he became vice-admiral.
He died at Greenwich on the 20th of September 1839. In 1807
he had married Anne Louisa Emily, daughter of Sir George
Cranfield Berkeley, under whom he had served on the North
American station, and by her he had three daughters, the
baronetcy becoming extinct.
See Marshall, Royal Naval Biography, ii. and Hi. ; Nicolas, De-
spatches of Lord Nelson; Broadley and Bartelot, The Three Dorset
Captains at Trafalgar (1906), and Nelson's Hardy* his Life, Letters
and Friends (1909).
HARDYNG or HARDING, JOHN (137&-1465), English
chronicler, was bom in the north, and as a boy entered the
service of Sir Henry Percy (Hotspur), with whom he was present
at the battle of Shrewsbury (1403). He then passed into the
service of Sir Robert Umfraville, under whom he was constable
of Warkworth Castle, and served in the campaign of Agincourt
in 141 5 and in the sea-fight before Harfleur in 1416. In 1424
he was on a diplomatic mission at Rome, where at the instance
of Cardinal Beaufort he consulted the chronicle of Trogus
Pompeius. Umfraville, who died in 1436, had made Hardyng
constable of Kyme in Lincolnshire, where he probably lived till
his death about 1465. Hardyng was a man of antiquarian
knowledge, and under Henry V. was employed to investigate
the feudal relations of Scotland to the English crown. For this
purpose he visited Scotland, at much expense and hardship.
For his services he says that Henry V. promised him the manor
of Geddington in Northamptonshire. Many years after, in 1439,
he had a grant of £10 a year for similar services. In 1457 there
is a record of the delivery of documents relating to Scotland by
Hardyng to the earl of Shrewsbury, and his reward by a further
pension of £20. It is clear that Hardyng was well acquainted
with Scotland, and James I. is said to have offered him a bribe
to surrender his papers. But the documents, which are still
preserved in the Record Office, have been shown to be forgeries,
and were probably manufactured by Hardyng himself. Hardyng
spent many years on the composition of a rhyming chronicle
of England. His services under the Percies and Umfravilles
gave him opportunity to obtain much information of value for
15th century history. As literature the chronicle has no merit.
It was written and rewritten to suit his various patrons. The
original edition ending in 1436 had a Lancastrian bias and was
dedicated to Henry VI. Afterwards he prepared a version for
Richard, duke of York (d. 1460), and the chronicle in its final
form was presented to Edward IV. after his marriage to Elizabeth
Woodville in 1464.
The version of 1436 is preserved in Lansdowne MS. 204, and the best
of the later versions in Harley MS. 661, both in the British Museum.
Richard Grafton printed two editions in January 1543, which differ
much from one another and from the now extant manuscripts.
Sf ow, who was acquainted with a different version, censured Grafton on
this point somewhat unjustly. Sir Henry Ellis published the longer
version of Grafton with some additions from the Harley MS. in 1812.
See Ellis 1 preface to Hardyng's Chronicle, and Sir F, Palgtave's
Documents illustrating the History of Scotland (for an account of
Hardyng's forgeries). . (C. L. K.)
HARE, AUGUSTUS JOHN CUTHBERT (1834- 1903), English
writer and traveller, was born at Rome in 1 834. He was educated
at Harrow school and at University College, Oxford, ffis
name is familiar as the author of a large number of guide-books
to the principal countries and towns of Europe, most of which
were written to order for John Murray. They were made up
partly of the author's own notes of travel, partly of quotations
from others' books taken with a frankness of appropriation that
disarmed criticism. He also wrote Memorials of a Quiet Life—"
that of his aunt by whom he had been adopted when a baby
(1872), and a tediously long autobiography in six volumes,
The Story of My Life. He died at St Leonards-on-Sea on the
22nd of January 1903.
HARE, SIR JOHN (1844- ), English actor and manager,
was born in Yorkshire on the 16th of May 1844, and was educated
at Giggleswick school, Yorkshire. He made his first appearance
on the stage at Liverpool in 1864, coming to London in 1865,
and acting for ten years with the Bancrofts. He soon made his
mark, particularly in T. W. Robertson's comedies, and in 1875
became manager of the Court theatre. But it was in association
with Mr and Mrs Kendal at the St James's theatre from 1879
to 1888 that he established his popularity in London, in important
" character " and " men of the world " parts, the joint manage-
ment of Hare and Kendal making this theatre one of the chief
centres of the dramatic world for a decade. In 1889 he became
lessee and manager of the Garrick theatre, where (though he
was often out of the cast) he produced several important rilays,
such as Pinero's The Profligate and The Notorious Mrs Ebbsmith,
and had a remarkable personal success in the chief part in
Sydney Grundy's A Pair of Spectacles. In 1897 he took the
Globe theatre, where his acting in Pinero's Gay Lord Quex was
another personal triumph. He became almost as well known in
the United States as in England, his last tour in America being
in 1900 and 1901. He was knighted in 1907.
HARE, JULIUS CHARLES (1795-1855), English theological
writer, was born at Valdagno, near Vicenza, in Italy, on the
13th of September 1795. He came to England with his parents
in 1799, but in 1 804-1 805 spent a winter with them at Weimar,
where he met Goethe and Schiller, and received a bias to German
literature which influenced his style and sentiments throughout
his whole career. On the death of his mother in 1806, Julius
was sent home to the Charterhouse in London, where he remained
till 181 2, when he entered Trinity College, Cambridge. There
he became fellow in 181 8, and after some time spent abroad he
began to read law in London in the following year. From 1822
to 1832 he was assistant-tutor at Trinity College. Turning his
attention from law to divinity, Hare took priest's orders in 1826;
and, on the death of his uncle in 1832, he succeeded to the rich
family living of Hurstmonceaux in Sussex, where he accumulated
a library of some 12,000 volumes, especially rich in German
literature. Before taking up residence in his parish he once
more went abroad, and made in Rome the acquaintance of the
Chevalier Bunsen, who afterwards dedicated to him part of his
work, Hippolytus and his Age. In 1840 Hare was appointed
archdeacon of Lewes, and in the same year preached a course of
sermons at Cambridge {The Victory of Faith), followed in 1846
by a second, The Mission of the Comforter. Neither series when
published attained any great popularity. Archdeacon Hare
married in 1844 Esther, a sister of his friend Frederick Maurice.
In 1851 he was collated to a prebend in Chichester; and in 1853
he became one of Queen Victoria's chaplains. He died on the
23rd of January 1855.
Julius Hare belonged to what has been called the " Broad Church
party," though some of his opinions apDroach very closely to those
of the Evangelical Arminian school, while others again seem vague
and undecided. He was one of the first of his countrymen to
recognize and come under the influence of German thought and
speculation, and, amidst an exaggerated alarm of German heresy,
cud much to vindicate the authority of the sounder German critics.
His writings, which are chiefly theological and controversial, are
largely formed of charges to his dergy, and sermons on different
topics; but, though valuable and full of thought, they lose some
of their force by the cumbrous German structure of the sentences,
and by certain orthographical peculiarities in which the author
HARE^-HAREBELL
949
indulged. In 1827 Guesses at Truth by Two Brothers 1 appeared.
Hare assisted Thiriwall, afterwards bishop of St David's, in the
translation of the 1st and 2nd volumes of Niebunr's History of Rome
(1828 and 1832), and published a Vindication of Niebuhr s History
in 1820. He wrote many similar works, among which is a Vindica-
tion of Luther against his recent English Assailants (1854). Tn 1848
he edited the Remains of John Sterling, who had formerly been his
curate. Carlyle's Life of John Sterling was written , through dis-
satisfaction with the " Life " prefixed to Archdeacon Hare's book.
Memorials of a Quiet Life, published in 1872, contain accounts of
the Hare family.
HARE, the name of the well-known English rodent now
designated Lepus europaeus (although formerly termed, incor-
rectly, L. timidus). In a wider sense the name includes all the
numerous allied species which do not come under the designation
of rabbits (see Rabbit). Over the greater part of Europe, where
the ordinary species (fig. 1) does not occur, its place is taken by
the closely allied Alpine, or mountain hare (fig. 2), the true
L. timidus of Linnaeus, and the type of the genus Lepus and the
family Leporidae (see Rodentia) . The second is a smaller animal
than the first, with a more rounded and relatively smaller head,
and the ears, hind-legs and tail shorter. In Ireland and the
southern districts of Sweden it is permanently of a light fulvous
grey colour, with black tips to the ears, but in more northerly
districts the fur — except the black ear-tips — changes to white in
winter, and still farther north the animal appears to be white at
all seasons of the year. The range of the common or brown hare,
inclusive of its local races, extends from England across southern
and central Europe to the Caucasus; while that of the blue or
mountain species, likewise inclusive of local races, reaches
from Ireland, Scotland and Scandinavia through northern
Europe and Asia to Japan and Kamchatka, and thence to
Alaska.
The brown hare is a night-feeding animal, remaining during
the day on its " form," as the slight depression is called which
it makes in the open field, usually among grass. This it leaves
at nightfall to seek fields of young wheat and other cereals
whose tender herbage forms its favourite food. It is also fond
of gnawing the bark of young trees, and thus often does great
damage to plantations. In the morning it returns to its form,
where it finds protection in the close approach which the colour
of its fur makes to that of its surroundings; should it thus fail,
however, to elude observation it depends for safety on its extra- ;
Fig. 1. — The Hare (Lepus europaeus).
ordinary fleetness. On the first alarm of danger it sits erect to
reconnoitre, when it either seeks concealment by clapping close
to the ground, or takes to flight. In the latter case its great
speed, and the cunning endeavours it makes to outwit its canine
pursuers, form the chief attractions of coursing. The hare takes
readily to the water, where it swims well; an instance having
been recorded in which one was observed crossing an arm of
1 Julius Hare's co-worker in this book was his brother Augustus
William Hare (1792-1834), who, after_a distinguished career at
the sea about a mile in width. Hares are remarkably prolific,
pairing when scarcely a year old, and the female bringing forth
several broods in the year, each consisting of from two to five
leverets (from the Fr. libvre), as the young are called. These are
born covered with hair and with the eyes open, and after being
suckled for a month are able to look after themselves. In Europe
this species has seldom bred in confinement, although an instance
has recently been recorded. It will interbreed with the blue hare.
Hares (and rabbits) have a cosmopolitan distribution with the
exception of Madagascar and Australasia; and aTe now divided
into numerous genera and subgenera, mentioned in the article
Oxford, was appointed rector of Alton Barnes, Wiltshire- He died
prematurely at Rome in 1834. He was the author of Se
Country Congregation, published in 1837. !
Fig. 2. — The Blue or Mountain Hare (Lepus timidus) in winter dress.
Rodentia. Reference may here be made to a few species.
Asia is the home of numerous species, of which the common
Indian L. ruficaudatus and the black-necked hare L* nigricoUis,
are inhabitants of the plains of India; the latter taking its name
from a black patch on the neck. In Assam there is a small
spiny hare (Caprohgus hispidus), with the habits of a Tabbit;
and an allied species (Nesolagus nitsckeri) inhabits Sumatra,
and a third (Pentalagus furnessi) the Lra-kiu Islands. The
plateau of Tibet is very rich in species, among which L. hypsibius
is very common.
Of African species, the Egyptian Hare (L. aegyptius) is a small
animal, with long ears and pale fur; and in the south there are
the Cape hare (L. capensis) , the long-eared rock-hare (L. saxatilis)
and the diminutive Pronoiagus crassicaudaius y characterized
by its thick red tail.
North America is the home of numerous hares, some of which
are locally known as " Cotton-tails " and others as " jack-
rabbits." The most northern are the Polar hare (L. arcticus),
the Greenland hare (£. gfoenlandicus) and the Alaska hare
(L. tvmidus tschuktschorum) ,' all allied to the blue hare. Of the
others, two, namely the large prairie-hare (L. campestris) and
the smaller varying hare (£. [Poecilolagus] americanus) , turn
white in winter; the former having long ears and the whole tail
white, whereas in the latter the ears are shorter and the upper
surface of the tail is dark. Of those which do not change colour,
the wood-hare, grey-rabbit or cotton-tail, Sylvilagus ftoridanus,
is a southern form, with numerous allied kinds. Distantly allied
to the prairie-hare or white-tailed jack-rabbit, are several forms
distinguished by having a more or kss distinct black stripe on
the upper surface of the tail. These include a buff-bellied species
found in California, N. Mexico and S.W. Oregon (L. [Macroto-
lagus] calif ornfcus), a large, long-legged form from S. Arizona
and Sonora (L. [M.] aUeni) } the Texan jack-rabbit (L. [M.]
texbnus) and the black-eared hare (t. [Mi] melanotis) of the
Great Plains, which differs from the thiid only by its shorter
ears and richer coloration. In S. America, the small tapiti
or Brazilian hare (Sylvilagus brasUiensis) is nearly allied to the
Wood-hare, but has a yellowish brown under surface to the tail.
See also Coursing. (R. L.*)
HAREJ3ELL (sometimes wrongly written Hai*bell), known
also as the blue-bell of Scotland, and witches' thimbles, a
well-known perennial wild flower, Campanula rotundifoHa, a
950
HAREM
Harebell (Campanula
rotundifoUa).
member of the natural order Campanulaceae. The harebell has
a very slender slightly creeping root-stock, and a wiry, erect
stem. The radical leaves, that is,
those at the base of the stem, to
which the specific name rokmdifolia
refers, have long stalks, and are
roundish or heart-shaped with crenate
or serrate margin; the lower stem
leaves are ovate or lanceolate, and
the upper ones linear, subsessile,
acute and entire, rarely pubescent.
The flowers are slightly drooping,
arranged in a panicle, or in small
specimens single, having a smooth
yjgiKw P^ m c^y** w * tn na^ow pointed erect
[ VJ 1 segments, the corolla bell-shaped,
4BmF iff ySim w ^ 1 8U S nt * v recurved segments, and
ynf *NI - ijff the capsule nodding, and opening by
pores at the base. There are two
varieties: — (a) genuine, with slender
stem leaves, and (b) montana, in which
the lower stem-leaves are broader
and somewhat elliptical in shape.
The plant is found on heaths and
pastures throughout Great Britain
and flowers in late summer and in
autumn; it is widely spread in the
north temperate zone. The harebell
has ever been a great favourite with poets, and on account of
its delicate blue colour has been considered as an emblem of
purity.
HAREM, less frequently Haram or Harim (Arab harlm—
commonly but wrongly pronounced hftrfcm — "that which is
illegal or prohibited "), the name generally applied to that part
of a house in Oriental countries which is set apart for the women;
it is also used collectively for the women themselves. Strictly the
women's quarters are the haremlik (lik, belonging to), as opposed
to sdamlik the men's quarters, from which they are in large
houses separated by the mabein, the private apartments of the
householder. The word harem is strictly applicable to Mahom-
raedan households only, but the system is common in greater or
leas degree to all Oriental communities, especially where polygamy
is permitted. Other names for the women's quarters are Seraglio
(Ital. serraglio, literally an enclosure, from Lat. sera, a bar;
wrongly narrowed down to the sense of harem through confusion
with Turkish serdi or sar&i, palace or large building, cf. caravan-
serai); Zenana (strictly zanana, from Persian tan, woman,
allied with Gr. tw4), used specifically of Hindu harems;
Andarun (or Anderoon), the Persian word for the " inner part "
(sc. of a house). The Indian harem system is also commonly
known as pardah or purdah, literally the name of the thick
curtains or blinds which are used instead of doors to separate
the women's quarters from the rest of the house. A male doctor
attending a zenana lady would put his hand between the purdah
10 feel her pulse.
The seclusion of women in the household is fundamental to
the Oriental conception of the sex relation, and its origin must,
therefore, be sought far earlier than the precepts of Islam as set
forth in the Koran, which merely regulate a practically universal
Eastern custom. 1 It is inferred from the remains of many ancient
Oriental palaces (Babylonian, Persian, &c.) that kings and wealthy
nobles devoted a special part of the palace to their womankind.
Though in comparatively early times there were not wanting
iron who regarded polygamy as wrong (e.g. the prophets of
Israel), nevertheless in the East generally there has never been
any real movement against the conception of woman as a chattel
of her male relatives. A man may have as many wives and
concubines as he can support, but each of these women must be
1 f n Africa also, among the non-Nf ahommedan negroes of the west
coast and the Bahima of the Victoria Nyanra, the seclusion of
women of the upper classes has been practised in states («.$. Ashanti
and Nugamla) possessing a considerable degree of civilization.
his exclusive property. The object of this insistence upon
female chastity is partly the maintenance of the purity of the
family with special reference to property, and partly to protect
women from marauders, as was the case with] the, people of India
when the Mahommedans invaded the country and sought for
women to fill their harems. In Mahommedan countries theoreti-
cally a woman must veil her face to all men except her father,
her brother and her husband; any violation of this rule is still
regarded by strict Mahommedans as the gravest possible offence,
though among certain Moslem communities (e.g. in parts of
Albania) women of the poorer classes may appear in public
unveiled. If any other man make his way into a harem he may
lose his life; the attempted escape of a harem woman is a capital
offence, the husband having absolute power of life and death,
to such an extent that, especially in the less civilized parts of
the Moslem world, no one would think of questioning a man's
right to mutilate or kill a disobedient wife or concubine.
Turkish Harems. — A good deal of misapprehension, due to
ignorance combined with strong prejudice against the whole
system, exists in regard to the system in Turkey. It is often
assumed, for example, that the sultan's seraglio is typical,
though on a uniquely large scale, of all Turkish households, and
as a consequence that every Turk is a polygamist. This is far
from being the case, for though the Koran permits four wives,
and etiquette allows the sultan seven, the man of average
possessions is perforce content with one, and a small number of
female servants. It is, therefore, necessary to take the imperial
seraglio separately.
Though the sultan's household in modern times is by no means
as numerous as it used to be, it is said that the harem of Abdul
Hamid contained about iooo women, all of whom were of slave
origin. This body of women form an elaborately organized
community with a complete system of officers, disciplinary and
administrative, and strict distinctions of status. The real ruler
of this society is the sultan's mother, the Sultana Valide*, who
exercises her authority through a female superintendent, the
Kyahya Khatun. She has also a large retinue of subordinate
officials (Kalfas) ranging downwards from the Hasnadar ousta
(" Lady of the Treasury ") to the " Mistress of the Sherbets "
and the" Chief Coffee Server." Each of these officials has under
her a number of pupil-slaves (alaiks), whom she trains to succeed
her if need be, and from whom the service is recruited. After
the sultana valid6 (who frequently enjoys considerable political
power and is a mistress of intrigue) ranks the mother of the heir-
apparent; she is called the Bash Kadin Effendi (" Her excellency
the Chief Lady "), and also hasseki or kasseky, and is distin-
guished from the other three chief wives who only bear the title
Kadin Effendi. Next come the ladies who have borne the
younger children of the sultan, the Hanum Effendis, and after
them the so-called Odalisks or Odalisques (a perversion of odalik,
from odaJi, chamber). These are subdivided, according to the
degree of favour in which they stand with the sultan or padishah,
into Ikbals (" Favourites ") and Geuzdts (literally the " Eyed "
ones), those whom the sultan has favourably noticed in the
course of his visits to the apartments of his wives or his mother.
Ail the women are at the disposal of the sultan, though it is
contrary to etiquette for him actually to select recruits for his
harem. The numbers are kept up by his female relatives and
state officials, the latter of whom present girls annually on the
evening before the 15th of Ramadan.
Every odalisk who has been promoted to the royal couch
receives a datra, consisting of an allowance of money, a suite of
apartments, and a retinue, in proportion to her status. It should
be noted that, since all the harem women are slaves, the sultans,
with practically no exceptions, have never entered into legal
marriage contracts. Any slave, in however menial a position,
may be promoted to the position of a kadin effendi. Hence all
the slaves who have any pretension to beauty are carefully
trained, from the time they enter the harem, in deportment,
dancing, music and the arts of the toilette: they are instructed
in the Moslem religion and learn the daily prayers (twrnas);
a certain number are specially trained in reading and writing
HAREM
95i
for secretarial work. Discipline is strict, and continued dis-
obedience leads to corporal punishment by the eunuchs. All
the women of the harem are absolutely under the control of the
sultana valide (who alone of the harem of her dead husband is
not sent away to an older palace when her son succeeds), and
owe her the most profound respect, even to the point of having
to obtain permission to leave their own apartments. Her
financial secretary, the Haznadar Ousta, succeeds to her power
if she dies. The sultan's foster-mother also is a person of import-
ance, and is known as the Tata Kadin.
The security of the harem is in the hands of a body of eunuchs
both black and white. The white eunuchs have charge of the
outer gates of the seraglio, but they are not allowed to approach
the women's apartments, and obtain no posts of distinction,
their chief, however, the kapu aghast (" master of the gates ")
has part control over the ecclesiastical possessions, and even the
vizier cannot enter the royal apartments without his permission.
The black eunuchs have the right of entering the gardens and
chambers of the harem. Their chief, usually called the kislar
aghasi (" master of the maidens "), though his true title is dams
skadet aga (" chief of the abode of felicity "), is an official
qf high importance. His appointment is for life. If he is
deprived of his post he receives his freedom; and if he resigns
of his own accord he is generally sent to Egypt with a pension
of 100 francs a day. His secretary keeps count of the revenues
of the mosques built by the sultans. He is usually succeeded
by the second eunuch, who bears the title of treasurer, and has
charge of the jewels, &c, of the women. The number of eunuchs
is always a large one. The sultana valid6 and the sultana
hasseki have each fifty at. their service, and others are assigned
to the kadins and the favourite odalisks.
The ordinary middle-class household is naturally on a very
different scale. The selamlik is on the ground floor with a separate
entrance, and there the master of the house receives his male,
guests; the rest of the ground floor is occupied by the kitchen
and perhaps the stables. The haretnlik is generally (in towns at
least) on the upper floor fronting on and slightly overhanging
the street; it has a separate entrance, courtyard and garden.
The windows are guarded by lattices pierced with circular holes
through which the women may watch without being seen.
Communication with the haretnlik is effected by a locked door,
of which the Effendi keeps the key and also by a sort of revolving
cupboard (dutap) for the conveyance of meals. The furniture,
of the old-fashioned harems at least, is confined to divans, rugs,
carpets and mirrors. For heating purposes the old brass tray
of charcoal and wood ash is giving way to American stoves, and
there is a tendency to import French furniture and decoration
without regard to their suitability.
The presence of a second wife is the exception, and is generally
attributable to the absence of children by the first wife. The
expense o£ marrying a free woman leads many Turks to prefer
a slave woman who is much more likely to be an amenable
partner. If a slave woman bears a child she is often set free
and then the marriage ceremony is gone through.
The harem system is, of course, wholly inconsistent with any
high ideal of womanhood. Certain misapprehensions, however,
should be noticed. The depravity of the system and the vapid
idleness of harem life are much exaggerated by observers whose
sympathies are wholly against the system. In point of fact
much depends on the individuals. In many households there
exists a very high degree of mutual consideration and the
standard of conduct is by no means degraded. Though a woman
may not be seen in the streets without the yashmak which covers
her face except for her eyes, and does not leave her house except
by her husband's permission, none the less in ordinary households
the harem ladies frequently drive into the country and visit the
shops and public baths. Their seclusion has very considerable
compensations, and legally they stand on a far better basis in
relation to their husbands than do the women of monogamous
Christian communities. From the moment when a woman,
free or slave, enters into any kind of wifely relation with a man,
she has a legally enforceable right against him both for her own
and for her children's maintenance. She has absolute control,
over her personal property whether in money, slaves or goods;
and, if divorce is far easier in Islam than in Christendom, still
the marriage settlement must be of such amount as will provide
suitable maintenance in that event.
On the other hand, of course, the system is open to the gravest
abuse, and in countries like Persia, Morocco and India, the life
of Moslem women and slaves is often far different from that of
middle class women of European Turkey, where law is strict
and culture advanced. The early age at which girls are secluded,
the dulness of their surroundings, and the low moral standard
which the system produces react unfavourably not only
upon their moral and intellectual growth but also upon their
capacity for motherhood and their general physique. A harem
woman is soon passSe, and the lot of a woman past her youth,
if she is divorced or a widow, is monotonous and empty. This
is true especially of child-widows.
Since the middle of the 19th century familiarity with European
customs and the direct influence of European administrators has
brought about a certain change in the attitude of Orientals to
the harem system. This movement is, however, only in its'
infancy, and the impression is still strong that the time is not
ripe for reform. The Oriental women are in general so accus-
tomed to their condition that few have any inclination to change
it, while men as a rule are emphatically opposed to any alteration
of the system. The Young Turkish party, the upper classes in
Egypt, as also the Babists in Persia, have to some extent pro-
gressed beyond the orthodox conception of the status of women,
but no radical reform has been set on foot.
In India various attempts have been made by societies,
missionary and other, as well as by private individuals, to
improve the lot of the zenana women. Zenana schools arid
hospitals have been founded, and a few women have been
trained as doctors and lawyers for the special purposes of pro-
tecting the women against their own ignorance and inertia.
Thus in 1905 a Parsee Christian lady, Cornelia Sorabjee, was
appointed by the Bengal government as legal adviser to the
court pf wards, so that she might give advice to the widowed
mothers of minors within the harem walls. Similarly trained
medical women are introduced into zenanas and harems by the
Lady Dufferin Association for medical aid to Indian women.
Gradually native Christian churches are making provision for
the attendance of women at their services, though the sexes are
rigorously kept apart. In India, as in Tm-key, the introduction
of Western dress and education has begun to create new ideas
and ambitions, and not a few Eastern women have induced
English women to enter the harems as companions, nurses
and governesses. But training and environment are extremely
powerful, and in some parts of the Mahommedan world, the
supply of Asiatic, European and even American girls is so
steady, that reform has touched only the fringe of the system.
Among the principal societies which have been formed to
better the condition of Indian and Chinese women in general
with special reference to the zenana system are the Church of
, England Zenana Missionary Society and the Zenana Bible and
Medicaf Mission. Much information as to the medical, industrial
and educational work done by these societies will be found in
their annual reports and other publications. Among these are
J. K. H. Denny's Toward the Uprising; Irene H. Barnes,
Behind the Pardah (1897), an account of the former society's
work; the general condition of Indian women is described in
Mrs Marcus B. Fuller's Wrongs of Indian Womanhood (1900),
and Maud Dover's The Englishwoman in India (1909); see
also article Missions.
Authorities. — The literature of the subject is very large, though
a great deal of it is naturally based on insufficient evidence, and
coloured by Western prepossessions. Among useful works are A..
van Sommer and Zwerner, Our Moslem Sisters (1907), a collection
of essays by authors acquainted with various parts of the Mahom-
medan world and strongly opposed to the whole harem system;
Mrs W. M. Ramsay, Everyday Life in Turkey (1897), cc. iv. and v.,
containing an account of a day in a harem near Afium-Kara-Hissar;
cf. e.g. art. " Harem !' in Hughes. Dictionary of Islam ; . Mrs S,
Harvey's Turkish Harems and Circassian Homes ' (1871); for
9 *i
HARFLEUR— HARINGTON, SIR J.
Mahomet *s regulations, see R. Bosworth Smith's Mohammed and
Mohammedanism (1889); for Egypt, Lane, Manners and Customs of
the Modem Egyptians (1837) ; and E. Lott, Harem Life in Egypt and
Constantinople (1869); for the sultan's household in the 18th cen-
tury, Lady Wortley Montagu's Letters, with which may be compared
S. Lane-Poole, Turkey (ed. 1909); G. Dorys, La Femme turque
(1002); especially Lucy M. J. Garnett (with J. S. Stuart-Glennie),
The Women of Turkey (London, 1901), and The Turkish People
(London, 1909). For the attempts which have been made to modify
and improve the Indian zenana system, see e.g. the reports of the
Dufferin Association and other official publications. Other infor-
mation will be found in Hoffman's article in Ersch and Gruber's
Encydop¨ Flandin in Rente des deux mondes (1852) on the
harem of the Persian prince Malik Kasim. Mirza; the count de
Beauvoir, in Voyage round the World (1870), on Javanese and Siamese
harems; Hantzsche in Zeitschrift far aUgemeine Erdkunde (Berlin,
1864). a- M. M.)
HARFLEUR, a port of France in the department of Seine-
Infeiieure, about 6 m. E. of Havre by rail. Pop. (1906) 2864.
It lies in the fertile valley of the Lezarde, at the foot of wooded
hilla not far from the north. bank of the estuary of the Seine.
The port, which had been rendered almost inaccessible owing
to the deposits of the Lezarde, again became available on
the opening of the Tancarville canal (1887) connecting it
with the port of Havre and with the Seine. Vessels drawing
l8 ft. can moor alongside the quays of the new port, which is on
a branch of the canal, has some trade in coal and timber, and
carries on fishing. The church of St Martin is the most remark-
able building in the town, and its lofty stone steeple forms a
landmark for the pilots of the river. It dates from the 15th
and 1 6th centuries, but the great portal is the work of the 17th,
and the whole has undergone modern restoration. Of the old
castle there are only insignificant ruins, near which, in a fine park,
stands the present castle, a building of the 17 th century. The
old ramparts of the town are now replaced by manufactories,
and the fosses are transformed into vegetable gardens. There
is a statue of Jean de Grouchy, lord of Mont6rollier, under whose
leadership the English were expelled from the town in 1435.
The industries include distilling, metal founding and the manu-
facture of oil and grease.
Harfleur is identified with Caracotinum, the principal port
of the ancient Calates. In the middle ages, when its name,
Herosnoth, Harofluet or Harefiot, was still sufficiently uncor-
rupted to indicate its Norman derivation, it was the principal
seaport of north-western France. In 141 5 it was captured by
Henry V. of England, but when in 1435 the people of the district
of Caux rose against the English, 104 of the inhabitants opened
the gates of the town to the insurgents, and thus got rid of the
foreign yoke. The memory of the deed was long perpetuated
by the bells of St Martin's tolling 104 strokes. Between 1445
and 1449 the English were again in possession; but the town
was recovered for the French by Dunois. In the 16th century
the port began to dwindle in importance owing to the silting up
of the Seine estuary and the rise of Havre. In 1562 the
Huguenots put Harfleur to pillage, and its registers and charters
perished in the confusion; but its privileges were restored by
Charles IX. in 1568, and it was not till 17 10 that it was subjected
to the. " taille."
HARIANA, a tract of country in the Punjab, India, once the
seat of a flourishing Hindu civilization. It consists of a level
upland plain, interspersed with patches of sandy soil, and largely
overgrown with brushwood. The Western Jumna canal irrigates
the fields of a large number of its villages. Since the 1 4 th cen tury
Hissar has been the local capital, During the troubled period
which followed on the decline of the Mogul empire, Hariana
formed the battlefield where the Mahrattas, Bhattis and Sikhs
met to settle their territorial quarrels. The whole country was
devastated by the famine of 1783. In 1797-1798 Hariana was
overrun by the famous Irish adventurer George Thomas, who
established his capital at Hansi; in 1801 he was dispossessed
by Sindhia's French general Perron; in 1803 Hariana passed
under British rule. On the conquest of the Punjab Hariana was
broken up into the districts of Hissar, Rohtak and Sirsa,
which last has in its turn been divided between Hissar and
Ferozepore.
HARINGTON, SIR JOHN (1561-1612), English writer, was
born at Kelston, near Bath, in 1 561. His father, John Harington,
acquired considerable estates by marrying Etheldreda, a natural
daughter of Henry VIII., and after his wife's death he was
attached to the service of the Princess Elizabeth. He married
Isabella Markham, one of her ladies, and on Mary's accession
he and his wife were imprisoned in the Tower with the princess.
John, the son of the second marriage, was Elizabeth's godson.
He studied at Eton and at Christ's College, Cambridge, where he
took the degree of M.A., his tutor being John Still, afterwards
bishop of Bath and Wells, formerly reputed to be the author
of Gammer Gurton's Needle. He came up to London about
1583 and was entered at Lincoln's Inn, but his talents marked
him out for success at court rather than for a legal career.
Tradition relates that he translated the story of Giocondo from
Ariosto and was reproved by the queen for acquainting her
ladies with so indiscreet a selection. He was to retire to his seat
at Kelston until he completed the translation of the entire work.
Orlando Furioso in English heroical verse was published in 159 1
and reprinted in 1607 and 1634. Harington was high sheriff
of Somerset in 1592 and received Elizabeth at his house during
her western progress of 1591. In 1596 he published in succession
The Metamorphosis of Ajax, An Anatomie of the Metamorphosed
Ajax, and Ulysses upon Ajax, the three forming collectively a
very absurd and indecorous work of a Pantagruelistic kind. An
allusion to Leicester in this book threw the writer into temporary
disgrace, but in 1598 he received a commission to serve in Ireland
under Essex. He was knighted on the field, to the annoyance of
Elizabeth. Harington saved himself from being involved in
Essex's disgrace by writing an account of the Irish campaign
which increased Elizabeth's anger against the unfortunate earl.
Among some papers found in the chapter library at York was a
Tract on the Succession to the Crown (1602), written by Harington
to secure the favpur of the new king, to whom he sent the gift of
a lantern constructed to symbolize the waning glory of the late
queen and James's own splendour. This pamphlet, which
contains many details of great interest about Elizabeth and gives
an unprejudiced sketch of the religious question, was edited
for the Roxburghe Club in 1880 by Sir Clements Markham.
Harington 's efforts to win favour at the new court were unsuccess-
ful. In 1605 he even asked for the office of chancellor of Ireland
and proposed himself as archbishop. The document in which
he preferred this extraordinary request was published in 1879
with the title of A Short View of the State of Ireland written in
160$. Harington was before his time in advocating a policy of
generosity and conciliation towards that country. He eventually
succeeded in obtaining a position as one of the tutors of Prince
Henry, for whom he annotated Francis Godwin's De praesulibus
Angliae. Harington's grandson, John Chetwind, found in this
somewhat scandalous production an argument for the Presby-
terian side, and published it in 1653, under the title of A Briefe
View of the State of the Church, &c.
Harington died at Kelston on the 20th of November 161 2.
His Epigrams were printed in a collection entitled Alalia in
1613, and separately in 1615. The translation of the Orlando
Furioso was carried out with skill and perseverance. It is not
to be supposed that Harington failed to realize the ironic quality
of his original, but he treated it as a serious allegory to suit the
, temper of Queen Elizabeth's court. He was neither a very exact
scholar nor a very poetical translator, and he cannot be named
in the same breath with Fairfax. The Orlando Furioso was
sumptuously illustrated, and to it was prefixed an Apohgie of
Poetrie, justifying the subject matter of the poem, and, among
other technical matters, the author's use of disyllabic and
trisyllabic rhymes, also a life of Ariosto compiled by Harington
from various Italian sources. Harington's Rabelaisian pamphlets
show that he was almost equally endowed with wit and indelicacy,
and his epigrams are sometimes smart and always easy. His
works include The Englishman's Doctor, Or the School of Salernc
(1608), and Nugaeantiquae, miscellaneous papers collected in 1779.
A biographical account of Harington is prefixed to the Roxburghe
Club edition of his tract on the succession mentioned above.
PARIRI—HARKNESS, R.
953
QARlRl [Aba Ma^ommed ul-Qfisim ibn 'Ali ibn Mafrommed
al-rjarirl, i.e. " the manufacturer or seller of silk "] (1054-1122),
Arabian writer, was born at Ba§ra. He owned a large estate
with 18,000 date-palms at Mashan, a village near Ba§ra. He
is said to have occupied a government position, but devoted his
life to the study of the niceties of the Arabic language. On this
subject he wrote a grammatical poem the Mulhal ul~'Ir&b
(French trans. Les Ricriations grammaticales with notes by L.
Pinto, Paris 1885-1889; extracts in S. de Sacy's Anthologie
arabe, pp. 145-151, Paris, 1829); a work on the faults of the
educated called Purrat ul-Ghaww&s (ed. H. Thorbecke, Leipzig,
1871), and some smaller treatises such as the two letters on words
containing the letters sin and shin (ed.in Arnold's Chrestomathy,
pp. 202-9). But his fame rests chiefly on his fifty maqdmas
(see Arabia: Literature, section "Belles Lettres "). These
were written in rhymed prose like those of HamadhSnl, and are
full of allusions to Arabian history, poetry and tradition, and
discussions of difficult points of Arabic grammar and rhetoric.
The Maq&mas have been edited with Arabic commentary by
S. de Sacy (Paris, 1822, 2nd ed. with French notes by Reinaud and
J. Derenbourg, Paris, 1853); ^^ Eng^ 9 * 1 notes by F. Steingass
(London, 1896). An English translation with notes was made by
T. Preston (London, 1850), and another by T. Chenery and F.
Steingass (London, 1867 and 1898). Many editions have been
Eublished in the East with commentaries, especially with that of
harishi (d. 1222). (G. W. T>)
HARI-RUD, a river of Afghanistan. It rises in the northern
slopes of the Koh-i-Baba to the west of Kabul, and finally loses
itself in the Tejend oasis north of the Trans-Caspian railway
and west of Merv. It runs a remarkably straight course west-
ward through a narrow trough from Daolatyar to Obeh, amidst
the bleak wind-swept uplands of the highest central elevations
in Afghanistan. From Obeh to Kuhsan 50 m. west of Herat,
it forms a valley of great fertility, densely populated and highly
cultivated; practically all its waters being drawn off for purposes
of irrigation. It is the contrast between the cultivated aspect
of the valley of Herat and the surrounding desert that has given
Herat its great reputation for fertility. Three miles to the south
of Herat the Kandahar road crosses the river by a masonry bridge
of 26 arches now in ruins. A few miles below Herat the river
begins to turn north-west, and after passing through a rich country
to Kuhsan, it turns due north and breaks through the Paro-
pamisan hills. Below Kuhsan it receives fresh tributaries from
the west. Between Kuhsan and Zulfikar it forms the boundary
between Afghanistan and Persia, and from Zulfikar to Sarakhs
between Russia and Persia. North of Sarakhs it diminishes
rapidly in volume till it is lost in the sands of the Turkman
desert. The Hari-Rud marks the only important break existing
in the continuity of the great central water-parting of
Asia. It is the ancient Arius. (T. H. H.*)
HARISCHANDRA, in Hindu mythology, the 28th king of the
Solar race. He was renowned for his piety and justice. He
is the central figure of legends in the Aitareyabrahmana, Maha-
bharata and the Markandeyapurana. In the first he is repre-
sented as so desirous of a son that he vows to Varuna that if his
prayer is granted the boy shall be eventually sacrificed to the
latter. The child is born, but Harischandra, after many delays,
arranges to purchase another's son and make a vicarious sacrifice.
According to the Mahabharata he is at last promoted to Paradise
as the reward for his munificent charity.
QARITH IBN 9ILUZA UL-YASHKURl, pre- Islamic Arabian
poet of the tribe of Bakr, famous as the author of one of the
poems generally received among the Mo K aUakat (g.v.). Nothing is
known of the details of his life.
9ARIZI, JUDAH BEN SOLOMON (13th cent.), called also
al-IJarizi, a Spanish Hebrew poet and traveller. He translated
from the Arabic to Hebrew some of the works of Maimonides
(q.v.) and also of the Arab poet IJariri. His own most consider-
able work was the Tahkemoni, composed between 12 18 and 1220.
This is written in Hebrew in unmetrical rhymes, in what is
commonly termed " rhymed prose." It is a series of humorous
episodes, witty verses, and quaint applications of Scriptural
texts. The episodes are bound together by the presence of the
hero and of the narrator, who is also the author. Qarizj not only
brought to perfection the art of applying Hebrew to secular
satire, but he was also a brilliant literary critic and his makame
on the Andalusian Hebrew poets is a fruitful source of infor-
mation.
See, on the Tahkemoni, Kaempf, Nicht-andalusische Paesie anda-
lusischer Dichter (Prague, 1858). In that work a considerable
section of the Tahkemoni is translated into German. (I. A.) .
HARKNESS, ALBERT (1822-1907), American classical scholar,
was born at Mendon, Massachusetts, on the 6th of October 1^2 2.
He graduated at Brown University in 1842, taught in the Pro-
vidence high school in 1843-18 53, studied in Berlin, Bonn
(where in 1854 he was the first American to receive the degree
of Ph.D.) and Gottingen, and was professor of Greek language
and literature in Brown University from 1855 to 1892, when
he became professor emeritus. He was one of the founders in
i860 of the American Philological Association, of which he was
president in 1875-1876, and to whose Transactions he made
various contributions; was a member of the Archaeological
Institute's committee on founding the American School of
Classical Studies at Athens, and served as the second director
of that school in 1 883-1 884. He studied English and German
university methods during trips to Europe in 1870 and 1883,
and introduced a new scholarly spirit into American teaching of
Latin in secondary schools with a series of Latin text-books,
which began in 1851 with a First Latin Book and continued for
more than fifty years. His Latin Grammar (1864, 1881) and
Complete Latin Grammar (1898) are his best-known books. He
was a member of the board of fellows of Brown University
from 1904 until his death, and in 1904- 1905 was president of
the Rhode Island Historical Society. He died in Providence,
Rhode Island, on the 27th of May 1907.
His son, Albert Granger Harkness (1857- ), also a
classical scholar, was born in Providence, Rhode Island, on the
19th of November 1857. He graduated at Brown University
in 1879, studied in Germany in 1879-1883, and was professor
of German and Latin at Madison (now Colgate) University
from 1883 to 1889, and associate professor of Latin at Brown
from 1889 to 1893, when he was appointed to the chair of Roman
literature and history there. He was director of the American
School of Classical Studies in Rome in 1 902-1 003.
HARKNESS, ROBERT (1816-1878), English geologist, was
born at Ormskirk, Lancashire, on the 28th of July 1816. He
was educated at the high school, Dumfries, and afterwards
(1833-1834) at the university of Edinburgh where he acquired
an interest in geology from the teachings of Robert Jameson
and J. D. Forbes. Returning to Ormskirk he worked zealously
at the local geology, especially on the Coal-measures and New
Red Sandstone, his first paper (read before the Manchester
Geol. Soc. in 1843) being on The Climate of the Coal Epoch. In
1848 his family went to reside in Dumfries and there he com-
menced to work on the Silurian rocks of the S.W. of Scotland,
and in 1849 he carried his investigations into Cumberland,
In these regions during the next few years he added much to
our knowledge of the strata and their fossils, especially grap-
tolites, in papers read before the Geological Society of London.
He wrote also on the New Red rocks of the north of England
and Scotland. In 1853 he was appointed professor of geology
in Queen's College, Cork, and in 1856 he was elected F.R.S.
During this period he wrote some articles on the geology of parts
of Ireland, and exercised much influence as a teacher, but he
returned to England during his vacations and devoted himself
assiduously to the geology of the Lake district. He was also a
constant attendant at the meetings of the British Association.
In 1876 the syllabus for the Queen's Colleges in Ireland was
altered, and Professor Harkness was required to lecture not only
on geology, palaeontology, mineralogy and physical geography,
but also on zoology and botany. The strain of the extra work
proved too much, he decided to relinquish his post, and had
retired but a short time when he died, on the 4th of October
1878.
'* Memoir," by J. G. Goodchild, in Trans. Cumberland Assoc. No.
HARLAN, J.— HARLECH
954
viii. (with portrait). In memory of Professor Harkness his sister
established two Harkness scholarships. One scholarship (of the
value of about £35 a year, tenable for three years) for women,
tenable at either Girton or Newnham College, Cambridge, is awarded
triennially to the best candidate in an examination in geology and
palaeontology, provided that proficiency be shown; the other,
for men, is vested in the hands of the university of Cambridge, and
is awarded annually, any member of the university being eligible
who has graduated as a B.A., " provided that not more than three
years have elapsed since the 19th day of December next following
his final examination for the degree of bachelor of arts."
HARLAN, JAMES (1820-1899), American politician, was born
in Clark county, Illinois, on the 26th of August 1820. He
graduated from Indiana Asbury (now De Pauw) University
in 1845, was president (1846-1847) of the newly founded and
short-lived Iowa City College, studied law, was first super-
intendent of public instruction in Iowa in 1 847-1 848, and was
president of Iowa Wesleyan University in 1853-1855. He took
a prominent part in organizing the Republican party in Iowa,
and was a member of the United States Senate from 1855 to
1865, when he became secretary of the interior. He had been
a delegate to the peace convention in 1861, and from 1861 to
1865 was chairman of the Senate committee on public lands.
He disapproved of President Johnson's conservative reconstruc-
tion policy, retired from the cabinet in August 1866, and from
1867 to 1873 was again a member of the United States Senate.
In 1866 he was a delegate to the loyalists' convention at Phila-
delphia. One of his principal speeches in the Senate was that
which he made in March 187 1 in reply to Sumner's and Schurz's
attack on President Grant's Santo Domingan policy. He was
presiding judge of the court of commissioners of Alabama
claims (1882-1885). He died in Mount Pleasant, Iowa, on the
5th of October 1899.
HARLAN, JOHN MARSHALL (1833- ), American jurist,
was born in Boyle county, Kentucky, on the 1st of June 1833.
He graduated at Centre College, Danville, Ky., in 1850, and at
the law department of Transylvania University, Lexington, in
1853. He- was county judge of Franklin county in 1858-1859,
was an unsuccessful candidate for Congress on the Whig ticket
in 1859, and was elector on the Constitutional Union ticket in
r86o. On the outbreak of the Civil War he recruited and
organized the Tenth Kentucky United States Volunteer Infantry,
and in 1861-1863 served as colonel. Retiring from the army
in 1863, he was elected by the Union party attorney-general
of the state, and was re-elected in 1865, serving from 1863 to
1867, when he removed to Louisville to practise law. He was
the Republican candidate for governor in 1871 and in 1875,
and was a member of the commission which was appointed
by President Hayes early in 1877 to accomplish the recog-
nition of one or other of the existing state governments
of Louisiana (q.v.); and he was a member of the Bering Sea
tribunal which met in Paris in 1893. On the 29th of November
1877 he became an associate justice of the United States Supreme
Court. In this, position he showed himself a liberal construc-
tionist. In opinions on the Civil Rights cases and in the inter-
pretation of the 13th, 14th and 15th Amendments to the
Constitution, he dissented from the majority of the court and
advocated increasing the power of the Federal government.
He supported the constitutionality of the income tax clause
in the Wilson Tariff Bill of 1894, and he drafted the decision of
the court in the Northern Securities Company Case, which
applied to railways the provisions of the Sherman Anti-Trust
Law. In 1889 he became a professor in the Law School of
the Columbian University (afterwards George Washington
University) in Washington, D.C.
HARLAND, HENRY (1861-1905), American novelist, was
born in St Petersburg, Russia, in March 1861, and was educated
in New York and at Harvard. He went to Europe as a journalist,
and, after publishing several novels, mainly of American-Jewish
life (under the name of Sidney Luska), first made his literary
reputation in London as editor of the Yellow Book in 1894.
His association with this clever publication, and his own con-
tributions to it, brought his name into prominence, but it was
not till he published The Cardinal's Snuff-box (1900), followed
by The Lady Paramount (1902), that his lightly humorous touch
and picturesque style as a novelist brought him any real success.
His health was always delicate, and he died at San Remo on
the 20th of December 1905.
HARLAY BE CHAMPVALLON, FRANCOIS DE (1625-1695),
5th archbishop of Paris, was born in that city on the 14th of
August 1625. Nephew of Francois de Harlay, archbishop of
Rouen, he was presented to the abbey of JumiSges immediately
on leaving the College de Navarre, and he was only twenty-six
when he succeeded his uncle in the archiepiscopal see. He was
transferred to the see of Paris in 1671, he was nominated by the
king for the cardinalate in 1690, and the domain of St Cloud was
erected into a duchy in his favour. He was commander of the
order of the Saint Esprit and a member of the French Academy.
During the early part of his political career he was a firm adherent
of Mazarin, and is said to have helped to procure his return from
exile. His private life gave rise to much scandal, but he had
a great capacity for business, considerable learning, and was an
eloquent and persuasive speaker. He definitely secured the
favour of Louis XIV. by his support of the claims of the Gailican
Church formulated by the declaration made by the clergy in
assembly on the 19th of March 1682, when Bossuet accused him
of truckling to the court like a valet. One of the three witnesses
of the king's marriage with Madame de Maintenon, he was hated
by her for using his influence with the king to keep the matter
secret. He had a weekly audience of Louis XIV. in company
with Pere la Chaise on the affairs of the Church in Paris, but his
influence gradually declined, and Saint-Simon, who bore him no
good will for his harsh attitude to the Jansenists, says that his
friends deserted him as the royal favour waned, until at last
most of his. time was spent at Conflans in company with the
duchess of Lesdiguieres, who alone was faithful to him. He
urged the revocation of the edict of Nantes, and showed great
severity to the Huguenots at Dieppe, of which he was temporal
and spiritual lord. He died suddenly, without having received
the sacraments, on the 6th of August 1 69 5. His funeral discourse
was delivered by the Pere Gaillard, and Mme de SevignS made
on the occasion the severe comment that there were only two
trifles to make this a difficult matter — his life and his death.
See Abbe" Legendre, Vita Francisci de Harlay (Paris, 1720) and
tloge de Harlay (1695) J Saint-Simon, MSmoires (vol. ii„ ed. A. de
Boislisle, 1879), and numerous references in the Lettres of Mme de
SeVign6.
HARLECH (perhaps for Hardd lech, fair slate, or Harleigh, an
Anglicized variant), a town of Merionethshire, Wales, 38 m.
from Aberystwyth, and 29 from Carnarvon on the Cambrian
railway. Pop. 900. Ruins of a fortress crown the rock of
Harlech, about half a mile from the sea. Discovery of Roman
coins makes it probable that it was once occupied by the Romans.
In the 3rd century Bronwen (white bosom), daughter of Bran
Fendigaid (the blessed), is said to have stayed here, perhaps
by force; and there was here a tower, called Twr Bronwen,
and replaced about a.d. 550 by the building of Maelgwyn
Gwynedd, prince of North Wales. In the eaily 10th century,
Harlech castle was* apparently, repaired by Colwyn, lord of
Ardudwy, founder of one of the fifteen North Wales tribes, and
thence called Caer Colwyn. The present structure dates, like
many others in the principality, from Edward I., perhaps even
from the plans of the architect of Carnarvon and Conway castles,
but with the retention of old portions. It is thought to have
been square, each side measuring some 210 ft., with towers and
turrets. Glendower held it for four years. Here, in 1460,
Margaret, wife of Henry VI., defeated at Northampton, took
refuge. Dafydd ap Ieuan ap Einion held it for the Lancastrians,
until famine, rather than Edward IV., made him surrender.
From this time is said to date the air " March of the men of
Harlech " (Rhyfelgerdd givyr Harlech). The castle was alternately
Roundhead and Cavalier in the civil war. Edward I. made
Harlech a free borough, and it was formerly the county town.
It is in the parish of Llandanwg (pop. in 1901, 931). Though
interesting from an antiquarian point of view, the district around,
especially Dyffryn Ardudwy (the valley), is dreary and desolate,
HARLEQUIN— HARMONIC
955
e.g. Drws (the door of) Ardudwy, Rhinog fawrand Rhinog fach
(cliffs) ; an exception is the verdant Cwm bychan (little combe
or hollow). The Meini gwyr Ardudwy (stones of the men of
Ardudwy) possibly mark the site of a fight.
HARLEQUIN, in modern pantomime, the posturing and
acrobatic character who gives his name to the " harlequinade,' '
attired in mask and parti-coloured and spangled tights, and
provided with a sword like a bat, by which, himself invisible,
he works wonders. It has generally been assumed that Harlequin
was transferred to France from the "Arlecchino" of Italian
medieval and Renaissance popular comedy; but Dr Driesen in
his Ur sprung des Harkkins (Berlin, 1904) shows that this is
incorrect. An old French " Harlekin " (Herlekin, Hellequin
and other variants) is found in folk-literature as early as 1100;
he had already become proverbial as a ragamuffin of a demoniacal
appearance and character; in 1262 a number of harlekins
appear in a play by Adam de la Halle as the intermediaries of
King Hellekin, prince of Fairyland, in courting Morgan le Fay;
and it was not till much later that the French Harlekin was
transformed into the Italian Arlecchino. In his typical French
form down to the time of Gottsched, he was a spirit of the air,
deriving thence his invisibility and his characteristically light
and aery whirlings. Subsequently he returned from the Italian
to the French stage, being imported by Marivaux into light
comedy; and his various attributes gradually became amal-
gamated into the latter form taken in pantomime.
HARLESS (originally Harles), GOTTLIEB CHRISTOPH
( 1 738-181 5), German classical scholar and bibliographer, was born
at Culmbach in Bavaria on the 2 1st of June 1 738. He studied at
Halle, Erlangen and Jena. In 1 765 he was appointed professor of
oriental languages and eloquence at the GymnasiumCasimirianum
in Coburg, in 17 70 professor of poetry and eloquence at Erlangen,
and in 1 7 76 librarian of the university. He held his professorship
for forty-five years till his death on the 2nd of November 18 15.
Harless was an extremely prolific writer. His numerous editions
of classical authors, deficient in originality and critical judgment,
although valuable at the time as giving the student the results
of the labours of earlier scholars, are now entirely superseded.
But he will always be remembered for his meritorious work in
connexion with the great Bibliotheca Graeca of J. A. Fabricius,
of which he published a new and revised edition (12 vols., 1790-
1809, not quite completed), — a task for which he was peculiarly
qualified. He also wrote much on the history and bibliography
of Greek and Latin literature.
His life was written by his son, Johann Christian Friedrich Harlesa
(1818).
HARLESS, GOTTLIEB CHRISTOPH ADOLF VON (1806-
1879), German divine, was born at Nuremberg on the 21st of
November 1806, and was educated at the universities of Erlangen
and Halle. He was appointed professor of theology at Erlangen
in 1836 and at Leipzig in 1845. He was a strong Lutheran and
exercised a powerful influence in that direction as court preacher
in Dresden and as president of the Protestant consistory at
Munich. His chief works were Theologische Encyklop&die und
Methodologie (1837) and Die christliche Ethik (1842, Eng. trans.
1868). He died on the 5th of September 1879, having, a few
years earlier, written an autobiography under the title Bruch-
sPUcke aus dem Leben eines siiddeuiscken Theologen.
HARLINGEN, a seaport in the province of Friesland, Holland,
on the Zuider Zee, and the terminus of the railway and canal
from Leeuwarcfen ( 1 5 J m. E.) . It is connected by steam tramway
by way of Bolswaard with Sneek. Pop. (1900) 10,448. Har-
lingen has become the most considerable seaport of Friesland
since the construction of the large outer harbour in 1870-187 7,
and in addition to railway and steamship connexion with
Bremen, Amsterdam, and the southern provinces there are
regular sailings to Hull and London. Powerful sluices protect
the inner harbour from the high tides. The only noteworthy
buildings are the town hall (1 730-1 733), the West church, which
consists of a part of the former castle of Harlingen, the Roman
Catholic church, the Jewish synagogue and the schools of
navigation and of design. The chief trade of Harlingen is the
exportation of Frisian produce, namely, butter and cheese,
cattle, sheep, fish, potatoes, flax, &c. There is also a considerable
import trade in timber, coal, raw cotton, hemp and jute for the
Twente factories. The local industries are unimportant, con-
sisting of saw-mills, rope-yards, salt refineries, and sail-cloth and
margarine factories.
HARMATTAN, the name of a hot dry parching wind that blows
during December, January and February on the coast of Upper
Guinea, bringing a high dense haze of red dust which darkens
the air. The natives smear their bodies with oil or fat while this
parching wind is blowing.
HARMODIUS, a handsome Athenian youth, and the intimate
friend of Aristogeiton. Hipparchus, the younger brother of
the tyrant Hippias, endeavoured to supplant Aristogeiton in the
good graces of Harmodius, but, failing in the attempt, revenged
himself by putting a public affront on Harmodius's sister at a
solemn festival. Thereupon the two friends conspired with a few
others to murder both the tyrants during the armed procession
at the Panathenaic festival (514 B.C.), when the people were
allowed to carry arms (this licence is denied by Aristotle in
Ath. Pol.). Seeing one of their accomplices speaking to Hippias,
and imagining that they were being betrayed, they prematurely
attacked and slew Hipparchus alone. Harmodius was cut down
on the spot by the guards, and Aristogeiton was soon captured
and tortured to death. When Hippias was expelled (510),
Harmodius and Aristogeiton became the most popular of
Athenian heroes; their descendants were exempted from public
burdens, and had the right of public entertainment in the
Prytarieum, and their names were celebrated in popular songs and
scolia (after-dinner songs) as the deliverers of Athens. One of
these songs, attributed to a certain Callistratus, is preserved
in Athenaeus (p. 6195). Their statues by Antenor in the agora
were carried off by Xerxes and replaced by new, ones by Critius
and Nesiotes. Alexander the Great afterwards sent back the
originals to Athens. It is not agreed which of these was the
original of the marble tyrannicide group in the museum at
Naples, for which see article Greek Art, PL I. fig. 50.
See K6pp in Neue Jakrb. /. kl<iss. Altert. (1902), p. 609.
HARMONIA, in Greek mythology, according to one account
the daughter of Ares and Aphrodite, and wife of Cadmus. When
the government of Thebes was bestowed upon Cadmus by Athena,
Zeus gave him Harmonia to wife. All the gods honoured the
wedding with their presence. Cadmus (or one of the gods)
presented the bride with a robe and necklace, the work of
Hephaestus. This necklace brought misfortune to all who
possessed it. With it Polyneices bribed Eriphyle to persuade
her husband Amphiaraus to undertake the expedition against
Thebes. It led to the death of Eriphyle, of Alcmaeon, of Phegeus
and his sons. Even after it had been deposited in the temple
of Athena Pronoia at Delphi, its baleful influence continued.
Phayllus, one of the Phocian leaders in the Sacred War (352 B.C.)
carried it off and gave it to his mistress. After she had worn it
for a time, her son was seized with madness and set fire to the
house, and she perished in the flames. According to another
account, Harmonia belonged to Samothrace and was the daughter
of Zeus and Electra, her brother Iasion being the founder of
the mystic rites celebrated on the island (Diod. Sic. v. 48).
Finally, Harmonia is rationalized as closely allied to Aphrodite
Pandemos, the love that unites all people, the personification of
order and civic unity, corresponding to the Roman Concordia.
Apollodorus iii. 4-7; Diod. Sic. iv. 65, 66; Parthenius, Erotica,
25 ; I,,. Preller, Griech. Mythol. ; Crusius in Roscher's Lexikon.
HARMONIC. In acoustics, a harmonic is a secondary tone
which accompanies ihe fundamental or primary tone of a vibrat-
ing string, reed, &c.;the more important are the 3rd, 5th, 7th,
and octave (see Sound; Harmony). A harmonic proportion
in arithmetic and algebra is such that the reciprocals of the
proportionals are in arithmetical proportion; thus, if a, b t c
be in harmonic proportion then i/a, i/b, i/c are in arithmetical
proportion; this leads to the relation 2fb=acl(a+c). A har-
monic progression or series consists of terms whose reciprocals
form an arithmetical progression; the simplest example is:
956
HARMONICAS—HARMONIC ANALYSIS
i + i + i + i+... (see AlgeSra and Arithmetic) . The occur-
rence of a similar proportion between segments of lines is the
foundation of such phrases as harmonic section, harmonic ratio,
harmonic conjugates, &c. (see Geometry: II. Projective). The
connexion between acoustical and mathematical harmonicals
is most probably to be found in the Pythagorean discovery that
a vibrating string when stopped at \ and \ of its length yielded
the octave and 5th of the original tone, the numbers, 1 |, J
being said to be, probably first by Archytas, in harmonic pro-
portion. The mathematical investigation of the form of a
vibrating string led to such phrases as harmonic curve, har-
monic motion, harmonic function, harmonic analysis, &c. (see
Mechanics and Spherical Harmonics).
HARMONICA, a generic term applied to musical instruments
in which sound is produced by friction upon glass bells. The
word is also used to designate instruments of percussion of the
Glockenspiel type, made of steel and struck by hammers (Ger.
Stahlharmpnika) .
The origin of the glass-harmonica tribe is to be found in the
fashionable 18th century instrument known as musical glasses
(Fr. verriUon), the principle of which was known already in the
17th century. 1 The invention of musical glasses is generally
ascribed to an Irishman, Richard Pockrich, who first played the
instrument in public in Dublin in 1743 and the next year in
England, but Eisel* described the verrUlon and gave an illustra-
tion of it in 1738. The verrUlon or Glassspiel consisted of 18
beer glasses arranged on a board covered with cloth, water
being poured in when necessary to alter the pitch. The glasses
were struck on both sides gently with two long wooden sticks
in the shape of a spoon, the bowl being covered with silk or cloth.
Eisel states that the instrument was used for church and other
solemn music. Gluck gave a concert at the " little theatre in
the Haymarket " (London) in April 1746, at which he performed
on musical glasses a concerto of his composition with full
orchestral accompaniment. E. H. Delaval is also credited with
the invention. When Benjamin Franklin visited London in
1757, he was so much struck by the beauty of tone elicited by
Delaval and Pockrich, and with the possibilities of the glasses
as musical instruments, that he set to work on a mechanical
application of the principle involved, the eminently successful
result being the glass harmonica finished in 1762. In this the
glass bowls were mounted on a rotating spindle, the largest to
the left, and their under-edges passed during each revolution
through a water-trough. By applying the fingers to the moistened
edges, sound was produced varying in intensity with the pressure,
so that a certain amount of expression was at the command of
a good player. It is said that the timbre was extremely enervat-
ing, and, together with the vibration caused by the friction on
the finger-tips, exercised a highly deleterious effect on the nervous
system. The instrument was for many years in great vogue,
not only in England but on the Continent of Europe, and more
especially in Saxony, where it was accorded a place in the court
orchestra. Mozart, Beethoven, Naumann and Hasse composed
music for it. Marianne Davies and Marianna Kirchgessner
were celebrated virtuosi on it. The curious vogue of the instru-
ment, as sudden as it was ephemeral, produced emulation in a
generation unsurpassed for zeal in the invention of musical
instruments. The most notable of its offspring were Carl
Leopold Rollig's improved harmonica with a keyboard in 1786,
Chladni's euphon in 1791 and clavicylinder in 1799, Ruffelsen's
melodicon in 1800 and 1803, Franz Leppich's panmelodicon 1810,
Buschmann's uranion in the same year, &c. Of most of these
nothing now remains but the name and a description in the
Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung, but there are numerous
specimens of the Franklin type in the museums for musical
instruments of Europe. One specimen by Emanuel Pohl, a
Bohemian maker, is preserved in the Victoria and Albert
Museum, London.
. For the steel harmonica see Glockensp iel. ' (K. SJ
1 See G. P. Harsddrfer, Math.und philos. Erquickstunden (Nurem-
berg, 1677)1 ii- 147-
2 Musicus airro&LbaKTos (Erfurt, 1 738), p. 70.
HARMONIC ANALYSIS, in mathematics, the name given by
Sir William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) and P. G. Tait in their
treatise on Natural Philosophy to a general method of investigat-
ing physical questions, the earliest applications of which seem
to have been suggested by the study of the vibrations of strings
and the analysis of these vibrations into their fundamental tone
and its harmonics or overtones.
The motion of a uniform stretched string fixed at both ends
is a periodic motion; that is to say, after a certain interval of
time, called the fundamental period of the motion, the form of the
string and the velocity of every part of it are the same as before,
provided that the energy of the motion has not been sensibly
dissipated during the period.
There are two distinct methods of investigating the motion of a
uniform stretched string. One of these may be called the wave
method, and the other the harmonic method. The wave method
is founded on the theorem that in a stretched string of infinite
length a wave of any form may be propagated in either direction
with a certain velocity, V, which we may define as the " velocity of
propagation." If a wave of any form travelling in the positive
direction meets another travelling in the opposite direction, the
form of which is such that the lines joining corresponding points
of the two waves are all bisected in a fixed point in the line of the
6tring, then the point of the string corresponding to this point will
remain fixed, while the two waves pass it in opposite directions. If
we now suppose that the form of the waves travelling in the positive
direction is periodic, that is to say, that after the wave ha6 travelled
forward a distance /, the position of every particle of the string is
the same as it was at first, then / is called the wave-length, and the
time of travelling a wave-length is called the periodic time, which
we shall denote by T, so that /«VT.
If we now suppose a set of waves similar to these, but reversed
in position, to be travelling in the opposite direction, there will be
a series of points, distant}/ from each other, at which there will be
no motion of the string ; it will therefore make no difference to the
motion of the string if we suppose the string fastened to fixed
supports at any two of these points, and we may then suppose
the parts of the string beyond these points to be removed, as it
cannot affect the motion of the part which is between them. We
have thus arrived at the case of a uniform string stretched between
two fixed supports, and we conclude that the motion of the string
may be completely represented as the resultant of two sets of periodic
waves travelling in opposite directions, their wave-lengths being
either twice the distance between the fixed points or a submultiple
of this wave-length, and the form of these waves, subject to this
condition, being perfectly arbitrary.
To make the problem a definite one, we may suppose the initial
displacement and velocity of every particle of the string given in
terms of its distance from one end of the string, and from these data
it is easy to calculate the form which is common to all the travelling
waves. The form of the string at any subsequent time may then
be deduced by calculating the positions of the two sets of waves at
that time, and compounding their displacements.
Thus in the wave method the actual motion of the string is con-
sidered as the resultant of two wave motions, neither of which is of
itself, and without the other, consistent with the condition that the
ends of the string are fixed. Each of the wave motions is periodic
with a wave-length equal to twice the distance between the fixed
points, and the one set of waves is the reverse of the other in respect
of displacement and velocity and direction of propagation; but,
subject to these conditions, the form of the wave is perfectly arbitrary.
The motion of a particle of the string, being determined by the two
waves which pass over it in opposite directions, is of an equally
arbitrary type.
In the harmonic method, on the other hand, the motion of the
string is regarded as compounded of a series of vibratory motions
(normal modes of vibration), which may be infinite in number, but
each of which is perfectly definite in type, and is in fact a particular
solution of the problem of the motion of a string with its ends fixed.
A simple harmonic motion is thus defined by Thomson and Tait
(§ 53) : — When a point Q moves uniformly in a circle, the perpen-
dicular QP, drawn from its position at any instant to a fixed diameter
AA' of the circle, intersects the diameter in a point P whose position
changes by a simple harmonic motion.
The amplitude of a simple harmonic motion is the range on one
side or the other of the miadle point of the course.
The period of a simple harmonic motion is the time which elapses
from any instant until the moving-point again moves in the same
direction through the same position.
The phase of a simple harmonic motion at any instant is the
fraction of the whole period which has elapsed since the moving-
point last passed through its middle position in the positive direction.
In the case of the stretched string, it is only in certain particular
cases that the motion of a, particle of the string is a simple harmonic
motion. In these particular cases the form of the string at any
instant is that of a curve of sines having the line joining the fixed
HARMONIC ANALYSIS
957
points for its axis, and passing through these two points, and there-
tore having for its wave-length either twice the length of the string
or some submultiple of this wave-length. The amplitude of the
curve of sines is a simple harmonic function of the time, the period
being either the fundamental period or some submultiple of the
fundamental period. Every one of these modes of vibration is
dynamically possible by itself, and any number of them may coexist
independently of each other.
By a proper adjustment of the initial amplitude and phase of
each of these modes of vibration, so that their resultant shall repre-
sent the initial state of the string, we obtain a new representation
of the whole motion of the string, in which it is seen to be the resultant
of a series of simple harmonic vibrations whose periods are the
fundamental period and its submultiples. The determination of
the amplitudes and phases of the several simple harmonic vibrations
so as to satisfy the initial conditions is an example of harmonic
analysis.
We have thus two methods of solving the partial differential
equation of the motion of a string. The first, which we have called
the wave method, exhibits the solution in the form containing an
arbitrary function, the nature of which must be determined from
the initial conditions. The second, or harmonic method, leads to a
series of terms involving sines and cosines, the coefficients of which
have to be determined. The harmonic method may be defined in a
more general manner as a method by which the solution of any
actual problem may be obtained as the sum or resultant of a number
of terms, each of which is a solution of a particular case of the problem.
The nature of these particular cases is defined by the condition that
any one of them must be conjugate to any other.
The mathematical test of conjugacy is that the energy of the
system arising from two of the harmonics existing together is eaual
to the sum of the energy arising from the two harmonics taken
separately. In other words, no part of the energy depends on the
product of the amplitudes of two different harmonics. When two
modes of motion of the same system are conjugate to each other,
the existence of one of them does not affect the other.
The simplest case of harmonic analysis, that of which the treat-
ment of the vibrating string is an example, is completely investigated
in what is known as Fourier's theorem.
Fourier's theorem asserts that any periodic function of a single
variable period p , which does not become infinite at any phase,
can be expanded in the form of a series consisting of a constant
term, together with a double series of terms v one set involving
cosines and the other sines of multiples of the phase.
Thus if <P(£) is a periodic function of the variable £ having a
period p, then it may be expanded as follows:
*(»
=Ao+Z*A<c<)S^+s]Bisin^.
(i)
The part of the theorem which is most frequently required, and
which also is the easiest to investigate, is the determination of the
values of the coefficients Ao, A<, B,-. These are
Ao=£/ o Ws; A,=|J%tt)cos^€; B,=|J o %tt)3in^.
This part of the theorem may be verified at once by multiplying
both sides of (i) by d£ f by cos (2*ir*/0)A*£ or by sin (2*r$/£))/<te, and
in each case integrating from o to p.
The series is evidently single-valued for any given value of £.
It cannot therefore represent a function of £ which has more than
one value, or which becomes imaginary for any value of £. It is
convergent, approaching to the true value of <£(£) for aft values
of £ such that if £ varies infinitesimally the function also varies
infinitesimally.
Lord Kelvin, availing himself of the disk, globe and cylinder
integrating machine invented by his brother, Professor James
Thomson, constructed a machine by which eight of the integrals
required for the expression of Fourier's series can be obtained simul-
taneously from the recorded trace of any periodically variable
quantity, such as the height of the tide, the temperature or pressure
of the atmosphere, or the intensity of the different components of
terrestrial magnetism. If it were not on account of the waste of
time, instead of having a curve drawn by the action of the tide,
and the curve afterwards acted on by the machine, the time axis
of the machine itself might be driven by a clock, and the tide itself
might work the second variable of the machine, but this would in-
volve the constant presence of an expensive machine at every tidal
station. m (J. C. M.)
For a discussion of the restrictions under which the expansion
of a periodic function of £ in the form (i) is valid, see Fourier's
StRiBS. An account of the contrivances for mechanical calcula-
tion of the coefficients A*, B* . . . is given under Calculating
Machines.
> A more general form of the problem of harmonic analysis presents
kself in- astronomy, in the theory of the tides, and in various magnetic
and -meteorological investigations. It may happen, for instance,
that a variable quantity /(O is known theoretically to be of the form
where the periods 2r/ni, 2x1th, ... of the various simple-harmonic
constituents are already known with sufficient accuracy, although
they may have no very simple relations to one another. The
problem of determining the most probable values of the constants
Ao, Ai, Bi, A*, Ba, . . . by means of a series of recorded values of
the function /(/) is then in principle a fairly simple one, although
the actual numerical work may be laborious (see Tide). A much
more difficult and delicate question arises when, as in various
questions of meteorology and terrestrial magnetism, the periods
2x/ni, 2r/fttt • • • are themselves unknown to begin with, or are at
most conjectural. Thus, it may be desired to ascertain whether
the magnetic declination contains a periodic element synchronous
with the sun's rotation on its axis, whether any periodicities can
be detected in the records of the prevalence of sun-spots, and so on.
From a strictly mathematical standpoint the problem is, indeed,
indeterminate, for when all the symbols are at our disposal, the
representation of the observed values of a function, over a finite
range of time, by^ means of a series of the type (a), can be effected
in an infinite variety of ways. Plausible inferences can, however,
be drawn, provided the proper precautions are observed. This
question has been treated most systematically by Professor A.
Schuster, who has devised a remarkable mathematical method, in
which the action of a diffraction-grating in sorting out the various
periodic constituents of a heterogeneous beam at light is closely
imitated. He has further applied the method to the study of the
variations of the magnetic declination, and of sun-spot records.
The # question so far chiefly considered has been that of the repre-
sentation of an arbitrary function of the time in terms of functions
of a special type, viz. the circular functions cos nt, sin ni. This is
important on dynamical grounds; but when we proceed to consider
the problem of expressing an arbitrary function of space-co-ordinates
in terms of functions of specified types, it appears that the preceding
is only one out of an infinite variety of modes of representation
which are_ equally entitled to consideration. Every problem of
mathematical physics which leads to a linear differential equation
supplies an instance. For purposes of illustration we will here
take the simplest of all, viz. that of the transversal vibrations of a
tense string. The equation of motion is of the form
*-#
(3)
f(t) — Ao + Aicos nit + Bisin « i/ + A«cos n4 + Bisin n*t +
(2)
where T is the tension, and p the line-density. In a " normal mode "
of vibration y will vary as e int t so that
gl+tfy-o, ( 4 )
where #=nVT. ( 5 )
If p, and therefore k, is constant, the solution of (4) subject to the
condition that y=o for x-o and x=l is
y a» B sin kx (6)
provided kl - sir, [s - 1 , 2, 3, . . .]. (7)
This determines the various normal modes of free vibration, the corre-
sponding periods (2*7*0 being given by (5) and (7). By analogy
with the theory of the free vibrations of a system of finite freedom
it is inferred that the most general free motions of the string can be
obtained by superposition of the various normal modes, with suitable
amplitudes and phases ;|and in particular that any arbitrary initial
form of the string, say y */(*), can be reproduced by a series of the
type
f(x) ~B 1 sin^+B,sin^+B 8 sin2^+. . . (8)
So far, this is merely a restatement, in mathematical language,
of an argument given in the first part of this article. The series (8)
may, moreover, be arrived at otherwise, as a particular case of
Fourier's theorem. But if we no longer assume the density (* of the
string to be uniform, we obtain an endless variety of new expansions,
corresponding to the various laws of density which may be pre-
scribed. The normal modes are in any case of the type
y = Cu(x)e int
(9)
(10)
where u is a solution of the equation
&u , n l p
as+T MSS0 -
The condition that u(x) is to vanish for **o and x**l leads to a
transcendental equation in n (corresponding to sin W»o in the
previous case). If the forms of u(x) which correspond to the various
roots of this be distinguished by suffixes, we infer, on physical
grounds alone, the possibility of the expansion of an arbitrary
initial form of the string in a series
/(*)-Ci«i(*)+Cii.(*)+Cgii.W+ . . . (n)
It may be shown further that if r and s are different we have the
conjugate or orthogonal relation
ov*(x)Ht(x)dxi*o. (12)
a
95 8
HARMONICHORD— HARMONIUM
This enables us to determine the coefficients, thus
Cr-ffpMUrWdx+fJpiHrMWx. (l 3 )
The extension to spaces of two or three dimensions, or to cases
where there is more than one dependent variable, must be passed
over. The mathematical theories of acoustics, heat-conduction,
elasticity, induction of electric currents, and so on, furnish an in-
definite supply of examples, and have suggested in some cases
methods which have a very wide application. Thus the transverse
vibrations of a circular membrane lead to the theory of Bessel's
Functions; the oscillations of a spherical sheet of air suggest the
theory of expansions in spherical harmonics, and so forth. The
physical, or intuitional, theory of such methods has naturally always
been in advance of the mathematical. From the latter point of
view only a few isolated questions of the kind had, until quite
recently, been treated in a rigorous and satisfactory manner. ^ A
more general and comprehensive method, which seems to derive
some of its inspiration from physical considerations, has, however,
at length been inaugurated, and has been vigorously cultivated in
recent years by D. nilbert, H. Poincare\ I. Fredholm, E. Picard
ahd others.
References. — Schuster's method for detecting hidden periodi-
cities is explained in Terrestrial Magnetism (Chicago, 1808), 3, p. 13;
Catnb. Trans. (1900), 18, p. t07; Proc. Roy. Soc. (1906), 77, p. 136.
The general question of expanding an arbitrary function in a series
of functions of special types is treated most fully from the physical
point of view in Lord Rayleigh's Theory of Sound (2nd ed.. London,
1 894- 1 896). An excellent detailed historical account of tne matter
from the mathematical side is given by H. Burkhardt, Entwicklungen
nach osciUierenden Funktionen (Leipzig, 1901). A sketch of the
more recent mathematical developments is given by H. Bateman,
Proc. Land. Math. Soc. (2), 4, p. 90, with copious references.
(H. Lb.)
HARMONICHORD, an ingenious kind of upright piano, in
which the strings were set in vibration not by the blow of the
hammer but by indirectly transmitted friction. The harmoni-
chord, one of the many attempts to fuse piano and violin, was
invented by Johann Gottfried and Johann Friedrich Kauimann
(father and son) in Saxony at the beginning of the 19th century,
when the craze for new and ingenious musical instruments was
at its height. The case was of the variety known as girajfe.
The space under the keyboard was enclosed, a knee-hold being
left in which were two pedals used to set in rotation a large
wooden cylinder fixed just behind the keyboard over the levers,
and covered with a roll-top similar to those of modern office
desks. The cylinder (in some specimens covered with chamois
leather) tapered towards the treble-end. When a key was
depressed, a little tongue of wood, one end of which stopped the
string, was pressed against the revolving cylinder, and the
vibrations produced by friction were transmitted to the string
and reinforced as in piano and violin by the soundboard. The
adjustment of the parts and the velocity of the cylinder required
delicacy and great nicety, for if the little wooden tongues rested
too lightly upon the cylinder or the strings, harmonics were
produced, and the note jumped to the octave or twelfth. Some-
times when chords were played the touch became so heavy that
two performers were required, as in the early medieval organ-
istrum, the prototype of the harmonichord. Carl Maria von
Weber must have had some opinion of the possibilities of the
harmonichord, which in tone resembled the glass harmonica,
since he composed for it a concerto with orchestral accom-
paniment. (K. S.)
HARMONIUM (Fr. harmonium, orgue expressif; Ger. Pkys-
harmonika, Harmonium), a wind keyboard instrument, a small
organ without pipes, furnished with free reeds. Both the
harmonium and its later development, the American organ, are
known as free-reed instruments, the musical tones being produced
by tongues of brass, technically termed " vibrators " (Fr.
ancke libre; Ger. durchschlagende Zunge; Ital. ancia or lingua
libera). The vibrator is fixed over an oblong, rectangular frame,
through which it swings freely backwards and forwards like a
pendulum while vibrating, whereas the beating reeds (similar to
those of the clarinet family), used in church organs, coyer the
entire orifice, beating against the sides at each vibration. A
reed or vibrator, set in periodic motion by impact of a current
of air, produces a corresponding succession of air puffs, the
rapidity of which determines the pitch of the musical note.
There is an essential difference between the harmonium and the
American organ in the direction of this current; in the former
the wind apparatus forces the current upwards, and in the latter
sucks it downwards, whence it becomes desirable to separate in
description these varieties of free-reed instruments.
The harmonium has a keyboard of five octaves compass when
^ 1 and a simple action controlling the
complete, jgjzrz^;
valves, &c. The necessary pressure of wind is generated by bellows
worked by the feet of the performer upon foot-boards or treadles.
The air is thus forced up the wind-trunks into an air-chamber
called the wind-chest, the pressure of it being equalized by a
reservoir, which receives the excess of wind through an aperture,
and permits escape, when above a certain pressure, by a discharge
valve or pallet. The aperture admitting air to the reservoir may
be closed by a drawstop named " expression." The air being thus
cut off, the performer depends for his supply entirely upon the
management of the bellows worked by the treadles, whereby he
regulates the compression of the wind. The character of the in*
strument is then entirely changed from a mechanical response to
the player's touch to an expressive one, rendering what emotion
may be communicated from the player by increase or diminution of
sound through the greater or less pressure of wind to which the
reeds may be submitted. The drawstops bearing the names of the
different registers in imitation of the organ, admit, when drawn, the
wind from the wind-chest to the corresponding reed compartments,
shutting them off when closed. These com-
partments are of about two octaves and a half
each, there being a division in the middle of
the keyboard scale dividing the stops into
bass and treble. A stop being drawn and a
key pressed down, wind is admitted by a
corresponding valve to a reed or vibrator
(fig. 1). Above each reed in the so-called
sound-board or pan is a channel, a small air-
chamber or cavity, the shape and capacity of
which have greatly to do with the colour of
tone of the note it reinforces. The air in this
resonator is highly compressed at an even or
a varying pressure as the expression-stop may
not be or may be drawn. The wind finally
escapes by a small pallet-hole opened by
Dressing down the corresponding key. In
lustel and other good harmoniums, the reed
compartments that form the scheme of the
instrument are eight in number, four bass
and four treble, of three different pitches of
octave and double octave distance. The front
bass and treble rows are the " diapason " of
the pitch known as 8 ft., and the bourdon By courtesy of Metder
(double diapason), 16 ft. These may be* Co.
regarded as the foundation stops, and are Fig.i. — Free Reed
technically the front organ. The back organ has Vibrator, Alexandre
solo and combination stops, the principal of 4 Harmonium,
ft. (octave higher than diapason), and bassoon
(bass) and oboe (treble), 8 ft. These may be mechanically combined
by a stop called full organ. The French maker, Mustel, added other
registers for much-admired effects of tone, via. " harpe eolienne,"
two bass rows of 2 ft. pitch, the one tuned a beat too sharp, the
other a beat too flat, to produce a waving tremulous tone that has
a certain charm; "musette" and "voce celeste," 16 ft.; and
" baryton," a treble stop 32 ft., or two octaves lower than the
normal note of the key. The " back organ" is usually covered by
a swell box, containing louvres or shutters similar to a Venetian
blind, and divided into fortes corresponding with the bass and
treble division of the registers. The fortes are governed by knee
pedals which act by pneumatic pressure. Tuning the reeds is
effected by scraping them at the point to sharpen them, or near the
shoulder or heel to flatten them in pitch. Air pressure affects the
pitch but slightly, being noticeable only in the larger reeds, and
harmoniums long retain their tuning, a decided advantage over the
organ and the pianoforte. Mechanical contrivances in the har-
monium, of frequent or occasional employment, besides those
already referred to, are the " percussion," a small pianoforte action
of hammer and escapement which, acting upon the reeds of the
diapason rows at the moment air is admitted to them, gives prompter
response to the depression of the key, or quicker speech; the
" double expression, ' a pneumatic balance of jgreat delicacy in the
wind reservoir, exactly maintaining by gradation eoual pressure of
the wind; and the * double touch, By which the back organ
registers speak sooner than those of the front that are called upon
by deeper pressure of the key, thus allowing prominence or accentua-
tion of certain parts by an expert performer. " Prokmgeinent "
permits selected notes to be sustained after the fingers have quitted
HARMONIUM
959
their keys. Dawes's " melody attachment " is to give prominence i
to an air or treble Dart by shutting off in certain registers all notes |
below it. This notion has been adapted by inversion toa" pedal j
substitute " to strengthen the lowest bass notes. The " tremolo '' \
affects the wind in the vicinity of the reeds by means of small bellows
which increase the velocity of the pulsation according to pressure;
and the "sourdine " diminishes the supply of wind by controlling
its admission to the reeds.
The American Organ acts by wind exhaustion. A vacuum is
practically created in the air-chamber by the exhausting power of
the footboards, and a current of air thus drawn downwards passes
through any reeds that are left open, setting them in vibration.
This instrument has therefore exhaust instead of force bellows.
Valves in the board above the air-chamber give communication to
reeds (fig. 2) made more slender than those of the harmonium and
more or less bent, while the frames in which
they are fixed are also differently shaped,
being hollowed rather in spoon fashion. The
channels, the resonators above the reeds, are
not varied in size or shape as in the har-
monium; they exactly correspond with the
reeds, and are collectively known as the " tube-
board." The swell "fortes" are in front of
the openings of these tubes, rails that open
or close by the action of the knees upon what
£= may be called knee pedals. The American
organ has a softer tone than the harmonium;
8 this is sometimes aided by the use of extra
resonators, termed pipes or qualifying tubes,
as, for instance, in Clough & warren's (of
Detroit, Michigan, U.S.). The blowing being
also easier, ladies find it much less fatiguing.
The expression stop can have little power in
the American organ, and is generally absent;
the " automatic swell " in the instruments
of Mason & Hamlin (of Boston, U.S.) is a
V J m contrivance that comes the nearest to it,
By courtesy of Mctzler tho H^ ^r inferior. By it a swell shutter or
& Co. rail is kept in constant movement, proportioned
p IGt 2 . Free Reed to tne f° rce °* tne air-current. Another very
Vibrator, Mason & clever improvement introduced by these
Hamlin ' American makers, who were the originators of the instru-
O r gan. ment itself, is the " vox humana," a smaller
rail or fan, made to revolve rapidly by
wind pressure; its rotation, disturbing the
air near the reeds, causes interferences of vibration that produce
a tremulous effect, not unlike the beatings heard from combined
voices, whence the name. The arrangement of reed compartments
in American organs does not essentially differ from that of har-
moniums; but there are often two keyboards, and then the solo
and combination stops are found on the upper manual. The
diapason treble register is known as " melodia ' ; different makers
occasionally vary the use of fancy names for other stops. The
11 sub-bass, however, an octave of 16 ft. pitch and always apart
from the other reeds, is used with great advantage for pedal effects
on the manual, the compass of American organs being usually down
to F (FF, 5 octaves). In large instruments there are sometimes foot
pedals as in an organ, with their own reed boxes of 8 and 16 ft.,
the lowest note being then CC. Blowing for pedal instruments
has to be done by hand, a lever being attached for that purpose.
The " celeste " stop is managed as in the harmonium, by rows of
reeds tuned not quite in unison, or by a shade valve that alters the
air-current and flattens one row of reeds thereby.
Harmoniums and American organs are the result of many experi-
ments in the application of free reeds to keyboard instruments. The
principle of the free reed became widely known in Europe through
the introduction of the Chinese cheng 1 during the second half of
the 1 8th century, and culminated in the invention of the harmonium
and kindred instruments. The first step in the invention of the
harmonium is due to Professor Christian Gottlieb Kratzenstein of
Copenhagen, who had had the opportunity of examining a cheng
sent to his native city and of testing its merits. 2 In 1779 the
Academy of Science of St Petersburg had offered a prize for an
essay on the formation of the vowel sounds on an instrument similar
to the " vox humana " in the organ, which should be capable of
reproducing these sounds faithfully. Kratzenstein made as a
demonstration of his invention a small pneumatic organ fitted with
free reeds, and presented it to the Academy of St Petersburg.* His
essay was crowned and was republished with diagrams in Paris 4 in
l See Allg. musik. Ztg. (Leipzig, 182 1), Bd. xxiii. pp. 369-374.
The cheng was made known in France by P&re Amiot, who published
a careful description of the instrument in MSmoire sur la musique
des Chinois, p. 80 seq., with excellent diagrams.
* lb., Bd. xxv. p. 152.
1 The essay was published in Acta Acad. Petrop. (1780).
4 " Essai sur la naissance et sur la formation des voyelles " in
Rozier's Observations sur la physique (Paris, 1782), Supplement,
xxi. 358 seq., with two plates. The description of the instrument
begins on p. 374, § xxii.
1782. Meanwhile, in 1780, a countryman of Kratzenstein 's, an
organ-builder named Kirsnkk, established in St Petersburg, adapted
these reed pipes to some of his organs and to an instrument of his
invention called organochordium, an organ combined with piano.
When Abt Vogler visited St Petersburg in 1788, he was so delighted
with these reeds that in 1790 he induced Rackwitz, an assistant
of Kirsnick's, to come to him and adapt some to an organ he
was having built in Rotterdam. Three years later Abt Vogler's
orchestrion, a chamber organ containing some 900 pipes, was com-
pleted, and, according to Rackwitz, 6 was fitted with free-reed pipes.
Vogler himself, however, does not mention the free reed when
describing this wonderful instrument and his system of " simplifi-
cation " for church organs. 6 To Abt Vogler, who travelled all over
Germany, Scandinavia and the Netherlands, exhibiting his skill
on his orchestrion and reconstructing many organs, is due the credit
of making Kratzenstein's invention known and inducing the musical
world to appreciate the capabilities of the free reed. The intro-
duction of tree-reed stops into the organ, however, took a secondary
place in his scheme for reform. 7 Fnedrich Kaufmann • of Dresden
states that Vogler told him he had imparted to J. N. M&lzel of Vienna
particulars as to the construction of free-reed pipes, and that the
latter used them in his panharmonicon, 9 which tie exhibited during
his stay in Paris from 1805 to 1807. Kaufmann suggests that it was
through him that G. T. Greni6 obtained the knowledge which led
to his experiments with free reeds in organs. It is more likely that
Grenie had read Kratzenstein's essay and had experimented in-
dependently with free reeds. In 18 12 his first argue expressif was
finished. It was a small organ with one register of free reeds — the
expression stop, in fact, added to the pipe organ and having a
separate wind-chest and bellows. It would seem from his description
of the orchestrion in Data sur Akustik that Vogler knew of no such
device. He used the swell shutter borrowed from England and a
threefold screen of canvas covered with a blanket arranged outside
the instrument, neither of which is capable of increasing the volume
of sound from the organ, or at least only after having first damped
the sound to a pianissimo. Vogler explains minutely the apparatus
used to conceal the working of the screen from the eyes of the
public. 10 The credit of discovering in the free reed the capability
of dynamic expression was undoubtedly due to Greni6, although Abt
Vogler claims to have used compression in 1796, 11 and Kaufmann in
his choraulodion in 18 16. A larger ^ orgue expressif was begun by
Grenie* for the Conservatoire of Paris in 18 12, the construction of
which was interrupted and then continued in 181 6. Descriptions
of Grenie*'s instrument have been published in French and German."
The organ of the Conservatoire had a pedal free-reed stop of 16 ft,
with vibrators 0*240 m. long, 0-03* m. wide, and 0*003 m. thick. 1 *
Two compressors, one for the treble and the other for the bass,
worked by treadles, enabled the performer to regulate the pressure
of wind on the reeds and therefore to obtain the gradations of forte
and piano which gained tor his instrument the name of orgue ex~
press*/. Grente's instrument was a pipe organ, the pipes terminating
in a cone with a hemispherical cap in the top of which was a small
hole. There were eight registers including the pedal, and the
positive on the first keyboard had reed stops furnished with
5 See " t)ber die Erfindung der Rohrwerke mit durchschlagenden
Zungen," by Wilke, in Allg. musik. Ztg. (Leipzig, 1823), Bd. xxv.
pp. 152-153 and Bd. xxvii. p. 263; also Thos. Ant. Kunz, " Or-
chestrion, id., Bd. i. p. 88 and Bd. ii. pp. 51 ±, 542; and Dr
Karl Emil von Schafh&utl, Abt Georg Joseph Vogler (Augsburg,
1888), p. 37.
• Data zur Akustik, eine Abhandlung vorgelesen bey der Sitzung der
naturforschenden Freunde in Berlin, den i$ten Dezember 1800
(Offenbach, 1801); also published in Allg. musik. Ztg. (1801),
Bd. iii. pp. 517, 533, 565. See also an excellent article by the
Rev. J. H. Mee on Vogler in Grove's Dictionary of Music and
Musicians.
7 See Data zur Akustik, and a pamphlet by Vogler, " Uber die
Umschaffung der St Marien Orgel in Berlin nach dem Voglerschen
Si mplifikat ions-System, eine Nachahmung des Orchestrion "
(Berlin) ; also " Kurze Beschreibung der in der Stadtpfarrkirche zu
St Peter zu Munchen nach dem Voglerschen Simplifikations-System
neuerbauten Orgel " (Munich, 1809).
•See Allg. musik. Ztg. (1823), Bd. xxv. pp. 153 and 154 note,
and 117-118 note.
• A description of Malzel's panharmonicon before the addition of
the clarinet and oboe stops with free reeds is to be found in the
Allg. musik. Ztg. (1800), Bd. ii. pp. 4*4-4i5-
10 In the article in Grove's Dictionary the screen is said to have
been in the wind-trunk.
11 See Allg. musik. Ztg. Bd. iii. p. 523.
12 See J. B. Biot, Pricis ilimentatre de physique expirimentale
(Paris, 181 7), tome i. p. 386, and his Traiti de physique (Paris, 18 16),
tome ii. p. 172 et seq., pi. ii. ; " Ober die Crescendo und Diminuendo
Zuge an Orgeln," by Wilke and Kaufmann, Allg. musik. Ztg. (1823),
Bd. xxv. pp. 1 13-122; and Allg. musik. Ztg. Bd. xxiii. pp. 133-
139 and 149-154, with diagrams on p. 167 which are not absolutely
correct in small details.
" J. B. Biot, Traitt, tome ii. p. 174.
v^
960
HARMONIUM
beating reeds. Biot insists on the importance of the regulating
wires (Fr. rasettos; Ger. KrOcken) for determining the vibrating
length of the reed tongue and maintaining it invariable. These
are clearly shown in his diagram (see article Free Reed Vibrator,
fig. 1); they do not essentially differ from those used with the
beatinff-reea stops in his organ (fig. 76, pi. II.), or indeed from those
figured by Praetorius.
Isolated specimens of the cheng must have found their way to
Europe during the 15th and 16th centuries, for Mersenne 1 depicts
part of one showing the free reed. It would seem that still earlier
in the 17th century there was an organ in a monastery in Hesse
with free reeds for the Posaune stop, for Praetorius gives a description
of the " extraordinary " reed (p. 169) ; there is no record of the
inventor in this case*
During the first half of the 19th century various tentative efforts
in France and Germany, and subsequently in England, were made
to produce new keyboard instruments with free reeds, the most
notable of these being the physharmonica f of Anton H&ckel,
invented in Vienna in 1818, which, improved and enlarged, has
retained its hold on the German people. The modern physharmonica
is a harmonium without stops or percussion action; it does not
therefore speak readily or clearly. It has a ranee of five to six
octaves. Other instruments of similar type are the French melo-
phone and the English seraphine, a keyboard harmonica with
bellows but no channels for the tongues, for which a patent was
S -anted to Myers and Storer in 1839; the aeoline or aelodicon * of
schenbach; the melodicon 4 of Diets; the melodica * of Rieffelson;
1 Harmonie unwerseUe (Paris, 1636), livre v., prop. xxxv.
1 Wien. musik. Ztg. Bd. v. Nos. 30 and 87.
1 AUg. musik. Ztg. Bd. xxii. p. 505, and Bd.
4 Id. Bd. viii. pp. 526 and 715.
• Id. Bd. xi. p. 625,
xxxv. p. 354.
the apollonicon;' the new cheng 7 of Reichstein; the terpodioa*
of Buschmann, &c. None of these has survived to the present day.
The inventor of the harmonium was indubitably Alexandre
Debain, who took out a patent for it in Paris in 1840. tie produced
varied timbre registers by modifying reed channels, ana brought
these registers on to one keyboard. Unfortunately he patented
too much, for he secured even the name harmonium, obliging con-
temporary and future experimenters to shelter their improvements
under other names, and the venerable name of organ becoming
impressed into connexion with an inferior instrument, we have now
to distinguish between reed and pipe organs. The compromise of
reed organ for the harmonium class of instruments must therefore
be accepted. Debain 's harmonium was at first quite mechanical;
it gained expression by the expression-stop already described. The
Alexandres, well-known French makers, by the ingenuity of one of
their workmen, P. A. Martin, added the percussion and the pro-
longement. The melody attachment was the invention of an
English engineer; the introduction of the double touch, now used
in the harmoniums of Must el, Bauer and others — also in American
organs — was due to Tamplin, an English professor.
The principle of the American organ originated with the Alex-
andres, whose earliest experiments are said to have been made with
tire view of constructing an instrument to exhaust air. The reali-
zation of the idea proving to be more in consonance with the genius
of the American people, to whom what we may call the devotional
tone of the instrument appealed, the introduction of it by Messrs
Mason and Hamlin in 1861 was followed by remarkable success.
They made it generally known in Europe by exhibiting it at Paris
in 1867, and from that time instruments have been exported in large
numbers by different makers. (A. J. H.; K. S.)
* AUg. musik. Ztg. Bd. ii. p. 767, and Wien. musik. Ztg. Bd. i. No. 501.
7 Id. Bd. xxxi. p. 489.
8 Id. Bd. xxxiv. pp. 856 and 858; and Cacilia, Bd. xiv. p. 259.
END OF TWELFTH VOLUME
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